253 lines
12 KiB
Markdown
253 lines
12 KiB
Markdown
---
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created_at: '2016-03-20T19:16:31.000Z'
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title: To Test a Powerful Computer, Play an Ancient Game (1997)
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url: http://www.nytimes.com/1997/07/29/science/to-test-a-powerful-computer-play-an-ancient-game.html
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author: luso_brazilian
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points: 50
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story_text:
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comment_text:
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num_comments: 26
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story_id:
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story_title:
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story_url:
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parent_id:
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created_at_i: 1458501391
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_tags:
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- story
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- author_luso_brazilian
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- story_11324202
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objectID: '11324202'
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year: 1997
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---
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Deep Blue defeated the world chess champion by leveraging a moderate
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amount of chess knowledge with a huge amount of blind, high-speed
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searching power.
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But this roughshod approach is powerless against the intricacies of Go,
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leaving computers at a distinct disadvantage. ''Brute-force searching is
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completely and utterly worthless for Go,'' said David Fotland, a
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computer engineer for Hewlett-Packard who is the author of one of the
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strongest programs, called The Many Faces of Go. ''You have to make a
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program play smart like a person.''
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To play a decent game of Go, a computer must be endowed with the ability
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to recognize subtle, complex patterns and to draw on the kind of
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intuitive knowledge that is the hallmark of human intelligence.
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''It may be a hundred years before a computer beats humans at Go --
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maybe even longer,'' said Dr. Piet Hut, an astrophysicist at the
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Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, N.J., and a fan of the game.
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''If a reasonably intelligent person learned to play Go, in a few months
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he could beat all existing computer programs. You don't have to be a
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Kasparov.''
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When or if a computer defeats a human Go champion, it will be a sign
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that artificial intelligence is truly beginning to become as good as the
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real thing.
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''Go is the highest intellectual game,'' said Dr. Chen Zhixing, a
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retired chemistry professor at Zhongshan University, in Guangzhou,
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China.
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Dr. Zhixing has spent the last six years perfecting Handtalk, the winner
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of several recent international competitions. In Go, he said, the mind
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is dazzled by the beauty of the patterns unfolding on the board, and a
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sequence of moves can be as mesmerizing as a melody. The trick is to get
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a computer to compose and understand this visual music.
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Advertisement
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[Continue reading the main story](#story-continues-4)
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On its surface, Go seems simple compared with chess. A chess match
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begins with two facing armies of 16 pieces, ranking from pawn to king,
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on a 64-square board. Each of the six kinds of pieces is allowed to move
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only in certain ways -- bishops diagonally; knights in L-shaped paths.
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In Go there are few such complications. All of a player's stones are
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identical. A game begins with a blank 19-by-19 grid (sometimes smaller
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ones are used), and the two contestants take turns placing their stones
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(black for one side, white for the other) on any of the unoccupied
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intersections.
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A player can capture a group of an opponent's stones by surrounding it
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and then removing the cluster from the board. The object of the game is
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to build complex fence-like structures enclosing as much territory as
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possible.
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''In chess you start with everything you have on the board,'' said Tim
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Klinger, a graduate student in computer science at New York University
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who is studying computer Go. ''In Go you start from nothing and build.''
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Stone by stone, you try to construct enclaves, engulfing those of your
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opponent, who is all the time trying to engulf your own. Adding to the
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complications, there are usually several skirmishes going on
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simultaneously in different corners of the board. If chess is like a
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medieval battle, it is sometimes said, Go is more like a world war. And
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it can be maddeningly difficult to determine who is ahead.
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## Newsletter Sign Up
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[Continue reading the main story](#continues-post-newsletter)
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''In chess, if a player loses even a single pawn at world champion
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level, it can decide the game maybe 99 percent of the time,'' said Dr.
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Hans Berliner, a computer scientist at Carnegie-Mellon University in
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Pittsburgh who is an expert on computer chess. ''In Go, you keep hearing
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people say that you can lose a life-and-death battle along the edge of
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the board, but that is far from deciding the outcome. You can go on to
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other battles. It's a very different kind of game.''
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From the point of view of a computer, the difference could not be more
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profound. Because of the tight constraints in how chess pieces can be
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moved, a player is faced with an average of only about 35 legal moves to
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consider with each turn. Computer programs like Deep Blue analyze these
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moves, considering the opponent's possible countermoves, and then the
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countermoves to the countermoves. In computer chess terminology, each
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move and its response is called a ply. The fastest chess programs look
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ahead seven or eight plies into the game.
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The result is a densely proliferating tree of possibilities with the
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branches and twigs representing all the different ways the game could
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unfold. Looking ahead just seven plies (14 individual chess moves)
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requires examining 3514 (more than a billion trillion) leaves
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representing all the various outcomes.
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As the computer tries to look deeper, the number of possibilities
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explodes. Programmers have learned clever ways to ''prune'' the trees,
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so that all but a fraction of the paths can be discarded without
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plumbing them all the way to the bottom. Even so, a chess-playing
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computer looking ahead seven plies might consider as many as 50 or 60
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billion scenarios each time its turn comes around.
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Advertisement
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[Continue reading the main story](#story-continues-5)
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As bad as that sounds, in Go the situation is drastically worse. The
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tree of possible moves is so broad and dense that not even the fastest
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computer can negotiate it. The first player can put a stone in any of
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361 places; the opponent can respond by placing a stone on any of 360
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places, and so on. As the game continues, there are steadily fewer
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possible places to play. But, on average, a player is faced with about
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200 possible moves, compared with just 35 in chess.
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As a computer scientist would put it, the branching factor is much
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higher for Go than for chess. In chess the approximate number of
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possible board positions after only four moves is typically 35x35x35x35=
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1,500,625. For Go, the number is 200x200x200x200=1,600,000,000 -- and
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far more toward the beginning of a game. Search one ply deeper and the
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numbers rapidly diverge: about 1.8 billion possible outcomes for chess
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and 64 trillion for Go.
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Looking ahead 14 moves, or seven plies, in Go creates a search tree not
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with a mere 3514 leaves, as for chess, but with more than 20014 leaves.
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Pruning techniques cut this down to about ten thousand trillion
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possibilities to consider. Still, a Go computer as fast as Deep Blue
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(which analyzed some 200 million chess positions per second) would take
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a year and a half to mull over a single move.
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Even worse, performing so laborious a search would give the computer no
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significant advantage over its human opponent. After sifting through the
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myriad possibilities, a chess-playing computer tries to choose the move
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that will leave it in the strongest position. It determines this by
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using fairly simple formulas called evaluation functions. Each piece can
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be assigned a number indicating its rank (pawns are worth 1, knights and
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bishops 3, rooks 5, queens 9). This figure can be multiplied by another
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number indicating the strength of the piece's position on the board.
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Other formulas quantify concepts like ''king safety,'' or how
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wellprotected that piece is. These rules, called heuristics, are hardly
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infallible, but they give the computer a rough sense of the state of the
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game and a basis on which to make its decisions.
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Go does not succumb to such simple analysis. There is no single piece,
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like a king, whose loss decides the game. Even counting the amount of
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territory each player has captured is not very revealing. With the
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placement of a single stone, a seeming underdog might surround the grand
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structure his opponent has been assiduously building and turn it --
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jujitsu-like -- into his own. ''You're stringing all these stones
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together, and if you don't watch out the whole collection becomes dinner
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for your opponent,'' Mr. Klinger said.
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Expert Go players evaluate the state of the board by using their skills
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at pattern recognition, and these are very hard to capture in an
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algorithm. After years of experience, they can look at a complex
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configuration and sense whether it is ''alive,'' meaning that it is
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constructed in such a way that it cannot be captured, or ''dead,'' so
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that no amount of reinforcement can save it. Learning to sense life and
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death is crucial. A player does not want to waste stones attacking a
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group that is invulnerable, or defending one that is doomed. Sometimes
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there are fairly obvious clues: if a group of stones contains two
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configurations called eyes, it can fend off any attempt to capture it.
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But often the difference between life and death is difficult to
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perceive, hinging on a single stone.
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Go masters can also sense whether several unconnected stones might be
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slowly joined to form a group, or whether two smaller groups might be
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combined into a larger, stronger whole.
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To get a computer to do this kind of analysis, programmers must confront
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fundamental problems in artificial intelligence. Mr. Fotland armed his
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program, The Many Faces of Go, with basic concepts like territory and
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connectivity (whether several stones are in adjacent positions). It can
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also recognize some 1,100 different patterns, each of which sets off a
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sequence of suggested moves, and it has access to about 200 higher-level
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strategic notions like ''attack a weak group'' or ''expand into a
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potential territory'' or ''if behind, make unreasonable invasions that
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you don't expect to work.'' Like Deep Blue, the program draws on a
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library of standard openings and other commonly used plays. Drawing on
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this knowledge, it will consider only about 5 or 10 of the approximately
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200 possible moves available to it in a typical turn.
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Advertisement
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[Continue reading the main story](#story-continues-6)
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But programming this kind of knowledge is extremely difficult. ''People
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are so good at dealing with fuzzy concepts,'' said David Mechner, a
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doctoral student in neural science at New York University who is a
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top-ranked amateur Go player. But how do you tell a computer that
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several stones might end up being connected, but not necessarily? Mr.
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Mechner and Mr. Klinger are studying these kinds of problems and
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fine-tuning an algorithm for recognizing life and death. They hope to
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soon join the handful of programmers competing to make the best Go
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program.
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The winner of the FOST Cup, sponsored by the Japanese Fusion of Science
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and Technology organization and held in Nagoya next month as part of the
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International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence, will get
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about $17,000. The contest for the $7,000 Ing Cup, sponsored by the Ing
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Chang-ki Wei-Chi Educational Foundation in Taipei, will be held in
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November in the San Francisco Bay Area. (The winner will have the
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opportunity to challenge three young Go players for additional prizes).
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But winning the $1.4 million prize promised by the Ing foundation to a
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program that beats a human champion may be an impossible dream. The
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offer expires in the year 2000. Go programmers are hoping it will be
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extended for another century or two.
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***Correction:** August 11, 1997, Monday An article in Science Times on
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July 29 about computers that play the game of Go included an incorrect
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definition for the term ''ply,'' as used in computer chess. It is an
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individual move by one player, not a move and its response.*
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[Continue reading the main story](#whats-next)
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