diff --git a/.editorconfig b/.editorconfig new file mode 100644 index 0000000..797f013 --- /dev/null +++ b/.editorconfig @@ -0,0 +1,13 @@ +root = true + +[*] +indent_style = space +indent_size = 2 +end_of_line = lf +charset = utf-8 +trim_trailing_whitespace = true +insert_final_newline = true + +[*.md] + +trim_trailing_whitespace = false diff --git a/.gitignore b/.gitignore index 0bfae86..ce1226b 100644 --- a/.gitignore +++ b/.gitignore @@ -1,2 +1,4 @@ +__pycache__ _site -vendor \ No newline at end of file +vendor +.jekyll-metadata diff --git a/_config.yml b/_config.yml index 7efeeb4..261fba9 100644 --- a/_config.yml +++ b/_config.yml @@ -5,9 +5,15 @@ collections: output: true exclude: - vendor + - add-metadata.rb + - download.php + - __pycache__ + - Gemfile.lock + - Gemfile + - newspaper.py defaults: - scope: type: stories values: layout: default - permalink: /:path \ No newline at end of file + permalink: /:path diff --git a/_stories/1903/11251144.md b/_stories/1903/11251144.md index 73b1caa..c92324d 100644 --- a/_stories/1903/11251144.md +++ b/_stories/1903/11251144.md @@ -19,7 +19,53 @@ _tags: objectID: '11251144' --- -[Source](https://dangerousminds.net/comments/watch_the_very_first_film_version_of_alice_in_wonderland_from_1903 "Permalink to ") +![1alic1903wonder.jpg](/content/uploads/images/made/content/uploads/images/01alic1903wonder_465_360_int.jpg) +  +Cecil Hepworth is one of the unsung heroes of early cinema. The son of a +magic-lantern showman and novelist, Hepworth was one of the first +producers/directors to realize the potential of making full-length +“feature films” (his version of David Copperfield in 1913 ran for 67 +minutes) and the selling power of star actors (and animals—most notably +his pet dog in Rescued by Rover in 1905). +Hepworth began by making short one-minute films. Influenced by the +Lumière Brothers and the early master of cinema Georges Méliès, +Hepworth tried his own hand at advancing their ideas. With [How It Feels +to be Run Over](https://youtu.be/m6F1VAPzvkU) he took the Lumiere’s +[Arrival of a Train at La Ciotat](https://youtu.be/1dgLEDdFddk) (1895) +and applied it to a motor car—where the vehicle heads straight for the +camera apparently mowing down both cameraman and audience. The same +year, he made [Explosion of a Motor Car](https://youtu.be/MNllVz6mKZ4) +in which a car with four passengers explodes. The road (in comic +fashion) is then littered with their body parts. This was shocking and +surreal viewing for early cinema goers. It was also, as Michael Brooke +of [BFI Screenonline](http://www.screenonline.org.uk/film/id/444699/) +points out, “one of the first films to play with the laws of physics for +comic effect.” Hepworth pinched Méliès technique of editing in +camera—stopping the film between sequences to create one complete and +seemingly real +event. +![](/content/uploads/images/made/content/uploads/images/alice1sdfsdfsdfsdf00000000_465_328_int.jpg) +  +In 1903, Hepworth decided to go large and make (as faithfully as +possible) an adaptation of Lewis Carroll’s Alice’s Adventures in +Wonderland. Originally running twelve minutes in length, Hepworth’s +Alice in Wonderland was the longest film yet produced in Britain. +Hepworth co-directed the film with Percy Stow. He wanted to keep the +style of the film in keeping with Sir John Tenniel’s original +illustrations. Costumes were designed and elaborate sets were built at +Hepworth’s film studio—including a rather impressive rabbit burrow. +Family members, friends and their children were used in the cast. +Unfortunately, the full version of Hepworth’s mini classic has been +lost. The print that exists is damaged but is still a beautiful, trippy +and incredible piece of work—which as far this little ole blogger’s +concerned, still stands high above that Tim Burton +atrocity. + +![](/content/uploads/images/made/content/uploads/images/aliceWFP2-CLAR01_465_359_int.jpg) +  +The BFI created a remastered version of this film in 2010, which can be +seen [here](https://youtu.be/zeIXfdogJbA). I’m sticking with a scratchy, +silent B\&W version—for which you can supply your own soundtrack. diff --git a/_stories/1903/14527535.md b/_stories/1903/14527535.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..afa6a04 --- /dev/null +++ b/_stories/1903/14527535.md @@ -0,0 +1,23678 @@ +--- +created_at: '2017-06-10T14:51:41.000Z' +title: The Principles of Mathematics (1903) +url: http://people.umass.edu/klement/pom/pom.html +author: osivertsson +points: 52 +story_text: +comment_text: +num_comments: 19 +story_id: +story_title: +story_url: +parent_id: +created_at_i: 1497106301 +_tags: +- story +- author_osivertsson +- story_14527535 +objectID: '14527535' + +--- +The Principles of Mathematics + +by + +Bertrand Russell, M.A., + + +Late Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge + +Vol. I + +First published in 1903 by Cambridge University Press. This online +edition (version 0.12: 28 May 2017) is based on that printing, with +various typographical corrections. Missing here is the Introduction to +the 1937 second edition, which is not yet in the public domain. Rather +than publishing a second volume, Russell and his co-author A. N. +Whitehead published the three volumes of Principia Mathematica in +1910–1913. + +## Preface. + +The present work has two main objects. One of these, the proof that all +pure mathematics deals exclusively with concepts definable in terms of a +very small number of fundamental logical concepts, and that all its +propositions are deducible from a very small number of fundamental +logical principles, is undertaken in Parts [II](#part2)–[VII](#part7) of +this Volume, and will be established by strict symbolic reasoning in +Volume II. The demonstration of this thesis has, if I am not mistaken, +all the certainty and precision of which mathematical demonstrations are +capable. As the thesis is very recent among mathematicians, and is +almost universally denied by philosophers, I have undertaken, in this +volume, to defend its various parts, as occasion arose, against such +adverse theories as appeared most widely held or most difficult to +disprove. I have also endeavoured to present, in language as untechnical +as possible, the more important stages in the deductions by which the +thesis is established. + +The other object of this work, which occupies [Part I](#part1), is the +explanation of the fundamental concepts which mathematics accepts as +indefinable. This is a purely philosophical task, and I cannot flatter +myself that I have done more than indicate a vast field of inquiry, and +give a sample of the methods by which the inquiry may be conducted. The +discussion of indefinables—which forms the chief part of philosophical +logic—is the endeavour to see clearly, and to make others see clearly, +the entities concerned, in order that the mind may have that kind of +acquaintance with them which it has with redness or the taste of a +pineapple. Where, as in the present case, the indefinables are obtained +primarily as the necessary residue in a process of analysis, it is often +easier to know that there must be such entities than actually to +perceive them; there is a process analogous to that which resulted in +the discovery of Neptune, with the difference that the final stage—the +search with a mental telescope for the entity which has been inferred—is +often the most difficult part of the undertaking. In the case of +classes, I must confess, I have failed to perceive any concept +fulfilling the conditions requisite for the notion of class. And the +contradiction discussed in [Chapter x](#chapter10) proves that something +is amiss, but what this is I have hitherto failed to discover. + +The second volume, in which I have had the great good fortune to secure +the collaboration of Mr A. N. Whitehead, will be addressed exclusively +to mathematicians; it will contain chains of deductions, from the +premisses of symbolic logic through Arithmetic, finite and infinite, to +Geometry, in an order similar to that adopted in the present volume; it +will also contain various original developments, in which the method of +Professor Peano, as supplemented by the Logic of Relations, has shown +itself a powerful instrument of mathematical investigation. + +The present volume, which may be regarded either as a commentary upon, +or as an introduction to, the second volume, is addressed in equal +measure to the philosopher and to the mathematician; but some parts will +be more interesting to the one, others to the other. I should advise +mathematicians, unless they are specially interested in Symbolic Logic, +to begin with [Part IV](#part4), and only refer to earlier parts as +occasion arises. The following portions are more specially +philosophical: [Part I](#part1) (omitting [Chapter ii](#chapter2)); +[Part II](#part2), Chapters [xi](#chapter11), [xv](#chapter15), +[xvi](#chapter16), [xvii](#chapter17); [Part III](#part3); [Part +IV](#part4), [§207](#sec207), Chapters [xxvi](#chapter26), +[xxvii](#chapter27), [xxxi](#chapter31); [Part V](#part5), Chapters +[xli](#chapter41), [xlii](#chapter42), [xliii](#chapter43); [Part +VI](#part6), Chapters [l](#chapter50), [li](#chapter51), +[lii](#chapter52); [Part VII](#part7), Chapters [liii](#chapter53), +[liv](#chapter54), [lv](#chapter55), [lvii](#chapter57), +[lviii](#chapter58); and the two Appendices, which belong to [Part +I](#part1), and should be read in connection with it. Professor Frege’s +work, which largely anticipates my own, was for the most part unknown to +me when the printing of the present work began; I had seen his +Grundgesetze der Arithmetik, but, owing to the great difficulty of his +symbolism, I had failed to grasp its importance or to understand its +contents. The only method, at so late a stage, of doing justice to his +work, was to devote an [Appendix](#appendixA) to it; and in some points +the views contained in the [Appendix](#appendixA) differ from those in +[Chapter vi](#chapter6), especially in §§[71](#sec71), [73](#sec73), +[74](#sec74). On questions discussed in these sections, I discovered +errors after passing the sheets for the press; these errors, of which +the chief are the denial of the null-class, and the identification of a +term with the class whose only member it is, are rectified in the +Appendices. The subjects treated are so difficult that I feel little +confidence in my present opinions, and regard any conclusions which may +be advocated as essentially hypotheses. + +A few words as to the origin of the present work may serve to show the +importance of the questions discussed. About six years ago, I began an +investigation into the philosophy of Dynamics. I was met by the +difficulty that, when a particle is subject to several forces, no one of +the component accelerations actually occurs, but only the resultant +acceleration, of which they are not parts; this fact rendered illusory +such causation of particulars by particulars as is affirmed, at first +sight, by the law of gravitation. It appeared also that the difficulty +in regard to absolute motion is insoluble on a relational theory of +space. From these two questions I was led to a re-examination of the +principles of Geometry, thence to the philosophy of continuity and +infinity, and thence, with a view to discovering the meaning of the word +any, to Symbolic Logic. The final outcome, as regards the philosophy of +Dynamics, is perhaps rather slender; the reason of this is, that almost +all the problems of Dynamics appear to me empirical, and therefore +outside the scope of such a work as the present. Many very interesting +questions have had to be omitted, especially in Parts [VI](#part6) and +[VII](#part7), as not relevant to my purpose, which, for fear of +misunderstandings, it may be well to explain at this stage. + +When actual objects are counted, or when Geometry and Dynamics are +applied to actual space or actual matter, or when, in any other way, +mathematical reasoning is applied to what exists, the reasoning employed +has a form not dependent upon the objects to which it is applied being +just those objects that they are, but only upon their having certain +general properties. In pure mathematics, actual objects in the world of +existence will never be in question, but only hypothetical objects +having those general properties upon which depends whatever deduction is +being considered; and these general properties will always be +expressible in terms of the fundamental concepts which I have called +logical constants. Thus when space or motion is spoken of in pure +mathematics, it is not actual space or actual motion, as we know them in +experience, that are spoken of, but any entity possessing those abstract +general properties of space or motion that are employed in the +reasonings of geometry or dynamics. The question whether these +properties belong, as a matter of fact, to actual space or actual +motion, is irrelevant to pure mathematics, and therefore to the present +work, being, in my opinion, a purely empirical question, to be +investigated in the laboratory or the observatory. Indirectly, it is +true, the discussions connected with pure mathematics have a very +important bearing upon such empirical questions, since mathematical +space and motion are held by many, perhaps most, philosophers to be +self-contradictory, and therefore necessarily different from actual +space and motion, whereas, if the views advocated in the following pages +be valid, no such self-contradictions are to be found in mathematical +space and motion. But extra-mathematical considerations of this kind +have been almost wholly excluded from the present work. + +On fundamental questions of philosophy, my position, in all its chief +features, is derived from Mr G. E. Moore. I have accepted from him the +non-existential nature of propositions (except such as happen to assert +existence) and their independence of any knowing mind; also the +pluralism which regards the world, both that of existents and that of +entities, as composed of an infinite number of mutually independent +entities, with relations which are ultimate, and not reducible to +adjectives of their terms or of the whole which these compose. Before +learning these views from him, I found myself completely unable to +construct any philosophy of arithmetic, whereas their acceptance brought +about an immediate liberation from a large number of difficulties which +I believe to be otherwise insuperable. The doctrines just mentioned are, +in my opinion, quite indispensable to any even tolerably satisfactory +philosophy of mathematics, as I hope the following pages will show. But +I must leave it to my readers to judge how far the reasoning assumes +these doctrines, and how far it supports them. Formally, my premisses +are simply assumed; but the fact that they allow mathematics to be true, +which most current philosophies do not, is surely a powerful argument in +their favour. + +In Mathematics, my chief obligations, as is indeed evident, are to Georg +Cantor and Professor Peano. If I had become acquainted sooner with the +work of Professor Frege, I should have owed a great deal to him, but as +it is I arrived independently at many results which he had already +established. At every stage of my work, I have been assisted more than I +can express by the suggestions, the criticisms, and the generous +encouragement of Mr A. N. Whitehead; he also has kindly read my proofs, +and greatly improved the final expression of a very large number of +passages. Many useful hints I owe also to Mr W. E. Johnson; and in the +more philosophical parts of the book I owe much to Mr G. E. Moore +besides the general position which underlies the whole. + +In the endeavour to cover so wide a field, it has been impossible to +acquire an exhaustive knowledge of the literature. There are doubtless +many important works with which I am unacquainted; but where the labour +of thinking and writing necessarily absorbs so much time, such +ignorance, however regrettable, seems not wholly avoidable. + +Many words will be found, in the course of discussion, to be defined in +senses apparently departing widely from common usage. Such departures, I +must ask the reader to believe, are never wanton, but have been made +with great reluctance. In philosophical matters, they have been +necessitated mainly by two causes. First, it often happens that two +cognate notions are both to be considered, and that language has two +names for the one, but none for the other. It is then highly convenient +to distinguish between the two names commonly used as synonyms, keeping +one for the usual, the other for the hitherto nameless sense. The other +cause arises from philosophical disagreement with received views. Where +two qualities are commonly supposed inseparably conjoined, but are here +regarded as separable, the name which has applied to their combination +will usually have to be restricted to one or other. For example, +propositions are commonly regarded as (1) true or false, (2) mental. +Holding, as I do, that what is true or false is not in general mental, I +require a name for the true or false as such, and this name can scarcely +be other than proposition. In such a case, the departure from usage is +in no degree arbitrary. As regards mathematical terms, the necessity for +establishing the existence-theorem in each case—i.e. the proof that +there are entities of the kind in question—has led to many definitions +which appear widely different from the notions usually attached to the +terms in question. Instances of this are the definitions of cardinal, +ordinal and complex numbers. In the two former of these, and in many +other cases, the definition as a class, derived from the principle of +abstraction, is mainly recommended by the fact that it leaves no doubt +as to the existence-theorem. But in many instances of such apparent +departure from usage, it may be doubted whether more has been done than +to give precision to a notion which had hitherto been more or less +vague. + +For publishing a work containing so many unsolved difficulties, my +apology is, that investigation revealed no near prospect of adequately +resolving the contradiction discussed in [Chapter x](#chapter10), or of +acquiring a better insight into the nature of classes. The repeated +discovery of errors in solutions which for a time had satisfied me +caused these problems to appear such as would have been only concealed +by any seemingly satisfactory theories which a slightly longer +reflection might have produced; it seemed better, therefore, merely to +state the difficulties, than to wait until I had become persuaded of the +truth of some almost certainly erroneous doctrine. + +My thanks are due to the Syndics of the University Press, and to their +Secretary, Mr R. T. Wright, for their kindness and courtesy in regard to +the present volume. + +London, +December, 1902 + +## Table of Contents + +# PART I. +THE INDEFINABLES OF MATHEMATICS. + +## CHAPTER I. +Definition of Pure Mathematics. + +**1.** Pure Mathematics is the class of all propositions of the form “p +implies q,” where p and q are propositions containing one or more +variables, the same in the two propositions, and neither p nor q +contains any constants except logical constants. And logical constants +are all notions definable in terms of the following: Implication, the +relation of a term to a class of which it is a member, the notion of +such that, the notion of relation, and such further notions as may be +involved in the general notion of propositions of the above form. In +addition to these, mathematics uses a notion which is not a constituent +of the propositions which it considers, namely the notion of truth. + +**2.** The above definition of pure mathematics is, no doubt, somewhat +unusual. Its various parts, nevertheless, appear to be capable of exact +justification—a justification which it will be the object of the present +work to provide. It will be shown that whatever has, in the past, been +regarded as pure mathematics, is included in our definition, and that +whatever else is included possesses those marks by which mathematics is +commonly though vaguely distinguished from other studies. The definition +professes to be, not an arbitrary decision to use a common word in an +uncommon signification, but rather a precise analysis of the ideas +which, more or less unconsciously, are implied in the ordinary +employment of the term. Our method will therefore be one of analysis, +and our problem may be called philosophical—in the sense, that is to +say, that we seek to pass from the complex to the simple, from the +demonstrable to its indemonstrable premisses. But in one respect not a +few of our discussions will differ from those that are usually called +philosophical. We shall be able, thanks to the labours of the +mathematicians themselves, to arrive at certainty in regard to most of +the questions with which we shall be concerned; and among those capable +of an exact solution we shall find many of the problems which, in the +past, have been involved in all the traditional uncertainty of +philosophical strife. The nature of number, of infinity, of space, time +and motion, and of mathematical inference itself, are all questions to +which, in the present work, an answer professing itself demonstrable +with mathematical certainty will be given—an answer which, however, +consists in reducing the above problems to problems in pure logic, which +last will not be found satisfactorily solved in what follows. + +**3.** The Philosophy of Mathematics has been hitherto as controversial, +obscure and unprogressive as the other branches of philosophy. Although +it was generally agreed that mathematics is in some sense true, +philosophers disputed as to what mathematical propositions really meant: +although something was true, no two people were agreed as to what it was +that was true, and if something was known, no one knew what it was that +was known. So long, however, as this was doubtful, it could hardly be +said that any certain and exact knowledge was to be obtained in +mathematics. We find, accordingly, that idealists have tended more and +more to regard all mathematics as dealing with mere appearance, while +empiricists have held everything mathematical to be approximation to +some exact truth about which they had nothing to tell us. This state of +things, it must be confessed, was thoroughly unsatisfactory. Philosophy +asks of Mathematics: What does it mean? Mathematics in the past was +unable to answer, and Philosophy answered by introducing the totally +irrelevant notion of mind. But now Mathematics is able to answer, so far +at least as to reduce the whole of its propositions to certain +fundamental notions of logic. At this point, the discussion must be +resumed by Philosophy. I shall endeavour to indicate what are the +fundamental notions involved, to prove at length that no others occur in +mathematics, and to point out briefly the philosophical difficulties +involved in the analysis of these notions. A complete treatment of these +difficulties would involve a treatise on Logic, which will not be found +in the following pages. + +**4.** There was, until very lately, a special difficulty in the +principles of mathematics. It seemed plain that mathematics consists of +deductions, and yet the orthodox accounts of deduction were largely or +wholly inapplicable to existing mathematics. Not only the Aristotelian +syllogistic theory, but also the modern doctrines of Symbolic Logic, +were either theoretically inadequate to mathematical reasoning, or at +any rate required such artificial forms of statement that they could not +be practically applied. In this fact lay the strength of the Kantian +view, which asserted that mathematical reasoning is not strictly formal, +but always uses intuitions, i.e. the à priori knowledge of space and +time. Thanks to the progress of Symbolic Logic, especially as treated by +Professor Peano, this part of the Kantian philosophy is now capable of a +final and irrevocable refutation. By the help of ten principles of +deduction and ten other premisses of a general logical nature (e.g. +“implication is a relation”), all mathematics can be strictly and +formally deduced; and all the entities that occur in mathematics can be +defined in terms of those that occur in the above twenty premisses. In +this statement, Mathematics includes not only Arithmetic and Analysis, +but also Geometry, Euclidean and non-Euclidean, rational Dynamics, and +an indefinite number of other studies still unborn or in their infancy. +The fact that all Mathematics is Symbolic Logic is one of the greatest +discoveries of our age; and when this fact has been established, the +remainder of the principles of mathematics consists in the analysis of +Symbolic Logic itself. + +**5.** The general doctrine that all mathematics is deduction by logical +principles from logical principles was strongly advocated by Leibniz, +who urged constantly that axioms ought to be proved and that all except +a few fundamental notions ought to be defined. But owing partly to a +faulty logic, partly to belief in the logical necessity of Euclidean +Geometry, he was led into hopeless errors in the endeavour to carry out +in detail a view which, in its general outline, is now known to be +correct[\*](#fn5-1). The actual propositions of Euclid, for example, do +not follow from the principles of logic alone; and the perception of +this fact led Kant to his innovations in the theory of knowledge. But +since the growth of non-Euclidean Geometry, it has appeared that pure +mathematics has no concern with the question whether the axioms and +propositions of Euclid hold of actual space or not: this is a question +for applied mathematics, to be decided, so far as any decision is +possible, by experiment and observation. What pure mathematics asserts +is merely that the Euclidean propositions follow from the Euclidean +axioms—i.e. it asserts an implication: any space which has such and such +properties has also such and such other properties. Thus, as dealt with +in pure mathematics, the Euclidean and non-Euclidean Geometries are +equally true: in each nothing is affirmed except implications. All +propositions as to what actually exists, like the space we live in, +belong to experimental or empirical science, not to mathematics; when +they belong to applied mathematics, they arise from giving to one or +more of the variables in a proposition of pure mathematics some constant +value satisfying the hypothesis, and thus enabling us, for that value of +the variable, actually to assert both hypothesis and consequent instead +of asserting merely the implication. We assert always in mathematics +that if a certain assertion p is true of any entity x, or of any set of +entities x, y, z, … , then some other assertion q is true of those +entities; but we do not assert either p or q separately of our entities. +We assert a relation between the assertions p and q, which I shall call +formal implication. + +**6.** Mathematical propositions are not only characterized by the fact +that they assert implications, but also by the fact that they contain +variables. The notion of the variable is one of the most difficult with +which Logic has to deal, and in the present work a satisfactory theory +as to its nature, in spite of much discussion, will hardly be found. For +the present, I only wish to make it plain that there are variables in +all mathematical propositions, even where at first sight they might seem +to be absent. Elementary Arithmetic might be thought to form an +exception: 1 + 1 = 2 appears neither to contain variables nor to assert +an implication. But as a matter of fact, as will be shown in [Part +II](#part2), the true meaning of this proposition is: “If x is one and y +is one, and x differs from y, then x and y are two.” And this +proposition both contains variables and asserts an implication. We shall +find always, in all mathematical propositions, that the words any or +some occur; and these words are the marks of a variable and a formal +implication. Thus the above proposition may be expressed in the form: +“Any unit and any other unit are two units.” The typical proposition +of mathematics is of the form “φ(x, y, z, …) implies ψ(x, y, z, …), +whatever values x, y, z, … may have”; where φ(x, y, z, …) and ψ(x, y, z, +…), for every set of values of x, y, z, …, are propositions. It is not +asserted that φ is always true, nor yet that ψ is always true, but +merely that, in all cases, when φ is false as much as when φ is true, ψ +follows from it. + +The distinction between a variable and a constant is somewhat obscured +by mathematical usage. It is customary, for example, to speak of +parameters as in some sense constants, but this is a usage which we +shall have to reject. A constant is to be something absolutely definite, +concerning which there is no ambiguity whatever. Thus 1, 2, 3, e, π, +Socrates, are constants; and so are man, and the human race, past, +present and future, considered collectively. Proposition, implication, +class, etc. are constants; but a proposition, any proposition, some +proposition, are not constants, for these phrases do not denote one +definite object. And thus what are called parameters are simply +variables. Take, for example, the equation ax + by + c = 0, considered +as the equation to a straight line in a plane. Here we say that x and y +are variables, while a, b, c are constants. But unless we are dealing +with one absolutely particular line, say the line from a particular +point in London to a particular point in Cambridge, our a, b, c are not +definite numbers, but stand for any numbers, and are thus also +variables. And in Geometry nobody does deal with actual particular +lines; we always discuss any line. The point is that we collect the +various couples x, y into classes of classes, each class being defined +as those couples that have a certain fixed relation to one triad (a, b, +c). But from class to class, a, b, c also vary, and are therefore +properly variables. + +**7.** It is customary in mathematics to regard our variables as +restricted to certain classes: in Arithmetic, for instance, they are +supposed to stand for numbers. But this only means that if they stand +for numbers, they satisfy some formula, i.e. the hypothesis that they +are numbers implies the formula. This, then, is what is really asserted, +and in this proposition it is no longer necessary that our variables +should be numbers: the implication holds equally when they are not so. +Thus, for example, the proposition “x and y are numbers implies (x + y)2 += x2 + 2xy + y2” holds equally if for x and y we substitute Socrates and +Plato[\*](#fn7-1): both hypothesis and consequent, in this case, will be +false, but the implication will still be true. Thus in every proposition +of pure mathematics, when fully stated, the variables have an absolutely +unrestricted field: any conceivable entity may be substituted for any +one of our variables without impairing the truth of our proposition. + +**8.** We can now understand why the constants in mathematics are to be +restricted to logical constants in the sense defined above. The process +of transforming constants in a proposition into variables leads to what +is called generalization, and gives us, as it were, the formal essence +of a proposition. Mathematics is interested exclusively in types of +propositions; if a proposition p containing only constants be proposed, +and for a certain one of its terms we imagine others to be successively +substituted, the result will in general be sometimes true and sometimes +false. Thus, for example, we have “Socrates is a man”; here we turn +Socrates into a variable, and consider “x is a man.” Some hypotheses as +to x, for example, “x is a Greek,” insure the truth of “x is a man”; +thus “x is a Greek” implies “x is a man,” and this holds for all values +of x. But the statement is not one of pure mathematics, because it +depends upon the particular nature of Greek and man. We may, however, +vary these too, and obtain: If a and b are classes, and a is contained +in b, then “x is an a” implies “x is a b.” Here at last we have a +proposition of pure mathematics, containing three variables and the +constants class, contained in, and those involved in the notion of +formal implications with variables. So long as any term in our +proposition can be turned into a variable, our proposition can be +generalized; and so long as this is possible, it is the business of +mathematics to do it. If there are several chains of deduction which +differ only as to the meaning of the symbols, so that propositions +symbolically identical become capable of several interpretations, the +proper course, mathematically, is to form the class of meanings which +may attach to the symbols, and to assert that the formula in question +follows from the hypothesis that the symbols belong to the class in +question. In this way, symbols which stood for constants become +transformed into variables, and new constants are substituted, +consisting of classes to which the old constants belong. Cases of such +generalization are so frequent that many will occur at once to every +mathematician, and innumerable instances will be given in the present +work. Whenever two sets of terms have mutual relations of the same type, +the same form of deduction will apply to both. For example, the mutual +relations of points in a Euclidean plane are of the same type as those +of the complex numbers; hence plane geometry, considered as a branch of +pure mathematics, ought not to decide whether its variables are points +or complex numbers or some other set of entities having the same type of +mutual relations. Speaking generally, we ought to deal, in every branch +of mathematics, with any class of entities whose mutual relations are of +a specified type; thus the class, as well as the particular term +considered, becomes a variable, and the only true constants are the +types of relations and what they involve. Now a type of relation is to +mean, in this discussion, a class of relations characterized by the +above formal identity of the deductions possible in regard to the +various members of the class; and hence a type of relations, as will +appear more fully hereafter, if not already evident, is always a class +definable in terms of logical constants[\*](#fn8-1). We may therefore +define a type of relations as a class of relations defined by some +property definable in terms of logical constants alone. + +**9.** Thus pure mathematics must contain no indefinables except logical +constants, and consequently no premisses, or indemonstrable +propositions, but such as are concerned exclusively with logical +constants and with variables. It is precisely this that distinguishes +pure from applied mathematics. In applied mathematics, results which +have been shown by pure mathematics to follow from some hypothesis as to +the variable are actually asserted of some constant satisfying the +hypothesis in question. Thus terms which were variables become constant, +and a new premiss is always required, namely: this particular entity +satisfies the hypothesis in question. Thus for example Euclidean +Geometry, as a branch of pure mathematics, consists wholly of +propositions having the hypothesis “S is a Euclidean space.” If we go on +to: “The space that exists is Euclidean,” this enables us to assert of +the space that exists the consequents of all the hypotheticals +constituting Euclidean Geometry, where now the variable S is replaced by +the constant actual space. But by this step we pass from pure to applied +mathematics. + +**10.** The connection of mathematics with logic, according to the above +account, is exceedingly close. The fact that all mathematical constants +are logical constants, and that all the premisses of mathematics are +concerned with these, gives, I believe, the precise statement of what +philosophers have meant in asserting that mathematics is à priori. The +fact is that, when once the apparatus of logic has been accepted, all +mathematics necessarily follows. The logical constants themselves are to +be defined only by enumeration, for they are so fundamental that all the +properties by which the class of them might be defined presuppose some +terms of the class. But practically, the method of discovering the +logical constants is the analysis of symbolic logic, which will be the +business of the following chapters. The distinction of mathematics from +logic is very arbitrary, but if a distinction is desired, it may be made +as follows. Logic consists of the premisses of mathematics, together +with all other propositions which are concerned exclusively with logical +constants and with variables but do not fulfil the above definition of +mathematics ([§1](#sec1)). Mathematics consists of all the consequences +of the above premisses which assert formal implications containing +variables, together with such of the premisses themselves as have these +marks. Thus some of the premisses of mathematics, e.g. the principle of +the syllogism, “if p implies q and q implies r, then p implies r,” will +belong to mathematics, while others, such as “implication is a +relation,” will belong to logic but not to mathematics. But for the +desire to adhere to usage, we might identify mathematics and logic, and +define either as the class of propositions containing only variables and +logical constants; but respect for tradition leads me rather to adhere +to the above distinction, while recognizing that certain propositions +belong to both sciences. + +From what has now been said, the reader will perceive that the present +work has to fulfil two objects, first, to show that all mathematics +follows from symbolic logic, and secondly to discover, as far as +possible, what are the principles of symbolic logic itself. The first of +these objects will be pursued in the following Parts, while the second +belongs to [Part I](#part1). And first of all, as a preliminary to a +critical analysis, it will be necessary to give an outline of Symbolic +Logic considered simply as a branch of mathematics. This will occupy the +[following chapter](#chapter2). + +Notes + +## CHAPTER II. +Symbolic Logic. + +**11.** Symbolic or Formal Logic—I shall use these terms as synonyms—is +the study of the various general types of deduction. The word symbolic +designates the subject by an accidental characteristic, for the +employment of mathematical symbols, here as elsewhere, is merely a +theoretically irrelevant convenience. The syllogism in all its figures +belongs to Symbolic Logic, and would be the whole subject if all +deduction were syllogistic, as the scholastic tradition supposed. It is +from the recognition of asyllogistic inferences that modern Symbolic +Logic, from Leibniz onward, has derived the motive to progress. Since +the publication of Boole’s Laws of Thought (1854), the subject has been +pursued with a certain vigour, and has attained to a very considerable +technical development[\*](#fn10-1). Nevertheless, the subject achieved +almost nothing of utility either to philosophy or to other branches of +mathematics, until it was transformed by the new methods of Professor +Peano[†](#fn10-2). Symbolic Logic has now become not only absolutely +essential to every philosophical logician, but also necessary for the +comprehension of mathematics generally, and even for the successful +practice of certain branches of mathematics. How useful it is in +practice can only be judged by those who have experienced the increase +of power derived from acquiring it; its theoretical functions must be +briefly set forth in the present chapter[‡](#fn10-3). + +**12.** Symbolic Logic is essentially concerned with inference in +general[\*](#fn11-1), and is distinguished from various special branches +of mathematics mainly by its generality. Neither mathematics nor +symbolic logic will study such special relations as (say) temporal +priority, but mathematics will deal explicitly with the class of +relations possessing the formal properties of temporal +priority—properties which are summed up in the notion of +continuity[†](#fn11-2). And the formal properties of a relation may be +defined as those that can be expressed in terms of logical constants, or +again as those which, while they are preserved, permit our relation to +be varied without invalidating any inference in which the said relation +is regarded in the light of a variable. But symbolic logic, in the +narrower sense which is convenient, will not investigate what inferences +are possible in respect of continuous relations (i.e. relations +generating continuous series); this investigation belongs to +mathematics, but is still too special for symbolic logic. What symbolic +logic does investigate is the general rules by which inferences are +made, and it requires a classification of relations or propositions only +in so far as these general rules introduce particular notions. The +particular notions which appear in the propositions of symbolic logic, +and all others definable in terms of these notions, are the logical +constants. The number of indefinable logical constants is not great: it +appears, in fact, to be eight or nine. These notions alone form the +subject-matter of the whole of mathematics: no others, except such as +are definable in terms of the original eight or nine, occur anywhere in +Arithmetic, Geometry, or rational Dynamics. For the technical study of +Symbolic Logic, it is convenient to take as a single indefinable the +notion of a formal implication, i.e. of such propositions as “x is a man +implies x is a mortal, for all values of x”—propositions whose general +type is: “φ(x) implies ψ(x) for all values of x,” where φ(x), ψ(x), for +all values of x, are propositions. The analysis of this notion of formal +implication belongs to the principles of the subject, but is not +required for its formal development. In addition to this notion, we +require as indefinables the following: Implication between propositions +not containing variables, the relation of a term to a class of which it +is a member, the notion of such that, the notion of relation, and truth. +By means of these notions, all the propositions of symbolic logic can be +stated. + +**13.** The subject of Symbolic Logic consists of three parts, the +calculus of propositions, the calculus of classes, and the calculus of +relations. Between the first two, there is, within limits, a certain +parallelism, which arises as follows: In any symbolic expression, the +letters may be interpreted as classes or as propositions, and the +relation of inclusion in the one case may be replaced by that of formal +implication in the other. Thus, for example, in the principle of the +syllogism, if a, b, c be classes, and a is contained in b, b in c, then +a is contained in c; but if a, b, c be propositions, and a implies b, b +implies c, then a implies c. A great deal has been made of this duality, +and in the later editions of the Formulaire, Peano appears to have +sacrificed logical precision to its preservation[\*](#fn12-1). But, as a +matter of fact, there are many ways in which the calculus of +propositions differs from that of classes. Consider, for example, the +following: “If p, q, r are propositions, and p implies q or r, then p +implies q or p implies r.” This proposition is true; but its correlative +is false, namely: “If a, b, c are classes, and a is contained in b or c, +then a is contained in b or a is contained in c.” For example,. English +people are all either men or women, but are not all men nor yet all +women. The fact is that the duality holds for propositions asserting of +a variable term that it belongs to a class, i.e. such propositions as “x +is a man,” provided that the implication involved be formal, i.e. one +which holds for all values of x. But “x is a man” is itself not a +proposition at all, being neither true nor false; and it is not with +such entities that we are concerned in the propositional calculus, but +with genuine propositions. To continue the above illustration: It is +true that, for all values of x, “x is a man or a woman” either implies +“x is a man” or implies “x is a woman.” But it is false that “x is a +man or woman” either implies “x is a man” for all values of x, or +implies “x is a woman” for all values of x. Thus the implication +involved, which is always one of the two, is not formal, since it does +not hold for all values of x, being not always the same one of the two. +The symbolic affinity of the propositional and the class logic is, in +fact, something of a snare, and we have to decide which of the two we +are to make fundamental. Mr McColl, in an important series of +papers[†](#fn12-2), has contended for the view that implication and +propositions are more fundamental than inclusion and classes; and in +this opinion I agree with him. But he does not appear to me to realize +adequately the distinction between genuine propositions and such as +contain a real variable: thus he is led to speak of propositions as +sometimes true and sometimes false, which of course is impossible with a +genuine proposition. As the distinction involved is of very great +importance, I shall dwell on it before proceeding further. A +proposition, we may say, is anything that is true or that is false. An +expression such as “x is a man” is therefore not a proposition, for it +is neither true nor false. If we give to x any constant value whatever, +the expression becomes a proposition: it is thus as it were a schematic +form standing for any one of a whole class of propositions. And when we +say “x is a man implies x is a mortal for all values of x,” we are not +asserting a single implication, but a class of implications; we have now +a genuine proposition, in which, though the letter x appears, there is +no real variable: the variable is absorbed in the same kind of way as +the x under the integral sign in a definite integral, so that the result +is no longer a function of x. Peano distinguishes a variable which +appears in this way as apparent, since the proposition does not depend +upon the variable; whereas in “x is a man” there are different +propositions for different values of the variable, and the variable is +what Peano calls real[\*](#fn13-1). I shall speak of propositions +exclusively where there is no real variable: where there are one or more +real variables, and for all values of the variables the expression +involved is a proposition, I shall call the expression a propositional +function. The study of genuine propositions is, in my opinion, more +fundamental than that of classes; but the study of propositional +functions appears to be strictly on a par with that of classes, and +indeed scarcely distinguishable therefrom. Peano, like McColl, at first +regarded propositions as more fundamental than classes, but he, even +more definitely, considered propositional functions rather than +propositions. From this criticism, Schröder is exempt: his second volume +deals with genuine propositions, and points out their formal differences +from classes. + +A. The Propositional Calculus. + +**14.** The propositional calculus is characterized by the fact that all +its propositions have as hypothesis and as consequent the assertion of a +material implication. Usually, the hypothesis is of the form “p implies +p,” etc., which ([§16](#sec16)) is equivalent to the assertion that the +letters which occur in the consequent are propositions. Thus the +consequents consist of propositional functions which are true of all +propositions. It is important to observe that, though the letters +employed are symbols for variables, and the consequents are true when +the variables are given values which are propositions, these values must +be genuine propositions, not propositional functions. The hypothesis “p +is a proposition” is not satisfied if for p we put “x is a man,” but it +is satisfied if we put “Socrates is a man” or if we put “x is a man +implies x is a mortal for all values of x.” Shortly, we may say that the +propositions represented by single letters in this calculus are +variables, but do not contain variables—in the case, that is to say, +where the hypotheses of the propositions which the calculus asserts are +satisfied. + +**15.** Our calculus studies the relation of implication between +propositions. This relation must be distinguished from the relation of +formal implication, which holds between propositional functions when the +one implies the other for all values of the variable. Formal implication +is also involved in this calculus, but is not explicitly studied: we do +not consider propositional functions in general, but only certain +definite propositional functions which occur in the propositions of our +calculus. How far formal implication is definable in terms of +implication simply, or material implication as it may be called, is a +difficult question, which will be discussed in [Chapter iii](#chapter3). +What the difference is between the two, an illustration will explain. +The fifth proposition of Euclid follows from the fourth: if the fourth +is true, so is the fifth, while if the fifth is false, so is the fourth. +This is a case of material implication, for both propositions are +absolute constants, not dependent for their meaning upon the assigning +of a value to a variable. But each of them states a formal implication. +The fourth states that if x and y be triangles fulfilling certain +conditions, then x and y are triangles fulfilling certain other +conditions, and that this implication holds for all values of x and y; +and the fifth states that if x is an isosceles triangle, x has the +angles at the base equal. The formal implication involved in each of +these two propositions is quite a different thing from the material +implication holding between the propositions as wholes; both notions are +required in the propositional calculus, but it is the study of material +implication which specially distinguishes this subject, for formal +implication occurs throughout the whole of mathematics. + +It has been customary, in treatises on logic, to confound the two kinds +of implication, and often to be really considering the formal kind where +the material kind only was apparently involved. For example, when it is +said that “Socrates is a man, therefore Socrates is a mortal,” Socrates +is felt as a variable: he is a type of humanity, and one feels that any +other man would have done as well. If, instead of therefore, which +implies the truth of hypothesis and consequent, we put “Socrates is a +man implies Socrates is a mortal,” it appears at once that we may +substitute not only another man, but any other entity whatever, in the +place of Socrates. Thus although what is explicitly stated, in such a +case, is a material implication, what is meant is a formal implication; +and some effort is needed to confine our imagination to material +implication. + +**16.** A definition of implication is quite impossible. If p implies q, +then if p is true q is true, i.e. p’s truth implies q’s truth; also if q +is false p is false, i.e. q’s falsehood implies p’s +falsehood[\*](#fn14-1). Thus truth and falsehood give us merely new +implications, not a definition of implication. If p implies q, then both +are false or both true, or p is false and q true; it is impossible to +have q false and p true, and it is necessary to have q true or p +false[\*](#fn15-1). In fact, the assertion that q is true or p false +turns out to be strictly equivalent to “p implies q”; but as equivalence +means mutual implication, this still leaves implication fundamental, and +not definable in terms of disjunction. Disjunction, on the other hand, +is definable in terms of implication, as we shall shortly see. It +follows from the above equivalence that of any two propositions there +must be one which implies the other, that false propositions imply all +propositions, and true propositions are implied by all propositions. But +these are results to be demonstrated; the premisses of our subject deal +exclusively with rules of inference. + +It may be observed that, although implication is indefinable, +proposition can be defined. Every proposition implies itself, and +whatever is not a proposition implies nothing. Hence to say “p is a +proposition” is equivalent to saying “p implies p”; and this equivalence +may be used to define propositions. As the mathematical sense of +definition is widely different from that current among philosophers, it +may be well to observe that, in the mathematical sense, a new +propositional function is said to be defined when it is stated to be +equivalent to (i.e. to imply and be implied by) a propositional function +which has either been accepted as indefinable or has been defined in +terms of indefinables. The definition of entities which are not +propositional functions is derived from such as are in ways which will +be explained in connection with classes and relations. + +**17.** We require, then, in the propositional calculus, no indefinables +except the two kinds of implication—remembering, however, that formal +implication is a complex notion, whose analysis remains to be +undertaken. As regards our two indefinables, we require certain +indemonstrable propositions, which hitherto I have not succeeded in +reducing to less than ten. Some indemonstrables there must be; and some +propositions, such as the syllogism, must be of the number, since no +demonstration is possible without them. But concerning others, it may be +doubted whether they are indemonstrable or merely undemonstrated; and it +should be observed that the method of supposing an axiom false, and +deducing the consequences of this assumption, which has been found +admirable in such cases as the axiom of parallels, is here not +universally available. For all our axioms are principles of deduction; +and if they are true, the consequences which appear to follow from the +employment of an opposite principle will not really follow, so that +arguments from the supposition of the falsity of an axiom are here +subject to special fallacies. Thus the number of indemonstrable +propositions may be capable of further reduction, and in regard to some +of them I know of no grounds for regarding them as indemonstrable except +that they have hitherto remained undemonstrated. + +**18.** The ten axioms are the following. (1) If p implies q, then p +implies q[\*](#fn16-1); in other words, whatever p and q may be, “p +implies q” is a proposition. (2) If p implies q, then p implies p; in +other words, whatever implies anything is a proposition. (3) If p +implies q, then q implies q; in other words, whatever is implied by +anything is a proposition. (4) A true hypothesis in an implication may +be dropped, and the consequent asserted. This is a principle incapable +of formal symbolic statement, and illustrating the essential limitations +of formalism—a point to which I shall return at a later stage. Before +proceeding further, it is desirable to define the joint assertion of two +propositions, or what is called their logical product. This definition +is highly artificial, and illustrates the great distinction between +mathematical and philosophical definitions. It is as follows: If p +implies p, then, if q implies q, pq (the logical product of p and q) +means that if p implies that q implies r, then r is true. In other +words, if p and q are propositions, their joint assertion is equivalent +to saying that every proposition is true which is such that the first +implies that the second implies it. We cannot, with formal correctness, +state our definition in this shorter form, for the hypothesis “p and q +are propositions” is already the logical product of “p is a proposition” +and “q is a proposition.” We can now state the six main principles of +inference, to each of which, owing to its importance, a name is to be +given; of these all except the last will be found in Peano’s accounts of +the subject. (5) If p implies p and q implies q, then pq implies p. This +is called simplification, and asserts merely that the joint assertion of +two propositions implies the assertion of the first of the two. (6) If p +implies q and q implies r, then p implies r. This will be called the +syllogism. (7) If q implies q and r implies r, and if p implies that q +implies r, then pq implies r. This is the principle of importation. In +the hypothesis, we have a product of three propositions; but this can of +course be defined by means of the product of two. The principle states +that if p implies that q implies r, then r follows from the joint +assertion of p and q. For example: “If I call on so-and-so, then if she +is at home I shall be admitted” implies “If I call on so-and-so and she +is at home, I shall be admitted.” (8) If p implies p and q implies q, +then, if pq implies r, then p implies that q implies r. This is the +converse of the preceding principle, and is called +exportation[†](#fn16-2). The previous illustration reversed will +illustrate this principle. (9) If p implies q and p implies r, then p +implies qr: in other words, a proposition which implies each of two +propositions implies them both. This is called the principle of +composition. (10) If p implies p and q implies q, then “‘p implies q’ +implies p” implies p. This is called the principle of reduction; it has +less self-evidence than the previous principles, but is equivalent to +many propositions that are self-evident. I prefer it to these, because +it is explicitly concerned, like its predecessors, with implication, and +has the same kind of logical character as they have. If we remember that +“p implies q” is equivalent to “q or not-p,” we can easily convince +ourselves that the above principle is true; for “‘p implies q’ implies +p” is equivalent to “p or the denial of ‘q or not-p,’” i.e. to “p or +‘p and not q,’” i.e. to p. But this way of persuading ourselves that +the principle of reduction is true involves many logical principles +which have not yet been demonstrated, and cannot be demonstrated except +by reduction or some equivalent. The principle is especially useful in +connection with negation. Without its help, by means of the first nine +principles, we can prove the law of contradiction; we can prove, if p +and q be propositions, that p implies not-not-p; that “p implies not-q” +is equivalent to “q implies not-p” and to not-pq; that “p implies q” +implies “not-q implies not-p”; that p implies that not-p implies p; that +not-p is equivalent to “p implies not-p”; and that “p implies not-q” is +equivalent to “not-not-p implies not-q.” But we cannot prove without +reduction or some equivalent (so far at least as I have been able to +discover) that p or not-p must be true (the law of excluded middle); +that every proposition is equivalent to the negation of some other +proposition; that not-not-p implies p; that “not-q implies not-p” +implies “p implies q”; that “not-p implies p” implies p, or that “p +implies q” implies “q or not-p.” Each of these assumptions is equivalent +to the principle of reduction, and may, if we choose, be substituted for +it. Some of them—especially excluded middle and double negation—appear +to have far more self-evidence. But when we have seen how to define +disjunction and negation in terms of implication, we shall see that the +supposed simplicity vanishes, and that, for formal purposes at any rate, +reduction is simpler than any of the possible alternatives. For this +reason I retain it among my premisses in preference to more usual and +more superficially obvious propositions. + +**19.** Disjunction or logical addition is defined as follows: “p or q” +is equivalent to “‘p implies q’ implies q.” It is easy to persuade +ourselves of this equivalence, by remembering that a false proposition +implies every other; for if p is false, p does imply q, and therefore, +if “p implies q” implies q, it follows that q is true. But this argument +again uses principles which have not yet been demonstrated, and is +merely designed to elucidate the definition by anticipation. From this +definition, by the help of reduction, we can prove that “p or q” is +equivalent to “q or p.” An alternative definition, deducible from the +above, is: “Any proposition implied by p and implied by q is true,” or, +in other words, “‘p implies s’ and ‘q implies s’ together imply s, +whatever s may be.” Hence we proceed to the definition of negation: +not-p is equivalent to the assertion that p implies all propositions, +i.e. that “r implies r” implies “p implies r” whatever r may +be[\*](#fn18-1). From this point we can prove the laws of contradiction +and excluded middle and double negation, and establish all the formal +properties of logical multiplication and addition—the associative, +commutative and distributive laws. Thus the logic of propositions is now +complete. + +Philosophers will object to the above definitions of disjunction and +negation on the ground that what we mean by these notions is something +quite distinct from what the definitions assign as their meanings, and +that the equivalences stated in the definitions are, as a matter of +fact, significant propositions, not mere indications as to the way in +which symbols are going to be used. Such an objection is, I think, +well-founded, if the above account is advocated as giving the true +philosophic analysis of the matter. But where a purely formal purpose is +to be served, any equivalence in which a certain notion appears on one +side but not on the other will do for a definition. And the advantage of +having before our minds a strictly formal development is that it +provides the data for philosophical analysis in a more definite shape +than would be otherwise possible. Criticism of the procedure of formal +logic, therefore, will be best postponed until the present brief account +has been brought to an end. + +B. The Calculus of Classes. + +**20.** In this calculus there are very much fewer new primitive +propositions—in fact, two seem sufficient—but there are much greater +difficulties in the way of non-symbolic exposition of the ideas embedded +in our symbolism. These difficulties, as far as possible, will be +postponed to later chapters. For the present, I shall try to make an +exposition which is to be as straightforward and simple as possible. + +The calculus of classes may be developed by regarding as fundamental the +notion of class, and also the relation of a member of a class to its +class. This method is adopted by Professor Peano, and is perhaps more +philosophically correct than a different method which, for formal +purposes, I have found more convenient. In this method we still take as +fundamental the relation (which, following Peano, I shall denote by ε) +of an individual to a class to which it belongs, i.e. the relation of +Socrates to the human race which is expressed by saying that Socrates is +a man. In addition to this, we take as indefinables the notion of a +propositional function and the notion of such that. It is these three +notions that characterize the class-calculus. Something must be said in +explanation of each of them. + +**21.** The insistence on the distinction between ε and the relation of +whole and part between classes is due to Peano, and is of very great +importance to the whole technical development and the whole of the +applications to mathematics. In the scholastic doctrine of the +syllogism, and in all previous symbolic logic, the two relations are +confounded, except in the work of Frege[\*](#fn19-1). The distinction is +the same as that between the relation of individual to species and that +of species to genus, between the relation of Socrates to the class of +Greeks and the relation of Greeks to men. On the philosophical nature of +this distinction I shall enlarge when I come to deal critically with the +nature of classes; for the present it is enough to observe that the +relation of whole and part is transitive, while ε is not so: we have +Socrates is a a man, and men are a class, but not Socrates is a class. +It is to be observed that the class must be distinguished from the +class-concept or predicate by which it is to be defined: thus men are a +class, while man is a class-concept. The relation ε must be regarded as +holding between Socrates and men considered collectively, not between +Socrates and man. I shall return to this point in [Chapter +vi](#chapter6). Peano holds that all propositional functions containing +only a single variable are capable of expression in the form “x is an +a,” where a is a constant class; but this view we shall find reason to +doubt. + +**22.** The next fundamental notion is that of a propositional function. +Although propositional functions occur in the calculus of propositions, +they are there each defined as it occurs, so that the general notion is +not required. But in the class-calculus it is necessary to introduce the +general notion explicitly. Peano does not require it, owing to his +assumption that the form “x is an a” is general for one variable, and +that extensions of the same form are available for any number of +variables. But we must avoid this assumption, and must therefore +introduce the notion of a propositional function. We may explain (but +not define) this notion as follows: φx is a propositional function if, +for every value of x, φx is a proposition, determinate when x is given. +Thus “x is a man” is a propositional function. In any proposition, +however complicated, which contains no real variables, we may imagine +one of the terms, not a verb or adjective, to be replaced by other +terms: instead of “Socrates is a man” we may put “Plato is a man,” “the +number 2 is a man,” and so on[\*](#fn20-1). Thus we get successive +propositions all agreeing except as to the one variable term. Putting x +for the variable term, “x is a man” expresses the type of all such +propositions. A propositional function in general will be true for some +values of the variable and false for others. The instances where it is +true for all values of the variable, so far as they are known to me, all +express implications, such as “x is a man implies x is a mortal”; but I +know of no à priori reason for asserting that no other propositional +functions are true for all values of the variable. + +**23.** This brings me to the notion of such that. The values of x which +render a propositional function φx true are like the roots of an +equation—indeed the latter are a particular case of the former—and we +may consider all the values of x which are such that φx is true. In +general, these values form a class, and in fact a class may be defined +as all the terms satisfying some propositional function. There is, +however, some limitation required in this statement, though I have not +been able to discover precisely what the limitation is. This results +from a certain contradiction which I shall discuss at length at a later +stage ([Chap. x](#chapter10)). The reasons for defining class in this +way are, that we require to provide for the null-class, which prevents +our defining a class as a term to which some other has the relation ε, +and that we wish to be able to define classes by relations, i.e. all the +terms which have to other terms the relation R are to form a class, and +such cases require somewhat complicated propositional functions. + +**24.** With regard to these three fundamental notions, we require two +primitive propositions. The first asserts that if x belongs to the class +of terms satisfying a propositional function φx, then φx is true. The +second asserts that if φx and ψx are equivalent propositions for all +values of x, then the class of x’s such that φx is true is identical +with the class of x’s such that ψx is true. Identity, which occurs here, +is defined as follows: x is identical with y if y belongs to every class +to which x belongs, in other words, if “x is a u” implies “y is a u” for +all values of u. With regard to the primitive proposition itself, it is +to be observed that it decides in favour of an extensional view of +classes. Two class-concepts need not be identical when their extensions +are so: man and featherless biped are by no means identical, and no more +are even prime and integer between 1 and 3. These are class-concepts, +and if our axiom is to hold, it must not be of these that we are to +speak in dealing with classes. We must be concerned with the actual +assemblage of terms, not with any concept denoting that assemblage. For +mathematical purposes, this is quite essential. Consider, for example, +the problem as to how many combinations can be formed of a given set of +terms taken any number at a time, i.e. as to how many classes are +contained in a given class. If distinct classes may have the same +extension, this problem becomes utterly indeterminate. And certainly +common usage would regard a class as determined when all its terms are +given. The extensional view of classes, in some form, is thus essential +to Symbolic Logic and to mathematics, and its necessity is expressed in +the above axiom. But the axiom itself is not employed until we come to +Arithmetic; at least it need not be employed, if we choose to +distinguish the equality of classes, which is defined as mutual +inclusion, from the identity of individuals. Formally, the two are +totally distinct: identity is defined as above, equality of a and b is +defined by the equivalence of “x is an a” and “x is a b” for all values +of x. + +**25.** Most of the propositions of the class-calculus are easily +deduced from those of the propositional calculus. The logical product or +common part of two classes a and b is the class of x’s such that the +logical product of “x is an a” and “x is a b” is true. Similarly we +define the logical sum of two classes (a or b), and the negation of a +class (not-a). A new idea is introduced by the logical product and sum +of a class of classes. If k is a class of classes, its logical product +is the class of terms belonging to each of the classes of k, i.e. the +class of terms x such that “u is a k” implies “x is a u” for all values +of u. The logical sum is the class which is contained in every class in +which every class of the class k is contained, i.e. the class of terms x +such that, if “u is a k” implies “u is contained in c” for all values of +u, then, for all values of c, x is a c. And we say that a class a is +contained in a class b when “x is an a” implies “x is a b” for all +values of x. In like manner with the above we may define the product and +sum of a class of propositions. Another very important notion is what is +called the existence of a class—a word which must not be supposed to +mean what existence means in philosophy. A class is said to exist when +it has at least one term. A formal definition is as follows: a is an +existent class when and only when any proposition is true provided “x is +an a” always implies it whatever value we may give to x. It must be +understood that the proposition implied must be a genuine proposition, +not a propositional function of x. A class a exists when the logical sum +of all propositions of the form “x is an a” is true, i.e. when not all +such propositions are false. + +It is important to understand clearly the manner in which propositions +in the class-calculus are obtained from those in the propositional +calculus. Consider, for example, the syllogism. We have “p implies q” +and “q implies r” imply “p implies r.” Now put “x is an a,” “x is a b,” +“x is a c” for p, q, r, where x must have some definite value, but it +is not necessary to decide what value. We then find that if, for the +value of x in question, x is an a implies x is a b, and x is a b implies +x is a c, then x is an a implies x is a c. Since the value of x is +irrelevant, we may vary x, and thus we find that if a is contained in b, +and b in c, then a is contained in c. This is the class-syllogism. But +in applying this process it is necessary to employ the utmost caution, +if fallacies are to be successfully avoided. In this connection it will +be instructive to examine a point upon which a dispute has arisen +between Schröder and Mr McColl[\*](#fn22-1). Schröder asserts that if p, +q, r are propositions, “pq implies r” is equivalent to the disjunction +“p implies r or q implies r.” Mr McColl admits that the disjunction +implies the other, but denies the converse implication. The reason for +the divergence is, that Schröder is thinking of propositions and +material implication, while Mr McColl is thinking of propositional +functions and formal implication. As regards propositions, the truth of +the principle may be easily made plain by the following considerations. +If pq implies r, then, if either p or q be false, the one of them which +is false implies r, because false propositions imply all propositions. +But if both be true, pq is true, and therefore r is true, and therefore +p implies r and q implies r, because true propositions are implied by +every proposition. Thus in any case, one at least of the propositions p +and q must imply r. (This is not a proof, but an elucidation.) But Mr +McColl objects: Suppose p and q to be mutually contradictory, and r to +be the null proposition, then pq implies r but neither p nor q implies +r. Here we are dealing with propositional functions and formal +implication. A propositional function is said to be null when it is +false for all values of x; and the class of x’s satisfying the function +is called the null-class, being in fact a class of no terms. Either the +function or the class, following Peano, I shall denote by Λ. Now let our +r be replaced by Λ, our p by φx, and our q by not-φx, where φx is any +propositional function. Then pq is false for all values of x, and +therefore implies Λ. But it is not in general the case that φx is always +false, nor yet that not-φx is always false; hence neither always implies +Λ. Thus the above formula can only be truly interpreted in the +propositional calculus: in the class-calculus it is false. This may be +easily rendered obvious by the following considerations: Let φx, ψx, χx +be three propositional functions. Then “φx . ψx implies χx” implies, for +all values of x, that either φx implies χx or ψx implies χx. But it does +not imply that either φx implies χx for all values of x, or ψx implies +χx for all values of x. The disjunction is what I shall call a variable +disjunction, as opposed to a constant one: that is, in some cases one +alternative is true, in others the other, whereas in a constant +disjunction there is one of the alternatives (though it is not stated +which) that is always true. Wherever disjunctions occur in regard to +propositional functions, they will only be transformable into statements +in the class-calculus in cases where the disjunction is constant. This +is a point which is both important in itself and instructive in its +bearings. Another way of stating the matter is this: In the proposition: +If φx . ψx implies χx, then either φx implies χx or ψx implies χx, the +implication indicated by if and then is formal, while the subordinate +implications are material; hence the subordinate implications do not +lead to the inclusion of one class in another, which results only from +formal implication. + +The formal laws of addition, multiplication, tautology and negation are +the same as regards classes and propositions. The law of tautology +states that no change is made when a class or proposition is added to or +multiplied by itself. A new feature of the class-calculus is the +null-class, or class having no terms. This may be defined as the class +of terms that belong to every class, as the class which does not exist +(in the sense defined above), as the class which is contained in every +class, as the class Λ which is such that the propositional function “x +is a Λ” is false for all values of x, or as the class of x’s satisfying +any propositional function φx which is false for all values of x. All +these definitions are easily shown to be equivalent. + +**26.** Some important points arise in connection with the theory of +identity. We have already defined two terms as identical when the second +belongs to every class to which the first belongs. It is easy to show +that this definition is symmetrical, and that identity is transitive and +reflexive (i.e. if x and y, y and z are identical, so are x and z; and +whatever x may be, x is identical with x). Diversity is defined as the +negation of identity. If x be any term, it is necessary to distinguish +from x the class whose only member is x: this may be defined as the +class of terms which are identical with x. The necessity for this +distinction, which results primarily from purely formal considerations, +was discovered by Peano; I shall return to it at a later stage. Thus the +class of even primes is not to be identified with the number 2, and the +class of numbers which are the sum of 1 and 2 is not to be identified +with 3. In what, philosophically speaking, the difference consists, is a +point to be considered in [Chapter vi](#chapter6). + +C. The Calculus of Relations. + +**27.** The calculus of relations is a more modern subject than the +calculus of classes. Although a few hints for it are to be found in De +Morgan[\*](#fn23-1), the subject was first developed by C. S. +Peirce[†](#fn23-2). A careful analysis of mathematical reasoning shows +(as we shall find in the course of the present work) that types of +relations are the true subject-matter discussed, however a bad +phraseology may disguise this fact; hence the logic of relations has a +more immediate bearing on mathematics than that of classes or +propositions, and any theoretically correct and adequate expression of +mathematical truths is only possible by its means. Peirce and Schröder +have realized the great importance of the subject, but unfortunately +their methods, being based, not on Peano, but on the older Symbolic +Logic derived (with modifications) from Boole, are so cumbrous and +difficult that most of the applications which ought to be made are +practically not feasible. In addition to the defects of the old Symbolic +Logic, their method suffers technically (whether philosophically or not +I do not at present discuss) from the fact that they regard a relation +essentially as a class of couples, thus requiring elaborate formulae of +summation for dealing with single relations. This view is derived, I +think, probably unconsciously, from a philosophical error: it has always +been customary to suppose relational propositions less ultimate than +class-propositions (or subject-predicate propositions, with which +class-propositions are habitually confounded), and this has led to a +desire to treat relations as a kind of classes. However this may be, it +was certainly from the opposite philosophical belief, which I derived +from my friend Mr G. E. Moore[\*](#fn24-1), that I was led to a +different formal treatment of relations. This treatment, whether more +philosophically correct or not, is certainly far more convenient and far +more powerful as an engine of discovery in actual +mathematics[†](#fn24-2). + +**28.** If R be a relation, we express by xRy the propositional function +“x has the relation R to y.” We require a primitive (i.e. +indemonstrable) proposition to the effect that xRy is a proposition for +all values of x and y. We then have to consider the following classes: +The class of terms which have the relation R to some term or other, +which I call the class of referents with respect to R; and the class of +terms to which some term has the relation R, which I call the class of +relata. Thus if R be paternity, the referents will be fathers and the +relata will be children. We have also to consider the corresponding +classes with respect to particular terms or classes of terms: +so-and-so’s children, or the children of Londoners, afford +illustrations. + +The intensional view of relations here advocated leads to the result +that two relations may have the same extension without being identical. +Two relations R, R′ are said to be equal or equivalent, or to have the +same extension, when xRy implies and is implied by xR′y for all values +of x and y. But there is no need here of a primitive proposition, as +there was in the case of classes, in order to obtain a relation which is +determinate when the extension is determinate. We may replace a relation +R by the logical sum or product of the class of relations equivalent to +R, i.e. by the assertion of some or of all such relations; and this is +identical with the logical sum or product of the class of relations +equivalent to R′, if R′ be equivalent to R. Here we use the identity of +two classes, which results from the primitive proposition as to identity +of classes, to establish the identity of two relations—a procedure which +could not have been applied to classes themselves without a vicious +circle. + +A primitive proposition in regard to relations is that every relation +has a converse, i.e. that, if R be any relation, there is a relation R′ +such that xRy is equivalent to yR′x for all values of x and y. Following +Schröder, I shall denote the converse of R by ˘R. Greater and less, +before and after, implying and implied by, are mutually converse +relations. With some relations, such as identity, diversity, equality, +inequality, the converse is the same as the original relation: such +relations are called symmetrical. When the converse is incompatible with +the original relation, as in such cases as greater and less, I call the +relation asymmetrical; in intermediate cases, not-symmetrical. + +The most important of the primitive propositions in this subject is that +between any two terms there is a relation not holding between any two +other terms. This is analogous to the principle that any term is the +only member of some class; but whereas that could be proved, owing to +the extensional view of classes, this principle, so far as I can +discover, is incapable of proof. In this point, the extensional view of +relations has an advantage; but the advantage appears to me to be +outweighed by other considerations. When relations are considered +intensionally, it may seem possible to doubt whether the above principle +is true at all. It will, however, be generally admitted that, of any two +terms, some propositional function is true which is not true of a +certain given different pair of terms. If this be admitted, the above +principle follows by considering the logical product of all the +relations that hold between our first pair of terms. Thus the above +principle may be replaced by the following, which is equivalent to it: +If xRy implies x′Ry′, whatever R may be, so long as R is a relation, +then x and x′, y and y′ are respectively identical. But this principle +introduces a logical difficulty from which we have been hitherto exempt, +namely a variable with a restricted field; for unless R is a relation, +xRy is not a proposition at all, true or false, and thus R, it would +seem, cannot take all values, but only such as are relations. I shall +return to the discussion of this point at a later stage. + +**29.** Other assumptions required are that the negation of a relation +is a relation, and that the logical product of a class of relations +(i.e. the assertion of all of them simultaneously) is a relation. Also +the relative product of two relations must be a relation. The relative +product of two relations R, S is the relation which holds between x and +z whenever there is a term y to which x has the relation R and which has +to z the relation S. Thus the relation of a maternal grandfather to his +grandson is the relative product of father and mother; that of a +paternal grandmother to her grandson is the relative product of mother +and father; that of grandparent to grandchild is the relative product of +parent and parent. The relative product, as these instances show, is not +in general commutative, and does not in general obey the law of +tautology. The relative product is a notion of very great importance. +Since it does not obey the law of tautology, it leads to powers of +relations: the square of the relation of parent and child is the +relation of grandparent and grandchild, and so on. Peirce and Schröder +consider also what they call the relative sum of two relations R and S, +which holds between x and z, when, if y be any other term whatever, +either x has to y the relation R, or y has to z the relation S. This is +a complicated notion, which I have found no occasion to employ, and +which is introduced only in order to preserve the duality of addition +and multiplication. This duality has a certain technical charm when the +subject is considered as an independent branch of mathematics; but when +it is considered solely in relation to the principles of mathematics, +the duality in question appears devoid of all philosophical importance. + +**30.** Mathematics requires, so far as I know, only two other primitive +propositions, the one that material implication is a relation, the other +that ε (the relation of a term to a class to which it belongs) is a +relation[\*](#fn26-1). We can now develop the whole of mathematics +without further assumptions or indefinables. Certain propositions in the +logic of relations deserve to be mentioned, since they are important, +and it might be doubted whether they were capable of formal proof. If u, +v be any two classes, there is a relation R the assertion of which +between any two terms x and y is equivalent to the assertion that x +belongs to u and y to v. If u be any class which is not null, there is a +relation which all its terms have to it, and which holds for no other +pairs of terms. If R be any relation, and u any class contained in the +class of referents with respect to R, there is a relation which has u +for the class of its referents, and is equivalent to R throughout that +class; this relation is the same as R where it holds, but has a more +restricted domain. (I use domain as synonymous with class of referents.) +From this point onwards, the development of the subject is technical: +special types of relations are considered, and special branches of +mathematics result. + +D. Peano’s Symbolic Logic. + +**31.** So much of the above brief outline of Symbolic Logic is inspired +by Peano, that it seems desirable to discuss his work explicitly, +justifying by criticism the points in which I have departed from him. + +The question as to which of the notions of symbolic logic are to be +taken as indefinable, and which of the propositions as indemonstrable, +is, as Professor Peano has insisted[†](#fn26-2), to some extent +arbitrary. But it is important to establish all the mutual relations of +the simpler notions of logic, and to examine the consequence of taking +various notions as indefinable. It is necessary to realize that +definition, in mathematics, does not mean, as in philosophy, an analysis +of the idea to be defined into constituent ideas. This notion, in any +case, is only applicable to concepts, whereas in mathematics it is +possible to define terms which are not concepts[\*](#fn27-1). Thus also +many notions are defined by symbolic logic which are not capable of +philosophical definition, since they are simple and unanalyzable. +Mathematical definition consists in pointing out a fixed relation to a +fixed term, of which one term only is capable: this term is then defined +by means of the fixed relation and the fixed term. The point in which +this differs from philosophical definition may be elucidated by the +remark that the mathematical definition does not point out the term in +question, and that only what may be called philosophical insight reveals +which it is among all the terms there are. This is due to the fact that +the term is defined by a concept which denotes it unambiguously, not by +actually mentioning the term denoted. What is meant by denoting, as well +as the different ways of denoting, must be accepted as primitive ideas +in any symbolic logic[†](#fn27-2): in this respect, the order adopted +seems not in any degree arbitrary. + +**32.** For the sake of definiteness, let us now examine some one of +Professor Peano’s expositions of the subject. In his later +expositions[‡](#fn27-3) he has abandoned the attempt to distinguish +clearly certain ideas and propositions as primitive, probably because of +the realization that any such distinction is largely arbitrary. But the +distinction appears useful, as introducing greater definiteness, and as +showing that a certain set of primitive ideas and propositions are +sufficient; so far from being abandoned, it ought rather to be made in +every possible way. I shall, therefore, in what follows, expound one of +his earlier expositions, that of 1897[§](#fn27-4). + +The primitive notions with which Peano starts are the following: Class, +the relation of an individual to a class of which it is a member, the +notion of a term, implication where both propositions contain the same +variables, i.e. formal implication, the simultaneous affirmation of two +propositions, the notion of definition, and the negation of a +proposition. From these notions, together with the division of a complex +proposition into parts, Peano professes to deduce all symbolic logic by +means of certain primitive propositions. Let us examine the deduction in +outline. + +We may observe, to begin with, that the simultaneous affirmation of two +propositions might seem, at first sight, not enough to take as a +primitive idea. For although this can be extended, by successive steps, +to the simultaneous affirmation of any finite number of propositions, +yet this is not all that is wanted; we require to be able to affirm +simultaneously all the propositions of any class, finite or infinite. +But the simultaneous assertion of a class of propositions, oddly enough, +is much easier to define than that of two propositions, (see +[§34](#sec34), (3)). If k be a class of propositions, their +simultaneous affirmation is the assertion that “p is a k” implies p. If +this holds, all propositions of the class are true; if it fails, one at +least must be false. We have seen that the logical product of two +propositions can be defined in a highly artificial manner; but it might +almost as well be taken as indefinable, since no further property can be +proved by means of the definition. We may observe, also, that formal and +material implication are combined by Peano into one primitive idea, +whereas they ought to be kept separate. + +**33.** Before giving any primitive propositions, Peano proceeds to some +definitions. (1) If a is a class, “x and y are a’s” is to mean “x is an +a and y is an a.” (2) If a and b are classes, “every a is a b” means “x +is an a implies that x is a b.” If we accept formal implication as a +primitive notion, this definition seems unobjectionable; but it may well +be held that the relation of inclusion between classes is simpler than +formal implication, and should not be defined by its means. This is a +difficult question, which I reserve for subsequent discussion. A formal +implication appears to be the assertion of a whole class of material +implications. The complication introduced at this point arises from the +nature of the variable, a point which Peano, though he has done very +much to show its importance, appears not to have himself sufficiently +considered. The notion of one proposition containing a variable implying +another such proposition, which he takes as primitive, is complex, and +should therefore be separated into its constituents; from this +separation arises the necessity of considering the simultaneous +affirmation of a whole class of propositions before interpreting such a +proposition as “x is an a implies that x is a b.” (3) We come next to a +perfectly worthless definition, which has been since +abandoned[\*](#fn28-1). This is the definition of such that. The x’s +such that x is an a, we are told, are to mean the class a. But this only +gives the meaning of such that when placed before a proposition of the +type “x is an a.” Now it is often necessary to consider an x such that +some proposition is true of it, where this proposition is not of the +form “x is an a.” Peano holds (though he does not lay it down as an +axiom) that every proposition containing only one variable is reducible +to the form “x is an a[†](#fn28-2).” But we shall see ([Chap. +x](#chapter10)) that at least one such proposition is not reducible to +this form. And in any case, the only utility of such that is to effect +the reduction, which cannot therefore be assumed to be already effected +without it. The fact is that such that contains a primitive idea, but +one which it is not easy clearly to disengage from other ideas. + +In order to grasp the meaning of such that, it is necessary to observe, +first of all, that what Peano and mathematicians generally call one +proposition containing a variable is really, if the variable is +apparent, the conjunction of a certain class of propositions defined by +some constancy of form; while if the variable is real, so that we have a +propositional function, there is not a proposition at all, but merely a +kind of schematic representation of any proposition of a certain type. +“The sum of the angles of a triangle is two right angles,” for +example, when stated by means of a variable, becomes: Let x be a +triangle; then the sum of the angles of x is two right angles. This +expresses the conjunction of all the propositions in which it is said of +particular definite entities that if they are triangles, the sum of +their angles is two right angles. But a propositional function, where +the variable is real, represents any proposition of a certain form, not +all such propositions (see §§[59](#sec59)–[62](#sec62)). There is, for +each propositional function, an indefinable relation between +propositions and entities, which may be expressed by saying that all the +propositions have the same form, but different entities enter into them. +It is this that gives rise to propositional functions. Given, for +example, a constant relation and a constant term, there is a one-one +correspondence between the propositions asserting that various terms +have the said relation to the said term, and the various terms which +occur in these propositions. It is this notion which is requisite for +the comprehension of such that. Let x be a variable whose values form +the class a, and let f(x) be a one-valued function of x which is a true +proposition for all values of x within the class a, and which is false +for all other values of x. Then the terms of a are the class of terms +such that f(x) is a true proposition. This gives an explanation of such +that. But it must always be remembered that the appearance of having one +proposition f(x) satisfied by a number of values of x is fallacious: +f(x) is not a proposition at all, but a propositional function. What is +fundamental is the relation of various propositions of given form to the +various terms entering severally into them as arguments or values of the +variable; this relation is equally required for interpreting the +propositional function f(x) and the notion such that, but is itself +ultimate and inexplicable. (4) We come next to the definition of the +logical product, or common part, of two classes. If a and b be two +classes, their common part consists of the class of terms x such that x +is an a and x is a b. Here already, as Padoa points out (loc. cit.), it +is necessary to extend the meaning of such that beyond the case where +our proposition asserts membership of a class, since it is only by means +of the definition that the common part is shown to be a class. + +**34.** The remainder of the definitions preceding the primitive +propositions are less important, and may be passed over. Of the +primitive propositions, some appear to be merely concerned with the +symbolism, and not to express any real properties of what is symbolized; +others, on the contrary, are of high logical importance. + +(1) The first of Peano’s axioms is “every class is contained in itself.” +This is equivalent to “every proposition implies itself.” There seems no +way of evading this axiom, which is equivalent to the law of identity, +except the method adopted above, of using self-implication to define +propositions. (2) Next we have the axiom that the product of two classes +is a class. This ought to have been stated, as ought also the definition +of the logical product, for a class of classes; for when stated for only +two classes, it cannot be extended to the logical product of an infinite +class of classes. If class is taken as indefinable, it is a genuine +axiom, which is very necessary to reasoning. But it might perhaps be +somewhat generalized by an axiom concerning the terms satisfying +propositions of a given form: e.g. “the terms having one or more given +relations to one or more given terms form a class.” In [Section +B](#subchapB), above, the axiom was wholly evaded by using a generalized +form of the axiom as the definition of class. (3) We have next two +axioms which are really only one, and appear distinct only because Peano +defines the common part of two classes instead of the common part of a +class of classes. These two axioms state that, if a, b be classes, their +logical product, ab, is contained in a and is contained in b. These +appear as different axioms, because, as far as the symbolism shows, ab +might be different from ba. It is one of the defects of most symbolisms +that they give an order to terms which intrinsically have none, or at +least none that is relevant. So in this case: if K be a class of +classes, the logical product of K consists of all terms belonging to +every class that belongs to K. With this definition, it becomes at once +evident that no order of the terms of K is involved. Hence if K has only +two terms, a and b, it is indifferent whether we represent the logical +product of K by ab or by ba, since the order exists only in the symbols, +not in what is symbolized. It is to be observed that the corresponding +axiom with regard to propositions is, that the simultaneous assertion of +a class of propositions implies any proposition of the class; and this +is perhaps the best form of the axiom. Nevertheless, though an axiom is +not required, it is necessary, here as elsewhere, to have a means of +connecting the case where we start from a class of classes or of +propositions or of relations with the case where the class results from +enumeration of its terms. Thus although no order is involved in the +product of a class of propositions, there is an order in the product of +two definite propositions p, q, and it is significant to assert that the +products pq and qp are equivalent. But this can be proved by means of +the axioms with which we began the calculus of propositions +([§18](#sec18)). It is to be observed that this proof is prior to the +proof that the class whose terms are p and q is identical with the class +whose terms are q and p. (4) We have next two forms of syllogism, both +primitive propositions. The first asserts that, if a, b be classes, and +a is contained in b, and x is an a, then x is a b; the second asserts +that if a, b, c be classes, and a is contained in b, b in c, then a is +contained in c. It is one of the greatest of Peano’s merits to have +clearly distinguished the relation of the individual to its class from +the relation of inclusion between classes. The difference is exceedingly +fundamental: the former relation is the simplest and most essential of +all relations, the latter a complicated relation derived from logical +implication. It results from the distinction that the syllogism in +Barbara has two forms, usually confounded: the one the time-honoured +assertion that Socrates is a man, and therefore mortal, the other the +assertion that Greeks are men, and therefore mortal. These two forms are +stated by Peano’s axioms. It is to be observed that, in virtue of the +definition of what is meant by one class being contained in another, the +first form results from the axiom that, if p, q, r be propositions, and +p implies that q implies r, then the product of p and q implies r. This +axiom is now substituted by Peano for the first form of the +syllogism[\*](#fn31-1): it is more general and cannot be deduced from +the said form. The second form of the syllogism, when applied to +propositions instead of classes, asserts that implication is transitive. +This principle is, of course, the very life of all chains of reasoning. +(5) We have next a principle of reasoning which Peano calls composition: +this asserts that if a is contained in b and also in c, then it is +contained in the common part of both. Stating this principle with regard +to propositions, it asserts that if a proposition implies each of two +others, then it implies their joint assertion or logical product; and +this is the principle which was called composition above. + +**35.** From this point, we advance successfully until we require the +idea of negation. This is taken, in the edition of the Formulaire we are +considering, as a new primitive idea, and disjunction is defined by its +means. By means of the negation of a proposition, it is of course easy +to define the negation of a class: for “x is a not-a” is equivalent to +“x is not an a.” But we require an axiom to the effect that not-a is a +class, and another to the effect that not-not-a is a. Peano gives also a +third axiom, namely: If a, b, c be classes, and ab is contained in c, +and x is an a but not a c, then x is not a b. This is simpler in the +form: if p, q, r be propositions, and p, q together imply r, and p is +true while r is false, then q is false. This would be still further +improved by being put in the form: If q, r are propositions, and q +implies r, then not-r implies not-q; a form which Peano obtains as a +deduction. By dealing with propositions before classes or propositional +functions, it is possible, as we saw, to avoid treating negation as a +primitive idea, and to replace all axioms respecting negation by the +principle of reduction. + +We come next to the definition of the disjunction or logical sum of two +classes. On this subject Peano has many times changed his procedure. In +the edition we are considering, “a or b” is defined as the negation of +the logical product of not-a and not-b, i.e. as the class of terms which +are not both not-a and not-b. In later editions (e.g. F. 1901, p. 19), +we find a somewhat less artificial definition, namely: “a or b” consists +of all terms which belong to any class which contains a and contains b. +Either definition seems logically unobjectionable. It is to be observed +that a and b are classes, and that it remains a question for +philosophical logic whether there is not a quite different notion of the +disjunction of individuals, as e.g. “Brown or Jones.” I shall consider +this question in [Chapter v](#chapter5). It will be remembered that, +when we begin by the calculus of propositions, disjunction is defined +before negation; with the above definition (that of 1897), it is plainly +necessary to take negation first. + +**36.** The connected notions of the null-class and the existence of a +class are next dealt with. In the edition of 1897, a class is defined as +null when it is contained in every class. When we remember the +definition of one class a being contained in another b (“x is an a” +implies “a is a b” for all values of x), we see that we are to regard +the implication as holding for all values, and not only for those values +for which x really is an a. This is a point upon which Peano is not +explicit, and I doubt whether he has made up his mind on it. If the +implication were only to hold when x really is an a, it would not give a +definition of the null-class, for which this hypothesis is false for all +values of x. I do not know whether it is for this reason or for some +other that Peano has since abandoned the definition of the inclusion of +classes by means of formal implication between propositional functions: +the inclusion of classes appears to be now regarded as indefinable. +Another definition which Peano has sometimes favoured (e.g. F. 1895, +Errata, p. 116) is, that the null-class is the product of any class into +its negation—a definition to which similar remarks apply. In R. d. M. +vii, No. 1 (§3, Prop. 1.0), the null-class is defined as the class of +those terms that belong to every class, i.e. the class of terms x such +that “a is a class” implies “x is an a” for all values of a. There are +of course no such terms x; and there is a grave logical difficulty in +trying to interpret extensionally a class which has no extension. This +point is one to which I shall return in [Chapter vi](#chapter6). + +From this point onward, Peano’s logic proceeds by a smooth development. +But in one respect it is still defective: it does not recognize as +ultimate relational propositions not asserting membership of a class. +For this reason, the definitions of a function[\*](#fn32-1) and of other +essentially relational notions are defective. But this defect is easily +remedied by applying, in the manner explained above, the principles of +the Formulaire to the logic of relations[†](#fn32-2). + +Notes + +## CHAPTER III. +Implication and Formal Implication. + +**37.** In the [preceding chapter](#chapter2) I endeavoured to present, +briefly and uncritically, all the data, in the shape of formally +fundamental ideas and propositions, that pure mathematics requires. In +subsequent Parts I shall show that these are all the data by giving +definitions of the various mathematical concepts—number, infinity, +continuity, the various spaces of geometry, and motion. In the remainder +of Part I, I shall give indications, as best I can, of the philosophical +problems arising in the analysis of the data, and of the directions in +which I imagine these problems to be probably soluble. Some logical +notions will be elicited which, though they seem quite fundamental to +logic, are not commonly discussed in works on the subject; and thus +problems no longer clothed in mathematical symbolism will be presented +for the consideration of philosophical logicians. + +Two kinds of implication, the material and the formal, were found to be +essential to every kind of deduction. In the present chapter I wish to +examine and distinguish these two kinds, and to discuss some methods of +attempting to analyze the second of them. + +In the discussion of inference, it is common to permit the intrusion of +a psychological element, and to consider our acquisition of new +knowledge by its means. But it is plain that where we validly infer one +proposition from another, we do so in virtue of a relation which holds +between the two propositions whether we perceive it or not: the mind, in +fact, is as purely receptive in inference as common sense supposes it to +be in perception of sensible objects. The relation in virtue of which it +is possible for us validly to infer is what I call material implication. +We have already seen that it would be a vicious circle to define this +relation as meaning that if one proposition is true, then another is +true, for if and then already involve implication. The relation holds, +in fact, when it does hold, without any reference to the truth or +falsehood of the propositions involved. + +But in developing the consequences of our assumptions as to implication, +we were led to conclusions which do not by any means agree with what is +commonly held concerning implication, for we found that any false +proposition implies every proposition and any true proposition is +implied by every proposition. Thus propositions are formally like a set +of lengths each of which is one inch or two, and implication is like the +relation “equal to or less than” among such lengths. It would certainly +not be commonly maintained that “2 + 2 = 4” can be deduced from +“Socrates is a man,” or that both are implied by “Socrates is a +triangle.” But the reluctance to admit such implications is chiefly due, +I think, to preoccupation with formal implication, which is a much more +familiar notion, and is really before the mind, as a rule, even where +material implication is what is explicitly mentioned. In inferences from +“Socrates is a man,” it is customary not to consider the philosopher who +vexed the Athenians, but to regard Socrates merely as a symbol, capable +of being replaced by any other man; and only a vulgar prejudice in +favour of true propositions stands in the way of replacing Socrates by a +number, a table, or a plum-pudding. Nevertheless, wherever, as in +Euclid, one particular proposition is deduced from another, material +implication is involved, though as a rule the material implication may +be regarded as a particular instance of some formal implication, +obtained by giving some constant value to the variable or variables +involved in the said formal implication. And although, while relations +are still regarded with the awe caused by unfamiliarity, it is natural +to doubt whether any such relation as implication is to be found, yet, +in virtue of the general principles laid down in [Section C](#subchapC) +of the [preceding chapter](#chapter2), there must be a relation holding +between nothing except propositions, and holding between any two +propositions of which either the first is false or the second true. Of +the various equivalent relations satisfying these conditions, one is to +be called implication, and if such a notion seems unfamiliar, that does +not suffice to prove that it is illusory. + +**38.** At this point, it is necessary to consider a very difficult +logical problem, namely, the distinction between a proposition actually +asserted, and a proposition considered merely as a complex concept. One +of our indemonstrable principles was, it will be remembered, that if the +hypothesis in an implication is true, it may be dropped, and the +consequent asserted. This principle, it was observed, eludes formal +statement, and points to a certain failure of formalism in general. The +principle is employed whenever a proposition is said to be proved; for +what happens is, in all such cases, that the proposition is shown to be +implied by some true proposition. Another form in which the principle is +constantly employed is the substitution of a constant, satisfying the +hypothesis, in the consequent of a formal implication. If φx implies ψx +for all values of x, and if a is a constant satisfying φx, we can assert +ψa, dropping the true hypothesis φa. This occurs, for example, whenever +any of those rules of inference which employ the hypothesis that the +variables involved are propositions, are applied to particular +propositions. The principle in question is, therefore, quite vital to +any kind of demonstration. + +The independence of this principle is brought out by a consideration of +Lewis Carroll’s puzzle, “What the Tortoise said to +Achilles[\*](#fn35-1).” The principles of inference which we accepted +lead to the proposition that, if p and q be propositions, then p +together with “p implies q” implies q. At first sight, it might be +thought that this would enable us to assert q provided p is true and +implies q. But the puzzle in question shows that this is not the case, +and that, until we have some new principle, we shall only be led into an +endless regress of more and more complicated implications, without ever +arriving at the assertion of q. We need, in fact, the notion of +therefore, which is quite different from the notion of implies, and +holds between different entities. In grammar, the distinction is that +between a verb and a verbal noun, between, say, “A is greater than B” +and “A’s being greater than B.” In the first of these, a proposition is +actually asserted, whereas in the second it is merely considered. But +these are psychological terms, whereas the difference which I desire to +express is genuinely logical. It is plain that, if I may be allowed to +use the word assertion in a non-psychological sense, the proposition “p +implies q” asserts an implication, though it does not assert p or q. The +p and the q which enter into this proposition are not strictly the same +as the p or the q which are separate propositions, at least, if they are +true. The question is: How does a proposition differ by being actually +true from what it would be as an entity if it were not true? It is plain +that true and false propositions alike are entities of a kind, but that +true propositions have a quality not belonging to false ones, a quality +which, in a non-psychological sense, may be called being asserted. Yet +there are grave difficulties in forming a consistent theory on this +point, for if assertion in any way changed a proposition, no proposition +which can possibly in any context be unasserted could be true, since +when asserted it would become a different proposition. But this is +plainly false; for in “p implies q,” p and q are not asserted, and yet +they may be true. Leaving this puzzle to logic, however, we must insist +that there is a difference of some kind between an asserted and an +unasserted proposition[†](#fn35-2). When we say therefore, we state a +relation which can only hold between asserted propositions, and which +thus differs from implication. Wherever therefore occurs, the hypothesis +may be dropped, and the conclusion asserted by itself. This seems to be +the first step in answering Lewis Carroll’s puzzle. + +**39.** It is commonly said that an inference must have premisses and a +conclusion, and it is held, apparently, that two or more premisses are +necessary, if not to all inferences, yet to most. This view is borne +out, at first sight, by obvious facts: every syllogism, for example, is +held to have two premisses. Now such a theory greatly complicates the +relation of implication, since it renders it a relation which may have +any number of terms, and is symmetrical with respect to all but one of +them, but not symmetrical with respect to that one (the conclusion). +This complication is, however, unnecessary, first, because every +simultaneous assertion of a number of propositions is itself a single +proposition, and secondly, because, by the rule which we called +exportation, it is always possible to exhibit an implication explicitly +as holding between single propositions. To take the first point first: +if k be a class of propositions, all the propositions of the class k are +asserted by the single proposition “for all values of x, if x implies x, +then ‘x is a k’ implies x,” or, in more ordinary language, “every k is +true.” And as regards the second point, which assumes the number of +premisses to be finite, “pq implies r” is equivalent, if q be a +proposition, to “p implies that q implies r,” in which latter form the +implications hold explicitly between single propositions. Hence we may +safely hold implication to be a relation between two propositions, not a +relation of an arbitrary number of premisses to a single conclusion. + +**40.** I come now to formal implication, which is a far more difficult +notion than material implication. In order to avoid the general notion +of propositional function, let us begin by the discussion of a +particular instance, say “x is a man implies x is a mortal for all +values of x.” This proposition is equivalent to “all men are mortal” +“every man is mortal” and “any man is mortal.” But it seems highly +doubtful whether it is the same proposition. It is also connected with a +purely intensional proposition in which man is asserted to be a complex +notion of which mortal is a constituent, but this proposition is quite +distinct from the one we are discussing. Indeed, such intensional +propositions are not always present where one class is included in +another: in general, either class may be defined by various different +predicates, and it is by no means necessary that every predicate of the +smaller class should contain every predicate of the larger class as a +factor. Indeed, it may very well happen that both predicates are +philosophically simple: thus colour and existent appear to be both +simple, yet the class of colours is part of the class of existents. The +intensional view, derived from predicates, is in the main irrelevant to +Symbolic Logic and to Mathematics, and I shall not consider it further +at present. + +**41.** It may be doubted, to begin with, whether “x is a man implies x +is a mortal” is to be regarded as asserted strictly of all possible +terms, or only of such terms as are men. Peano, though he is not +explicit, appears to hold the latter view. But in this case, the +hypothesis ceases to be significant, and becomes a mere definition of x: +x is to mean any man. The hypothesis then becomes a mere assertion +concerning the meaning of the symbol x, and the whole of what is +asserted concerning the matter dealt with by our symbol is put into the +conclusion. The premiss says: x is to mean any man. The conclusion says: +x is mortal. But the implication is merely concerning the symbolism: +since any man is mortal, if x denotes any man, x is mortal. Thus formal +implication, on this view, has wholly disappeared, leaving us the +proposition “any man is mortal” as expressing the whole of what is +relevant in the proposition with a variable. It would now only remain to +examine the proposition “any man is mortal,” and if possible to explain +this proposition without reintroducing the variable and formal +implication. It must be confessed that some grave difficulties are +avoided by this view. Consider, for example, the simultaneous assertion +of all the propositions of some class k: this is not expressed by “‘x is +a k’ implies x for all values of x.” For as it stands, this proposition +does not express what is meant, since, if x be not a proposition, “x is +a k” cannot imply x; hence the range of variability of x must be +confined to propositions, unless we prefix (as above, [§39](#sec39)) the +hypothesis “x implies x.” This remark applies generally, throughout the +propositional calculus, to all cases where the conclusion is represented +by a single letter: unless the letter does actually represent a +proposition, the implication asserted will be false, since only +propositions can be implied. The point is that, if x be our variable, x +itself is a proposition for all values of x which are propositions, but +not for other values. This makes it plain what the limitations are to +which our variable is subject: it must vary only within the range of +values for which the two sides of the principal implication are +propositions, in other words, the two sides, when the variable is not +replaced by a constant, must be genuine propositional functions. If this +restriction is not observed, fallacies quickly begin to appear. It +should be noticed that there may be any number of subordinate +implications which do not require that their terms should be +propositions: it is only of the principal implication that this is +required. Take, for example, the first principle of inference: If p +implies q, then p implies q. This holds equally whether p and q be +propositions or not; for if either is not a proposition, “p implies q” +becomes false, but does not cease to be a proposition. In fact, in +virtue of the definition of a proposition, our principle states that “p +implies q” is a propositional function, i.e. that it is a proposition +for all values of p and q. But if we apply the principle of importation +to this proposition, so as to obtain “‘p implies q,’ together with p, +implies q,” we have a formula which is only true when p and q are +propositions: in order to make it true universally, we must preface it +by the hypothesis “p implies p and q implies q.” In this way, in many +cases, if not in all, the restriction on the variability of the variable +can be removed; thus, in the assertion of the logical product of a class +of propositions, the formula “if x implies x, then ‘x is a k’ implies x” +appears unobjectionable, and allows x to vary without restriction. Here +the subordinate implications in the premiss and the conclusion are +material: only the principal implication is formal. + +Returning now to “x is a man implies x is a mortal,” it is plain that no +restriction is required in order to insure our having a genuine +proposition, And it is plain that, although we might restrict the values +of x to men, and although this seems to be done in the proposition “all +men are mortal,” yet there is no reason, so far as the truth of our +proposition is concerned, why we should so restrict our x. Whether x be +a man or not, “x is a man” is always, when a constant is substituted for +x, a proposition implying, for that value of x, the proposition “x is a +mortal.” And unless we admit the hypothesis equally in the cases where +it is false, we shall find it impossible to deal satisfactorily with the +null-class or with null propositional functions. We must, therefore, +allow our x, wherever the truth of our formal implication is thereby +unimpaired, to take all values without exception; and where any +restriction on variability is required, the implication is not to be +regarded as formal until the said restriction has been removed by being +prefixed as hypothesis. (If ψx be a proposition whenever x satisfies φx, +where φx is a propositional function, and if ψx, whenever it is a +proposition, implies χx, then “ψx implies χx” is not a formal +implication, but “φx implies that ψx implies χx” is a formal +implication.) + +**42.** It is to be observed that “x is a man implies x is a mortal” is +not a relation of two propositional functions, but is itself a single +propositional function having the elegant property of being always true. +For “x is a man” is, as it stands, not a proposition at all, and does +not imply anything; and we must not first vary our x in “x is a man,” +and then independently vary it in “x is a mortal,” for this would lead +to the proposition that “everything is a man” implies “everything is a +mortal,” which, though true, is not what was meant. This proposition +would have to be expressed, if the language of variables were retained, +by two variables, as “x is a man implies y is a mortal.” But this +formula too is unsatisfactory, for its natural meaning would be: “If +anything is a man, then everything is a mortal.” The point to be +emphasized is, of course, that our x, though variable, must be the same +on both sides of the implication, and this requires that we should not +obtain our formal implication by first varying (say) Socrates in +“Socrates is a man,” and then in “Socrates is a mortal,” but that we +should start from the whole proposition “Socrates is a man implies +Socrates is a mortal,” and vary Socrates in this proposition as a whole. +Thus our formal implication asserts a class of implications, not a +single implication at all. We do not, in a word, have one implication +containing a variable, but rather a variable implication. We have a +class of implications, no one of which contains a variable, and we +assert that every member of this class is true. This is a first step +towards the analysis of the mathematical notion of the variable. + +But, it may be asked, how comes it that Socrates may be varied in the +proposition “Socrates is a man implies Socrates is mortal”? In virtue of +the fact that true propositions are implied by all others, we have +“Socrates is a man implies Socrates is a philosopher”; but in this +proposition, alas, the variability of Socrates is sadly restricted. This +seems to show that formal implication involves something over and above +the relation of implication, and that some additional relation must hold +where a term can be varied. In the case in question, it is natural to +say that what is involved is the relation of inclusion between the +classes men and mortals—the very relation which was to be defined and +explained by our formal implication. But this view is too simple to meet +all cases, and is therefore not required in any case. A larger number of +cases, though still not all cases, can be dealt with by the notion of +what I shall call assertions. This notion must now be briefly explained, +leaving its critical discussion to [Chapter vii](#chapter7). + +**43.** It has always been customary to divide propositions into subject +and predicate; but this division has the defect of omitting the verb. It +is true that a graceful concession is sometimes made by loose talk about +the copula, but the verb deserves far more respect than is thus paid to +it. We may say, broadly, that every proposition may be divided, some in +only one way, some in several ways, into a term (the subject) and +something which is said about the subject, which something I shall call +the assertion. Thus “Socrates is a man” may be divided into Socrates and +is a man. The verb, which is the distinguishing mark of propositions, +remains with the assertion; but the assertion itself, being robbed of +its subject, is neither true nor false. In logical discussions, the +notion of assertion often occurs, but as the word proposition is used +for it, it does not obtain separate consideration. Consider, for +example, the best statement of the identity of indiscernibles: “If x and +y be any two diverse entities, some assertion holds of x which does not +hold of y.” But for the word assertion, which would ordinarily be +replaced by proposition, this statement is one which would commonly pass +unchallenged. Again, it might be said: “Socrates was a philosopher, and +the same is true of Plato.” Such statements require the analysis of a +proposition into an assertion and a subject, in order that there may be +something identical which can be said to be affirmed of two subjects. + +**44.** We can now see how, where the analysis into subject and +assertion is legitimate, to distinguish implications in which there is a +term which can be varied from others in which this is not the case. Two +ways of making the distinction may be suggested, and we shall have to +decide between them. It may be said that there is a relation between the +two assertions “is a man” and “is a mortal,” in virtue of which, when +the one holds, so does the other. Or again, we may analyze the whole +proposition “Socrates is a man implies Socrates is a mortal” into +Socrates and an assertion about him, and say that the assertion in +question holds of all terms. Neither of these theories replaces the +above analysis of “x is a man implies x is a mortal” into a class of +material implications; but whichever of the two is true carries the +analysis one step further. The first theory suffers from the difficulty +that it is essential to the relation of assertions involved that both +assertions should be made of the same subject, though it is otherwise +irrelevant what subject we choose. The second theory appears +objectionable on the ground that the suggested analysis of “Socrates is +a man implies Socrates is a mortal” seems scarcely possible. The +proposition in question consists of two terms and a relation, the terms +being “Socrates is a man” and “Socrates is a mortal”; and it would seem +that when a relational proposition is analyzed into a subject and an +assertion, the subject must be one of the terms of the relation which is +asserted. This objection seems graver than that against the former view; +I shall therefore, at any rate for the present, adopt the former view, +and regard formal implication as derived from a relation between +assertions. + +We remarked above that the relation of inclusion between classes is +insufficient. This results from the irreducible nature of relational +propositions. Take e.g. “Socrates is married implies Socrates had a +father.” Here it is affirmed that because Socrates has one relation, he +must have another. Or better still, take “A is before B implies B is +after A.” This is a formal implication, in which the assertions are +(superficially at least) concerning different subjects; the only way to +avoid this is to say that both propositions have both A and B as +subjects, which, by the way, is quite different from saying that they +have the one subject “A and B.” Such instances make it plain that the +notion of a propositional function, and the notion of an assertion, are +more fundamental than the notion of class, and that the latter is not +adequate to explain all cases of formal implication. I shall not enlarge +upon this point now, as it will be abundantly illustrated in subsequent +portions of the present work. + +It is important to realize that, according to the above analysis of +formal implication, the notion of every term is indefinable and +ultimate. A formal implication is one which holds of every term, and +therefore every cannot be explained by means of formal implication. If a +and b be classes, we can explain “every a is a b” by means of “x is an a +implies x is a b”; but the every which occurs here is a derivative and +subsequent notion, presupposing the notion of every term. It seems to be +the very essence of what may be called a formal truth, and of formal +reasoning generally, that some assertion is affirmed to hold of every +term; and unless the notion of every term is admitted, formal truths are +impossible. + +**45.** The fundamental importance of formal implication is brought out +by the consideration that it is involved in all the rules of inference. +This shows that we cannot hope wholly to define it in terms of material +implication, but that some further element or elements must be involved. +We may observe, however, that, in a particular inference, the rule +according to which the inference proceeds is not required as a premiss. +This point has been emphasized by Mr Bradley[\*](#fn41-1); it is closely +connected with the principle of dropping a true premiss, being again a +respect in which formalism breaks down. In order to apply a rule of +inference, it is formally necessary to have a premiss asserting that the +present case is an instance of the rule; we shall then need to affirm +the rule by which we can go from the rule to an instance, and also to +affirm that here we have an instance of this rule, and so on into an +endless process. The fact is, of course, that any implication warranted +by a rule of inference does actually hold, and is not merely implied by +the rule. This is simply an instance of the non-formal principle of +dropping a true premiss: if our rule implies a certain implication, the +rule may be dropped and the implication asserted. But it remains the +case that the fact that our rule does imply the said implication, if +introduced at all, must be simply perceived, and is not guaranteed by +any formal deduction; and often it is just as easy, and consequently +just as legitimate, to perceive immediately the implication in question +as to perceive that it is implied by one or more of the rules of +inference. + +To sum up our discussion of formal implication: a formal implication, we +said, is the affirmation of every material implication of a certain +class; and the class of material implications involved is, in simple +cases, the class of all propositions in which a given fixed assertion, +made concerning a certain subject or subjects, is affirmed to imply +another given fixed assertion concerning the same subject or subjects. +Where a formal implication holds, we agreed to regard it, wherever +possible, as due to some relation between the assertions concerned. This +theory raises many formidable logical problems, and requires, for its +defence, a thorough analysis of the constituents of propositions. To +this task we must now address ourselves. + +Notes + +## CHAPTER IV. +Proper Names, Adjectives, and Verbs. + +**46.** In the present chapter, certain questions are to be discussed +belonging to what may be called philosophical grammar. The study of +grammar, in my opinion, is capable of throwing far more light on +philosophical questions than is commonly supposed by philosophers. +Although a grammatical distinction cannot be uncritically assumed to +correspond to a genuine philosophical difference, yet the one is primâ +facie evidence of the other, and may often be most usefully employed as +a source of discovery. Moreover, it must be admitted, I think, that +every word occurring in a sentence must have some meaning: a perfectly +meaningless sound could not be employed in the more or less fixed way in +which language employs words. The correctness of our philosophical +analysis of a proposition may therefore be usefully checked by the +exercise of assigning the meaning of each word in the sentence +expressing the proposition. On the whole, grammar seems to me to bring +us much nearer to a correct logic than the current opinions of +philosophers; and in what follows, grammar, though not our master, will +yet be taken as our guide[\*](#fn42-1). + +Of the parts of speech, three are specially important: substantives, +adjectives, and verbs. Among substantives, some are derived from +adjectives or verbs, as humanity from human, or sequence from follows. +(I am not speaking of an etymological derivation, but of a logical one.) +Others, such as proper names, or space, time, and matter, are not +derivative, but appear primarily as substantives. What we wish to obtain +is a classification, not of words, but of ideas; I shall therefore call +adjectives or predicates all notions which are capable of being such, +even in a form in which grammar would call them substantives. The fact +is, as we shall see, that human and humanity denote precisely the same +concept, these words being employed respectively according to the kind +of relation in which this concept stands to the other constituents of a +proposition in which it occurs. The distinction which we require is not +identical with the grammatical distinction between substantive and +adjective, since one single concept may, according to circumstances, be +either substantive or adjective: it is the distinction between proper +and general names that we require, or rather between the objects +indicated by such names. In every proposition, as we saw in [Chapter +iii](#chapter3), we may make an analysis into something asserted and +something about which the assertion is made. A proper name, when it +occurs in a proposition, is always, at least according to one of the +possible ways of analysis (where there are several), the subject that +the proposition or some subordinate constituent proposition is about, +and not what is said about the subject. Adjectives and verbs, on the +other hand, are capable of occurring in propositions in which they +cannot be regarded as subject, but only as parts of the assertion. +Adjectives are distinguished by capacity for denoting—a term which I +intend to use in a technical sense to be discussed in [Chapter +v](#chapter5). Verbs are distinguished by a special kind of connection, +exceedingly hard to define, with truth and falsehood, in virtue of which +they distinguish an asserted proposition from an unasserted one, e.g. +“Caesar died” from “the death of Caesar.” These distinctions must now +be amplified, and I shall begin with the distinction between general and +proper names. + +**47.** Philosophy is familiar with a certain set of distinctions, all +more or less equivalent: I mean, the distinctions of subject and +predicate, substance and attribute, substantive and adjective, this and +what[\*](#fn43-1). I wish now to point out briefly what appears to me to +be the truth concerning these cognate distinctions. The subject is +important, since the issues between monism and monadism, between +idealism and empiricism, and between those who maintain and those who +deny that all truth is concerned with what exists, all depend, in whole +or in part, upon the theory we adopt in regard to the present question. +But the subject is treated here only because it is essential to any +doctrine of number or of the nature of the variable. Its bearings on +general philosophy, important as they are, will be left wholly out of +account. + +Whatever may be an object of thought, or may occur in any true or false +proposition, or can be counted as one, I call a term. This, then, is the +widest word in the philosophical vocabulary. I shall use as synonymous +with it the words unit, individual, and entity. The first two emphasize +the fact that every term is one, while the third is derived from the +fact that every term has being, i.e. is in some sense. A man, a moment, +a number, a class, a relation, a chimaera, or anything else that can be +mentioned, is sure to be a term; and to deny that such and such a thing +is a term must always be false. + +It might perhaps be thought that a word of such extreme generality could +not be of any great use. Such a view, however, owing to certain +wide-spread philosophical doctrines, would be erroneous. A term is, in +fact, possessed of all the properties commonly assigned to substances or +substantives. Every term, to begin with, is a logical subject: it is, +for example, the subject of the proposition that itself is one. Again +every term is immutable and indestructible. What a term is, it is, and +no change can be conceived in it which would not destroy its identity +and make it another term[\*](#fn44-1). Another mark which belongs to +terms is numerical identity with themselves and numerical diversity from +all other terms[†](#fn44-2). Numerical identity and diversity are the +source of unity and plurality; and thus the admission of many terms +destroys monism. And it seems undeniable that every constituent of every +proposition can be counted as one, and that no proposition contains less +than two constituents. Term is, therefore, a useful word, since it marks +dissent from various philosophies, as well as because, in many +statements, we wish to speak of any term or some term. + +**48.** Among terms, it is possible to distinguish two kinds, which I +shall call respectively things and concepts. The former are the terms +indicated by proper names, the latter those indicated by all other +words. Here proper names are to be understood in a somewhat wider sense +than is usual, and things also are to be understood as embracing all +particular points and instants, and many other entities not commonly +called things. Among concepts, again, two kinds at least must be +distinguished, namely those indicated by adjectives and those indicated +by verbs. The former kind will often be called predicates or +class-concepts; the latter are always or almost always relations. (In +intransitive verbs, the notion expressed by the verb is complex, and +usually asserts a definite relation to an indefinite relatum, as in +“Smith breathes.”) + +In a large class of propositions, we agreed, it is possible, in one or +more ways, to distinguish a subject and an assertion about the subject. +The assertion must always contain a verb, but except in this respect, +assertions appear to have no universal properties. In a relational +proposition, say “A is greater than B,” we may regard A as the subject, +and “is greater than B” as the assertion, or B as the subject and “A is +greater than” as the assertion. There are thus, in the case proposed, +two ways of analyzing the proposition into subject and assertion. Where +a relation has more than two terms, as in “A is here now,[‡](#fn44-3)” +there will be more than two ways of making the analysis. But in some +propositions, there is only a single way: these are the +subject-predicate propositions, such as “Socrates is human.” The +proposition “humanity belongs to Socrates,” which is equivalent to +“Socrates is human,” is an assertion about humanity; but it is a +distinct proposition. In “Socrates is human,” the notion expressed by +human occurs in a different way from that in which it occurs when it is +called humanity, the difference being that in the latter case, but not +in the former, the proposition is about this notion. This indicates that +humanity is a concept, not a thing. I shall speak of the terms of a +proposition as those terms, however numerous, which occur in a +proposition and may be regarded as subjects about which the proposition +is. It is a characteristic of the terms of a proposition that any one of +them may be replaced by any other entity without our ceasing to have a +proposition. Thus we shall say that “Socrates is human” is a proposition +having only one term; of the remaining components of the proposition, +one is the verb, the other is a predicate. With the sense which is has +in this proposition, we no longer have a proposition at all if we +replace human by something other than a predicate. Predicates, then, are +concepts, other than verbs, which occur in propositions having only one +term or subject. Socrates is a thing, because Socrates can never occur +otherwise than as term in a proposition: Socrates is not capable of that +curious twofold use which is involved in human and humanity. Points, +instants, bits of matter, particular states of mind, and particular +existents generally, are things in the above sense, and so are many +terms which do not exist, for example, the points in a non-Euclidean +space and the pseudo-existents of a novel. All classes, it would seem, +as numbers, men, spaces, etc., when taken as single terms, are things; +but this is a point for [Chapter vi](#chapter6). + +Predicates are distinguished from other terms by a number of very +interesting properties, chief among which is their connection with what +I shall call denoting. One predicate always gives rise to a host of +cognate notions: thus in addition to human and humanity, which only +differ grammatically, we have man, a man, some man, any man, every man, +all men[\*](#fn45-1), all of which appear to be genuinely distinct one +from another. The study of these various notions is absolutely vital to +any philosophy of mathematics; and it is on account of them that the +theory of predicates is important. + +**49.** It might be thought that a distinction ought to be made between +a concept as such and a concept used as a term, between, e.g., such +pairs as is and being, human and humanity, one in such a proposition as +“this is one” and 1 in “1 is a number.” But inextricable difficulties +will envelop us if we allow such a view. There is, of course, a +grammatical difference, and this corresponds to a difference as regards +relations. In the first case, the concept in question is used as a +concept, that is, it is actually predicated of a term or asserted to +relate two or more terms; while in the second case, the concept is +itself said to have a predicate or a relation. There is, therefore, no +difficulty in accounting for the grammatical difference. But what I wish +to urge is, that the difference lies solely in external relations, and +not in the intrinsic nature of the terms. For suppose that one as +adjective differed from 1 as term. In this statement, one as adjective +has been made into a term; hence either it has become 1, in which case +the supposition is self-contradictory; or there is some other difference +between one and 1 in addition to the fact that the first denotes a +concept not a term while the second denotes a concept which is a term. +But in this latter hypothesis, there must be propositions concerning one +as term, and we shall still have to maintain propositions concerning one +as adjective as opposed to one as term; yet all such propositions must +be false, since a proposition about one as adjective makes one the +subject, and is therefore really about one as term. In short, if there +were any adjectives which could not be made into substantives without +change of meaning, all propositions concerning such adjectives (since +they would necessarily turn them into substantives) would be false, and +so would the proposition that all such propositions are false, since +this itself turns the adjectives into substantives. But this state of +things is self-contradictory. + +The above argument proves that we were right in saying that terms +embrace everything that can occur in a proposition, with the possible +exception of complexes of terms of the kind denoted by any and cognate +words[\*](#fn46-1). For if A occurs in a proposition, then, in this +statement, A is the subject; and we have just seen that, if A is ever +not the subject, it is exactly and numerically the same A which is not +subject in one proposition and is subject in another. Thus the theory +that there are adjectives or attributes or ideal things, or whatever +they may be called, which are in some way less substantial, less +self-subsistent, less self-identical, than true substantives, appears to +be wholly erroneous, and to be easily reduced to a contradiction. Terms +which are concepts differ from those which are not, not in respect of +self-subsistence, but in virtue of the fact that, in certain true or +false propositions, they occur in a manner which is different in an +indefinable way from the manner in which subjects or terms of relations +occur. + +**50.** Two concepts have, in addition to the numerical diversity which +belongs to them as terms, another special kind of diversity which may be +called conceptual. This may be characterized by the fact that two +propositions in which the concepts occur otherwise than as terms, even +if, in all other respects, the two propositions are identical, yet +differ in virtue of the fact that the concepts which occur in them are +conceptually diverse. Conceptual diversity implies numerical diversity, +but the converse implication does not hold, since not all terms are +concepts. Numerical diversity, as its name implies, is the source of +plurality, and conceptual diversity is less important to mathematics. +But the whole possibility of making different assertions about a given +term or set of terms depends upon conceptual diversity, which is +therefore fundamental in general logic. + +**51.** It is interesting and not unimportant to examine very briefly +the connection of the above doctrine of adjectives with certain +traditional views on the nature of propositions. It is customary to +regard all propositions as having a subject and a predicate, i.e. as +having an immediate this, and a general concept attached to it by way of +description. This is, of course, an account of the theory in question +which will strike its adherents as extremely crude; but it will serve +for a general indication of the view to be discussed. This doctrine +develops by internal logical necessity into the theory of Mr Bradley’s +Logic, that all words stand for ideas having what he calls meaning, and +that in every judgment there is a something, the true subject of the +judgment, which is not an idea and does not have meaning. To have +meaning, it seems to me, is a notion confusedly compounded of logical +and psychological elements. Words all have meaning, in the simple sense +that they are symbols which stand for something other than themselves. +But a proposition, unless it happens to be linguistic, does not itself +contain words: it contains the entities indicated by words. Thus +meaning, in the sense in which words have meaning, is irrelevant to +logic. But such concepts as a man have meaning in another sense: they +are, so to speak, symbolic in their own logical nature, because they +have the property which I call denoting. That is to say, when a man +occurs in a proposition (e.g. “I met a man in the street”), the +proposition is not about the concept a man, but about something quite +different, some actual biped denoted by the concept. Thus concepts of +this kind have meaning in a non-psychological sense. And in this sense, +when we say “this is a man,” we are making a proposition in which a +concept is in some sense attached to what is not a concept. But when +meaning is thus understood, the entity indicated by John does not have +meaning, as Mr Bradley contends[\*](#fn47-1); and even among concepts, +it is only those that denote that have meaning. The confusion is largely +due, I believe, to the notion that words occur in propositions, which in +turn is due to the notion that propositions are essentially mental and +are to be identified with cognitions. But these topics of general +philosophy must be pursued no further in this work. + +**52.** It remains to discuss the verb, and to find marks by which it is +distinguished from the adjective. In regard to verbs also, there is a +twofold grammatical form corresponding to a difference in merely +external relations. There is the verb in the form which it has as verb +(the various inflexions of this form may be left out of account), and +there is the verbal noun, indicated by the infinitive or (in English) +the present participle. The distinction is that between “Felton killed +Buckingham” and “Killing no murder.” By analyzing this difference, the +nature and function of the verb will appear. + +It is plain, to begin with, that the concept which occurs in the verbal +noun is the very same as that which occurs as verb. This results from +the previous argument, that every constituent of every proposition must, +on pain of self-contradiction, be capable of being made a logical +subject. If we say “kills does not mean the same as to to kill,” we have +already made kills a subject, and we cannot say that the concept +expressed by the word kills cannot be made a subject. Thus the very verb +which occurs as verb can occur also as subject. The question is: What +logical difference is expressed by the difference of grammatical form? +And it is plain that the difference must be one in external relations. +But in regard to verbs, there is a further point. By transforming the +verb, as it occurs in a proposition, into a verbal noun, the whole +proposition can be turned into a single logical subject, no longer +asserted, and no longer containing in itself truth or falsehood. But +here too, there seems to be no possibility of maintaining that the +logical subject which results is a different entity from the +proposition. “Caesar died” and “the death of Caesar” will illustrate +this point. If we ask: What is asserted in the proposition “Caesar +died”? the answer must be “the death of Caesar is asserted.” In that +case, it would seem, it is the death of Caesar which is true or false; +and yet neither truth nor falsity belongs to a mere logical subject. The +answer here seems to be that the death of Caesar has an external +relation to truth or falsehood (as the case may be), whereas “Caesar +died” in some way or other contains its own truth or falsehood as an +element. But if this is the correct analysis, it is difficult to see how +“Caesar died” differs from “the truth of Caesar’s death” in the case +where it is true, or “the falsehood of Caesar’s death” in the other +case. Yet it is quite plain that the latter, at any rate, is never +equivalent to “Caesar died.” There appears to be an ultimate notion of +assertion, given by the verb, which is lost as soon as we substitute a +verbal noun, and is lost when the proposition in question is made the +subject of some other proposition. This does not depend upon grammatical +form; for if I say “Caesar died is a proposition,” I do not assert that +Caesar did die, and an element which is present in “Caesar died” has +disappeared. Thus the contradiction which was to have been avoided, of +an entity which cannot be made a logical subject, appears to have here +become inevitable. This difficulty, which seems to be inherent in the +very nature of truth and falsehood, is one with which I do not know how +to deal satisfactorily. The most obvious course would be to say that the +difference between an asserted and an unasserted proposition is not +logical, but psychological. In the sense in which false propositions may +be asserted, this is doubtless true. But there is another sense of +assertion, very difficult to bring clearly before the mind, and yet +quite undeniable, in which only true propositions are asserted. True and +false propositions alike are in some sense entities, and are in some +sense capable of being logical subjects; but when a proposition happens +to be true, it has a further quality, over and above that which it +shares with false propositions, and it is this further quality which is +what I mean by assertion in a logical as opposed to a psychological +sense. The nature of truth, however, belongs no more to the principles +of mathematics than to the principles of everything else. I therefore +leave this question to the logicians with the above brief indication of +a difficulty. + +**53.** It may be asked whether everything that, in the logical sense we +are concerned with, is a verb, expresses a relation or not. It seems +plain that, if we were right in holding that “Socrates is human” is a +proposition having only one term, the is in this proposition cannot +express a relation in the ordinary sense. In fact, subject-predicate +propositions are distinguished by just this non-relational character. +Nevertheless, a relation between Socrates and humanity is certainly +implied, and it is very difficult to conceive the proposition as +expressing no relation at all. We may perhaps say that it is a relation, +although it is distinguished from other relations in that it does not +permit itself to be regarded as an assertion concerning either of its +terms indifferently, but only as an assertion concerning the referent. A +similar remark may apply to the proposition “A is,” which holds of every +term without exception. The is here is quite different from the is in +“Socrates is human”; it may be regarded as complex, and as really +predicating Being of A. In this way, the true logical verb in a +proposition may be always regarded as asserting a relation. But it is so +hard to know exactly what is meant by relation that the whole question +is in danger of becoming purely verbal. + +**54.** The twofold nature of the verb, as actual verb and as verbal +noun, may be expressed, if all verbs are held to be relations, as the +difference between a relation in itself and a relation actually +relating. Consider, for example, the proposition “A differs from B.” The +constituents of this proposition, if we analyze it, appear to be only A, +difference, B. Yet these constituents, thus placed side by side, do not +reconstitute the proposition. The difference which occurs in the +proposition actually relates A and B, whereas the difference after +analysis is a notion which has no connection with A and B. It may be +said that we ought, in the analysis, to mention the relations which +difference has to A and B, relations which are expressed by is and from +when we say “A is different from B.” These relations consist in the fact +that A is referent and B relatum with respect to difference. But “A, +referent, difference, relatum, B” is still merely a list of terms, not a +proposition. A proposition, in fact, is essentially a unity, and when +analysis has destroyed the unity, no enumeration of constituents will +restore the proposition. The verb, when used as a verb, embodies the +unity of the proposition, and is thus distinguishable from the verb +considered as a term, though I do not know how to give a clear account +of the precise nature of the distinction. + +**55.** It may be doubted whether the general concept difference occurs +at all in the proposition “A differs from B,” or whether there is not +rather a specific difference of A and B, and another specific difference +of C and D, which are respectively affirmed in “A differs from B” and “C +differs from D.” In this way, difference becomes a class-concept of +which there are as many instances as there are pairs of different terms; +and the instances may be said, in Platonic phrase, to partake of the +nature of difference. As this point is quite vital in the theory of +relations, it may be well to dwell upon it. And first of all, I must +point out that in “A differs from B” I intend to consider the bare +numerical difference in virtue of which they are two, not difference in +this or that respect. + +Let us first try the hypothesis that a difference is a complex notion, +compounded of difference together with some special quality +distinguishing a particular difference from every other particular +difference. So far as the relation of difference itself is concerned, we +are to suppose that no distinction can be made between different cases; +but there are to be different associated qualities in different cases. +But since cases are distinguished by their terms, the quality must be +primarily associated with the terms, not with difference. If the quality +be not a relation, it can have no special connection with the difference +of A and B, which it was to render distinguishable from bare difference, +and if it fails in this it becomes irrelevant. On the other hand, if it +be a new relation between A and B, over and above difference, we shall +have to hold that any two terms have two relations, difference and a +specific difference, the latter not holding between any other pair of +terms. This view is a combination of two others, of which the first +holds that the abstract general relation of difference itself holds +between A and B, while the second holds that when two terms differ they +have, corresponding to this fact, a specific relation of difference, +unique and unanalyzable and not shared by any other pair of terms. +Either of these views may be held with either the denial or the +affirmation of the other. Let us see what is to be said for and against +them. + +Against the notion of specific differences, it may be urged that, if +differences differ, their differences from each other must also differ, +and thus we are led into an endless process. Those who object to endless +processes will see in this a proof that differences do not differ. But +in the present work, it will be maintained that there are no +contradictions peculiar to the notion of infinity, and that an endless +process is not to be objected to unless it arises in the analysis of the +actual meaning of a proposition. In the present case, the process is one +of implications, not one of analysis; it must therefore be regarded as +harmless. + +Against the notion that the abstract relation of difference holds +between A and B, we have the argument derived from the analysis of “A +differs from B,” which gave rise to the present discussion. It is to be +observed that the hypothesis which combines the general and the specific +difference must suppose that there are two distinct propositions, the +one affirming the general, the other the specific difference. Thus if +there cannot be a general difference between A and B, this mediating +hypothesis is also impossible. And we saw that the attempt to avoid the +failure of analysis by including in the meaning of “A differs from B” +the relations of difference to A and B was vain. This attempt, in fact, +leads to an endless process of the inadmissible kind; for we shall have +to include the relations of the said relations to A and B and +difference, and so on, and in this continually increasing complexity we +are supposed to be only analyzing the meaning of our original +proposition. This argument establishes a point of very great importance, +namely, that when a relation holds between two terms, the relations of +the relation to the terms, and of these relations to the relation and +the terms, and so on ad infinitum, though all implied by the proposition +affirming the original relation, form no part of the meaning of this +proposition. + +But the above argument does not suffice to prove that the relation of A +to B cannot be abstract difference: it remains tenable that, as was +suggested to begin with, the true solution lies in regarding every +proposition as having a kind of unity which analysis cannot preserve, +and which is lost even though it be mentioned by analysis as an element +in the proposition. This view has doubtless its own difficulties, but +the view that no two pairs of terms can have the same relation both +contains difficulties of its own and fails to solve the difficulty for +the sake of which it was invented. For, even if the difference of A and +B be absolutely peculiar to A and B, still the three terms A, B, +difference of A from B, do not reconstitute the proposition “A differs +from B,” any more than A and B and difference did. And it seems plain +that, even if differences did differ, they would still have to have +something in common. But the most general way in which two terms can +have something in common is by both having a given relation to a given +term. Hence if no two pairs of terms can have the same relation, it +follows that no two terms can have anything in common, and hence +different differences will not be in any definable sense instances of +difference[\*](#fn51-1). I conclude, then, that the relation affirmed +between A and B in the proposition “A differs from B” is the general +relation of difference, and is precisely and numerically the same as the +relation affirmed between C and D in “C differs from D.” And this +doctrine must be held, for the same reasons, to be true of all other +relations; relations do not have instances, but are strictly the same in +all propositions in which they occur. + +We may now sum up the main points elicited in our discussion of the +verb. The verb, we saw, is a concept which, like the adjective, may +occur in a proposition without being one of the terms of the +proposition, though it may also be made into a logical subject. One +verb, and one only, must occur as verb in every proposition; but every +proposition, by turning its verb into a verbal noun, can be changed into +a single logical subject, of a kind which I shall call in future a +propositional concept. Every verb, in the logical sense of the word, may +be regarded as a relation; when it occurs as verb, it actually relates, +but when it occurs as verbal noun it is the bare relation considered +independently of the terms which it relates. Verbs do not, like +adjectives, have instances, but are identical in all the cases of their +occurrence. Owing to the way in which the verb actually relates the +terms of a proposition, every proposition has a unity which renders it +distinct from the sum of its constituents. All these points lead to +logical problems, which, in a treatise on logic, would deserve to be +fully and thoroughly discussed. + +Having now given a general sketch of the nature of verbs and adjectives, +I shall proceed, in the next two chapters, to discussions arising out of +the consideration of adjectives, and in [Chapter vii](#chapter7) to +topics connected with verbs. Broadly speaking, classes are connected +with adjectives, while propositional functions involve verbs. It is for +this reason that it has been necessary to deal at such length with a +subject which might seem, at first sight, to be somewhat remote from the +principles of mathematics. + +Notes + +## CHAPTER V. +Denoting. + +**56.** The notion of denoting, like most of the notions of logic, has +been obscured hitherto by an undue admixture of psychology. There is a +sense in which we denote, when we point or describe, or employ words as +symbols for concepts; this, however, is not the sense that I wish to +discuss. But the fact that description is possible—that we are able, by +the employment of concepts, to designate a thing which is not a concept +—is due to a logical relation between some concepts and some terms, in +virtue of which such concepts inherently and logically denote such +terms. It is this sense of denoting which is here in question. This +notion lies at the bottom (I think) of all theories of substance, of the +subject-predicate logic, and of the opposition between things and ideas, +discursive thought and immediate perception. These various developments, +in the main, appear to me mistaken, while the fundamental fact itself, +out of which they have grown, is hardly ever discussed in its logical +purity. + +A concept denotes when, if it occurs in a proposition, the proposition +is not about the concept, but about a term connected in a certain +peculiar way with the concept. If I say “I met a man,” the proposition +is not about a man: this is a concept which does not walk the streets, +but lives in the shadowy limbo of the logic-books. What I met was a +thing, not a concept, an actual man with a tailor and a bank-account or +a public-house and a drunken wife. Again, the proposition “any finite +number is odd or even” is plainly true; yet the concept “any finite +number” is neither odd nor even. It is only particular numbers that are +odd or even; there is not, in addition to these, another entity, any +number, which is either odd or even, and if there were, it is plain that +it could not be odd and could not be even. Of the concept “any number,” +almost all the propositions that contain the phrase “any number” are +false. If we wish to speak of the concept, we have to indicate the fact +by italics or inverted commas. People often assert that man is mortal; +but what is mortal will die, and yet we should be surprised to find in +the “Times” such a notice as the following: “Died at his residence of +Camelot, Gladstone Road, Upper Tooting, on the 18th of June 19—, Man, +eldest son of Death and Sin.” Man, in fact, does not die; hence if “man +is mortal” were, as it appears to be, a proposition about man, it would +be simply false. The fact is, the proposition is about men; and here +again, it is not about the concept men, but about what this concept +denotes. The whole theory of definition, of identity, of classes, of +symbolism, and of the variable is wrapped up in the theory of denoting. +The notion is a fundamental notion of logic, and, in spite of its +difficulties, it is quite essential to be as clear about it as possible. + +**57.** The notion of denoting may be obtained by a kind of logical +genesis from subject-predicate propositions, upon which it seems more or +less dependent. The simplest of propositions are those in which one +predicate occurs otherwise than as a term, and there is only one term of +which the predicate in question is asserted. Such propositions may be +called subject-predicate propositions. Instances are: A is, A is one, A +is human. Concepts which are predicates might also be called +class-concepts, because they give rise to classes, but we shall find it +necessary to distinguish between the words predicate and class-concept. +Propositions of the subject -predicate type always imply and are implied +by other propositions of the type which asserts that an individual +belongs to a class. Thus the above instances are equivalent to: A is an +entity, A is a unit, A is a man. These new propositions are not +identical with the previous ones, since they have an entirely different +form. To begin with, is is now the only concept not used as a term. A +man, we shall find, is neither a concept nor a term, but a certain kind +of combination of certain terms, namely of those which are human. And +the relation of Socrates to a man is quite different from his relation +to humanity; indeed “Socrates is human” must be held, if the above view +is correct, to be not, in the most usual sense, a judgment of relation +between Socrates and humanity, since this view would make human occur as +term in “Socrates is human.” It is, of course, undeniable that a +relation to humanity is implied by “Socrates is human,” namely the +relation expressed by “Socrates has humanity”; and this relation +conversely implies the subject-predicate proposition. But the two +propositions can be clearly distinguished, and it is important to the +theory of classes that this should be done. Thus we have, in the case of +every predicate, three types of propositions which imply one another, +namely, “Socrates is human,” “Socrates has humanity,” and “Socrates is a +man.” The first contains a term and a predicate, the second two terms +and a relation (the second term being identical with the predicate of +the first proposition)[\*](#fn54-1), while the third contains a term, a +relation, and what I shall call a disjunction (a term which will be +explained shortly)[†](#fn54-2). The class-concept differs little, if at +all, from the predicate, while the class, as opposed to the +class-concept, is the sum or conjunction of all the terms which have the +given predicate. The relation which occurs in the second type (Socrates +has humanity) is characterized completely by the fact that it implies +and is implied by a proposition with only one term, in which the other +term of the relation has become a predicate. A class is a certain +combination of terms, a class-concept is closely akin to a predicate, +and the terms whose combination forms the class are determined by the +class-concept. Predicates are, in a certain sense, the simplest type of +concepts, since they occur in the simplest type of proposition. + +**58.** There is, connected with every predicate, a great variety of +closely allied concepts, which, in so far as they are distinct, it is +important to distinguish. Starting, for example, with human, we have +man, men, all men, every man, any man, the human race, of which all +except the first are twofold, a denoting concept and an object denoted; +we have also, less closely analogous, the notions “a man” and “some +man,” which again denote objects[\*](#fn55-1) other than themselves. +This vast apparatus connected with every predicate must be borne in +mind, and an endeavour must be made to give an analysis of all the above +notions. But for the present, it is the property of denoting, rather +than the various denoting concepts, that we are concerned with. + +The combination of concepts as such to form new concepts, of greater +complexity than their constituents, is a subject upon which writers on +logic have said many things. But the combination of terms as such, to +form what by analogy may be called complex terms, is a subject upon +which logicians, old and new, give us only the scantiest discussion. +Nevertheless, the subject is of vital importance to the philosophy of +mathematics, since the nature both of number and of the variable turns +upon just this point. Six words, of constant occurrence in daily life, +are also characteristic of mathematics: these are the words all, every, +any, a, some and the. For correctness of reasoning, it is essential that +these words should be sharply distinguished one from another; but the +subject bristles with difficulties, and is almost wholly neglected by +logicians[†](#fn55-2). + +It is plain, to begin with, that a phrase containing one of the above +six words always denotes. It will be convenient, for the present +discussion, to distinguish a class-concept from a predicate: I shall +call human a predicate, and man a class-concept, though the distinction +is perhaps only verbal. The characteristic of a class-concept, as +distinguished from terms in general, is that “x is a u” is a +propositional function when, and only when, u is a class-concept. It +must be held that when u is not a class-concept, we do not have a false +proposition, but simply no proposition at all, whatever value we may +give to x. This enables us to distinguish a class-concept belonging to +the null-class, for which all propositions of the above form are false, +from a term which is not a class-concept at all, for which there are no +propositions of the above form. Also it makes it plain that a +class-concept is not a term in the proposition “x is a u,” for u has a +restricted variability if the formula is to remain a proposition. A +denoting phrase, we may now say, consists always of a class-concept +preceded by one of the above six words or some synonym of one of them. + +**59.** The question which first meets us in regard to denoting is this: +Is there one way of denoting six different kinds of objects, or are the +ways of denoting different? And in the latter case, is the object +denoted the same in all six cases, or does the object differ as well as +the way of denoting it? In order to answer this question, it will be +first necessary to explain the differences between the six words in +question. Here it will be convenient to omit the word the to begin with, +since this word is in a different position from the others, and is +liable to limitations from which they are exempt. + +In cases where the class defined by a class-concept has only a finite +number of terms, it is possible to omit the class-concept wholly, and +indicate the various objects denoted by enumerating the terms and +connecting them by means of and or or as the case may be. It will help +to isolate a part of our problem if we first consider this case, +although the lack of subtlety in language renders it difficult to grasp +the difference between objects indicated by the same form of words. + +Let us begin by considering two terms only, say Brown and Jones. The +objects denoted by all, every, any, a and some[\*](#fn56-1) are +respectively involved in the following five propositions. (1) Brown and +Jones are two of Miss Smith’s suitors; (2) Brown and Jones are paying +court to Miss Smith; (3) if it was Brown or Jones you met, it was a very +ardent lover; (4) if it was one of Miss Smith’s suitors, it must have +been Brown or Jones; (5) Miss Smith will marry Brown or Jones. Although +only two forms of words, Brown and Jones and Brown or Jones, are +involved in these propositions, I maintain that five different +combinations are involved. The distinctions, some of which are rather +subtle, may be brought out by the following considerations. In the first +proposition, it is Brown and Jones who are two, and this is not true of +either separately; nevertheless it is not the whole composed of Brown +and Jones which is two, for this is only one. The two are a genuine +combination of Brown with Jones, the kind of combination which, as we +shall see in the next chapter, is characteristic of classes. In the +second proposition, on the contrary, what is asserted is true of Brown +and Jones severally; the proposition is equivalent to, though not (I +think) identical with, “Brown is paying court to Miss Smith and Jones is +paying court to Miss Smith.” Thus the combination indicated by and is +not the same here as in the first case: the first case concerned all of +them collectively, while the second concerns all distributively, i.e. +each or every one of them. For the sake of distinction, we may call the +first a numerical conjunction, since it gives rise to number, the second +a propositional conjunction, since the proposition in which it occurs is +equivalent to a conjunction of propositions. (It should be observed that +the conjunction of propositions in question is of a wholly different +kind from any of the combinations we are considering, being in fact of +the kind which is called the logical product. The propositions are +combined quâ propositions, not quâ terms.) + +The third proposition gives the kind of conjunction by which any is +defined. There is some difficulty about this notion, which seems +half-way between a conjunction and a disjunction. This notion may be +further explained as follows. Let a and b be two different propositions, +each of which implies a third proposition c. Then the disjunction “a or +b” implies c. Now let a and b be propositions assigning the same +predicate to two different subjects, then there is a combination of the +two subjects to which the given predicate may be assigned so that the +resulting proposition is equivalent to the disjunction “a or b.” Thus +suppose we have “if you met Brown, you met a very ardent lover,” and “if +you met Jones, you met a very ardent lover.” Hence we infer “if you met +Brown or if you met Jones, you met a very ardent lover,” and we regard +this as equivalent to “if you met Brown or Jones, etc.” The combination +of Brown and Jones here indicated is the same as that indicated by +either of them. It differs from a disjunction by the fact that it +implies and is implied by a statement concerning both; but in some more +complicated instances, this mutual implication fails. The method of +combination is, in fact, different from that indicated by both, and is +also different from both forms of disjunction. I shall call it the +variable conjunction. The first form of disjunction is given by (4): +this is the form which I shall denote by a suitor. Here, although it +must have been Brown or Jones, it is not true that it must have been +Brown nor yet that it must have been Jones. Thus the proposition is not +equivalent to the disjunction of propositions “it must have been Brown +or it must have been Jones.” The proposition, in fact, is not capable of +statement either as a disjunction or as a conjunction of propositions, +except in the very roundabout form: “if it was not Brown, it was Jones, +and if it was not Jones, it was Brown,” a form which rapidly becomes +intolerable when the number of terms is increased beyond two, and +becomes theoretically inadmissible when the number of terms is infinite. +Thus this form of disjunction denotes a variable term, that is, +whichever of the two terms we fix upon, it does not denote this term, +and yet it does denote one or other of them. This form accordingly I +shall call the variable disjunction. Finally, the second form of +disjunction is given by (5). This is what I shall call the constant +disjunction, since here either Brown is denoted, or Jones is denoted, +but the alternative is undecided. That is to say, our proposition is now +equivalent to a disjunction of propositions, namely “Miss Smith will +marry Brown, or she will marry Jones.” She will marry some one of the +two, and the disjunction denotes a particular one of them, though it may +denote either particular one. Thus all the five combinations are +distinct. + +It is to be observed that these five combinations yield neither terms +nor concepts, but strictly and only combinations of terms. The first +yields many terms, while the others yield something absolutely peculiar, +which is neither one nor many. The combinations are combinations of +terms, effected without the use of relations. Corresponding to each +combination there is, at least if the terms combined form a class, a +perfectly definite concept, which denotes the various terms of the +combination combined in the specified manner. To explain this, let us +repeat our distinctions in a case where the terms to be combined are not +enumerated, as above, but are defined as the terms of a certain class. + +**60.** When a class-concept a is given, it must be held that the +various terms belonging to the class are also given. That is to say, any +term being proposed, it can be decided whether or not it belongs to the +class. In this way, a collection of terms can be given otherwise than by +enumeration. Whether a collection can be given otherwise than by +enumeration or by a class-concept, is a question which, for the present, +I leave undetermined. But the possibility of giving a collection by a +class-concept is highly important, since it enables us to deal with +infinite collections, as we shall see in [Part V](#part5). For the +present, I wish to examine the meaning of such phrases as all a’s, every +a, any a, an a, and some a. All a’s, to begin with, denotes a numerical +conjunction; it is definite as soon as a is given. The concept all a’s +is a perfectly definite single concept, which denotes the terms of a +taken all together. The terms so taken have a number, which may thus be +regarded, if we choose, as a property of the class-concept, since it is +determinate for any given class-concept. Every a, on the contrary, +though it still denotes all the a’s, denotes them in a different way, +i.e. severally instead of collectively. Any a denotes only one a, but it +is wholly irrelevant which it denotes, and what is said will be equally +true whichever it may be. Moreover, any a denotes a variable a, that is, +whatever particular a we may fasten upon, it is certain that any a does +not denote that one; and yet of that one any proposition is true which +is true of any a. An a denotes a variable disjunction: that is to say, a +proposition which holds of an a may be false concerning each particular +a, so that it is not reducible to a disjunction of propositions. For +example, a point lies between any point and any other point; but it +would not be true of any one particular point that it lay between any +point and any other point, since there would be many pairs of points +between which it did not lie. This brings us finally to some a, the +constant disjunction. This denotes just one term of the class a, but the +term it denotes may be any term of the class. Thus “some moment does not +follow any moment” would mean that there was a first moment in time, +while “a moment precedes any moment” means the exact opposite, namely, +that every moment has predecessors. + +**61.** In the case of a class a which has a finite number of terms—say +a1, a2, a3, … an, we can illustrate these various notions as follows: + +(1) All a’s denotes a1 and a2 and … and an. + +(2) Every a denotes a1 and denotes a2 and … and denotes an. + +(3) Any a denotes a1 or a2 or … or an, where or has the meaning that it +is irrelevant which we take. + +(4) An a denotes a1 or a2 or … or an, where or has the meaning that no +one in particular must be taken, just as in all a’s we must not take any +one in particular. + +(5) Some a denotes a1 or denotes a2 … or denotes an, where it is not +irrelevant which is taken, but on the contrary some one particular a +must be taken. + +As the nature and properties of the various ways of combining terms are +of vital importance to the principles of mathematics, it may be well to +illustrate their properties by the following important examples. + +(α) Let a be a class, and b a class of classes. We then obtain in all +six possible relations of a to b from various combinations of any, a and +some. All and every do not, in this case, introduce anything new. The +six cases are as follows. + +(1) Any a belongs to any class belonging to b, in other words, the class +a is wholly contained in the common part or logical product of the +various classes belonging to b. + +(2) Any a belongs to a b, i.e. the class a is contained in any class +which contains all the b’s, or, is contained in the logical sum of all +the b’s. + +(3) Any a belongs to some b, i.e. there is a class belonging to b, in +which the class a is contained. The difference between this case and the +second arises from the fact that here there is one b to which every a +belongs, whereas before it was only decided that every a belonged to a +b, and different a’s might belong to different b’s. + +(4) An a belongs to any b, i.e. whatever b we take, it has a part in +common with a. + +(5) An a belongs to a b, i.e. there is a b which has a part in common +with a. This is equivalent to “some (or an) a belongs to some b.” + +(6) Some a belongs to any b, i.e. there is an a which belongs to the +common part of all the b’s, or a and all the b’s have a common part. +These are all the cases that arise here. + +(β) It is instructive, as showing the generality of the type of +relations here considered, to compare the above case with the following. +Let a, b be two series of real numbers; then six precisely analogous +cases arise. + +(1) Any a is less than any b, or, the series a is contained among +numbers less than every b. + +(2) Any a is less than a b, or, whatever a we take, there is a b which +is greater, or, the series a is contained among numbers less than a +(variable) term of the series b. It does not follow that some term of +the series b is greater than all the a’s. + +(3) Any a is less than some b, or, there is a term of b which is greater +than all the a’s. This case is not to be confounded with (2). + +(4) An a is less than any b, i.e. whatever b we take, there is an a +which is less than it. + +(5) An a is less than a b, i.e. it is possible to find an a and a b such +that the a is less than the b. This merely denies that any a is greater +than any b. + +(6) Some a is less than any b, i.e. there is an a which is less than all +the b’s. This was not implied in (4), where the a was variable, whereas +here it is constant. + +In this case, actual mathematics have compelled the distinction between +the variable and the constant disjunction. But in other cases, where +mathematics have not obtained sway, the distinction has been neglected; +and the mathematicians, as was natural, have not investigated the +logical nature of the disjunctive notions which they employed. + +(γ) I shall give one other instance, as it brings in the difference +between any and every, which has not been relevant in the previous +cases. Let a and b be two classes of classes; then twenty different +relations between them arise from different combinations of the terms of +their terms. The following technical terms will be useful. If a be a +class of classes, its logical sum consists of all terms belonging to any +a, i.e. all terms such that there is an a to which they belong, while +its logical product consists of all terms belonging to every a, i.e. to +the common part of all the a’s. We have then the following cases. + +(1) Any term of any a belongs to every b, i.e. the logical sum of a is +contained in the logical product of b. + +(2) Any term of any a belongs to a b, i.e. the logical sum of a is +contained in the logical sum of b. + +(3) Any term of any a belongs to some b, i.e. there is a b which +contains the logical sum of a. + +(4) Any term of some (or an) a belongs to every b, i.e. there is an a +which is contained in the product of b. + +(5) Any term of some (or an) a belongs to a b, i.e. there is an a which +is contained in the sum of b. + +(6) Any term of some (or an) a belongs to some b, i.e. there is a b +which contains one class belonging to a. + +(7) A term of any a belongs to any b, i.e. any class of a and any class +of b have a common part. + +(8) A term of any a belongs to a b, i.e. any class of a has a part in +common with the logical sum of b. + +(9) A term of any a belongs to some b, i.e. there is a b with which any +a has a part in common. + +(10) A term of an a belongs to every b, i.e. the logical sum of a and +the logical product of b have a common part. + +(11) A term of an a belongs to any b, i.e. given any b, an a can be +found with which it has a common part. + +(12) A term of an a belongs to a b, i.e. the logical sums of a and of b +have a common part. + +(13) Any term of every a belongs to every b, i.e. the logical product of +a is contained in the logical product of b. + +(14) Any term of every a belongs to a b, i.e. the logical product of a +is contained in the logical sum of b. + +(15) Any term of every a belongs to some b, i.e. there is a term of b in +which the logical product of a is contained. + +(16) A (or some) term of every a belongs to every b, i.e. the logical +products of a and of b have a common part. + +(17) A (or some) term of every a belongs to a b, i.e. the logical +product of a and the logical sum of b have a common part. + +(18) Some term of any a belongs to every b, i.e. any a has a part in +common with the logical product of b. + +(19) A term of some a belongs to any b, i.e. there is some term of a +with which any b has a common part. + +(20) A term of every a belongs to any b, i.e. any b has a part in common +with the logical product of a. + +The above examples show that, although it may often happen that there is +a mutual implication (which has not always been stated) of corresponding +propositions concerning some and a, or concerning any and every, yet in +other cases there is no such mutual implication. Thus the five notions +discussed in the present chapter are genuinely distinct, and to confound +them may lead to perfectly definite fallacies. + +**62.** It appears from the above discussion that, whether there are +different ways of denoting or not, the objects denoted by all men, every +man, etc. are certainly distinct. It seems therefore legitimate to say +that the whole difference lies in the objects, and that denoting itself +is the same in all cases. There are, however, many difficult problems +connected with the subject, especially as regards the nature of the +objects denoted. All men, which I shall identify with the class of men, +seems to be an unambiguous object, although grammatically it is plural. +But in the other cases the question is not so simple: we may doubt +whether an ambiguous object is unambiguously denoted, or a definite +object ambiguously denoted. Consider again the proposition “I met a +man.” It is quite certain, and is implied by this proposition, that +what I met was an unambiguous perfectly definite man: in the technical +language which is here adopted, the proposition is expressed by “I met +some man.” But the actual man whom I met forms no part of the +proposition in question, and is not specially denoted by some man. Thus +the concrete event which happened is not asserted in the proposition. +What is asserted is merely that some one of a class of concrete events +took place. The whole human race is involved in my assertion: if any man +who ever existed or will exist had not existed or been going to exist, +the purport of my proposition would have been different. Or, to put the +same point in more intensional language, if I substitute for man any of +the other class-concepts applicable to the individual whom I had the +honour to meet, my proposition is changed, although the individual in +question is just as much denoted as before. What this proves is, that +some man must not be regarded as actually denoting Smith and actually +denoting Brown, and so on: the whole procession of human beings +throughout the ages is always relevant to every proposition in which +some man occurs, and what is denoted is essentially not each separate +man, but a kind of combination of all men. This is more evident in the +case of every, any, and a. There is, then, a definite something, +different in each of the five cases, which must, in a sense, be an +object, but is characterized as a set of terms combined in a certain +way, which something is denoted by all men, every man, any man, a man or +some man; and it is with this very paradoxical object that propositions +are concerned in which the corresponding concept is used as denoting. + +**63.** It remains to discuss the notion of the. This notion has been +symbolically emphasized by Peano, with very great advantage to his +calculus; but here it is to be discussed philosophically. The use of +identity and the theory of definition are dependent upon this notion, +which has thus the very highest philosophical importance. + +The word the, in the singular, is correctly employed only in relation to +a class-concept of which there is only one instance. We speak of the +King, the Prime Minister, and so on (understanding at the present time); +and in such cases there is a method of denoting one single definite term +by means of a concept, which is not given us by any of our other five +words. It is owing to this notion that mathematics can give definitions +of terms which are not concepts—a possibility which illustrates the +difference between mathematical and philosophical definition. Every term +is the only instance of some class-concept, and thus every term, +theoretically, is capable of definition, provided we have not adopted a +system in which the said term is one of our indefinables. It is a +curious paradox, puzzling to the symbolic mind, that definitions, +theoretically, are nothing but statements of symbolic abbreviations, +irrelevant to the reasoning and inserted only for practical convenience, +while yet, in the development of a subject, they always require a very +large amount of thought, and often embody some of the greatest +achievements of analysis. This fact seems to be explained by the theory +of denoting. An object may be present to the mind, without our knowing +any concept of which the said object is the instance; and the discovery +of such a concept is not a mere improvement in notation. The reason why +this appears to be the case is that, as soon as the definition is found, +it becomes wholly unnecessary to the reasoning to remember the actual +object defined, since only concepts are relevant to our deductions. In +the moment of discovery, the definition is seen to be true, because the +object to be defined was already in our thoughts; but as part of our +reasoning it is not true, but merely symbolic, since what the reasoning +requires is not that it should deal with that object, but merely that it +should deal with the object denoted by the definition. + +In most actual definitions of mathematics, what is defined is a class of +entities, and the notion of the does not then explicitly appear. But +even in this case, what is really defined is the class satisfying +certain conditions; for a class, as we shall see in the [next +chapter](#chapter6), is always a term or conjunction of terms and never +a concept. Thus the notion of the is always relevant in definitions; and +we may observe generally that the adequacy of concepts to deal with +things is wholly dependent upon the unambiguous denoting of a single +term which this notion gives. + +**64.** The connection of denoting with the nature of identity is +important, and helps, I think, to solve some rather serious problems. +The question whether identity is or is not a relation, and even whether +there is such a concept at all, is not easy to answer. For, it may be +said, identity cannot be a relation, since, where it is truly asserted, +we have only one term, whereas two terms are required for a relation. +And indeed identity, an objector may urge, cannot be anything at all: +two terms plainly are not identical, and one term cannot be, for what is +it identical with? Nevertheless identity must be something. We might +attempt to remove identity from terms to relations, and say that two +terms are identical in some respect when they have a given relation to a +given term. But then we shall have to hold either that there is strict +identity between the two cases of the given relation, or that the two +cases have identity in the sense of having a given relation to a given +term; but the latter view leads to an endless process of the +illegitimate kind. Thus identity must be admitted, and the difficulty as +to the two terms of a relation must be met by a sheer denial that two +different terms are necessary. There must always be a referent and a +relatum, but these need not be distinct; and where identity is affirmed, +they are not so[\*](#fn64-1). + +But the question arises: Why is it ever worth while to affirm identity? +This question is answered by the theory of denoting. If we say “Edward +VII is the King,” we assert an identity; the reason why this assertion +is worth making is, that in the one case the actual term occurs, while +in the other a denoting concept takes its place. (For purposes of +discussion, I ignore the fact that Edwards form a class, and that +seventh Edwards form a class having only one term. Edward VII is +practically, though not formally, a proper name.) Often two denoting +concepts occur, and the term itself is not mentioned, as in the +proposition “the present Pope is the last survivor of his generation.” +When a term is given, the assertion of its identity with itself, though +true, is perfectly futile, and is never made outside the logic-books; +but where denoting concepts are introduced, identity is at once seen to +be significant. In this case, of course, there is involved, though not +asserted, a relation of the denoting concept to the term, or of the two +denoting concepts to each other. But the is which occurs in such +propositions does not itself state this further relation, but states +pure identity[†](#fn64-2). + +**65.** To sum up. When a class-concept, preceded by one of the six +words all, every, any, a, some, the, occurs in a proposition, the +proposition is, as a rule, not about the concept formed of the two words +together, but about an object quite different from this, in general not +a concept at all, but a term or complex of terms. This may be seen by +the fact that propositions in which such concepts occur are in general +false concerning the concepts themselves. At the same time, it is +possible to consider and make propositions about the concepts +themselves, but these are not the natural propositions to make in +employing the concepts. “Any number is odd or even” is a perfectly +natural proposition, whereas “Any number is a variable conjunction” is a +proposition only to be made in a logical discussion. In such cases, we +say that the concept in question denotes. We decided that denoting is a +perfectly definite relation, the same in all six cases, and that it is +the nature of the denoted object and the denoting concept which +distinguishes the cases. We discussed at some length the nature and the +differences of the denoted objects in the five cases in which these +objects are combinations of terms. In a full discussion, it would be +necessary also to discuss the denoting concepts: the actual meanings of +these concepts, as opposed to the nature of the objects they denote, +have not been discussed above. But I do not know that there would be +anything further to say on this topic. Finally, we discussed the, and +showed that this notion is essential to what mathematics calls +definition, as well as to the possibility of uniquely determining a term +by means of concepts; the actual use of identity, though not its +meaning, was also found to depend upon this way of denoting a single +term. From this point we can advance to the discussion of classes, +thereby continuing the development of the topics connected with +adjectives. + +Notes + +## CHAPTER VI. +Classes. + +**66.** To bring clearly before the mind what is meant by class, and to +distinguish this notion from all the notions to which it is allied, is +one of the most difficult and important problems of mathematical +philosophy. Apart from the fact that class is a very fundamental +concept, the utmost care and nicety is required in this subject on +account of the contradiction to be discussed in [Chapter x](#chapter10). +I must ask the reader, therefore, not to regard as idle pedantry the +apparatus of somewhat subtle discriminations to be found in what +follows. + +It has been customary, in works on logic, to distinguish two +standpoints, that of extension and that of intension. Philosophers have +usually regarded the latter as more fundamental, while Mathematics has +been held to deal specially with the former. M. Couturat, in his +admirable work on Leibniz, states roundly that Symbolic Logic can only +be built up from the standpoint of extension[\*](#fn66-1); and if there +really were only these two points of view, his statement would be +justified. But as a matter of fact, there are positions intermediate +between pure intension and pure extension, and it is in these +intermediate regions that Symbolic Logic has its lair. It is essential +that the classes with which we are concerned should be composed of +terms, and should not be predicates or concepts, for a class must be +definite when its terms are given, but in general there will be many +predicates which attach to the given terms and to no others. We cannot +of course attempt an intensional definition of a class as the class of +predicates attaching to the terms in question and to no others, for this +would involve a vicious circle; hence the point of view of extension is +to some extent unavoidable. On the other hand, if we take extension +pure, our class is defined by enumeration of its terms, and this method +will not allow us to deal, as Symbolic Logic does, with infinite +classes. Thus, our classes must in general be regarded as objects +denoted by concepts, and to this extent the point of view of intension +is essential. It is owing to this consideration that the theory of +denoting is of such great importance. In the present chapter we have to +specify the precise degree in which extension and intension respectively +enter into the definition and employment of classes; and throughout the +discussion, I must ask the reader to remember that whatever is said has +to be applicable to infinite as well as to finite classes. + +**67.** When an object is unambiguously denoted by a concept, I shall +speak of the concept as a concept (or sometimes, loosely, as the +concept) of the object in question. Thus it will be necessary to +distinguish the concept of a class from a class-concept. We agreed to +call man a class-concept, but man does not, in its usual employment, +denote anything. On the other hand, men and all men (which I shall +regard as synonyms) do denote, and I shall contend that what they denote +is the class composed of all men. Thus man is the class-concept, men +(the concept) is the concept of the class, and men (the object denoted +by the concept men) are the class. It is no doubt confusing, at first, +to use class-concept and concept of a class in different senses; but so +many distinctions are required that some straining of language seems +unavoidable. In the phraseology of the [preceding chapter](#chapter5), +we may say that a class is a numerical conjunction of terms. This is the +thesis which is to be established. + +**68.** In [Chapter ii](#chapter2) we regarded classes as derived from +assertions, i.e. as all the entities satisfying some assertion, whose +form was left wholly vague. I shall discuss this view critically in the +[next chapter](#chapter7); for the present, we may confine ourselves to +classes as they are derived from predicates, leaving open the question +whether every assertion is equivalent to a predication. We may, then, +imagine a kind of genesis of classes, through the successive stages +indicated by the typical propositions “Socrates is human,” “Socrates has +humanity,” “Socrates is a man,” “Socrates is one among men.” Of these +propositions, the last only, we should say, explicitly contains the +class as a constituent; but every subject-predicate proposition gives +rise to the other three equivalent propositions, and thus every +predicate (provided it can be sometimes truly predicated) gives rise to +a class. This is the genesis of classes from the intensional standpoint. + +On the other hand, when mathematicians deal with what they call a +manifold, aggregate, Menge, ensemble, or some equivalent name, it is +common, especially where the number of terms involved is finite, to +regard the object in question (which is in fact a class) as defined by +the enumeration of its terms, and as consisting possibly of a single +term, which in that case is the class. Here it is not predicates and +denoting that are relevant, but terms connected by the word and, in the +sense in which this word stands for a numerical conjunction. Thus Brown +and Jones are a class, and Brown singly is a class. This is the +extensional genesis of classes. + +**69.** The best formal treatment of classes in existence is that of +Peano[\*](#fn68-1). But in this treatment a number of distinctions of +great philosophical importance are overlooked. Peano, not I think quite +consciously, identifies the class with the class-concept; thus the +relation of an individual to its class is, for him, expressed by is a. +For him, “2 is a number” is a proposition in which a term is said to +belong to the class number. Nevertheless, he identifies the equality of +classes, which consists in their having the same terms, with identity—a +proceeding which is quite illegitimate when the class is regarded as the +class-concept. In order to perceive that man and featherless biped are +not identical, it is quite unnecessary to take a hen and deprive the +poor bird of its feathers. Or, to take a less complex instance, it is +plain that even prime is not identical with integer next after 1. Thus +when we identify the class with the class-concept, we must admit that +two classes may be equal without being identical. Nevertheless, it is +plain that when two class-concepts are equal, some identity is involved, +for we say that they have the same terms. Thus there is some object +which is positively identical when two class-concepts are equal; and +this object, it would seem, is more properly called the class. +Neglecting the plucked hen, the class of featherless bipeds, every one +would say, is the same as the class of men; the class of even primes is +the same as the class of integers next after 1. Thus we must not +identify the class with the class-concept, or regard “Socrates is a man” +as expressing the relation of an individual to a class of which it is a +member. This has two consequences (to be established presently) which +prevent the philosophical acceptance of certain points in Peano’s +formalism. The first consequence is, that there is no such thing as the +null-class, though there are null class-concepts. The second is, that a +class having only one term is to be identified, contrary to Peano’s +usage, with that one term. I should not propose, however, to alter his +practice or his notation in consequence of either of these points; +rather I should regard them as proofs that Symbolic Logic ought to +concern itself, as far as notation goes, with class-concepts rather than +with classes. + +**70.** A class, we have seen, is neither a predicate nor a +class-concept, for different predicates and different class-concepts may +correspond to the same class. A class also, in one sense at least, is +distinct from the whole composed of its terms, for the latter is only +and essentially one, while the former, where it has many terms, is, as +we shall see later, the very kind of object of which many is to be +asserted. The distinction of a class as many from a class as a whole is +often made by language: space and points, time and instants, the army +and the soldiers, the navy and the sailors, the Cabinet and the Cabinet +Ministers, all illustrate the distinction. The notion of a whole, in the +sense of a pure aggregate which is here relevant, is, we shall find, not +always applicable where the notion of the class as many applies (see +[Chapter x](#chapter10)). In such cases, though terms may be said to +belong to the class, the class must not be treated as itself a single +logical subject[\*](#fn69-1). But this case never arises where a class +can be generated by a predicate. Thus we may for the present dismiss +this complication from our minds. In a class as many, the component +terms, though they have some kind of unity, have less than is required +for a whole. They have, in fact, just so much unity as is required to +make them many, and not enough to prevent them from remaining many. A +further reason for distinguishing wholes from classes as many is that a +class as one may be one of the terms of itself as many, as in “classes +are one among classes” (the extensional equivalent of “class is a +class-concept”), whereas a complex whole can never be one of its own +constituents. + +**71.** Class may be defined either extensionally or intensionally. That +is to say, we may define the kind of object which is a class, or the +kind of concept which denotes a class: this is the precise meaning of +the opposition of extension and intension in this connection. But +although the general notion can be defined in this two-fold manner, +particular classes, except when they happen to be finite, can only be +defined intensionally, i.e. as the objects denoted by such and such +concepts. I believe this distinction to be purely psychological: +logically, the extensional definition appears to be equally applicable +to infinite classes, but practically, if we were to attempt it, Death +would cut short our laudable endeavour before it had attained its goal. +Logically, therefore, extension and intension seem to be on a par. I +will begin with the extensional view. + +When a class is regarded as defined by the enumeration of its terms, it +is more naturally called a collection. I shall for the moment adopt this +name, as it will not prejudge the question whether the objects denoted +by it are truly classes or not. By a collection I mean what is conveyed +by “A and B” or “A and B and C,” or any other enumeration of definite +terms. The collection is defined by the actual mention of the terms, and +the terms are connected by and. It would seem that and represents a +fundamental way of combining terms, and that just this way of +combination is essential if anything is to result of which a number +other than 1 can be asserted. Collections do not presuppose numbers, +since they result simply from the terms together with and: they could +only presuppose numbers in the particular case where the terms of the +collection themselves presupposed numbers. There is a grammatical +difficulty which, since no method exists of avoiding it, must be pointed +out and allowed for. A collection, grammatically, is singular, whereas A +and B, A and B and C, etc. are essentially plural. This grammatical +difficulty arises from the logical fact (to be discussed presently) that +whatever is many in general forms a whole which is one; it is, +therefore, not removable by a better choice of technical terms. + +The notion of and was brought into prominence by Bolzano[\*](#fn70-1). +In order to understand what infinity is, he says, “we must go back to +one of the simplest conceptions of our understanding, in order to reach +an agreement concerning the word that we are to use to denote it. This +is the conception which underlies the conjunction and, which, however, +if it is to stand out as clearly as is required, in many cases, both by +the purposes of mathematics and by those of philosophy, I believe to be +best expressed by the words: ‘A system (Inbegriff) of certain things,’ +or ‘a whole consisting of certain parts.’ But we must add that every +arbitrary object A can be combined in a system with any others B, C, D, +…, or (speaking still more correctly) already forms a system by +itself[†](#fn70-2), of which some more or less important truth can be +enunciated, provided only that each of the presentations A, B, C, D, … +in fact represents a different object, or in so far as none of the +propositions ‘A is the same as B,’ ‘A is the same as C,’ ‘A is the same +as D,’ etc., is true. For if e.g. A is the same as B, then it is +certainly unreasonable to speak of a system of the things A and B.” + +The above passage, good as it is, neglects several distinctions which we +have found necessary. First and foremost, it does not distinguish the +many from the whole which they form. Secondly, it does not appear to +observe that the method of enumeration is not practically applicable to +infinite systems. Thirdly, and this is connected with the second point, +it does not make any mention of intensional definition nor of the notion +of a class. What we have to consider is the difference, if any, of a +class from a collection on the one hand, and from the whole formed of +the collection on the other. But let us first examine further the notion +of and. + +Anything of which a finite number other than 0 or 1 can be asserted +would be commonly said to be many, and many, it might be said, are +always of the form “A and B and C and …” Here A, B, C, … are each one +and are all different. To say that A is one seems to amount to much the +same as to say that A is not of the form “A1 and A2 and A3 and ….” To +say that A, B, C, … are all different seems to amount only to a +condition as regards the symbols: it should be held that “A and A” is +meaningless, so that diversity is implied by and, and need not be +specially stated. + +A term A which is one may be regarded as a particular case of a +collection, namely as a collection of one term. Thus every collection +which is many presupposes many collections which are each one: A and B +presupposes A and presupposes B. Conversely some collections of one term +presuppose many, namely those which are complex: thus “A differs from B” +is one, but presupposes A and difference and B. But there is not +symmetry in this respect, for the ultimate presuppositions of anything +are always simple terms. + +Every pair of terms, without exception, can be combined in the manner +indicated by A and B, and if neither A nor B be many, then A and B are +two. A and B may be any conceivable entities, any possible objects of +thought, they may be points or numbers or true or false propositions or +events or people, in short anything that can be counted. A teaspoon and +the number 3, or a chimaera and a four-dimensional space, are certainly +two. Thus no restriction whatever is to be placed on A and B, except +that neither is to be many. It should be observed that A and B need not +exist, but must, like anything that can be mentioned, have Being. The +distinction of Being and existence is important, and is well illustrated +by the process of counting. What can be counted must be something, and +must certainly be, though it need by no means be possessed of the +further privilege of existence. Thus what we demand of the terms of our +collection is merely that each should be an entity. + +The question may now be asked: What is meant by A and B? Does this mean +anything more than the juxtaposition of A with B? That is, does it +contain any element over and above that of A and that of B? Is and a +separate concept, which occurs besides A, B? To either answer there are +objections. In the first place, and, we might suppose, cannot be a new +concept, for if it were, it would have to be some kind of relation +between A and B; A and B would then be a proposition, or at least a +propositional concept, and would be one, not two. Moreover, if there are +two concepts, there are two, and no third mediating concept seems +necessary to make them two. Thus and would seem meaningless. But it is +difficult to maintain this theory. To begin with, it seems rash to hold +that any word is meaningless. When we use the word and, we do not seem +to be uttering mere idle breath, but some idea seems to correspond to +the word. Again some kind of combination seems to be implied by the fact +that A and B are two, which is not true of either separately. When we +say “A and B are yellow,” we can replace the proposition by “A is +yellow” and “B is yellow”; but this cannot be done for “A and B are +two”; on the contrary, A is one and B is one. Thus it seems best to +regard and as expressing a definite unique kind of combination, not a +relation, and not combining A and B into a whole, which would be one. +This unique kind of combination will in future be called addition of +individuals. It is important to observe that it applies to terms, and +only applies to numbers in consequence of their being terms. Thus for +the present, 1 and 2 are two, and 1 and 1 is meaningless. + +As regards what is meant by the combination indicated by and, it is +indistinguishable from what we before called a numerical conjunction. +That is, A and B is what is denoted by the concept of a class of which A +and B are the only members. If u be a class-concept of which the +propositions “A is a u” “B is a u” are true, but of which all other +propositions of the same form are false, then “all u’s” is the concept +of a class whose only terms are A and B; this concept denotes the terms +A, B combined in a certain way, and “A and B” are those terms combined +in just that way. Thus “A and B” are the class, but are distinct from +the class-concept and from the concept of the class. + +The notion of and, however, does not enter into the meaning of a class, +for a single term is a class, although it is not a numerical +conjunction. If u be a class-concept, and only one proposition of the +form “x is a u” be true, then “all u’s” is a concept denoting a single +term, and this term is the class of which “all u’s” is a concept. Thus +what seems essential to a class is not the notion of and, but the being +denoted by some concept of a class. This brings us to the intensional +view of classes. + +**72.** We agreed in the [preceding chapter](#chapter5) that there are +not different ways of denoting, but only different kinds of denoting +concepts and correspondingly different kinds of denoted objects. We have +discussed the kind of denoted object which constitutes a class; we have +now to consider the kind of denoting concept. + +The consideration of classes which results from denoting concepts is +more general than the extensional consideration, and that in two +respects. In the first place it allows, what the other practically +excludes, the admission of infinite classes; in the second place it +introduces the null concept of a class. But, before discussing these +matters, there is a purely logical point of some importance to be +examined. + +If u be a class-concept, is the concept “all u’s” analyzable into two +constituents, all and u, or is it a new concept, defined by a certain +relation to u, and no more complex than u itself? We may observe, to +begin with, that “all u’s” is synonymous with “u’s,” at least according +to a very common use of the plural. Our question is, then, as to the +meaning of the plural. The word all has certainly some definite meaning, +but it seems highly doubtful whether it means more than the indication +of a relation. “All men” and “all numbers” have in common the fact that +they both have a certain relation to a class-concept, namely to man and +number respectively. But it is very difficult to isolate any further +element of all-ness which both share, unless we take as this element the +mere fact that both are concepts of classes. It would seem, then, that +“all u’s” is not validly analyzable into all and u, and that language, +in this case as in some others, is a misleading guide. The same remark +will apply to every, any, some, a, and the. + +It might perhaps be thought that a class ought to be considered, not +merely as a numerical conjunction of terms, but as a numerical +conjunction denoted by the concept of a class. This complication, +however, would serve no useful purpose, except to preserve Peano’s +distinction between a single term and the class whose only term it is—a +distinction which is easy to grasp when the class is identified with the +class-concept, but which is inadmissible in our view of classes. It is +evident that a numerical conjunction considered as denoted is either the +same entity as when not so considered, or else is a complex of denoting +together with the object denoted; and the object denoted is plainly what +we mean by a class. + +With regard to infinite classes, say the class of numbers, it is to be +observed that the concept all numbers, though not itself infinitely +complex, yet denotes an infinitely complex object. This is the inmost +secret of our power to deal with infinity. An infinitely complex +concept, though there may be such, can certainly not be manipulated by +the human intelligence; but infinite collections, owing to the notion of +denoting, can be manipulated without introducing any concepts of +infinite complexity. Throughout the discussions of infinity in later +Parts of the present work, this remark should be borne in mind: if it is +forgotten, there is an air of magic which causes the results obtained to +seem doubtful. + +**73.** Great difficulties are associated with the null-class, and +generally with the idea of nothing. It is plain that there is such a +concept as nothing, and that in some sense nothing is something. In +fact, the proposition “nothing is not nothing” is undoubtedly capable of +an interpretation which makes it true—a point which gives rise to the +contradictions discussed in Plato’s Sophist. In Symbolic Logic the +null-class is the class which has no terms at all; and symbolically it +is quite necessary to introduce some such notion. We have to consider +whether the contradictions which naturally arise can be avoided. + +It is necessary to realize, in the first place, that a concept may +denote although it does not denote anything. This occurs when there are +propositions in which the said concept occurs, and which are not about +the said concept, but all such propositions are false. Or rather, the +above is a first step towards the explanation of a denoting concept +which denotes nothing. It is not, however, an adequate explanation. +Consider, for example, the proposition “chimaeras are animals” or “even +primes other than 2 are numbers.” These propositions appear to be true, +and it would seem that they are not concerned with the denoting +concepts, but with what these concepts denote; yet that is impossible, +for the concepts in question do not denote anything. Symbolic Logic says +that these concepts denote the null-class, and that the propositions in +question assert that the null-class is contained in certain other +classes. But with the strictly extensional view of classes propounded +above, a class which has no terms fails to be anything at all: what is +merely and solely a collection of terms cannot subsist when all the +terms are removed. Thus we must either find a different interpretation +of classes, or else find a method of dispensing with the null-class. + +The above imperfect definition of a concept which denotes, but does not +denote anything, may be amended as follows. All denoting concepts, as we +saw, are derived from class-concepts; and a is a class-concept when “x +is an a” is a propositional function. The denoting concepts associated +with a will not denote anything when and only when “x is an a” is false +for all values of x. This is a complete definition of a denoting concept +which does not denote anything; and in this case we shall say that a is +a null class-concept, and that “all a’s” is a null concept of a class. +Thus for a system such as Peano’s, in which what are called classes are +really class-concepts, technical difficulties need not arise; but for us +a genuine logical problem remains. + +The proposition “chimaeras are animals” may be easily interpreted by +means of formal implication, as meaning “x is a chimaera implies x is an +animal for all values of x.” But in dealing with classes we have been +assuming that propositions containing all or any or every, though +equivalent to formal implications, were yet distinct from them, and +involved ideas requiring independent treatment. Now in the case of +chimaeras, it is easy to substitute the pure intensional view, according +to which what is really stated is a relation of predicates: in the case +in question the adjective animal is part of the definition of the +adjective chimerical (if we allow ourselves to use this word, contrary +to usage, to denote the defining predicate of chimaeras). But here again +it is fairly plain that we are dealing with a proposition which implies +that chimaeras are animals, but is not the same proposition—indeed, in +the present case, the implication is not even reciprocal. By a negation +we can give a kind of extensional interpretation: nothing is denoted by +a chimaera which is not denoted by an animal. But this is a very +roundabout interpretation. On the whole, it seems most correct to reject +the proposition altogether, while retaining the various other +propositions that would be equivalent to it if there were chimaeras. By +symbolic logicians, who have experienced the utility of the null-class, +this will be felt as a reactionary view. But I am not at present +discussing what should be done in the logical calculus, where the +established practice appears to me the best, but what is the +philosophical truth concerning the null-class. We shall say, then, that, +of the bundle of normally equivalent interpretations of logical symbolic +formulae, the class of interpretations considered in the present +chapter, which are dependent upon actual classes, fail where we are +concerned with null class-concepts, on the ground that there is no +actual null-class. + +We may now reconsider the proposition “nothing is not nothing”—a +proposition plainly true, and yet, unless carefully handled, a source of +apparently hopeless antinomies. Nothing is a denoting concept, which +denotes nothing. The concept which denotes is of course not nothing, +i.e. it is not denoted by itself. The proposition which looks so +paradoxical means no more than this: Nothing, the denoting concept, is +not nothing, i.e. is not what itself denotes. But it by no means follows +from this that there is an actual null-class: only the null +class-concept and the null concept of a class are to be admitted. + +But now a new difficulty has to be met. The equality of class-concepts, +like all relations which are reflexive, symmetrical, and transitive, +indicates an underlying identity, i.e. it indicates that every +class-concept has to some term a relation which all equal class-concepts +also have to that term—the term in question being different for +different sets of equal class-concepts, but the same for the various +members of a single set of equal class-concepts. Now for all +class-concepts which are not null, this term is found in the +corresponding class; but where are we to find it for null +class-concepts? To this question several answers may be given, any of +which may be adopted. For we now know what a class is, and we may +therefore adopt as our term the class of all null class-concepts or of +all null propositional functions. These are not null-classes, but +genuine classes, and to either of them all null class-concepts have the +same relation. If we then wish to have an entity analogous to what is +elsewhere to be called a class, but corresponding to null +class-concepts, we shall be forced, wherever it is necessary (as in +counting classes) to introduce a term which is identical for equal +class-concepts, to substitute everywhere the class of class-concepts +equal to a given class-concept for the class corresponding to that +class-concept. The class corresponding to the class-concept remains +logically fundamental, but need not be actually employed in our +symbolism. The null-class, in fact, is in some ways analogous to an +irrational in Arithmetic: it cannot be interpreted on the same +principles as other classes, and if we wish to give an analogous +interpretation elsewhere, we must substitute for classes other more +complicated entities—in the present case, certain correlated classes. +The object of such a procedure will be mainly technical; but failure to +understand the procedure will lead to inextricable difficulties in the +interpretation of the symbolism. A very closely analogous procedure +occurs constantly in Mathematics, for example with every generalization +of number; and so far as I know, no single case in which it occurs has +been rightly interpreted either by philosophers or by mathematicians. So +many instances will meet us in the course of the present work that it is +unnecessary to linger longer over the point at present. Only one +possible misunderstanding must be guarded against. No vicious circle is +involved in the above account of the null-class; for the general notion +of class is first laid down, is found to involve what is called +existence, is then symbolically, not philosophically, replaced by the +notion of a class of equal class-concepts, and is found, in this new +form, to be applicable to what corresponds to null class-concepts, since +what corresponds is now a class which is not null. Between classes +simpliciter and classes of equal class-concepts there is a one-one +correlation, which breaks down in the sole case of the class of null +class-concepts, to which no null-class corresponds; and this fact is the +reason for the whole complication. + +**74.** A question which is very fundamental in the philosophy of +Arithmetic must now be discussed in a more or less preliminary fashion. +Is a class which has many terms to be regarded as itself one or many? +Taking the class as equivalent simply to the numerical conjunction “A +and B and C and etc.,” it seems plain that it is many; yet it is quite +necessary that we should be able to count classes as one each, and we do +habitually speak of a class. Thus classes would seem to be one in one +sense and many in another. + +There is a certain temptation to identify the class as many and the +class as one, e.g., all men and the human race. Nevertheless, wherever a +class consists of more than one term, it can be proved that no such +identification is permissible. A concept of a class, if it denotes a +class as one, is not the same as any concept of the class which it +denotes. That is to say, classes of all rational animals, which denotes +the human race as one term, is different from men, which denotes men, +i.e. the human race as many. But if the human race were identical with +men, it would follow that whatever denotes the one must denote the +other, and the above difference would be impossible. We might be tempted +to infer that Peano’s distinction, between a term and a class of which +the said term is the only member, must be maintained, at least when the +term in question is a class[\*](#fn76-1). But it is more correct, I +think, to infer an ultimate distinction between a class as many and a +class as one, to hold that the many are only many, and are not also one. +The class as one may be identified with the whole composed of the terms +of the class, i.e., in the case of men, the class as one will be the +human race. + +But can we now avoid the contradiction always to be feared, where there +is something that cannot be made a logical subject? I do not myself see +any way of eliciting a precise contradiction in this case. In the case +of concepts, we were dealing with what was plainly one entity; in the +present case, we are dealing with a complex essentially capable of +analysis into units. In such a proposition as “A and B are two,” there +is no logical subject: the assertion is not about A, nor about B, nor +about the whole composed of both, but strictly and only about A and B. +Thus it would seem that assertions are not necessarily about single +subjects, but may be about many subjects; and this removes the +contradiction which arose, in the case of concepts, from the +impossibility of making assertions about them unless they were turned +into subjects. This impossibility being here absent, the contradiction +which was to be feared does not arise. + +**75.** We may ask, as suggested by the above discussion, what is to be +said of the objects denoted by a man, every man, some man, and any man. +Are these objects one or many or neither? Grammar treats them all as +one. But to this view, the natural objection is, which one? Certainly +not Socrates, nor Plato, nor any other particular person. Can we +conclude that no one is denoted? As well might we conclude that every +one is denoted, which in fact is true of the concept every man. I think +one is denoted in every case, but in an impartial distributive manner. +Any number is neither 1 nor 2 nor any other particular number, whence it +is easy to conclude that any number is not any one number, a proposition +at first sight contradictory, but really resulting from an ambiguity in +any, and more correctly expressed by “any number is not some one +number.” There are, however, puzzles in this subject which I do not +yet know how to solve. + +A logical difficulty remains in regard to the nature of the whole +composed of all the terms of a class. Two propositions appear +self-evident: (1) Two wholes composed of different terms must be +different; (2) A whole composed of one term only is that one term. It +follows that the whole composed of a class considered as one term is +that class considered as one term, and is therefore identical with the +whole composed of the terms of the class; but this result contradicts +the first of our supposed self-evident principles. The answer in this +case, however, is not difficult. The first of our principles is only +universally true when all the terms composing our two wholes are simple. +A given whole is capable, if it has more than two parts, of being +analyzed in a plurality of ways; and the resulting constituents, so long +as analysis is not pushed as far as possible, will be different for +different ways of analyzing. This proves that different sets of +constituents may constitute the same whole, and thus disposes of our +difficulty. + +**76.** Something must be said as to the relation of a term to a class +of which it is a member, and as to the various allied relations. One of +the allied relations is to be called ε, and is to be fundamental in +Symbolic Logic. But it is to some extent optional which of them we take +as symbolically fundamental. + +Logically, the fundamental relation is that of subject and predicate, +expressed in “Socrates is human”—a relation which, as we saw in [Chapter +iv](#chapter4), is peculiar in that the relatum cannot be regarded as a +term in the proposition. The first relation that grows out of this is +the one expressed by “Socrates has humanity,” which is distinguished by +the fact that here the relation is a term. Next comes “Socrates is a +man.” This proposition, considered as a relation between Socrates and +the concept man, is the one which Peano regards as fundamental; and his +ε expresses the relation is a between Socrates and man. So long as we +use class-concepts for classes in our symbolism, this practice is +unobjectionable; but if we give ε this meaning, we must not assume that +two symbols representing equal class-concepts both represent one and the +same entity. We may go on to the relation between Socrates and the human +race, i.e. between a term and its class considered as a whole; this is +expressed by “Socrates belongs to the human race.” This relation might +equally well be represented by ε. It is plain that, since a class, +except when it has one term, is essentially many, it cannot be as such +represented by a single letter: hence in any possible Symbolic Logic the +letters which do duty for classes cannot represent the classes as many, +but must represent either class-concepts, or the wholes composed of +classes, or some other allied single entities. And thus ε cannot +represent the relation of a term to its class as many; for this would be +a relation of one term to many terms, not a two-term relation such as we +want. This relation might be expressed by “Socrates is one among men”; +but this, in any case, cannot be taken to be the meaning of ε. + +**77.** A relation which, before Peano, was almost universally +confounded with ε, is the relation of inclusion between classes, as e.g. +between men and mortals. This is a time-honoured relation, since it +occurs in the traditional form of the syllogism: it has been a +battleground between intension and extension, and has been so much +discussed that it is astonishing how much remains to be said about it. +Empiricists hold that such propositions mean an actual enumeration of +the terms of the contained class, with the assertion, in each case, of +membership of the containing class. They must, it is to be inferred, +regard it as doubtful whether all primes are integers, since they will +scarcely have the face to say that they have examined all primes one by +one. Their opponents have usually held, on the contrary, that what is +meant is a relation of whole and part between the defining predicates, +but turned in the opposite sense from the relation between the classes: +i.e. the defining predicate of the larger class is part of that of the +smaller. This view seems far more defensible than the other; and +wherever such a relation does hold between the defining predicates, the +relation of inclusion follows. But two objections may be made, first, +that in some cases of inclusion there is no such relation between the +defining predicates, and secondly, that in any case what is meant is a +relation between the classes, not a relation of their defining +predicates. The first point may be easily established by instances. The +concept even prime does not contain as a constituent the concept integer +between 1 and 10; the concept “English King whose head was cut off” does +not contain the concept “people who died in 1649”; and so on through +innumerable obvious cases. This might be met by saying that, though the +relation of the defining predicates is not one of whole and part, it is +one more or less analogous to implication, and is always what is really +meant by propositions of inclusion. Such a view represents, I think, +what is said by the better advocates of intension, and I am not +concerned to deny that a relation of the kind in question does always +subsist between defining predicates of classes one of which is contained +in the other. But the second of the above points remains valid as +against any intensional interpretation. When we say that men are +mortals, it is evident that we are saying something about men, not about +the concept man or the predicate human. The question is, then, what +exactly are we saying? + +Peano held, in earlier editions of his Formulaire, that what is asserted +is the formal implication “x is a man implies x is a mortal.” This is +certainly implied, but I cannot persuade myself that it is the same +proposition. For in this proposition, as we saw in [Chapter +iii](#chapter3), it is essential that x should take all values, and not +only such as are men. But when we say “all men are mortals,” it seems +plain that we are only speaking of men, and not of all other imaginable +terms. We may, if we wish for a genuine relation of classes, regard the +assertion as one of whole and part between the two classes each +considered as a single term. Or we may give a still more purely +extensional form to our proposition, by making it mean: Every (or any) +man is a mortal. This proposition raises very interesting questions in +the theory of denoting: for it appears to assert an identity, yet it is +plain that what is denoted by every man is different from what is +denoted by a mortal. These questions, however, interesting as they are, +cannot be pursued here. It is only necessary to realize clearly what are +the various equivalent propositions involved where one class is included +in another. The form most relevant to Mathematics is certainly the one +with formal implication, which will receive a fresh discussion in the +following chapter. + +Finally, we must remember that classes are to be derived, by means of +the notion of such that, from other sources than subject-predicate +propositions and their equivalents. Any propositional function in which +a fixed assertion is made of a variable term is to be regarded, as was +explained in [Chapter ii](#chapter2), as giving rise to a class of +values satisfying it. This topic requires a discussion of assertions; +but one strange contradiction, which necessitates the care in +discrimination aimed at in the present chapter, may be mentioned at +once. + +**78.** Among predicates, most of the ordinary instances cannot be +predicated of themselves, though, by introducing negative predicates, it +will be found that there are just as many instances of predicates which +are predicable of themselves. One at least of these, namely +predicability, or the property of being a predicate, is not negative: +predicability, as is evident, is predicable, i.e. it is a predicate of +itself. But the most common instances are negative: thus non-humanity is +non-human, and so on. The predicates which are not predicable of +themselves are, therefore, only a selection from among predicates, and +it is natural to suppose that they form a class having a defining +predicate. But if so, let us examine whether this defining predicate +belongs to the class or not. If it belongs to the class, it is not +predicable of itself, for that is the characteristic property of the +class. But if it is not predicable of itself, then it does not belong to +the class whose defining predicate it is, which is contrary to the +hypothesis. On the other hand, if it does not belong to the class whose +defining predicate it is, then it is not predicable of itself, i.e. it +is one of those predicates that are not predicable of themselves, and +therefore it does belong to the class whose defining predicate it +is—again contrary to the hypothesis. Hence from either hypothesis we +can deduce its contradictory. I shall return to this contradiction in +[Chapter x](#chapter10); for the present, I have introduced it merely as +showing that no subtlety in distinguishing is likely to be excessive. + +**79.** To sum up the above somewhat lengthy discussion. A class, we +agreed, is essentially to be interpreted in extension; it is either a +single term, or that kind of combination of terms which is indicated +when terms are connected by the word and. But practically, though not +theoretically, this purely extensional method can only be applied to +finite classes. All classes, whether finite or infinite, can be obtained +as the objects denoted by the plurals of class-concepts—men, numbers, +points, etc. Starting with predicates, we distinguished two kinds of +proposition, typified by “Socrates is human” and “Socrates has +humanity,” of which the first uses human as predicate, the second as a +term of a relation. These two classes of propositions, though very +important logically, are not so relevant to Mathematics as their +derivatives. Starting from human, we distinguished (1) the class-concept +man, which differs slightly, if at all, from human; (2) the various +denoting concepts all men, every man, any man, a man and some man; (3) +the objects denoted by these concepts, of which the one denoted by all +men was called the class as many, so that all men (the concept) was +called the concept of the class; (4) the class as one, i.e. the human +race. We had also a classification of propositions about Socrates, +dependent upon the above distinctions, and approximately parallel with +them: (1) “Socrates is-a man” is nearly, if not quite, identical with +“Socrates has humanity”; (2) “Socrates is a-man” expresses identity +between Socrates and one of the terms denoted by a man; (3) “Socrates is +one among men,” a proposition which raises difficulties owing to the +plurality of men; (4) “Socrates belongs to the human race,” which alone +expresses a relation of an individual to its class, and, as the +possibility of relation requires, takes the class as one, not as many. +We agreed that the null-class, which has no terms, is a fiction, though +there are null class-concepts. It appeared throughout that, although any +symbolic treatment must work largely with class-concepts and intension, +classes and extension are logically more fundamental for the principles +of Mathematics; and this may be regarded as our main general conclusion +in the present chapter. + +Notes + +## CHAPTER VII. +Propositional Functions. + +**80.** In the [preceding chapter](#chapter6) an endeavour was made to +indicate the kind of object that is to be called a class, and for +purposes of discussion classes were considered as derived from +subject-predicate propositions. This did not affect our view as to the +notion of class itself; but if adhered to, it would greatly restrict the +extension of the notion. It is often necessary to recognize as a class +an object not defined by means of a subject-predicate proposition. The +explanation of this necessity is to be sought in the theory of +assertions and such that. + +The general notion of an assertion has been already explained in +connection with formal implication. In the present chapter its scope and +legitimacy are to be critically examined, and its connection with +classes and such that is to be investigated. The subject is full of +difficulties, and the doctrines which I intend to advocate are put +forward with a very limited confidence in their truth. + +The notion of such that might be thought, at first sight, to be capable +of definition; Peano used, in fact, to define the notion by the +proposition “the x’s such that x is an a are the class a.” Apart from +further objections, to be noticed immediately, it is to be observed that +the class as obtained from such that is the genuine class, taken in +extension and as many, whereas the a in “x is an a” is not the class, +but the class-concept. Thus it is formally necessary, if Peano’s +procedure is to be permissible, that we should substitute for “x’s such +that so-and-so” the genuine class-concept “x such that so-and-so,” which +may be regarded as obtained from the predicate “such that so-and-so” or +rather, “being an x such that so-and-so,” the latter form being +necessary because so-and-so is a propositional function containing x. +But when this purely formal emendation has been made the point remains +that such that must often be put before such propositions as xRa, where +R is a given relation and a a given term. We cannot reduce this +proposition to the form “x is an a′” without using such that; for if we +ask what a′ must be, the answer is: a′ must be such that each of its +terms, and no other terms, have the relation R to a. To take examples +from daily life: the children of Israel are a class defined by a certain +relation to Israel, and the class can only be defined as the terms such +that they have this relation. Such that is roughly equivalent to who or +which, and represents the general notion of satisfying a propositional +function. But we may go further: given a class a, we cannot define, in +terms of a, the class of propositions “x is an a” for different values +of x. It is plain that there is a relation which each of these +propositions has to the x which occurs in it, and that the relation in +question is determinate when a is given. Let us call the relation R. +Then any entity which is a referent with respect to R is a proposition +of the type “x is an a.” But here the notion of such that is already +employed. And the relation R itself can only be defined as the relation +which holds between “x is an a” and x for all values of x, and does not +hold between any other pairs of terms. Here such that again appears. The +point which is chiefly important in these remarks is the indefinability +of propositional functions. When these have been admitted, the general +notion of one-valued functions is easily defined. Every relation which +is many-one, i.e. every relation for which a given referent has only one +relatum, defines a function: the relatum is that function of the +referent which is defined by the relation in question. But where the +function is a proposition, the notion involved is presupposed in the +symbolism, and cannot be defined by means of it without a vicious +circle: for in the above general definition of a function propositional +functions already occur. In the case of propositions of the type “x is +an a,” if we ask what propositions are of this type, we can only answer +“all propositions in which a term is said to be a”; and here the +notion to be defined reappears. + +**81.** Can the indefinable element involved in propositional functions +be identified with assertion together with the notion of every +proposition containing a given assertion, or an assertion made +concerning every term? The only alternative, so far as I can see, is to +accept the general notion of a propositional function itself as +indefinable, and for formal purposes this course is certainly the best; +but philosophically, the notion appears at first sight capable of +analysis, and we have to examine whether or not this appearance is +deceptive. + +We saw in discussing verbs, in [Chapter iv](#chapter4), that when a +proposition is completely analyzed into its simple constituents, these +constituents taken together do not reconstitute it. A less complete +analysis of propositions into subject and assertion has also been +considered; and this analysis does much less to destroy the proposition. +A subject and an assertion, if simply juxtaposed, do not, it is true, +constitute a proposition; but as soon as the assertion is actually +asserted of the subject, the proposition reappears. The assertion is +everything that remains of the proposition when the subject is omitted: +the verb remains an asserted verb, and is not turned into a verbal noun; +or at any rate the verb retains that curious indefinable intricate +relation to the other terms of the proposition which distinguishes a +relating relation from the same relation abstractly considered. It is +the scope and legitimacy of this notion of assertion which is now to be +examined. Can every proposition be regarded as an assertion concerning +any term occurring in it, or are limitations necessary as to the form of +the proposition and the way in which the term enters into it? + +In some simple cases, it is obvious that the analysis into subject and +assertion is legitimate. In “Socrates is a man,” we can plainly +distinguish Socrates and something that is asserted about him; we should +admit unhesitatingly that the same thing may be said about Plato or +Aristotle. Thus we can consider a class of propositions containing this +assertion, and this will be the class of which a typical number is +represented by “x is a man.” It is to be observed that the assertion +must appear as assertion, not as term: thus “to be a man is to suffer” +contains the same assertion, but used as term, and this proposition does +not belong to the class considered. In the case of propositions +asserting a fixed relation to a fixed term, the analysis seems equally +undeniable. To be more than a yard long, for example, is a perfectly +definite assertion, and we may consider the class of propositions in +which this assertion is made, which will be represented by the +propositional function “x is more than a yard long.” In such phrases as +“snakes which are more than a yard long,” the assertion appears very +plainly; for it is here explicitly referred to a variable subject, not +asserted of any one definite subject. Thus if R be a fixed relation and +a a fixed term, … Ra is a perfectly definite assertion. (I place dots +before the R, to indicate the place where the subject must be inserted +in order to make a proposition.) It may be doubted whether a relational +proposition can be regarded as an assertion concerning the relatum. For +my part, I hold that this can be done except in the case of +subject-predicate propositions; but this question is better postponed +until we have discussed relations[\*](#fn84-1). + +**82.** More difficult questions must now be considered. Is such a +proposition as “Socrates is a man implies Socrates is a mortal,” or +“Socrates has a wife implies Socrates has a father,” an assertion +concerning Socrates or not? It is quite certain that, if we replace +Socrates by a variable, we obtain a propositional function; in fact, the +truth of this function for all values of the variable is what is +asserted in the corresponding formal implication, which does not, as +might be thought at first sight, assert a relation between two +propositional functions. Now it was our intention, if possible, to +explain propositional functions by means of assertions; hence, if our +intention can be carried out, the above propositions must be assertions +concerning Socrates. There is, however, a very great difficulty in so +regarding them. An assertion was to be obtained from a proposition by +simply omitting one of the terms occurring in the proposition. But when +we omit Socrates, we obtain “… is a man implies … is a mortal.” In this +formula it is essential that, in restoring the proposition, the same +term should be substituted in the two places where dots indicate the +necessity of a term. It does not matter what term we choose, but it must +be identical in both places. Of this requisite, however, no trace +whatever appears in the would-be assertion, and no trace can appear, +since all mention of the term to be inserted is necessarily omitted. +When an x is inserted to stand for the variable, the identity of the +term to be inserted is indicated by the repetition of the letter x; but +in the assertional form no such method is available. And yet, at first +sight, it seems very hard to deny that the proposition in question tells +us a fact about Socrates, and that the same fact is true about Plato or +a plum-pudding or the number 2. It is certainly undeniable that “Plato +is a man implies Plato is a mortal” is, in some sense or other, the same +function of Plato as our previous proposition is of Socrates. The +natural interpretation of this statement would be that the one +proposition has to Plato the same relation as the other has to Socrates. +But this requires that we should regard the propositional function in +question as definable by means of its relation to the variable. Such a +view, however, requires a propositional function more complicated than +the one we are considering. If we represent “x is a man implies x is a +mortal” by φx, the view in question maintains that φx is the term having +to x the relation R, where R is some definite relation. The formal +statement of this view is as follows: For all values of x and y, “y is +identical with φx” is equivalent to “y has the relation R to x.” It is +evident that this will not do as an explanation, since it has far +greater complexity than what it was to explain. It would seem to follow +that propositions may have a certain constancy of form, expressed in the +fact that they are instances of a given propositional function, without +its being possible to analyze the propositions into a constant and a +variable factor. Such a view is curious and difficult: constancy of +form, in all other cases, is reducible to constancy of relations, but +the constancy involved here is presupposed in the notion of constancy of +relation, and cannot therefore be explained in the usual way. + +The same conclusion, I think, will result from the case of two +variables. The simplest instance of this case is xRy, where R is a +constant relation, while x and y are independently variable. It seems +evident that this is a propositional function of two independent +variables: there is no difficulty in the notion of the class of all +propositions of the form xRy. This class is involved—or at least all +those members of the class that are true are involved—in the notion of +the classes of referents and relata with respect to R, and these classes +are unhesitatingly admitted in such words as parents and children, +masters and servants, husbands and wives, and innumerable other +instances from daily life, as also in logical notions such as premisses +and conclusions, causes and effects, and so on. All such notions depend +upon the class of propositions typified by xRy, where R is constant +while x and y are variable. Yet it is very difficult to regard xRy as +analyzable into the assertion R concerning x and y, for the very +sufficient reason that this view destroys the sense of the relation, +i.e. its direction from x to y, leaving us with some assertion which is +symmetrical with respect to x and y, such as “the relation R holds +between x and y.” Given a relation and its terms, in fact, two distinct +propositions are possible. Thus if we take R itself to be an assertion, +it becomes an ambiguous assertion: in supplying the terms, if we are to +avoid ambiguity, we must decide which is referent and which relatum. We +may quite legitimately regard … Ry as an assertion, as was explained +before; but here y has become constant. We may then go on to vary y, +considering the class of assertions … Ry for different values of y; but +this process does not seem to be identical with that which is indicated +by the independent variability of x and y in the propositional function +xRy. Moreover, the suggested process requires the variation of an +element in an assertion, namely of y in … Ry, and this is in itself a +new and difficult notion. + +A curious point arises, in this connection, from the consideration, +often essential in actual Mathematics, of a relation of a term to +itself. Consider the propositional function xRx, where R is a constant +relation. Such functions are required in considering, e.g., the class of +suicides or of self-made men; or again, in considering the values of the +variable for which it is equal to a certain function of itself, which +may often be necessary in ordinary Mathematics. It seems exceedingly +evident, in this case, that the proposition contains an element which is +lost when it is analyzed into a term x and an assertion R. Thus here +again, the propositional function must be admitted as fundamental. + +**83.** A difficult point arises as to the variation of the concept in a +proposition. Consider, for example, all propositions of the type aRb, +where a and b are fixed terms, and R is a variable relation. There seems +no reason to doubt that the class-concept “relation between a and b” is +legitimate, and that there is a corresponding class; but this requires +the admission of such propositional functions as aRb, which, moreover, +are frequently required in actual Mathematics, as, for example, in +counting the number of many-one relations whose referents and relata are +given classes. But if our variable is to have, as we normally require, +an unrestricted field, it is necessary to substitute the propositional +function “R is a relation implies aRb.” In this proposition the +implication involved is material, not formal. If the implication were +formal, the proposition would not be a function of R, but would be +equivalent to the (necessarily false) proposition: “All relations hold +between a and b.” Generally we have some such proposition as “aRb +implies φ(R) provided R is a relation,” and we wish to turn this into a +formal implication. If φ(R) is a proposition for all values of R, our +object is effected by substituting “If ‘R is a relation’ implies ‘aRb,’ +then φ(R).” Here R can take all values[\*](#fn87-1), and the if and then +is a formal implication, while the implies is a material implication. If +φ(R) is not a propositional function, but is a proposition only when R +satisfies ψ(R), where ψ(R) is a propositional function implied by “R is +a relation” for all values of R, then our formal implication can be put +in the form “If ‘R is a relation’ implies aRb, then, for all values of +R, ψ(R) implies φ(R),” where both the subordinate implications are +material. As regards the material implication “‘R is a relation’ implies +aRb,” this is always a proposition, whereas aRb is only a proposition +when R is a relation. The new propositional function will only be true +when R is a relation which does hold between a and b: when R is not a +relation, the antecedent is false and the consequent is not a +proposition, so that the implication is false; when R is a relation +which does not hold between a and b, the antecedent is true and the +consequent false, so that again the implication is false; only when both +are true is the implication true. Thus in defining the class of +relations holding between a and b, the formally correct course is to +define them as the values satisfying “R is a relation implies aRb”—an +implication which, though it contains a variable, is not formal, but +material, being satisfied by some only of the possible values of R. The +variable R in it is, in Peano’s language, real and not apparent. + +The general principle involved is: If φx is only a proposition for some +values of x, then “‘φx implies φx’ implies φx” is a proposition for all +values of x, and is true when and only when φx is true. (The +implications involved are both material.) In some cases, “φx implies φx” +will be equivalent to some simpler propositional function ψx (such as “R +is a relation” in the above instance), which may then be substituted for +it[†](#fn87-2). + +Such a propositional function as “R is a relation implies aRb” appears +even less capable than previous instances of analysis into R and an +assertion about R, since we should have to assign a meaning to “a … b,” +where the blank space may be filled by anything, not necessarily by a +relation. There is here, however, a suggestion of an entity which has +not yet been considered, namely the couple with sense. It may be doubted +whether there is any such entity, and yet such phrases as “R is a +relation holding from a to b” seem to show that its rejection would lead +to paradoxes. This point, however, belongs to the theory of relations, +and will be resumed in [Chapter ix](#chapter9) ([§98](#sec98)). + +From what has been said, it appears that propositional functions must be +accepted as ultimate data. It follows that formal implication and the +inclusion of classes cannot be generally explained by means of a +relation between assertions, although, where a propositional function +asserts a fixed relation to a fixed term, the analysis into subject and +assertion is legitimate and not unimportant. + +**84.** It only remains to say a few words concerning the derivation of +classes from propositional functions. When we consider the x’s such that +φx, where φx is a propositional function, we are introducing a notion of +which, in the calculus of propositions, only a very shadowy use is +made—I mean the notion of truth. We are considering, among all the +propositions of the type φx, those that are true: the corresponding +values of x give the class defined by the function φx. It must be held, +I think, that every propositional function which is not null defines a +class, which is denoted by “x’s such that φx.” There is thus always a +concept of the class, and the class-concept corresponding will be the +singular, “x such that φx.” But it may be doubted—indeed the +contradiction with which I ended the [preceding chapter](#chapter6) +gives reason for doubting—whether there is always a defining predicate +of such classes. Apart from the contradiction in question, this point +might appear to be merely verbal: “being an x such that φx,” it might be +said, may always be taken to be a predicate. But in view of our +contradiction, all remarks on this subject must be viewed with caution. +This subject, however, will be resumed in [Chapter x](#chapter10). + +**85.** It is to be observed that, according to the theory of +propositional functions here advocated, the φ in φx is not a separate +and distinguishable entity: it lives in the propositions of the form φx, +and cannot survive analysis. I am highly doubtful whether such a view +does not lead to a contradiction, but it appears to be forced upon us, +and it has the merit of enabling us to avoid a contradiction arising +from the opposite view. If φ were a distinguishable entity, there would +be a proposition asserting φ of itself, which we may denote by φ(φ); +there would also be a proposition not-φ(φ), denying φ(φ). In this +proposition we may regard φ as variable; we thus obtain a propositional +function. The question arises: Can the assertion in this propositional +function be asserted of itself? The assertion is non-assertibility of +self, hence if it can be asserted of itself, it cannot, and if it +cannot, it can. This contradiction is avoided by the recognition that +the functional part of a propositional function is not an independent +entity. As the contradiction in question is closely analogous to the +other, concerning predicates net predicable of themselves, we may hope +that a similar solution will apply there also. + +Notes + +## CHAPTER VIII. +The Variable. + +**86.** The discussions of the [preceding chapter](#chapter7) elicited +the fundamental nature of the variable; no apparatus of assertions +enables us to dispense with the consideration of the varying of one or +more elements in a proposition while the other elements remain +unchanged. The variable is perhaps the most distinctively mathematical +of all notions; it is certainly also one of the most difficult to +understand. The attempt, if not the deed, belongs to the present +chapter. + +The theory as to the nature of the variable, which results from our +previous discussions, is in outline the following. When a given term +occurs as term in a proposition, that term may be replaced by any other +while the remaining terms are unchanged. The class of propositions so +obtained have what may be called constancy of form, and this constancy +of form must be taken as a primitive idea. The notion of a class of +propositions of constant form is more fundamental than the general +notion of class, for the latter can be defined in terms of the former, +but not the former in terms of the latter. Taking any term, a certain +member of any class of propositions of constant form will contain that +term. Thus x, the variable, is what is denoted by any term, and φx, the +propositional function, is what is denoted by the proposition of the +form φ in which x occurs. We may say that x is the x is any φx, where φx +denotes the class of propositions resulting from different values of x. +Thus in addition to propositional functions, the notions of any and of +denoting are presupposed in the notion of the variable. This theory, +which, I admit, is full of difficulties, is the least objectionable that +I have been able to imagine. I shall now set it forth more in detail. + +**87.** Let us observe, to begin with, that the explicit mention of any, +some, etc., need not occur in Mathematics: formal implication will +express all that is required. Let us recur to an instance already +discussed in connection with denoting, where a is a class and b a class +of classes. We have + +“Any a belongs to any b” is equivalent to “‘x is an a’ implies that ‘u +is a b’ implies ‘x is a u’”; + +“Any a belongs to a b” is equivalent to “‘x is an a’ implies ‘there is a +b, say u, such that x is a u’”[\*](#fn90-1); + +“Any a belongs to some b” is equivalent to “there is a b, say u, such +that ‘x is an a’ implies ‘x is a u’”; + +and so on for the remaining relations considered in [Chapter +v](#chapter5). The question arises: How far do these equivalences +constitute definitions of any, a, some, and how far are these notions +involved in the symbolism itself? + +The variable is, from the formal standpoint, the characteristic notion +of Mathematics. Moreover it is the method of stating general theorems, +which always mean something different from the intensional propositions +to which such logicians as Mr Bradley endeavour to reduce them. That the +meaning of an assertion about all men or any man is different from the +meaning of an equivalent assertion about the concept man, appears to me, +I must confess, to be a self-evident truth—as evident as the fact that +propositions about John are not about the name John. This point, +therefore, I shall not argue further. That the variable characterizes +Mathematics will be generally admitted, though it is not generally +perceived to be present in elementary Arithmetic. Elementary Arithmetic, +as taught to children, is characterized by the fact that the numbers +occurring in it are constants; the answer to any schoolboy’s sum is +obtainable without propositions concerning any number. But the fact that +this is the case can only be proved by the help of propositions about +any number, and thus we are led from schoolboy’s Arithmetic to the +Arithmetic which uses letters for numbers and proves general theorems. +How very different this subject is from childhood’s enemy may be seen at +once in such works as those of Dedekind[†](#fn90-2) and +Stolz[‡](#fn90-3). Now the difference consists simply in this, that +our numbers have now become variables instead of being constants. We now +prove theorems concerning n, not concerning 3 or 4 or any other +particular number. Thus it is absolutely essential to any theory of +Mathematics to understand the nature of the variable. + +Originally, no doubt, the variable was conceived dynamically, as +something which changed with the lapse of time, or, as is said, as +something which successively assumed all values of a certain class. This +view cannot be too soon dismissed. If a theorem is proved concerning n, +it must not be supposed that n is a kind of arithmetical Proteus, which +is 1 on Sundays and 2 on Mondays, and so on. Nor must it be supposed +that n simultaneously assumes all its values. If n stands for any +integer, we cannot say that n is 1, nor yet that it is 2, nor yet that +it is any other particular number. In fact, n just denotes any number, +and this is something quite distinct from each and all of the numbers. +It is not true that 1 is any number, though it is true that whatever +holds of any number holds of 1. The variable, in short, requires the +indefinable notion of any which was explained in [Chapter v](#chapter5). + +**88.** We may distinguish what may be called the true or formal +variable from the restricted variable. Any term is a concept denoting +the true variable; if u be a class not containing all terms, any u +denotes a restricted variable. The terms included in the object denoted +by the defining concept of a variable are called the values of the +variable: thus every value of a variable is a constant. There is a +certain difficulty about such propositions as “any number is a number.” +Interpreted by formal implication, they offer no difficulty, for they +assert merely that the propositional function “x is a number implies x +is a number” holds for all values of x. But if “any number” be taken to +be a definite object, it is plain that it is not identical with 1 or 2 +or 3 or any number that may be mentioned. Yet these are all the numbers +there are, so that “any number” cannot be a number at all. The fact is +that the concept “any number” does denote one number, but not a +particular one. This is just the distinctive point about any, that it +denotes a term of a class, but in an impartial distributive manner, with +no preference for one term over another. Thus although x is a number, +and no one number is x, yet there is here no contradiction, so soon as +it is recognized that x is not one definite term. + +The notion of the restricted variable can be avoided, except in regard +to propositional functions, by the introduction of a suitable +hypothesis, namely the hypothesis expressing the restriction itself. But +in respect of propositional functions this is not possible. The x in φx, +where φx is a propositional function, is an unrestricted variable; but +the φx itself is restricted to the class which we may call φ. (It is to +be remembered that the class is here fundamental, for we found it +impossible, without a vicious circle, to discover any common +characteristic by which the class could be defined, since the statement +of any common characteristic is itself a propositional function.) By +making our x always an unrestricted variable, we can speak of the +variable, which is conceptually identical in Logic, Arithmetic, +Geometry, and all other formal subjects. The terms dealt with are always +all terms; only the complex concepts that occur distinguish the various +branches of Mathematics. + +**89.** We may now return to the apparent definability of any, some, and +a, in terms of formal implication. Let a and b be class-concepts, and +consider the proposition “any a is a b.” This is to be interpreted as +meaning “x is an a implies x is a b.” It is plain that, to begin with, +the two propositions do not mean the same thing: for any a is a concept +denoting only a’s, whereas in the formal implication x need not be an a. +But we might, in Mathematics, dispense altogether with “any a is a b,” +and content ourselves with the formal implication: this is, in fact, +symbolically the best course. The question to be examined, therefore, +is: How far, if at all, do any and some and a enter into the formal +implication? (The fact that the indefinite article appears in “x is an +a” and “x is a b” is irrelevant, for these are merely taken as typical +propositional functions.) We have, to begin with, a class of true +propositions, each asserting of some constant term that if it is an a it +is a b. We then consider the restricted variable, “any proposition of +this class.” We assert the truth of any term included among the values +of this restricted variable. But in order to obtain the suggested +formula, it is necessary to transfer the variability from the +proposition as a whole to its variable term. In this way we obtain “x is +an a implies x is b.” But the genesis remains essential, for we are not +here expressing a relation of two propositional functions “x is an a” +and “x is a b.” If this were expressed, we should not require the same x +both times. Only one propositional function is involved, namely the +whole formula. Each proposition of the class expresses a relation of one +term of the propositional function “x is an a” to one of “x is a b”; and +we may say, if we choose, that the whole formula expresses a relation of +any term of “x is an a” to some term of “x is a b.” We do not so much +have an implication containing a variable as a variable implication. Or +again, we may say that the first x is any term, but the second is some +term, namely the first x. We have a class of implications not containing +variables, and we consider any member of this class. If any member is +true, the fact is indicated by introducing a typical implication +containing a variable. This typical implication is what is called a +formal implication: it is any member of a class of material +implications. Thus it would seem that any is presupposed in mathematical +formalism, but that some and a may be legitimately replaced by their +equivalents in terms of formal implications. + +**90.** Although some may be replaced by its equivalent in terms of any, +it is plain that this does not give the meaning of some. There is, in +fact, a kind of duality of any and some: given a certain propositional +function, if all terms belonging to the propositional function are +asserted, we have any, while if one at least is asserted (which gives +what is called an existence-theorem), we get some. The proposition φx +asserted without comment, as in “x is a man implies x is a mortal,” is +to be taken to mean that φx is true for all values of x (or for any +value), but it might equally well have been taken to mean that φx is +true for some value of x. In this way we might construct a calculus with +two kinds of variable, the conjunctive and the disjunctive, in which the +latter would occur wherever an existence-theorem was to be stated. But +this method does not appear to possess any practical advantages. + +**91.** It is to be observed that what is fundamental is not particular +propositional functions, but the class-concept propositional function. A +propositional function is the class of all propositions which arise from +the variation of a single term, but this is not to be considered as a +definition, for reasons explained in the [preceding chapter](#chapter7). + +**92.** From propositional functions all other classes can be derived by +definition, with the help of the notion of such that. Given a +propositional function φx, the terms such that, when x is identified +with any one of them, φx is true, are the class defined by φx. This is +the class as many, the class in extension. It is not to be assumed that +every class so obtained has a defining predicate: this subject will be +discussed afresh in [Chapter x](#chapter10). But it must be assumed, I +think, that a class in extension is defined by any propositional +function, and in particular that all terms form a class, since many +propositional functions (e.g. all formal implications) are true of all +terms. Here, as with formal implications, it is necessary that the whole +propositional function whose truth defines the class should be kept +intact, and not, even where this is possible for every value of x, +divided into separate propositional functions. For example, if a and b +be two classes, defined by φx and ψx respectively, their common part is +defined by the product φx . ψx, where the product has to be made for +every value of x, and then x varied afterwards. If this is not done, we +do not necessarily have the same x in φx and ψx. Thus we do not multiply +propositional functions, but propositions: the new propositional +function is the class of products of corresponding propositions +belonging to the previous functions, and is by no means the product of +φx and ψx. It is only in virtue of a definition that the logical +product of the classes defined by φx and ψx is the class defined by φx . +ψx. And wherever a proposition containing an apparent variable is +asserted, what is asserted is the truth, for all values of the variable +or variables, of the propositional function corresponding to the whole +proposition, and is never a relation of propositional functions. + +**93.** It appears from the above discussion that the variable is a very +complicated logical entity, by no means easy to analyze correctly. The +following appears to be as nearly correct as any analysis I can make. +Given any proposition (not a propositional function), let a be one of +its terms, and let us call the proposition φ(a). Then in virtue of the +primitive idea of a propositional function, if x be any term, we can +consider the proposition φ(x), which arises from the substitution of x +in place of a. We thus arrive at the class of all propositions φ(x). If +all are true, φ(x) is asserted simply: φ(x) may then be called a formal +truth. In a formal implication, φ(x), for every value of x, states an +implication, and the assertion of φ(x) is the assertion of a class of +implications, not of a single implication. If φ(x) is sometimes true, +the values of x which make it true form a class, which is the class +defined by φ(x): the class is said to exist in this case. If φ(x) is +false for all values of x, the class defined by φ(x) is said not to +exist, and as a matter of fact, as we saw in [Chapter vi](#chapter6), +there is no such class, if classes are taken in extension. Thus x is, in +some sense, the object denoted by any term; yet this can hardly be +strictly maintained, for different variables may occur in a proposition, +yet the object denoted by any term, one would suppose, is unique. This, +however, elicits a new point in the theory of denoting, namely that any +term does not denote, properly speaking, an assemblage of terms, but +denotes one term, only not one particular definite term. Thus any term +may denote different terms in different places. We may say: any term has +some relation to any term; and this is quite a different proposition +from: any term has some relation to itself. Thus variables have a kind +of individuality. This arises, as I have tried to show, from +propositional functions. When a propositional function has two +variables, it must be regarded as obtained by successive steps. If the +propositional function φ(x, y) is to be asserted for all values of x and +y, we must consider the assertion, for all values of y, of the +propositional function φ(a, y) where a is a constant. This does not +involve y, and may be represented by ψ(a). We then vary a, and assert +ψ(x) for all values of x. The process is analogous to double +integration; and it is necessary to prove formally that the order in +which the variations are made makes no difference to the result. The +individuality of variables appears to be thus explained. A variable is +not any term simply, but any term as entering into a propositional +function. We may say, if φx be a propositional function, that x is the +term in any proposition of the class of propositions whose type is φx. +It thus appears that, as regards propositional functions, the notions of +class, of denoting, and of any, are fundamental, being presupposed in +the symbolism employed. With this conclusion, the analysis of formal +implication, which has been one of the principal problems of Part I, is +carried as far as I am able to carry it. May some reader succeed in +rendering it more complete, and in answering the many questions which I +have had to leave unanswered. + +Notes + +## CHAPTER IX. +Relations. + +**94.** Next after subject-predicate propositions come two types of +propositions which appear equally simple. These are the propositions in +which a relation is asserted between two terms, and those in which two +terms are said to be two. The latter class of propositions will be +considered hereafter; the former must be considered at once. It has +often been held that every proposition can be reduced to one of the +subject-predicate type, but this view we shall, throughout the present +work, find abundant reason for rejecting. It might be held, however, +that all propositions not of the subject-predicate type, and not +asserting numbers, could be reduced to propositions containing two terms +and a relation. This opinion would be more difficult to refute, but this +too, we shall find, has no good grounds in its favour[\*](#fn95-1). We +may therefore allow that there are relations having more than two terms; +but as these are more complex, it will be well to consider first such as +have two terms only. + +A relation between two terms is a concept which occurs in a proposition +in which there are two terms not occurring as concepts[†](#fn95-2), and +in which the interchange of the two terms gives a different proposition. +This last mark is required to distinguish a relational proposition from +one of the type “a and b are two,” which is identical with “b and a are +two.” A relational proposition may be symbolized by aRb, where R is the +relation and a and b are the terms; and aRb will then always, provided a +and b are not identical, denote a different proposition from bRa. That +is to say, it is characteristic of a relation of two terms that it +proceeds, so to speak, from one to the other. This is what may be called +the sense of the relation, and is, as we shall find, the source of order +and series. It must be held as an axiom that aRb implies and is implied +by a relational proposition bR′a, in which the relation R′ proceeds from +b to a, and may or may not be the same relation as R. But even when aRb +implies and is implied by bRa, it must be strictly maintained that these +are different propositions. We may distinguish the term from which the +relation proceeds as the referent, and the term to which it proceeds as +the relatum. The sense of a relation is a fundamental notion, which is +not capable of definition. The relation which holds between b and a +whenever R holds between a and b will be called the converse of R, and +will be denoted (following Schröder) by ˘R. The relation of R to ˘R is +the relation of oppositeness, or difference of sense; and this must not +be defined (as would seem at first sight legitimate) by the above mutual +implication in any single case, but only by the fact of its holding for +all cases in which the given relation occurs. The grounds for this view +are derived from certain propositions in which terms are related to +themselves not-symmetrically, i.e. by a relation whose converse is not +identical with itself. These propositions must now be examined. + +**95.** There is a certain temptation to affirm that no term can he +related to itself; and there is a still stronger temptation to affirm +that, if a term can be related to itself, the relation must be +symmetrical, i.e. identical with its converse. But both these +temptations must be resisted. In the first place, if no term were +related to itself, we should never be able to assert self-identity, +since this is plainly a relation. But since there is such a notion as +identity, and since it seems undeniable that every term is identical +with itself, we must allow that a term may be related to itself. +Identity, however, is still a symmetrical relation, and may be admitted +without any great qualms. The matter becomes far worse when we have to +admit not-symmetrical relations of terms to themselves. Nevertheless the +following propositions seem undeniable; Being is, or has being; 1 is +one, or has unity; concept is conceptual; term is a term; class-concept +is a class-concept. All these are of one of the three equivalent types +which we distinguished at the beginning of [Chapter v](#chapter5), which +may be called respectively subject-predicate propositions, propositions +asserting the relation of predication, and propositions asserting +membership of a class. What we have to consider is, then, the fact that +a predicate may be predicable of itself. It is necessary, for our +present purpose, to take our propositions in the second form (Socrates +has humanity), since the subject-predicate form is not in the above +sense relational. We may take, as the type of such propositions, “unity +has unity.” Now it is certainly undeniable that the relation of +predication is asymmetrical, since subjects cannot in general be +predicated of their predicates. Thus “unity has unity” asserts one +relation of unity to itself, and implies another, namely the converse +relation: unity has to itself both the relation of subject to predicate, +and the relation of predicate to subject. Now if the referent and the +relatum are identical, it is plain that the relatum has to the referent +the same relation as the referent has to the relatum. Hence if the +converse of a relation in a particular case were defined by mutual +implication in that particular case, it would appear that, in the +present case, our relation has two converses, since two different +relations of relatum to referent are implied by “unity has unity.” We +must therefore define the converse of a relation by the fact that aRb +implies and is implied by b˘Ra whatever a and b may be, and whether or +not the relation R holds between them. That is to say, a and b are here +essentially variables, and if we give them any constant value, we may +find that aRb implies and is implied by bR′a, where R′ is some relation +other than ˘R. + +Thus three points must be noted with regard to relations of two terms: +(1) they all have sense, so that, provided a and b are not identical, we +can distinguish aRb from bRa; (2) they all have a converse, i.e. a +relation ˘R such that aRb implies and is implied by b˘Ra, whatever a and +b may be; (3) some relations hold between a term and itself, and such +relations are not necessarily symmetrical, i.e. there may be two +different relations, which are each other’s converses, and which both +hold between a term and itself. + +**96.** For the general theory of relations, especially in its +mathematical developments, certain axioms relating classes and relations +are of great importance. It is to be held that to have a given relation +to a given term is a predicate, so that all terms having this relation +to this term form a class. It is to be held further that to have a given +relation at all is a predicate, so that all referents with respect to a +given relation form a class. It follows, by considering the converse +relation, that all relata also form a class. These two classes I shall +call respectively the domain and the converse domain of the relation; +the logical sum of the two I shall call the field of the relation. + +The axiom that all referents with respect to a given relation form a +class seems, however, to require some limitation, and that on account of +the contradiction mentioned at the end of [Chapter vi](#chapter6). This +contradiction may be stated as follows. We saw that some predicates can +be predicated of themselves. Consider now those of which this is not the +case. These are the referents (and also the relata) in what seems like a +complex relation, namely the combination of non-predicability with +identity. But there is no predicate which attaches to all of them and to +no other terms. For this predicate will either be predicable or not +predicable of itself. If it is predicable of itself, it is one of those +referents by relation to which it was defined, and therefore, in virtue +of their definition, it is not predicable of itself. Conversely, if it +is not predicable of itself, then again it is one of the said referents, +of all of which (by hypothesis) it is predicable, and therefore again it +is predicable of itself. This is a contradiction, which shows that all +the referents considered have no exclusive common predicate, and +therefore, if defining predicates are essential to classes, do not form +a class. + +The matter may be put otherwise. In defining the would-be class of +predicates, all those not predicable of themselves have been used up. +The common predicate of all these predicates cannot be one of them, +since for each of them there is at least one predicate (namely itself) +of which it is not predicable. But again, the supposed common predicate +cannot be any other predicate, for if it were, it would be predicable of +itself, i.e. it would be a member of the supposed class of predicates, +since these were defined as those of which it is predicable. Thus no +predicate is left over which could attach to all the predicates +considered. + +It follows from the above that not every definable collection of terms +forms a class defined by a common predicate. This fact must be borne in +mind, and we must endeavour to discover what properties a collection +must have in order to form such a class. The exact point established by +the above contradiction may be stated as follows: A proposition +apparently containing only one variable may not be equivalent to any +proposition asserting that the variable in question has a certain +predicate. It remains an open question whether every class must have a +defining predicate. + +That all terms having a given relation to a given term form a class +defined by an exclusive common predicate results from the doctrine of +[Chapter vii](#chapter7), that the proposition aRb can be analyzed into +the subject a and the assertion Rb. To be a term of which Rb can be +asserted appears to be plainly a predicate. But it does not follow, I +think, that to be a term of which, for some value of y, Ry can be +asserted, is a predicate. The doctrine of propositional functions +requires, however, that all terms having the latter property should form +a class. This class I shall call the domain of the relation R as well as +the class of referents. The domain of the converse relation will be also +called the converse domain, as well as the class of relata. The two +domains together will be called the field of the relation—a notion +chiefly important as regards series. Thus if paternity be the relation, +fathers form its domain, children its converse domain, and fathers and +children together its field. + +It may be doubted whether a proposition aRb can be regarded as asserting +aR of b, or whether only ˘Ra can be asserted of b. In other words, is a +relational proposition only an assertion concerning the referent, or +also an assertion concerning the relatum? If we take the latter view, we +shall have, connected with (say) “a is greater than b,” four assertions, +namely “is greater than b,” “a is greater than,” “is less than a” and “b +is less than.” I am inclined myself to adopt this view, but I know of no +argument on either side. + +**97.** We can form the logical sum and product of two relations or of a +class of relations exactly as in the case of classes, except that here +we have to deal with double variability. In addition to these ways of +combination, we have also the relative product, which is in general +non-commutative, and therefore requires that the number of factors +should be finite. If R, S be two relations, to say that their relative +product RS holds between two terms x, z is to say that there is a term y +to which x has the relation R, and which itself has the relation S to z. +Thus brother-in-law is the relative product of wife and brother or of +sister and husband: father-in-law is the relative product of wife and +father, whereas the relative product of father and wife is mother or +step-mother. + +**98.** There is a temptation to regard a relation as definable in +extension as a class of couples. This has the formal advantage that it +avoids the necessity for the primitive proposition asserting that every +couple has a relation holding between no other pair of terms. But it is +necessary to give sense to the couple, to distinguish the referent from +the relatum: thus a couple becomes essentially distinct from a class of +two terms, and must itself be introduced as a primitive idea. It would +seem, viewing the matter philosophically, that sense can only be derived +from some relational proposition, and that the assertion that a is +referent and b relatum already involves a purely relational proposition +in which a and b are terms, though the relation asserted is only the +general one of referent to relatum. There are, in fact, concepts such as +greater, which occur otherwise than as terms in propositions having two +terms (§§[48](#sec48), [54](#sec54)); and no doctrine of couples can +evade such propositions. It seems therefore more correct to take an +intensional view of relations, and to identify them rather with +class-concepts than with classes. This procedure is formally more +convenient, and seems also nearer to the logical facts. Throughout +Mathematics there is the same rather curious relation of intensional and +extensional points of view: the symbols other than variable terms (i.e. +the variable class-concepts and relations) stand for intensions, while +the actual objects dealt with are always extensions. Thus in the +calculus of relations, it is classes of couples that are relevant, but +the symbolism deals with them by means of relations. This is precisely +similar to the state of things explained in relation to classes, and it +seems unnecessary to repeat the explanations at length. + +**99.** Mr Bradley, in Appearance and Reality, Chapter iii, has based an +argument against the reality of relations upon the endless regress +arising from the fact that a relation which relates two terms must be +related to each of them. The endless regress is undeniable, if +relational propositions are taken to be ultimate, but it is very +doubtful whether it forms any logical difficulty. We have already had +occasion ([§55](#sec55)) to distinguish two kinds of regress, the one +proceeding merely to perpetually new implied propositions, the other in +the meaning of a proposition itself; of these two kinds, we agreed that +the former, since the solution of the problem of infinity, has ceased to +be objectionable, while the latter remains inadmissible. We have to +inquire which kind of regress occurs in the present instance. It may be +urged that it is part of the very meaning of a relational proposition +that the relation involved should have to the terms the relation +expressed in saying that it relates them, and that this is what makes +the distinction, which we formerly ([§54](#sec54)) left unexplained, +between a relating relation and a relation in itself. It may be urged, +however, against this view, that the assertion of a relation between the +relation and the terms, though implied, is no part of the original +proposition, and that a relating relation is distinguished from a +relation in itself by the indefinable element of assertion which +distinguishes a proposition from a concept. Against this it might be +retorted that, in the concept “difference of a and b,” difference +relates a and b just as much as in the proposition “a and b differ”; but +to this it may be rejoined that we found the difference of a and b, +except in so far as some specific point of difference may be in +question, to be indistinguishable from bare difference. Thus it seems +impossible to prove that the endless regress involved is of the +objectionable kind. We may distinguish, I think, between “a exceeds b” +and “a is greater than b,” though it would be absurd to deny that people +usually mean the same thing by these two propositions. On the principle, +from which I can see no escape, that every genuine word must have some +meaning, the is and than must form part of “a is greater than b,” which +thus contains more than two terms and a relation. The is seems to state +that a has to greater the relation of referent, while the than states +similarly that b has to greater the relation of relatum. But “a exceeds +b” may be held to express solely the relation of a to b, without +including any of the implications of further relations. Hence we shall +have to conclude that a relational proposition aRb does not include in +its meaning any relation of a or b to R, and that the endless regress, +though undeniable, is logically quite harmless. With these remarks, we +may leave the further theory of relations to later Parts of the present +work. + +Notes + +## CHAPTER X. +The Contradiction. + +**100.** Before taking leave of fundamental questions, it is necessary +to examine more in detail the singular contradiction, already mentioned, +with regard to predicates not predicable of themselves. Before +attempting to solve this puzzle, it will be well to make some deductions +connected with it, and to state it in various different forms. I may +mention that I was led to it in the endeavour to reconcile Cantor’s +proof that there can be no greatest cardinal number with the very +plausible supposition that the class of all terms (which we have seen to +be essential to all formal propositions) has necessarily the greatest +possible number of members[\*](#fn101-1). + +Let w be a class concept which can be asserted of itself, i.e. such that +“w is a w.” Instances are class-concept, and the negations of ordinary +class-concepts, e.g. not-man. Then (α) if w be contained in another +class v, since w is a w, w is a v; consequently there is a term of v +which is a class-concept that can be asserted of itself. Hence by +contraposition, (β) if u be a class-concept none of whose members are +class-concepts that can be asserted of themselves, no class-concept +contained in u can be asserted of itself. Hence further, (γ) if u be any +class-concept whatever, and u′ the class-concept of those members of u +which are not predicable of themselves, this class-concept is contained +in itself, and none of its members are predicable of themselves; hence +by (β) u′ is not predicable of itself. Thus u′ is not a u′, and is +therefore not a u; for the terms of u that are not terms of u′ are all +predicable of themselves, which u′ is not. Thus (δ) if u be any +class-concept whatever, there is a class-concept contained in u which is +not a member of u, and is also one of those class-concepts that are not +predicable of themselves. So far, our deductions seem scarcely open to +question. But if we now take the last of them, and admit the class of +those class-concepts that cannot be asserted of themselves, we find that +this class must contain a class-concept not a member of itself and yet +not belonging to the class in question. + +We may observe also that, in virtue of what we have proved in (β), the +class of class-concepts which cannot be asserted of themselves, which we +will call w, contains as members of itself all its sub-classes, although +it is easy to prove that every class has more sub-classes than terms. +Again, if y be any term of w, and w′ be the whole of w except y, then +w′, being a sub-class of w, is not a w′ but is a w, and therefore is +y. Hence each class-concept which is a term of w has all other terms of +w as its extension. It follows that the concept bicycle is a teaspoon, +and teaspoon is a bicycle. This is plainly absurd, and any number of +similar absurdities can be proved. + +**101.** Let us leave these paradoxical consequences, and attempt the +exact statement of the contradiction itself. We have first the statement +in terms of predicates, which has been given already. If x be a +predicate, x may or may not be predicable of itself. Let us assume that +“not-predicable of oneself” is a predicate. Then to suppose either +that this predicate is, or that it is not, predicable of itself, is +self-contradictory. The conclusion, in this case, seems obvious: +“not-predicable of oneself” is not a predicate. + +Let us now state the same contradiction in terms of class-concepts. A +class-concept may or may not be a term of its own extension. +“Class-concept which is not a term of its own extension” appears to be +a class-concept. But if it is a term of its own extension, it is a +class-concept which is not a term of its own extension, and vice versâ. +Thus we must conclude, against appearances, that “class-concept which is +not a term of its own extension” is not a class-concept. + +In terms of classes the contradiction appears even more extraordinary. A +class as one may be a term of itself as many. Thus the class of all +classes is a class; the class of all the terms that are not men is not a +man, and so on. Do all the classes that have this property form a class? +If so, is it as one a member of itself as many or not? If it is, then it +is one of the classes which, as ones, are not members of themselves as +many, and vice versâ. Thus we must conclude again that the classes which +as ones are not members of themselves as many do not form a class—or +rather, that they do not form a class as one, for the argument cannot +show that they do not form a class as many. + +**102.** A similar result, which, however, does not lead to a +contradiction, may be proved concerning any relation. Let R be a +relation, and consider the class w of terms which do not have the +relation R to themselves. Then it is impossible that there should be any +term a to which all of them and no other terms have the relation R. For, +if there were such a term, the propositional function “x does not have +the relation R to x” would be equivalent to “x has the relation R to a.” +Substituting a for x throughout, which is legitimate since the +equivalence is formal, we find a contradiction. When in place of R we +put ε, the relation of a term to a class-concept which can be asserted +of it, we get the above contradiction. The reason that a contradiction +emerges here is that we have taken it as an axiom that any propositional +function containing only one variable is equivalent to asserting +membership of a class defined by the propositional function. Either this +axiom, or the principle that every class can be taken as one term, is +plainly false, and there is no fundamental objection to dropping either. +But having dropped the former, the question arises: Which propositional +functions define classes which are single terms as well as many, and +which do not? And with this question our real difficulties begin. + +Any method by which we attempt to establish a one-one or many-one +correlation of all terms and all propositional functions must omit at +least one propositional function. Such a method would exist if all +propositional functions could be expressed in the form … εu, since this +form correlates u with … εu. But the impossibility of any such +correlation is proved as follows. Let φx be a propositional function +correlated with x; then, if the correlation covers all terms, the denial +of φx(x) will be a propositional function, since it is a proposition for +all values of x. But it cannot be included in the correlation; for if it +were correlated with a, φa(x) would be equivalent, for all values of x, +to the denial of φx(x); but this equivalence is impossible for the value +a, since it makes φa(a) equivalent to its own denial. It follows that +there are more propositional functions than terms—a result which seems +plainly impossible, although the proof is as convincing as any in +Mathematics. We shall shortly see how the impossibility is removed by +the doctrine of logical types. + +**103.** The first method which suggests itself is to seek an ambiguity +in the notion of ε. But in [Chapter vi](#chapter6) we distinguished the +various meanings as far as any distinction seemed possible, and we have +just seen that with each meaning the same contradiction emerges. Let us, +however, attempt to state the contradiction throughout in terms of +propositional functions. Every propositional function which is not null, +we supposed, defines a class, and every class can certainly be defined +by a propositional function. Thus to say that a class as one is not a +member of itself as many is to say that the class as one does not +satisfy the function by which itself as many is defined. Since all +propositional functions except such as are null define classes, all will +be used up, in considering all classes having the above property, except +such as do not have the above property. If any propositional function +were satisfied by every class having the above property, it would +therefore necessarily be one satisfied also by the class w of all such +classes considered as a single term. Hence the class w does not itself +belong to the class w, and therefore there must be some propositional +function satisfied by the terms of w but not by w itself. Thus the +contradiction re-emerges, and we must suppose, either that there is no +such entity as w, or that there is no propositional function satisfied +by its terms and by no others. + +It might be thought that a solution could be found by denying the +legitimacy of variable propositional functions. If we denote by kφ, for +the moment, the class of values satisfying φ, our propositional function +is the denial of φ(kφ) where φ is the variable. The doctrine of [Chapter +vii](#chapter7), that φ is not a separable entity, might make such a +variable seem illegitimate; but this objection can be overcome by +substituting for φ the class of propositions φx, or the relation of φx +to x. Moreover it is impossible to exclude variable propositional +functions altogether. Wherever a variable class or a variable relation +occurs, we have admitted a variable propositional function, which is +thus essential to assertions about every class or about every relation. +The definition of the domain of a relation, for example, and all the +general propositions which constitute the calculus of relations, would +be swept away by the refusal to allow this type of variation. Thus we +require some further characteristic by which to distinguish two kinds of +variation. This characteristic is to be found, I think, in the +independent variability of the function and the argument. In general, φx +is itself a function of two variables, φ and x; of these, either may be +given a constant value, and either may be varied without reference to +the other. But in the type of propositional functions we are considering +in this Chapter, the argument is itself a function of the propositional +function: instead of φx, we have φ{f(φ)}, where f(φ) is defined as a +function of φ. Thus when φ is varied, the argument of which φ is +asserted is varied too. Thus “x is an x” is equivalent to: “φ can be +asserted of the class of terms satisfying φ,” this class of terms being +x. If here φ is varied, the argument is varied at the same time in a +manner dependent upon the variation of φ. For this reason, φ{f(φ)}, +though it is a definite proposition when x is assigned, is not a +propositional function, in the ordinary sense, when x is variable. +Propositional functions of this doubtful type may be called quadratic +forms, because the variable enters into them in a way somewhat analogous +to that in which, in Algebra, a variable appears in an expression of the +second degree. + +**104.** Perhaps the best way to state the suggested solution is to say +that, if a collection of terms can only be defined by a variable +propositional function, then, though a class as many may be admitted, a +class as one must be denied. When so stated, it appears that +propositional functions may be varied, provided the resulting collection +is never itself made into the subject in the original propositional +function. In such cases there is only a class as many, not a class as +one. We took it as axiomatic that the class as one is to be found +wherever there is a class as many; but this axiom need not be +universally admitted, and appears to have been the source of the +contradiction. By denying it, therefore, the whole difficulty will be +overcome. + +A class as one, we shall say, is an object of the same type as its +terms; i.e. any propositional function φ(x) which is significant when +one of the terms is substituted for x is also significant when the class +as one is substituted. But the class as one does not always exist, and +the class as many is of a different type from the terms of the class, +even when the class has only one term, i.e. there are propositional +functions φ(u) in which u may be the class as many, which are +meaningless if, for u, we substitute one of the terms of the class. And +so “x is one among x’s” is not a proposition at all if the relation +involved is that of a term to its class as many; and this is the only +relation of whose presence a propositional function always assures us. +In this view, a class as many may be a logical subject, but in +propositions of a different kind from those in which its terms are +subjects; of any object other than a single term, the question whether +it is one or many will have different answers according to the +proposition in which it occurs. Thus we have “Socrates is one among +men,” in which men are plural; but “men are one among species of +animals,” in which men are singular. It is the distinction of logical +types that is the key to the whole mystery[\*](#fn105-1). + +**105.** Other ways of evading the contradiction, which might be +suggested, appear undesirable, on the ground that they destroy too many +quite necessary kinds of propositions. It might be suggested that +identity is introduced in “x is not an x” in a way which is not +permissible. But it has been already shown that relations of terms to +themselves are unavoidable, and it may be observed that suicides or +self-made men or the heroes of Smiles’s Self-Help are all defined by +relations to themselves. And generally, identity enters in a very +similar way into formal implication, so that it is quite impossible to +reject it. + +A natural suggestion for escaping from the contradiction would be to +demur to the notion of all terms or of all classes. It might be urged +that no such sum-total is conceivable; and if all indicates a whole, our +escape from the contradiction requires us to admit this. But we have +already abundantly seen that if this view were maintained against any +term, all formal truth would be impossible, and Mathematics, whose +characteristic is the statement of truths concerning any term, would be +abolished at one stroke. Thus the correct statement of formal truths +requires the notion of any term or every term, but not the collective +notion of all terms. + +It should be observed, finally, that no peculiar philosophy is involved +in the above contradiction, which springs directly from common sense, +and can only be solved by abandoning some common-sense assumption. Only +the Hegelian philosophy, which nourishes itself on contradictions, can +remain indifferent, because it finds similar problems everywhere. In any +other doctrine, so direct a challenge demands an answer, on pain of a +confession of impotence. Fortunately, no other similar difficulty, so +far as I know, occurs in any other portion of the Principles of +Mathematics. + +**106.** We may now briefly review the conclusions arrived at in [Part +I](#part1). Pure Mathematics was defined as the class of propositions +asserting formal implications and containing no constants except logical +constants. And logical constants are: Implication, the relation of a +term to a class of which it is a member, the notion of such that, the +notion of relation, and such further notions as are involved in formal +implication, which we found ([§93](#sec93)) to be the following: +propositional function, class[\*](#fn106-1), denoting, and any or every +term. This definition brought Mathematics into very close relation to +Logic, and made it practically identical with Symbolic Logic. An +examination of Symbolic Logic justified the above enumeration of +mathematical indefinables. In [Chapter iii](#chapter3) we distinguished +implication and formal implication. The former holds between any two +propositions provided the first be false or the second true. The latter +is not a relation, but the assertion, for every value of the variable or +variables, of a propositional function which, for every value of the +variable or variables, asserts an implication. [Chapter iv](#chapter4) +distinguished what may be called things from predicates and relations +(including the is of predications among relations for this purpose). It +was shown that this distinction is connected with the doctrine of +substance and attributes, but does not lead to the traditional results. +Chapters [v](#chapter5) and [vi](#chapter6) developed the theory of +predicates. In the former of these chapters it was shown that certain +concepts, derived from predicates, occur in propositions not about +themselves, but about combinations of terms, such as are indicated by +all, every, any, a, some, and the. Concepts of this kind, we found, are +fundamental in Mathematics, and enable us to deal with infinite classes +by means of propositions of finite complexity. In [Chapter +vi](#chapter6) we distinguished predicates, class-concepts, concepts of +classes, classes as many, and classes as one. We agreed that single +terms, or such combinations as result from and, are classes, the latter +being classes as many; and that classes as many are the objects denoted +by concepts of classes, which are the plurals of class-concepts. But in +the present chapter we decided that it is necessary to distinguish a +single term from the class whose only member it is, and that +consequently the null-class may be admitted. + +In [Chapter vii](#chapter7) we resumed the study of the verb. +Subject-predicate propositions, and such as express a fixed relation to +a fixed term, could be analyzed, we found, into a subject and an +assertion; but this analysis becomes impossible when a given term enters +into a proposition in a more complicated manner than as referent of a +relation. Hence it became necessary to take propositional function as a +primitive notion. A propositional function of one variable is any +proposition of a set defined by the variation of a single term, while +the other terms remain constant. But in general it is impossible to +define or isolate the constant element in a propositional function, +since what remains, when a certain term, wherever it occurs, is left out +of a proposition, is in general no discoverable kind of entity. Thus the +term in question must be not simply omitted, but replaced by a variable. + +The notion of the variable, we found, is exceedingly complicated. The x +is not simply any term, but any term with a certain individuality; for +if not, any two variables would be indistinguishable. We agreed that a +variable is any term quâ term in a certain propositional function, and +that variables are distinguished by the propositional functions in which +they occur, or, in the case of several variables, by the place they +occupy in a given multiply variable propositional function. A variable, +we said, is the term in any proposition of the set denoted by a given +propositional function. + +[Chapter ix](#chapter9) pointed out that relational propositions are +ultimate, and that they all have sense: i.e. the relation being the +concept as such in a proposition with two terms, there is another +proposition containing the same terms and the same concept as such, as +in “A is greater than B” and “B is greater than A.” These two +propositions, though different, contain precisely the same constituents. +This is a characteristic of relations, and an instance of the loss +resulting from analysis. Relations, we agreed, are to be taken +intensionally, not as classes of couples[\*](#fn107-1). + +Finally, in the present chapter, we examined the contradiction resulting +from the apparent fact that, if w be the class of all classes which as +single terms are not members of themselves as many, then w as one can be +proved both to be and not to be a member of itself as many. The solution +suggested was that it is necessary to distinguish various types of +objects, namely terms, classes of terms, classes of classes, classes of +couples of terms, and so on; and that a propositional function φx in +general requires, if it is to have any meaning, that x should belong to +some one type. Thus xεx was held to be meaningless, because ε requires +that the relatum should be a class composed of objects which are of the +type of the referent. The class as one, where it exists, is, we said, of +the same type as its constituents; but a quadratic propositional +function in general appears to define only a class as many, and the +contradiction proves that the class as one, if it ever exists, is +certainly sometimes absent. + +Notes + +# PART II. +NUMBER. + +## CHAPTER XI. +Definition of Cardinal Numbers. + +**107.** We have now briefly reviewed the apparatus of general logical +notions with which Mathematics operates. In the present Part, it is to +be shown how this apparatus suffices, without new indefinables or new +postulates, to establish the whole theory of cardinal integers as a +special branch of Logic[\*](#fn111-1). No mathematical subject has made, +in recent years, greater advances than the theory of Arithmetic. The +movement in favour of correctness in deduction, inaugurated by +Weierstrass, has been brilliantly continued by Dedekind, Cantor, Frege, +and Peano, and attains what seems its final goal by means of the logic +of relations. As the modern mathematical theory is but imperfectly known +even by most mathematicians, I shall begin this Part by four chapters +setting forth its outlines in a non-symbolic form. I shall then examine +the process of deduction from a philosophical standpoint, in order to +discover, if possible, whether any unperceived assumptions have covertly +intruded themselves in the course of the argument. + +**108.** It is often held that both number and particular numbers are +indefinable. Now definability is a word which, in Mathematics, has a +precise sense, though one which is relative to some given set of +notions[†](#fn111-2). Given any set of notions, a term is definable by +means of these notions when, and only when, it is the only term having +to certain of these notions a certain relation which itself is one of +the said notions. But philosophically, the word definition has not, as a +rule, been employed in this sense; it has, in fact, been restricted to +the analysis of an idea into its constituents. This usage is +inconvenient and, I think, useless; moreover it seems to overlook the +fact that wholes are not, as a rule, determinate when their constituents +are given, but are themselves new entities (which may be in some sense +simple), defined, in the mathematical sense, by certain relations to +their constituents. I shall, therefore, in future, ignore the +philosophical sense, and speak only of mathematical definability. I +shall, however, restrict this notion more than is done by Professor +Peano and his disciples. They hold that the various branches of +Mathematics have various indefinables, by means of which the remaining +ideas of the said subjects are defined. I hold—and it is an important +part of my purpose to prove—that all Pure Mathematics (including +Geometry and even rational Dynamics) contains only one set of +indefinables, namely the fundamental logical concepts discussed in [Part +I](#part1). When the various logical constants have been enumerated, it +is somewhat arbitrary which of them we regard as indefinable, though +there are apparently some which must be indefinable in any theory. But +my contention is, that the indefinables of Pure Mathematics are all of +this kind, and that the presence of any other indefinables indicates +that our subject belongs to Applied Mathematics. Moreover, of the three +kinds of definition admitted by Peano—the nominal definition, the +definition by postulates, and the definition by +abstraction[\*](#fn112-1)—I recognize only the nominal: the others, it +would seem, are only necessitated by Peano’s refusal to regard relations +as part of the fundamental apparatus of logic, and by his somewhat undue +haste in regarding as an individual what is really a class. These +remarks will be best explained by considering their application to the +definition of cardinal numbers. + +**109.** It has been common in the past, among those who regarded +numbers as definable, to make an exception as regards the number 1, and +to define the remainder by its means. Thus 2 was 1 + 1, 3 was 2 + 1, and +so on. This method was only applicable to finite numbers, and made a +tiresome difference between 1 and other numbers; moreover the meaning of ++ was commonly not explained. We are able now-a-days to improve greatly +upon this method. In the first place, since Cantor has shown how to deal +with the infinite, it has become both desirable and possible to deal +with the fundamental properties of numbers in a way which is equally +applicable to finite and infinite numbers. In the second place, the +logical calculus has enabled us to give an exact definition of +arithmetical addition; and in the third place, it has become as easy to +define 0 and 1 as to define any other number. In order to explain how +this is done, I shall first set forth the definition of numbers by +abstraction; I shall then point out formal defects in this definition, +and replace it by a nominal definition. + +Numbers are, it will be admitted, applicable essentially to classes. It +is true that, where the number is finite, individuals may be enumerated +to make up the given number, and may be counted one by one without any +mention of a class-concept. But all finite collections of individuals +form classes, so that what results is after all the number of a class. +And where the number is infinite, the individuals cannot be enumerated, +but must be defined by intension, i.e. by some common property in virtue +of which they form a class. Thus when any class-concept is given, there +is a certain number of individuals to which this class-concept is +applicable, and the number may therefore be regarded as a property of +the class. It is this view of numbers which has rendered possible the +whole theory of infinity, since it relieves us of the necessity of +enumerating the individuals whose number is to be considered. This view +depends fundamentally upon the notion of all, the numerical conjunction +as we agreed to call it ([§59](#sec59)). All men, for example, denotes +men conjoined in a certain way; and it is as thus denoted that they have +a number. Similarly all numbers or all points denotes numbers or points +conjoined in a certain way, and as thus conjoined numbers or points have +a number. Numbers, then, are to be regarded as properties of classes. + +The next question is: Under what circumstances do two classes have the +same number? The answer is, that they have the same number when their +terms can be correlated one to one, so that any one term of either +corresponds to one and only one term of the other. This requires that +there should be some one-one relation whose domain is the one class and +whose converse domain is the other class. Thus, for example, if in a +community all the men and all the women are married, and polygamy and +polyandry are forbidden, the number of men must be the same as the +number of women. It might be thought that a one-one relation could not +be defined except by reference to the number 1. But this is not the +case. A relation is one-one when, if x and x′ have the relation in +question to y, then x and x′ are identical; while if x has the relation +in question to y and y′, then y and y′ are identical. Thus it is +possible, without the notion of unity, to define what is meant by a +one-one relation. But in order to provide for the case of two classes +which have no terms, it is necessary to modify slightly the above +account of what is meant by saying that two classes have the same +number. For if there are no terms, the terms cannot be correlated one to +one. We must say: Two classes have the same number when, and only when, +there is a one-one relation whose domain includes the one class, and +which is such that the class of correlates of the terms of the one class +is identical with the other class. From this it appears that two classes +having no terms have always the same number of terms; for if we take any +one-one relation whatever, its domain includes the null-class, and the +class of correlates of the null-class is again the null-class. When two +classes have the same number, they are said to be similar. + +Some readers may suppose that a definition of what is meant by saying +that two classes have the same number is wholly unnecessary. The way to +find out, they may say, is to count both classes. It is such notions as +this which have, until very recently, prevented the exhibition of +Arithmetic as a branch of Pure Logic. For the question immediately +arises: What is meant by counting? To this question we usually get only +some irrelevant psychological answer, as, that counting consists in +successive acts of attention. In order to count 10, I suppose that ten +acts of attention are required: certainly a most useful definition of +the number 10\! Counting has, in fact, a good meaning, which is not +psychological. But this meaning is highly complex; it is only applicable +to classes which can be well-ordered, which are not known to be all +classes; and it only gives the number of the class when this number is +finite—a rare and exceptional case. We must not, therefore, bring in +counting where the definition of numbers is in question. + +The relation of similarity between classes has the three properties of +being reflexive, symmetrical, and transitive; that is to say, if u, v, w +be classes, u is similar to itself; if u be similar to v, v is similar +to u; and if u be similar to v, and v to w, then u is similar to w. +These properties all follow easily from the definition. Now these three +properties of a relation are held by Peano and common sense to indicate +that when the relation holds between two terms, those two terms have a +certain common property, and vice versâ. This common property we call +their number[\*](#fn114-1). This is the definition of numbers by +abstraction. + +**110.** Now this definition by abstraction, and generally the process +employed in such definitions, suffers from an absolutely fatal formal +defect: it does not show that only one object satisfies the +definition[†](#fn114-2). Thus instead of obtaining one common property +of similar classes, which is the number of the classes in question, we +obtain a class of such properties, with no means of deciding how many +terms this class contains. In order to make this point clear, let us +examine what is meant, in the present instance, by a common property. +What is meant is, that any class has to a certain entity, its number, a +relation which it has to nothing else, but which all similar classes +(and no other entities) have to the said number. That is, there is a +many-one relation which every class has to its number and to nothing +else. Thus, so far as the definition by abstraction can show, any set of +entities to each of which some class has a certain many-one relation, +and to one and only one of which any given class has this relation, and +which are such that all classes similar to a given class have this +relation to one and the same entity of the set, appear as the set of +numbers, and any entity of this set is the number of some class. If, +then, there are many such sets of entities—and it is easy to prove that +there are an infinite number of them—every class will have many numbers, +and the definition wholly fails to define the number of a class. This +argument is perfectly general, and shows that definition by abstraction +is never a logically valid process. + +**111.** There are two ways in which we may attempt to remedy this +defect. One of these consists in defining as the number of a class the +whole class of entities, chosen one from each of the above sets of +entities, to which all classes similar to the given class (and no +others) have some many-one relation or other. But this method is +practically useless, since all entities, without exception, belong to +every such class, so that every class will have as its number the class +of all entities of every sort and description. The other remedy is more +practicable, and applies to all the cases in which Peano employs +definition by abstraction. This method is, to define as the number of a +class the class of all classes similar to the given class. Membership of +this class of classes (considered as a predicate) is a common property +of all the similar classes and of no others; moreover every class of the +set of similar classes has to the set a relation which it has to nothing +else, and which every class has to its own set. Thus the conditions are +completely fulfilled by this class of classes, and it has the merit of +being determinate when a class is given, and of being different for two +classes which are not similar. This, then, is an irreproachable +definition of the number of a class in purely logical terms. + +To regard a number as a class of classes must appear, at first sight, a +wholly indefensible paradox. Thus Peano (F. 1901, §32) remarks that “we +cannot identify the number of \[a class\] a with the class of classes in +question \[i.e. the class of classes similar to a\], for these objects +have different properties.” He does not tell us what these properties +are, and for my part I am unable to discover them. Probably it appeared +to him immediately evident that a number is not a class of classes. But +something may be said to mitigate the appearance of paradox in this +view. In the first place, such a word as couple or trio obviously does +denote a class of classes. Thus what we have to say is, for example, +that “two men” means “logical product of class of men and couple,” and +“there are two men” means “there is a class of men which is also a +couple.” In the second place, when we remember that a class-concept is +not itself a collection, but a property by which a collection is +defined, we see that, if we define the number as the class-concept, not +the class, a number is really defined as a common property of a set of +similar classes and of nothing else. This view removes the appearance of +paradox to a great degree. There is, however, a philosophical difficulty +in this view, and generally in the connection of classes and predicates. +It may be that there are many predicates common to a certain collection +of objects and to no others. In this case, these predicates are all +regarded by Symbolic Logic as equivalent, and any one of them is said to +be equal to any other. Thus if the predicate were defined by the +collection of objects, we should not obtain, in general, a single +predicate, but a class of predicates; for this class of predicates we +should require a new class-concept, and so on. The only available +class-concept would be “predicability of the given collection of terms +and of no others.” But in the present case, where the collection is +defined by a certain relation to one of its terms, there is some danger +of a logical error. Let u be a class; then the number of u, we said, is +the class of classes similar to u. But “similar to u” cannot be the +actual concept which constitutes the number of u; for, if v be similar +to u, “similar to v” defines the same class, although it is a different +concept. Thus we require, as the defining predicate of the class of +similar classes, some concept which does not have any special relation +to one or more of the constituent classes. In regard to every particular +number that may be mentioned, whether finite or infinite, such a +predicate is, as a matter of fact, discoverable; but when all we are +told about a number is that it is the number of some class u, it is +natural that a special reference to u should appear in the definition. +This, however, is not the point at issue. The real point is, that what +is defined is the same whether we use the predicate “similar to u” or +“similar to v,” provided u is similar to v. This shows that it is not +the class-concept or defining predicate that is defined, but the class +itself whose terms are the various classes which are similar to u or to +v. It is such classes, therefore, and not predicates such as “similar to +u,” that must be taken to constitute numbers. + +Thus, to sum up: Mathematically, a number is nothing but a class of +similar classes: this definition allows the deduction of all the usual +properties of numbers, whether finite or infinite, and is the only one +(so far as I know) which is possible in terms of the fundamental +concepts of general logic. But philosophically we may admit that every +collection of similar classes has some common predicate applicable to no +entities except the classes in question, and if we can find, by +inspection, that there is a certain class of such common predicates, of +which one and only one applies to each collection of similar classes, +then we may, if we see fit, call this particular class of predicates the +class of numbers. For my part, I do not know whether there is any such +class of predicates, and I do know that, if there be such a class, it is +wholly irrelevant to Mathematics. Wherever Mathematics derives a common +property from a reflexive, symmetrical, and transitive relation, all +mathematical purposes of the supposed common property are completely +served when it is replaced by the class of terms having the given +relation to a given term; and this is precisely the case presented by +cardinal numbers. For the future, therefore, I shall adhere to the above +definition, since it is at once precise and adequate to all mathematical +uses. + +Notes + +## CHAPTER XII. +Addition and Multiplication. + +**112.** In most mathematical accounts of arithmetical operations we +find the error of endeavouring to give at once a definition which shall +be applicable to rationals, or even to real numbers, without dwelling at +sufficient length upon the theory of integers. For the present, integers +alone will occupy us. The definition of integers, given in the preceding +chapter, obviously does not admit of extension to fractions; and in fact +the absolute difference between integers and fractions, even between +integers and fractions whose denominator is unity, cannot possibly be +too strongly emphasized. What rational fractions are, and what real +numbers are, I shall endeavour to explain at a later stage; positive and +negative numbers also are at present excluded. The integers with which +we are now concerned are not positive, but signless. And so the addition +and multiplication to be defined in this chapter are only applicable to +integers; but they have the merit of being equally applicable to finite +and infinite integers. Indeed, for the present, I shall rigidly exclude +all propositions which involve either the finitude or the infinity of +the numbers considered. + +**113.** There is only one fundamental kind of addition, namely the +logical kind. All other kinds can be defined in terms of this and +logical multiplication. In the present chapter the addition of integers +is to be defined by its means. Logical addition, as was explained in +[Part I](#part1), is the same as disjunction; if p and q are +propositions, their logical sum is the proposition “p or q,” and if u +and v are classes, their logical sum is the class “u or v,” i.e. the +class to which belongs every term which either belongs to u or belongs +to v. The logical sum of two classes u and v may be defined in terms of +the logical product of two propositions, as the class of terms belonging +to every class in which both u and v are contained[\*](#fn117-1). This +definition is not essentially confined to two classes, but may be +extended to a class of classes, whether finite or infinite. Thus if k be +a class of classes, the logical sum of the classes composing k (called +for short the sum of k) is the class of terms belonging to every class +which contains every class which is a term of k. It is this notion which +underlies arithmetical addition. If k be a class of classes no two of +which have any common terms (called for short an exclusive class of +classes), then the arithmetical sum of the numbers of the various +classes of k is the number of terms in the logical sum of k. This +definition is absolutely general, and applies equally whether k or any +of its constituent classes be finite or infinite. In order to assure +ourselves that the resulting number depends only upon the numbers of the +various classes belonging to k, and not upon the particular class k that +happens to be chosen, it is necessary to prove (as is easily done) that +if k′ be another exclusive class of classes, similar to k, and every +member of k is similar to its correlate in k′, and vice versâ, then the +number of terms in the sum of k is the same as the number in the sum of +k′. Thus, for example, suppose k has only two terms, u and v, and +suppose u and v have no common part. Then the number of terms in the +logical sum of u and v is the sum of the number of terms in u and in v; +and if u′ be similar to u, and v′ to v, and u′, v′ have no common part, +then the sum of u′ and v′ is similar to the sum of u and v. + +**114.** With regard to this definition of a sum of numbers, it is to be +observed that it cannot be freed from reference to classes which have +the numbers in question. The number obtained by summation is essentially +the number of the logical sum of a certain class of classes or of some +similar class of similar classes. The necessity of this reference to +classes emerges when one number occurs twice or oftener in the +summation. It is to be observed that the numbers concerned have no order +of summation, so that we have no such proposition as the commutative +law: this proposition, as introduced in Arithmetic, results only from a +defective symbolism, which causes an order among the symbols which has +no correlative order in what is symbolized. But owing to the absence of +order, if one number occurs twice in a summation, we cannot distinguish +a first and a second occurrence of the said number. If we exclude a +reference to classes which have the said number, there is no sense in +the supposition of its occurring twice: the summation of a class of +numbers can be defined, but in that case, no number can be repeated. In +the above definition of a sum, the numbers concerned are defined as the +numbers of certain classes, and therefore it is not necessary to decide +whether any number is repeated or not. But in order to define, without +reference to particular classes, a sum of numbers of which some are +repeated, it is necessary first to define multiplication. + +This point may be made clearer by considering a special case, such as 1 ++ 1. It is plain that we cannot take the number 1 itself twice over, for +there is one number 1, and there are not two instances of it. And if the +logical addition of 1 to itself were in question, we should find that 1 +and 1 is 1, according to the general principle of Symbolic Logic. Nor +can we define 1 + 1 as the arithmetical sum of a certain class of +numbers. This method can be employed as regards 1 + 2, or any sum in +which no number is repeated; but as regards 1 + 1, the only class of +numbers involved is the class whose only member is 1, and since this +class has one member, not two, we cannot define 1 + 1 by its means. Thus +the full definition of 1 + 1 is as follows: 1 + 1 is the number of a +class w which is the logical sum of two classes u and v which have no +common term and have each only one term. The chief point to be observed +is, that logical addition of classes is the fundamental notion, while +the arithmetical addition of numbers is wholly subsequent. + +**115.** The general definition of multiplication is due to Mr A. N. +Whitehead[\*](#fn119-1). It is as follows. Let k be a class of classes, +no two of which have any term in common. Form what is called the +multiplicative class of k, i.e. the class each of whose terms is a class +formed by choosing one and only one term from each of the classes +belonging to k. Then the number of terms in the multiplicative class of +k is the product of all the numbers of the various classes composing k. +This definition, like that of addition given above, has two merits, +which make it preferable to any other hitherto suggested. In the first +place, it introduces no order among the numbers multiplied, so that +there is no need of the commutative law, which, here as in the case of +addition, is concerned rather with the symbols than with what is +symbolized. In the second place, the above definition does not require +us to decide, concerning any of the numbers involved, whether they are +finite or infinite. Cantor has given[†](#fn119-2) definitions of the sum +and product of two numbers, which do not require a decision as to +whether these numbers are finite or infinite. These definitions can be +extended to the sum and product of any finite number of finite or +infinite numbers; but they do not, as they stand, allow the definition +of the sum or product of an infinite number of numbers. This grave +defect is remedied in the above definitions, which enable us to pursue +Arithmetic, as it ought to be pursued, without introducing the +distinction of finite and infinite until we wish to study it. Cantor’s +definitions have also the formal defect of introducing an order among +the numbers summed or multiplied: but this is, in his case, a mere +defect in the symbols chosen, not in the ideas which he symbolizes. +Moreover it is not practically desirable, in the case of the sum or +product of two numbers, to avoid this formal defect, since the resulting +cumbrousness becomes intolerable. + +**116.** It is easy to deduce from the above definitions the usual +connection of addition and multiplication, which may be thus stated. If +k be a class of b mutually exclusive classes, each of which contains a +terms, then the logical sum of k contains a × b terms[‡](#fn119-3). It +is also easy to obtain the definition of ab, and to prove the +associative and distributive laws, and the formal laws for powers, such +as abac = ab+c But it is to be observed that exponentiation is not to be +regarded as a new independent operation, since it is merely an +application of multiplication. It is true that exponentiation can be +independently defined, as is done by Cantor[\*](#fn120-1), but there is +no advantage in so doing. Moreover exponentiation unavoidably introduces +ordinal notions, since ab is not in general equal to ba. For this reason +we cannot define the result of an infinite number of exponentiations. +Powers, therefore, are to be regarded simply as abbreviations for +products in which all the numbers multiplied together are equal. + +From the data which we now possess, all those propositions which hold +equally of finite and infinite numbers can be deduced. The next step, +therefore, is to consider the distinction between the finite and the +infinite. + +Notes + +## CHAPTER XIII. +Finite and Infinite. + +**117.** The purpose of the present chapter is not to discuss the +philosophical difficulties concerning the infinite, which are postponed +to [Part V](#part5). For the present I wish merely to set forth briefly +the mathematical theory of finite and infinite as it appears in the +theory of cardinal numbers. This is its most fundamental form, and must +be understood before the ordinal infinite can be adequately +explained[\*](#fn121-1). + +Let u be any class, and let u′ be a class formed by taking away one term +x from u. Then it may or may not happen that u is similar to u′. For +example, if u be the class of all finite numbers, and u′ the class of +all finite numbers except 0, the terms of u′ are obtained by adding 1 to +each of the terms of u, and this correlates one term of u with one of u′ +and vice versâ, no term of either being omitted or taken twice over. +Thus u′ is similar to u. But if u consists of all finite numbers up to +n, where n is some finite number, and u′ consists of all these except 0, +then u′ is not similar to u. If there is one term x which can be taken +away from u to leave a similar class u′, it is easily proved that if any +other term y is taken away instead of x we also get a class similar to +u. When it is possible to take away one term from u and leave a class u′ +similar to u, we say that u is an infinite class. When this is not +possible, we say that u is a finite class. From these definitions it +follows that the null-class is finite, since no term can be taken from +it. It is also easy to prove that if u be a finite class, the class +formed by adding one term to u is finite; and conversely if this class +is finite, so is u. It follows from the definition that the numbers of +finite classes other than the null-class are altered by subtracting 1, +while those of infinite classes are unaltered by this operation. It is +easy to prove that the same holds of the addition of 1. + +**118.** Among finite classes, if one is a proper part of another, the +one has a smaller number of terms than the other. (A proper part is a +part not the whole.) But among infinite classes, this no longer holds. +This distinction is, in fact, an essential part of the above definitions +of the finite and the infinite. Of two infinite classes, one may have a +greater or a smaller number of terms than the other. A class u is said +to be greater than a class v, or to have a number greater than that of +v, when the two are not similar, but v is similar to a proper part of u. +It is known that if u is similar to a proper part of v, and v to a +proper part of u (a case which can only arise when u and v are +infinite), then u is similar to v; hence “u is greater than v” is +inconsistent with “v is greater than u.” It is not at present known +whether, of two different infinite numbers, one must be greater and the +other less. But it is known that there is a least infinite number, i.e. +a number which is less than any different infinite number. This is the +number of finite integers, which will be denoted, in the present work, +by α0[\*](#fn122-1). This number is capable of several definitions in +which no mention is made of the finite numbers. In the first place it +may be defined (as is implicitly done by Cantor[†](#fn122-2)) by means +of the principle of mathematical induction. This definition is as +follows: α0 is the number of any class u which is the domain of a +one-one relation R, whose converse domain is contained in but not +coextensive with u, and which is such that, calling the term to which x +has the relation R the successor of x, if s be any class to which +belongs a term of u which is not a successor of any other term of u, and +to which belongs the successor of every term of u which belongs to s, +then every term of u belongs to s. Or again, we may define α0 as +follows. Let P be a transitive and asymmetrical relation, and let any +two different terms of the field of P have the relation P or its +converse. Further let any class u contained in the field of P and having +successors (i.e. terms to which every term of u has the relation P) have +an immediate successor, i.e. a term whose predecessors either belong to +u or precede some term of u; let there be one term of the field of P +which has no predecessors, but let every term which has predecessors +have successors and also have an immediate predecessor; then the number +of terms in the field of P is α0. Other definitions may be suggested, +but as all are equivalent it is not necessary to multiply them. The +following characteristic is important: Every class whose number is α0 +can be arranged in a series having consecutive terms, a beginning but no +end, and such that the number of predecessors of any term of the series +is finite; and any series having these characteristics has the number +α0. + +It is very easy to show that every infinite class contains classes whose +number is α0. For let u be such a class, and let x0 be a term of u. Then +u is similar to the class obtained by taking away x0, which we will call +the class u1. Thus u1 is an infinite class. From this we can take away a +term x1, leaving an infinite class u2, and so on. The series of terms +x1, x2, … is contained in u, and is of the type which has the number α0. +From this point we can advance to an alternative definition of the +finite and the infinite by means of mathematical induction, which must +now be explained. + +**119.** If n be any finite number, the number obtained by adding 1 to n +is also finite, and is different from n. Thus beginning with 0 we can +form a series of numbers by successive additions of 1. We may define +finite numbers, if we choose, as those numbers that can be obtained from +0 by such steps, and that obey mathematical induction. That is, the +class of finite numbers is the class of numbers which is contained in +every class s to which belongs 0 and the successor of every number +belonging to s, where the successor of a number is the number obtained +by adding 1 to the given number. Now α0 is not such a number, since, in +virtue of propositions already proved, no such number is similar to a +part of itself. Hence also no number greater than α0 is finite according +to the new definition. But it is easy to prove that every number less +than α0 is finite with the new definition as with the old. Hence the two +definitions are equivalent. Thus we may define finite numbers either as +those that can be reached by mathematical induction, starting from 0 and +increasing by 1 at each step, or as those of classes which are not +similar to the parts of themselves obtained by taking away single terms. +These two definitions are both frequently employed, and it is important +to realize that either is a consequence of the other. Both will occupy +us much hereafter; for the present it is only intended, without +controversy, to set forth the bare outlines of the mathematical theory +of finite and infinite, leaving the details to be filled in during the +course of the work. + +Notes + +## CHAPTER XIV. +Theory of Finite Numbers. + +**120.** Having now clearly distinguished the finite from the infinite, +we can devote ourselves to the consideration of finite numbers. It is +customary, in the best treatises on the elements of +Arithmetic[\*](#fn124-1), not to define number or particular finite +numbers, but to begin with certain axioms or primitive propositions, +from which all the ordinary results are shown to follow. This method +makes Arithmetic into an independent study, instead of regarding it, as +is done in the present work, as merely a development, without new axioms +or indefinables, of a certain branch of general Logic. For this reason, +the method in question seems to indicate a less degree of analysis than +that adopted here. I shall nevertheless begin by an exposition of the +more usual method, and then proceed to definitions and proofs of what +are usually taken as indefinables and indemonstrables. For this purpose, +I shall take Peano’s exposition in the Formulaire[†](#fn124-2), which +is, so far as I know, the best from the point of view of accuracy and +rigour. This exposition has the inestimable merit of showing that all +Arithmetic can be developed from three fundamental notions (in addition +to those of general Logic) and five fundamental propositions concerning +these notions. It proves also that, if the three notions be regarded as +determined by the five propositions, these five propositions are +mutually independent. This is shown by finding, for each set of four out +of the five propositions, an interpretation which renders the remaining +proposition false. It therefore only remains, in order to connect +Peano’s theory with that here adopted, to give a definition of the +three fundamental notions and a demonstration of the five fundamental +propositions. When once this has been accomplished, we know with +certainty that everything in the theory of finite integers follows. +Peano’s three indefinables are 0, finite integer[\*](#fn125-1), and +successor of. It is assumed, as part of the idea of succession (though +it would, I think, be better to state it as a separate axiom), that +every number has one and only one successor. (By successor is meant, of +course, immediate successor.) Peano’s primitive propositions are then +the following. (1) 0 is a number. (2) If a is a number, the successor of +a is a number. (3) If two numbers have the same successor, the two +numbers are identical. (4) 0 is not the successor of any number. (5) If +s be a class to which 0 belongs and also the successor of every number +belonging to s, then every number belongs to s. The last of these +propositions is the principle of mathematical induction. + +**121.** The mutual independence of these five propositions has been +demonstrated by Peano and Padoa as follows[†](#fn125-2). (1) Giving the +usual meanings to 0 and successor, but denoting by number finite +integers other than 0, all the above propositions except the first are +true. (2) Giving the usual meanings to 0 and successor, but denoting by +number only finite integers less than 10, or less than any other +specified finite integer, all the above propositions are true except the +second. (3) A series which begins by an antiperiod and then becomes +periodic (for example, the digits in a decimal which becomes recurring +after a certain number of places) will satisfy all the above +propositions except the third. (4) A periodic series (such as the hours +on the clock) satisfies all except the fourth of the primitive +propositions. (5) Giving to successor the meaning greater by 2, so that +the successor of 0 is 2, and of 2 is 4, and so on, all the primitive +propositions are satisfied except the fifth, which is not satisfied if s +be the class of even numbers including 0. Thus no one of the five +primitive propositions can be deduced from the other four. + +**122.** Peano points out (loc. cit.) that other classes besides that of +the finite integers satisfy the above five propositions. What he says is +as follows: “There is an infinity of systems satisfying all the +primitive propositions. They are all verified, e.g., by replacing number +and 0 by number other than 0 and 1. All the systems which satisfy the +primitive propositions have a one-one correspondence with the numbers. +Number is what is obtained from all these systems by abstraction; in +other words, number is the system which has all the properties +enunciated in the primitive propositions, and those only.” This +observation appears to me lacking in logical correctness. In the first +place, the question arises: How are the various systems distinguished, +which agree in satisfying the primitive propositions? How, for example, +is the system beginning with 1 distinguished from that beginning with 0? +To this question two different answers may be given. We may say that 0 +and 1 are both primitive ideas, or at least that 0 is so, and that +therefore 0 and 1 can be intrinsically distinguished, as yellow and blue +are distinguished. But if we take this view—which, by the way, will have +to be extended to the other primitive ideas, number and succession—we +shall have to say that these three notions are what I call constants, +and that there is no need of any such process of abstraction as Peano +speaks of in the definition of number. In this method, 0, number, and +succession appear, like other indefinables, as ideas which must be +simply recognized. Their recognition yields what mathematicians call the +existence-theorem, i.e. it assures us that there really are numbers. But +this process leaves it doubtful whether numbers are logical constants or +not, and therefore makes Arithmetic, according to the definition in +[Part I](#part1), [Chapter i](#chapter1), primâ facie a branch of +Applied Mathematics. Moreover it is evidently not the process which +Peano has in mind. The other answer to the question consists in +regarding 0, number, and succession as a class of three ideas belonging +to a certain class of trios defined by the five primitive propositions. +It is very easy so to state the matter that the five primitive +propositions become transformed into the nominal definition of a certain +class of trios. There are then no longer any indefinables or +indemonstrables in our theory, which has become a pure piece of Logic. +But 0, number and succession become variables, since they are only +determined as one of the class of trios: moreover the existence-theorem +now becomes doubtful, since we cannot know, except by the discovery of +at least one actual trio of this class, that there are any such trios at +all. One actual trio, however, would be a constant, and thus we require +some method of giving constant values to 0, number, and succession. What +we can show is that, if there is one such trio, there are an infinite +number of them. For by striking out the first term from any class +satisfying the conditions laid down concerning number, we always obtain +a class which again satisfies the conditions in question. But even this +statement, since the meaning of number is still in question, must be +differently worded if circularity is to be avoided. Moreover we must ask +ourselves: Is any process of abstraction from all systems satisfying the +five axioms, such as Peano contemplates, logically possible? Every term +of a class is the term it is, and satisfies some proposition which +becomes false when another term of the class is substituted. There is +therefore no term of a class which has merely the properties defining +the class and no others. What Peano’s process of abstraction really +amounts to is the consideration of the class and variable members of it, +to the exclusion of constant members. For only a variable member of the +class will have only the properties by which the class is defined. Thus +Peano does not succeed in indicating any constant meaning for 0, number, +and succession, nor in showing that any constant meaning is possible, +since the existence-theorem is not proved. His only method, therefore, +is to say that at least one such constant meaning can be immediately +perceived, but is not definable. This method is not logically unsound, +but it is wholly different from the impossible abstraction which he +suggests. And the proof of the mutual independence of his five primitive +propositions is only necessary in order to show that the definition of +the class of trios determined by them is not redundant. Redundancy is +not a logical error, but merely a defect of what may be called style. My +object, in the above account of cardinal numbers, has been to prove, +from general Logic, that there is one constant meaning which satisfies +the above five propositions, and that this constant meaning should be +called number, or rather finite cardinal number. And in this way, new +indefinables and indemonstrables are wholly avoided; for when we have +shown that the class of trios in question has at least one member, and +when this member has been used to define number, we easily show that the +class of trios has an infinite number of members, and we define the +class by means of the five properties enumerated in Peano’s primitive +propositions. For the comprehension of the connection between +Mathematics and Logic, this point is of very great importance, and +similar points will occur constantly throughout the present work. + +**123.** In order to bring out more clearly the difference between +Peano’s procedure and mine, I shall here repeat the definition of the +class satisfying his five primitive propositions, the definition of +finite number, and the proof, in the case of finite numbers, of his five +primitive propositions. + +The class of classes satisfying his axioms is the same as the class of +classes whose cardinal number is α0, i.e. the class of classes, +according to my theory, which is α0. It is most simply defined as +follows: α0 is the class of classes u each of which is the domain of +some one-one relation R (the relation of a term to its successor) which +is such that there is at least one term which succeeds no other term, +every term which succeeds has a successor, and u is contained in any +class s which contains a term of u having no predecessors, and also +contains the successor of every term of u which belongs to s. This +definition includes Peano’s five primitive propositions and no more. +Thus of every such class all the usual propositions in the arithmetic of +finite numbers can be proved: addition, multiplication, fractions, etc. +can be defined, and the whole of analysis can be developed, in so far as +complex numbers are not involved. But in this whole development, the +meaning of the entities and relations which occur is to a certain degree +indeterminate, since the entities and the relation with which we start +are variable members of a certain class. Moreover, in this whole +development, nothing shows that there are such classes as the definition +speaks of. + +In the logical theory of cardinals, we start from the opposite end. We +first define a certain class of entities, and then show that this class +of entities belongs to the class α0 above defined. This is done as +follows. (1) 0 is the class of classes whose only member is the +null-class. (2) A number is the class of all classes similar to any one +of themselves. (3) 1 is the class of all classes which are not null and +are such that, if x belongs to the class, the class without x is the +null-class; or such that, if x and y belong to the class, then x and y +are identical. (4) Having shown that if two classes be similar, and a +class of one term be added to each, the sums are similar, we define +that, if n be a number, n + 1 is the number resulting from adding a unit +to a class of n terms. (5) Finite numbers are those belonging to every +class s to which belongs 0, and to which n + 1 belongs if n belongs. +This completes the definition of finite numbers. We then have, as +regards the five propositions which Peano assumes: (1) 0 is a number. +(2) Meaning n + 1 by the successor of n, if n be a number, then n + 1 is +a number. (3) If n + 1 = m + 1, then n = m. (4) If n be any number, n + +1 is different from 0. (5) If s be a class, and 0 belongs to this class, +and if when n belongs to it, n + 1 belongs to it, then all finite +numbers belong to it. Thus all the five essential properties are +satisfied by the class of finite numbers as above defined. Hence the +class of classes α0 has members, and the class finite number is one +definite member of α0. There is, therefore, from the mathematical +standpoint, no need whatever of new indefinables or indemonstrables in +the whole of Arithmetic and Analysis. + +Notes + +## CHAPTER XV. +Addition of Terms and Addition of Classes. + +**124.** Having now briefly set forth the mathematical theory of +cardinal numbers, it is time to turn our attention to the philosophical +questions raised by this theory. I shall begin by a few preliminary +remarks as to the distinction between philosophy and mathematics, and as +to the function of philosophy in such a subject as the foundations of +mathematics. The following observations are not necessarily to be +regarded as applicable to other branches of philosophy, since they are +derived specially from the consideration of the problems of logic. + +The distinction of philosophy and mathematics is broadly one of point of +view: mathematics is constructive and deductive, philosophy is critical, +and in a certain impersonal sense controversial. Wherever we have +deductive reasoning, we have mathematics; but the principles of +deduction, the recognition of indefinable entities, and the +distinguishing between such entities, are the business of philosophy. +Philosophy is, in fact, mainly a question of insight and perception. +Entities which are perceived by the so-called senses, such as colours +and sounds, are, for some reason, not commonly regarded as coming within +the scope of philosophy, except as regards the more abstract of their +relations; but it seems highly doubtful whether any such exclusion can +be maintained. In any case, however, since the present work is +essentially unconcerned with sensible objects, we may confine our +remarks to entities which are not regarded as existing in space and +time. Such entities, if we are to know anything about them, must be also +in some sense perceived, and must be distinguished one from another; +their relations also must be in part immediately apprehended. A certain +body of indefinable entities and indemonstrable propositions must form +the starting-point for any mathematical reasoning; and it is this +starting-point that concerns the philosopher. When the philosopher’s +work has been perfectly accomplished, its results can be wholly embodied +in premisses from which deduction may proceed. Now it follows from the +very nature of such inquiries that results may be disproved, but can +never be proved. The disproof will consist in pointing out +contradictions and inconsistencies; but the absence of these can never +amount to proof. All depends, in the end, upon immediate perception; and +philosophical argument, strictly speaking, consists mainly of an +endeavour to cause the reader to perceive what has been perceived by the +author. The argument, in short, is not of the nature of proof, but of +exhortation. Thus the question of the present chapter: Is there any +indefinable set of entities commonly called numbers, and different from +the set of entities above defined? is an essentially philosophical +question, to be settled by inspection rather than by accurate chains of +reasoning. + +**125.** In the present chapter, we shall examine the question whether +the above definition of cardinal numbers in any way presupposes some +more fundamental sense of number. There are several ways in which this +may be supposed to be the case. In the first place, the individuals +which compose classes seem to be each in some sense one, and it might be +thought that a one-one relation could not be defined without introducing +the number 1. In the second place, it may very well be questioned +whether a class which has only one term can be distinguished from that +one term. And in the third place, it may be held that the notion of +class presupposes number in a sense different from that above defined: +it may be maintained that classes arise from the addition of +individuals, as indicated by the word and, and that the logical addition +of classes is subsequent to this addition of individuals. These +questions demand a new inquiry into the meaning of one and of class, and +here, I hope, we shall find ourselves aided by the theories set forth in +[Part I](#part1). + +As regards the fact that any individual or term is in some sense one, +this is of course undeniable. But it does not follow that the notion of +one is presupposed when individuals are spoken of: it may be, on the +contrary, that the notion of term or individual is the fundamental one, +from which that of one is derived. This view was adopted in [Part +I](#part1), and there seems no reason to reject it. And as for one-one +relations, they are defined by means of identity, without any mention of +one, as follows: R is a one-one relation if, when x and x′ have the +relation R to y, and x has the relation R to y and y′, then x and x′ are +identical, and so are y and y′. It is true that here x, y, x′, y′ are +each one term, but this is not (it would seem) in any way presupposed in +the definition. This disposes (pending a new inquiry into the nature of +classes) of the first of the above objections. + +The next question is as to the distinction between a class containing +only one member, and the one member which it contains. If we could +identify a class with its defining predicate or class-concept, no +difficulty would arise on this point. When a certain predicate attaches +to one and only one term, it is plain that that term is not identical +with the predicate in question. But if two predicates attach to +precisely the same terms, we should say that, although the predicates +are different, the classes which they define are identical, i.e. there +is only one class which both define. If, for example, all featherless +bipeds are men, and all men are featherless bipeds, the classes men and +featherless bipeds are identical, though man differs from featherless +biped. This shows that a class cannot be identified with its +class-concept or defining predicate. There might seem to be nothing left +except the actual terms, so that when there is only one term, that term +would have to be identical with the class. Yet for many formal reasons +this view cannot give the meaning of the symbols which stand for classes +in symbolic logic. For example, consider the class of numbers which, +added to 3, give 5. This is a class containing no terms except the +number 2. But we can say that 2 is a member of this class, i.e. it has +to the class that peculiar indefinable relation which terms have to the +classes they belong to. This seems to indicate that the class is +different from the one term. The point is a prominent one in Peano’s +Symbolic Logic, and is connected with his distinction between the +relation of an individual to its class and the relation of a class to +another in which it is contained. Thus the class of numbers which, added +to 3, give 5, is contained in the class of numbers, but is not a number; +whereas 2 is a number, but is not a class contained in the class of +numbers. To identify the two relations which Peano distinguishes is to +cause havoc in the theory of infinity, and to destroy the formal +precision of many arguments and definitions. It seems, in fact, +indubitable that Peano’s distinction is just, and that some way must be +found of discriminating a term from a class containing that term only. + +**126.** In order to decide this point, it is necessary to pass to our +third difficulty, and reconsider the notion of class itself. This notion +appears to be connected with the notion of denoting, explained in [Part +I](#part1), [Chapter v](#chapter5). We there pointed out five ways of +denoting, one of which we called the numerical conjunction. This was the +kind indicated by all. This kind of conjunction appears to be that which +is relevant in the case of classes. For example, man being the +class-concept, all men will be the class. But it will not be all men quâ +concept which will be the class, but what this concept denotes, i.e. +certain terms combined in the particular way indicated by all. The way +of combination is essential, since any man or some man is plainly not +the class, though either denotes combinations of precisely the same +terms. It might seem as though, if we identify a class with the +numerical conjunction of its terms, we must deny the distinction of a +term from a class whose only member is that term. But we found in +[Chapter x](#chapter10) that a class must be always an object of a +different logical type from its members, and that, in order to avoid the +proposition xεx, this doctrine must be extended even to classes which +have only one member. How far this forbids us to identify classes with +numerical conjunctions, I do not profess to decide; in any case, the +distinction between a term and the class whose only member it is must be +made, and yet classes must be taken extensionally to the degree involved +in their being determinate when their members are given. Such classes +are called by Frege Werthverläufe; and cardinal numbers are to be +regarded as classes in this sense. + +**127.** There is still, however, a certain difficulty, which is this: a +class seems to be not many terms, but to be itself a single term, even +when many terms are members of the class. This difficulty would seem to +indicate that the class cannot be identified with all its members, but +is rather to be regarded as the whole which they compose. In order, +however, to state the difficulty in an unobjectionable manner, we must +exclude unity and plurality from the statement of it, since these +notions were to be defined by means of the notion of class. And here it +may be well to clear up a point which is likely to occur to the reader. +Is the notion of one presupposed every time we speak of a term? A term, +it may be said, means one term, and thus no statement can be made +concerning a term without presupposing one. In some sense of one, this +proposition seems indubitable. Whatever is, is one: being and one, as +Leibniz remarks, are convertible terms[\*](#fn132-1). It is difficult to +be sure how far such statements are merely grammatical. For although +whatever is, is one, yet it is equally true that whatever are, are many. +But the truth seems to be that the kind of object which is a class, i.e. +the kind of object denoted by all men, or by any concept of a class, is +not one except where the class has only one term, and must not be made a +single logical subject. There is, as we said in [Part I](#part1), +[Chapter vi](#chapter6), in simple cases an associated single term which +is the class as a whole; but this is sometimes absent, and is in any +case not identical with the class as many. But in this view there is not +a contradiction, as in the theory that verbs and adjectives cannot be +made subjects; for assertions can be made about classes as many, but the +subject of such assertions is many, not one only as in other assertions. +“Brown and Jones are two of Miss Smith’s suitors” is an assertion about +the class “Brown and Jones,” but not about this class considered as a +single term. Thus one-ness belongs, in this view, to a certain type of +logical subjects, but classes which are not one may yet have assertions +made about them. Hence we conclude that one-ness is implied, but not +presupposed, in statements about a term, and “a term” is to be regarded +as an indefinable. + +**128.** It seems necessary, however, to make a distinction as regards +the use of one. The sense in which every object is one, which is +apparently involved in speaking of an object is, as Frege +urges[†](#fn132-2), a very shadowy sense, since it is applicable to +everything alike. But the sense in which a class may be said to have one +member is quite precise. A class u has one member when u is not null, +and “x and y are u’s” implies “x is identical with y.” Here the one-ness +is a property of the class, which may therefore be called a unit-class. +The x which is its only member may be itself a class of many terms, and +this shows that the sense of one involved in one term or a term is not +relevant to Arithmetic, for many terms as such may be a single member of +a class of classes. One, therefore, is not to be asserted of terms, but +of classes having one member in the above-defined sense; i.e. “u is +one,” or better “u is a unit” means “u is not null, and ‘x and y are +u’s’ implies ‘x and y are identical’.” The member of u, in this case, +will itself be none or one or many if u is a class of classes; but if u +is a class of terms, the member of u will be neither none nor one nor +many, but simply a term. + +**129.** The commonly received view, as regards finite numbers, is that +they result from counting, or, as some philosophers would prefer to say, +from synthesizing. Unfortunately, those who hold this view have not +analyzed the notion of counting: if they had done so, they would have +seen that it is very complex, and presupposes the very numbers which it +is supposed to generate. + +The process of counting has, of course, a psychological aspect, but this +is quite irrelevant to the theory of Arithmetic. What I wish now to +point out is the logical process involved in the act of counting, which +is as follows. When we say one, two, three, etc., we are necessarily +considering some one-one relation which holds between the numbers used +in counting and the objects counted. What is meant by the “one, two, +three” is that the objects indicated by these numbers are their +correlates with respect to the relation which we have in mind. (This +relation, by the way, is usually extremely complex, and is apt to +involve a reference to our state of mind at the moment.) Thus we +correlate a class of objects with a class of numbers; and the class of +numbers consists of all the numbers from 1 up to some number n. The only +immediate inference to be drawn from this correlation is, that the +number of objects is the same as the number of numbers from 1 up to n. A +further process is required to show that this number of numbers is n, +which is only true, as a matter of fact, when n is finite, or, in a +certain wider sense, when n is α0 (the smallest of infinite numbers). +Moreover the process of counting gives us no indication as to what the +numbers are, as to why they form a series, or as to how it is to be +proved (in the cases where it is true) that there are n numbers from 1 +up to n. Hence counting is irrelevant in the foundations of Arithmetic; +and with this conclusion, it may be dismissed until we come to order and +ordinal numbers. + +**130.** Let us return to the notion of the numerical conjunction. It is +plain that it is of such objects as “A and B,” “A and B and C,” that +numbers other than one are to be asserted. We examined such objects, in +[Part I](#part1), in relation to classes, with which we found them to be +identical. Now we must investigate their relation to numbers and +plurality. + +The notion to be now examined is the notion of a numerical conjunction +or, more shortly, a collection. This is not to be identified, to begin +with, with the notion of a class, but is to receive a new and +independent treatment. By a collection I mean what is conveyed by “A and +B” or “A and B and C,” or any other enumeration of definite terms. The +collection is defined by the actual mention of the terms, and the terms +are connected by and. It would seem that and represents a fundamental +way of combining terms, and it might be urged that just this way of +combination is essential if anything is to result of which a number +other than 1 is to be asserted. Collections do not presuppose numbers, +since they result simply from the terms together with and: they could +only presuppose numbers in the particular case where the terms of the +collection themselves presupposed numbers. There is a grammatical +difficulty which, since no method exists of avoiding it, must be pointed +out and allowed for. A collection, grammatically, is one, whereas A and +B, or A and B and C, are essentially many. The strict meaning of +collection is the whole composed of many, but since a word is needed to +denote the many themselves, I choose to use the word collection in this +sense, so that a collection, according to the usage here adopted, is +many and not one. + +As regards what is meant by the combination indicated by and, it gives +what we called before the numerical conjunction. That is A and B is what +is denoted by the concept of a class of which A and B are the only +terms, and is precisely A and B denoted in the way which is indicated by +all. We may say, if u be the class-concept corresponding to a class of +which A and B are the only terms, that “all u’s” is a concept which +denotes the terms A, B combined in a certain way, and A and B are those +terms combined in precisely that way. Thus A and B appears +indistinguishable from the class, though distinguishable from the +class-concept and from the concept of the class. Hence if u be a class +of more than one term, it seems necessary to hold that u is not one, but +many, since u is distinguished both from the class-concept and from the +whole composed of the terms of u[\*](#fn134-1). Thus we are brought back +to the dependence of numbers upon classes; and where it is not said that +the classes in question are finite, it is practically necessary to begin +with class-concepts and the theory of denoting, not with the theory of +and which has just been given. The theory of and applies practically +only to finite numbers, and gives to finite numbers a position which is +different, at least psychologically, from that of infinite numbers. +There are, in short, two ways of defining particular finite classes, but +there is only one practicable way of defining particular infinite +classes, namely by intension. It is largely the habit of considering +classes primarily from the side of extension which has hitherto stood in +the way of a correct logical theory of infinity. + +**131.** Addition, it should be carefully observed, is not primarily a +method of forming numbers, but of forming classes or collections. If we +add B to A, we do not obtain the number 2, but we obtain A and B, which +is a collection of two terms, or a couple. And a couple is defined as +follows: u is a couple if u has terms, and if, if x be a term of u, +there is a term of u different from x, but if x, y be different terms of +u, and z differs from x and from y, then every class to which z belongs +differs from u. In this definition, only diversity occurs, together with +the notion of a class having terms. It might no doubt be objected that +we have to take just two terms x, y in the above definition: but as a +matter of fact any finite number can be defined by induction without +introducing more than one term. For, if n has been defined, a class u +has n + 1 terms when, if x be a term of u, the number of terms of u +which differ from x is n. And the notion of the arithmetical sum n + 1 +is obtained from that of the logical sum of a class of n terms and a +class of one term. When we say 1 + 1 = 2, it is not possible that we +should mean 1 and 1, since there is only one 1: if we take 1 as an +individual, 1 and 1 is nonsense, while if we take it as a class, the +rule of Symbolic Logic applies, according to which 1 and 1 is 1. Thus in +the corresponding logical proposition, we have on the left-hand side +terms of which 1 can be asserted, and on the right-hand side we have a +couple. That is, 1 + 1 = 2 means “one term and one term are two terms,” +or, stating the proposition in terms of variables, “if u has one term +and v has one term, and u differs from v, their logical sum has two +terms.” It is to be observed that on the left-hand side we have a +numerical conjunction of propositions, while on the right-hand side we +have a proposition concerning a numerical conjunction of terms. But the +true premiss, in the above proposition, is not the conjunction of the +three propositions, but their logical product. This point, however, has +little importance in the present connection. + +**132.** Thus the only point which remains is this: Does the notion of a +term presuppose the notion of 1? For we have seen that all numbers +except 0 involve in their definitions the notion of a term, and if this +in turn involves 1, the definition of 1 becomes circular, and 1 will +have to be allowed to be indefinable. This objection to our procedure is +answered by the doctrine of [§128](#sec128), that a term is not one in +the sense which is relevant to Arithmetic, or in the sense which is +opposed to many. The notion of any term is a logical indefinable, +presupposed in formal truth and in the whole theory of the variable; but +this notion is that of the variable conjunction of terms, which in no +way involves the number 1. There is therefore nothing circular in +defining the number 1 by means of the notion of a term or of any term. + +To sum up: Numbers are classes of classes, namely of all classes similar +to a given class. Here classes have to be understood in the sense of +numerical conjunctions in the case of classes having many terms; but a +class may have no terms, and a class of one term is distinct from that +term, so that a class is not simply the sum of its terms. Only classes +have numbers; of what is commonly called one object, it is not true, at +least in the sense required, to say that it is one, as appears from the +fact that the object may be a class of many terms. “One object” seems to +mean merely “a logical subject in some proposition.” Finite numbers are +not to be regarded as generated by counting, which on the contrary +presupposes them; and addition is primarily logical addition, first of +propositions, then of classes, from which latter arithmetical addition +is derivative. The assertion of numbers depends upon the fact that a +class of many terms can be a logical subject without being +arithmetically one. Thus it appeared that no philosophical argument +could overthrow the mathematical theory of cardinal numbers set forth in +Chapters [xi](#chapter11) to [xiv](#chapter14). + +Notes + +## CHAPTER XVI. +Whole and Part. + +**133.** For the comprehension of analysis, it is necessary to +investigate the notion of whole and part, a notion which has been +wrapped in obscurity—though not without certain more or less valid +logical reasons—by the writers who may be roughly called Hegelian. In +the present chapter I shall do my best to set forth a straightforward +and non-mystical theory of the subject, leaving controversy as far as +possible on one side. It may be well to point out, to begin with, that I +shall use the word whole as strictly correlative to part, so that +nothing will be called a whole unless it has parts. Simple terms, such +as points, instants, colours, or the fundamental concepts of logic, will +not be called wholes. + +Terms which are not classes may be, as we saw in the preceding chapter, +of two kinds. The first kind are simple: these may be characterized, +though not defined, by the fact that the propositions asserting the +being of such terms have no presuppositions. The second kind of terms +that are not classes, on the other hand, are complex, and in their case, +their being presupposes the being of certain other terms. Whatever is +not a class is called a unit, and thus units are either simple or +complex. A complex unit is a whole; its parts are other units, whether +simple or complex, which are presupposed in it. This suggests the +possibility of defining whole and part by means of logical priority, a +suggestion which, though it must be ultimately rejected, it will be +necessary to examine at length. + +**134.** Wherever we have a one-sided formal implication, it may be +urged, if the two propositional functions involved are obtainable one +from the other by the variation of a single constituent, then what is +implied is simpler than what implies it. Thus “Socrates is a man” +implies “Socrates is a mortal,” but the latter proposition does not +imply the former: also the latter proposition is simpler than the +former, since man is a concept of which mortal forms part. Again, if we +take a proposition asserting a relation of two entities A and B, this +proposition implies the being of A and the being of B, and the being of +the relation, none of which implies the proposition, and each of which +is simpler than the proposition. There will only be equal +complexity—according to the theory that intension and extension vary +inversely as one another—in cases of mutual implication, such as “A is +greater than B” and “B is less than A.” Thus we might be tempted to set +up the following definition: A is said to be part of B when B is implies +A is, but A is does not imply B is. If this definition could be +maintained, whole and part would not be a new indefinable, but would be +derivative from logical priority. There are, however, reasons why such +an opinion is untenable. + +The first objection is, that logical priority is not a simple relation: +implication is simple, but logical priority of A to B requires not only +“B implies A,” but also “A does not imply B.” (For convenience, I +shall say that A implies B when A is implies B is.) This state of +things, it is true, is realized when A is part of B; but it seems +necessary to regard the relation of whole to part as something simple, +which must be different from any possible relation of one whole to +another which is not part of it. This would not result from the above +definition. For example, “A is greater and better than B” implies “B is +less than A,” but the converse implication does not hold: yet the latter +proposition is not part of the former[\*](#fn138-1). + +Another objection is derived from such cases as redness and colour. +These two concepts appear to be equally simple: there is no +specification, other and simpler than redness itself, which can be added +to colour to produce redness, in the way in which specifications will +turn mortal into man. Hence A is red is no more complex than A is +coloured, although there is here a one-sided implication. Redness, in +fact, appears to be (when taken to mean one particular shade) a simple +concept, which, although it implies colour, does not contain colour as a +constituent. The inverse relation of extension and intension, therefore, +does not hold in all cases. For these reasons, we must reject, in spite +of their very close connection, the attempt to define whole and part by +means of implication. + +**135.** Having failed to define wholes by logical priority, we shall +not, I think, find it possible to define them at all. The relation of +whole and part is, it would seem, an indefinable and ultimate relation, +or rather, it is several relations, often confounded, of which one at +least is indefinable. The relation of a part to a whole must be +differently discussed according to the nature both of the whole and of +the parts. Let us begin with the simplest case, and proceed gradually to +those that are more elaborate. + +(1) Whenever we have any collection of many terms, in the sense +explained in the [preceding chapter](#chapter15), there the terms, +provided there is some non-quadratic propositional function which they +all satisfy, together form a whole. In the [preceding +chapter](#chapter15) we regarded the class as formed by all the terms, +but usage seems to show no reason why the class should not equally be +regarded as the whole composed of all the terms in those cases where +there is such a whole. The first is the class as many, the second the +class as one. Each of the terms then has to the whole a certain +indefinable relation[\*](#fn139-1), which is one meaning of the relation +of whole and part. The whole is, in this case, a whole of a particular +kind, which I shall call an aggregate: it differs from wholes of other +kinds by the fact that it is definite as soon as its constituents are +known. + +(2) But the above relation holds only between the aggregate and the +single terms of the collection composing the aggregate: the relation to +our aggregate of aggregates containing some but not all the terms of our +aggregate, is a different relation, though also one which would be +commonly called a relation of part to whole. For example, the relation +of the Greek nation to the human race is different from that of Socrates +to the human race; and the relation of the whole of the primes to the +whole of the numbers is different from that of 2 to the whole of the +numbers. This most vital distinction is due to Peano[†](#fn139-2). The +relation of a subordinate aggregate to one in which it is contained can +be defined, as was explained in [Part I](#part1), by means of +implication and the first kind of relation of part to whole. If u, v be +two aggregates, and for every value of x “x is u” implies “x is a v,” +then, provided the converse implication does not hold, u is a proper +part (in the second sense) of v. This sense of whole and part, +therefore, is derivative and definable. + +(3) But there is another kind of whole, which may be called a unity. +Such a whole is always a proposition, though it need not be an asserted +proposition. For example, “A differs from B,” or “A’s difference from +B,” is a complex of which the parts are A and B and difference; but +this sense of whole and part is different from the previous senses, +since “A differs from B” is not an aggregate, and has no parts at all in +the first two senses of parts. It is parts in this third sense that are +chiefly considered by philosophers, while the first two senses are those +usually relevant in symbolic logic and mathematics. This third sense of +part is the sense which corresponds to analysis: it appears to be +indefinable, like the first sense—i.e., I know no way of defining it. It +must be held that the three senses are always to be kept distinct: i.e., +if A is part of B in one sense, while B is part of C in another, it must +not be inferred (in general) that A is part of C in any of the three +senses. But we may make a fourth general sense, in which anything which +is part in any sense, or part in one sense of part in another, is to be +called a part. This sense, however, has seldom, if ever, any utility in +actual discussion. + +**136.** The difference between the kinds of wholes is important, and +illustrates a fundamental point in Logic. I shall therefore repeat it in +other words. Any collection whatever, if defined by a non-quadratic +propositional function, though as such it is many, yet composes a whole, +whose parts are the terms of the collection or any whole composed of +some of the terms of the collection. It is highly important to realize +the difference between a whole and all its parts, even in this case +where the difference is a minimum. The word collection, being singular, +applies more strictly to the whole than to all the parts; but +convenience of expression has led me to neglect grammar, and speak of +all the terms as the collection. The whole formed of the terms of the +collection I call an aggregate. Such a whole is completely specified +when all its simple constituents are specified; its parts have no direct +connection inter se, but only the indirect connection involved in being +parts of one and the same whole. But other wholes occur, which contain +relations or what may be called predicates, not occurring simply as +terms in a collection, but as relating or qualifying. Such wholes are +always propositions. These are not completely specified when their parts +are all known. Take, as a simple instance, the proposition “A differs +from B,” where A and B are simple terms. The simple parts of this whole +are A and B and difference; but the enumeration of these three does not +specify the whole, since there are two other wholes composed of the same +parts, namely the aggregate formed of A and B and difference, and the +proposition “B differs from A.” In the former case, although the whole +was different from all its parts, yet it was completely specified by +specifying its parts; but in the present case, not only is the whole +different, but it is not even specified by specifying its parts. We +cannot explain this fact by saying that the parts stand in certain +relations which are omitted in the analysis; for in the above case of “A +differs from B,” the relation was included in the analysis. The fact +seems to be that a relation is one thing when it relates, and another +when it is merely enumerated as a term in a collection. There are +certain fundamental difficulties in this view, which however I leave +aside as irrelevant to our present purpose[\*](#fn140-1). + +Similar remarks apply to A is, which is a whole composed of A and Being, +but is different from the whole formed of the collection A and Being. A +is one raises the same point, and so does A and B are two. Indeed all +propositions raise this point, and we may distinguish them among complex +terms by the fact that they raise it. + +Thus we see that there are two very different classes of wholes, of +which the first will be called aggregates, while the second will be +called unities. (Unit is a word having a quite different application, +since whatever is a class which is not null, and is such that, if x and +y be members of it, x and y are identical, is a unit.) Each class of +wholes consists of terms not simply equivalent to all their parts; but +in the case of unities, the whole is not even specified by its parts. +For example, the parts A, greater than, B, may compose simply an +aggregate, or either of the propositions “A is greater than B,” “B is +greater than A.” Unities thus involve problems from which aggregates are +free. As aggregates are more specially relevant to mathematics than +unities, I shall in future generally confine myself to the former. + +**137.** It is important to realize that a whole is a new single term, +distinct from each of its parts and from all of them: it is one, not +many[\*](#fn141-1), and is related to the parts, but has a being +distinct from theirs. The reader may perhaps be inclined to doubt +whether there is any need of wholes other than unities; but the +following reasons seem to make aggregates logically unavoidable. (1) We +speak of one collection, one manifold, etc., and it would seem that in +all these cases there really is something that is a single term. (2) The +theory of fractions, as we shall shortly see, appears to depend partly +upon aggregates. (3) We shall find it necessary, in the theory of +extensive quantity, to assume that aggregates, even when they are +infinite, have what may be called magnitude of divisibility, and that +two infinite aggregates may have the same number of terms without having +the same magnitude of divisibility: this theory, we shall find, is +indispensable in metrical geometry. For these reasons, it would seem, +the aggregate must be admitted as an entity distinct from all its +constituents, and having to each of them a certain ultimate and +indefinable relation. + +**138.** I have already touched on a very important logical doctrine, +which the theory of whole and part brings into prominence—I mean the +doctrine that analysis is falsification. Whatever can be analyzed is a +whole, and we have already seen that analysis of wholes is in some +measure falsification. But it is important to realize the very narrow +limits of this doctrine. We cannot conclude that the parts of a whole +are not really its parts, nor that the parts are not presupposed in the +whole in a sense in which the whole is not presupposed in the parts, nor +yet that the logically prior is not usually simpler than the logically +subsequent. In short, though analysis gives us the truth, and nothing +but the truth, yet it can never give us the whole truth. This is the +only sense in which the doctrine is to be accepted. In any wider sense, +it becomes merely a cloak for laziness, by giving an excuse to those who +dislike the labour of analysis. + +**139.** It is to be observed that what we called classes as one may +always, except where they contain one term or none, or are defined by +quadratic propositional functions, be interpreted as aggregates. The +logical product of two classes as one will be the common part (in the +second of our three senses) of the two aggregates, and their sum will be +the aggregate which is identical with or part of (again in the second +sense) any aggregate of which the two given aggregates are parts, but is +neither identical with nor part of any other aggregate[\*](#fn142-1). +The relation of whole and part, in the second of our three senses, is +transitive and asymmetrical, but is distinguished from other such +relations by the fact of allowing logical addition and multiplication. +It is this peculiarity which forms the basis of the Logical Calculus as +developed by writers previous to Peano and Frege (including +Schröder)[†](#fn142-2). But wherever infinite wholes are concerned it +is necessary, and in many other cases it is practically unavoidable, to +begin with a class-concept or predicate or propositional function, and +obtain the aggregate from this. Thus the theory of whole and part is +less fundamental logically than that of predicates or class-concepts or +propositional functions; and it is for this reason that the +consideration of it has been postponed to so late a stage. + +Notes + +## CHAPTER XVII. +Infinite Wholes. + +**140.** In the present chapter the special difficulties of infinity are +not to be considered: all these are postponed to [Part V](#part5). My +object now is to consider two questions: (1) Are there any infinite +wholes? (2) If so, must an infinite whole which contains parts in the +second of our three senses be an aggregate of parts in the first sense? +In order to avoid the reference to the first, second and third senses, I +propose henceforward to use the following phraseology: A part in the +first sense is to be called a term of the whole[\*](#fn143-1); a part in +the second sense is to be called a part simply; and a part in the third +sense will be called a constituent of the whole. Thus terms and parts +belong to aggregates, while constituents belong to unities. The +consideration of aggregates and unities, where infinity is concerned, +must be separately conducted. I shall begin with aggregates. + +An infinite aggregate is an aggregate corresponding to an infinite +class, i.e. an aggregate which has an infinite number of terms. Such +aggregates are defined by the fact that they contain parts which have as +many terms as themselves. Our first question is: Are there any such +aggregates? + +Infinite aggregates are often denied. Even Leibniz, favourable as he was +to the actual infinite, maintained that, where infinite classes are +concerned, it is possible to make valid statements about any term of the +class, but not about all the terms, nor yet about the whole which (as he +would say) they do not compose[†](#fn143-2). Kant, again, has been much +criticised for maintaining that space is an infinite given whole. Many +maintain that every aggregate must have a finite number of terms, and +that where this condition is not fulfilled there is no true whole. But I +do not believe that this view can be successfully defended. Among those +who deny that space is a given whole, not a few would admit that what +they are pleased to call a finite space may be a given whole, for +instance, the space in a room, a box, a bag, or a book-case. But such a +space is only finite in a psychological sense, i.e. in the sense that we +can take it in at a glance: it is not finite in the sense that it is an +aggregate of a finite number of terms, nor yet a unity of a finite +number of constituents. Thus to admit that such a space can be a whole +is to admit that there are wholes which are not finite. (This does not +follow, it should be observed, from the admission of material objects +apparently occupying finite spaces, for it is always possible to hold +that such objects, though apparently continuous, consist really of a +large but finite number of material points.) With respect to time, the +same argument holds: to say, for example, that a certain length of time +elapses between sunrise and sunset, is to admit an infinite whole, or at +least a whole which is not finite. It is customary with philosophers to +deny the reality of space and time, and to deny also that, if they were +real, they would be aggregates. I shall endeavour to show, in [Part +VI](#part6), that these denials are supported by a faulty logic, and by +the now resolved difficulties of infinity. Since science and common +sense join in the opposite view, it will therefore be accepted; and +thus, since no argument à priori can now be adduced against infinite +aggregates, we derive from space and time an argument in their favour. + +Again, the natural numbers, or the fractions between 0 and 1, or the +sum-total of all colours, are infinite, and seem to be true aggregates: +the position that, although true propositions can be made about any +number, yet there are no true propositions about all numbers, could be +supported formerly, as Leibniz supported it, by the supposed +contradictions of infinity, but has become, since Cantor’s solution of +these contradictions, a wholly unnecessary paradox. And where a +collection can be defined by a non-quadratic propositional function, +this must be held, I think, to imply that there is a genuine aggregate +composed of the terms of the collection. It may be observed also that, +if there were no infinite wholes, the word Universe would be wholly +destitute of meaning. + +**141.** We must, then, admit infinite aggregates. It remains to ask a +more difficult question, namely: Are we to admit infinite unities? This +question may also be stated in the form: Are there any infinitely +complex propositions? This question is one of great logical importance, +and we shall require much care both in stating and in discussing it. + +The first point is to be clear as to the meaning of an infinite unity. A +unity will be infinite when the aggregate of all its constituents is +infinite, but this scarcely constitutes the meaning of an infinite +unity. In order to obtain the meaning, we must introduce the notion of a +simple constituent. We may observe, to begin with, that a constituent of +a constituent is a constituent of the unity, i.e. this form of the +relation of part to whole, like the second, but unlike the first form, +is transitive. A simple constituent may now be defined as a constituent +which itself has no constituents. We may assume, in order to eliminate +the question concerning aggregates, that no constituent of our unity is +to be an aggregate, or, if there be a constituent which is an aggregate, +then this constituent is to be taken as simple. (This view of an +aggregate is rendered legitimate by the fact that an aggregate is a +single term, and does not have that kind of complexity which belongs to +propositions.) With this the definition of a simple constituent is +completed. + +We may now define an infinite unity as follows: A unity is finite when, +and only when, the aggregate of its simple constituents is finite. In +all other cases a unity is said to be infinite. We have to inquire +whether there are any such unities[\*](#fn145-1). + +If a unity is infinite, it is possible to find a constituent unity, +which again contains a constituent unity, and so on without end. If +there be any unities of this nature, two cases are primâ facie possible. +(1) There may be simple constituents of our unity, but these must be +infinite in number. (2) There may be no simple constituents at all, but +all constituents, without exception, may be complex; or, to take a +slightly more complicated case, it may happen that, although there are +some simple constituents, yet these and the unities composed of them do +not constitute all the constituents of the original unity. A unity of +either of these two kinds will be called infinite. The two kinds, though +distinct, may be considered together. + +An infinite unity will be an infinitely complex proposition: it will not +be analyzable in any way into a finite number of constituents. It thus +differs radically from assertions about infinite aggregates. For +example, the proposition “any number has a successor” is composed of a +finite number of constituents: the number of concepts entering into it +can be enumerated, and in addition to these there is an infinite +aggregate of terms denoted in the way indicated by any, which counts as +one constituent. Indeed it may be said that the logical purpose which is +served by the theory of denoting is, to enable propositions of finite +complexity to deal with infinite classes of terms: this object is +effected by all, any, and every, and if it were not effected, every +general proposition about an infinite class would have to be infinitely +complex. Now, for my part, I see no possible way of deciding whether +propositions of infinite complexity are possible or not; but this at +least is clear, that all the propositions known to us (and, it would +seem, all propositions that we can know) are of finite complexity. It is +only by obtaining such propositions about infinite classes that we are +enabled to deal with infinity; and it is a remarkable and fortunate fact +that this method is successful. Thus the question whether or not there +are infinite unities must be left unresolved; the only thing we can say, +on this subject, is that no such unities occur in any department of +human knowledge, and therefore none such are relevant to the foundations +of mathematics. + +**142.** I come now to our second question: Must an infinite whole which +contains parts be an aggregate of terms? It is often held, for example, +that spaces have parts, and can be divided ad lib., but that they have +no simple parts, i.e. they are not aggregates of points. The same view +is put forward as regards periods of time. Now it is plain that, if our +definition of a part by means of terms (i.e. of the second sense of part +by means of the first) was correct, the present problem can never arise, +since parts only belong to aggregates. But it may be urged that the +notion of part ought to be taken as an indefinable, and that therefore +it may apply to other wholes than aggregates. This will require that we +should add to aggregates and unities a new kind of whole, corresponding +to the second sense of part. This will be a whole which has parts in the +second sense, but is not an aggregate or a unity. Such a whole seems to +be what many philosophers are fond of calling a continuum, and space and +time are often held to afford instances of such a whole. + +Now it may be admitted that, among infinite wholes, we find a +distinction which seems relevant, but which, I believe, is in reality +merely psychological. In some cases, we feel no doubt as to the terms, +but great doubt as to the whole, while in others, the whole seems +obvious, but the terms seem a precarious inference. The ratios between 0 +and 1, for instance, are certainly indivisible entities; but the whole +aggregate of ratios between 0 and 1 seems to be of the nature of a +construction or inference. On the other hand, sensible spaces and times +seem to be obvious wholes; but the inference to indivisible points and +instants is so obscure as to be often regarded as illegitimate. This +distinction seems, however, to have no logical basis, but to be wholly +dependent on the nature of our senses. A slight familiarity with +coordinate geometry suffices to make a finite length seem strictly +analogous to the stretch of fractions between 0 and 1. It must be +admitted, nevertheless, that in cases where, as with the fractions, the +indivisible parts are evident on inspection, the problem with which we +are concerned does not arise. But to infer that all infinite wholes have +indivisible parts merely because this is known to be the case with some +of them, would certainly be rash. The general problem remains, +therefore, namely: Given an infinite whole, is there a universal reason +for supposing that it contains indivisible parts? + +**143.** In the first place, the definition of an infinite whole must +not be held to deny that it has an assignable number of simple parts +which do not reconstitute it. For example, the stretch of fractions from +0 to 1 has three simple parts, ⅓, ½, ⅔. But these do not reconstitute +the whole, that is, the whole has other parts which are not parts of the +assigned parts or of the sum of the assigned parts. Again, if we form a +whole out of the number 1 and a line an inch long, this whole certainly +has one simple part, namely 1. Such a case as this may be excluded by +asking whether every part of our whole either is simple or contains +simple parts. In this case, if our whole be formed by adding n simple +terms to an infinite whole, the n simple terms can be taken away, and +the question can be asked concerning the infinite whole which is left. +But again, the meaning of our question seems hardly to be: Is our +infinite whole an actual aggregate of innumerable simple parts? This is +doubtless an important question, but it is subsequent to the question we +are asking, which is: Are there always simple parts at all? We may +observe that, if a finite number of simple parts be found, and taken +away from the whole, the remainder is always infinite. For if not, it +would have a finite number; and since the term of two finite numbers is +finite, the original whole would then be finite. Hence if it can be +shown that every infinite whole contains one simple part, it follows +that it contains an infinite number of them. For, taking away the one +simple part, the remainder is an infinite whole, and therefore has a new +simple part, and so on. It follows that every part of the whole either +is simple, or contains simple parts, provided that every infinite whole +has at least one simple part. But it seems as hard to prove this as to +prove that every infinite whole is an aggregate. + +If an infinite whole be divided into a finite number of parts, one at +least of these parts must be infinite. If this be again divided, one of +its parts must be infinite, and so on. Thus no finite number of +divisions will reduce all the parts to finitude. Successive divisions +give an endless series of parts, and in such endless series there is (as +we shall see in Parts [IV](#part4) and [V](#part5)) no manner of +contradiction. Thus there is no method of proving by actual division +that every infinite whole must be an aggregate. So far as this method +can show, there is no more reason for simple constituents of infinite +wholes than for a first moment in time or a last finite number. + +But perhaps a contradiction may emerge in the present case from the +connection of whole and part with logical priority. It certainly seems a +greater paradox to maintain that infinite wholes do not have indivisible +parts than to maintain that there is no first moment in time or furthest +limit to space. This might be explained by the fact that we know many +simple terms, and some infinite wholes undoubtedly composed of simple +terms, whereas we know of nothing suggesting a beginning of time or +space. But it may perhaps have a more solid basis in logical priority. +For the simpler is always implied in the more complex, and therefore +there can be no truth about the more complex unless there is truth about +the simpler. Thus in the analysis of our infinite whole, we are always +dealing with entities which would not be at all unless their +constituents were. This makes a real difference from the time-series, +for example: a moment does not logically presuppose a previous moment, +and if it did it would perhaps be self-contradictory to deny a first +moment, as it has been held (for the same reason) self-contradictory to +deny a First Cause. It seems to follow that infinite wholes would not +have Being at all, unless there were innumerable simple Beings whose +Being is presupposed in that of the infinite wholes. For where the +presupposition is false, the consequence is false also. Thus there seems +a special reason for completing the infinite regress in the case of +infinite wholes, which does not exist where other asymmetrical +transitive relations are concerned. This is another instance of the +peculiarity of the relation of whole and part: a relation so important +and fundamental that almost all our philosophy depends upon the theory +we adopt in regard to it. + +The same argument may be otherwise stated by asking how our infinite +wholes are to be defined. The definition must not be infinitely complex, +since this would require an infinite unity. Now if there is any +definition which is of finite complexity, this cannot be obtained from +the parts, since these are either infinitely numerous (in the case of an +aggregate), or themselves as complex as the whole (in the case of a +whole which is not an aggregate). But any definition which is of finite +complexity will necessarily be intensional, i.e. it will give some +characteristic of a collection of terms. There seems to be no other +known method of defining an infinite whole, or of obtaining such a whole +in a way not involving any infinite unity. + +The above argument, it must be admitted, is less conclusive than could +be wished, considering the great importance of the point at issue. It +may, however, be urged in support of it that all the arguments on the +other side depend upon the supposed difficulties of infinity, and are +therefore wholly fallacious; also that the procedure of Geometry and +Dynamics (as will be shown in Parts [VI](#part6) and [VII](#part7)) +imperatively demands points and instants. In all applications, in short, +the results of the doctrine here advocated are far simpler, less +paradoxical, and more logically satisfactory, than those of the opposite +view. I shall therefore assume, throughout the remainder of this work, +that all the infinite wholes with which we shall have to deal are +aggregates of terms. + +Notes + +## CHAPTER XVIII. +Ratios and Fractions. + +**144.** The present chapter, in so far as it deals with relations of +integers, is essentially confined to finite integers: those that are +infinite have no relations strictly analogous to what are usually called +ratios. But I shall distinguish ratios, as relations between integers, +from fractions, which are relations between aggregates, or rather +between their magnitudes of divisibility; and fractions, we shall find, +may express relations which hold where both aggregates are infinite. It +will be necessary to begin with the mathematical definition of ratio, +before proceeding to more general considerations. + +Ratio is commonly associated with multiplication and division, and in +this way becomes indistinguishable from fractions. But multiplication +and division are equally applicable to finite and infinite numbers, +though in the case of infinite numbers they do not have the properties +which connect them with ratio in the finite case. Hence it becomes +desirable to develop a theory of ratio which shall be independent of +multiplication and division. + +Two finite numbers are said to be consecutive when, if u be a class +having one of the numbers, and one term be added to u, the resulting +class has the other number. To be consecutive is thus a relation which +is one-one and asymmetrical. If now a number a has to a number b the nth +power of this relation of consecutiveness (powers of relations being +defined by relative multiplication), then we have a + n = b. This +equation expresses, between a and b, a one-one relation which is +determinate when n is given. If now the mth power of this relation holds +between a′ and b′, we shall have a′ + mn = b′. Also we may define mn as +0 + mn. If now we have three numbers a, b, c such that ab = c, this +equation expresses between a and c a one-one relation which is +determinate when b is given. Let us call this relation B. Suppose we +have also a′b′ = c. Then a has to a′ a relation which is the relative +product of B and the converse of B′, where B′ is derived from b′ as B +was derived from b. This relation we define as the ratio of a′ to a. +This theory has the advantage that it applies not only to finite +integers, but to all other series of the same type, i.e. all series of +the type which I call progressions. + +**145.** The only point which it is important, for our present purpose, +to observe as regards the above definition of ratios is, that they are +one-one relations between finite integers, which are with one exception +asymmetrical, which are such that one and only one holds between any +specified pair of finite integers, which are definable in terms of +consecutiveness, and which themselves form a series having no first or +last term and having a term, and therefore an infinite number of terms, +between any two specified terms. From the fact that ratios are relations +it results that no ratios are to be identified with integers: the ratio +of 2 to 1, for example, is a wholly different entity from 2. When, +therefore, we speak of the series of ratios as containing integers, the +integers said to be contained are not cardinal numbers, but relations +which have a certain one-one correspondence with cardinal numbers. The +same remark applies to positive and negative numbers. The nth power of +the relation of consecutiveness is the positive number +n, which is +plainly a wholly different concept from the cardinal number n. The +confusion of entities with others to which they have some important +one-one relation is an error to which mathematicians are very liable, +and one which has produced the greatest havoc in the philosophy of +mathematics. We shall find hereafter innumerable other instances of the +same error, and it is well to realize, as early as possible, that any +failure in subtlety of distinctions is sure, in this subject at least, +to cause the most disastrous consequences. + +There is no difficulty in connecting the above theory of ratio with the +usual theory derived from multiplication and division. But the usual +theory does not show, as the present theory does, why the infinite +integers do not have ratios strictly analogous to those of finite +integers. The fact is, that ratio depends upon consecutiveness, and +consecutiveness as above defined does not exist among infinite integers, +since these are unchanged by the addition of 1. + +It should be observed that what is called addition of ratios demands a +new set of relations among ratios, relations which may be called +positive and negative ratios, just as certain relations among integers +are positive and negative integers. This subject, however, need not be +further developed. + +**146.** The above theory of ratio has, it must be confessed, a highly +artificial appearance, and one which makes it seem extraordinary that +ratios should occur in daily life. The fact is, it is not ratios, but +fractions, that occur, and fractions are not purely arithmetical, but +are really concerned with relations of whole and part. + +Propositions asserting fractions show an important difference from those +asserting integers. We can say A is one, A and B are two, and so on; but +we cannot say A is one-third, or A and B are two-thirds. There is always +need of some second entity, to which our first has some fractional +relation. We say A is one-third of C, A and B together are two-thirds of +C, and so on. Fractions, in short, are either relations of a simple part +to a whole, or of two wholes to one another. But it is not necessary +that the one whole, or the simple part, should be part of the other +whole. In the case of finite wholes, the matter seems simple: the +fraction expresses the ratio of the number of parts in the one to the +number in the other. But the consideration of infinite wholes will show +us that this simple theory is inadequate to the facts. + +**147.** There is no doubt that the notion of half a league, or half a +day, is a legitimate notion. It is therefore necessary to find some +sense for fractions in which they do not essentially depend upon number. +For, if a given period of twenty-four hours is to be divided into two +continuous portions, each of which is to be half of the whole period, +there is only one way of doing this: but Cantor has shown that every +possible way of dividing the period into two continuous portions divides +it into two portions having the same number of terms. There must be, +therefore, some other respect in which two periods of twelve hours are +equal, while a period of one hour and another of twenty-three hours are +unequal. I shall have more to say upon this subject in [Part +III](#part3); for the present I will point out that what we want is of +the nature of a magnitude, and that it must be essentially a property of +ordered wholes. I shall call this property magnitude of divisibility. To +say now that A is one-half of B means: B is a whole, and if B be divided +into two similar parts which have both the same magnitude of +divisibility as each other, then A has the same magnitude of +divisibility as each of these parts. We may interpret the fraction ½ +somewhat more simply, by regarding it as a relation (analogous to ratio +so long as finite wholes are concerned) between two magnitudes of +divisibility. Thus finite integral fractions (such as n/1) will measure +the relation of the divisibility of an aggregate of n terms to the +divisibility of a single term; the converse relation will be 1/n. Thus +here again we have a new class of entities which is in danger of being +confused with finite cardinal integers, though in reality quite +distinct. Fractions, as now interpreted, have the advantage (upon which +all metrical geometry depends) that they introduce a discrimination of +greater and smaller among infinite aggregates having the same number of +terms. We shall see more and more, as the logical inadequacy of the +usual accounts of measurement is brought to light, how absolutely +essential the notion of magnitude of divisibility really is. Fractions, +then, in the sense in which they may express relations of infinite +aggregates—and this is the sense which they usually have in daily +life—are really of the nature of relations between magnitudes of +divisibility; and magnitudes of divisibility are only measured by number +of parts where the aggregates concerned are finite. It may also be +observed (though this remark is anticipatory) that, whereas ratios, as +above defined, are essentially rational, fractions, in the sense here +given to them, are also capable of irrational values. But the +development of this topic must be left for [Part V](#part5). + +**148.** We may now sum up the results obtained in [Part II](#part2). In +the first four chapters, the modern mathematical theory of cardinal +integers, as it results from the joint labours of arithmeticians and +symbolic logicians, was briefly set forth. [Chapter xi](#chapter11) +explained the notion of similar classes, and showed that the usual +formal properties of integers result from defining them as classes of +similar classes. In [Chapter xii](#chapter12), we showed how +arithmetical addition and multiplication both depend upon logical +addition, and how both may be defined in a way which applies equally to +finite and infinite numbers, and to finite, and infinite sums and +products, and which moreover introduces nowhere any idea of order. In +[Chapter xiii](#chapter13), we gave the strict definition of an infinite +class, as one which is similar to a class resulting from taking away one +of its terms; and we showed in outline how to connect this definition +with the definition of finite numbers by mathematical induction. The +special theory of finite integers was discussed in [Chapter +xiv](#chapter14), and it was shown how the primitive propositions, which +Peano proves to be sufficient in this subject, can all be deduced from +our definition of finite cardinal integers. This confirmed us in the +opinion that Arithmetic contains no indefinables or indemonstrables +beyond those of general logic. + +We then advanced, in [Chapter xv](#chapter15), to the consideration of +philosophical questions, with a view of testing critically the above +mathematical deductions. We decided to regard both term and a term as +indefinable, and to define the number 1, as well as all other numbers, +by means of these indefinables (together with certain others). We also +found it necessary to distinguish a class from its class-concept, since +one class may have several different class-concepts. We decided that a +class consists of all the terms denoted by the class-concept, denoted in +a certain indefinable manner; but it appeared that both common usage and +the majority of mathematical purposes would allow us to identify a class +with the whole formed of the terms denoted by the class-concept. The +only reasons against this view were, the necessity of distinguishing a +class containing only one term from that one term, and the fact that +some classes are members of themselves. We found also a distinction +between finite and infinite classes, that the former can, while the +latter cannot, be defined extensionally, i.e. by actual enumeration of +their terms. We then proceeded to discuss what may be called the +addition of individuals, i.e. the notion involved in “A and B”; and we +found that a more or less independent theory of finite integers can be +based upon this notion. But it appeared finally, in virtue of our +analysis of the notion of class, that this theory was really +indistinguishable from the theory previously expounded, the only +difference being that it adopted an extensional definition of classes. + +[Chapter xvi](#chapter16) dealt with the relation of whole and part. We +found that there are two indefinable senses of this relation, and one +definable sense, and that there are two correspondingly different sorts +of wholes, which we called unities and aggregates respectively. We saw +also that, by extending the notion of aggregates to single terms and to +the null-class, we could regard the whole of the traditional calculus of +Symbolic Logic as an algebra specially applicable to the relations of +wholes and parts in the definable sense. We considered next, in [Chapter +xvii](#chapter17), the notion of an infinite whole. It appeared that +infinite unities, even if they be logically possible, at any rate never +appear in anything accessible to human knowledge. But infinite +aggregates, we found, must be admitted; and it seemed that all infinite +wholes which are not unities must be aggregates of terms, though it is +by no means necessary that the terms should be simple. (They must, +however, owing to the exclusion of infinite unities, be assumed to be of +finite complexity.) + +In [Chapter xviii](#chapter18), finally, we considered ratios and +fractions: the former were found to be somewhat complicated relations of +finite integers, while the latter were relations between the +divisibilities of aggregates. These divisibilities being magnitudes, +their further discussion belongs to [Part III](#part3), in which the +general nature of quantity is to be considered. + +# PART III. +QUANTITY. + +## CHAPTER XIX. +The Meaning of Magnitude. + +**149.** Among the traditional problems of mathematical philosophy, few +are more important than the relation of quantity to number. Opinion as +to this relation has undergone many revolutions. Euclid, as is evident +from his definitions of ratio and proportion, and indeed from his whole +procedure, was not persuaded of the applicability of numbers to spatial +magnitudes. When Des Cartes and Vieta, by the introduction of +co-ordinate Geometry, made this applicability a fundamental postulate of +their systems, a new method was founded, which, however fruitful of +results, involved, like most mathematical advances of the seventeenth +century, a diminution of logical precision and a loss in subtlety of +distinction. What was meant by measurement, and whether all spatial +magnitudes were susceptible of a numerical measure, were questions for +whose decision, until very lately, the necessary mathematical instrument +was lacking; and even now much remains to be done before a complete +answer can be given. The view prevailed that number and quantity were +the objects of mathematical investigation, and that the two were so +similar as not to require careful separation. Thus number was applied to +quantities without any hesitation, and conversely, where existing +numbers were found inadequate to measurement, new ones were created on +the sole ground that every quantity must have a numerical measure. + +All this is now happily changed. Two different lines of argument, +conducted in the main by different men, have laid the foundations both +for large generalizations, and for thorough accuracy in detail. On the +one hand, Weierstrass, Dedekind, Cantor, and their followers, have +pointed out that, if irrational numbers are to be significantly employed +as measures of quantitative fractions, they must be defined without +reference to quantity; and the same men who showed the necessity of such +a definition have supplied the want which they had created. In this way, +during the last thirty or forty years, a new subject, which has added +quite immeasurably to theoretical correctness, has been created, which +may legitimately be called Arithmetic; for, starting with integers, it +succeeds in defining whatever else it requires—rationals, limits, +irrationals, continuity, and so on. It results that, for all Algebra and +Analysis, it is unnecessary to assume any material beyond the integers, +which, as we have seen, can themselves be defined in logical terms. It +is this science, far more than non-Euclidean Geometry, that is really +fatal to the Kantian theory of à priori intuitions as the basis of +mathematics. Continuity and irrationals were formerly the strongholds of +the school who may be called intuitionists, but these strongholds are +theirs no longer. Arithmetic has grown so as to include all that can +strictly be called pure in the traditional mathematics. + +**150.** But, concurrently with this purist’s reform, an opposite +advance has been effected. New branches of mathematics, which deal +neither with number nor with quantity, have been invented; such are the +Logical Calculus, Projective Geometry, and—in its essence—the Theory of +Groups. Moreover it has appeared that measurement—if this means the +correlation, with numbers, of entities which are not numbers or +aggregates—is not a prerogative of quantities: some quantities cannot be +measured, and some things which are not quantities (for example +anharmonic ratios projectively defined) can be measured. Measurement, in +fact, as we shall see, is applicable to all series of a certain kind—a +kind which excludes some quantities and includes some things which are +not quantities. The separation between number and quantity is thus +complete: each is wholly independent of the other. Quantity, moreover, +has lost the mathematical importance which it used to possess, owing to +the fact that most theorems concerning it can be generalized so as to +become theorems concerning order. It would therefore be natural to +discuss order before quantity. As all propositions concerning order can, +however, be established independently for particular instances of order, +and as quantity will afford an illustration, requiring slightly less +effort of abstraction, of the principles to be applied to series in +general; as, further, the theory of distance, which forms a part of the +theory of order, presupposes somewhat controversial opinions as to the +nature of quantity, I shall follow the more traditional course, and +consider quantity first. My aim will be to give, in the present chapter, +a theory of quantity which does not depend upon number, and then to show +the peculiar relation to number which is possessed by two special +classes of quantities, upon which depends the measurement of quantities +wherever this is possible. The whole of this Part, however—and it is +important to realize this—is a concession to tradition; for quantity, we +shall find, is not definable in terms of logical constants, and is not +properly a notion belonging to pure mathematics at all. I shall discuss +quantity because it is traditionally supposed to occur in mathematics, +and because a thorough discussion is required for disproving this +supposition; but if the supposition did not exist, I should avoid all +mention of any such notion as quantity. + +**151.** In fixing the meaning of such a term as quantity or magnitude, +one is faced with the difficulty that, however one may define the word, +one must appear to depart from usage. This difficulty arises wherever +two characteristics have been commonly supposed inseparable which, upon +closer examination, are discovered to be capable of existing apart. In +the case of magnitude, the usual meaning appears to imply (1) a capacity +for the relations of greater and less, (2) divisibility. Of these +characteristics, the first is supposed to imply the second. But as I +propose to deny the implication, I must either admit that some things +which are indivisible are magnitudes, or that some things which are +greater or less than others are not magnitudes. As one of these +departures from usage is unavoidable, I shall choose the former, which I +believe to be the less serious. A magnitude, then, is to be defined as +anything which is greater or less than something else. + +It might be thought that equality should be mentioned, along with +greater and less, in the definition of magnitude. We shall see reason to +think, however—paradoxical as such a view may appear—that what can be +greater or less than some term, can never be equal to any term whatever, +and vice versâ. This will require a distinction, whose necessity will +become more and more evident as we proceed, between the kind of terms +that can be equal, and the kind that can be greater or less. The former +I shall call quantities, the latter magnitudes. An actual foot-rule is a +quantity: its length is a magnitude. Magnitudes are more abstract than +quantities: when two quantities are equal, they have the same magnitude. +The necessity of this abstraction is the first point to be established. + +**152.** Setting aside magnitudes for the moment, let us consider +quantities. A quantity is anything which is capable of quantitative +equality to something else. Quantitative equality is to be distinguished +from other kinds, such as arithmetical or logical equality. All kinds of +equality have in common the three properties of being reflexive, +symmetrical, and transitive, i.e. a term which has this relation at all +has this relation to itself; if A has the relation to B, B has it to A; +if A has it to B, and B to C, A has it to C[\*](#fn159-1). What it is +that distinguishes quantitative equality from other kinds, and whether +this kind of equality is analyzable, is a further and more difficult +question, to which we must now proceed. + +There are, so far as I know, three main views of quantitative equality. +There is (1) the traditional view, which denies quantity as an +independent idea, and asserts that two terms are equal when, and only +when, they have the same number of parts. (2) There is what may be +called the relative view of quantity, according to which equal, greater +and less are all direct relations between quantities. In this view we +have no need of magnitude, since sameness of magnitude is replaced by +the symmetrical and transitive relation of equality. (3) There is the +absolute theory of quantity, in which equality is not a direct relation, +but is to be analyzed into possession of a common magnitude, i.e. into +sameness of relation to a third term. In this case there will be a +special kind of relation of a term to its magnitude; between two +magnitudes of the same kind there will be the relation of greater and +less; while equal, greater and less will apply to quantities only in +virtue of their relation to magnitudes. The difference between the +second and third theories is exactly typical of a difference which +arises in the case of many other series, and notably in regard to space +and time. The decision is, therefore, a matter of very considerable +importance. + +**153.** (1) The kind of equality which consists in having the same +number of parts has been already discussed in [Part II](#part2). If this +be indeed the meaning of quantitative equality, then quantity introduces +no new idea. But it may be shown, I think, that greater and less have a +wider field than whole and part, and an independent meaning. The +arguments may be enumerated as follows: (α) We must admit indivisible +quantities; (β) where the number of simple parts is infinite, there is +no generalization of number which will give the recognized results as to +inequality; (γ) some relations must be allowed to be quantitative, and +relations are not even conceivably divisible; (δ) even where there is +divisibility, the axiom that the whole is greater than the part must be +allowed to be significant, and not a result of definition. + +(α) Some quantities are indivisible. For it is generally admitted that +some psychical existents, such as pleasure and pain, are quantitative. +If now equality means sameness in the number of indivisible parts, we +shall have to regard a pleasure or a pain as consisting of a collection +of units, all perfectly simple, and not, in any significant sense, equal +inter se; for the equality of compound pleasures results on this +hypothesis, solely from the number of simple ones entering into their +composition, so that equality is formally inapplicable to indivisible +pleasures. If, on the other hand, we allow pleasures to be infinitely +divisible, so that no unit we can take is indivisible, then the number +of units in any given pleasure is wholly arbitrary, and if there is to +be any equality of pleasures, we shall have to admit that any two units +may be significantly called equal or unequal[\*](#fn160-1). Hence we +shall require for equality some meaning other than sameness as to the +number of parts. This latter theory, however, seems unavoidable. For +there is not only no reason to regard pleasures as consisting of +definite sums of indivisible units, but further—as a candid +consideration will, I think, convince anyone—two pleasures can always be +significantly judged equal or unequal. However small two pleasures may +be, it must always be significant to say that they are equal. But on the +theory I am combating, the judgment in question would suddenly cease to +be significant when both pleasures were indivisible units. Such a view +seems wholly unwarrantable, and I cannot believe that it has been +consciously held by those[\*](#fn161-1) who have advocated the premisses +from which it follows. + +(β) Some quantities are infinitely divisible, and in these, whatever +definition we take of infinite number, equality is not coextensive with +sameness in the number of parts. In the first place, equality or +inequality must always be definite: concerning two quantities of the +same kind, one answer must be right and the other wrong, though it is +often not in our power to decide the alternative. From this it follows +that, where quantities consist of an infinite number of parts, if +equality or inequality is to be reduced to number of parts at all, it +must be reduced to number of simple parts; for the number of complex +parts that may be taken to make up the whole is wholly arbitrary. But +equality, for example in Geometry, is far narrower than sameness in the +number of parts. The cardinal number of parts in any two continuous +portions of space is the same, as we know from Cantor; even the ordinal +number or type is the same for any two lengths whatever. Hence if there +is to be any spatial inequality of the kind to which Geometry and +common-sense have accustomed us, we must seek some other meaning for +equality than that obtained from the number of parts. At this point I +shall be told that the meaning is very obvious: it is obtained from +superposition. Without trenching too far on discussions which belong to +a later part, I may observe (a) that superposition applies to matter, +not to space, (b) that as a criterion of equality, it presupposes that +the matter superposed is rigid, (c) that rigidity means constancy as +regards metrical properties. This shows that we cannot, without a +vicious circle, define spatial equality by superposition. Spatial +magnitude is, in fact, as indefinable as every other kind; and number of +parts, in this case as in all others where the number is infinite, is +wholly inadequate even as a criterion. + +(γ) Some relations are quantities. This is suggested by the above +discussion of spatial magnitudes, where it is very natural to base +equality upon distances. Although this view, as we shall see hereafter, +is not wholly adequate, it is yet partly true. There appear to be in +certain spaces, and there certainly are in some series (for instance +that of the rational numbers), quantitative relations of distance among +the various terms. Also similarity and difference appear to be +quantities. Consider for example two shades of colour. It seems +undeniable that two shades of red are more similar to each other than +either is to a shade of blue; yet there is no common property in the one +case which is not found in the other also. Red is a mere collective name +for a certain series of shades, and the only reason for giving a +collective name to this series lies in the close resemblance between its +terms. Hence red must not be regarded as a common property in virtue of +which two shades of red resemble each other. And since relations are not +even conceivably divisible, greater and less among relations cannot +depend upon number of parts. + +(δ) Finally, it is well to consider directly the meanings of greater and +less on the one hand, and of whole and part on the other. Euclid’s +axiom, that the whole is greater than the part, seems undeniably +significant; but on the traditional view of quantity, this axiom would +be a mere tautology. This point is again connected with the question +whether superposition is to be taken as the meaning of equality, or as a +mere criterion. On the latter view, the axiom must be significant, and +we cannot identify magnitude with number of parts[\*](#fn162-1). + +**154.** (2) There is therefore in quantity something over and above the +ideas which we have hitherto discussed. It remains to decide between the +relative and absolute theories of magnitude. + +The relative theory regards equal quantities as not possessed of any +common property over and above that of unequal quantities, but as +distinguished merely by the mutual relation of equality. There is no +such thing as a magnitude, shared by equal quantities. We must not say: +This and that are both a yard long; we must say: This and that are +equal, or are both equal to the standard yard in the Exchequer. +Inequality is also a direct relation between quantities, not between +magnitudes. There is nothing by which a set of equal quantities are +distinguished from one which is not equal to them, except the relation +of equality itself. The course of definition is, therefore, as follows: +We have first a quality or relation, say pleasure, of which there are +various instances, specialized, in the case of a quality, by temporal or +spatio-temporal position, and in the case of a relation, by the terms +between which it holds. Let us, to fix ideas, consider quantities of +pleasure. Quantities of pleasure consist merely of the complexes +pleasure at such a time, and pleasure at such another time (to which +place may be added, if it be thought that pleasures have position in +space). In the analysis of a particular pleasure, there is, according to +the relational theory, no other element to be found. But on comparing +these particular pleasures, we find that any two have one and only one +of three relations, equal, greater, and less. Why some have one +relation, some another, is a question to which it is theoretically and +strictly impossible to give an answer; for there is, ex hypothesi, no +point of difference except temporal or spatio-temporal position, which +is obviously irrelevant. Equal quantities of pleasure do not agree in +any respect in which unequal ones differ: it merely happens that some +have one relation and some another. This state of things, it must be +admitted, is curious, and it becomes still more so when we examine the +indemonstrable axioms which the relational theory obliges us to assume. +They are the following (A, B, C being all quantities of one kind): + +(a) A = B, or A is greater than B, or A is less than B. + +(b) A being given, there is always a B, which may be identical with A, +such that A = B. + +(c) If A = B, then B = A. + +(d) If A = B and B = C, then A = C. + +(e) If A is greater than B, then B is less than A. + +(f) If A is greater than B, and B is greater than C, then A is greater +than C. + +(g) If A is greater than B, and B = C, then A is greater than C. + +(h) If A = B, and B is greater than C, then A is greater than C. + +From (b), (c), and (d) it follows that A = A[\*](#fn163-1). From (e) and +(f) it follows that, if A is less than B, and B is less than C, then A +is less than C; from (c), (e), and (h) it follows that, if A is less +than B, and B = C, then A is less than C; from (c), (e), and (g) it +follows that, if A = B, and B is less than C, then A is less than C. (In +the place of (b) we may put the axiom: If A be a quantity, then A = A.) +These axioms, it will be observed, lead to the conclusion that, in any +proposition asserting equality, excess, or defect, an equal quantity may +be substituted anywhere without affecting the truth or falsehood of the +proposition. Further, the proposition A = A is an essential part of the +theory. Now the first of these facts strongly suggests that what is +relevant in quantitative propositions is not the actual quantity, but +some property which it shares with other equal quantities. And this +suggestion is almost demonstrated by the second fact, A = A. For it may +be laid down that the only unanalyzable symmetrical and transitive +relation which a term can have to itself is identity, if this be indeed +a relation. Hence the relation of equality should be analyzable. Now to +say that a relation is analyzable is to say either that it consists of +two or more relations between its terms, which is plainly not the case +here, or that, when it is said to hold between two terms, there is some +third term to which both are related in ways which, when compounded, +give the original relation. Thus to assert that A is B’s grandparent is +to assert that there is some third person C, who is A’s son or daughter +and B’s father or mother. Hence if equality be analyzable, two equal +terms must both be related to some third term; and since a term may be +equal to itself, any two equal terms must have the same relation to the +third term in question. But to admit this is to admit the absolute +theory of magnitude. + +A direct inspection of what we mean when we say that two terms are equal +or unequal will reinforce the objections to the relational theory. It +seems preposterous to maintain that equal quantities have absolutely +nothing in common beyond what is shared by unequal quantities. Moreover +unequal quantities are not merely different: they are different in the +specific manner expressed by saying that one is greater, the other less. +Such a difference seems quite unintelligible unless there is some point +of difference, where unequal quantities are concerned, which is absent +where quantities are equal. Thus the relational theory, though +apparently not absolutely self-contradictory, is complicated and +paradoxical. Both the complication and the paradox, we shall find, are +entirely absent in the absolute theory. + +**155.** (3) In the absolute theory, there is, belonging to a set of +equal quantities, one definite concept, namely a certain magnitude. +Magnitudes are distinguished among concepts by the fact that they have +the relations of greater and less (or at least one of them) to other +terms, which are therefore also magnitudes. Two magnitudes cannot be +equal, for equality belongs to quantities, and is defined as possession +of the same magnitude. Every magnitude is a simple and indefinable +concept. Not any two magnitudes are one greater and the other less; on +the contrary, given any magnitude, those which are greater or less than +that magnitude form a certain definite class, within which any two are +one greater and the other less. Such a class is called a kind of +magnitude. A kind of magnitude may, however, be also defined in another +way, which has to be connected with the above by an axiom. Every +magnitude is a magnitude of something—pleasure, distance, area, etc.—and +has thus a certain specific relation to the something of which it is a +magnitude. This relation is very peculiar, and appears to be incapable +of further definition. All magnitudes which have this relation to one +and the same something (e.g. pleasure) are magnitudes of one kind; and +with this definition, it becomes an axiom to say that, of two magnitudes +of the same kind, one is greater and the other less. + +**156.** An objection to the above theory may be based on the relation +of a magnitude to that whose magnitude it is. To fix our ideas, let us +consider pleasure. A magnitude of pleasure is so much pleasure, such and +such an intensity of pleasure. It seems difficult to regard this, as the +absolute theory demands, as a simple idea: there seem to be two +constituents, pleasure and intensity. Intensity need not be intensity of +pleasure, and intensity of pleasure is distinct from abstract pleasure. +But what we require for the constitution of a certain magnitude of +pleasure is, not intensity in general, but a certain specific intensity; +and a specific intensity cannot be indifferently of pleasure or of +something else. We cannot first settle how much we will have, and then +decide whether it is to be pleasure or mass. A specific intensity must +be of a specific kind. Thus intensity and pleasure are not independent +and coordinate elements in the definition of a given amount of pleasure. +There are different kinds of intensity, and different magnitudes in each +kind; but magnitudes in different kinds must be different. Thus it seems +that the common element, indicated by the term intensity or magnitude, +is not any thing intrinsic, that can be discovered by analysis of a +single term, but is merely the fact of being one term in a relation of +inequality. Magnitudes are defined by the fact that they have this +relation, and they do not, so far as the definition shows, agree in +anything else. The class to which they all belong, like the married +portion of a community, is defined by mutual relations among its terms, +not by a common relation to some outside term—unless, indeed, inequality +itself were taken as such a term, which would be merely an unnecessary +complication. It is necessary to consider what may be called the +extension or field of a relation, as well as that of a class-concept: +and magnitude is the class which forms the extension of inequality. Thus +magnitude of pleasure is complex, because it combines magnitude and +pleasure; but a particular magnitude of pleasure is not complex, for +magnitude does not enter into its concept at all. It is only a magnitude +because it is greater or less than certain other terms; it is only a +magnitude of pleasure because of a certain relation which it has to +pleasure. This is more easily understood where the particular magnitude +has a special name. A yard, for instance, is a magnitude, because it is +greater than a foot; it is a magnitude of length, because it is what is +called a length. Thus all magnitudes are simple concepts, and are +classified into kinds by their relation to some quality or relation. The +quantities which are instances of a magnitude are particularized by +spatio-temporal position or (in the case of relations which are +quantities) by the terms between which the relation holds. Quantities +are not properly greater or less, for the relations of greater and less +hold between their magnitudes, which are distinct from the quantities. + +When this theory is applied in the enumeration of the necessary axioms, +we find a very notable simplification. The axioms in which equality +appears have all become demonstrable, and we require only the following +(L, M, N being magnitudes of one kind): + +(a) No magnitude is greater or less than itself. + +(b) L is greater than M or L is less than M. + +(c) If L is greater than M, then M is less than L. + +(d) If L is greater than M and M is greater than N, then L is greater +than N. + +The difficult axiom which we formerly called (b) is avoided, as are the +other axioms concerning equality; and those that remain are simpler than +our former set. + +**157.** The decision between the absolute and relative theories can be +made at once by appealing to a certain general principle, of very wide +application, which I propose to call the principle of Abstraction. This +principle asserts that, whenever a relation, of which there are +instances, has the two properties of being symmetrical and transitive, +then the relation in question is not primitive, but is analyzable into +sameness of relation to some other term; and that this common relation +is such that there is only one term at most to which a given term can be +so related, though many terms may be so related to a given term. (That +is, the relation is like that of son to father: a man may have many +sons, but can have only one father.) + +This principle, which we have already met with in connection with +cardinals, may seem somewhat elaborate. It is, however, capable of +proof, and is merely a careful statement of a very common assumption. It +is generally held that all relations are analyzable into identity or +diversity of content. Though I entirely reject this view, I retain, so +far as symmetrical transitive relations are concerned, what is really a +somewhat modified statement of the traditional doctrine. Such relations, +to adopt more usual phraseology, are always constituted by possession of +a common property. But a common property is not a very precise +conception, and will not, in most of its ordinary significations, +formally fulfil the function of analyzing the relations in question. A +common quality of two terms is usually regarded as a predicate of those +terms. But the whole doctrine of subject and predicate, as the only form +of which propositions are capable, and the whole denial of the ultimate +reality of relations, are rejected by the logic advocated in the present +work. Abandoning the word predicate, we may say that the most general +sense which can be given to a common property is this: A common property +of two terms is any third term to which both have one and the same +relation. In this general sense, the possession of a common property is +symmetrical, but not necessarily transitive. In order that it may be +transitive, the relation to the common property must be such that only +one term at most can be the property of any given term[\*](#fn166-1). +Such is the relation of a quantity to its magnitude, or of an event to +the time at which it occurs: given one term of the relation, namely the +referent, the other is determinate, but given the other, the one is by +no means determinate. Thus it is capable of demonstration that the +possession of a common property of the type in question always leads to +a symmetrical transitive relation. What the principle of abstraction +asserts is the converse, that such relations only spring from common +properties of the above type[\*](#fn167-1). It should be observed that +the relation of the terms to what I have called their common property +can never be that which is usually indicated by the relation of subject +to predicate, or of the individual to its class. For no subject (in the +received view) can have only one predicate, and no individual can belong +to only one class. The relation of the terms to their common property +is, in general, different in different cases. In the present case, the +quantity is a complex of which the magnitude forms an element: the +relation of the quantity to the magnitude is further defined by the fact +that the magnitude has to belong to a certain class, namely that of +magnitudes. It must then be taken as an axiom (as in the case of +colours) that two magnitudes of the same kind cannot coexist in one +spatio-temporal place, or subsist as relations between the same pair of +terms; and this supplies the required uniqueness of the magnitude. It is +such synthetic judgments of incompatibility that lead to negative +judgments; but this is a purely logical topic, upon which it is not +necessary to enlarge in this connection. + +**158.** We may now sum up the above discussion in a brief statement of +results. There are a certain pair of indefinable relations, called +greater and less; these relations are asymmetrical and transitive, and +are inconsistent the one with the other. Each is the converse of the +other, in the sense that, whenever the one holds between A and B, the +other holds between B and A. The terms which are capable of these +relations are magnitudes. Every magnitude has a certain peculiar +relation to some concept, expressed by saying that it is a magnitude of +that concept. Two magnitudes which have this relation to the same +concept are said to be of the same kind; to be of the same kind is the +necessary and sufficient condition for the relations of greater and +less. When a magnitude can be particularized by temporal, spatial, or +spatio-temporal position, or when, being a relation, it can be +particularized by taking into a consideration a pair of terms between +which it holds, then the magnitude so particularized is called a +quantity. Two magnitudes of the same kind can never be particularized by +exactly the same specifications. Two quantities which result from +particularizing the same magnitude are said to be equal. + +Thus our indefinables are (1) greater and less, (2) every particular +magnitude. Our indemonstrable propositions are: + +(1) Every magnitude has to some term the relation which makes it of a +certain kind. + +(2) Any two magnitudes of the same kind are one greater and the other +less. + +(3) Two magnitudes of the same kind, if capable of occupying space or +time, cannot both have the same spatio-temporal position; if relations, +can never be both relations between the same pair of terms. + +(4) No magnitude is greater than itself. + +(5) If A is greater than B, B is less than A, and vice versâ. + +(6) If A is greater than B and B is greater than C, then A is greater +than C[\*](#fn168-1). + +Further axioms characterize various species of magnitudes, but the above +seem alone necessary to magnitude in general. None of them depend in any +way upon number or measurement; hence we may be undismayed in the +presence of magnitudes which cannot be divided or measured, of which, in +the [next chapter](#chapter20), we shall find an abundance of instances. + +Note to Chapter XIX. The work of Herr Meinong on Weber’s Law, already +alluded to, is one from which I have learnt so much, and with which I so +largely agree, that it seems desirable to justify myself on the points +in which I depart from it. This work begins (§1) by a characterization +of magnitude as that which is limited towards zero. Zero is understood +as the negation of magnitude, and after a discussion, the following +statement is adopted (p. 8): + +“That is or has magnitude, which allows the interpolation of terms +between itself and its contradictory opposite.” + +Whether this constitutes a definition, or a mere criterion, is left +doubtful (ib.), but in either case, it appears to me to be undesirable +as a fundamental characterization of magnitude. It derives support, as +Herr Meinong points out (p. 6n), from its similarity to Kant’s +“Anticipations of Perception[†](#fn168-2).” But it is, if I am not +mistaken, liable to several grave objections. In the first place, the +whole theory of zero is most difficult, and seems subsequent, rather +than prior, to the theory of other magnitudes. And to regard zero as the +contradictory opposite of other magnitudes seems erroneous. The phrase +should denote the class obtained by negation of the class “magnitudes of +such and such a kind”; but this obviously would not yield the zero of +that kind of magnitude. Whatever interpretation we give to the phrase, +it would seem to imply that we must regard zero as not a magnitude of +the kind whose zero it is. But in that case it is not less than the +magnitudes of the kind in question, and there seems no particular +meaning in saying that a lesser magnitude is between zero and a greater +magnitude. And in any case, the notion of between, as we shall see in +[Part IV](#part4), demands asymmetrical relations among the terms +concerned. These relations, it would seem, are, in the case of +magnitude, none other than greater and less, which are therefore prior +to the betweenness of magnitudes, and more suitable to definition. I +shall endeavour at a later stage to give what I conceive to be the true +theory of zero; and it will then appear how difficult this subject is. +It can hardly be wise, therefore, to introduce zero in the first account +of magnitude. Other objections might be urged, as, for instance, that it +is doubtful whether all kinds of magnitude have a zero; that in discrete +kinds of magnitude, zero is unimportant; and that among distances, where +the zero is simply identity, there is hardly the same relation of zero +to negation or non-existence as in the case of qualities such as +pleasure. But the main reason must be the logical inversion involved in +the introduction of between before any asymmetrical relations have been +specified from which it could arise. This subject will be resumed in +[Chapter xxii](#chapter22). + +Notes + +## CHAPTER XX. +The Range of Quantity. + +**159.** The questions to be discussed in the present chapter are these: +What kinds of terms are there which, by their common relation to a +number of magnitudes, constitute a class of quantities of one kind? Have +all such terms anything else in common? Is there any mark which will +ensure that a term is thus related to a set of magnitudes? What sorts of +terms are capable of degree, or intensity, or greater and less? + +The traditional view regards divisibility as a common mark of all terms +having magnitude. We have already seen that there is no à priori ground +for this view. We are now to examine the question inductively, to find +as many undoubted instances of quantities as possible, and to inquire +whether they all have divisibility or any other common mark. + +Any term of which a greater or less degree is possible contains under it +a collection of magnitudes of one kind. Hence the comparative form in +grammar is primâ facie evidence of quantity. If this evidence were +conclusive, we should have to admit that all, or almost all, qualities +are susceptible of magnitude. The praises and reproaches addressed by +poets to their mistresses would afford comparatives and superlatives of +most known adjectives. But some circumspection is required in using +evidence of this grammatical nature. There is always, I think, some +quantitative comparison wherever a comparative or superlative occurs, +but it is often not a comparison as regards the quality indicated by +grammar. + +O ruddier than the cherry, +O sweeter than the berry, +O nymph more bright +Than moonshine light,” + +are lines containing three comparatives. As regards sweetness and +brightness, we have, I think, a genuine quantitative comparison; but as +regards ruddiness, this may be doubted. The comparative here—and +generally where colours are concerned—indicates, I think, not more of a +given colour, but more likeness to a standard colour. Various shades of +colour are supposed to be arranged in a series, such that the difference +of quality is greater or less according as the distance in the series is +greater or less. One of these shades is the ideal “ruddiness,” and +others are called more or less ruddy according as they are nearer to or +further from this shade in the series. The same explanation applies, I +think, to such terms as whiter, blacker, redder. The true quantity +involved seems to be, in all these cases, a relation, namely the +relation of similarity. The difference between two shades of colour is +certainly a difference of quality, not merely of magnitude; and when we +say that one thing is redder than another, we do not imply that the two +are of the same shade. If there were no difference of shade, we should +probably say one was brighter than the other, which is quite a different +kind of comparison. But though the difference of two shades is a +difference of quality, yet, as the possibility of serial arrangement +shows, this difference of quality is itself susceptible of degrees. Each +shade of colour seems to be simple and unanalyzable; but neighbouring +colours in the spectrum are certainly more similar than remote colours. +It is this that gives continuity to colours. Between two shades of +colour, A and B, we should say, there is always a third colour C; and +this means that C resembles A or B more than B or A does. But for such +relations of immediate resemblance, we should not be able to arrange +colours in series. The resemblance must be immediate, since all shades +of colour are unanalyzable, as appears from any attempt at description +or definition[\*](#fn171-1). Thus we have an indubitable case of +relations which have magnitude. The difference or resemblance of two +colours is a relation, and is a magnitude; for it is greater or less +than other differences or resemblances. + +**160.** I have dwelt upon this case of colours, since it is one +instance of a very important class. When any number of terms can be +arranged in a series, it frequently happens that any two of them have a +relation which may, in a generalized sense, be called a distance. This +relation suffices to generate a serial arrangement, and is always +necessarily a magnitude. In all such cases, if the terms of the series +have names, and if these names have comparatives, the comparatives +indicate, not more of the term in question, but more likeness to that +term. Thus, if we suppose the time-series to be one in which there is +distance, when an event is said to be more recent than another, what is +meant is that its distance from the present was less than that of the +other. Thus recentness is not itself a quality of the time or of the +event. What are quantitatively compared in such cases are relations, not +qualities. The case of colours is convenient for illustration, because +colours have names, and the difference of two colours is generally +admitted to be qualitative. But the principle is of very wide +application. The importance of this class of magnitudes, and the +absolute necessity of clear notions as to their nature, will appear more +and more as we proceed. The whole philosophy of space and time, and the +doctrine of so-called extensive magnitudes, depend throughout upon a +clear understanding of series and distance. + +Distance must be distinguished from mere difference or unlikeness. It +holds only between terms in a series. It is intimately connected with +order, and implies that the terms between which it holds have an +ultimate and simple difference, not one capable of analysis into +constituents. It implies also that there is a more or less continuous +passage, through other terms belonging to the same series, from one of +the distant terms to the other. Mere difference per se appears to be the +bare minimum of a relation, being in fact a precondition of almost all +relations. It is always absolute, and is incapable of degrees. Moreover +it holds between any two terms whatever, and is hardly to be +distinguished from the assertion that they are two. But distance holds +only between the members of certain series, and its existence is then +the source of the series. It is a specific relation, and it has sense; +we can distinguish the distance of A from B from that of B from A. This +last mark alone suffices to distinguish distance from bare difference. + +It might perhaps be supposed that, in a series in which there is +distance, although the distance AB must be greater than or less than AC, +yet the distance BD need not be either greater or less than AC. For +example, there is obviously more difference between the pleasure +derivable from £5 and that derivable from £100 than between that from £5 +and that from £20. But need there be either equality or inequality +between the difference for £1 and £20 and that for £5 and £100? This +question must be answered affirmatively. For AC is greater or less than +BC, and BC is greater or less than BD; hence AC, BC and also BC, BD are +magnitudes of the same kind. Hence AC, BD are magnitudes of the same +kind, and if not identical, one must be the greater and the other the +less. Hence, when there is distance in a series, any two distances are +quantitatively comparable. + +It should be observed that all the magnitudes of one kind form a series, +and that their distances, therefore, if they have distances, are again +magnitudes. But it must not be supposed that these can, in general, be +obtained by subtraction, or are of the same kind as the magnitudes whose +differences they express. Subtraction depends, as a rule, upon +divisibility, and is therefore in general inapplicable to indivisible +quantities. The point is important, and will be treated in detail in the +[following chapter](#chapter21). + +Thus nearness and distance are relations which have magnitude. Are there +any other relations having magnitude? This may, I think, be +doubted[\*](#fn173-1). At least I am unaware of any other such relation, +though I know no way of disproving their existence. + +**161.** There is a difficult class of terms, usually regarded as +magnitudes, apparently implying relations, though certainly not always +relational. These are differential coefficients, such as velocity and +acceleration. They must be borne in mind in all attempts to generalize +about magnitude, but owing to their complexity they require a special +discussion. This will be given in [Part V](#part5); and we shall then +find that differential coefficients are never magnitudes, but only real +numbers, or segments in some series. + +**162.** All the magnitudes dealt with hitherto have been, strictly +speaking, indivisible. Thus the question arises: Are there any divisible +magnitudes? Here I think a distinction must be made. A magnitude is +essentially one, not many. Thus no magnitude is correctly expressed as a +number of terms. But may not the quantity which has magnitude be a sum +of parts, and the magnitude a magnitude of divisibility? If so, every +whole consisting of parts will be a single term possessed of the +property of divisibility. The more parts it consists of, the greater is +its divisibility. On this supposition, divisibility is a magnitude, of +which we may have a greater or less degree; and the degree of +divisibility corresponds exactly, in finite wholes, to the number of +parts. But though the whole which has divisibility is of course +divisible, yet its divisibility, which alone is strictly a magnitude, is +not properly speaking divisible. The divisibility does not itself +consist of parts, but only of the property of having parts. It is +necessary, in order to obtain divisibility, to take the whole strictly +as one, and to regard divisibility as its adjective. Thus although, in +this case, we have numerical measurement, and all the mathematical +consequences of division, yet, philosophically speaking, our magnitude +is still indivisible. + +There are difficulties, however, in the way of admitting divisibility as +a kind of magnitude. It seems to be not a property of the whole, but +merely a relation to the parts. It is difficult to decide this point, +but a good deal may be said, I think, in support of divisibility as a +simple quality. The whole has a certain relation, which for convenience +we may call that of inclusion, to all its parts. This relation is the +same whether there be many parts or few; what distinguishes a whole of +many parts is that it has many such relations of inclusion. But it seems +reasonable to suppose that a whole of many parts differs from a whole of +few parts in some intrinsic respect. In fact, wholes may be arranged in +a series according as they have more or fewer parts, and the serial +arrangement implies, as we have already seen, some series of properties +differing more or less from each other, and agreeing when two wholes +have the same finite number of parts, but distinct from number of parts +in finite wholes. These properties can be none other than greater or +less degrees of divisibility. Thus magnitude of divisibility would +appear to be a simple property of a whole, distinct from the number of +parts included in the whole, but correlated with it, provided this +number be finite. If this view can be maintained, divisibility may be +allowed to remain as a numerically measurable, but not divisible, class +of magnitudes. In this class we should have to place lengths, areas and +volumes, but not distances. At a later stage, however, we shall find +that the divisibility of infinite wholes, in the sense in which this is +not measured by cardinal numbers, must be derived through relations in a +way analogous to that in which distance is derived, and must be really a +property of relations[\*](#fn174-1). + +Thus it would appear, in any case, that all magnitudes are indivisible. +This is one common mark which they all possess, and so far as I know, it +is the only one to be added to those enumerated in [Chapter +xix](#chapter19). Concerning the range of quantity, there seems to be no +further general proposition. Very many simple non-relational terms have +magnitude, the principal exceptions being colours, points, instants and +numbers. + +**163.** Finally, it is important to remember that, on the theory +adopted in [Chapter xix](#chapter19), a given magnitude of a given kind +is a simple concept, having to the kind a relation analogous to that of +inclusion in a class. When the kind is a kind of existents, such as +pleasure, what actually exists is never the kind, but various particular +magnitudes of the kind. Pleasure, abstractly taken, does not exist, but +various amounts of it exist. This degree of abstraction is essential to +the theory of quantity: there must be entities which differ from each +other in nothing except magnitude. The grounds for the theory adopted +may perhaps appear more clearly from a further examination of this case. + +Let us start with Bentham’s famous proposition: “Quantity of pleasure +being equal, pushpin is as good as poetry.” Here the qualitative +difference of the pleasures is the very point of the judgment; but in +order to be able to say that the quantities of pleasure are equal, we +must be able to abstract the qualitative differences, and leave a +certain magnitude of pleasure. If this abstraction is legitimate, the +qualitative difference must be not truly a difference of quality, but +only a difference of relation to other terms, as, in the present case, a +difference in the causal relation. For it is not the whole pleasurable +states that are compared, but only—as the form of the judgment aptly +illustrates—their quality of pleasure. If we suppose the magnitude of +pleasure to be not a separate entity, a difficulty will arise. For the +mere element of pleasure must be identical in the two cases, whereas we +require a possible difference of magnitude. Hence we can neither hold +that only the whole concrete state exists, and any part of it is an +abstraction, nor that what exists is abstract pleasure, not magnitude of +pleasure. Nor can we say: We abstract, from the whole states, the two +elements magnitude and pleasure. For then we should not get a +quantitative comparison of the pleasures. The two states would agree in +being pleasures, and in being magnitudes. But this would not give us a +magnitude of pleasure; and it would give a magnitude to the states as a +whole, which is not admissible. Hence we cannot abstract magnitude in +general from the states, since as wholes they have no magnitude. And we +have seen that we must not abstract bare pleasure, if we are to have any +possibility of different magnitudes. Thus what we have to abstract is a +magnitude of pleasure as a whole. This must not be analyzed into +magnitude and pleasure, but must be abstracted as a whole. And the +magnitude of pleasure must exist as a part of the whole pleasurable +states, for it is only where there is no difference save at most one of +magnitude that quantitative comparison is possible. Thus the discussion +of this particular case fully confirms the theory that every magnitude +is unanalyzable, and has only the relation analogous to inclusion in a +class to that abstract quality or relation of which it is a magnitude. + +Having seen that all magnitudes are indivisible, we have next to +consider the extent to which numbers can be used to express magnitudes, +and the nature and limits of measurement. + +Notes + +## CHAPTER XXI. +Numbers As Expressing Magnitudes: Measurement. + +**164.** It is one of the assumptions of educated common-sense that two +magnitudes of the same kind must be numerically comparable. People are +apt to say that they are thirty per cent, healthier or happier than they +were, without any suspicion that such phrases are destitute of meaning. +The purpose of the present chapter is to explain what is meant by +measurement, what are the classes of magnitudes to which it applies, and +how it is applied to those classes. + +Measurement of magnitudes is, in its most general sense, any method by +which a unique and reciprocal correspondence is established between all +or some of the magnitudes of a kind and all or some of the numbers, +integral, rational, or real, as the case may be. (It might be thought +that complex numbers ought to be included; but what can only be measured +by complex numbers is in fact always an aggregrate of magnitudes of +different kinds, not a single magnitude.) In this general sense, +measurement demands some one-one relation between the numbers and +magnitudes in question—a relation which may be direct or indirect, +important or trivial, according to circumstances. Measurement in this +sense can be applied to very many classes of magnitudes; to two great +classes, distances and divisibilities, it applies, as we shall see, in a +more important and intimate sense. + +Concerning measurement in the most general sense, there is very little +to be said. Since the numbers form a series, and since every kind of +magnitude also forms a series, it will be desirable that the order of +the magnitudes measured should correspond to that of the numbers, i.e. +that all relations of between should be the same for magnitudes and +their measures. Wherever there is a zero, it is well that this should be +measured by the number zero. These and other conditions, which a measure +should fulfil if possible, may be laid down; but they are of practical +rather than theoretical importance. + +**165.** There are two general metaphysical opinions, either of which, +if accepted, shows that all magnitudes are theoretically capable of +measurement in the above sense. The first of these is the theory that +all events either are, or are correlated with, events in the dynamical +causal series. In regard to the so-called secondary qualities, this view +has been so far acted upon by physical science that it has provided most +of the so-called intensive quantities that appear in space with spatial, +and thence numerical, measures. And with regard to mental quantities the +theory in question is that of psychophysical parallelism. Here the +motion which is correlated with any psychical quantity always +theoretically affords a means of measuring that quantity. The other +metaphysical opinion, which leads to universal measurability, is one +suggested by Kant’s “Anticipations of Perception[\*](#fn177-1),” namely +that, among intensive magnitudes, an increase is always accompanied by +an increase of reality. Reality, in this connection, seems synonymous +with existence; hence the doctrine may be stated thus: Existence is a +kind of intensive magnitude, of which, where a greater magnitude exists, +there is always more than where a less magnitude exists. (That this is +exactly Kant’s doctrine seems improbable; but it is at least a tenable +view.) In this case, since two instances of the same magnitude (i.e. two +equal quantities) must have more existence than one, it follows that, if +a single magnitude of the same kind can be found having the same amount +of existence as the two equal quantities together, then that magnitude +may be called double that of each of the equal quantities. In this way +all intensive magnitudes become theoretically capable of measurement. +That this method has any practical importance it would be absurd to +maintain; but it may contribute to the appearance of meaning belonging +to twice as happy. It gives a sense, for example, in which we may say +that a child derives as much pleasure from one chocolate as from two +acid drops; and on the basis of such judgments the hedonistic Calculus +could theoretically be built. + +There is one other general observation of some importance. If it be +maintained that all series of magnitudes are either continuous in +Cantor’s sense, or are similar to series which can be chosen out of +continuous series, then it is theoretically possible to correlate any +kind of magnitudes with all or some of the real numbers, so that the +zeros correspond, and the greater magnitudes correspond to the greater +numbers. But if any series of magnitudes, without being continuous, +contains continuous series, then such a series of magnitudes will be +strictly and theoretically incapable of measurement by the real +numbers[†](#fn177-2). + +**166.** Leaving now these somewhat vague generalities, let us examine +the more usual and concrete sense of measurement. What we require is +some sense in which we may say that one magnitude is double of another. +In the above instances this sense was derived by correlation with +spatio-temporal magnitudes, or with existence. This presupposed that in +these cases a meaning had been found for the phrase. Hence measurement +demands that, in some cases, there should be an intrinsic meaning to the +proposition “this magnitude is double of that.” (In what sense the +meaning is intrinsic will appear as we proceed.) Now so long as +quantities are regarded as inherently divisible, there is a perfectly +obvious meaning to such a proposition: a magnitude A is double of B when +it is the magnitude of two quantities together, each of these having the +magnitude B. (It should be observed that to divide a magnitude into two +equal parts must always be impossible, since there are no such things as +equal magnitudes.) Such an interpretation will still apply to magnitudes +of divisibility; but since we have admitted other magnitudes, a +different interpretation (if any) must be found for these. Let us first +examine the case of divisibilities, and then proceed to the other cases +where measurement is intrinsically possible. + +**167.** The divisibility of a finite whole is immediately and +inherently correlated with the number of simple parts in the whole. In +this case, although the magnitudes are even now incapable of addition of +the sort required, the quantities can be added in the manner explained +in [Part II](#part2). The addition of two magnitudes of divisibility +yields merely two magnitudes, not a new magnitude. But the addition of +two quantities of divisibility, i.e. two wholes, does yield a new single +whole, provided the addition is of the kind which results from logical +addition by regarding classes as the wholes formed by their terms. Thus +there is a good meaning in saying that one magnitude of divisibility is +double of another, when it applies to a whole containing twice as many +parts. But in the case of infinite wholes, the matter is by no means so +simple. Here the number of simple parts (in the only senses of infinite +number hitherto discovered) may be equal without equality in the +magnitude of divisibility. We require here a method which does not go +back to simple parts. In actual space, we have immediate judgments of +equality as regards two infinite wholes. When we have such judgments, we +can regard the sum of n equal wholes as n times each of them; for +addition of wholes does not demand their finitude. In this way numerical +comparison of some pairs of wholes becomes possible. By the usual +well-known methods, by continual subdivision and the method of limits, +this is extended to all pairs of wholes which are such that immediate +comparisons are possible. Without these immediate comparisons, which are +necessary both logically and psychologically[\*](#fn178-1), nothing can +be accomplished: we are always reduced in the last resort to the +immediate judgment that our foot-rule has not greatly changed its size +during measurement, and this judgment is prior to the results of +physical science as to the extent to which bodies do actually change +their sizes. But where immediate comparison is psychologically +impossible, we may theoretically substitute a logical variety of +measurement, which, however, gives a property not of the divisible +whole, but of some relation or class of relations more or less analogous +to those that hold between points in space. + +That divisibility, in the sense required for areas and volumes, is not a +property of a whole, results from the fact (which will be established in +[Part VI](#part6)) that between the points of a space there are always +relations which generate a different space. Thus two sets of points +which, with regard to one set of relations, form equal areas, form +unequal areas with respect to another set, or even form one an area and +the other a line or a volume. If divisibility in the relevant sense were +an intrinsic property of wholes, this would be impossible. But this +subject cannot be fully discussed until we come to Metrical Geometry. + +Where our magnitudes are divisibilities, not only do numbers measure +them, but the difference of two measuring numbers, with certain +limitations, measures the magnitude of the difference (in the sense of +dissimilarity) between the divisibilities. If one of the magnitudes be +fixed, its difference from the other increases as the difference of the +measuring numbers increases; for this difference depends upon the +difference in the number of parts. But I do not think it can be shown +generally that, if A, B, C, D be the numbers measuring four magnitudes, +and A − B = C − D, then the differences of the magnitudes are equal. It +would seem, for instance, that the difference between one inch and two +inches is greater than that between 1001 inches and 1002 inches. This +remark has no importance in the present case, since differences of +divisibility are never required; but in the case of distances it has a +curious connection with non-Euclidean Geometry. But it is theoretically +important to observe that, if divisibility be indeed a magnitude—as the +equality of areas and volumes seems to require—then there is strictly no +ground for saying that the divisibility of a sum of two units is twice +as great as that of one unit. Indeed this proposition cannot be strictly +taken, for no magnitude is a sum of parts, and no magnitude therefore is +double of another. We can only mean that the sum of two units contains +twice as many parts, which is an arithmetical, not a quantitative, +judgment, and is adequate only in the case where the number of parts is +finite, since in other cases the double of a number is in general equal +to it. Thus even the measurement of divisibility by numbers contains an +element of convention; and this element, we shall find, is still more +prominent in the case of distances. + +**168.** In the above case we still had addition in one of its two +fundamental senses, i.e. the combination of wholes to form a new whole. +But in other cases of magnitude we do not have any such addition. The +sum of two pleasures is not a new pleasure, but is merely two pleasures. +The sum of two distances is also not properly one distance. But in this +case we have an extension of the idea of addition. Some such extension +must always be possible where measurement is to be effected in the more +natural and restricted sense which we are now discussing. I shall first +explain this generalized addition in abstract terms, and then illustrate +its application to distances. + +It sometimes happens that two quantities, which are not capable of +addition proper, have a relation, which has itself a one-one relation to +a quantity of the same kind as those between which it holds. Supposing +a, b, c to be such quantities, we have, in the case supposed, some +proposition aBc, where B is a relation which uniquely determines and is +uniquely determined by some quantity b of the same kind as that to which +a and c belong. Thus for example two ratios have a relation, which we +may call their difference, which is itself wholly determined by another +ratio, namely the difference, in the arithmetical sense, of the two +given ratios. If α, β, γ be terms in a series in which there is +distance, the distances αβ, αγ have a relation which is measured by +(though not identical with) the distance βγ. In all such cases, by an +extension of addition, we may put a + b = c in place of aBc. Wherever a +set of quantities have relations of this kind, if further aBc implies +bAc, so that a + b = b + a, we shall be able to proceed as if we had +ordinary addition, and shall be able in consequence to introduce +numerical measurement. + +The conception of distance will be discussed fully in [Part IV](#part4), +in connection with order: for the present I am concerned only to show +how distances come to be measurable. The word will be used to cover a +far more general conception than that of distance in space. I shall mean +by a kind of distance a set of quantitative asymmetrical relations of +which one and only one holds between any pair of terms of a given class; +which are such that, if there is a relation of the kind between a and b, +and also between b and c, then there is one of the kind between a and c, +the relation between a and c being the relative product of those between +a and b, b and c; this product is to be commutative, i.e. independent of +the order of its factors; and finally, if the distance ab be greater +than the distance ac, then, d being any other member of the class, db is +greater than dc. Although distances are thus relations, and therefore +indivisible and incapable of addition proper, there is a simple and +natural convention by which such distances become numerically +measurable. + +The convention is this. Let it be agreed that, when the distances a0a1, +a1a2 … an−1an are all equal and in the same sense, then a0an is said to +be n times each of the distances a0a1, etc., i.e. is to be measured by a +number n times as great. This has generally been regarded as not a +convention, but an obvious truth; owing, however, to the fact that +distances are indivisible, no distance is really a sum of other +distances, and numerical measurement must be in part conventional. With +this convention, the numbers corresponding to distances, where there are +such numbers, become definite, except as to a common factor dependent +upon the choice of a unit. Numbers are also assigned by this method to +the members of the class between which the distances hold; these numbers +have, in addition to the arbitrary factor, an arbitrary additive +constant, depending upon the choice of origin. This method, which is +capable of still further generalization, will be more fully explained in +[Part IV](#part4). In order to show that all the distances of our kind, +and all the terms of our set, can have numbers assigned to them, we +require two further axioms, the axiom of Archimedes, and what may be +called the axiom of linearity[\*](#fn181-1). + +**169.** The importance of the numerical measurement of distance, at +least as applied to space and time, depends partly upon a further fact, +by which it is brought into relation with the numerical measurement of +divisibility. In all series there are terms intermediate between any two +whose distance is not the minimum. These terms are determinate when the +two distant terms are specified. The intermediate terms may be called +the stretch from a0 to an[†](#fn181-2). The whole composed of these +terms is a quantity, and has a divisibility measured by the number of +terms, provided their number is finite. If the series is such that the +distances of consecutive terms are all equal, then, if there are n − 1 +terms between a0 and an, the measure of the distance is proportional to +n. Thus, if we include in the stretch one of the end terms, but not the +other, the measures of the stretch and the distance are proportional, +and equal stretches correspond to equal distances. Thus the number of +terms in the stretch measures both the distance of the end terms and the +amount of divisibility of the whole stretch. When the stretch contains +an infinite number of terms, we estimate equal stretches as explained +above. It then becomes an axiom, which may or may not hold in a given +case, that equal stretches correspond to equal distances. In this case, +coordinates measure two entirely distinct magnitudes, which, owing to +their common measure, are perpetually confounded. + +**170.** The above analysis explains a curious problem which must have +troubled most people who have endeavoured to philosophize about +Geometry. Starting from one-dimensional magnitudes connected with the +straight line, most theories may be divided into two classes, those +appropriate to areas and volumes, and those appropriate to angles +between lines or planes. Areas and volumes are radically different from +angles, and are generally neglected in philosophies which hold to +relational views of space or start from projective Geometry. The reason +of this is plain enough. On the straight line, if, as is usually +supposed, there is such a relation as distance, we have two +philosophically distinct but practically conjoined magnitudes, namely +the distance, and the divisibility of the stretch. The former is similar +to angles; the latter, to areas and volumes. Angles may also be regarded +as distances between terms in a series, namely between lines through a +point or planes through a line. Areas and volumes, on the contrary, are +sums, or magnitudes of divisibility. Owing to the confusion of the two +kinds of magnitude connected with the line, either angles, or else areas +and volumes, are usually incompatible with the philosophy invented to +suit the line. By the above analysis, this incompatibility is at once +explained and overcome[\*](#fn182-1). + +**171.** We thus see how two great classes of magnitudes—divisibilities +and distances—are rendered amenable to measure. These two classes +practically cover what are usually called extensive magnitudes, and it +will be convenient to continue to allow the name to them. I shall extend +this name to cover all distances and divisibilities, whether they have +any relation to space and time or not. But the word extensive must not +be supposed to indicate, as it usually does, that the magnitudes so +designated are divisible. We have already seen that no magnitude is +divisible. Quantities are only divisible into other quantities in the +one case of wholes which are quantities of divisibility. Quantities +which are distances, though I shall call them extensive, are not +divisible into smaller distances; but they allow the important kind of +addition explained above, which I shall call in future relational +addition[†](#fn182-2). + +All other magnitudes and quantities may be properly called intensive. +Concerning these, unless by some causal relation, or by means of some +more or less roundabout relation such as those explained at the +beginning of the present chapter, numerical measurement is impossible. +Those mathematicians who are accustomed to an exclusive emphasis on +numbers, will think that not much can be said with definiteness +concerning magnitudes incapable of measurement. This, however, is by no +means the case. The immediate judgments of equality, upon which (as we +saw) all measurements depend, are still possible where measurement +fails, as are also the immediate judgments of greater and less. Doubt +only arises where the difference is small; and all that measurement +does, in this respect, is to make the margin of doubt smaller—an +achievement which is purely psychological, and of no philosophical +importance. Quantities not susceptible of numerical measurement can thus +be arranged in a scale of greater and smaller magnitudes, and this is +the only strictly quantitative achievement of even numerical +measurement. We can know that one magnitude is greater than another, and +that a third is intermediate between them; also, since the differences +of magnitudes are always magnitudes, there is always (theoretically, at +least) an answer to the question whether the difference of one pair of +magnitudes is greater than, less than, or the same as the difference of +another pair of the same kind. And such propositions, though to the +mathematician they may appear approximate, are just as precise and +definite as the propositions of Arithmetic. Without numerical +measurement, therefore, the quantitative relations of magnitudes have +all the definiteness of which they are capable—nothing is added, from +the theoretical standpoint, by the assignment of correlated numbers. The +whole subject of the measurement of quantities is, in fact, one of more +practical than theoretical importance. What is theoretically important +in it is merged in the wider question of the correlation of series, +which will occupy us much hereafter. The chief reason why I have treated +the subject thus at length is derived from its traditional importance, +but for which it might have been far more summarily treated. + +Notes + +## CHAPTER XXII. +Zero. + +**172.** The present chapter is concerned, not with any form of the +numerical zero, nor yet with the infinitesimal, but with the pure zero +of magnitude. This is the zero which Kant has in mind, in his refutation +of Mendelssohn’s proof of the immortality of the soul[\*](#fn184-1). +Kant points out that an intensive magnitude, while remaining of the same +kind, can become zero; and that, though zero is a definite magnitude, no +quantity whose magnitude is zero can exist. This kind of zero, we shall +find, is a fundamental quantitative notion, and is one of the points in +which the theory of quantity presents features peculiar to itself. The +quantitative zero has a certain connection both with the number 0 and +with the null-class in Logic, but it is not (I think) definable in terms +of either. What is less universally realized is its complete +independence of the infinitesimal. The latter notion will not be +discussed until the [following chapter](#chapter23). + +The meaning of zero, in any kind of quantity, is a question of much +difficulty, upon which the greatest care must be bestowed, if +contradictions are to be avoided. Zero seems to be definable by some +general characteristic, without reference to any special peculiarity of +the kind of quantity to which it belongs. To find such a definition, +however, is far from easy. Zero seems to be a radically distinct +conception according as the magnitudes concerned are discrete or +continuous. To prove that this is not the case, let us examine various +suggested definitions. + +**173.** (1) Herr Meinong (op. cit., p. 8) regards zero as the +contradictory opposite of each magnitude of its kind. The phrase +“contradictory opposite” is one which is not free from ambiguity. The +opposite of a class, in symbolic logic, is the class containing all +individuals not belonging to the first class; and hence the opposite of +an individual should be all other individuals. But this meaning is +evidently inappropriate: zero is not everything except one magnitude of +its kind, nor yet everything except the class of magnitudes of its kind. +It can hardly be regarded as true to say that a pain is a zero pleasure. +On the other hand, a zero pleasure is said to be no pleasure, and this +is evidently what Herr Meinong means. But although we shall find this +view to be correct, the meaning of the phrase is very difficult to +seize. It does not mean something other than pleasure, as when our +friends assure us that it is no pleasure to tell us our faults. It seems +to mean what is neither pleasure, nor yet anything else. But this would +be merely a cumbrous way of saying nothing, and the reference to +pleasure might be wholly dropped. This gives a zero which is the same +for all kinds of magnitude, and if this be the true meaning of zero, +then zero is not one among the magnitudes of a kind, nor yet a term in +the series formed by magnitudes of a kind. For though it is often true +that there is nothing smaller than all the magnitudes of a kind, yet it +is always false that nothing itself is smaller than all of them. This +zero, therefore, has no special reference to any particular kind of +magnitude, and is incapable of fulfilling the functions which Herr +Meinong demands of it[\*](#fn185-1). The phrase, however, as we shall +see, is capable of an interpretation which avoids this difficulty. But +let us first examine some other suggested meanings of the word. + +**174.** (2) Zero may be defined as the least magnitude of its kind. +Where a kind of magnitude is discrete, and generally when it has what +Professor Bettazzi calls a limiting magnitude of the kind[†](#fn185-2), +such a definition is insufficient. For in such a case, the limiting +magnitude seems to be really the least of its kind. And in any case, the +definition gives rather a characteristic than a true definition, which +must be sought in some more purely logical notion, for zero cannot fail +to be in some sense a denial of all other magnitudes of the kind. The +phrase that zero is the smallest of magnitudes is like the phrase Which +De Morgan commends for its rhetoric: “Achilles was the strongest of all +his enemies.” Thus it would be obviously false to say that 0 is the +least of the positive integers, or that the interval between A and A is +the least interval between any two letters of the alphabet. On the other +hand, where a kind of magnitude is continuous, and has no limiting +magnitude, although we have apparently a gradual and unlimited approach +to zero, yet now a new objection arises. Magnitudes of this kind are +essentially such as have no minimum. Hence we cannot without express +contradiction take zero as their minimum. We may, however, avoid this +contradiction by saying that there is always a magnitude less than any +other, but not zero, unless that other be zero. This emendation avoids +any formal contradiction, and is only inadequate because it gives rather +a mark of zero than its true meaning. Whatever else is a magnitude of +the kind in question might have been diminished; and we wish to know +what it is that makes zero obviously incapable of any further +diminution. This the suggested definition does not tell us, and +therefore, though it gives a characteristic which often belongs to no +other magnitude of the kind, it cannot be considered philosophically +sufficient. Moreover, where there are negative magnitudes, it precludes +us from regarding these as less than zero. + +**175.** (3) Where our magnitudes are differences or distances, zero +has, at first sight, an obvious meaning, namely identity. But here +again, the zero so defined seems to have no relation to one kind of +distances rather than another: a zero distance in time would seem to be +the same as a zero distance in space. This can, however, be avoided, by +substituting, for identity simply, identity with some member of the +class of terms between which the distances in question hold. By this +device, the zero of any class of relations which are magnitudes is made +perfectly definite and free from contradiction; moreover we have both +zero quantities and zero magnitudes, for if A and B be terms of the +class which has distances, identity with A and identity with B are +distinct zero quantities[\*](#fn186-1). This case, therefore, is +thoroughly clear. And yet the definition must be rejected: for it is +plain that zero has some general logical meaning, if only this could be +clearly stated, which is the same for all classes of quantities; and +that a zero distance is not actually the same concept as identity. + +**176.** (4) In any class of magnitudes which is continuous, in the +sense of having a term between any two, and which also has no limiting +magnitude, we can introduce zero in the manner in which real numbers are +obtained from rationals. Any collection of magnitudes defines a class of +magnitudes less than all of them. This class of magnitudes can be made +as small as we please, and can actually be made to be the null-class, +i.e. to contain no members at all. (This is effected, for instance, if +our collection consists of all magnitudes of the kind.) The classes so +defined form a series, closely related to the series of original +magnitudes, and in this new series the null-class is definitely the +first term. Thus taking the classes as quantities, the null-class is a +zero quantity. There is no class containing a finite number of members, +so that there is not, as in Arithmetic, a discrete approach to the +null-class; on the contrary, the approach is (in several senses of the +word) continuous. This method of defining zero, which is identical with +that by which the real number zero is introduced, is important, and will +be discussed in [Part V](#part5). But for the present we may observe +that it again makes zero the same for all kinds of magnitude, and makes +it not one among the magnitudes whose zero it is. + +**177.** (5) We are compelled, in this question, to face the problem as +to the nature of negation. “No pleasure” is obviously a different +concept from “no pain,” even when these terms are taken strictly as mere +denials of pleasure and pain respectively. It would seem that “no +pleasure” has the same relation to pleasure as the various magnitudes of +pleasure have, though it has also, of course, the special relation of +negation. If this be allowed, we see that, if a kind of magnitudes be +defined by that of which they are magnitudes, then no pleasure is one +among the various magnitudes of pleasure. If, then, we are to hold to +our axiom, that all pairs of magnitudes of one kind have relations of +inequality, we shall be compelled to admit that zero is less than all +other magnitudes of its kind. It seems, indeed, to be rendered evident +that this must be admitted, by the fact that zero is obviously not +greater than all other magnitudes of its kind. This shows that zero has +a connection with less which it does not have with greater. And if we +adopt this theory, we shall no longer accept the clear and simple +account of zero distances given above, but we shall hold that a zero +distance is strictly and merely no distance, and is only correlated with +identity. + +Thus it would seem that Herr Meinong’s theory, with which we began, is +substantially correct; it requires emendation, on the above view, only +in this, that a zero magnitude is the denial of the defining concept of +a kind of magnitudes, not the denial of any one particular magnitude, or +of all of them. We shall have to hold that any concept which defines a +kind of magnitudes defines also, by its negation, a particular magnitude +of the kind, which is called the zero of that kind, and is less than all +other members of the kind. And we now reap the benefit of the absolute +distinction which we made between the defining concept of a kind of +magnitude, and the various magnitudes of the kind. The relation which we +allowed between a particular magnitude and that of which it is a +magnitude was not identified with the class-relation, but was held to be +sui generis; there is thus no contradiction, as there would be in most +theories, in supposing this relation to hold between no pleasure and +pleasure, or between no distance and distance. + +**178.** But finally, it must be observed that no pleasure, the zero +magnitude, is not obtained by the logical denial of pleasure, and is not +the same as the logical notion of not pleasure. On the contrary, no +pleasure is essentially a quantitative concept, having a curious and +intimate relation to logical denial, just as 0 has a very intimate +relation to the null-class. The relation is this, that there is no +quantity whose magnitude is zero, so that the class of zero quantities +is the null-class[\*](#fn187-1). The zero of any kind of magnitude is +incapable of that relation to existence or to particulars, of which the +other magnitudes are capable. But this is a synthetic proposition, to be +accepted only on account of its self-evidence. The zero magnitude of any +kind, like the other magnitudes, is properly speaking indefinable, but +is capable of specification by means of its peculiar relation to the +logical zero. + +Notes + +## CHAPTER XXIII. +Infinity, the Infinitesimal, and Continuity. + +**179.** Almost all mathematical ideas present one great difficulty: the +difficulty of infinity. This is usually regarded by philosophers as an +antinomy, and as showing that the propositions of mathematics are not +metaphysically true. From this received opinion I am compelled to +dissent. Although all apparent antinomies, except such as are quite +easily disposed of, and such as belong to the fundamentals of logic, +are, in my opinion, reducible to the one difficulty of infinite number, +yet this difficulty itself appears to be soluble by a correct philosophy +of any, and to have been generated very largely by confusions due to the +ambiguity in the meaning of finite integers. The problem in general will +be discussed in [Part V](#part5); the purpose of the present chapter is +merely to show that quantity, which has been regarded as the true home +of infinity, the infinitesimal, and continuity, must give place, in this +respect, to order; while the statement of the difficulties which arise +in regard to quantity can be made in a form which is at once ordinal and +arithmetical, but involves no reference to the special peculiarities of +quantity. + +**180.** The three problems of infinity, the infinitesimal, and +continuity, as they occur in connection with quantity, are closely +related. None of them can be fully discussed at this stage, since all +depend essentially upon order, while the infinitesimal depends also upon +number. The question of infinite quantity, though traditionally +considered more formidable than that of zero, is in reality far less so, +and might be briefly disposed of, but for the great devotion commonly +shown by philosophers to a proposition which I shall call the axiom of +finitude. Of some kinds of magnitude (for example ratios, or distances +in space and time), it appears to be true that there is a magnitude +greater than any given magnitude. That is, any magnitude being +mentioned, another can be found which is greater than it. The deduction +of infinity from this fact is, when correctly performed, a mere fiction +to facilitate compression in the statement of results obtained by the +method of limits. Any class u of magnitudes of our kind being defined, +three cases may arise: (1) There may be a class of terms greater than +any of our class u, and this new class of terms may have a smallest +member; (2) there may be such a class, but it may have no smallest +member; (3) there may be no magnitudes which are greater than any term +of our class u. Supposing our kind of magnitudes to be one in which +there is no greatest magnitude, case (2) will always arise where the +class u contains a finite number of terms. On the other hand, if our +series be what is called condensed in itself, case (2) will never arise +when u is an infinite class, and has no greatest term; and if our series +is not condensed in itself, but does have a term between any two, +another which has this property can always be obtained from +it[\*](#fn189-1). Thus all infinite series which have no greatest term +will have limits, except in case (3). To avoid circumlocution, case (3) +is defined as that in which the limit is infinite. But this is a mere +device, and it is generally admitted by mathematicians to be such. Apart +from special circumstances, there is no reason, merely because a kind of +magnitudes has no maximum, to admit that there is an infinite magnitude +of the kind, or that there are many such. When magnitudes of a kind +having no maximum are capable of numerical measurement, they very often +obey the axiom of Archimedes, in virtue of which the ratio of any two +magnitudes of the kind is finite. Thus, so far, there might appear to be +no problem connected with infinity. + +But at this point the philosopher is apt to step in, and to declare +that, by all true philosophic principles, every well-defined series of +terms must have a last term. If he insists upon creating this last term, +and calling it infinity, he easily deduces intolerable contradictions, +from which he infers the inadequacy of mathematics to obtain absolute +truth. For my part, however, I see no reason for the philosopher’s +axiom. To show, if possible, that it is not a necessary philosophic +principle, let us undertake its analysis, and see what it really +involves. + +The problem of infinity, as it has now emerged, is not properly a +quantitative problem, but rather one concerning order. It is only +because our magnitudes form a series having no last term that the +problem arises: the fact that the series is composed of magnitudes is +wholly irrelevant. With this remark I might leave the subject to a later +stage. But it will be worth while now to elicit, if not to examine, the +philosopher’s axiom of finitude. + +**181.** It will be well, in the first place, to show how the problem +concerning infinity is the same as that concerning continuity and the +infinitesimal. For this purpose, we shall find it convenient to ignore +the absolute zero, and to mean, when we speak of any kind of magnitudes, +all the magnitudes of the kind except zero. This is a mere change of +diction, without which intolerable repetitions would be necessary. Now +there certainly are some kinds of magnitude where the three following +axioms hold: + +(1) If A and B be any two magnitudes of the kind, and A is greater than +B, there is always a third magnitude C such that A is greater than C and +C greater than B. (This I shall call, for the present, the axiom of +continuity.) + +(2) There is always a magnitude less than any given magnitude B. + +(3) There is always a magnitude greater than any given magnitude A. + +From these it follows:— + +(1) That no two magnitudes of the kind are consecutive. + +(2) That there is no least magnitude. + +(3) That there is no greatest magnitude. + +The above propositions are certainly true of some kinds of magnitude; +whether they are true of all kinds remains to be examined. The following +three propositions, which directly contradict the previous three, must +be always true, if the philosopher’s axiom of finitude is to be +accepted: + +(a) There are consecutive magnitudes, i.e. magnitudes such that no other +magnitude of the same kind is greater than the less and less than the +greater of the two given magnitudes. + +(b) There is a magnitude smaller than any other of the same kind. + +(c) There is a magnitude greater than any other of the same +kind[\*](#fn190-1). + +As these three propositions directly contradict the previous three, it +would seem that both sets cannot be true. We have to examine the grounds +for both, and let one set of alternatives fall. + +**182.** Let us begin with the propositions (a), (b), (c), and examine +the nature of their grounds. + +(a) A definite magnitude A being given, all the magnitudes greater than +A form a series, whose differences from A are magnitudes of a new kind. +If there be a magnitude B consecutive to A, its difference from A will +be the least magnitude of its kind, provided equal stretches correspond +to equal distances in the series. And conversely, if there be a smallest +difference between two magnitudes. A, B, then these two magnitudes must +always be consecutive; for if not, any intermediate magnitude would have +a smaller difference from A than B has. Thus if (b) is universally true, +(a) must also be true; and conversely, if (a) is true, and if the series +of magnitudes be such that equal stretches correspond to equal +distances, then (b) is true of the distances between the magnitudes +considered. We might rest content with the reduction of (a) to (b), and +proceed to the proof of (b); but it seems worth while to offer a direct +proof, such as presumably the finitist philosopher has in his mind. + +Between A and B there is a certain number of magnitudes, unless A and B +are consecutive. The intermediate magnitudes all have order, so that in +passing from A to B all the intermediate magnitudes would be met with. +In such an enumeration, there must be some magnitude which comes next +after any magnitude C; or, to put the matter otherwise, since the +enumeration has to begin, it must begin somewhere, and the term with +which it begins must be the magnitude next to A. If this were not the +case, there would be no definite series; for if all the terms have an +order, some of them must be consecutive. + +In the above argument, what is important is its dependence upon number. +The whole argument turns upon the principle by which infinite number is +shown to be self-contradictory, namely: A given collection of many terms +must contain some finite number of terms. We say: All the magnitudes +between A and B form a given collection. If there are no such +magnitudes, A and B are consecutive, and the question is decided. If +there are such magnitudes, there must be a finite number of them, say n. +Since they form a series, there is a definite way of assigning to them +the ordinal numbers from 1 to n. The mth and (m + 1)th are then +consecutive. + +If the axiom in italics be denied, the whole argument collapses; and +this, we shall find, is also the case as regards (b) and (c). + +(b) The proof here is precisely similar to the proof of (a). If there +are no magnitudes less than A, then A is the least of its kind, and the +question is decided. If there are any, they form a definite collection, +and therefore (by our axiom) have a finite number, say n. Since they +form a series, ordinal numbers may be assigned to them growing higher as +the magnitudes become more distant from A. Thus the nth magnitude is the +smallest of its kind. + +(c) The proof here is obtained as in (b), by considering the collection +of magnitudes greater than A. Thus everything depends upon our axiom, +without which no case can be made out against continuity, or against the +absence of a greatest and least magnitude. + +As regards the axiom itself, it will be seen that it has no particular +reference to quantity, and at first sight it might seem to have no +reference to order. But the word finite, which occurs in it, requires +definition; and this definition, in the form suited to the present +discussion, has, we shall find, an essential reference to order. + +**183.** Of all the philosophers who have inveighed against infinite +number, I doubt whether there is one who has known the difference +between finite and infinite numbers. The difference is simply this. +Finite numbers obey the law of mathematical induction; infinite numbers +do not. That is to say, given any number n, if n belongs to every class +s to which 0 belongs, and to which belongs also the number next after +any number which is an s, then n is finite; if not, not. It is in this +alone, and in its consequences, that finite and infinite numbers +differ[\*](#fn192-1). + +The principle may be otherwise stated thus: If every proposition which +holds concerning 0, and also holds concerning the immediate successor of +every number of which it holds, holds concerning the number n, then n is +finite; if not, not. This is the precise sense of what may be popularly +expressed by saying that every finite number can be reached from 0 by +successive steps, or by successive additions of 1. This is the principle +which the philosopher must be held to lay down as obviously applicable +to all numbers, though he will have to admit that the more precisely his +principle is stated, the less obvious it becomes. + +**184.** It may be worth while to show exactly how mathematical +induction enters into the above proofs. Let us take the proof of (a), +and suppose there are n magnitudes between A and B. Then to begin with, +we supposed these magnitudes capable of enumeration, i.e. of an order in +which there are consecutive terms and a first term, and a term +immediately preceding any term except the first. This property +presupposes mathematical induction, and was in fact the very property in +dispute. Hence we must not presuppose the possibility of enumeration, +which would be a petitio principii. But to come to the kernel of the +argument: we supposed that, in any series, there must be a definite way +of assigning ordinal numbers to the terms. This property belongs to a +series of one term, and belongs to every series having m + 1 terms, if +it belongs to every series having m terms. Hence, by mathematical +induction, it belongs to all series having a finite number of terms. But +if it be allowed that the number of terms may not be finite, the whole +argument collapses. + +As regards (b) and (c), the argument is similar. Every series having a +finite number of terms can be shown by mathematical induction to have a +first and last term; but no way exists of proving this concerning other +series, or of proving that all series are finite. Mathematical +induction, in short, like the axiom of parallels, is useful and +convenient in its proper place; but to suppose it always true is to +yield to the tyranny of mere prejudice. The philosopher’s finitist +arguments, therefore, rest on a principle of which he is ignorant, which +there is no reason to affirm, and every reason to deny. With this +conclusion, the apparent antinomies may be considered solved. + +**185.** It remains to consider what kinds of magnitude satisfy the +propositions (1), (2), (3). There is no general principle from which +these can be proved or disproved, but there are certainly cases where +they are true, and others where they are false. It is generally held by +philosophers that numbers are essentially discrete, while magnitudes are +essentially continuous. This we shall find to be not the case. Real +numbers possess the most complete continuity known, while many kinds of +magnitude possess no continuity at all. The word continuity has many +meanings, but in mathematics it has only two—one old, the other new. For +present purposes the old meaning will suffice. I therefore set up, for +the present, the following definition: + +Continuity applies to series (and only to series) whenever these are +such that there is a term between any two given terms[\*](#fn193-1). +Whatever is not a series, or a compound of series, or whatever is a +series not fulfilling the above condition, is discontinuous. + +Thus the series of rational numbers is continuous, for the arithmetic +mean of two of them is always a third rational number between the two. +The letters of the alphabet are not continuous. + +We have seen that any two terms in a series have a distance, or a +stretch which has magnitude. Since there are certainly discrete series +(e.g. the alphabet), there are certainly discrete magnitudes, namely, +the distances or the stretches of terms in discrete series. The distance +between the letters A and C is greater than that between the letters A +and B, but there is no magnitude which is greater than one of these and +less than the other. In this case, there is also a greatest possible and +a least possible distance, so that all three propositions (1), (2), (3) +fail. It must not be supposed, however, that the three propositions have +any necessary connection. In the case of the integers, for example, +there are consecutive distances, and there is a least possible distance, +namely, that between consecutive integers, but there is no greatest +possible distance. Thus (3) is true, while (1) and (2) are false. In the +case of the series of notes, or of colours of the rainbow, the series +has a beginning and end, so that there is a greatest distance; but there +is no least distance, and there is a term between any two. Thus (1) and +(2) are true, while (3) is false. Or again, if we take the series +composed of zero and the fractions having one for numerator, there is a +greatest distance, but no least distance, though the series is discrete. +Thus (2) is true, while (1) and (3) are false. And other combinations +might be obtained from other series. + +Thus the three propositions (1), (2), (3), have no necessary connection, +and all of them, or any selection, may be false as applied to any given +kind of magnitude. We cannot hope, therefore, to prove their truth from +the nature of magnitude. If they are ever to be true, this must be +proved independently, or discovered by mere inspection in each +particular case. That they are sometimes true, appears from a +consideration of the distances between terms of the number-continuum or +of the rational numbers. Either of these series is continuous in the +above sense, and has no first or last term (when zero is excluded). +Hence its distances or stretches fulfil all three conditions. The same +might be inferred from space and time, but I do not wish to anticipate +what is to be said of these. Quantities of divisibility do not fulfil +these conditions when the wholes which are divisible consist of a finite +number of indivisible parts. But where the number of parts is infinite +in a whole class of differing magnitudes, all three conditions are +satisfied, as appears from the properties of the number-continuum. + +We thus see that the problems of infinity and continuity have no +essential connection with quantity, but are due, where magnitudes +present them at all, to characteristics depending upon number and order. +Hence the discussion of these problems can only be undertaken after the +pure theory of order has been set forth[\*](#fn194-1). To do this will +be the aim of [the following Part](#part4). + +**186.** We may now sum up the results obtained in [Part III](#part3). +In [Chapter xix](#chapter19) we determined to define a magnitude as +whatever is either greater or less than something else. We found that +magnitude has no necessary connection with divisibility, and that +greater and less are indefinable. Every magnitude, we saw, has a certain +relation—analogous to, but not identical with, that of inclusion in a +class—to a certain quality or relation; and this fact is expressed by +saying that the magnitude in question is a magnitude of that quality or +relation. We defined a quantity as a particular contained under a +magnitude, i.e. as the complex consisting of a magnitude with a certain +spatio-temporal position, or with a pair of terms between which it is a +relation. We decided, by means of a general principle concerning +transitive symmetrical relations, that it is impossible to content +ourselves with quantities, and deny the further abstraction involved in +magnitudes; that equality is not a direct relation between quantities, +but consists in being particularizations of the same magnitude. Thus +equal quantities are instances of the same magnitude. Similarly greater +and less are not direct relations between quantities, but between +magnitudes: quantities are only greater and less in virtue of being +instances of greater and less magnitudes. Any two magnitudes which are +of the same quality or relation are one greater, the other less; and +greater and less are asymmetrical transitive relations. + +Among the terms which have magnitude are not only many qualities, but +also asymmetrical relations by which certain kinds of series are +constituted. These may be called distances. When there are distances in +a series, any two terms of the series have a distance, which is the same +as, greater than, or less than, the distance of any two other terms in +the series. Another peculiar class of magnitudes discussed in [Chapter +xx](#chapter20) is constituted by the degrees of divisibility of +different wholes. This, we found, is the only case in which quantities +are divisible, while there is no instance of divisible magnitudes. + +Numerical measurement, which was discussed in [Chapter xxi](#chapter21), +required, owing to the decision that most quantities and all magnitudes +are indivisible, a somewhat unusual treatment. The problem lies, we +found, in establishing a one-one relation between numbers and the +magnitudes of the kind to be measured. On certain metaphysical +hypotheses (which were neither accepted nor rejected), this was found to +be always theoretically possible as regards existents actual or +possible, though often not practically feasible or important. In regard +to two classes of magnitudes, namely divisibilities and distances, +measurement was found to proceed from a very natural convention, which +defines what is meant by saying (what can never have the simple sense +which it has in connection with finite wholes and parts) that one such +magnitude is double of, or n times, another. The relation of distance to +stretch was discussed, and it was found that, apart from a special axiom +to that effect, there was no à priori reason for regarding equal +distances as corresponding to equal stretches. + +In [Chapter xxii](#chapter22) we discussed the definition of zero. The +problem of zero was found to have no connection with that of the +infinitesimal, being in fact closely related to the purely logical +problem as to the nature of negation. We decided that, just as there are +the distinct logical and arithmetical negations, so there is a third +fundamental kind, the quantitative negation; but that this is negation +of that quality or relation of which the magnitudes are, not of +magnitude of that quality or relation. Hence we were able to regard zero +as one among the magnitudes contained in a kind of magnitude, and to +distinguish the zeroes of different kinds. We showed also that +quantitative negation is connected with logical negation by the fact +that there cannot be any quantities whose magnitude is zero. + +In the present Chapter the problems of continuity, the infinite, and the +infinitesimal, were shown to belong, not specially to the theory of +quantity, but to those of number and order. It was shown that, though +there are kinds of magnitude in which there is no greatest and no least +magnitude, this fact does not require us to admit infinite or +infinitesimal magnitudes; and that there is no contradiction in +supposing a kind of magnitudes to form a series in which there is a term +between any two, and in which, consequently, there is no term +consecutive to a given term. The supposed contradiction was shown to +result from an undue use of mathematical induction—a principle, the full +discussion of which presupposes the philosophy of order. + +Notes + +# PART IV. +ORDER. + +## CHAPTER XXIV. +The Genesis of Series. + +**187.** The notion of order or series is one with which, in connection +with distance, and with the order of magnitude, we have already had to +deal. The discussion of continuity in the last chapter of [Part +III](#part3) showed us that this is properly an ordinal notion, and +prepared us for the fundamental importance of order. It is now high time +to examine this concept on its own account. The importance of order, +from a purely mathematical standpoint, has been immeasurably increased +by many modern developments. Dedekind, Cantor, and Peano have shown how +to base all Arithmetic and Analysis upon series of a certain kind—i.e. +upon those properties of finite numbers in virtue of which they form +what I shall call a progression. Irrationals are defined (as we shall +see) entirely by the help of order; and a new class of transfinite +ordinals is introduced, by which the most important and interesting +results are obtained. In Geometry, von Staudt’s quadrilateral +construction and Pieri’s work on Projective Geometry have shown how to +give points, lines, and planes an order independent of metrical +considerations and of quantity; while descriptive Geometry proves that a +very large part of Geometry demands only the possibility of serial +arrangement. Moreover the whole philosophy of space and time depends +upon the view we take of order. Thus a discussion of order, which is +lacking in the current philosophies, has become essential to any +understanding of the foundations of mathematics. + +**188.** The notion of order is more complex than any hitherto analyzed. +Two terms cannot have an order, and even three cannot have a cyclic +order. Owing to this complexity, the logical analysis of order presents +considerable difficulties. I shall therefore approach the problem +gradually, considering, in this chapter, the circumstances under which +order arises, and reserving for the second chapter the discussion as to +what order really is. This analysis will raise several fundamental +points in general logic, which will demand considerable discussion of an +almost purely philosophical nature. From this I shall pass to more +mathematical topics, such as the types of series and the ordinal +definition of numbers, thus gradually preparing the way for the +discussion of infinity and continuity in [the following Part](#part5). + +There are two different ways in which order may arise, though we shall +find in the end that the second way is reducible to the first. In the +first, what may be called the ordinal element consists of three terms a, +b, c, one of which (b say) is between the other two. This happens +whenever there is a relation of a to b and of b to c, which is not a +relation of b to a, of c to b, or of c to a. This is the definition, or +better perhaps, the necessary and sufficient condition, of the +proposition “b is between a and c.” But there are other cases of order +where, at first sight, the above conditions are not satisfied, and where +between is not obviously applicable. These are cases where we have four +terms a, b, c, d, as the ordinal element, of which we can say that a and +c are separated by b and d. This relation is more complicated, but the +following seems to characterize it: a and c are separated from b and d, +when there is an asymmetrical relation which holds between a and b, b +and c, c and d, or between a and d, d and c, c and b, or between c and +d, d and a, a and b; while if we have the first case, the same relation +must hold either between d and a, or else between both a and c, and a +and d; with similar assumptions for the other two cases[\*](#fn200-1). +(No further special assumption is required as to the relation between a +and c or between b and d; it is the absence of such an assumption which +prevents our reducing this case to the former in a simple manner.) There +are cases—notably where our series is closed—in which it seems formally +impossible to reduce this second case to the first, though this +appearance, as we shall see, is in part deceptive. We have to show, in +the present chapter, the principal ways in which series arise from +collections of such ordinal elements. + +Although two terms alone cannot have an order, we must not assume that +order is possible except where there are relations between two terms. In +all series, we shall find, there are asymmetrical relations between two +terms. But an asymmetrical relation of which there is only one instance +does not constitute order. We require at least two instances for +between, and at least three for separation of pairs. Thus although order +is a relation between three or four terms, it is only possible where +there are other relations which hold between pairs of terms. These +relations may be of various kinds, giving different ways of generating +series. I shall now enumerate the principal ways with which I am +acquainted. + +**189.** (1) The simplest method of generating a series is as follows. +Let there be a collection of terms, finite or infinite, such that every +term (with the possible exception of a single one) has to one and only +one other term of the collection a certain asymmetrical relation (which +must of course be intransitive), and that every term (with again one +possible exception, which must not be the same as the term formerly +excepted) has also to one and only one other term of the collection the +relation which is the converse of the former one[\*](#fn201-1). Further, +let it be assumed that, if a has the first relation to b, and b to c, +then c does not have the first relation to a. Then every term of the +collection except the two peculiar terms has one relation to a second +term, and the converse relation to a third, while these terms themselves +do not have to each other either of the relations in question. +Consequently, by the definition of between, our first term is between +our second and third terms. The term to which a given term has one of +the two relations in question is called next after the given term; the +term to which the given term has the converse relation is called next +before the given term. Two terms between which the relations in question +hold are called consecutive. The exceptional terms (when they exist) are +not between any pair of terms; they are called the two ends of the +series, or one is called the beginning and the other the end. The +existence of the one does not imply that of the other—for example the +natural numbers have a beginning but no end—and neither need exist—for +example, the positive and negative integers together have +neither[†](#fn201-2). + +The above method may perhaps become clear by a formal exhibition. Let R +be one of our relations, and let its converse be denoted by +˘R[‡](#fn201-3). Then if e be any term of our set, there are two +terms d, f, such that e˘Rd, eRf, i.e. such that dRe, eRf. Since each +term only has the relation R to one other, we cannot have dRf; and it +was one of the initial assumptions that we were not to have fRd. Hence e +is between d and f[§](#fn201-4). If a be a term which has only the +relation R, then obviously a is not between any pair of terms. We may +extend the notion of between by defining that, if c be between b and d, +and d between c and e, then c or d will be said to be also between b and +e. In this way, unless we either reach an end or come back to the term +with which we started, we can find any number of terms between which and +b the term c will lie. But if the total number of terms be not less than +seven, we cannot show in this way that of any three terms one must be +between the other two, since the collection may consist of two distinct +series, of which, if the collection is finite, one at least must be +closed, in order to avoid more than two ends. + +This remark shows that, if the above method is to give a single series, +to which any term of our collection is to belong, we need a further +condition, which may be expressed by saying that the collection must be +connected. We shall find means hereafter of expressing this condition +without reference to number, but for the present we may content +ourselves by saying that our collection is connected when, given any two +of its terms, there is a certain finite number (not necessarily unique) +of steps from one term to the next, by which we can pass from one of our +two terms to the other. When this condition is fulfilled, we are assured +that, of any three terms of our collection, one must be between the +other two. + +Assuming now that our collection is connected, and therefore forms a +single series, four cases may arise: (a) our series may have two ends, +(b) it may have one end, (c) it may have no end and be open, (d) it may +have no end and be closed. Concerning (a), it is to be observed that our +series must be finite. For, taking the two ends, since the collection is +connected, there is some finite number n of steps which will take us +from one end to the other, and hence n + 1 is the number of terms of the +series. Every term except the two ends is between them, and neither of +them is between any other pair of terms. In case (b), on the other hand, +our collection must be infinite, and this would hold even if it were not +connected. For suppose the end which exists to have the relation R, but +not ˘R. Then every other term of the collection has both relations, and +can never have both to the same term, since R is asymmetrical. Hence the +term to which (say) e has the relation R is not that to which it had the +relation ˘R, but is either some new term, or one of e’s predecessors. +Now it cannot be the end-term a, since a does not have the relation ˘R +to any term. Nor can it be any term which can be reached by successive +steps from a without passing through e, for if it were, this term would +have two predecessors, contrary to the hypothesis that R is a one-one +relation. Hence, if k be any term which can be reached by successive +steps from a, k has a successor which is not a or any of the terms +between a and k; and hence the collection is infinite, whether it be +connected or not. In case (c), the collection must again be infinite. +For here, by hypothesis, the series is open—i.e., starting from any term +e, no number of steps in either direction brings us back to e. And there +cannot be a finite limit to the number of possible steps, since, if +there were, the series would have an end. Here again, it is not +necessary to suppose the series connected. In case (d), on the contrary, +we must assume connection. By saying that the series is closed, we mean +that there exists some number n of steps by which, starting from a +certain term a, we shall be brought back to a. In this case, n is the +number of terms, and it makes no difference with which term we start. In +this case, between is not definite except where three terms are +consecutive, and the series contains more than three terms. Otherwise, +we need the more complicated relation of separation. + +**190.** (2) The above method, as we have seen, will give either open or +closed series, but only such as have consecutive terms. The second +method, which is now to be discussed, will give series in which there +are no consecutive terms, but will not give closed series[\*](#fn203-1). +In this method we have a transitive asymmetrical relation P, and a +collection of terms any two of which are such that either xPy or yPx. +When these conditions are satisfied our terms necessarily form a single +series. Since the relation is asymmetrical, we can distinguish xPy from +yPx, and the two cannot both subsist[†](#fn203-2). Since P is +transitive, xPy and yPz involve xPz. It follows that ˘P is also +asymmetrical and transitive[‡](#fn203-3). Thus with respect to any term +x of our collection, all other terms of the collection fall into two +classes, those for which xPy, and those for which zPx. Calling these two +classes ˘πx and πx respectively, we see that, owing to the +transitiveness of P, if y belongs to the class ˘πx, ˘πy is contained in +˘πx; and if z belongs to the class πx, πz is contained in πx. Taking +now two terms x, y, for which xPy, all other terms fall into three +classes: (1) Those belonging to πx, and therefore to πy; (2) those +belonging to ˘πy, and therefore to ˘πx; (3) those belonging to ˘πx but +not to ˘πy. If z be of the first class, we have zPx, zPy; if v be of the +second, xPv and yPv; if w be of the third, xPw and wPy. The case yPu and +uPx is excluded: for xPy, yPu imply xPu, which is inconsistent with uPx. +Thus we have, in the three cases, (1) x is between z and y; (2) y is +between x and v; (3) w is between x and y. Hence any three terms of our +collection are such that one is between the other two, and the whole +collection forms a single series. If the class (3) contains no terms, x +and y are said to be consecutive; but many relations P can be assigned, +for which there are always terms in the class (3). If for example P be +before, and our collection be the moments in a certain interval, or in +all time, there is a moment between any two of our collection. Similarly +in the case of the magnitudes which, in the last chapter of [Part +III](#part3), we called continuous. There is nothing in the present +method, as there was in the first, to show that there must be +consecutive terms, unless the total number of terms in our collection be +finite. On the other hand, the present method will not allow closed +series; for owing to the transitiveness of the relation P, if the series +were closed, and x were any one of its terms, we should have xPx, which +is impossible because P is asymmetrical. Thus in a closed series, the +generating relation can never be transitive[\*](#fn204-1). As in the +former method, the series may have two ends, or one, or none. In the +first case only, it may be finite; but even in this case it may be +infinite, and in the other two cases it must be so. + +**191.** (3) A series may be generated by means of distances, as was +already partially explained in [Part III](#part3), and as we shall see +more fully hereafter. In this case, starting with a certain term x, we +are to have relations, which are magnitudes, between x and a number of +other terms y, z …. According as these relations are greater or less, we +can order the corresponding terms. If there are no similar relations +between the remaining terms y, z, …, we require nothing further. But if +these have relations which are magnitudes of the same kind, certain +axioms are necessary to insure that the order may be independent of the +particular term from which we start. Denoting by xz the distance of x +and z, if xz is less than xw, we must have yz less than yw. A +consequence, which did not follow when x was the only term that had a +distance, is that the distances must be asymmetrical relations, and +those which have one sense must be considered less than zero. For “xz is +less than xw” must involve “wz is less than ww,” i.e. wz is less than 0. +In this way the present case is practically reduced to the second; for +every pair of terms x, y will be such that xy is less than 0 or else xy +is greater than 0; and we may put in the first case yPx, in the second +xPy. But we require one further axiom in order that the arrangement may +be thus effected unambiguously. If xz = yw, and zw′= xy, w and w′ must +be the same point. With this further axiom, the reduction to case (2) +becomes complete. + +**192.** (4) Cases of triangular relations are capable of giving rise to +order. Let there be a relation R which holds between y and (x, z), +between z and (y, u), between u and (z, w), and so on. Between is itself +such a relation, and this might therefore seem the most direct and +natural way of generating order. We should say, in such a case, that y +is between x and z, when the relation R holds between y and the couple +x, z. We should need assumptions concerning R which should show that, if +y is between x and z, and z between y and w, then y and z are each +between x and w. That is, if we have yR(x, z), zR(y, w), we must have +yR(x, w) and zR(x, w). This is a kind of three-term transitiveness. Also +if y be between x and w, and z between y and w, then z must be between x +and w, and y between x and z: that is, if yR(x, w) and zR(y, w), then +zR(x, w) and yR(x, z). Also yR(x, z) must be equivalent to yR(z, +x)[\*](#fn205-1). With these assumptions, an unambiguous order will be +generated among any number of terms such that any triad has the relation +R. Whether such a state of things can ever be incapable of further +analysis, is a question which I leave for the [next +chapter](#chapter25). + +**193.** (5) We have found hitherto no way of generating closed +continuous series. There are, however, instances of such series, e.g. +angles, the elliptic straight line, the complex numbers with a given +modulus. It is therefore necessary to have some theory which allows of +their possibility. In the case where our terms are asymmetrical +relations, as straight lines are, or are correlated uniquely and +reciprocally with such relations, the following theory will effect this +object. In other cases, the sixth method (below) seems adequate to the +end in view. + +Let x, y, z … be a set of asymmetrical relations, and let R be an +asymmetrical relation which holds between any two x, y or y, x except +when y is the converse relation to x. Also let R be such that, if it +holds between x and y, it holds between y and the converse of x; and if +x be any term of the collection, let all the terms to which x has either +of the relations R, ˘R be terms of the collection. All these conditions +are satisfied by angles, and whenever they are satisfied, the resulting +series is closed. For xRy implies yR˘x, and hence ˘xR˘y, and thence +˘yRx; so that by means of relations R it is possible to travel from x +back to x. Also there is nothing in the definition to show that our +series cannot be continuous. Since it is closed, we cannot apply +universally the notion of between; but the notion of separation can be +always applied. The reason why it is necessary to suppose that our terms +either are, or are correlated with, asymmetrical relations, is, that +such series often have antipodes, opposite terms as they may be called; +and that the notion of opposite seems to be essentially bound up with +that of the converse of an asymmetrical relation. + +**194.** (6) In the same way in which, in (4), we showed how to +construct a series by relations of between, we can construct a series +directly by four-term relations of separation. For this purpose, as +before, certain axioms are necessary. The following five axioms have +been shown by Vailati[†](#fn205-2) to be sufficient, and by Padoa to +possess ordered independence, i.e. to be such that none can be deduced +from its predecessors[‡](#fn205-3). Denoting “a and b separate c from d” +by ab‖cd, we must have: + +(α) ab‖cd is equivalent to cd‖ab; + +(β) ab‖cd is equivalent to ab‖dc; + +(γ) ab‖cd excludes ac‖bd; + +(δ) For any four terms of our collection, we must have ab‖cd, or ac‖bd, +or ad‖bc; + +(ε) If ab‖cd, and ac‖be, then ac‖de. + +By means of these five assumptions, our terms a, b, c, d, e … acquire an +unambiguous order, in which we start from a relation between two pairs +of terms, which is undefined except to the extent to which the above +assumptions define it. The further consideration of this case, as +generally of the relation of separation, I postpone to a later stage. + +The above six methods of generating series are the principal ones with +which I am acquainted, and all other methods, so far as I know, are +reducible to one of these six. The last alone gives a method of +generating closed continuous series whose terms neither are, nor are +correlated with, asymmetrical relations[\*](#fn206-1). This last method +should therefore be applied in projective and elliptic Geometry, where +the correlation of the points on a line with the lines through a point +appears to be logically subsequent to the order of the points on a line. +But before we can decide whether these six methods (especially the +fourth and sixth) are irreducible and independent, we must discuss (what +has not hitherto been analyzed) the meaning of order, and the logical +constituents (if any) of which this meaning is compounded. This will be +done in the following chapter. + +Notes + +## CHAPTER XXV. +The Meaning of Order. + +**195.** We have now seen under what circumstances there is an order +among a set of terms, and by this means we have acquired a certain +inductive familiarity with the nature of order. But we have not yet +faced the question: What is order? This is a difficult question, and one +upon which, so far as I know, nothing at all has been written. All the +authors with whom I am acquainted are content to exhibit the genesis of +order; and since most of them give only one of the six methods +enumerated in [Chapter xxiv](#chapter24), it is easy for them to +confound the genesis of order with its nature. This confusion is +rendered evident to us by the multiplicity of the above methods; for it +is evident that we mean by order something perfectly definite, which, +being generated equally in all our six cases, is clearly distinct from +each and all of the ways in which it may be generated, unless one of +these ways should turn out to be fundamental, and the others to be +reducible to it. To elicit this common element in all series, and to +broach the logical discussions connected with it, is the purpose of the +present chapter. This discussion is of purely philosophical interest, +and might be wholly omitted in a mathematical treatment of the subject. + +In order to approach the subject gradually, let us separate the +discussion of between from that of separation of couples. When we have +decided upon the nature of each of these separately, it will be time to +combine them, and examine what it is that both have in common. I shall +begin with between, as being the simpler of the two. + +**196.** Between may be characterized (as in [Chapter xxiv](#chapter24)) +as a relation of one term y to two others x and z, which holds whenever +x has to y, and y has to z, some relation which y does not have to x, +nor z to y, nor z to x[\*](#fn207-1). These conditions are undoubtedly +sufficient for betweenness, but it may be questioned whether they are +necessary. Several possible opinions must be distinguished in this +respect. (1) We may hold that the above conditions give the very meaning +of between, that they constitute an actual analysis of it, and not +merely a set of conditions insuring its presence. (2) We may hold that +between is not a relation of the terms x, y, z at all, but a relation of +the relation of y to x to that of y to z, namely the relation of +difference of sense. (3) We may hold that between is an indefinable +notion, like greater and less; that the above conditions allow us to +infer that y is between x and z, but that there may be other +circumstances under which this occurs, and even that it may occur +without involving any relation except diversity among the pairs (x, y), +(y, z), (x, z). In order to decide between these theories, it will be +well to develop each in turn. + +**197.** (1) In this theory, we define “y is between x and z” to mean: +“There is a relation R such that xRy, yRz but not yRx, zRy”; and it +remains a question whether we are to add “not zRx.” We will suppose to +begin with that this addition is not made. The following propositions +will be generally admitted to be self-evident: (α) If y be between x and +z, and z between y and w, then y is between x and w; (β) if y be between +x and z, and w between x and y, then y is between w and z. For brevity, +let us express “y is between x and z” by the symbol xyz. Then our two +propositions are: (α) xyz and yzw imply xyw; (β) xyz and xwy imply wyz. +We must add that the relation of between is symmetrical so far as the +extremes are concerned: i.e. xyz implies zyx. This condition follows +directly from our definition. With regard to the axioms (α) and (β), it +is to be observed that between, on our present view, is always relative +to some relation R, and that the axioms are only assumed to hold when it +is the same relation R that is in question in both the premisses. Let us +see whether these axioms are consequences of our definition. For this +purpose, let us write R for not-R. + +xyz means xRy, yRz, yRx, zRy. + +yzw means yRz, zRw, zRy, wRz. + +Thus yzw only adds to xyz the two conditions zRw, wRz. If R is +transitive, these conditions insure xyw; if not, not. Now we have seen +that some series are generated by one-one relations R, which are not +transitive. In these cases, however, denoting by R2 the relation between +x and z implied by xRy, yRz, and so on for higher powers, we can +substitute a transitive relation R′ for R, where R′ means “some positive +power of R.” In this way, if xyz holds for a relation which is some +definite power of R, then xyz holds for R′, provided only that no +positive power of R is equivalent to ˘R. For, in this latter event, we +should have yR′x whenever xR′y, and R′ could not be substituted for R in +the explanation of xyz. Now this condition, that the converse of R is +not to be a positive power of R, is equivalent to the condition that our +series is not to be closed. For if ˘R = Rn, then R˘R = Rn+1; but since R +is a one-one relation, R˘R implies the relation of identity. Thus n + 1 +steps bring us back from x to x, and our series is a closed series of n ++ 1 terms. Now we have agreed already that between is not properly +applicable to closed series. Hence this condition, that ˘R is not to be +a power of R, imposes only such restrictions upon our axiom (α) as we +should expect it to be subject to. + +With regard to (β), we have + +xyz = xRy . yRz . yRx . zRy. + +xwy = xRw . wRy . wRx . yRw. + +The case contemplated by this axiom is only possible if R be not a +one-one relation, since we have xRy and xRw. The deduction wyz is here +an immediate consequence of the definition, without the need of any +further conditions. + +It remains to examine whether we can dispense with the condition zRx in +the definition of between. If we suppose R to be a one-one relation, and +zRx to be satisfied, we shall have + +xyz = xRy . yRz . zRy . yRx, + +and we have further by hypothesis zRx, and since R is one-one, and xRy, +we have xRz. Hence, in virtue of the definition, we have yzx; and +similarly we shall obtain zxy. If we now adhere to our axiom (α), we +shall have xzx, which is impossible; for it is certainly part of the +meaning of between that the three terms in the relation should be +different, and it is impossible that a term should be between x and x. +Thus we must either insert our condition zRx, or we must set up the new +condition in the definition, that x and z are to be different. (It +should be observed that our definition implies that x is different from +y and y from z; for if not, xRy would involve yRx, and yRz would involve +zRy.) It would seem preferable to insert the condition that x and z are +to be different: for this is in any case necessary, and is not implied +by zRx. This condition must then be added to our axiom (α); xyz and yzw +are to imply xyw, unless x and w are identical. In axiom (β), this +addition is not necessary, since it is implied in the premisses. Thus +the condition zRx is not necessary, if we are willing to admit that xyz +is compatible with yzx—an admission which such cases as the angles of a +triangle render possible. Or we may insert, in place of zRx, the +condition which we found necessary before to the universal validity of +our axiom (α), namely that no power of R is to be equivalent to the +converse of R: for if we have both xyz and yzx, we shall have (so far at +least as x, y, z are concerned) R2 = R, i.e. if xRy and yRz, then zRx. +This last course seems to be the best. Hence in all cases where our +first instance of between is defined by a one-one relation R, we shall +substitute the relation R′, which means “some positive power of R.” The +relation R′ is then transitive, and the condition that no positive power +of R is to be equivalent to ˘R is equivalent to the condition that R′ is +to be asymmetrical. Hence, finally, the whole matter is simplified into +the following: + +To say that y is between x and z is equivalent to saying that there is +some transitive asymmetrical relation which relates both x and y, and y +and z. + +This short and simple statement, as the above lengthy argument shows, +contains neither more nor less than our original definition, together +with the emendations which we gradually found to be necessary. The +question remains, however: Is this the meaning of between? + +**198.** A negative instance can be at once established if we allow the +phrase: R is a relation between x and y. The phrase, as the reader will +have observed, has been with difficulty excluded from the definitions of +between, which its introduction would have rendered at least verbally +circular. The phrase may have none but a linguistic importance, or again +it may point to a real insufficiency in the above definition. Let us +examine the relation of a relation R to its terms x and y. In the first +place, there certainly is such a relation. To be a term which has the +relation R to some other term is certainly to have a relation to R, a +relation which we may express as “belonging to the domain of R.” Thus if +xRy, x will belong to the domain of R, and y to that of ˘R. If we +express this relation between x and R, or between y and ˘R, by E, we +shall have xER, yE˘R. If further we express the relation of R to ˘R by +I, we shall have ˘RIR and RI˘R. Thus we have xER, yEIR. Now EI is by no +means the converse of E, and thus the above definition of between, if +for this reason only, does not apply; also neither E nor EI is +transitive. Thus our definition of between is wholly inapplicable to +such a case. Now it may well be doubted whether between, in this case, +has at all the same meaning as in other cases. Certainly we do not in +this way obtain series: x and y are not, in the same sense as R, between +R and other terms. Moreover, if we admit relations of a term to itself, +we shall have to admit that such relations are between a term and +itself, which we agreed to be impossible. Hence we may be tempted to +regard the use of between in this case as due to the linguistic accident +that the relation is usually mentioned between the subject and the +object, as in “A is the father of B.” On the other hand, it may be urged +that a relation does have a very peculiar relation to the pair of terms +which it relates, and that between should denote a relation of one term +to two others. To the objection concerning relations of a term to +itself, it may be answered that such relations, in any system, +constitute a grave logical difficulty; that they would, if possible, be +denied philosophic validity; and that even where the relation asserted +is identity, there must be two identical terms, which are therefore not +quite identical. As this raises a fundamental difficulty, which we +cannot discuss here, it will be prudent to allow the answer to +pass[\*](#fn211-1). And it may be further urged that use of the same +word in two connections points always to some analogy, the extent of +which should be carefully indicated by those who deny that the meaning +is the same in both cases; and that the analogy here is certainly +profounder than the mere order of words in a sentence, which is, in any +case, far more variable in this respect than the phrase that a relation +is between its terms. To these remarks, however, it may be retorted that +the objector has himself indicated the precise extent of the analogy: +the relation of a relation to its terms is a relation of one term to two +others, just as between is, and this is what makes the two cases +similar. This last retort is, I think, valid, and we may allow that the +relation of a relation to its terms, though involving a most important +logical problem, is not the same as the relation of between by which +order is to be constituted. + +Nevertheless, the above definition of between, though we shall be +ultimately forced to accept it, seems, at first sight, scarcely adequate +from a philosophical point of view. The reference to some asymmetrical +relation is vague, and seems to require to be replaced by some phrase in +which no such undefined relation appears, but only the terms and the +betweenness. This brings us to the second of the above opinions +concerning between. + +**199.** (2) Between, it may be said, is not a relation of three terms +at all, but a relation of two relations, namely difference of sense. Now +if we take this view, the first point to be observed is, that we require +the two opposite relations, not merely in general, but as particularized +by belonging to one and the same term. This distinction is already +familiar from the case of magnitudes and quantities. Before and after in +the abstract do not constitute between: it is only when one and the same +term is both before and after that between arises: this term is then +between what it is before and what it is after. Hence there is a +difficulty in the reduction of between to difference of sense. The +particularized relation is a logically puzzling entity, which in [Part +I](#part1) ([§55](#sec55)) we found it necessary to deny; and it is not +quite easy to distinguish a relation of two relations, particularized as +belonging to the same term, from a relation of the term in question to +two others. At the same time, great advantages are secured by this +reduction. We get rid of the necessity for a triangular relation, to +which many philosophers may object, and we assign a common element to +all cases of between, namely difference of sense, i.e. the difference +between an asymmetrical relation and its converse. + +**200.** The question whether there can be an ultimate triangular +relation is one whose actual solution is both difficult and unimportant, +but whose precise statement is of very great importance. Philosophers +seem usually to assume—though not, so far as I know, explicitly—that +relations never have more than two terms; and even such relations they +reduce, by force or guile, to predications. Mathematicians, on the other +hand, almost invariably speak of relations of many terms. We cannot, +however, settle the question by a simple appeal to mathematical +instances, for it remains a question whether these are, or are not, +susceptible of analysis. Suppose, for example, that the projective plane +has been defined as a relation of three points: the philosopher may +always say that it should have been defined as a relation of a point and +a line, or of two intersecting lines—a change which makes little or no +mathematical difference. Let us see what is the precise meaning of the +question. There are among terms two radically different kinds, whose +difference constitutes the truth underlying the doctrine of substance +and attribute. There are terms which can never occur except as terms; +such are points, instants, colours, sounds, bits of matter, and +generally terms of the kind of which existents consist. There are, on +the other hand, terms which can occur otherwise than as terms; such are +being, adjectives generally, and relations. Such terms we agreed to call +concepts[\*](#fn212-1). It is the presence of concepts not occurring as +terms which distinguishes propositions from mere concepts; in every +proposition there is at least one more concept than there are terms. The +traditional view—which may be called the subject-predicate theory—holds +that in every proposition there is one term, the subject, and one +concept which is not a term, the predicate. This view, for many reasons, +must be abandoned[†](#fn212-2). The smallest departure from the +traditional opinion lies in holding that, where propositions are not +reducible to the subject-predicate form, there are always two terms +only, and one concept which is not a term. (The two terms may, of +course, be complex, and may each contain concepts which are not terms.) +This gives the opinion that relations are always between only two terms; +for a relation may be defined as any concept which occurs in a +proposition containing more than one term. But there seems no à priori +reason for limiting relations to two terms, and there are instances +which lead to an opposite view. In the first place, when the concept of +a number is asserted of a collection, if the collection has n terms, +there are n terms, and only one concept (namely n) which is not a term. +In the second place, such relations as those of an existent to the place +and time of its existence are only reducible by a very cumbrous method +to relations of two terms[‡](#fn212-3). If, however, the reduction be +held essential, it seems to be always formally possible, by compounding +part of the proposition into one complex term, and then asserting a +relation between this part and the remainder, which can be similarly +reduced to one term. There may be cases where this is not possible, but +I do not know of them. The question whether such a formal reduction is +to be always undertaken is not, however, so far as I have been able to +discover, one of any great practical or theoretical importance. + +**201.** There is thus no valid à priori reason in favour of analyzing +between into a relation of two relations, if a triangular relation seems +otherwise preferable. The other reason in favour of the analysis of +between is more considerable. So long as between is a triangular +relation of the terms, it must be taken either as indefinable, or as +involving a reference to some transitive asymmetrical relation. But if +we make between consist essentially in the opposition of two relations +belonging to one term, there seems to be no longer any undue +indeterminateness. Against this view we may urge, however, that no +reason now appears why the relations in question should have to be +transitive, and that—what is more important—the very meaning of between +involves the terms, for it is they, and not their relations, that have +order. And if it were only the relations that were relevant, it would +not be necessary, as in fact it is, to particularize them by the mention +of the terms between which they hold. Thus on the whole, the opinion +that between is not a triangular relation must be abandoned. + +**202.** (3) We come now to the view that between is an ultimate and +indefinable relation. In favour of this view it might be urged that, in +all our ways of generating open series, we could see that cases of +between did arise, and that we could apply a test to suggested +definitions. This seems to show that the suggested definitions were +merely conditions which imply relations of between, and were not true +definitions of this relation. The question: Do such and such conditions +insure that y shall be between x and z? is always one which we can +answer, without having to appeal (at least consciously) to any previous +definition. And the unanalyzable nature of between may be supported by +the fact that the relation is symmetrical with respect to the two +extremes, which was not the case with the relations of pairs from which +between was inferred. There is, however, a very grave difficulty in the +way of such a view, and that is, that sets of terms have many different +orders, so that in one we may have y between x and z, while in another +we have x between y and z[\*](#fn213-1). This seems to show that between +essentially involves reference to the relations from which it is +inferred. If not, we shall at least have to admit that these relations +are relevant to the genesis of series; for series require imperatively +that there should be at most one relevant relation of between among +three terms. Hence we must, apparently, allow that between is not the +sole source of series, but must always be supplemented by the mention of +some transitive asymmetrical relation with respect to which the +betweenness arises. The most that can be said is, that this transitive +asymmetrical relation of two terms may itself be logically subsequent +to, and derived from, some relation of three terms, such as those +considered in [Chapter xxiv](#chapter24), in the fourth way of +generating series. When such relations fulfil the axioms which were then +mentioned, they lead of themselves to relations between pairs of terms. +For we may say that b precedes c when acd implies bcd, and that b +follows c when abd implies cbd, where a and d are fixed terms. Though +such relations are merely derivative, it is in virtue of them that +between occurs in such cases. Hence we seem finally compelled to leave +the reference to an asymmetrical relation in our definition. We shall +therefore say: + +A term y is between two terms x and z with reference to a transitive +asymmetrical relation R when xRy and yRz. In no other case can y be said +properly to be between x and z; and this definition gives not merely a +criterion, but the very meaning of betweenness. + +**203.** We have next to consider the meaning of separation of couples. +This is a more complicated relation than between, and was but little +considered until elliptic Geometry brought it into prominence. It has +been shown by Vailati[\*](#fn214-1) that this relation, like between, +always involves a transitive asymmetrical relation of two terms; but +this relation of a pair of terms is itself relative to three other fixed +terms of the set, as, in the case of between, it was relative to two +fixed terms. It is further sufficiently evident that wherever there is a +transitive asymmetrical relation, which relates every pair of terms in a +collection of not less than four terms, there there are pairs of couples +having the relation of separation. Thus we shall find it possible to +express separation, as well as between, by means of transitive +asymmetrical relations and their terms. But let us first examine +directly the meaning of separation. + +We may denote the fact that a and c are separated by b and d by the +symbol abcd. If, then, a, b, c, d, e be any five terms of the set we +require the following properties to hold of the relation of separation +(of which, it will be observed, only the last +![\[figure\]](figs/fig-sec203.png) involves five terms): + +1\. abcd = badc. + +2\. abcd = adcb. + +3\. abcd excludes acbd. + +4\. We must have abcd or acdb or adbc. + +5\. abcd and acde together imply abde[†](#fn214-2). + +These properties may be illustrated by the consideration of five points +on a circle, as in the accompanying figure. Whatever relation of two +pairs of terms possesses these properties we shall call a relation of +separation between the pairs. It will be seen that the relation is +symmetrical, but not in general transitive. + +**204.** Wherever we have a transitive asymmetrical relation R between +any two terms of a set of not less than four terms, the relation of +separation necessarily arises. For in any series, if four terms have the +order abcd, then a and c are separated by b and d; and every transitive +asymmetrical relation, as we have seen, provided there are at least two +consecutive instances of it, gives rise to a series. Thus in this case, +separation is a mere extension of between: if R be asymmetrical and +transitive, and aRb, bRc, cRd, then a and c are separated by b and d. +The existence of such a relation is therefore a sufficient condition of +separation. + +It is also a necessary condition. For, suppose a relation of separation +to exist, and let a, b, c, d, e be five terms of the set to which the +relation applies. Then, considering a, b, c as fixed, and d and e as +variable, twelve cases may arise. In virtue of the five fundamental +properties, we may introduce the symbol abcde to denote that, striking +out any one of these five letters, the remaining four have the relation +of separation which is indicated by the resulting symbol. Thus by the +fifth property, abcd and acde imply abcde[\*](#fn215-1). Thus the twelve +cases arise from permuting d and e, while keeping a, b, c fixed. (It +should be observed that it makes no difference whether a letter appears +at the end or the beginning: i.e. abcde is the same case as eabcd. We +may therefore decide not to put either d or e before a.) Of these twelve +cases, six will have d before e, and six will have e before d. In the +first six cases, we say that, with respect to the sense abc, d precedes +e; in the other six cases, we say that e precedes d. In order to deal +with limiting cases, we shall say further that a precedes every other +term, and that b precedes c[†](#fn215-2). We shall then find that the +relation of preceding is asymmetrical and transitive, and that every +pair of terms of our set is such that one precedes and the other +follows. In this way our relation of separation is reduced, formally at +least, to the combination of “a precedes b,” “b precedes c,” and “c +precedes d.” + +The above reduction is for many reasons highly interesting. In the first +place, it shows the distinction between open and closed series to be +somewhat superficial. For although our series may initially be of the +sort which is called closed, it becomes, by the introduction of the +above transitive relation, an open series, having a for its beginning, +but having possibly no last term, and not in any sense returning to a. +Again it is of the highest importance in Geometry, since it shows how +order may arise on the elliptic straight line, by purely projective +considerations, in a manner which is far more satisfactory than that +obtained from von Staudt’s construction[\*](#fn216-1). And finally, it +is of great importance as unifying the two sources of order, between and +separation; since it shows that transitive asymmetrical relations are +always present where either occurs, and that either implies the other. +For, by the relation of preceding, we can say that one term is between +two others, although we started solely from separation of pairs. + +**205.** At the same time, the above reduction (and also, it would seem, +the corresponding reduction in the case of between) cannot be allowed to +be more than formal. That is, the three terms a, b, c by relation to +which our transitive asymmetrical relation was defined, are essential to +the definition, and cannot be omitted. The reduction shows no reason for +supposing that there is any transitive asymmetrical relation independent +of all other terms than those related, though it is arbitrary what other +terms we choose. And the fact that the term a, which is not essentially +peculiar, appears as the beginning of the series, illustrates this fact. +Where there are transitive asymmetrical relations independent of all +outside reference, our series cannot have an arbitrary beginning, though +it may have none at all. Thus the four-term relation of separation +remains logically prior to the resulting two-term relation, and cannot +be analyzed into the latter. + +**206.** But when we have said that the reduction is formal, we have not +said that it is irrelevant to the genesis of order. On the contrary, it +is just because such a reduction is possible that the four-term relation +leads to order. The resulting asymmetrical transitive relation is in +reality a relation of five terms; but when three of these are kept +fixed, it becomes asymmetrical and transitive as regards the other two. +Thus although between applies to such series, and although the essence +of order consists, here as elsewhere, in the fact that one term has, to +two others, converse relations which are asymmetrical and transitive, +yet such an order can only arise in a collection containing at least +five terms, because five terms are needed for the characteristic +relation. And it should be observed that all series, when thus +explained, are open series, in the sense that there is some relation +between pairs of terms, no power of which is equal to its converse, or +to identity. + +**207.** Thus finally, to sum up this long and complicated discussion: +The six methods of generating series enumerated in [Chapter +xxiv](#chapter24) are all genuinely distinct; but the second is the only +one which is fundamental, and the other five agree in this, that they +are all reducible to the second. Moreover, it is solely in virtue of +their reducibility to the second that they give rise to order. The +minimum ordinal proposition, which can always be made wherever there is +an order at all, is of the form: “y is between x and z”; and this +proposition means; “There is some asymmetrical transitive relation which +holds between x and y and between y and z.” This very simple conclusion +might have been guessed from the beginning; but it was only by +discussing all the apparently exceptional cases that the conclusion +could be solidly established. + +Notes + +## CHAPTER XXVI. +Asymmetrical Relations. + +**208.** We have now seen that all order depends upon transitive +asymmetrical relations. As such relations are of a kind which +traditional logic is unwilling to admit, and as the refusal to admit +them is one of the main sources of the contradictions which the Critical +Philosophy has found in mathematics, it will be desirable, before +proceeding further, to make an excursion into pure logic, and to set +forth the grounds which make the admission of such relations necessary. +At a later stage (in [Part VI](#part6), [Chap. li](#chapter51)), I shall +endeavour to answer the general objections of philosophers to relations; +for the present, I am concerned only with asymmetrical relations. + +Relations may be divided into four classes, according as they do or do +not possess either of two attributes, transitiveness[\*](#fn218-1) and +symmetry. Relations such that xRy always implies yRx are called +symmetrical; relations such that xRy, yRz together always imply xRz are +called transitive. Relations which do not possess the first property I +shall call not symmetrical; relations which do possess the opposite +property, i.e. for which xRy always excludes yRx, I shall call +asymmetrical. Relations which do not possess the second property I shall +call not transitive; those which possess the property that xRy, yRz +always exclude xRz I shall call intransitive. All these cases may be +illustrated from human relationships. The relation brother or sister is +symmetrical, and is transitive if we allow that a man may be his own +brother, and a woman her own sister. The relation brother is not +symmetrical, but is transitive. Half-brother or half-sister is +symmetrical but not transitive. Spouse is symmetrical but intransitive; +descendant is asymmetrical but transitive. Half-brother is not +symmetrical and not transitive; if third marriages were forbidden, it +would be intransitive. Son-in-law is asymmetrical and not transitive; if +second marriages were forbidden, it would be intransitive. +Brother-in-law is not symmetrical and not transitive. Finally, father is +both asymmetrical and intransitive. Of not-transitive but not +intransitive relations there is, so far as I know, only one important +instance, namely diversity; of not-symmetrical but not asymmetrical +relations there seems to be similarly only one important instance, +namely implication. In other cases, of the kind that usually occur, +relations are either transitive or intransitive, and either symmetrical +or asymmetrical. + +**209.** Relations which are both symmetrical and transitive are +formally of the nature of equality. Any term of the field of such a +relation has the relation in question to itself, though it may not have +the relation to any other term. For denoting the relation by the sign of +equality, if a be of the field of the relation, there is some term b +such that a = b. If a and b be identical, then a = a. But if not, then, +since the relation is symmetrical, b = a; since it is transitive, and we +have a = b, b = a, it follows that a = a. The property of a relation +which insures that it holds between a term and itself is called by Peano +reflexiveness, and he has shown, contrary to what was previously +believed, that this property cannot be inferred from symmetry and +transitiveness. For neither of these properties asserts that there is a +b such that a = b, but only what follows in case there is such a b; and +if there is no such b, then the proof of a = a fails[\*](#fn219-1). This +property of reflexiveness, however, introduces some difficulty. There is +only one relation of which it is true without limitation, and that is +identity. In all other cases, it holds only of the terms of a certain +class. Quantitative equality, for example, is only reflexive as applied +to quantities; of other terms, it is absurd to assert that they have +quantitative equality with themselves. Logical equality, again, is only +reflexive for classes, or propositions, or relations. Simultaneity is +only reflexive for events, and so on. Thus, with any given symmetrical +transitive relation, other than identity, we can only assert +reflexiveness within a certain class: and of this class, apart from the +principle of abstraction (already mentioned in [Part III](#part3), +[Chap. xix](#chapter19), and shortly to be discussed at length), there +need be no definition except as the extension of the transitive +symmetrical relation in question. And when the class is so defined, +reflexiveness within that class, as we have seen, follows from +transitiveness and symmetry. + +**210.** By introducing what I have called the principle of +abstraction[†](#fn219-2), a somewhat better account of reflexiveness +becomes possible. Peano has defined[‡](#fn219-3) a process which he +calls definition by abstraction, of which, as he shows, frequent use is +made in Mathematics. This process is as follows: when there is any +relation which is transitive, symmetrical and (within its field) +reflexive, then, if this relation holds between u and v, we define a new +entity φ(u), which is to be identical with φ(v). Thus our relation is +analyzed into sameness of relation to the new term φ(u) or φ(v). Now the +legitimacy of this process, as set forth by Peano, requires an axiom, +namely the axiom that, if there is any instance of the relation in +question, then there is such an entity as φ(u) or φ(v). This axiom is my +principle of abstraction, which, precisely stated, is as follows: “Every +transitive symmetrical relation, of which there is at least one +instance, is analyzable into joint possession of a new relation to a new +term, the new relation being such that no term can have this relation to +more than one term, but that its converse does not have this property.” +This principle amounts, in common language, to the assertion that +transitive symmetrical relations arise from a common property, with the +addition that this property stands, to the terms which have it, in a +relation in which nothing else stands to those terms. It gives the +precise statement of the principle, often applied by philosophers, that +symmetrical transitive relations always spring from identity of content. +Identity of content is, however, an extremely vague phrase, to which the +above proposition gives, in the present case, a precise signification, +but one which in no way answers the purpose of the phrase, which is, +apparently, the reduction of relations to adjectives of the related +terms. + +It is now possible to give a clearer account of the reflexive property. +Let R be our symmetrical relation, and let S be the asymmetrical +relation which two terms having the relation R must have to some third +term. Then the proposition xRy is equivalent to this: “There is some +term a such that xSa and ySa.” Hence it follows that, if x belongs to +what we have called the domain of S, i.e. if there is any term a such +that xSa, then xRx; for xRx is merely xSa and xSa. It does not of course +follow that there is any other term y such that xRy, and thus Peano’s +objections to the usual proof of reflexiveness are valid. But by means +of the analysis of symmetrical transitive relations, we obtain the proof +of the reflexive property, together with the exact limitation to which +it is subject. + +**211.** We can now see the reason for excluding from our accounts of +the methods of generating series a seventh method, which some readers +may have expected to find. This is the method in which position is +merely relative—a method which, in [Chap. xix](#chapter19), +[§154](#sec154), we rejected as regards quantity. As the whole +philosophy of space and time is bound up with the question as to the +legitimacy of this method, which is in fact the question as to absolute +and relative position, it may be well to give an account of it here, and +to show how the principle of abstraction leads to the absolute theory of +position. + +If we consider such a series as that of events, and if we refuse to +allow absolute time, we shall have to admit three fundamental relations +among events, namely, simultaneity, priority, and posteriority. Such a +theory may be formally stated as follows: Let there be a class of terms, +such that any two, x and y, have either an asymmetrical transitive +relation P, or the converse relation ˘P, or a symmetrical transitive +relation R. Also let xRy, yPz imply xPz, and let xPy, yRz imply xPz. +Then all the terms can be arranged in a series, in which, however, there +may be many terms which have the same place in the series. This place, +according to the relational theory of position, is nothing but the +transitive symmetrical relation R to a number of other terms. But it +follows from the principle of abstraction that there is some relation S, +such that, if xRy, there is some one entity t for which xSt, ySt. We +shall then find that the different entities t, corresponding to +different groups of our original terms, also form a series, but one in +which any two different terms have an asymmetrical relation (formally, +the product ˘SRS). These terms t will then be the absolute positions of +our x’s and y’s, and our supposed seventh method of generating series is +reduced to the fundamental second method. Thus there will be no series +having only relative position, but in all series it is the positions +themselves that constitute the series[\*](#fn221-1). + +**212.** We are now in a position to meet the philosophic dislike of +relations. The whole account of order given above, and the present +argument concerning abstraction, will be necessarily objected to by +those philosophers—and they are, I fear, the major part—who hold that no +relations can possess absolute and metaphysical validity. It is not my +intention here to enter upon the general question, but merely to exhibit +the objections to any analysis of asymmetrical relations. + +It is a common opinion—often held unconsciously, and employed in +argument, even by those who do not explicitly advocate it—that all +propositions, ultimately, consist of a subject and a predicate. When +this opinion is confronted by a relational proposition, it has two ways +of dealing with it, of which the one may be called monadistic, the other +monistic. Given, say, the proposition aRb, where R is some relation, the +monadistic view will analyse this into two propositions, which we may +call ar1 and br2, which give to a and b respectively adjectives supposed +to be together equivalent to R. The monistic view, on the contrary, +regards the relation as a property of the whole composed of a and b, and +as thus equivalent to a proposition which we may denote by (ab)r. Of +these views, the first is represented by Leibniz and (on the whole) by +Lotze, the second by Spinoza and Mr Bradley. Let us examine these views +successively, as applied to asymmetrical relations; and for the sake of +definiteness, let us take the relations of greater and less. + +**213.** The monadistic view is stated with admirable lucidity by +Leibniz in the following passage[\*](#fn222-1): + +“The ratio or proportion between two lines L and M may be conceived +three several ways; as a ratio of the greater L to the lesser M; as a +ratio of the lesser M to the greater L; and lastly, as something +abstracted from both, that is, as the ratio between L and M, without +considering which is the antecedent, or which the consequent; which the +subject, and which the object, …. In the first way of considering them, +L the greater, in the second M the lesser, is the subject of that +accident which philosophers call relation. But which of them will be the +subject, in the third way of considering them? It cannot be said that +both of them, L and M together, are the subject of such an accident; for +if so, we should have an accident in two subjects, with one leg in one, +and the other in the other; which is contrary to the notion of +accidents. Therefore we must say that this relation, in this third way +of considering it, is indeed out of the subjects; but being neither a +substance nor an accident, it must be a mere ideal thing, the +consideration of which is nevertheless useful.” + +**214.** The third of the above ways of considering the relation of +greater and less is, roughly speaking, that which the monists advocate, +holding, as they do, that the whole composed of L and M is one subject, +so that their way of considering ratio does not compel us, as Leibniz +supposed, to place it among bipeds. For the present our concern is only +with the first two ways. In the first way of considering the matter, we +have “L is (greater than M),” the words in brackets being considered as +an adjective of L. But when we examine this adjective it is at once +evident that it is complex: it consists, at least, of the parts greater +and M, and both these parts are essential. To say that L is greater does +not at all convey our meaning, and it is highly probable that M is also +greater. The supposed adjective of L involves some reference to M; but +what can be meant by a reference the theory leaves unintelligible. An +adjective involving a reference to M is plainly an adjective which is +relative to M, and this is merely a cumbrous way of describing a +relation. Or, to put the matter otherwise, if L has an adjective +corresponding to the fact that it is greater than M, this adjective is +logically subsequent to, and is merely derived from, the direct relation +of L to M. Apart from M, nothing appears in the analysis of L to +differentiate it from M; and yet, on the theory of relations in +question, L should differ intrinsically from M. Thus we should be +forced, in all cases of asymmetrical relations, to admit a specific +difference between the related terms, although no analysis of either +singly will reveal any relevant property which it possesses and the +other lacks. For the monadistic theory of relations, this constitutes a +contradiction; and it is a contradiction which condemns the theory from +which it springs[\*](#fn223-1). + +Let us examine further the application of the monadistic theory to +quantitative relations. The proposition “A is greater than B” is to be +analyzable into two propositions, one giving an adjective to A, the +other giving one to B. The advocate of the opinion in question will +probably hold that A and B are quantities, not magnitudes, and will say +that the adjectives required are the magnitudes of A and B. But then he +will have to admit a relation between the magnitudes, which will be as +asymmetrical as the relation which the magnitudes were to explain. Hence +the magnitudes will need new adjectives, and so on ad infinitum; and the +infinite process will have to be completed before any meaning can be +assigned to our original proposition. This kind of infinite process is +undoubtedly objectionable, since its sole object is to explain the +meaning of a certain proposition, and yet none of its steps bring it any +nearer to that meaning[†](#fn223-2). Thus we cannot take the magnitudes +of A and B as the required adjectives. But further, if we take any +adjectives whatever except such as have each a reference to the other +term, we shall not be able, even formally, to give any account of the +relation, without assuming just such a relation between the adjectives. +For the mere fact that the adjectives are different will yield only a +symmetrical relation. Thus if our two terms have different colours we +find that A has to B the relation of differing in colour, a relation +which no amount of careful handling will render asymmetrical. Or if we +were to recur to magnitudes, we could merely say that A and B differ in +magnitude, which gives us no indication as to which is the greater. Thus +the adjectives of A and B must be, as in Leibniz’s analysis, adjectives +having a reference each to the other term. The adjective of A must be +“greater than B,” and that of B must be “less than A.” Thus A and B +differ, since they have different adjectives—B is not greater than B, +and A is not less than A—but the adjectives are extrinsic, in the sense +that A’s adjective has reference to B, and B’s to A. Hence the attempted +analysis of the relation fails, and we are forced to admit what the +theory was designed to avoid, a so-called “external” relation, i.e. one +implying no complexity in either of the related terms. + +The same result may be proved of asymmetrical relations generally, since +it depends solely upon the fact that both identity and diversity are +symmetrical. Let a and b have an asymmetrical relation R, so that aRb +and b˘Ra. Let the supposed adjectives (which, as we have seen, must each +have a reference to the other term) be denoted by β and α respectively. +Thus our terms become aβ and bα. α involves a reference to a, and β to +b; and α and β differ, since the relation is asymmetrical. But a and b +have no intrinsic differences corresponding to the relation R, and prior +to it; or, if they have, the points of difference must themselves have a +relation analogous to R, so that nothing is gained. Either α or β +expresses a difference between a and b, but one which, since either α or +β involves reference to a term other than that whose adjective it is, so +far from being prior to R, is in fact the relation R itself. And since α +and β both presuppose R, the difference between α and β cannot be used +to supply an intrinsic difference between a and b. Thus we have again a +difference without a prior point of difference. This shows that some +asymmetrical relations must be ultimate, and that at least one such +ultimate asymmetrical relation must be a component in any asymmetrical +relation that may be suggested. + +It is easy to criticize the monadistic theory from a general standpoint, +by developing the contradictions which spring from the relations of the +terms to the adjectives into which our first relation has been analyzed. +These considerations, which have no special connection with asymmetry, +belong to general philosophy, and have been urged by advocates of the +monistic theory. Thus Mr Bradley says of the monadistic +theory[\*](#fn224-1): “We, in brief, are led by a principle of fission +which conducts us to no end. Every quality in relation has, in +consequence, a diversity within its own nature, and this diversity +cannot immediately be asserted of the quality. Hence the quality must +exchange its unity for an internal relation. But, thus set free, the +diverse aspects, because each something in relation, must each be +something also beyond. This diversity is fatal to the internal unity of +each; and it demands a new relation, and so on without limit.” It +remains to be seen whether the monistic theory, in avoiding this +difficulty, does not become subject to others quite as serious. + +**215.** The monistic theory holds that every relational proposition aRb +is to be resolved into a proposition concerning the whole which a and b +compose—a proposition which we may denote by (ab)r. This view, like the +other, may be examined with special reference to asymmetrical relations, +or from the standpoint of general philosophy. We are told, by those who +advocate this opinion, that the whole contains diversity within itself, +that it synthesizes differences, and that it performs other similar +feats. For my part, I am unable to attach any precise significance to +these phrases. But let us do our best. + +The proposition “a is greater than b,” we are told, does not really say +anything about either a or b, but about the two together. Denoting the +whole which they compose by (ab) it says, we will suppose, “(ab) +contains diversity of magnitude.” Now to this statement—neglecting for +the present all general arguments—there is a special objection in the +case of asymmetry, (ab) is symmetrical with regard to a and b, and thus +the property of the whole will be exactly the same in the case where a +is greater than b as in the case where b is greater than a. Leibniz, who +did not accept the monistic theory, and had therefore no reason to +render it plausible, clearly perceived this fact, as appears from the +above quotation. For, in his third way of regarding ratio, we do not +consider which is the antecedent, which the consequent; and it is indeed +sufficiently evident that, in the whole (ab) as such, there is neither +antecedent nor consequent. In order to distinguish a whole (ab) from a +whole (ba), as we must do if we are to explain asymmetry, we shall be +forced back from the whole to the parts and their relation. For (ab) and +(ba) consist of precisely the same parts, and differ in no respect +whatever save the sense of the relation between a and b. “a is greater +than b” and “b is greater than a” are propositions containing precisely +the same constituents, and giving rise therefore to precisely the same +whole; their difference lies solely in the fact that greater is, in the +first case, a relation of a to b, in the second, a relation of b to a. +Thus the distinction of sense, i.e. the distinction between an +asymmetrical relation and its converse, is one which the monistic theory +of relations is wholly unable to explain. + +Arguments of a more general nature might be multiplied almost +indefinitely, but the following argument seems peculiarly relevant. The +relation of whole and part is itself an asymmetrical relation, and the +whole—as monists are peculiarly fond of telling us—is distinct from all +its parts, both severally and collectively. Hence when we say “a is part +of b,” we really mean, if the monistic theory be correct, to assert +something of the whole composed of a and b, which is not to be +confounded with b. If the proposition concerning this new whole be not +one of whole and part there will be no true judgments of whole and part, +and it will therefore be false to say that a relation between the parts +is really an adjective of the whole. If the new proposition is one of +whole and part, it will require a new one for its meaning, and so on. +If, as a desperate measure, the monist asserts that the whole composed +of a and b is not distinct from b, he is compelled to admit that a whole +is the sum (in the sense of Symbolic Logic) of its parts, which, besides +being an abandonment of his whole position, renders it inevitable that +the whole should be symmetrical as regards its parts—a view which we +have already seen to be fatal. And hence we find monists driven to the +view that the only true whole, the Absolute, has no parts at all, and +that no propositions in regard to it or anything else are quite true—a +view which, in the mere statement, unavoidably contradicts itself. And +surely an opinion which holds all propositions to be in the end +self-contradictory is sufficiently condemned by the fact that, if it be +accepted, it also must be self-contradictory. + +**216.** We have now seen that asymmetrical relations are unintelligible +on both the usual theories of relation[\*](#fn226-1). Hence, since such +relations are involved in Number, Quantity, Order, Space, Time, and +Motion, we can hardly hope for a satisfactory philosophy of Mathematics +so long as we adhere to the view that no relation can be “purely +external.” As soon, however, as we adopt a different theory, the logical +puzzles, which have hitherto obstructed philosophers, are seen to be +artificial. Among the terms commonly regarded as relational, those that +are symmetrical and transitive—such as equality and simultaneity—are +capable of reduction to what has been vaguely called identity of +content, but this in turn must be analyzed into sameness of relation to +some other term. For the so-called properties of a term are, in fact, +only other terms to which it stands in some relation; and a common +property of two terms is a term to which both stand in the same +relation. + +The present long digression into the realm of logic is necessitated by +the fundamental importance of order, and by the total impossibility of +explaining order without abandoning the most cherished and widespread of +philosophic dogmas. Everything depends, where order is concerned, upon +asymmetry and difference of sense, but these two concepts are +unintelligible to the traditional logic. In the [next +chapter](#chapter27) we shall have to examine the connection of +difference of sense with what appears in Mathematics as difference of +sign. In this examination, though some pure logic will still be +requisite, we shall approach again to mathematical topics; and these +will occupy us wholly throughout the succeeding chapters of this Part. + +Notes + +## CHAPTER XXVII. +Difference of Sense and Difference of Sign. + +**217.** We have now seen that order depends upon asymmetrical +relations, and that these always have two senses, as before and after, +greater and less, east and west, etc. The difference of sense is closely +connected (though not identical) with the mathematical difference of +sign. It is a notion of fundamental importance in Mathematics, and is, +so far as I can see, not explicable in terms of any other notions. The +first philosopher who realized its importance would seem to be Kant. In +the Versuch den Begriff der negativen Grösse in die Weltweisheit +einzuführen (1763), we find him aware of the difference between logical +opposition and the opposition of positive and negative. In the +discussion Von dem ersten Grunde des Unterschiedes der Gegenden im Raume +(1768), we find a full realization of the importance of asymmetry in +spatial relations, and a proof, based on this fact, that space cannot be +wholly relational[\*](#fn227-1). But it seems doubtful whether he +realized the connection of this asymmetry with difference of sign. In +1763 he certainly was not aware of the connection, since he regarded +pain as a negative amount of pleasure, and supposed that a great +pleasure and a small pain can be added to give a less +pleasure[†](#fn227-2)—a view which seems both logically and +psychologically false. In the Prolegomena (§13), as is well known, he +made the asymmetry of spatial relations a ground for regarding space as +a mere form of intuition, perceiving, as appears from the discussion of +1768, that space could not consist, as Leibniz supposed, of mere +relations among objects, and being unable, owing to his adherence to the +logical objection to relations discussed in the [preceding +chapter](#chapter26), to free from contradiction the notion of absolute +space with asymmetrical relations between its points. Although I cannot +regard this later and more distinctively Kantian theory as an advance +upon that of 1768, yet credit is undoubtedly due to Kant for having +first called attention to the logical importance of asymmetrical +relations. + +**218.** By difference of sense I mean, in the present discussion at +least, the difference between an asymmetrical relation and its converse. +It is a fundamental logical fact that, given any relation R, and any two +terms a, b, there are two propositions to be formed of these elements, +the one relating a to b (which I call aRb), the other (bRa) relating b +to a. These two propositions are always different, though sometimes (as +in the case of diversity) either implies the other. In other cases, such +as logical implication, the one does not imply either the other or its +negation; while in a third set of cases, the one implies the negation of +the other. It is only in cases of the third kind that I shall speak of +difference of sense. In these cases, aRb excludes bRa. But here another +fundamental logical fact becomes relevant. In all cases where aRb does +not imply bRa there is another relation, related to R, which must hold +between b and a. That is, there is a relation ˘R such that aRb implies +b˘Ra; and further, b˘Ra implies aRb. The relation of R to ˘R is +difference of sense. This relation is one-one, symmetrical, and +intransitive. Its existence is the source of series, of the distinction +of signs, and indeed of the greater part of mathematics. + +**219.** A question of considerable importance to logic, and especially +to the theory of inference, may be raised with regard to difference of +sense. Are aRb and b˘Ra really different propositions, or do they only +differ linguistically? It may be held that there is only one relation R, +and that all necessary distinctions can be obtained from that between +aRb and bRa. It may be said that, owing to the exigencies of speech and +writing, we are compelled to mention either a or b first, and that this +gives a seeming difference between “a is greater than b” and “b is less +than a”; but that, in reality, these two propositions are identical. But +if we take this view we shall find it hard to explain the indubitable +distinction between greater and less. These two words have certainly +each a meaning, even when no terms are mentioned as related by them. And +they certainly have different meanings, and are certainly relations. +Hence if we are to hold that “a is greater than b” and “b is less than +a” are the same proposition, we shall have to maintain that both +greater and less enter into each of these propositions, which seems +obviously false; or else we shall have to hold that what really occurs +is neither of the two, but that third abstract relation mentioned by +Leibniz in the passage quoted above. In this case the difference between +greater and less would be one essentially involving a reference to the +terms a and b. But this view cannot be maintained without circularity; +for neither the greater nor the less is inherently the antecedent, and +we can only say that, when the greater is the antecedent, the relation +is greater; when the less, the relation is less. Hence, it would seem, +we must admit that R and ˘R are distinct relations. We cannot escape +this conclusion by the analysis into adjectives attempted in the last +chapter. We there analyzed aRb into aβ and bα. But, corresponding to +every b, there will be two adjectives, β and ˘β, and corresponding to +every a there will also be two, α and ˘α. Thus if R be greater, α will +be “greater than A” and ˘α “less than A,” or vice versâ. But the +difference between α and ˘α presupposes that between greater and less, +between R and ˘R, and therefore cannot explain it. Hence R and ˘R must +be distinct, and “aRb implies b˘Ra” must be a genuine inference. + +I come now to the connection between difference of sense and difference +of sign. We shall find that the latter is derivative from the former, +being a difference which only exists between terms which either are, or +are correlated with, asymmetrical relations. But in certain cases we +shall find some complications of detail which will demand discussion. + +The difference of signs belongs, traditionally, only to numbers and +magnitudes, and is intimately associated with addition. It may be +allowed that the notation cannot be usefully employed where there is no +addition, and even that, where distinction of sign is possible, addition +in some sense is in general also possible. But we shall find that the +difference of sign has no very intimate connection with addition and +subtraction. To make this clear, we must, in the first place, clearly +realize that numbers and magnitudes which have no sign are radically +different from such as are positive. Confusion on this point is quite +fatal to any just theory of signs. + +**220.** Taking first finite numbers, the positive and negative numbers +arise as follows[\*](#fn229-1). Denoting by R the relation between two +integers in virtue of which the second is next after the first, the +proposition mRn is equivalent to what is usually expressed by m + 1 = n. +But the present theory will apply to progressions generally and does not +depend upon the logical theory of cardinals developed in [Part +II](#part2). In the proposition mRn, the integers m and n are +considered, as when they result from the logical definition, to be +wholly destitute of sign. If now mRn and nRp, we put mR2p; and so on for +higher powers. Every power of R is an asymmetrical relation, and its +converse is easily shown to be the same power of ˘R as it is itself of +R. Thus mRaq is equivalent to q˘Ram. These are the two propositions +which are commonly written m + a = q and q − a = m. Thus the relations +Ra, ˘Ra are the true positive and negative integers; and these, though +associated with a, are both wholly distinct from it. Thus in this case +the connection with difference of sense is obvious and straightforward. + +**221.** As regards magnitudes, several cases must be distinguished. We +have (1) magnitudes which are not either relations or, stretches, (2) +stretches, (3) magnitudes which are relations. + +(1) Magnitudes of this class are themselves neither positive nor +negative. But two such magnitudes, as explained in [Part III](#part3), +determine either a distance or a stretch, and these are always positive +or negative. These are moreover always capable of addition. But since +our original magnitudes are neither relations nor stretches, the new +magnitudes thus obtained are of a different kind from the original set. +Thus the difference of two pleasures, or the collection of pleasures +intermediate between two pleasures, is not a pleasure, but in the one +case a relation, in the other a class. + +(2) Magnitudes of divisibility in general have no sign, but when they +are magnitudes of stretches they acquire sign by correlation. A stretch +is distinguished from other collections by the fact that it consists of +all the terms of a series intermediate between two given terms. By +combining the stretch with one sense of the asymmetrical relation which +must exist between its end-terms, the stretch itself acquires sense, and +becomes asymmetrical. That is, we can distinguish (1) the collection of +terms between a and b without regard to order, (2) the terms from a to +b, (3) the terms from b to a. Here (2) and (3) are complex, being +compounded of (1) and one sense of the constitutive relation. Of these +two, one must be called positive, the other negative. Where our series +consists of magnitudes, usage and the connection with addition have +decided that, if a is less than b, (2) is positive and (3) is negative. +But where, as in Geometry, our series is not composed of magnitudes, it +becomes wholly arbitrary which is to be positive and which negative. In +either case, we have the same relation to addition, which is as follows. +Any pair of collections can be added to form a new collection, but not +any pair of stretches can be added to form a new stretch. For this to be +possible the end of one stretch must be consecutive to the beginning of +the other. In this way, the stretches ab, bc can be added to form the +stretch ac. If ab, bc have the same sense, ac is greater than either; if +they have different senses, ac is less than one of them. In this second +case the addition of ab and bc is regarded as the subtraction of ab and +cb, bc and cb being negative and positive respectively. If our stretches +are numerically measurable, addition or subtraction of their measures +will give the measure of the result of adding or subtracting the +stretches, where these are such as to allow addition or subtraction. But +the whole opposition of positive and negative, as is evident, depends +upon the fundamental fact that our series is generated by an +asymmetrical relation. + +(3) Magnitudes which are relations may be either symmetrical or +asymmetrical relations. In the former case, if a be a term of the field +of one of them, the other terms of the various fields, if certain +conditions are fulfilled[\*](#fn230-1), may be arranged in series +according as their relations to a are greater or smaller. This +arrangement may be different when we choose some term other than a; for +the present, therefore, we shall suppose a to be chosen once for all. +When the terms have been arranged in a series, it may happen that some +or all places in the series are occupied by more than one term; but in +any case the assemblage of terms between a and some other term m is +definite, and leads to a stretch with two senses. We may then combine +the magnitude of the relation of a to m with one or other of these two +senses, and so obtain an asymmetrical relation of a to m, which, like +the original relation, will have magnitude. Thus the case of symmetrical +relations may be reduced to that of asymmetrical relations. These latter +lead to signs, and to addition and subtraction, in exactly the same way +as stretches with sense; the only difference being that the addition and +subtraction are now of the kind which, in [Part III](#part3), we called +relational. Thus in all cases of magnitudes having sign, the difference +between the two senses of an asymmetrical relation is the source of the +difference of sign. + +The case which we discussed in connection with stretches is of +fundamental importance in Geometry. We have here a magnitude without +sign, an asymmetrical relation without magnitude, and some intimate +connection between the two. The combination of both then gives a +magnitude which has sign. All geometrical magnitudes having sign arise +in this way. But there is a curious complication in the case of volumes. +Volumes are, in the first instance, signless quantities; but in +analytical Geometry they always appear as positive or negative. Here the +asymmetrical relations (for there are two) appear as terms, between +which there is a symmetrical relation, but one which yet has an opposite +of a kind very similar to the converse of an asymmetrical relation. This +relation, as an exceptional case, must be here briefly discussed. + +**222.** The descriptive straight line is a serial relation in virtue of +which the points of the line form a series[\*](#fn231-1). Either sense +of the descriptive straight line may be called a ray, the sense being +indicated by an ![\[figure\]](figs/fig-sec222.png)arrow. Any two +non-coplanar rays have one or other of two relations, which may be +called right and left-handedness respectively[†](#fn231-2). This +relation is symmetrical but not transitive, and is the essence of the +usual distinction of right and left. Thus the relation of the upward +vertical to a line from north to east is right-handed, and to a line +from south to east is left-handed. But though the relation is +symmetrical, it is changed into its opposite by changing either of the +terms of the relation into its converse. That is, denoting +right-handedness by R, left-handedness by L (which is not ˘R), if A and +B be two rays which are mutually right-handed, we shall have + +ARB, ˘ALB, AL˘B, ˘AR˘B, BRA, ˘BLA, BL˘A, ˘BR˘A. + +That is, every pair of non-coplanar straight lines gives rise to eight +such relations, of which four are right-handed, and four left-handed. +The difference between L and R, though not, as it stands, a difference +of sense, is, nevertheless, the difference of positive and negative, and +is the reason why the volumes of tetrahedra, as given by determinants, +always have signs. But there is no difficulty in following the plain +man’s reduction of right and left to asymmetrical relations. The plain +man takes one of the rays (say A) as fixed—when he is sober, he takes A +to be the upward vertical—and then regards right and left as properties +of the single ray B, or, what comes to the same thing, as relations of +any two points which determine B. In this way, right and left become +asymmetrical relations, and even have a limited degree of +transitiveness, of the kind explained in the fifth way of generating +series (in [Chapter xxiv](#chapter24)). It is to be observed that what +is fixed must be a ray, not a mere straight line. For example, two +planes which are not mutually perpendicular are not one right and the +other left with regard to their line of intersection, but only with +regard to either of the rays belonging to this line.[\*](#fn232-1) But +when this is borne in mind, and when we consider, not semi-planes, but +complete planes, through the ray in question, right and left become +asymmetrical and each other’s converses. Thus the signs associated with +right and left, like all other signs, depend upon the asymmetry of +relations. This conclusion, therefore, may now be allowed to be general. + +**223.** Difference of sense is, of course, more general than difference +of sign, since it exists in cases with which mathematics (at least at +present) is unable to deal. And difference of sign seems scarcely +applicable to relations which are not transitive, or are not intimately +connected with some transitive relation. It would be absurd, for +example, to regard the relation of an event to the time of its +occurrence, or of a quantity to its magnitude, as conferring a +difference of sign. These relations are what Professor Schröder calls +erschöpft[†](#fn232-2), i.e. if they hold between a and b, they can +never hold between b and some third term. Mathematically, their square +is null. These relations, then, do not give rise to difference of sign. + +All magnitudes with sign, so the above account has led us to believe, +are either relations or compound concepts into which relations enter. +But what are we to say of the usual instances of opposites: good and +evil, pleasure and pain, beauty and ugliness, desire and aversion? The +last pair are very complex, and if I were to attempt an analysis of +them, I should emit some universally condemned opinions. With regard to +the others, they seem to me to have an opposition of a very different +kind from that of two mutually converse asymmetrical relations, and +analogous rather to the opposition of red and blue, or of two different +magnitudes of the same kind. From these oppositions, which are +constituted by what may be called synthetic +incompatibility[\*](#fn233-1), the oppositions above mentioned differ +only in the fact that there are only two incompatible terms, instead of +a whole series. The incompatibility consists in the fact that two terms +which are thus incompatible cannot coexist in the same spatio-temporal +place, or cannot be predicates of the same existent, or, more generally, +cannot both enter into true propositions of a certain form, which differ +only in the fact that one contains one of the incompatibles while the +other contains the other. This kind of incompatibility (which usually +belongs, with respect to some class of propositions, to the terms of a +given series) is a most important notion in general logic, but is by no +means to be identified with the difference between mutually converse +relations. This latter is, in fact, a special case of such +incompatibility; but it is the special case only that gives rise to the +difference of sign. All difference of sign—so we may conclude our +argument—is primarily derived from transitive asymmetrical relations, +from which it may be extended by correlation to terms variously related +to such relations[†](#fn233-2); but such extensions are always +subsequent to the original opposition derived from difference of sense. + +Notes + +## CHAPTER XXVIII. +On the Difference Between Open and Closed Series. + +**224.** We have now come to the end of the purely logical discussions +concerned with order, and can turn our attention with a free mind to the +more mathematical aspects of the subject. As the solution of the most +ancient and respectable contradictions in the notion of infinity depends +mainly upon a correct philosophy of order, it has been necessary to go +into philosophical questions at some length—not so much because they are +relevant, as because most philosophers think them so. But we shall reap +our reward throughout the remainder of this work. + +The question to be discussed in this chapter is this: Can we ultimately +distinguish open from closed series, and if so, in what does the +distinction consist? We have seen that, mathematically, all series are +open, in the sense that all are generated by an asymmetrical transitive +relation. But philosophically, we must distinguish the different ways in +which this relation may arise, and especially we must not confound the +case where this relation involves no reference to other terms with that +where such terms are essential. And practically, it is plain that there +is some difference between open and closed series—between, for instance, +a straight line and a circle, or a pedigree and a mutual admiration +society. But it is not quite easy to express the difference precisely. + +**225.** Where the number of terms in the series is finite, and the +series is generated in the first of the ways explained in [Chapter +xxiv](#chapter24), the method of obtaining a transitive relation out of +the intransitive relation with which we start is radically different +according as the series is open or closed. If R be the generating +relation, and n be the number of terms in our series, two cases may +arise. Denoting the relation of any term to the next but one by R2, and +so on for higher powers, the relation Rn can have only one of two +values, zero and identity. (It is assumed that R is a one-one relation.) +For starting with the first term, if there be one, Rn−1 brings us to the +last term; and thus Rn gives no new term, and there is no instance of +the relation Rn. On the other hand, it may happen that, starting with +any term, Rn brings us back to that term again. These two are the only +possible alternatives. In the first case, we call the series open; in +the second, we call it closed. In the first case, the series has a +definite beginning and end; in the second case, like the angles of a +polygon, it has no peculiar terms. In the first case, our transitive +asymmetrical relation is the disjunctive relation “a power of R not +greater than the (n − 1)th.” By substituting this relation, which we may +call R′, for R, our series becomes of the second of the six types. But +in the second case no such simple reduction to the second type is +possible. For now, the relation of any two terms a and m of our series +may be just as well taken to be a power of ˘R as a power of R, and the +question which of any three terms is between the other two becomes +wholly arbitrary. We might now introduce, first the relation of +separation of four terms, and then the resulting five-term relation +explained in [Chapter xxv](#chapter25). We should then regard three of +the terms in the five-term relation as fixed, and find that the +resulting relation of the other two is transitive and asymmetrical. But +here the first term of our series is wholly arbitrary, which was not the +case before; and the generating relation is, in reality, one of five +terms, not one of two. There is, however, in the case contemplated, a +simpler method. This may be illustrated as follows: In an open series, +any two terms a and m define two senses in which the series may be +described, the one in which a comes before m, and the other in which m +comes before a. We can then say of any two other terms c and g that the +sense of the order from c to g is the same as that of the order from a +to m, or different, as the case may be. In this way, considering a and m +fixed, and c and g variable, we get a transitive asymmetrical relation +between c and g, obtained from a transitive symmetrical relation of the +pair c, g to the pair a, m (or m, a, as the case may be). But this +transitive symmetrical relation can, by the principle of abstraction, be +analyzed into possession of a common property, which is, in this case, +the fact that a, m and c, g have the generating relation with the same +sense. Thus the four-term relation is, in this case, not essential. But +in a closed series, a and m do not define a sense of the series, even +when we are told that a is to precede m: we can start from a and get to +m in either direction. But if now we take a third term d, and decide +that we are to start from a and reach m taking d on the way, then a +sense of the series is defined. The stretch adm includes one portion of +the series, but not the other. Thus we may go from England to New +Zealand either by the east or by the west; but if we are to take India +on the way, we must go by the east. If now we consider any other term, +say k, this will have some definite position in the series which starts +with a and reaches m by way of d. In this series, k will come either +between a and d, or between d and m, or after m. Thus the three-term +relation of a, d, m seems in this case sufficient to generate a +perfectly definite series. Vailati’s five-term relation will then +consist in this, that with regard to the order adm, k comes before (or +after) any other term l of the collection. But it is not necessary to +call in this relation in the present case, since the three-term relation +suffices. This three-term relation may be formally defined as follows. +There is between any two terms of our collection a relation which is a +power of R less than the nth. Let the relation between a and d be Rx, +that between a and m Ry. Then if x is less than y, we assign one sense +to adm; if x is greater than y, we assign the other. There will be also +between a and d the ˘Rn−x, and between a and m the relation ˘Rn−y. If x +is less than y, then n − x is greater than n − y; hence the asymmetry of +the two cases corresponds to that of R and ˘R. The terms of the series +are simply ordered by correlation with their numbers x and y, those with +smaller numbers preceding those with larger ones. Thus there is here no +need of the five-term relation, everything being effected by the +three-term relation, which is itself reduced to an asymmetrical +transitive relation of two numbers. But the closed series is still +distinguished from the open one by the fact that its first term is +arbitrary. + +**226.** A very similar discussion will apply to the case where our +series is generated by relations of three terms. To keep the analogy +with the one-one relation of the above case, we will make the following +assumptions. Let there be a relation B of one term to two others, and +let the one, term be called the mean, the two others the extremes. Let +the mean be uniquely determined when the extremes are given, and let one +extreme be uniquely determined by the mean and the other extreme. +Further let each term that occurs as mean occur also as extreme, and +each term that occurs as extreme (with at most two exceptions) occur +also as mean. Finally, if there be a relation in which c is mean, and b +and d are extremes, let there be always (except when b or d is one of +the two possible exceptional terms) a relation in which b is the mean +and c one of the extremes, and another in which d is the mean and c one +of the extremes. Then b and c will occur together in only two relations. +This fact constitutes a relation between b and c, and only one other +term besides b will have this new relation to c. By means of this +relation, if there are two exceptional terms, or if, our collection +being infinite, there is only one, we can construct an open series. If +our two-term relation be asymmetrical, this is sufficiently evident; but +the same result can be proved if our two-term relation is symmetrical. +For there will be at either end, say a, an asymmetrical relation of a to +the only term which is the mean between a and some other term. This +relation multiplied by the nth power of our two-term relation, where n + +1 is any integer less than the number of terms in our collection, will +give a relation which holds between a and a number (not exceeding n + 1) +of terms of our collection, of which terms one and only one is such that +no number less than n gives a relation of a to this term. Thus we obtain +a correlation of our terms with the natural numbers, which generates an +open series with a for one of its ends. If, on the other hand, our +collection has no exceptional terms, but is finite, then we shall obtain +a closed series. Let our two-term relation be P, and first suppose it +symmetrical. (It will be symmetrical if our original three-term relation +was symmetrical with regard to the extremes.) Then every term c of our +collection will have the relation P to two others, which will have to +each other the relation P2. Of all the relations of the form Pm which +hold between two given terms, there will be one in which m is least: +this may be called the principal relation of our two terms. Let the +number of terms of the collection be n. Then every term of our +collection will have to every other a principal relation Px, where x is +some integer not greater than n/2. Given any two terms c and g of the +collection, provided we do not have cPn/2g (a case which will not arise +if n be odd), let us have cPxg, where x is less than n/2. This +assumption defines a sense of the series, which may be shown as follows. +If cPyk, where y is also less than n/2, three cases may arise, assuming +y is greater than x. We may have gPy−zk, or, if x + y is less than n/2, +we may have gPx+yk, or, if x + y is greater than n/2, we may have +gPn2−x−yk. (We choose always the principal relation.) These three +cases are illustrated in the accompanying +figure.![\[figure\]](figs/fig-sec226.png) We shall say, in these three +cases, that, with regard to the sense cg, (1) k comes after c and g, (2) +and (3) k comes before c and g. If y is less than x, and kPx−yg, we +shall say that k is between c and g in the sense cg. If n is odd, this +covers all possible cases. But if n is even, we have to consider the +term c′, which is such that cPn/2c′. This term is, in a certain sense, +antipodal to c; we may define it as the first term in the series when +the above method of definition is adopted. If n is odd, the first term +will be that term of class (3) for which cP(n−1)/2k. Thus the series +acquires a definite order, but one in which, as in all closed series, +the first term is arbitrary. + +**227.** The only remaining case is that where we start from four-term +relations, and the generating relation has, strictly speaking, five +terms. This is the case of projective Geometry. Here the series is +necessarily closed; that is, in choosing our three fixed terms for the +five-term relation, there is never any restriction upon our choice; and +any one of these three may be defined to be the first. + +**228.** Thus, to sum up: Every series being generated by a transitive +asymmetrical relation between any two terms of the series, a series is +open when it has either no beginning, or a beginning which is not +arbitrary; it is closed when it has an arbitrary beginning. Now if R be +the constitutive relation, the beginning of the series is a term having +the relation R but not the relation ˘R. Whenever R is genuinely a +two-term relation, the beginning, if it exists, must be perfectly +definite. It is only when R involves some other term (which may be +considered fixed) besides the two with regard to which it is transitive +and asymmetrical (which are to be regarded as variable), that the +beginning can be arbitrary. Hence in all cases of closed series, though +there may be an asymmetrical one-one relation if the series is discrete, +the transitive asymmetrical relation must be one involving one or more +fixed terms in addition to the two variable terms with regard to which +it generates the series. Thus although, mathematically, every closed +series can be rendered open, and every open series closed, yet there is, +in regard to the nature of the generating relation, a genuine +distinction between them—a distinction, however, which is of +philosophical rather than mathematical importance. + +## CHAPTER XXIX. +Progressions and Ordinal Numbers. + +**229.** It is now time to consider the simplest type of infinite +series, namely that to which the natural numbers themselves belong. I +shall postpone to the [next Part](#part5) all the supposed difficulties +arising out of the infinity of such series, and concern myself here only +to give the elementary theory of them in a form not presupposing +numbers[\*](#fn239-1). + +The series now to be considered are those which can be correlated, term +for term, with the natural numbers, without requiring any change in the +order of the terms. But since the natural numbers are a particular case +of such series, and since the whole of Arithmetic and Analysis can be +developed out of any one such series, without any appeal to number, it +is better to give a definition of progressions which involves no appeal +to number. + +A progression is a discrete series having consecutive terms, and a +beginning but no end, and being also connected. The meaning of +connection was explained in [Chapter xxiv](#chapter24) by means of +number, but this explanation cannot be given now. Speaking popularly, +when a series is not connected it falls into two or more parts, each +being a series for itself. Thus numbers and instants together form a +series which is not connected, and so do two parallel straight lines. +Whenever a series is originally given by means of a transitive +asymmetrical relation, we can express connection by the condition that +any two terms of our series are to have the generating relation. But +progressions are series of the kind that may be generated in the first +of our six ways, namely, by an asymmetrical one-one relation. In order +to pass from this to a transitive relation, we before employed numbers, +defining the transitive relation as any power of the one-one relation. +This definition will not serve now, since numbers are to be excluded. It +is one of the triumphs of modern mathematics to have adapted an ancient +principle to the needs of this case. + +The definition which we want is to be obtained from mathematical +induction. This principle, which used to be regarded as a mere +subterfuge for eliciting results of which no other proof was +forthcoming, has gradually grown in importance as the foundations of +mathematics have been more closely investigated. It is now seen to be +the principle upon which depend, so far as ordinals are concerned, the +commutative law and one form of the distributive law[\*](#fn240-1). This +principle, which gives the widest possible extension to the finite, is +the distinguishing mark of progressions. It may be stated as follows: + +Given any class of terms s, to which belongs the first term of any +progression, and to which belongs the term of the progression next after +any term of the progression belonging to s, then every term of the +progression belongs to s. + +We may state the same principle in another form. Let φ(x) be a +propositional function, which is a determinate proposition as soon as x +is given. Then φ(x) is a function of x, and will in general be true or +false according to the value of x. If x be a member of a progression, +let seq x denote the term next after x. Let φ(x) be true when x is the +first term of a certain progression, and let φ(seq x) be true whenever +φ(x) is true, where x is any term of the progression. It then follows, +by the principle of mathematical induction, that φ(x) is always true if +x be any term of the progression in question. + +The complete definition of a progression is as follows. Let R be any +asymmetrical one-one relation, and u a class such that every term of u +has the relation of R to some term also belonging to the class u. Let +there be at least one term of the class u which does not have the +relation ˘R to any term of u. Let s be any class to which belongs at +least one of the terms of u which do not have the relation ˘R to any +term of u, and to which belongs also every term of u which has the +relation ˘R to some term belonging to both u and s; and let u be such as +to be wholly contained in any class s satisfying the above conditions. +Then u, considered as ordered by the relation R, is a +progression[†](#fn240-2). + +**230.** Of such progressions, everything relevant to finite Arithmetic +can be proved. In the first place, we show that there can only be one +term of u which does not have the relation ˘R to any term of u. We then +define the term to which x has the relation R as the successor of x (x +being a u), which may be written seq x. The definitions and properties +of addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, positive and +negative terms, and rational fractions are easily given; and it is +easily shown that between any two rational fractions there is always a +third. From this point it is easy to advance to irrationals and the real +numbers[\*](#fn241-1). + +Apart from the principle of mathematical induction, what is chiefly +interesting about this process is, that it shows that only the serial or +ordinal properties of finite numbers are used by ordinary mathematics, +what may be called the logical properties being wholly irrelevant. By +the logical properties of numbers, I mean their definition by means of +purely logical ideas. This process, which has been explained in [Part +II](#part2), may be here briefly recapitulated. We show, to begin with, +that a one-one correlation can be effected between any two null classes, +or between any two classes u, v which are such that, if x is a u, and x′ +differs from x, then x′ cannot be a u, with a like condition for v. The +possibility of such one-one correlation we call similarity of the two +classes u, v. Similarity, being symmetrical and transitive, must be +analyzable (by the principle of abstraction) into possession of a common +property. This we define as the number of either of the classes. When +the two classes u, v have the above-defined property, we say their +number is one; and so on for higher numbers; the general definition of +finite numbers demanding mathematical induction, or the non-similarity +of whole and part, but being always given in purely logical terms. + +It is numbers so defined that are used in daily life, and that are +essential to any assertion of numbers. It is the fact that numbers have +these logical properties that makes them important. But it is not these +properties that ordinary mathematics employs, and numbers might be +bereft of them without any injury to the truth of Arithmetic and +Analysis. What is relevant to mathematics is solely the fact that finite +numbers form a progression. This is the reason why mathematicians—e.g. +Helmholtz, Dedekind, and Kronecker—have maintained that ordinal numbers +are prior to cardinals; for it is solely the ordinal properties of +number that are relevant. But the conclusion that ordinals are prior to +cardinals seems to have resulted from a confusion. Ordinals and +cardinals alike form a progression, and have exactly the same ordinal +properties. Of either, all Arithmetic can be proved without any appeal +to the other, the propositions being symbolically identical, but +different in meaning. In order to prove that ordinals are prior to +cardinals, it would be necessary to show that the cardinals can only be +defined in terms of the ordinals. But this is false, for the logical +definition of the cardinals is wholly independent of the +ordinals[†](#fn241-2). There seems, in fact, to be nothing to choose, +as regards logical priority, between ordinals and cardinals, except that +the existence of the ordinals is inferred from the series of cardinals. +The ordinals, as we shall see in the next paragraph, can be defined +without any appeal to the cardinals; but when defined, they are seen to +imply the cardinals. Similarly, the cardinals can be defined without any +appeal to the ordinals; but they essentially form a progression, and all +progressions, as I shall now show, necessarily imply the ordinals. + +**231.** The correct analysis of ordinals has been prevented hitherto by +the prevailing prejudice against relations. People speak of a series as +consisting of certain terms taken in a certain order, and in this idea +there is commonly a psychological element. All sets of terms have, apart +from psychological considerations, all orders of which they are capable; +that is, there are serial relations, whose fields are a given set of +terms, which arrange those terms in any possible order. In some cases, +one or more serial relations are specially prominent, either on account +of their simplicity, or of their importance. Thus the order of magnitude +among numbers, or of before and after among instants, seems emphatically +the natural order, and any other seems to be artificially introduced by +our arbitrary choice. But this is a sheer error. Omnipotence itself +cannot give terms an order which they do not possess already: all that +is psychological is the consideration of such and such an order. Thus +when it is said that we can arrange a set of terms in any order we +please, what is really meant is, that we can consider any of the serial +relations whose field is the given set, and that these serial relations +will give between them any combinations of before and after that are +compatible with transitiveness and connection. From this it results that +an order is not, properly speaking, a property of a given set of terms, +but of a serial relation whose field is the given set. Given the +relation, its field is given with it; but given the field, the relation +is by no means given. The notion of a set of terms in a given order is +the notion of a set of terms considered as the field of a given serial +relation; but the consideration of the terms is superfluous, and that of +the relation alone is quite sufficient. + +We may, then, regard an ordinal number as a common property of sets of +serial relations which generate ordinally similar series. Such relations +have what I shall call likeness, i.e. if P, Q be two such relations, +their fields can be so correlated term for term that two terms of which +the first has to the second the relation P will always be correlated +with two terms of which the first has to the second the relation Q, and +vice versâ. As in the case of cardinal numbers[\*](#fn242-1), so here, +we may, in virtue of the principle of abstraction, define the ordinal +number of a given finite serial relation as the class of like relations. +It is easy to show that the generating relations of progressions are all +alike; the class of such relations will be the ordinal number of the +finite integers in order of magnitude. When a class is finite, all +series that can be formed of its terms are ordinally similar, and are +ordinally different from series having a different cardinal number of +terms. Hence there is a one-one correlation of finite ordinals and +cardinals, for which, as we shall see in [Part V](#part5), there is no +analogy in respect of infinite numbers. We may therefore define the +ordinal number n as the class of serial relations whose domains have n +terms, where n is a finite cardinal. It is necessary, unless 1 is to be +excluded, to take domains instead of fields here, for no relation which +implies diversity can have one term in its field, though it may have +none. This has a practical inconvenience, owing to the fact that n + 1 +must be obtained by adding one term to the field; but the point involved +is one for conventions as to notation, and is quite destitute of +philosophical importance. + +**232.** The above definition of ordinal numbers is direct and simple, +but does not yield the notion of “nth,” which would usually be regarded +as the ordinal number. This notion is far more complex: a term is not +intrinsically the nth, and does not become so by the mere specification +of n − 1 other terms. A term is the nth in respect of a certain serial +relation, when, in respect of that relation, the term in question has n +− 1 predecessors. This is the definition of “nth,” showing that this +notion is relative, not merely to predecessors, but also to a specified +serial relation. By induction, the various finite ordinals can be +defined without mentioning the cardinals. A finite serial relation is +one which is not like (in the above sense) any relation implying it but +not equivalent to it; and a finite ordinal is one consisting of finite +serial relations. If n be a finite ordinal, n + 1 is an ordinal such +that, if the last term[\*](#fn243-1) of a series of the type n + 1 be +cut off, the remainder, in the same order, is of the type n. In more +technical language, a serial relation of the type n + 1 is one which, +when confined to its domain instead of its field, becomes of the type n. +This gives by induction a definition of every particular finite ordinal, +in which cardinals are never mentioned. Thus we cannot say that ordinals +presuppose cardinals, though they are more complex, since they +presuppose both serial and one-one relations, whereas cardinals only +presuppose one-one relations. + +Of the ordinal number of the finite ordinals in order of magnitude, +several equivalent definitions may be given. One of the simplest is, +that this number belongs to any serial relation, which is such that any +class contained in its field and not null has a first term, while every +term of the series has an immediate successor, and every term except the +first has an immediate predecessor. Here, again, cardinal numbers are in +no way presupposed. + +Throughout the above discussions our serial relations are taken to be +transitive, not one-one. The one-one relations are easily derived from +the transitive ones, while the converse derivation is somewhat +complicated. Moreover the one-one relations are only adequate to define +finite series, and thus their use cannot be extended to the study of +infinite series unless they are taken as derivative from the transitive +ones. + +**233.** A few words concerning positive and negative ordinals seem to +be here in place. If the first n terms of a progression be taken away (n +being any finite number), the remainder still form a progression. With +regard to the new progression, negative ordinals may be assigned to the +terms that have been abstracted; but for this purpose it is convenient +to regard the beginning of the smaller progression as the 0th term. In +order to have a series giving any positive or negative ordinal, we need +what may be called a double progression. This is a series such that, +choosing any term x out of it, two progressions start from x, the one +generated by a serial relation R, the other by ˘R. To x we shall then +assign the ordinal 0, and to the other terms we shall assign positive or +negative ordinals according as they belong to the one or the other of +the two progressions starting from x. The positive and negative ordinals +themselves form such a double progression. They express essentially a +relation to the arbitrarily chosen origin of the two progressions, and ++n and −n express mutually converse relations. Thus they have all the +properties which we recognize in [Chapter xxvii](#chapter27) as +characterizing terms which have signs. + +Notes + +## CHAPTER XXX. +Dedekind’s Theory of Number. + +**234.** The theory of progressions and of ordinal numbers, with which +we have been occupied in the last chapter, is due in the main to two +men—Dedekind and Cantor. Cantor’s contributions, being specially +concerned with infinity, need not be considered at present; and +Dedekind’s theory of irrationals is also to be postponed. It is his +theory of integers of which I wish now to give an account-—the theory, +that is to say, which is contained in his “Was sind und was sollen die +Zahlen?”[\*](#fn245-1) In reviewing this work, I shall not adhere +strictly to Dedekind’s phraseology. He appears to have been, at the time +of writing, unacquainted with symbolic logic; and although he invented +as much of this subject as was relevant to his purpose, he naturally +adopted phrases which were not usual, and were not always so convenient +as their conventional equivalents. + +The fundamental ideas of the pamphlet in question are +these[†](#fn245-2): (1) the representation (Abbildung) of a system +(21); (2) the notion of a chain (37); (3) the chain of an element (44); +(4) the generalized form of mathematical induction (59); (5) the +definition of a singly infinite system (71). From these five notions +Dedekind deduces numbers and ordinary Arithmetic. Let us first explain +the notions, and then examine the deduction. + +**235.** (1) A representation of a class u is any law by which, to every +term of u, say x, corresponds some one and only one term φ(x). No +assumption is made, to begin with, as to whether φ(x) belongs to the +class u, or as to whether φ(x) may be the same as φ(y) when x and y are +different terms of u. The definition thus amounts to this: + +A representation of a class u is a many-one relation, whose domain +contains u, by which terms, which may or may not also belong to u, are +correlated one with each of the terms of u[\*](#fn246-1). The +representation is similar when, if x differs from y, both being u’s, +then φ(x) differs from φ(y); that is, when the relation in question is +one-one. He shows that similarity between classes is reflexive, +symmetrical and transitive, and remarks (34) that classes can be +classified by similarity to a given class—a suggestion of an idea which +is fundamental in Cantor’s work. + +**236.** (2) If there exists a relation, whether one-one or many-one, +which correlates with a class u only terms belonging to that class, then +this relation is said to constitute a representation of u in itself +(36), and with respect to this relation u is called a chain (37). That +is to say, any class u is, with respect to any many-one relation, a +chain, if u is contained in the domain of the relation, and the +correlate of a u is always itself a u. The collection of correlates of a +class is called the image (Bild) of the class. Thus a chain is a class +whose image is part or the whole of itself. For the benefit of the +non-mathematical reader, it may be not superfluous to remark that a +chain with regard to a one-one relation, provided it has any term not +belonging to the image of the chain, cannot be finite, for such a chain +must contain the same number of terms as a proper part of +itself[†](#fn246-2). + +**237.** (3) If a be any term or collection of terms, there may be, with +respect to a given many-one relation, many chains in which a is +contained. The common part of all these chains, which is denoted by a0, +is what Dedekind calls the chain of a (44). For example, if a be the +number n, or any set of numbers of which n is the least, the chain of a +with regard to the relation “less by 1” will be all numbers not less +than n. + +**238.** (4) Dedekind now proceeds (59) to a theorem which is a +generalized form of mathematical induction. This theorem is as follows: +Let a be any term or set of terms contained in a class s, and let the +image of the common part of s and the chain of a be also contained in s; +then it follows that the chain of a is contained in s. This somewhat +complicated theorem may become clearer by being put in other language. +Let us call the relation by which the chain is generated (or rather the +converse of this relation) succession, so that the correlate or image of +a term will be its successor. Let a be a term which has a successor, or +a collection of such terms. A chain in general (with regard to +succession) will be any set of terms such that the successor of any one +of them also belongs to the set. The chain of a will be the common part +of all the chains containing a. Then the data of the theorem inform us +that a is contained in s, and, if any term of the chain of a be an s, so +is its successor; and the conclusion is, that every term in the chain of +a is an s. This theorem, as is evident, is very similar to mathematical +induction, from which it differs, first by the fact that a need not be a +single term, secondly by the fact that the constitutive relation need +not be one-one, but may be many-one. It is a most remarkable fact that +Dedekind’s previous assumptions suffice to demonstrate this theorem. + +**239.** (5) I come next to the definition of a singly infinite system +or class (71). This is defined as a class which can be represented in +itself by means of a one-one relation, and which is further such as to +be the chain, with regard to this one-one relation, of a single term of +the class not contained in the image of the class. Calling the class N, +and the one-one relation R, there are, as Dedekind remarks, four points +in this definition. (1) The image of N is contained in N; that is, every +term to which an N has the relation R is an N. (2) N is the chain of one +of its terms. (3) This one term is such that no N has the relation R to +it, i.e. it is not the image of any other term of N. (4) The relation R +is one-one, in other words, the representation is similar. The abstract +system, defined simply as possessing these properties, is defined by +Dedekind as the ordinal numbers (73). It is evident that his singly +infinite system is the same as what we called a progression, and he +proceeds to deduce the various properties of progressions, in particular +mathematical induction (80), which follows from the above generalized +form. One number m is said to be less than another n, when the chain of +n is contained in the image of the chain of m (89); and it is shown (88, +90) that of two different numbers, one must be the less. From this point +everything proceeds simply. + +**240.** The only further point that seems important for our present +purpose is the definition of cardinals. It is shown (132) that all +singly infinite systems are similar to each other and to the ordinals, +and that conversely (133) any system which is similar to a singly +infinite system is singly infinite. When a system is finite, it is +similar to some system Zn, where Zn means all the numbers from 1 to n +both inclusive; and vice versâ (160). There is only one number n which +has this property in regard to any given finite system, and when +considered in relation to this property it is called a cardinal number, +and is said to be the number of elements of which the said system +consists (161). Here at last we reach the cardinal numbers. Their +dependence on ordinals, if I may venture to interpret Dedekind, is as +follows: owing to the order of the ordinals, every ordinal n defines a +class of ordinals Zn, consisting of all that do not succeed it. They may +be defined as all that are not contained in the image of the chain of n. +This class of ordinals may be similar to another class, which is then +said to have the cardinal number n. But it is only because of the order +of the ordinals that each of them defines a class, and thus this order +is presupposed in obtaining cardinals. + +**241.** Of the merits of the above deduction it is not necessary for me +to speak, for they are universally acknowledged. But some points call +for discussion. In the first case, Dedekind proves mathematical +induction, while Peano regards it as an axiom. This gives Dedekind an +apparent superiority, which must be examined. In the second place, there +is no reason, merely because the numbers which Dedekind obtains have an +order, to hold that they are ordinal numbers; in the third place, his +definition of cardinals is unnecessarily complicated, and the dependence +of cardinals upon order is only apparent. I shall take these points in +turn. + +As regards the proof of mathematical induction, it is to be observed +that it makes the practically equivalent assumption that numbers form +the chain of one of them. Either can be deduced from the other, and the +choice as to which is to be an axiom, which a theorem, is mainly a +matter of taste. On the whole, though the consideration of chains is +most ingenious, it is somewhat difficult, and has the disadvantage that +theorems concerning the finite class of numbers not greater than n as a +rule have to be deduced from corresponding theorems concerning the +infinite class of numbers greater than n. For these reasons, and not +because of any logical superiority, it seems simpler to begin with +mathematical induction. And it should be observed that, in Peano’s +method, it is only when theorems are to be proved concerning any number +that mathematical induction is required. The elementary Arithmetic of +our childhood, which discusses only particular numbers, is wholly +independent of mathematical induction; though to prove that this is so +for every particular number would itself require mathematical induction. +In Dedekind’s method, on the other hand, propositions concerning +particular numbers, like general propositions, demand the consideration +of chains. Thus there is, in Peano’s method, a distinct advantage of +simplicity, and a clearer separation between the particular and the +general propositions of Arithmetic. But from a purely logical point of +view, the two methods seem equally sound; and it is to be remembered +that, with the logical theory of cardinals, both Peano’s and Dedekind’s +axioms become demonstrable[\*](#fn248-1). + +**242.** On the second point, there is some deficiency of clearness in +what Dedekind says. His words are (73): “If in the contemplation of a +singly infinite system N, ordered by a representation φ, we disregard +entirely the peculiar nature of the elements, retaining only the +possibility of distinguishing them, and considering only the relations +in which they are placed by the ordering representation φ, then these +elements are called natural numbers or ordinal numbers or simply +numbers.” Now it is impossible that this account should be quite +correct. For it implies that the terms of all progressions other than +the ordinals are complex, and that the ordinals are elements in all such +terms, obtainable by abstraction. But this is plainly not the case. A +progression can be formed of points or instants, or of transfinite +ordinals, or of cardinals, in which, as we shall shortly see, the +ordinals are not elements. Moreover it is impossible that the ordinals +should be, as Dedekind suggests, nothing but the terms of such relations +as constitute a progression. If they are to be anything at all, they +must be intrinsically something; they must differ from other entities as +points from instants, or colours from sounds. What Dedekind intended to +indicate was probably a definition by means of the principle of +abstraction, such as we attempted to give in the [preceding +chapter](#chapter29). But a definition so made always indicates some +class of entities having (or being) a genuine nature of their own, and +not logically dependent upon the manner in which they have been defined. +The entities defined should be visible, at least to the mind’s eye; what +the principle asserts is that, under certain conditions, there are such +entities, if only we knew where to look for them. But whether, when we +have found them, they will be ordinals or cardinals, or even something +quite different, is not to be decided off-hand. And in any case, +Dedekind does not show us what it is that all progressions have in +common, nor give any reason for supposing it to be the ordinal numbers, +except that all progressions obey the same laws as ordinals do, which +would prove equally that any assigned progression is what all +progressions have in common. + +**243.** This brings us to the third point, namely the definition of +cardinals by means of ordinals. Dedekind remarks in his preface (p. ix) +that many will not recognize their old friends the natural numbers in +the shadowy shapes which he introduces to them. In this, it seems to me, +the supposed persons are in the right—in other words, I am one among +them. What Dedekind presents to us is not the numbers, but any +progression: what he says is true of all progressions alike, and his +demonstrations nowhere—not even where he comes to cardinals—involve any +property distinguishing numbers from other progressions. No evidence is +brought forward to show that numbers are prior to other progressions. We +are told, indeed, that they are what all progressions have in common; +but no reason is given for thinking that progressions have anything in +common beyond the properties assigned in the definition, which do not +themselves constitute a new progression. The fact is that all depends +upon one-one relations, which Dedekind has been using throughout without +perceiving that they alone suffice for the definition of cardinals. The +relation of similarity between classes, which he employs consciously, +combined with the principle of abstraction, which he implicitly assumes, +suffice for the definition of cardinals; for the definition of ordinals +these do not suffice; we require, as we saw in the [preceding +chapter](#chapter29), the relation of likeness between well-ordered +serial relations. The definition of particular finite ordinals is +effected explicitly in terms of the corresponding cardinals: if n be a +finite cardinal number, the ordinal number n is the class of serial +relations which have n terms in their domain (or in their field, if we +prefer this definition). In order to define the notion of “nth,” we +need, besides the ordinal number n, the notion of powers of a relation, +i.e. of the relative product of a relation multiplied into itself a +finite number of times. Thus if R be any one-one serial relation, +generating a finite series or a progression, the first term of the field +of R (which field we will call r) is the term belonging to the domain, +but not to the converse domain, i.e., having the relation R but not the +relation ˘R. If r has n or more terms, where n is a finite number, the +nth term of r is the term to which the first term has the relation Rn−1 +or, again, it is the term having the relation ˘Rn−1 but not the relation +˘Rn. Through the notion of powers of a relation, the introduction of +cardinals is here unavoidable; and as powers are defined by mathematical +induction, the notion of nth, according to the above definition, cannot +be extended beyond finite numbers. We can however extend the notion by +the following definition: If P be a transitive aliorelative generating a +well-ordered series p, the nth term of p is the term x such that, if P′ +be the relation P limited to x and its predecessors, then P′ has the +ordinal number n. Here the dependence upon cardinals results from the +fact that the ordinal n can, in general, only be defined by means of the +cardinal n. + +It is important to observe that no set of terms has inherently one order +rather than another, and that no term is the nth of a set except in +relation to a particular generating relation whose field is the set or +part of the set. For example, since in any progression, any finite +number of consecutive terms including the first may be taken away, and +the remainder will still form a progression, the ordinal number of a +term in a progression may be diminished to any smaller number we choose. +Thus the ordinal number of a term is relative to the series to which it +belongs. This may be reduced to a relation to the first term of the +series; and lest a vicious circle should be suspected, it may be +explained that the first term can always be defined non-numerically. It +is, in Dedekind’s singly infinite system, the only term not contained in +the image of the system; and generally, in any series, it is the only +term which has the constitutive relation with one sense, but not with +the other[\*](#fn250-1). Thus the relation expressed by nth is not only +a relation to n, but also to the first term of the series; and first +itself depends upon the terms included in the series, and upon the +relation by which they are ordered, so that what was first may cease to +be so, and what was not first may become so. Thus the first term of a +series must be assigned, as is done in Dedekind’s view of a progression +as the chain of its first term. Hence nth expresses a four-cornered +relation, between the term which is nth, an assigned term (the first), a +generating serial relation, and the cardinal number n. Thus it is plain +that ordinals, either as classes of like serial relations, or as notions +like “nth,” are more complex than cardinals; that the logical theory of +cardinals is wholly independent of the general theory of progressions, +requiring independent development in order to show that the cardinals +form a progression; and that Dedekind’s ordinals are not essentially +either ordinals or cardinals, but the members of any progression +whatever. I have dwelt on this point, as it is important, and my opinion +is at variance with that of most of the best authorities. If Dedekind’s +view were correct, it would have been a logical error to begin, as this +work does, with the theory of cardinal numbers rather than with order. +For my part, I do not hold it an absolute error to begin with order, +since the properties of progressions, and even most of the properties of +series in general, seem to be largely independent of number. But the +properties of number must be capable of proof without appeal to the +general properties of progressions, since cardinal numbers can be +independently defined, and must be seen to form a progression before +theorems concerning progressions can be applied to them. Hence the +question, whether to begin with order or with numbers, resolves itself +into one of convenience and simplicity; and from this point of view, the +cardinal numbers seem naturally to precede the very difficult +considerations as to series which have occupied us in the present Part. + +Notes + +## CHAPTER XXXI. +Distance. + +**244.** The notion of distance is one which is often supposed essential +to series[\*](#fn252-1), but which seldom receives precise definition. +An emphasis on distance characterizes, generally speaking, those who +believe in relative position. Thus Leibniz, in the course of his +controversy with Clarke, remarks: + +“As for the objection, that space and time are quantities, or rather +things endowed with quantity, and that situation and order are not so: I +answer, that order also has its quantity; there is that in it which goes +before, and that which follows; there is distance or interval. Relative +things have their quantity, as well as absolute ones. For instance, +ratios or proportions in mathematics have their quantity, and are +measured by logarithms; and yet they are relations. And therefore, +though time and space consist in relations, yet they have their +quantity[†](#fn252-2).” + +In this passage, the remark: “There is that which goes before, and that +which follows; there is distance or interval,” if considered as an +inference, is a non sequitur; the mere fact of order does not prove that +there is distance or interval. It proves, as we have seen, that there +are stretches, that these are capable of a special form of addition +closely analogous to what I have called relational addition, that they +have sign, and that (theoretically at least) stretches which fulfil the +axioms of Archimedes and of linearity are always capable of numerical +measurement. But the idea, as Meinong rightly points out, is entirely +distinct from that of stretch. Whether any particular series does or +does not contain distances, will be, in most compact series (i.e. such +as have a term between any two), a question not to be decided by +argument. In discrete series there must be distance; in others, there +may be—unless, indeed, they are series obtained from progressions as the +rationals or the real numbers are obtained from the integers, in which +case there must be distance. But we shall find that stretches are +mathematically sufficient, and that distances are complicated and +unimportant. + +**245.** The definition of distance, to begin with, is no easy matter. +What has been done hitherto towards this end is chiefly due to +non-Euclidean Geometry[\*](#fn253-1); something also has been done +towards settling the definition by Meinong[†](#fn253-2). But in both +these cases, there is more concern for numerical measurement of distance +than for its actual definition. Nevertheless, distance is by no means +indefinable. Let us endeavour to generalize the notion as much as +possible. In the first place, distance need not be asymmetrical; but the +other properties of distance always allow us to render it so, and we may +therefore take it to be so. Secondly, a distance need not be a quantity +or a magnitude; although it is usually taken to be such, we shall find +the taking it so to be irrelevant to its other properties, and in +particular to its numerical measurement. Thirdly, when distance is taken +asymmetrically, there must be only one term to which a given term has a +given distance, and the converse relation to the given distance must be +a distance of the same kind. (It will be observed that we must first +define a kind of distance, and proceed thence to the general definition +of distance.) Thus every distance is a one-one relation; and in respect +to such relations it is convenient to respect the converse of a relation +as its −1th power. Further the relative product of two distances of a +kind must be a distance of the same kind. When the two distances are +mutually converse, their product will be identity, which is thus one +among distances (their zero, in fact), and must be the only one which is +not asymmetrical. Again the product of two distances of a kind must be +commutative[‡](#fn253-3). If the distances of a kind be magnitudes, they +must form a kind of magnitude—i.e. any two must be equal or unequal. If +they are not magnitudes, they must still form a series generated in the +second of our six ways, i.e. every pair of different distances must have +a certain asymmetrical relation, the same for all pairs except as +regards sense. And finally, if Q be this relation, and R1QR2 (R1, R2, +being distances of the kind), then if R3 be any other distance of the +kind, we must have R1R3QR2R3. All these properties, so far as I can +discover, are independent; and we ought to add a property of the field, +namely this: any two terms, each of which belongs to the field of some +distance of the kind (not necessarily the same for both), have a +relation which is a distance of the kind. Having now defined a kind of +distance, a distance is any relation belonging to some kind of distance; +and thus the work of definition seems completed. + +The notion of distance, it will be seen, is enormously complex. The +properties of distances are analogous to those of stretches with sign, +but are far less capable of mutual deduction. The properties of +stretches corresponding to many of the above properties of distances are +capable of proof. The difference is largely due to the fact that +stretches can be added in the elementary logical (not arithmetical) way, +whereas distances require what I have called relational addition, which +is much the same as relative multiplication. + +**246.** The numerical measurement of distances has already been +partially explained in [Part III](#part3). It requires, as we saw, for +its full application, two further postulates, which, however, do not +belong to the definition of distances, but to certain kinds of distances +only. These are, the postulate of Archimedes: given any two distances of +a kind, there exists a finite integer n such that the nth power of the +first distance is greater than the second distance; and Du Bois +Reymond’s postulate of linearity: Any distance has an nth root, where +n is any integer (or any prime, whence the result follows for any +integer). When these two postulates are satisfied, we can find a meaning +for Rx, where R is a distance of the kind other than identity, and x is +any real number[\*](#fn254-1). Moreover, any distance of the kind is of +the form Rx, for some value of x. And x is, of course, the numerical +measure of the distance. + +In the case of series generated in the first of our six ways, the +various powers of the generating relation R give the distances of terms. +These various powers, as the reader can see for himself, verify all the +above characteristics of distances. In the case of series generated from +progressions as rationals or real numbers from integers, there are +always distances; thus in the case of the rationals themselves, which +are one-one relations, their differences, which are again rationals, +measure or indicate relations between them, and these relations are of +the nature of distances. And we shall see, in [Part V](#part5), that +these distances have some importance in connection with limits. For +numerical measurement in some form is essential to certain theorems +about limits, and the numerical measurement of distances is apt to be +more practically feasible than that of stretches. + +**247.** On the general question, however, whether series unconnected +with number—for instance spatial and temporal series—are such as to +contain distances, it is difficult to speak positively. Some things may +be said against this view. In the first place, there must be stretches, +and these must be magnitudes. It then becomes a sheer assumption—which +must be set up as an axiom—that equal stretches correspond to equal +distances. This may, of course, be denied, and we might even seek an +interpretation of non-Euclidean Geometry in the denial. We might regard +the usual coordinates as expressing stretches, and the logarithms of +their anharmonic ratios as expressing distances; hyperbolic Geometry, at +least, might thus find a somewhat curious interpretation. Herr Meinong, +who regards all series as containing distances, maintains an analogous +principle with regard to distance and stretch in general. The distance, +he thinks, increases only as the logarithm of the stretch. It may be +observed that, where the distance itself is a rational number (which is +possible, since rationals are one-one relations), the opposite theory +can be made formally convenient by the following fact. The square of a +distance, as we saw generally, is said to be twice as great as the +distance whose square it is. We might, where the distance is a rational, +say instead that the stretch is twice as great, but that the distance is +truly the square of the former distance. For where the distance is +already numerical, the usual interpretation of numerical measurement +conflicts with the notation R2. Thus we shall be compelled to regard the +stretch as proportional to the logarithm of the distance. But since, +outside the theory of progressions, it is usually doubtful whether there +are distances, and since, in almost all other series, stretches seem +adequate for all the results that are obtainable, the retention of +distance adds a complication for which, as a rule, no necessity appears. +It is therefore generally better, at least in a philosophy of +mathematics, to eschew distances except in the theory of progressions, +and to measure them, in that theory, merely by the indices of the powers +of the generating relation. There is no logical reason, so far as I +know, to suppose that there are distances elsewhere, except in a finite +space of two dimensions and in a projective space; and if there are, +they are not mathematically important. We shall see in [Part VI](#part6) +how the theory of space and time may be developed without presupposing +distance; the distances which appear in projective Geometry are +derivative relations, not required in defining the properties of our +space; and in [Part V](#part5) we shall see how few are the functions of +distance with regard to series in general. And as against distance it +may be remarked that, if every series must contain distances, an endless +regress becomes unavoidable, since every kind of distance is itself a +series. This is not, I think, a logical objection, since the regress is +of the logically permissible kind; but it shows that great complications +are introduced by regarding distances as essential to every series. On +the whole, then, it seems doubtful whether distances in general exist; +and if they do, their existence seems unimportant and a source of very +great complications. + +**248.** We have now completed our review of order, in so far as is +possible without introducing the difficulties of continuity and +infinity. We have seen that all order involves asymmetrical transitive +relations, and that every series as such is open. But closed series, we +found, could be distinguished by the mode of their generation, and by +the fact that, though they always have a first term, this term may +always be selected arbitrarily. We saw that asymmetrical relations must +be sometimes unanalyzable, and that when analyzable, other asymmetrical +relations must appear in the analysis. The difference of sign, we found, +depends always upon the difference between an asymmetrical relation and +its converse. In discussing the particular type of series which we +called progressions, we saw how all Arithmetic applies to every such +series, and how finite ordinals may be defined by means of them. But +though we found this theory to be to a certain extent independent of the +cardinals, we saw no reason to agree with Dedekind in regarding +cardinals as logically subsequent to ordinals. Finally, we agreed that +distance is a notion which is not essential to series, and of little +importance outside Arithmetic. With this equipment, we shall be able, I +hope, to dispose of all the difficulties which philosophers have usually +found in infinity and continuity. If this can be accomplished, one of +the greatest of philosophical problems will have been solved. To this +problem [Part V](#part5) is to be devoted. + +Notes + +# PART V. +INFINITY AND CONTINUITY. + +## CHAPTER XXXII. +The Correlation of Series. + +**249.** We come now to what has been generally considered the +fundamental problem of mathematical philosophy—I mean, the problem of +infinity and continuity. This problem has undergone, through the labours +of Weierstrass and Cantor, a complete transformation. Since the time of +Newton and Leibniz, the nature of infinity and continuity had been +sought in discussions of the so-called Infinitesimal Calculus. But it +has been shown that this Calculus is not, as a matter of fact, in any +way concerned with the infinitesimal, and that a large and most +important branch of mathematics is logically prior to it. The problem of +continuity, moreover, has been to a great extent separated from that of +infinity. It was formerly supposed—and herein lay the real strength of +Kant’s mathematical philosophy—that continuity had an essential +reference to space and time, and that the Calculus (as the word fluxion +suggests) in some way presupposed motion or at least change. In this +view, the philosophy of space and time was prior to that of continuity, +the Transcendental Aesthetic preceded the Transcendental Dialectic, and +the antinomies (at least the mathematical ones) were essentially +spatio-temporal. All this has been changed by modern mathematics. What +is called the arithmetization of mathematics has shown that all the +problems presented, in this respect, by space and time, are already +present in pure arithmetic. The theory of infinity has two forms, +cardinal and ordinal, of which the former springs from the logical +theory of number; the theory of continuity is purely ordinal. In the +theory of continuity and the ordinal theory of infinity, the problems +that arise are not specially concerned with numbers, but with all series +of certain types which occur in arithmetic and geometry alike. What +makes the problems in question peculiarly easy to deal with in the case +of numbers is, that the series of rationals, which is what I shall call +a compact series, arises from a progression, namely that of the +integers, and that this fact enables us to give a proper name to every +term of the series of rationals—a point in which this series differs +from others of the same type. But theorems of the kind which will occupy +us in most of the following chapters, though obtained in arithmetic, +have a far wider application, since they are purely ordinal, and involve +none of the logical properties of numbers. That is to say, the idea +which the Germans call Anzahl, the idea of the number of terms in some +class, is irrelevant, save only in the theory of transfinite +cardinals—an important but very distinct part of Cantor’s +contributions to the theory of infinity. We shall find it possible to +give a general definition of continuity, in which no appeal is made to +the mass of unanalyzed prejudice which Kantians call “intuition”; and in +[Part VI](#part6) we shall find that no other continuity is involved in +space and time. And we shall find that, by a strict adherence to the +doctrine of limits, it is possible to dispense entirely with the +infinitesimal, even in the definition of continuity and the foundations +of the Calculus. + +**250.** It is a singular fact that, in proportion as the infinitesimal +has been extruded from mathematics, the infinite has been allowed a +freer development. From Cantor’s work it appears that there are two +respects in which infinite numbers differ from those that are finite. +The first, which applies to both cardinals and ordinals, is, that they +do not obey mathematical induction—or rather, they do not form part of a +series of numbers beginning with 1 or 0, proceeding in order of +magnitude, containing all numbers intermediate in magnitude between any +two of its terms, and obeying mathematical induction. The second, which +applies only to cardinals, is, that a whole of an infinite number of +terms always contains a part consisting of the same number of terms. The +first respect constitutes the true definition of an infinite series, or +rather of what we may call an infinite term in a series: it gives the +essence of the ordinal infinite. The second gives the definition of an +infinite collection, and will doubtless be pronounced by the philosopher +to be plainly self-contradictory. But if he will condescend to attempt +to exhibit the contradiction, he will find that it can only be proved by +admitting mathematical induction, so that he has merely established a +connection with the ordinal infinite. Thus he will be compelled to +maintain that the denial of mathematical induction is +self-contradictory; and as he has probably reflected little, if at all, +on this subject, he will do well to examine the matter before +pronouncing judgment. And when it is admitted that mathematical +induction may be denied without contradiction, the supposed antinomies +of infinity and continuity one and all disappear. This I shall endeavour +to prove in detail in the following chapters. + +**251.** Throughout this Part we shall often have occasion for a notion +which has hitherto been scarcely mentioned, namely the correlation of +series. In the [preceding Part](#part4) we examined the nature of +isolated series, but we scarcely considered the relations between +different series. These relations, however, are of an importance which +philosophers have wholly overlooked, and mathematicians have but lately +realized. It has long been known how much could be done in Geometry by +means of homography, which is an example of correlation; and it has been +shown by Cantor how important it is to know whether a series is +denumerable, and how similar two series capable of correlation are. But +it is not usually pointed out that a dependent variable and its +independent variable are, in most mathematical cases, merely correlated +series, nor has the general idea of correlation been adequately dealt +with. In the present work only the philosophical aspects of the subject +are relevant. + +Two series s, s′ are said to be correlated when there is a one-one +relation R coupling every term of s with a term of s′, and vice versâ, +and when, if x, y be terms of s, and x precedes y, then their correlates +x′, y′ in s′ are such that x′ precedes y′. Two classes or collections +are correlated whenever there is a one-one relation between the terms of +the one and the terms of the other, none being left over. Thus two +series may be correlated as classes without being correlated as series; +for correlation as classes involves only the same cardinal number, +whereas correlation as series involves also the same ordinal type—a +distinction whose importance will be explained hereafter. In order to +distinguish these cases, it will be well to speak of the correlation of +classes as correlation simply, and of the correlation of series as +ordinal correlation. Thus whenever correlation is mentioned without an +adjective, it is to be understood as being not necessarily ordinal. +Correlated classes will be called similar; correlated series will be +called ordinally similar; and their generating relations will be said to +have the relation of likeness. + +Correlation is a method by which, when one series is given, others may +be generated. If there be any series whose generating relation is P, and +any one-one relation which holds between any term x of the series and +some term which we may call xR, then the class of terms xR, will form a +series of the same type as the class of terms x. For suppose y to be any +other term of our original series, and assume xPy. Then we have xR˘Rx, +xPy, and yRyR. Hence xR˘RPRyR. Now it may be shown[\*](#fn261-1) that, +if P be transitive and asymmetrical, so is ˘RPR; hence the correlates of +terms of the P-series form a series whose generating relation is ˘RPR. +Between these two series there is ordinal correlation, and the series +have complete ordinal similarity. In this way a new series, similar to +the original one, is generated by any one-one relation whose field +includes the original series. It can also be shown that, conversely, if +P, P′ be the generating relations of two similar series, there is a +one-one relation R, whose domain is the field of P, which is such that +P′ = ˘RPR. + +**252.** We can now understand a distinction of great importance, namely +that between self-sufficient or independent series, and series by +correlation. In the case just explained there is perfect mathematical +symmetry between the original series and the series by correlation; for, +if we denote by Q the relation ˘RPR, we shall find P = RQ˘R. Thus we may +take either the Q-series or the P-series as the original, and regard the +other as derivative. But if it should happen that R, instead of being +one-one, is many-one, the terms of the field of Q, which we will call q, +will have an order in which there is repetition, the same term occurring +in different positions corresponding to its different correlates in the +field of P, which we will call p. This is the ordinary case of +mathematical functions which are not linear. It is owing to +preoccupation with such series that most mathematicians fail to realize +the impossibility, in an independent series, of any recurrence of the +same term. In every sentence of print, for example, the letters acquire +an order by correlation with the points of space, and the same letter +will be repeated in different positions. Here the series of letters is +essentially derivative, for we cannot order the points of space by +relation to the letters: this would give us several points in the same +position, instead of one letter in several positions. In fact, if P be a +serial relation, and R be a many-one relation whose domain is the field +of P, and Q = ˘RPR, then Q has all the characteristics of a serial +relation except that of implying diversity; but RQ˘R is not equivalent +to P, and thus there is a lack of symmetry. It is for this reason that +inverse functions in mathematics, such as sin−1 x, are genuinely +distinct from direct functions, and require some device or convention +before they become unambiguous. Series obtained from a many-one +correlation as q was obtained above will be called series by +correlation. They are not genuine series, and it is highly important to +eliminate them from discussions of fundamental points. + +**253.** The notion of likeness corresponds, among relations, to +similarity among classes. It is defined as follows: Two relations P, Q +are like when there is a one-one relation S such that the domain of S is +the field of P, and Q = ˘SPS. This notion is not confined to serial +relations, but may be extended to all relations. We may define the +relation-number of a relation P as the class of all relations that are +like P; and we can proceed to a very general subject which may be called +relation-arithmetic. Concerning relation-numbers we can prove those of +the formal laws of addition and multiplication that hold for transfinite +ordinals, and thus obtain an extension of a part of ordinal arithmetic +to relations in general. By means of likeness we can define a finite +relation as one which is not like any proper part of itself—a proper +part of a relation being a relation which implies it but is not +equivalent to it. In this way we can completely emancipate ourselves +from cardinal arithmetic. Moreover the properties of likeness are in +themselves interesting and important. One curious property is that, if S +be one-one and have the field of P for its domain, the above equation Q += ˘SPS is equivalent to SQ = PS or to Q˘S = ˘SP[\*](#fn263-1). + +**254.** Since the correlation of series constitutes most of the +mathematical examples of functions, and since function is a notion which +is not often clearly explained, it will be well at this point to say +something concerning the nature of this notion. In its most general +form, functionality does not differ from relation. For the present +purpose it will be well to recall two technical terms, which were +defined in [Part I](#part1). If x has a certain relation to y, I shall +call x the referent, and y the relatum, with regard to the relation in +question. If now x be defined as belonging to some class contained in +the domain of the relation, then the relation defines y as a function of +x. That is to say, an independent variable is constituted by a +collection of terms, each of which can be referent in regard to a +certain relation. Then each of these terms has one or more relata, and +any one of these is a certain function of its referent, the function +being defined by the relation. Thus father defines a function, provided +the independent variable be a class contained in that of male animals +who have or will have propagated their kind; and if A be the father of +B, B is said to be a function of A. What is essential is an independent +variable, i.e. any term of some class, and a relation whose extension +includes the variable. Then the referent is the independent variable, +and its function is any one of the corresponding relata. + +But this most general idea of a function is of little use in +mathematics. There are two principal ways of particularizing the +function: first, we may confine the relations to be considered to such +as are one-one or many-one, i.e. such as give to every referent a unique +relatum; secondly, we may confine the independent variable to series. +The second particularization is very important, and is specially +relevant to our present topics. But as it almost wholly excludes +functions from Symbolic Logic, where series have little importance, we +may as well postpone it for a moment while we consider the first +particularization alone. + +The idea of function is so important, and has been so often considered +with exclusive reference to numbers, that it is well to fill our minds +with instances of non-numerical functions. Thus a very important class +of functions are propositions containing a variable[†](#fn263-2) . Let +there be some proposition in which the phrase “any a” occurs, where a is +some class. Then in place of “any a” we may put x, where x is an +undefined member of the class a—in other words, any a. The proposition +then becomes a function of x, which is unique when x is given. This +proposition will, in general, be true for some values of x and false for +others. The values for which the function is true form what might be +called, by analogy with Analytic Geometry, a logical curve. This general +view may, in fact, be made to include that of Analytic Geometry. The +equation of a plane curve, for example, is a propositional function +which is a function of two variables x and y, and the curve is the +assemblage of points which give to the variables values that make the +proposition true. A proposition containing the word any is the assertion +that a certain propositional function is true for all values of the +variable for which it is significant. Thus “any man is mortal” asserts +that “x is a man implies x is a mortal” is true for all values of x for +which it is significant, which may be called the admissible values. +Propositional functions, such as “x is a number,” have the peculiarity +that they look like propositions, and seem capable of implying other +propositional functions, while yet they are neither true nor false. The +fact is, they are propositions for all admissible values of the +variable, but not while the variable remains a variable, whose value is +not assigned; and although they may, for every admissible value of the +variable, imply the corresponding value of some other propositional +function, yet while the variable remains as a variable they can imply +nothing. The question concerning the nature of a propositional function +as opposed to a proposition, and generally of a function as opposed to +its values, is a difficult one, which can only be solved by an analysis +of the nature of the variable. It is important, however, to observe that +propositional functions, as was shown in [Chapter vii](#chapter7), are +more fundamental than other functions, or even than relations. For most +purposes, it is convenient to identify the function and the relation, +i.e., if y = f(x) is equivalent to xRy, where R is a relation, it is +convenient to speak of R as the function, and this will be done in what +follows; the reader, however, should remember that the idea of +functionality is more fundamental than that of relation. But the +investigation of these points has been already undertaken in [Part +I](#part1), and enough has been said to illustrate how a proposition may +be a function of a variable. + +Other instances of non-numerical functions are afforded by dictionaries. +The French for a word is a function of the English, and vice versâ, and +both are functions of the term which both designate. The press-mark of a +book in a library catalogue is a function of the book, and a number in a +cipher is a function of the word for which it stands. In all these cases +there is a relation by which the relatum becomes unique (or, in the case +of languages, generally unique) when the referent is given; but the +terms of the independent variable do not form a series, except in the +purely external order resulting from the alphabet. + +**255.** Let us now introduce the second specification, that our +independent variable is to be a series. The dependent variable is then a +series by correlation, and may be also an independent series. For +example, the positions occupied by a material point at a series of +instants form a series by correlation with the instants, of which they +are a function; but in virtue of the continuity of motion, they also +form, as a rule, a geometrical series independent of all reference to +time. Thus motion affords an admirable example of the correlation of +series. At the same time it illustrates a most important mark by which, +when it is present, we can tell that a series is not independent. When +the time is known, the position of a material particle is uniquely +determined; but when the position is given, there may be several +moments, or even an infinite number of them, corresponding to the given +position. (There will be an infinite number of such moments if, as is +commonly said, the particle has been at rest in the position in +question. Rest is a loose and ambiguous expression, but I defer its +consideration to [Part VII](#part7).) Thus the relation of the time to +the position is not strictly one-one, but may be many-one. This was a +case considered in our general account of correlation, as giving rise to +dependent series. We inferred, it will be remembered, that two +correlated independent series are mathematically on the same level, +because if P, Q be their generating relations, and R the correlating +relation, we infer P = RQ˘R from Q = ˘RPR. But this inference fails as +soon as R is not strictly one-one, since then we no longer have R˘R +contained in 1’, where 1’ means identity. For example, my father’s son +need not be myself, though my son’s father must be. This illustrates the +fact that, if R be a many-one relation, R˘R and ˘RR must be carefully +distinguished: the latter is contained in identity, but not the former. +Hence whenever R is a many-one relation, it may be used to form a series +by correlation, but the series so formed cannot be independent. This is +an important point, which is absolutely fatal to the relational theory +of time[\*](#fn265-1). For the present let us return to the case of +motion. When a particle describes a closed curve, or one which has +double points, or when the particle is sometimes at rest during a finite +time, then the series of points which it occupies is essentially a +series by correlation, not an independent series. But, as I remarked +above, a curve is not only obtainable by motion, but is also a purely +geometrical figure, which can be defined without reference to any +supposed material point. When, however, a curve is so defined, it must +not contain points of rest: the path of a material point which sometimes +moves, but is sometimes at rest for a finite time, is different when +considered kinematically and when considered geometrically; for +geometrically the point in which there is rest is one, whereas +kinematically it corresponds to many terms in the series. + +The above discussion of motion illustrates, in a non-numerical instance, +a case which normally occurs among the functions of pure mathematics. +These functions (when they are functions of a real variable) usually +fulfil the following conditions: Both the independent and the dependent +variable are classes of numbers, and the defining relation of the +function is many-one[\*](#fn266-1). This case covers rational functions, +circular and elliptic functions of a real variable, and the great +majority of the direct functions of pure mathematics. In all such cases, +the independent variable is a series of numbers, which may be restricted +in any way we please—to positive numbers, rationals, integers, primes, +or any other class. The dependent variable consists also of numbers, but +the order of these numbers is determined by their relation to the +corresponding term of the independent variable, not by that of the +numbers forming the dependent variable themselves. In a large class of +functions the two orders happen to coincide; in others, again, where +there are maxima and minima at finite intervals, the two orders coincide +throughout a finite stretch, then they become exactly opposite +throughout another finite stretch, and so on. If x be the independent +variable, y the dependent variable, and the constitutive relation be +many-one, the same number y will, in general, be a function of, i.e. +correspond to, several numbers x. Hence the y-series is essentially by +correlation, and cannot be taken as an independent series. If, then, we +wish to consider the inverse function, which is defined by the converse +relation, we need certain devices if we are still to have correlation of +series. One of these, which seems the most important, consists in +dividing the values of x corresponding to the same value of y into +classes, so that (what may happen) we can distinguish (say) n different +x’s, each of which has a distinct one-one relation to y, and is +therefore simply reversible. This is the usual course, for example, in +distinguishing positive and negative square roots. It is possible +wherever the generating relation of our original function is formally +capable of exhibition as a disjunction of one-one relations. It is plain +that the disjunctive relation formed of n one-one relations, each of +which contains in its domain a certain class u, will, throughout the +class u, be an n-one relation. Thus it may happen that the independent +variable can be divided into n classes, within each of which the +defining relation is one-one, i.e. within each of which there is only +one x having the defining relation to a given y. In such cases, which +are usual in pure mathematics, our many-one relation can be made into a +disjunction of one-one relations, each of which separately is +reversible. In the case of complex functions, this is, mutatis mutandis, +the method of Riemann surfaces. But it must be clearly remembered that, +where our function is not naturally one-one, the y which appears as +dependent variable is ordinally distinct from the y which appears as +independent variable in the inverse function. + +The above remarks, which will receive illustration as we proceed, have +shown, I hope, how intimately the correlation of series is associated +with the usual mathematical employment of functions. Many other cases of +the importance of correlation will meet us as we proceed. It may be +observed that every denumerable class is related by a one-valued +function to the finite integers, and vice versâ. As ordered by +correlation with the integers, such a class becomes a series having the +type of order which Cantor calls ω. The fundamental importance of +correlation to Cantor’s theory of transfinite numbers will appear when +we come to the definition of the transfinite ordinals. + +**256.** In connection with functions, it seems desirable to say +something concerning the necessity of a formula for definition. A +function was originally, after it had ceased to be merely a power, +essentially something that could be expressed by a formula. It was usual +to start with some expression containing a variable x, and to say +nothing to begin with as to what x was to be, beyond a usually tacit +assumption that x was some kind of number. Any further limitations upon +x were derived, if at all, from the formula itself; and it was mainly +the desire to remove such limitations which led to the various +generalizations of number. This algebraical generalization[\*](#fn267-1) +has now been superseded by a more ordinal treatment, in which all +classes of numbers are defined by means of the integers, and formulae +are not relevant to the process. Nevertheless, for the use of functions, +where both the independent and the dependent variables are infinite +classes, the formula has a certain importance. Let us see what is its +definition. + +A formula, in its most general sense, is a proposition, or more properly +a propositional function, containing one or more variables, a variable +being any term of some defined class, or even any term without +restriction. The kind of formula which is relevant in connection with +functions of a single variable is a formula containing two variables. If +both variables are defined, say one as belonging to the class u, the +other as belonging to the class v, the formula is true or false. It is +true if every u has to every v the relation expressed by the formula; +otherwise it is false. But if one of the variables, say x, be defined as +belonging to the class u, while the other, y, is only defined by the +formula, then the formula may be regarded as defining y as a function of +x. Let us call the formula Pxy. If in the class u there are terms x such +that there is no term y which makes Pxy a true proposition, then the +formula, as regards those terms, is impossible. We must therefore assume +that u is a class every term of which will, for a suitable value of y, +make the proposition Pxy true. If, then, for every term x of u, there +are some entities y, which make Pxy true, and others which do not do so, +then Pxy correlates to every x a certain class of terms y. In this way y +is defined as a function of x. + +But the usual meaning of formula in mathematics involves another +element, which may also be expressed by the word law. It is difficult to +say precisely what this element is, but it seems to consist in a certain +degree of intensional simplicity of the proposition Pxy. In the case of +two languages, for example, it would be said that there is no formula +connecting them, except in such cases as Grimm’s law. Apart from the +dictionary, the relation which correlates words in different languages +is sameness of meaning; but this gives no method by which, given a word +in one language, we can infer the corresponding word in the other. What +is absent is the possibility of calculation. A formula, on the other +hand (say y = 2x), gives the means, when we know x, of discovering y. In +the case of languages, only enumeration of all pairs will define the +dependent variable. In the case of an algebraical formula, the +independent variable and the relation enable us to know all about the +dependent variable. If functions are to extend to infinite classes, this +state of things is essential, for enumeration has become impossible. It +is therefore essential to the correlation of infinite classes, and to +the study of functions of infinite classes, that the formula Pxy should +be one in which, given x, the class of terms y satisfying the formula +should be one which we can discover. I am unable to give a logical +account of this condition, and I suspect it of being purely +psychological. Its practical importance is great, but its theoretical +importance seems highly doubtful. + +There is, however, a logical condition connected with the above, though +perhaps not quite identical with it. Given any two terms, there is some +relation which holds between those two terms and no others. It follows +that, given any two classes of terms u, v, there is a disjunctive +relation which any one term of u has to at least one term of v, and +which no term not belonging to u has to any term. By this method, when +two classes are both finite, we can carry out a correlation (which may +be one-one, many-one, or one-many) which correlates terms of these +classes and no others. In this way any set of terms is theoretically a +function of any other; and it is only thus, for example, that diplomatic +ciphers are made up. But if the number of terms in the class +constituting the independent variable be infinite, we cannot in this way +practically define a function, unless the disjunctive relation consists +of relations developed one from the other by a law, in which case the +formula is merely transferred to the relation. This amounts to saying +that the defining relation of a function must not be infinitely complex, +or, if it be so, must be itself a function defined by some relation of +finite complexity. This condition, though it is itself logical, has +again, I think, only psychological necessity, in virtue of which we can +only master the infinite by means of a law of order. The discussion of +this point, however, would involve a discussion of the relation of +infinity to order—a question which will be resumed later, but which we +are not yet in a position to treat intelligently. In any case, we may +say that a formula containing two variables and defining a function +must, if it is to be practically useful, give a relation between the two +variables by which, when one of them is given, all the corresponding +values of the other can be found; and this seems to constitute the +mathematical essence of all formulae. + +**257.** There remains an entirely distinct logical notion of much +importance in connection with limits, namely the notion of a complete +series. If R be the defining relation of a series, the series is +complete when there is a term x belonging to the series, such that every +other term which has to x either the relation R or the relation ˘R +belongs to the series. It is connected (as was explained in [Part +IV](#part4)) when no other terms belong to the series. Thus a complete +series consists of those terms, and only those terms, which have the +generating relation or its converse to some one term, together with that +one term. Since the generating relation is transitive, a series which +fulfils this condition for one of its terms fulfils it for all of them. +A series which is connected but not complete will be called incomplete +or partial. Instances of complete series are the cardinal integers, the +positive and negative integers and zero, the rational numbers, the +moments of time, or the points on a straight line. Any selection from +such a series is incomplete with respect to the generating relations of +the above complete series. Thus the positive numbers are an incomplete +series, and so are the rationals between 0 and 1. When a series is +complete, no term can come before or after any term of the series +without belonging to the series; when the series is incomplete, this is +no longer the case. A series may be complete with respect to one +generating relation, but not with respect to another. Thus the finite +integers are a complete series when the series is defined by powers of +the relation of consecutiveness, as in the discussion of progressions in +[Part IV](#part4); but when they are ordered by correlation with whole +and part, they form only part of the series of finite and transfinite +integers, as we shall see hereafter. A complete series may be regarded +as the extension of a term with respect to a given relation, together +with this term itself; and owing to this fact it has, as we shall find, +some important differences from ordinally similar incomplete series. But +it can be shown, by the Logic of Relations, that any incomplete series +can be rendered complete by a change in the generating relation, and +vice versâ. The distinction between complete and incomplete series is, +therefore, essentially relative to a given generating relation. + +Notes + +## CHAPTER XXXIII. +Real Numbers. + +**258.** The philosopher may be surprised, after all that has already +been said concerning numbers, to find that he is only now to learn about +real numbers; and his surprise will be turned to horror when he learns +that real is opposed to rational. But he will be relieved to learn that +real numbers are really not numbers at all, but something quite +different. + +The series of real numbers, as ordinarily defined, consists of the whole +assemblage of rational and irrational numbers, the irrationals being +defined as the limits of such series of rationals as have neither a +rational nor an infinite limit. This definition, however, introduces +grave difficulties, which will be considered in the [next +chapter](#chapter34). For my part I see no reason whatever to suppose +that there are any irrational numbers in the above sense; and if there +are any, it seems certain that they cannot be greater or less than +rational numbers. When mathematicians have effected a generalization of +number they are apt to be unduly modest about it—they think that the +difference between the generalized and the original notions is less than +it really is. We have already seen that the finite cardinals are not to +be identified with the positive integers, nor yet with the ratios of the +natural numbers to 1, both of which express relations, which the natural +numbers do not. In like manner there is a real number associated with +every rational number, but distinct from it. A real number, so I shall +contend, is nothing but a certain class of rational numbers. Thus the +class of rationals less than ½ is a real number, associated with, but +obviously not identical with, the rational number ½. This theory is not, +so far as I know, explicitly advocated by any other author, though Peano +suggests it, and Cantor comes very near to it[\*](#fn270-1). My grounds +in favour of this opinion are, first, that such classes of rationals +have all the mathematical properties commonly assigned to real numbers, +secondly, that the opposite theory presents logical difficulties which +appear to me insuperable. The second point will be discussed in the +[next chapter](#chapter34); for the present I shall merely expound my +own view, and endeavour to show that real numbers, so understood, have +all the requisite characteristics. It will be observed that the +following theory is independent of the doctrine of limits, which will +only be introduced in the [next chapter](#chapter34). + +**259.** The rational numbers in order of magnitude form a series in +which there is a term between any two. Such series, which in [Part +III](#part3) we provisionally called continuous, must now receive +another name, since we shall have to reserve the word continuous for the +sense which Cantor has given to it. I propose to call such series +compact[\*](#fn271-1). The rational numbers, then, form a compact +series. It is to be observed that, in a compact series, there are an +infinite number of terms between any two, there are no consecutive +terms, and the stretch between any two terms (whether these be included +or not) is again a compact series. If now we consider any one rational +number[†](#fn271-2), say r, we can define, by relation to r, four +infinite classes of rationals: (1) those less than r, (2) those not +greater than r, (3) those greater than r, (4) those not less than r. (2) +and (4) differ from (1) and (3) respectively solely by the fact that the +former contain r, while the latter do not. But this fact leads to +curious differences of properties. (2) has a last term, while (1) has +none; (1) is identical with the class of rational numbers less than a +variable term of (1), while (2) does not have this characteristic. +Similar remarks apply to (3) and (4), but these two classes have less +importance in the present case than in (1) and (2). Classes of rationals +having the properties of (1) are called segments. A segment of rationals +may be defined as a class of rationals which is not null, nor yet +coextensive with the rationals themselves (i.e. which contains some but +not all rationals), and which is identical with the class of rationals +less than a (variable) term of itself, i.e. with the class of rationals +x such that there is a rational y of the said class such that x is less +than y[‡](#fn271-3). Now we shall find that segments are obtained by the +above method, not only from single rationals, but also from finite or +infinite classes of rationals, with the proviso, for infinite classes, +that there must be some rational greater than any member of the class. +This is very simply done as follows. + +Let u be any finite or infinite class of rationals. Then four classes +may be defined by relation to u[§](#fn271-4), namely (1) those less than +every u, (2) those less than a variable u, (3) those greater than every +u, (4) those greater than a variable u, i.e. those such that for each a +term of u can be found which is smaller than it. If u be a finite class, +it must have a maximum and a minimum term; in this case the former alone +is relevant to (2) and (3), the latter alone to (1) and (4). Thus this +case is reduced to the former, in which we had only a single rational. I +shall therefore assume in future that u is an infinite class, and +further, to prevent reduction to our former case, I shall assume, in +considering (2) and (3), that u has no maximum, that is, that every term +of u is less than some other term of u; and in considering (1) and (4), +I shall assume that u has no minimum. For the present I confine myself +to (2) and (3), and I assume, in addition to the absence of a maximum, +the existence of rationals greater than any u, that is, the existence of +the class (3). Under these circumstances, the class (2) will be a +segment. For (2) consists of all rationals which are less than a +variable u; hence, in the first place, since u has no maximum, (2) +contains the whole of u. In the second place, since every term of (2) is +less than some u, which in turn belongs to (2), every term of (2) is +less than some other term of (2); and every term less than some term of +(2) is a fortiori less than some u, and is therefore a term of (2). +Hence (2) is identical with the class of terms less than some term of +(2), and is therefore a segment. + +Thus we have the following conclusion: If u be a single rational, or a +class of rationals all of which are less than some fixed rational, then +the rationals less than u, if u be a single term, or less than a +variable term of u, if u be a class of terms, always form a segment of +rationals. My contention is, that a segment of rationals is a real +number. + +**260.** So far, the method employed has been one which may be employed +in any compact series. In what follows, some of the theorems will depend +upon the fact that the rationals are a denumerable series. I leave for +the present the disentangling of the theorems dependent upon this fact, +and proceed to the properties of segments of rationals. + +Some segments, as we have seen, consist of the rationals less than some +given rational. Some, it will be found, though not so defined, are +nevertheless capable of being so defined. For example, the rationals +less than a variable term of the series ·9, ·99, ·999, etc., are the +same as the rationals less than 1. But other segments, which correspond +to what are usually called irrationals, are incapable of any such +definition. How this fact has led to irrationals we shall see in the +[next chapter](#chapter34). For the present I merely wish to point out +the well-known fact that segments are not capable of a one-one +correlation with rationals. There are classes of rationals defined as +being composed of all terms less than a variable term of an infinite +class of rationals, which are not definable as all the rationals less +than some one definite rational[\*](#fn272-1). Moreover there are more +segments than rationals, and hence the series of segments has continuity +of a higher order than the rationals. Segments form a series in virtue +of the relation of whole and part, or of logical inclusion (excluding +identity). Any two segments are such that one of them is wholly +contained in the other, and in virtue of this fact they form a series. +It can be easily shown that they form a compact series. What is more +remarkable is this: if we apply the above process to the series of +segments, forming segments of segments by reference to classes of +segments, we find that every segment of segments can be defined as all +segments contained in a certain definite segment. Thus the segment of +segments defined by a class of segments is always identical with the +segment of segments defined by some one segment. Also every segment +defines a segment of segments which can be defined by an infinite class +of segments. These two properties render the series of segments perfect, +in Cantor’s language; but the explanation of this term must be left till +we come to the doctrine of limits. + +We might have defined our segments as all rationals greater than some +term of a class u of rationals. If we had done this, and inserted the +conditions that u was to have no minimum, and that there were to be +rationals less than every u, we should have obtained what may be called +upper segments, as distinguished from the former kind, which may be +called lower segments. We should then have found that, corresponding to +every upper segment, there is a lower segment which contains all +rationals not contained in the upper segment, with the occasional +exception of a single rational. There will be one rational not belonging +to either the upper or the lower segment, when the upper segment can be +defined as all rationals greater than a single rational. In this case, +the corresponding lower segment will consist of all rationals less than +this single rational, which will itself belong to neither segment. Since +there is a rational between any two, the class of rationals not greater +than a given rational cannot ever be identical with the class of +rationals less than some other; and a class of rationals having a +maximum can never be a segment. Hence it is impossible, in the case in +question, to find a lower segment containing all the rationals not +belonging to the given upper segment. But when the upper segment cannot +be defined by a single rational, it will always be possible to find a +lower segment containing all rationals not belonging to the upper +segment. + +Zero and infinity may be introduced as limiting cases of segments, but +in the case of zero the segment must be of the kind which we called (1) +above, not of the kind (2) hitherto discussed. It is easy to construct a +class of rationals such that some term of the class will be less than +any given rational. In this case, the class (1) will contain no terms, +and will be the null-class. This is the real number zero, which, +however, is not a segment, since a segment was defined as a class which +is not null. In order to introduce zero as a class of the kind which we +called (2), we should have to start with a null class of rationals. No +rational is less than a term of a null class of rationals, and thus the +class (2), in such a case, is null. Similarly the real number infinity +may be introduced. This is identical with the whole class of rationals. +If we have any class u of rationals such that no rational is greater +than all u’s, then every rational is contained in the class of rationals +less than some u. Or again, if we have a class of rationals of which a +term is less than any assigned rational, the resulting class (4) (of +terms greater than some u) will contain every rational, and will thus be +the real number infinity. Thus both zero and infinity may be introduced +as extreme terms among the real numbers, but neither is a segment +according to the definition. + +**261.** A given segment may be defined by many different classes of +rationals. Two such classes u and v may be regarded as having the +segment as a common property. Two infinite classes u and v will define +the same lower segment if, given any u, there is a v greater than it, +and given any v, there is a u greater than it. If each class has no +maximum, this is also a necessary condition. The classes u and v are +then what Cantor calls coherent (zusammengehörig). It can be shown, +without considering segments, that the relation of being coherent is +symmetrical and transitive[\*](#fn274-1), whence we should infer, by the +principle of abstraction, that both have to some third term a common +relation which neither has to any other term. This third term, as we see +from the preceding discussion, may be taken to be the segment which both +define. We may extend the word coherent to two classes u and v, of which +one defines an upper segment, the other a lower segment, which between +them include all rationals with at most one exception. Similar remarks, +mutatis mutandis, will still apply in this case. + +We have now seen that the usual properties of real numbers belong to +segments of rationals. There is therefore no mathematical reason for +distinguishing such segments from real numbers. It remains to set forth, +first the nature of a limit, then the current theories of irrationals, +and then the objections which make the above theory seem preferable. + +Note. The above theory is virtually contained in Professor Peano’s +article already referred to (“Sui Numeri Irrazionali,” Rivista di +Matematica, vi, pp. 126–140), and it was from this article, as well as +from the Formulaire de Mathématiques, that I was led to adopt the +theory. In this article, separate definitions of real numbers (§2, No. +5) and of segments (§8, ·0) are given, which makes it seem as though the +two were distinguished. But after the definition of segments, we find +the remark (p. 133): “Segments so defined differ only in nomenclature +from real numbers.” Professor Peano proceeds first to give purely +technical reasons for distinguishing the two by the notation, namely +that the addition, subtraction, etc. of real numbers is to be +differently conducted from analogous operations which are to be +performed on segments. Hence it would appear that the whole of the view +I have advocated is contained in this article. At the same time, there +is some lack of clearness, since it appears from the definition of real +numbers that they are regarded as the limits of classes of rationals, +whereas a segment is in no sense a limit of a class of rationals. Also +it is nowhere suggested—indeed, from the definition of real numbers the +opposite is to be inferred—that no real number can be a rational, and no +rational can be a real number. And this appears where he points out (p. +134) that 1 differs from the class of proper fractions (which is no +longer the case as regards the real number 1, when this is distinguished +both from the integer 1 and from the rational number 1 : 1), or that we +say 1 is less than √2, (in which case, I should say, 1 must be +interpreted as the class of proper fractions, and the assertion must be +taken to mean: the proper fractions are some, but not all, of the +rationals whose square is less than 2). And again he says (ib.): “The +real number, although determined by, and determining, a segment u, is +commonly regarded as the extremity, or end, or upper limit, of the +segment”; whereas there is no reason to suppose that segments not having +a rational limit have a limit at all. Thus although he confesses (ib.) +that a complete theory of irrationals can be constructed by means of +segments, he does not seem to perceive the reasons (which will be given +in the [next chapter](#chapter34)) why this must be done—reasons which, +in fact, are rather philosophical than mathematical. + +Notes + +## CHAPTER XXXIV. +Limits and Irrational Numbers. + +**262.** The mathematical treatment of continuity rests wholly upon the +doctrine of limits. It has been thought by some mathematicians and some +philosophers that this doctrine had been superseded by the Infinitesimal +Calculus, and that this has shown true infinitesimals to be presupposed +in limits[\*](#fn276-1). But modern mathematics has shown, conclusively +as it seems to me, that such a view is erroneous. The method of limits +has more and more emerged as fundamental. In this Chapter, I shall first +set forth the general definition of a limit, and then examine its +application to the creation of irrationals. + +A compact series we defined as one in which there is a term between any +two. But in such a series it is always possible to find two classes of +terms which have no term between them, and it is always possible to +reduce one of these classes to a single term. For example, if P be the +generating relation and x any term of the series, then the class of +terms having to x the relation P is one between which and x there is no +term[†](#fn276-2). The class of terms so defined is one of the two +segments determined by x; the idea of a segment is one which demands +only a series in general, not necessarily a numerical series. In this +case, if the series be compact, x is said to be the limit of the class; +when there is such a term as x, the segment is said to be terminated, +and thus every terminated segment in a compact series has its defining +term as a limit. But this does not constitute a definition of a limit. +To obtain the general definition of a limit, consider any class u +contained in the series generated by P. Then the class u will in +general, with respect to any term x not belonging to it, be divisible +into two classes, that whose terms have to x the relation P (which I +shall call the class of terms preceding x), and that whose terms have to +x the relation ˘P (which I shall call the class of terms following x). +If x be itself a term of u, we consider all the terms of u other than x, +and these are still divisible into the above two classes, which we may +call πwx and ˘πwx respectively. If, now, πwx be such that, if y be any +term preceding x, there is a term of πwx following y, i.e. between x and +y, then x is a limit of πwx. Similarly if ˘πwx be such that, if z be any +term after x, there is a term of ˘πwx between x and z, then x is a limit +of ˘πwx. We now define that x is a limit of u if it is a limit of either +πwx or ˘πwx. It is to be observed that u may have many limits, and that +all the limits together form a new class contained in the series +generated by P. This is the class (or rather this, by the help of +certain further assumptions, becomes the class) which Cantor designates +as the first derivative of the class u. + +**263.** Before proceeding further, it may be well to make some general +remarks of an elementary character on the subject of limits. In the +first place, limits belong usually to classes contained in compact +series—classes which may, as an extreme case, be identical with the +compact series in question. In the second place, a limit may or may not +belong to the class u of which it is a limit, but it always belongs to +some series in which u is contained, and if it is a term of u, it is +still a limit of the class consisting of all terms of u except itself. +In the third place, no class can have a limit unless it contains an +infinite number of terms. For, to revert to our former division, if u be +finite, πwx and ˘πwx will both be finite. Hence each of them will have a +term nearest to x, and between this term and x no term of u will lie. +Hence x is not a limit of u; and since x is any term of the series, u +will have no limits at all. It is common to add a theorem that every +infinite class, provided its terms are all contained between two +specified terms of the series generated by P, must have at least one +limit; but this theorem, we shall find, demands an interpretation in +terms of segments, and is not true as it stands. In the fourth place, if +u be co-extensive with the whole compact series generated by P, then +every term of this series is a limit of u. There can be no other terms +that are limits in the same sense, since limits have only been defined +in relation to this compact series. To obtain other limits, we should +have to regard the series generated by P as forming part of some other +compact series—a case which, as we shall see, may arise. In any case, if +u be any compact series, every term of u is a limit of u; whether u has +also other limits, depends upon further circumstances. A limit may be +defined generally as a term which immediately follows (or precedes) some +class of terms belonging to an infinite series, without immediately +following (or preceding, as the case may be) any one term of the series. +In this way, we shall find, limits may be defined generally in all +infinite series which are not progressions—as, for instance, in the +series of finite and transfinite integers. + +**264.** We may now proceed to the various arithmetical theories of +irrationals, all of which depend upon limits. We shall find that, in the +exact form in which they have been given by their inventors, they all +involve an axiom, for which there are no arguments, either of +philosophical necessity or of mathematical convenience; to which there +are grave logical objections; and of which the theory of real numbers +given in the [preceding Chapter](#chapter33) is wholly independent. + +Arithmetical theories of irrationals could not be treated in [Part +II](#part2), since they depend essentially upon the notion of order. It +is only by means of them that numbers become continuous in the sense now +usual among mathematicians; and we shall find in [Part VI](#part6) that +no other sense of continuity is required for space and time. It is very +important to realize the logical reasons for which an arithmetical +theory of irrationals is imperatively necessary. In the past, the +definition of irrationals was commonly effected by geometrical +considerations. This procedure was, however, highly illogical; for if +the application of numbers to space is to yield anything but +tautologies, the numbers applied must be independently defined; and if +none but a geometrical definition were possible, there would be, +properly speaking, no such arithmetical entities as the definition +pretended to define. The algebraical definition, in which irrationals +were introduced as the roots of algebraic equations having no rational +roots, was liable to similar objections, since it remained to be shown +that such equations have roots; moreover this method will only yield the +so-called algebraic numbers, which are an infinitesimal proportion of +the real numbers, and do not have continuity in Cantor’s sense, or in +the sense required by Geometry. And in any case, if it is possible, +without any further assumption, to pass from Arithmetic to Analysis, +from rationals to irrationals, it is a logical advance to show how this +can be done. The generalizations of number—with the exception of the +introduction of imaginaries, which must be independently effected—are +all necessary consequences of the admission that the natural numbers +form a progression. In every progression the terms have two kinds of +relations, the one constituting the general analogue of positive and +negative integers, the other that of rational numbers. The rational +numbers form a denumerable compact series; and segments of a denumerable +compact series, as we saw in the [preceding Chapter](#chapter33), form a +series which is continuous in the strictest sense. Thus all follows from +the assumption of a progression. But in the present Chapter we have to +examine irrationals as based on limits; and in this sense, we shall find +that they do not follow without a new assumption. + +There are several somewhat similar theories of irrational numbers. I +will begin with that of Dedekind[\*](#fn278-1). + +**265.** Although rational numbers are such that, between any two, there +is always a third, yet there are many ways of dividing all rational +numbers into two classes, such that all numbers of one class come after +all numbers of the other class, and no rational number lies between the +two classes, while yet the first class has no first term and the second +has no last term. For example, all rational numbers, without exception, +may be classified according as their squares are greater or less than 2. +All the terms of both classes may be arranged in a single series, in +which there exists a definite section, before which comes one of the +classes, and after which comes the other. Continuity seems to demand +that some term should correspond to this section. A number which lies +between the two classes must be a new number, since all the old numbers +are classified. This new number, which is thus defined by its position +in a series, is an irrational number. When these numbers are introduced, +not only is there always a number between any two numbers, but there is +a number between any two classes of which one comes wholly after the +other, and the first has no minimum, while the second has no maximum. +Thus we can extend to numbers the axiom by which Dedekind defines the +continuity of the straight line (op. cit. p. 11):— + +“If all the points of a line can be divided into two classes such that +every point of one class is to the left of every point of the other +class, then there exists one and only one point which brings about this +division of all points into two classes, this section of the line into +two parts.” + +**266.** This axiom of Dedekind’s is, however, rather loosely worded, +and requires an emendation suggested by the derivation of irrational +numbers. If all the points of a line are divided into two classes, no +point is left over to represent the section. If all be meant to exclude +the point representing the section, the axiom no longer characterizes +continuous series, but applies equally to all series, e.g. the series of +integers. The axiom must be held to apply, as regards the division, not +to all the points of the line, but to all the points forming some +compact series, and distributed throughout the line, but consisting only +of a portion of the points of the line. When this emendation is made, +the axiom becomes admissible. If, from among the terms of a series, some +can be chosen out to form a compact series which is distributed +throughout the previous series; and if this new series can always be +divided in Dedekind’s manner into two portions, between which lies no +term of the new series, but one and only one term of the original +series, then the original series is continuous in Dedekind’s sense of +the word. The emendation, however, destroys entirely the self-evidence +upon which alone Dedekind relies (p. 11) for the proof of his axiom as +applied to the straight line. + +Another somewhat less complicated emendation may be made, which gives, I +think, what Dedekind meant to state in his axiom. A series, we may say, +is continuous in Dedekind’s sense when, and only when, if all the terms +of the series, without exception, be divided into two classes, such that +the whole of the first class precedes the whole of the second, then, +however the division be effected, either the first class has a last +term, or the second class has a first term, but never both. This term, +which comes at one end of one of the two classes, may then be used, in +Dedekind’s manner, to define the section. In discrete series, such as +that of finite integers, there is both a last term of the first class +and a first term of the second class[\*](#fn280-1); while in compact +series such as the rationals, where there is not continuity, it +sometimes happens (though not for every possible division) that the +first class has no last term and the last class has no first term. Both +these cases are excluded by the above axiom. But I cannot see any +vestige of self-evidence in such an axiom, either as applied to numbers +or as applied to space. + +**267.** Leaving aside, for the moment, the general problem of +continuity, let us return to Dedekind’s definition of irrational +numbers. The first question that arises is this: What right have we to +assume the existence of such numbers? What reason have we for supposing +that there must be a position between two classes of which one is wholly +to the right of the other, and of which one has no minimum and the other +no maximum? This is not true of series in general, since many series are +discrete. It is not demanded by the nature of order. And, as we have +seen, continuity in a certain sense is possible without it. Why then +should we postulate such a number at all? It must be remembered that the +algebraical and geometrical problems, which irrationals are intended to +solve, must not here be brought into the account. The existence of +irrationals has, in the past, been inferred from such problems. The +equation x2 − 2 = 0 must have a root, it was argued, because, as x grows +from 0 to 2, x2 − 2 increases, and is first negative and then positive; +if x changes continuously, so does x2 − 2; hence x2 − 2 must assume the +value in passing from negative to positive. Or again, it was argued that +the diagonal of unit square has evidently a precise and definite length +x, and that this length is such that x2 − 2 = 0. But such arguments were +powerless to show that x is truly a number. They might equally well be +regarded as showing the inadequacy of numbers to Algebra and Geometry. +The present theory is designed to prove the arithmetical existence of +irrationals. In its design, it is preferable to the previous theories; +but the execution seems to fall short of the design. + +Let us examine in detail the definition of √2 by Dedekind’s method. It +is a singular fact that, although a rational number lies between any two +single rational numbers, two classes of rational numbers may be defined +so that no rational number lies between them, though all of one class +are higher than all of the other. It is evident that one at least of +these classes must consist of an infinite number of terms. For if not, +we could pick out the two of opposite kinds which were nearest together, +and insert a new number between them. This one would be between the two +classes, contrary to the hypothesis. But when one of the classes is +infinite, we may arrange all or some of the terms in a series of terms +continually approaching the other class, without reaching it, and +without having a last term. Let us, for the moment, suppose our infinite +class to be denumerable. We then obtain a denumerable series of numbers +an, all belonging to the one class, but continually approaching the +other class. Let B be a fixed number of the other class. Then between an +and B there is always another rational number; but this may be chosen to +be another of the a’s, say an+1; and since the series of a’s is +infinite, we do not necessarily obtain, in this way, any number not +belonging to the series of a’s. In the definition of irrationals, the +series of b’s is also infinite. Moreover, if the b’s, also be +denumerable, any rational number between an and bm, for suitable values +of p and q, either is an+p or bm+q, or else lies between an+p and an+p+1 +or between bm+q and bm+q+1. In fact, an+p always lies between an and bm. +By successive steps, no term is obtained which lies between all the b’s +and all the a’s. Nevertheless, both the a’s and the b’s are convergent. +For, let the a’s increase, while the b’s diminish. Then bn − an and bn − +an+1 continually diminish, and therefore an+1 − an, which is less than +either, is less than a continually diminishing number. Moreover this +number diminishes without limit; for if bn − an had a limit ε, the +number an + ε/2 would finally lie between the two classes. Hence an+1 − +an becomes finally less than any assigned number. Thus the a’s and b’s +are both convergent. Since, moreover, their difference may be made less +than any assigned number ε, they have the same limit, if they have any. +But this limit cannot be a rational number, since it lies between all +the a’s and all the b’s. Such seems to be the argument for the existence +of irrationals. For example, if + +x = √2 + 1, x2 − 2x − 1 = 0. + +Thus x = 2 + 1/x = 2 + 12 + 1x, and x − 1 = 1 + 12 + 12 + 1x = etc. + +The successive convergents to the continued fraction 1 + 12 + 12 + 12 + +… are such that all the odd convergents are less than all the even +convergents, while the odd convergents continually grow, and the even +ones continually diminish. Moreover the difference between the odd and +the next even convergent continually diminishes. Thus both series, if +they have a limit, have the same limit, and this limit is defined as √2. + +But the existence of a limit, in this case, is evidently a sheer +assumption. In the beginning of this Chapter, we saw that the existence +of a limit demands a larger series of which the limit forms part. To +create the limit by means of the series whose limit is to be found would +therefore be a logical error. It is essential that the distance from the +limit should diminish indefinitely. But here, it is only the distance of +consecutive terms which is known to diminish indefinitely. Moreover all +the a’s are less than bn. Hence they continually differ less and less +from bn. But whatever n may be, bn cannot be the limit of the a’s, for +bn+1 lies between bn and all the a’s. This cannot prove that a limit +exists, but only that, if it existed, it would not be any one of the a’s +or b’s, nor yet any other rational number. Thus irrationals are not +proved to exist, but may be merely convenient fictions to describe the +relations of the a’s and b’s. + +**268.** The theory of Weierstrass concerning irrationals is somewhat +similar to that of Dedekind. In Weierstrass’s theory, we have a series +of terms a1, a2, …, an, …, such that ∑ an, for all values of n, is less +than some given number. This case is presented, e.g., by an infinite +decimal. The fraction 3·14159…, however many terms we take, remains less +than 3·1416. In this method, as Cantor points out[\*](#fn282-1), the +limit is not created by the summation, but must be supposed to exist +already in order that ∞∑1 an may be defined by means of it. This is the +same state of things as we found in Dedekind’s theory: series of +rational numbers cannot prove the existence of irrational numbers as +their limits, but can only prove that, if there is a limit, it must be +irrational. + +Thus the arithmetical theory of irrationals, in either of the above +forms, is liable to the following objections. (1) No proof is obtained +from it of the existence of other than rational numbers, unless we +accept some axiom of continuity different from that satisfied by +rational numbers; and for such an axiom we have as yet seen no ground. +(2) Granting the existence of irrationals, they are merely specified, +not defined, by the series of rational numbers whose limits they are. +Unless they are independently postulated, the series in question cannot +be known to have a limit; and a knowledge of the irrational number which +is a limit is presupposed in the proof that it is a limit. Thus, +although without any appeal to Geometry, any given irrational number can +be specified by means of an infinite series of rational numbers, yet, +from rational numbers alone, no proof can be obtained that there are +irrational numbers at all, and their existence must be proved from a new +and independent postulate. + +Another objection to the above theory is that it supposes rationals and +irrationals to form part of one and the same series generated by +relations of greater and less. This raises the same kind of difficulties +as we found to result, in [Part II](#part2), from the notion that +integers are greater or less than rationals, or that some rationals are +integers. Rationals are essentially relations between integers, but +irrationals are not such relations. Given an infinite series of +rationals, there may be two integers whose relation is a rational which +limits the series, or there may be no such pair of integers. The entity +postulated as the limit, in this latter case, is no longer of the same +kind as the terms of the series which it is supposed to limit; for each +of them is, while the limit is not, a relation between two integers. Of +such heterogeneous terms, it is difficult to suppose that they can have +relations of greater and less; and in fact, the constitutive relation of +greater and less, from which the series of rationals springs, has to +receive a new definition for the case of two irrationals, or of a +rational and an irrational. This definition is, that an irrational is +greater than a rational, when the irrational limits a series containing +terms greater than the given rational. But what is really given here is +a relation of the given rational to a class of rationals, namely the +relation of belonging to the segment defined by the series whose limit +is the given irrational. And in the case of two irrationals, one is +defined to be greater than the other when its defining series contains +terms greater than any terms of the defining series of the other—a +condition which amounts to saying that the segment corresponding to the +one contains as a proper part the segment corresponding to the other. +These definitions define a relation quite different from the inequality +of two rationals, namely the logical relation of inclusion. Thus the +irrationals cannot form part of the series of rationals, but new terms +corresponding to the rationals must be found before a single series can +be constructed. Such terms, as we saw in the [last chapter](#chapter33), +are found in segments; but the theories of Dedekind and Weierstrass +leave them still to seek. + +**269.** The theory of Cantor, though not expressed, philosophically +speaking, with all the requisite clearness, lends itself more easily to +the interpretation which I advocate, and is specially designed to prove +the existence of limits. He remarks[\*](#fn283-1) that, in his theory, +the existence of the limit is a strictly demonstrable proposition; and +he strongly emphasizes the logical error involved in attempting to +deduce the existence of the limit from the series whose limit it is +(ib., p. 22)[†](#fn283-2). Cantor starts by considering what he calls +fundamental series (which are the same as what I have called +progressions) contained in a larger series. Each of these fundamental +series is to be wholly ascending or wholly descending. Two such series +are called coherent (zusammengehörig) under the following +circumstances:— + +(1) If both are ascending, and after any term of either there is always +a term of the other; + +(2) If both are descending, and before any term of either there is +always a term of the other; + +(3) If one is ascending, the other descending, and the one wholly +precedes the other, and there is at most one term which is between the +two fundamental series. + +The relation of being coherent is symmetrical, in virtue of the +definition; and Cantor shows that it is transitive. In the article from +which the above remarks are extracted. Cantor is dealing with more +general topics than the definition of irrationals. But the above general +account of coherent series will help us to understand the theory of +irrationals. This theory is set forth as follows in the +Mannichfaltigkeitslehre (p. 23ff.):— + +A fundamental series of rationals is defined as a denumerable series +such that, given any number ε, there are at most a finite number of +terms in the series the absolute values of whose differences from +subsequent terms exceed ε. That is to say, given any number ε, however +small, any two terms of the series which both come after a certain term +have a difference which lies between +ε and −ε. Such series must be of +one of three kinds: (1) Any number ε being mentioned, the absolute +values of the terms, from some term onwards, will all be less than ε, +whatever ε may be; (2) from some term onwards, all the terms may be +greater than a certain positive number ρ; (3) from some term onwards, +all the terms may be less than a certain negative number −ρ. A real +number b is to be defined by the fundamental series, and is said in the +first case to be zero, in the second to be positive, and in the third to +be negative. To define the addition, etc., of these new real numbers, we +observe that, if aν, aν′ be the νth terms of two fundamental series, the +series whose νth term is aν + aν′ or aν − aν′ or aν × aν′ is also a +fundamental series; while if the real number defined by the series +(aν)[\*](#fn284-1) is not zero, (aν′ / aν) also defines a fundamental +series. If b, b′ be the real numbers defined by the series (aν), (aν′), +the real numbers defined by (aν + aν′), (aν − aν′), (aν × aν′) and (aν / +aν′) are defined to be b + b′, b − b′, b × b′ and b′ / b respectively. +Hence we proceed to the definitions of equal, greater and less among +real numbers. We define that b = b′ means b − b′ = 0; b \> b′ means that +b − b′ is positive; and b \< b′ means that b − b′ is negative—all terms +which have been already defined. Cantor remarks further that in these +definitions one of the numbers may be rational. This may be formally +justified, in part, by the remark that a denumerable series whose terms +are all one and the same rational number is a fundamental series, +according to the definition; hence in constructing the differences aν − +aν′, by which b − b′ is defined, we may put some fixed rational a in +place of aν′ for all values of ν. But the consequence that we can define +b − a does not follow, and that for the following reason. There is +absolutely nothing in the above definition of the real numbers to show +that a is the real number defined by a fundamental series whose terms +are all equal to a. The only reason why this seems self-evident is, that +the definition by limits is unconsciously present, making us think that, +since a is plainly the limit of a series whose terms are all equal to a, +therefore a must be the real number defined by such a series. Since, +however, Cantor insists—rightly, as I think—that his method is +independent of limits, which, on the contrary, are to be deduced from it +(pp. 24–5), we must not allow this preconception to weigh with us. And +the preconception, if I am not mistaken, is in fact erroneous. There is +nothing in the definitions above enumerated to show that a real number +and a rational number can ever be either equal or unequal, and there are +very strong reasons for supposing the contrary. Hence also we must +reject the proposition (p. 24) that, if b be the real number defined by +a fundamental series (aν), then + +Limν = ∞ aν = b. + +Cantor is proud of the supposed fact that his theory renders this +proposition strictly demonstrable. But, as we have seen, there is +nothing to show that a rational can be subtracted from a real number, +and hence the supposed proof is fallacious. What is true, and what has +all the mathematical advantages of the above theorem, is this: Connected +with every rational a there is a real number, namely that defined by the +fundamental series whose terms are all equal to a; if b be the real +number defined by a fundamental series (aν) and if bν be the real number +defined by a fundamental series whose terms are all equal to aν, then +(bν) is a fundamental series of real numbers whose limit is b. But from +this we cannot infer, as Cantor supposes (p. 24), that Lim aν exists; +this will only be true in the case where (aν) has a rational limit. The +limit of a series of rationals either does not exist, or is rational; in +no case is it a real number. But in all cases a fundamental series of +rationals defines a real number, which is never identical with any +rational. + +**270.** Thus to sum up what has been said on Cantor’s theory: By +proving that two fundamental series may have the relation of being +coherent, and that this relation is symmetrical and transitive, Cantor +shows, by the help of the principle of abstraction (which is tacitly +assumed), that two such series both have some one relation to one third +term, and to no other. This term, when our series consist of rationals, +we define as the real number which both determine. We can then define +the rules of operation for real numbers, and the relations of equal, +greater and less between them. But the principle of abstraction leaves +us in doubt as to what the real numbers really are. One thing, however, +seems certain. They cannot form part of any series containing rationals, +for the rationals are relations between integers, while the real numbers +are not so; and the constitutive relation in virtue of which rationals +form a series is defined solely by means of the integers between which +they are relations, so that the same relation cannot hold between two +real numbers, or between a real and a rational number. In this doubt as +to what real numbers may be, we find that segments of rationals, as +defined in the [preceding chapter](#chapter33), fulfil all the +requirements laid down in Cantor’s definition, and also those derived +from the principle of abstraction. Hence there is no logical ground for +distinguishing segments of rationals from real numbers. If they are to +be distinguished, it must be in virtue of some immediate intuition, or +of some wholly new axiom, such as, that all series of rationals must +have a limit. But this would be fatal to the uniform development of +Arithmetic and Analysis from the five premisses which Peano has found +sufficient, and would be wholly contrary to the spirit of those who have +invented the arithmetical theory of irrationals. The above theory, on +the contrary, requires no new axiom, for if there are rationals, there +must be segments of rationals; and it removes what seems, +mathematically, a wholly unnecessary complication, since, if segments +will do all that is required of irrationals, it seems superfluous to +introduce a new parallel series with precisely the same mathematical +properties. I conclude, then, that an irrational actually is a segment +of rationals which does not have a limit; while a real number which +would be commonly identified with a rational is a segment which does +have a rational limit; and this applies, e.g., to the real number +defined by a fundamental series of rationals whose terms are all equal. +This is the theory which was set forth positively in the [preceding +Chapter](#chapter33), and to which, after examining the current theories +of irrationals, we are again brought back. The greater part of it +applies to compact series in general; but some of the uses of +fundamental series, as we shall see hereafter, presuppose either +numerical measurement of distances or stretches, or that a denumerable +compact series is contained in our series in a certain +manner[\*](#fn286-1). The whole of it, however, applies to any compact +series obtained from a progression as the rationals are obtained from +the integers; and hence no property of numbers is involved beyond the +fact that they form a progression. + +Notes + +## CHAPTER XXXV. +Cantor’s First Definition of Continuity. + +**271.** The notion of continuity has been treated by philosophers, as a +rule, as though it were incapable of analysis. They have said many +things about it, including the Hegelian dictum that everything discrete +is also continuous and vice versâ[\*](#fn287-1). This remark, as being +an exemplification of Hegel’s usual habit of combining opposites, has +been tamely repeated by all his followers. But as to what they meant by +continuity and discreteness, they preserved a discreet and continuous +silence; only one thing was evident, that whatever they did mean could +not be relevant to mathematics, or to the philosophy of space and time. + +In the [last chapter](#chapter23) of [Part III](#part3), we agreed +provisionally to call a series continuous if it had a term between any +two. This definition usually satisfied Leibniz[†](#fn287-2), and would +have been generally thought sufficient until the revolutionary +discoveries of Cantor. Nevertheless there was reason to surmise, before +the time of Cantor, that a higher order of continuity is possible. For, +ever since the discovery of incommensurables in Geometry—a discovery of +which is the proof set forth in the tenth Book of Euclid—it was probable +that space had continuity of a higher order than that of the rational +numbers, which, nevertheless, have the kind of continuity defined in +[Part III](#part3). The kind which belongs to the rational numbers, and +consists in having a term between any two, we have agreed to call +compactness; and to avoid confusion, I shall never again speak of this +kind as continuity. But that other kind of continuity, which was seen to +belong to space, was treated, as Cantor remarks[‡](#fn287-3), as a kind +of religious dogma, and was exempted from that conceptual analysis which +is requisite to its comprehension. Indeed it was often held to show, +especially by philosophers, that any subject-matter possessing it was +not validly analyzable into elements. Cantor has shown that this view is +mistaken, by a precise definition of the kind of continuity which must +belong to space. This definition, if it is to be explanatory of space, +must, as he rightly urges[\*](#fn288-1), be effected without any appeal +to space. We find, accordingly, in his final definition, only ordinal +notions of a general kind, which can be fully exemplified in Arithmetic. +The proof that the notion so defined is precisely the kind of continuity +belonging to space, must be postponed to [Part VI](#part6). Cantor has +given his definition in two forms, of which the earlier is not purely +ordinal, but involves also either number or quantity. In the present +chapter, I wish to translate this earlier definition into language as +simple and untechnical as possible, and then to show how series which +are continuous in this sense occur in Arithmetic, and generally in the +theory of any progression whatever. The later definition will be given +in the [following Chapter](#chapter36). + +**272.** In order that a series should be continuous, it must have two +characteristics: it must be perfect and cohesive (zusammenhängend, bien +enchaînée)[†](#fn288-2). Both these terms have a technical meaning +requiring considerable explanation. I shall begin with the latter. + +(1) Speaking popularly, a series is cohesive, or has cohesion, when it +contains no finite gaps. The precise definition, as given by Cantor, is +as follows: “We call T a cohesive collection of points, if for any two +points t and t′ of T, for a number ε given in advance and as small as we +please, there are always, in several ways, a finite number of points t1, +t2, … tν, belonging to T, such that the distances tt1, t1t2. t2t3, … +tνt′ are all less than ε.”[‡](#fn288-3) This condition, it will be +seen, has essential reference to distance. It is not necessary that the +collection considered should consist of numbers, nor that ε should be a +number. All that is necessary is, that the collection should be a series +in which there are distances obeying the axiom of Archimedes and having +no minimum, and that ε should be an arbitrary distance of the kind +presented by the series. If the series be the whole field of some +asymmetrical transitive relation, or if it be the whole of the terms +having a certain asymmetrical transitive relation to a given term, we +may substitute stretch for distance; and even if the series be only part +of such a series, we may substitute the stretch in the complete series +of which our series forms part. But we must, in order to give any +meaning to cohesion, have something numerically measurable. How far this +condition is necessary, and what can be done without it, I shall show at +a later stage. It is through this condition that our discussions of +quantity and measurement, in [Part III](#part3), become relevant to the +discussion of continuity. + +If the distances or stretches in our series do not obey the axiom of +Archimedes, there are some among them that are incapable of a finite +numerical measure in terms of some others among them. In this case, +there is no longer an analogy of the requisite kind with either the +rational or the real numbers, and the series is necessarily not +cohesive. For let δ, d be two distances; let them be such that, for any +finite number n, nδ is less than d. In this case, if δ be the distance +ε, and d be the distance tt′, it is plain that the condition of +cohesion cannot be satisfied. Such cases actually occur, and—what seems +paradoxical—they can be created by merely interpolating terms in certain +cohesive series. For example, the series of segments of rationals is +cohesive; and when these segments have rational limits, the limits are +not contained in them. Add now to the series what may be called the +completed segments, i.e. the segments having rational limits together +with their limits. These are new terms, forming part of the same series, +since they have the relation of whole and part to the former terms. But +now the difference between a segment and the corresponding completed +segment consists of a single rational, while all other differences in +the series consist of an infinite number of rationals. Thus the axiom of +Archimedes fails, and the new series is not cohesive. + +The condition that distances in the series are to have no minimum is +satisfied by real or rational numbers; and it is necessary, if cohesion +is to be extended to non-numerical series, that, when any unit distance +is selected, there should be distances whose numerical measure is less +than ε, where ε is any rational number. For, if there be a minimum +distance, we cannot make our distances tt1, t1t2 … less than this +minimum, which is contrary to the definition of cohesion. And there must +not only be no minimum to distances in general, but there must be no +minimum to distances from any given term. Hence every cohesive series +must be compact, i.e. must have a term between any two. + +It must not be supposed, however, that every compact series is cohesive. +Consider, for example, the series formed of 0 and 2 − m/n, where m, n +are any integers such that m is less than n. Here there is a term +between any two, but the distance from 0 cannot be made less than 1. +Hence the series, though compact, is not cohesive. This series, however, +is not complete, being part only of the series of rationals, by means of +which its distances are measured. In a complete series, the conditions +are somewhat different. We must distinguish two cases, according as +there are or are not distances, (a) If there are distances, and equal +distances do not correspond to equal stretches, it may happen that, +though the series is compact, the distances from some term never become +less than some finite distance. This case would be presented by +magnitudes, if we were to accept Meinong’s opinion that the distance of +any finite magnitude from zero is always infinite (op. cit. p. 84). It +is presented by numbers, if we measure distances (as there are many +reasons for doing) by log x/y. Thus in this case, with regard to +distances, the series is not cohesive, though it is complete and +compact. (b) If there are no distances, but only stretches, then, +assuming the axiom of Archimedes, any stretch will be less than nε, for +a suitable value of n. Hence, dividing the stretch into n parts, one at +least of these will be less than ε. But there is no way of proving that +all can be made less than ε, unless we assume either the axiom of +linearity (that any stretch can be divided into n equal parts), or a +more complicated but more general axiom, to the effect that a stretch d +can be divided into n parts, each of which is greater than d / (n + 1) +and less than d / (n − 1), whatever integer n may be. With this axiom +and the axiom of Archimedes, a complete compact series must be cohesive; +but these two axioms together render completeness superfluous and +compactness redundant. Thus we see that cohesion is in almost all cases +a condition distinct from compactness. Compactness is purely serial, +while cohesion has essential reference to numbers or to the conditions +of numerical measurement. Cohesion implies compactness, but compactness +never implies cohesion, except in the sole case of the complete series +of rationals or real numbers. + +**273.** (2) To explain what is meant by a perfect series is more +difficult. A series is perfect when it coincides with its first +derivative[\*](#fn290-1). To explain this definition, we must examine +the notion of the derivatives of a series[†](#fn290-2), and this demands +an explanation of a limiting-point of a series. Speaking generally, the +terms of a series are of two kinds, those which Cantor calls isolated +points, and those which he calls limiting-points. A finite series has +only isolated points; an infinite series must define at least one +limiting-point, though this need not belong to the series. A +limiting-point of a series is defined by Cantor to be a term such that, +in any interval containing the term, there are an infinite number of +terms of the series (ib. p. 343). The definition is given in terms of +the points on a line, but it has no essential reference to space. The +limiting-point may or may not be a term of the original series. The +assemblage of all limiting-points is called the first derivative of the +series. The first derivative of the first derivative is called the +second derivative, and so on. Peano gives the definition of the first +derivative of a class of real numbers as follows: Let u be a class of +real numbers, and let x be a real number (which may or may not be a u) +such that the lower limit of the absolute values of the differences of x +from terms of u other than x is zero; then the class of terms x +satisfying this condition is the first derivative of u[‡](#fn290-3). +This definition is virtually identical with that of Cantor, but it +brings out more explicitly the connection of the derivative with limits. +A series, then, is perfect, when it consists of exactly the same terms +as its first derivative; i.e. when all its points are limiting-points, +and all its limiting-points belong to it. + +**274.** But with regard to the latter point, namely, that all +limiting-points of the series must belong to it, some explanation is +necessary. Take, for example, the series of rational numbers. Every +rational number is the limit of some series of rational numbers, and +thus the rationals are contained in their first derivative. But as +regards those series of rationals which do not have a rational limit, we +agreed in the [preceding chapter](#chapter34) that they do not have a +limit at all. Hence all series of rationals which have a limit have a +rational limit, and therefore, by the letter of the definition, the +rationals should form a perfect series. But this is not the case. +Cantor, as we saw in connection with irrationals, believes, what we were +compelled to regard as erroneous, that every series fulfilling certain +conditions, which may be called the conditions of convergency, must have +a limit. Hence he regards those series of rationals which have no +rational limit as having an irrational limit, and as therefore having a +limit not belonging to the series of rationals; and therefore the series +of rationals does not contain all the terms of its first derivative. In +fact, the first derivative of the rational numbers is held to be the +real numbers. But when we regard the real numbers as segments of +rationals, it is impossible to take this view; and when we deny the +existence-theorem for limits, it is necessary to modify Cantor’s +definition of perfection[\*](#fn291-1). This modification we must now +examine. + +What we must say is, that a series is perfect when all its points are +limiting-points, and when further, any series being chosen out of our +first series, if this new series is of the sort which is usually +regarded as defining a limit, then it actually has a limit belonging to +our first series. To make this statement precise, we must examine what +are the conditions usually considered as defining a limit. In the case +of denumerable series, they are simple, and have already been set forth. +They come to this, that, given any distance ε, however small, all the +terms of our series after some definite term, say the mth, are such that +any two of them have a difference whose absolute value is less than ε. +This statement, it will be seen, involves either number or quantity, +i.e. it is not purely ordinal. It is a curious fact that, though the +supposed condition for the existence of a limit cannot, by our present +method, be stated in purely ordinal terms, the limit of a denumerable +series, if there be one, can always be defined in purely ordinal terms. +I shall distinguish Cantor’s fundamental series in a compact series into +progressions and regressions, according as earlier terms have to later +ones always the relation P, or always the relation ˘P (where P is the +generating relation of the compact series in which the said progressions +and regressions are contained). The compact series is further assumed to +be complete. A term x is then the limit of a progression, if every term +of the progression has to x the relation P, while every term which has +to x the relation P also has this relation to some term of the +progression. This definition, it will be seen, is purely ordinal; and a +similar definition will apply to a regression. + +Let us examine next what are the usual conditions for the existence of a +limit to a non-denumerable series. When we come to examine non-numerical +series, we shall find it inconvenient to be restricted to denumerable +series, and therefore it will be well to consider other series at once. +Here, of course, if any denumerable series contained in our larger +series fulfils the conditions for a limit, there will be a corresponding +definition of a limiting-point in our larger series. And the upper or +lower limit of the whole or part of our larger series, if there is one, +may be defined exactly as in the case of a progression or a regression. +But general conditions for the existence of a limit cannot be laid down, +except by reference to denumerable series contained in our larger +series. And it will be observed that Cantor’s definition of a +limiting-point assumes the existence of such a point, and cannot be +turned into a definition of the conditions under which there are such +points. This illustrates the great importance of Cantor’s fundamental +series. + +The method of segments will, however, throw some light on this matter. +We saw in [Chapter xxxiii](#chapter33) that any class of terms in a +series defines a segment, and that this segment sometimes can, but +sometimes cannot, be defined by a single term. When it can be so +defined, this term is its upper limit; and if this term does not belong +to the class by which the segment was defined, then it is also the upper +limit of that class. But when the segment has no upper limit, then the +class by which the segment was defined also has no upper limit. In all +cases, however—and this is one of the chief virtues of segments—the +segment defined by an infinite class which has no upper limit is the +upper limit of the segments defined by the several members of the class. +Thus, whether or not the class has an upper limit, the segments which +its various terms define always have one—provided, that is, that the +compact series in which the class is contained has terms coming after +all terms of the class. + +We can now express, without assuming the existence of limits in cases +where this is not demonstrable, what is meant by a series containing its +first derivative. When any class of terms is contained in a compact +series, the conditions which are commonly said to insure the existence +of an upper limit to the class, though they do not insure this, do +insure an upper limit to the class of segments defined by the several +members of the class. And as regards lower limits, the same proposition +holds concerning what we called upper segments. Hence we may define: A +class u of terms forming the whole or part of a series is perfect when +each of the terms of u is the upper or lower limit of some class +contained in u, and when, if v be any class contained in u, and the +lower segments defined by the several members of v have an upper limit, +or the upper segments have a lower limit, this limiting segment is one +of those that can be defined by a single term of u, i.e. have a term of +u for their upper or lower limit respectively. This definition, it must +be admitted, is more complicated than Cantor’s, but it is free from the +unjustifiable assumption of the existence of limits. + +We may repeat the definition of perfection in what is perhaps less +difficult language. Given any series, and any class of terms u contained +in this series, there are an upper and a lower segment corresponding to +every term of u. Any infinite set of terms v being chosen out of u, +there are certain conditions which are commonly said to insure that v +has an upper limit, which, it is admitted, may belong neither to u, nor +to the series in which u is contained. What these conditions do insure, +however, is that the class of lower segments corresponding to v has an +upper limit. If the series is perfect, v will have an upper limit +whenever the corresponding class of segments has one, and this upper +limit of v will be a term of u. The definition of perfection requires +that this should hold both for upper and lower limits, and for any class +v contained in u. + +**275.** As the question concerning the existence of limits, which has +necessitated the above complication, is one of some philosophical +importance, I shall repeat the arguments against assuming the existence +of limits in the class of series to which the rational numbers belong. +Where a series is imperfect, while its first derivative is perfect, +there the first derivative is logically prior to its own formation. That +is to say, it is only by presupposing the perfect series that it can be +shown to be the derivative of the imperfect series. We have already seen +that this is the case with individual irrational numbers; it is easy to +see that the principle is general. Wherever the derivative contains a +term not belonging to the original series, that term is the limit of +some denumerable series forming an integral part of the first series. If +this series with a limit have the general term an, then—wording the +definition so as not to apply only to series of numbers—there is always +a definite number m, for any specified distance ε, however small, such +that, if n is greater than m, the distance between an+p, and an is less +than ε, whatever positive integer p may be. From this it is inferred +that the series (an) has a limit, and it is shown that, in many cases, +this limit cannot belong to the series out of which the series (an) was +chosen. But the inference that there is a limit is precarious. It may be +supported either by previous knowledge of the term which is the limit, +or by some axiom necessitating the existence of such a term. When the +term which is the limit is independently known, it may be easily shown +to be the limit. But when it is not known, it cannot be proved to exist +at all, unless we introduce some axiom of continuity. Such an axiom is +introduced by Dedekind, but we saw that his axiom is unsatisfactory. The +principle of abstraction, which shows that two coherent series have +something in common, is fully satisfied by segments. And in some cases, +among which is that of the rationals, it seems that the constitutive +relation of the imperfect series cannot hold between any terms not +belonging to this series, so that the existence of limits not belonging +to the series is wholly impossible. For a limit must have a certain +position in a series of which the series which it limits forms part, and +this requires some constitutive relation of which the limit, as well as +the terms limited, must be capable. An independent complete series, such +as the rationals, cannot, in fact, have any limiting-points not +belonging to it. For, if R be the constitutive relation, and two terms +a, b, have the relation R, any third term c, which has this relation or +its converse to either, and therefore both, of the terms a, b, belongs +to the same series as a and b. But the limit, if it exists, must have +the constitutive relation to the terms which it limits; hence it must +belong to the complete series to which they belong. Hence any series +which has actual limiting-points not belonging to it is only part of +some complete series; and a complete series which is not perfect is one +in which the limits defined in the usual way, but not belonging to the +series, do not exist at all. Hence, in any complete series, either some +definable limits do not exist, or the series contains its first +derivative. + +In order to render the arbitrariness of assuming the existence of limits +still more evident, let us endeavour to set up an axiom of continuity +more irreproachable than Dedekind’s. We shall find that it can still be +denied with perfect impunity. + +When a number of positions in a series continually differ less and less +from each other, and are known to be all on one side of some given +position, there must exist (so our axiom might run) some position to +which they approximate indefinitely, so that no distance can be +specified so small that they will not approach nearer than by this +distance. If this axiom be admitted, it will follow that all imperfect +series, whose first derivatives are perfect, presuppose these first +derivatives, and are to be regarded as selections from them. Let us +examine the consequences of denying our axiom in the case of a series of +numbers. In this case, the unwary might suppose, the position next to +all the terms an, but not belonging to them, would be (say) p, where p − +an is greater than ε, for a suitable value of ε, whatever n may be. But +if our series is compact, there is a term between p and p − ε, say p′. +Thus p′ − an is less than p − an, whatever n may be. Thus p′ is nearer +all the a’s than p is, contrary to the hypothesis. But the above denial +was not direct, and the fact that it seemed correct illustrates the +fallacies which in this subject are hard to avoid. The axiom is: There +is a term to which the a’s approach as near as we like. The denial was: +There is a term nearest to the a’s, but at a finite distance. The denial +should have been: There is no term to which the a’s approach as near as +we like. In other words, whatever term we specify, say p, there is some +finite distance ε, such that p − an is greater than ε, whatever an may +be. This is true in the case of series of rational numbers which have no +rational limit. In this case, there is no term nearest to the a’s, but +at a finite distance, while also, whatever term beyond all the a’s we +specify (except where our series has a rational limit), none of the a’s +approach nearer to this term than by a certain finite distance ε. Every +term beyond the a’s is at more than some finite distance from all of +them, but there is no finite distance which every term beyond the a’s +exceeds. The introduction of irrationals introduces symmetry into this +odd state of things, so that there is a term to which the a’s approach +indefinitely, as well as a series of terms indefinitely approaching the +a’s. When irrationals are not admitted, if we have a term p after all +the a’s, and a small distance ε, then, if ε be specified, p can be +chosen so that p − an is less than ε, whatever n may be; but if p be +specified, an ε can always be found (except when the limit is rational) +so that p − an is greater than ε, whatever n may be. This state of +things, though curious, is not self-contradictory. The admission of +irrationals, as opposed to segments, is thus logically unnecessary; as +it is also mathematically superfluous, and fatal to the theory of +rationals, there are no reasons in its favour, and strong reasons +against it. Hence, finally, any axiom designed to show the existence of +limits in cases where they cannot otherwise be shown to exist, is to be +rejected; and Cantor’s definition of perfection must be modified as +above. This conclusion will, in future, be regarded as established. + +Having now analyzed Cantor’s earlier definition of continuity, I shall +proceed to examine his later ordinal definition, and the application of +its various portions to series more general than those of numbers, +showing, if possible, the exact points in which these various portions +are required. + +Notes + +## CHAPTER XXXVI. +Ordinal Continuity[\*](#fn296-1). + +**276.** The definition of continuity which we examined in the +[preceding chapter](#chapter35) was, as we saw, not purely ordinal; it +demanded, in at least two points, some reference to either numbers, or +numerically measurable magnitudes. Nevertheless continuity seems like a +purely ordinal notion; and this has led Cantor to construct a definition +which is free from all elements extraneous to order[†](#fn296-2). I +shall now examine this definition, as well as others which may be +suggested. We shall find that, so long as all references to number and +quantity are excluded, there are theorems of great importance, +especially as regards fundamental series, which, with any suggested +ordinal definition except that of Cantor, remain indemonstrable, and are +presumably sometimes false[‡](#fn296-3)—a fact from which the merits of +Cantor’s definition, now to be given, are apparent. + +**277.** Cantor’s definition of the continuum in his later +article[§](#fn296-4) is as follows. We start (§9) from the type of +series presented by the rational numbers greater than 0 and less than 1, +in their order of magnitude. This type we call η. A series of this type +we define by the following marks. (1) It is denumerable, that is, by +taking its terms in a suitable order (which, however, must be different +from that in which they are given), we can give them a one-one +correspondence with the finite integers. (2) The series has no first or +last term. (3) There is a term between any two, i.e. the series is +compact (überall dicht). It is then proved that these three +characteristics completely define the type of order presented by the +rationals, that is to say, there is a one-one correspondence, between +any two series having these three properties, in which earlier terms +correspond to earlier terms, and later ones to later ones. This is +established by the use of mathematical induction, which is applicable in +virtue of the fact that series of this type are denumerable. Thus all +series which are denumerable, endless[\*](#fn297-1), and compact, are +ordinally similar. We now proceed (§10) to the consideration of +fundamental series contained in any one-dimensional series M. We show +(as has been already explained) what is meant by calling two fundamental +series coherent, and we give an ordinal definition of the limit of a +fundamental series, namely, in the case of a progression, the limit +comes after the whole progression, but every term before the limit comes +before some term of the progression; with a corresponding definition for +the limit of a regression, We prove that no fundamental series can have +more than one limit, and that, if a fundamental series has a limit, this +is also the limit of all coherent series; also that two fundamental +series, of which one is part of the other, are coherent. Any term of M +which is the limit of some fundamental series in M is called a principal +term of M. If all the terms of M are principal terms, M is called +condensed in itself (insichdicht). If every fundamental series in M has +a limit in M, M is called closed (abgeschlossen)[†](#fn297-2). If M is +both closed and condensed in itself, it is perfect. All these +properties, if they belong to M, belong to any series which is ordinally +similar to M. With these preparations, we advance at last to the +definition of the continuum (§11). Let θ be the type of the series to +which belong the real numbers from 0 to 1, both inclusive. Then θ, as we +know, is a perfect type. But this alone does not characterize θ. It has +further the property of containing within itself a series of the type η, +to which the rationals belong, in such a way that between any two terms +of the θ-series there are terms of the η-series. Hence the following +definition of the continuum: + +A one-dimensional continuum M is a series which (1) is perfect, (2) +contains within itself a denumerable series S of which there are terms +between any two terms of M. + +In this definition, it is not necessary to add the other properties +which are required to show that S is of the type η. For if S had a first +or last term, this would be also the first or last term of M; hence we +could take it away from S, and the remaining series would still satisfy +the condition (2), but would have no first or last term; and the +condition (2) together with (1) insures that S is a compact series. +Cantor proves that any series M satisfying the above conditions is +ordinally similar to the number-continuum, i.e. the real numbers from 0 +to 1, both inclusive; and hence it follows that the above definition +includes precisely the same class of series as those that were included +in his former definition. He does not assert that his new definition is +purely ordinal, and it might be doubted, at first sight, whether it is +so. Let us see for ourselves whether any extra-ordinal notions are +contained in it. + +**278.** The only point as to which any doubt could arise is with regard +to the condition of being denumerable. To be a denumerable collection is +to be a collection whose terms are all the terms of some progression. +This notion, so far, is purely ordinal. But in the case supposed, that +of the rationals or of any ordinally similar series, the terms forming +the series must be capable of two orders, in one of which they form a +compact series, while in the other they form a progression. To discover +whether or not a given set of terms is capable of these two orders, will +in general demand other than ordinal conditions; nevertheless, the +notion itself is purely ordinal. Now we know, from the similarity of all +such series to the series of rationals (which involves only ordinal +ideas), that no such series is perfect. But it remains to be seen +whether we can prove this without appealing to the special properties of +the rationals which result from there being a series in which there is +distance. We know, as a matter of fact, that no denumerable series can +be perfect[\*](#fn298-1), but we want here a purely ordinal proof of +this theorem. Such a proof, however, is easily given. For take the terms +of our denumerable compact series S in the order in which they form a +progression, and in this order call them u. Starting with the first in +this order, which we will call x0, there must be one which, in the other +order S, follows this term. Take the first such term, x1, as the second +in a fundamental series v. This term has a finite number of predecessors +in the progression u, and therefore has successors in S which are also +successors in u; for the number of successors in S is always infinite. +Take the first of these common successors, say x2, as the third term of +our fundamental series v. Proceeding in this way, we can construct an +ascending fundamental series in S, the terms of which have the same +order in u as in S. This series cannot have a limit in S, for each term +xn succeeds, in S, every term which precedes it in u. Hence any term of +S will be surpassed by some term xn of our fundamental series v, and +hence this fundamental series has no limit in S. The theorem that a +denumerable endless series cannot be perfect is, therefore, purely +ordinal. From this point onwards there is no difficulty, and our former +theory of segments enables us to state the matter simply. Given a +denumerable, endless, compact series S, construct all the segments +defined by fundamental series in S. These form a perfect series, and +between any two terms of the series of segments there is a segment whose +upper (or lower) limit is a term of S. Segments of this kind, which may +be called rational segments, are a series of the same type as S, and are +contained in the whole series of segments in the required manner. Hence +the ordinal definition of the continuum is complete. + +**279.** It must not be supposed that continuity as above defined can +only be exemplified, in Arithmetic, by the devious course from integers +to rationals, and thence to real numbers. On the contrary, the integers +themselves can be made to illustrate continuity. Consider all possible +infinite classes of integers, and let them be arranged on the following +plan. Of two classes u, v, of which the smallest number in u is less +than the smallest in v, u comes first. If the first n terms of u and v +are identical, but the (n + 1)th terms are different, that which has the +smaller (n + 1)th term is to come first. This series has a first term, +namely, the whole class of the integers, but no last term. Any completed +segment of the series, however, is a continuous series, as the reader +can easily see for himself. The denumerable compact series contained in +it is composed of those infinite classes which contain all numbers +greater than some number, i.e. those containing all but a finite number +of numbers. Thus classes of finite integers alone suffice to generate +continuous series. + +**280.** The above definition, it will be observed, depends upon +progressions. As progressions are the very essence of discreteness, it +seems paradoxical that we should require them in defining +continuity[\*](#fn299-1). And, after all, as it is certain that people +have not in the past associated any precise idea with the word +continuity, the definition we adopt is, in some degree, arbitrary. +Series having the properties enumerated in Cantor’s definition would +generally be called continuous, but so would many others which his +definition excludes. In any case it will be a valuable inquiry to ask +what can be done by compact series without progressions. + +Let u be any endless compact series, whose generating relation is P, and +concerning which nothing further is known. Then, by means of any term or +any class of terms in u, we can define a segment of u. Let us denote by +U the class of all lower segments of u. A lower segment, it may be well +to repeat, is a class v of terms contained in u, not null, and not +coextensive with u, and such that v has no last term, and every term +preceding a v is a v. In the converse case, when v has no first term, +and every term following a v is a v, v is called an upper segment. It is +then easy to prove that every segment consists of all the terms +preceding (or following) either some single term of u, or a variable +term of some class of terms of u; and that every single term, and every +class of terms, defines an upper and a lower segment in this manner. +Then, if V denote the class of upper segments, it is easy to prove that +both U and V are again endless compact series, whose generating relation +is that of whole or part; while if u has one or two ends, so have U and +V, though the end-terms are not segments according to the definition. If +we now proceed to the consideration of segments in U or V (U say), we +shall find that the segment of U’s defined by any class whatever of U’s +can always be defined by a single U, which, if the class is infinite and +has no last term, is the upper limit of the class, and which, in all +cases, is the logical sum of all the members of the class—members which, +it must be remembered, are all themselves classes contained in +u[\*](#fn300-1). Hence all classes contained in U and having no last +term have an upper limit in U; and also (what is a distinct proposition) +all classes contained in U and having no first term have a lower limit +in U, except in the case where the lower limit is the logical zero or +null-class; and the lower limit is always the logical product of all the +classes composing the class which it limits. Thus by adding to U the +null-class, we insure that U shall be a closed series. There is a sense +in which U is condensed in itself, namely, this: every term of U is the +upper limit of a suitably chosen class contained in U, for every term is +the upper limit of the segment of U’s which it defines; and every term +of U is a lower limit of the class of those U’s of which it is a proper +part. But there is absolutely no proof, so far at least as I have been +able to discover, that every term of U is the upper or lower limit of a +fundamental series. There is no à priori reason why, in any series, the +limit of any class should always be also the limit of a fundamental +series; this seems, in fact, to be a prerogative of series of the types +to which rationals and real numbers respectively belong. In our present +case, at least, though our series is, in the above general sense, +condensed in itself, there seems no reason for supposing its terms to be +all of them limits of fundamental series, and in this special sense the +series may not be condensed in itself. + +**281.** It is instructive to examine the result of confining the terms +of U to such segments as can be defined by fundamental series. In this +case it is well to consider, in addition to upper and lower segments, +their supplements, as they may be called, of which I shall shortly give +the definition. Let a compact series v be given, generated by a +transitive asymmetrical relation P, and let u be any fundamental series +in v. If earlier terms of u have to later ones the relation P, I shall +call u a progression; if the relation ˘P, I shall call u a regression. +If now w be any class whatever contained in v, w defines, as we have +already seen, four other classes in v, namely (1) the class of terms +before every w, which I shall call wπ; (2) the class of terms after +every w, which I shall call w˘π; (3) the class of terms before some w, +which I shall call πw; (4) the class of terms after some w, which I +shall call ˘πw. The classes (3) and (4) are lower and upper segments +respectively; the classes (1) and (2) are supplements to (4) and (3) +respectively, and I shall call them supplemental segments. When w has an +upper limit, this is the first term of w˘π, and thus w˘π is not a +segment, since no upper segment has a first term. But when w has no +upper limit, then, whether w be finite or infinite, w˘π is a segment. +Similar remarks apply to lower limits. If w has a last term, this +belongs neither to πw nor to w˘π, but all other terms of v belong to one +or other class; if w has no last term, all terms of v belong to πw or +w˘π. Similar remarks apply to wπ and ˘πw. Applying these general +definitions to the cases of progressions and regressions, we shall find +that, for a progression, only the classes (2) and (3) are important; for +a regression, only the classes (1) and (4). The question where a +progression begins or a regression ends is quite unimportant. Since a +progression has no last term, and a regression no first term, the +segment defined by either, together with its supplement, contains every +term of v. Whether progressions and regressions in v have limits always, +sometimes, or never, there seems no way of deciding from the given +premisses. I have not been able to discover an instance of a compact +series where they never have limits, but I cannot find any proof that +such an instance is impossible. + +Proceeding now to classes of segments, as we proceeded before to our +class U, we have here four such classes to consider, namely: (1) The +class vπ, each of whose terms is the class uπ defined by some regression +u, i.e., the terms of v which come before all the terms of some +regression in v; (2) the class v˘π, consisting of all the classes u˘π +defined by progressions u; (3) the class πv, whose terms are πu, where u +is some progression; (4) the class vπ, whose terms are uπ, where u is +some regression. Each of these four classes is a class of classes, for +its terms are classes contained in v. Each of the four is itself a +compact series. There is no way of proving, so far as I know, that (1) +and (3), or (2) and (4), have any common terms. Each pair would have a +common term if v contained a progression and a regression which were +coherent, and had no limit in v, but there is no way of discovering +whether this case ever arises in the given series v. + +When we come to examine whether the four classes thus defined are +condensed in themselves, we obtain the most curious results. Every +fundamental series in any one of the four classes has a limit, but not +necessarily in the series of which its terms are composed, and +conversely, every term of each of our four classes is the limit of a +fundamental series, but not necessarily of a series contained in the +same class to which the limiting term belongs. The state of things, in +fact, is as follows: + +Every progression in vπ or πv has a limit in πv. + +Every progression in v˘π or ˘πv has a limit in ˘πv. + +Every regression in vπ or πv has a limit in vπ. + +Every regression in v˘π or ˘πv has a limit in v˘π. + +Every term of vπ is the limit of a regression in vπ and of one in πv. + +Every term of v˘π is the limit of a regression in v˘π and of one in ˘πv. + +Every term of πv is the limit of a progression in vπ and of one in πv. + +Every term of ˘πv is the limit of a progression in v˘π and of one in +˘πv. + +Hence vπ is identical with the class of limits of regressions in vπ or +πv; + +v˘π is identical with the class of limits of regressions in v˘π or ˘πv; + +πv is identical with the class of limits of progressions in vπ or πv; + +˘πv is identical with the class of limits of progressions in ˘πv or v˘π. + +Thus each of our four classes has a kind of one-sided perfection; two of +the four are perfect on one side, the other two on the other. But I +cannot prove of any one of the four classes that it is wholly perfect. +We might attempt the combination of vπ and πv, and also of v˘π and ˘πv. +For vπ and πv together form one series, whose generating relation is +still whole and part. This series will be perfect, and will contain the +limits alike of progressions and of regressions in itself. But this +series may not be compact; for if there be any progression u and +regression u′ in v, which both have the same limit in v (a case which, +as we know, occurs in some compact series), then πu and u′π will be +consecutive terms of the series formed of πv and vπ together, for u′π +will contain the common limit, while πu will not contain it, but all +other terms of v will belong to both or to neither. Hence when our +series is compact, we cannot show that it is perfect; and when we have +made it perfect, we can show that it may not be compact. And a series +which is not compact can hardly be called continuous. + +Although we can prove that, in our original compact series v, there are +an infinite number of progressions coherent with a given progression and +having no term in common with it, we cannot prove that there is even one +regression coherent with a given progression; nor can we prove that any +progression or regression in v has a limit, or that any term of v is a +limit of a progression or regression. We cannot prove that any +progression u and regression u′ are such that πu = u′π, nor yet that πu +and u′π may differ by only a single term of v. Nor, finally, can we +prove that any single progression in vπ has a limit in vπ, with similar +propositions concerning the other three classes v˘π, πv, ˘πv. At least, +I am unable to discover any way of proving any of these theorems, though +in the absence of instances of the falsity of some of them it seems not +improbable that these may be demonstrable. + +If it is the fact—as it seems to be—that, starting only from a compact +series, so many of the usual theorems are indemonstrable, we see how +fundamental is the dependence of Cantor’s ordinal theory upon the +condition that the compact series from which we start is to be +denumerable. As soon as this assumption is made, it becomes easy to +prove all those of the above propositions which hold concerning the +types η and θ respectively. This is a fact which is obviously of +considerable philosophical importance; and it is with a view of bringing +it out clearly that I have dwelt so long upon compact series which are +not assumed to be denumerable. + +**282.** The remark which we made just now, that two compact series may +be combined to form one which sometimes has consecutive terms, is rather +curious, and applies equally to continuity as defined by Cantor. +Segments of rationals form a continuous series, and so do completed +segments (i.e. segments together with their limits); but the two +together form a series which is not compact, and therefore not +continuous. It is certainly contrary to the usual idea of continuity +that a continuous series should cease to be so merely by the +interpolation of new terms between the old ones. This should, according +to the usual notions, make our series still more continuous. It might be +suggested that, philosophically speaking, a series cannot be called +continuous unless it is complete, i.e. contains a certain term together +with all the terms having to the given term a specified asymmetrical +transitive relation or its converse. If we add this condition, the +series of segments of rationals is not complete with regard to the +relation by which we have hitherto regarded it as generated, since it +does not consist of all classes of rationals to which a given segment +has the relation of whole and part, and each of which contains all terms +less than any one of its terms—this condition is also satisfied by +completed segments. But every series is complete with regard to some +relation, simple or complex. This is the reason why completeness need +not, from a mathematical standpoint, be mentioned in the definition of +continuity, since it can always be insured by a suitable choice of the +generating relation. + +We have now seen in what Cantor’s definition of continuity consists, and +we have seen that, while instances fulfilling the definition may be +found in Arithmetic, the definition itself is purely ordinal—the only +datum required is a denumerable compact series. Whether or not the kind +of series which Cantor defines as continuous is thought to be the most +similar to what has hitherto been vaguely denoted by the word, the +definition itself, and the steps leading to it, must be acknowledged to +be a triumph of analysis and generalization. + +Before entering upon the philosophical questions raised by the +continuum, it will be well to continue our review of Cantor’s most +remarkable theorems, by examining next his transfinite cardinal and +ordinal numbers. Of the two problems with which this Part is concerned, +we have hitherto considered only continuity; it is now time to consider +what mathematics has to say concerning infinity. Only when this has been +accomplished, shall we be in a position adequately to discuss the +closely allied philosophical problems of infinity and continuity. + +Notes + +## CHAPTER XXXVII. +Transfinite Cardinals. + +**283.** The mathematical theory of infinity may almost be said to begin +with Cantor. The Infinitesimal Calculus, though it cannot wholly +dispense with infinity, has as few dealings with it as possible, and +contrives to hide it away before facing the world. Cantor has abandoned +this cowardly policy, and has brought the skeleton out of its cupboard. +He has been emboldened in this course by denying that it is a skeleton. +Indeed, like many other skeletons, it was wholly dependent on its +cupboard, and vanished in the light of day. Speaking without metaphor. +Cantor has established a new branch of Mathematics, in which, by mere +correctness of deduction, it is shown that the supposed contradictions +of infinity all depend upon extending, to the infinite, results which, +while they can be proved concerning finite numbers, are in no sense +necessarily true of all numbers. In this theory, it is necessary to +treat separately of cardinals and ordinals, which are far more diverse +in their properties when they are transfinite than when they are finite. +Following the same order as previously—the order which seems to me to be +alone philosophically correct—I shall begin with transfinite +cardinals[\*](#fn304-1). + +**284.** The transfinite cardinals, which are also called powers, may be +defined in the first place so as to include the finite cardinals, +leaving it to be investigated in what respects the finite and the +transfinite are distinguished. Thus Cantor gives the following +definition[†](#fn304-2). + +“We call the power or cardinal number of M that general idea which, by +means of our active faculty of thought, is deduced from the collection +M, by abstracting from the nature of its diverse elements and from the +order in which they are given.” + +This, it win be seen, is merely a phrase indicating what is to be spoken +of, not a true definition. It presupposes that every collection has some +such property as that indicated—a property, that is to say, independent +of the nature of its terms and of their order; depending, we might feel +tempted to add, only upon their number. In fact, number is taken by +Cantor to be a primitive idea, and it is, in his theory, a primitive +proposition that every collection has a number. He is therefore +consistent in giving a specification of number which is not a formal +definition. + +By means, however, of the principle of abstraction, we can give, as we +saw in [Part II](#part2), a formal definition of cardinal numbers. This +method, in essentials, is given by Cantor immediately after the above +informal definition. We have already seen that, if two classes be called +similar when there is a one-one relation which couples every term of +either with one and only one term of the other, then similarity is +symmetrical and transitive, and is reflexive for all classes. A one-one +relation, it should be observed, can be defined without any reference to +number, as follows: A relation is one-one when, if x has the relation to +y, and x′ differs from x, y′ from y, then it follows that x′ does not +have the relation to y, nor x to y′. In this there is no reference to +number; and the definition of similarity also is therefore free from +such reference. Since similarity is reflexive, transitive, and +symmetrical, it can be analyzed into the product of a many-one relation +and its converse, and indicates at least one common property of similar +classes. This property, or, if there be several, a certain one of these +properties, we may call the cardinal number of similar classes, and the +many-one relation is that of a class to the number of its terms. In +order to fix upon one definite entity as the cardinal number of a given +class, we decide to identify the number of a class with the whole class +of classes similar to the given class. This class, taken as a single +entity, has, as the proof of the principle of abstraction shows, all the +properties required of a cardinal number. The method, however, is +philosophically subject to the doubt resulting from the contradiction +set forth in [Part I](#part1), [Chapter x](#chapter10).[\*](#fn305-1) + +In this way we obtain a definition of the cardinal number of a class. +Since similarity is reflexive for classes, every class has a cardinal +number. It might be thought that this definition would only apply to +finite classes, since, to prove that all terms of one class are +correlated with all of another, complete enumeration might be thought +necessary. This, however, is not the case, as may be seen at once by +substituting any for all—a word which is generally preferable where +infinite classes are concerned. Two classes u, v are similar when there +is some one-one relation R such that, if x be any u, there is some term +y of v such that xRy; and if y′ be any v, there is some term x′ of u +such that x′Ry′. Here there is no need whatever of complete enumeration, +but only of propositions concerning any u and any v. For example, the +points on a given line are similar to the lines through a given point +and meeting the given line; for any point on the given line determines +one and only one line through the given point, and any line through the +given point meeting the given line determines one and only one point on +the given line. Thus where our classes are infinite, we need some +general proposition about any term of either class to establish +similarity, but we do not need enumeration. And in order to prove that +every (or any) class has a cardinal number, we need only the observation +that any term of any class is identical with itself. No other general +proposition about the terms of a class is requisite for the reflexive +property of similarity. + +**285.** Let us now examine the chief properties of cardinal numbers. I +shall not give proofs of any of these properties, since I should merely +repeat what has been said by Cantor. Considering first their relations +to classes, we may observe that, if there be two sets of classes which +are similar in pairs, and no two of the one set have any common part, +nor yet any two of the other set, then the logical sum of all the +classes of one set is similar to the logical sum of all the classes of +the other set. This proposition, familiar in the case of finite classes, +holds also of infinite classes. Again, the cardinal number of a class u +is said to be greater than that of a class v, when no part of v is +similar to u, but there is a part of u which is similar to v. In this +case, also, the number of v is said to be less than that of u. It can be +proved that, if there is a part of u which is similar to v, and a part +of v which is similar to u, then u and v are similar[\*](#fn306-1). Thus +equal, greater, and less are all incompatible with each other, all +transitive, and the last two asymmetrical. We cannot prove at all +simply—and it seems more or less doubtful whether we can prove at +all—that of two different cardinal numbers one must be greater and the +other less[†](#fn306-2). It is to be observed that the definition of +greater contains a condition not required in the case of finite +cardinals. If the number of v be finite, it is sufficient that a proper +part of u should be similar to v. But among transfinite cardinals this +is not sufficient. For the general definition of greater, therefore, +both parts are necessary. This difference between finite and transfinite +cardinals results from the defining difference of finite and infinite, +namely that when the number of a class is not finite, it always has a +proper part which is similar to the whole; that is, every infinite class +contains a part (and therefore an infinite number of parts) having the +same number as itself. Certain particular cases of this proposition have +long been known, and have been regarded as constituting a contradiction +in the notion of infinite number. Leibniz, for example, points +out[‡](#fn306-3) that, since every number can be doubled, the number +of numbers is the same as the number of even numbers, whence he deduces +that there is no such thing as infinite number. The first to generalize +this property of infinite collections, and to treat it as not +contradictory, was, so far as I know, Bolzano[\*](#fn307-1). But the +strict proof of the proposition, when the finite cardinals are defined +by means of mathematical induction, as well as the demonstration that it +is not contradictory, are due to Cantor and Dedekind. The proposition +itself may be taken as the definition of the transfinite among cardinal +numbers, for it is a property belonging to all of them, and to none of +the finite cardinals[†](#fn307-2). Before examining this property +further, however, we must acquire a more intimate acquaintance with the +other properties of cardinal numbers. + +**286.** I come now to the strictly arithmetical properties of +cardinals, i.e. their addition, multiplication, etc.[‡](#fn307-3) The +addition of numbers is defined, when they are transfinite, exactly as it +was defined in the case of finite numbers, namely by means of logical +addition. The number of the logical sum of two classes which have no +common term is the sum of the numbers of the two classes. This can be +extended by successive steps to any finite number of classes; for an +infinite number of classes, forming a class of classes, the sum of their +numbers, if no two have any common term, is still the number of their +logical sum—and the logical sum of any class of classes, finite or +infinite, is logically definable. For sums of two or three numbers, so +defined, the commutative and associative laws still hold, i.e. we still +have + +a + b = b + a and a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c. + +The multiplication of two numbers is thus defined by Cantor: If M and N +be two classes, we can combine any element of M with any element of N to +form a couple (m, n); the number of all such couples is the product of +the numbers of M and N. If we wish to avoid the notion of a couple in +the definition, we may substitute the following[§](#fn307-4): Let u be a +class of classes, a in number; let each of these classes belonging to u +contain b terms; and let no two of these classes have any common term; +then ab is the number of the logical sum of all these classes. This +definition is still purely logical, and avoids the notion of a couple. +Multiplication so defined obeys the commutative, associative, and +distributive laws, i.e. we have + +ab = ba, a(bc) = (ab)c, a(b + c) = ab + ac. + +Hence addition and multiplication of cardinals, even when these are +transfinite, satisfy all the elementary rules of Arithmetic. + +The definition of powers of a number (ab) is also effected logically +(ib. §4). For this purpose, Cantor first defines what he calls a +covering (Belegung) of one class N by another M. This is a law by which, +to every element n of N is joined one and only one element n of M, but +the same element m may be joined to many elements of N. That is, a +Belegung is a many-one relation, whose domain includes N, and which +correlates with the terms of N always terms of M. If a be the number of +terms in M, b the number in N, then the number of all such many-one +relations is defined to be ab. It is easy to see that, for finite +numbers, this definition agrees with the usual one. For transfinite +numbers, indices have still the usual properties, i.e. + +abac = ab+c, acbc = (ab)c, (ab)c = abc + +In the case where a = 2, ab is capable of a simpler definition, deduced +from the above. If a = 2, 2b will be the number of ways in which b terms +can be related each to one of two terms. Now when those which are +related to one of the two are given, the rest are related to the other. +Hence it is enough, in each case, to specify the class of terms related +to one of the two. Hence we get in each case a class chosen out of the b +terms, and in all cases we get all such classes. Hence 2b is the number +of classes that can be formed out of b terms, or the number of +combinations of b things any number at a time—a familiar theorem when b +is finite, but still true when b is transfinite. Cantor has a proof that +2b is always greater than b—a proof which, however, leads to +difficulties when b is the number of all classes, or, more generally, +when there is some collection of b terms in which all the sets chosen +out of the b terms are themselves single terms of b[\*](#fn308-1). + +The definitions of multiplication given by Cantor and Vivanti require +that the number of factors in a product should be finite; and this makes +it necessary to give a new and independent definition of powers, if the +exponent is allowed to be infinite. Mr A. N. Whitehead[†](#fn308-2) has +given a definition of multiplication which is free from this +restriction, and therefore allows powers to be defined in the ordinary +way as products. He has also found proofs of the formal laws when the +number of summands, brackets, or factors is infinite. The definition of +a product is as follows: Let k be a class of classes, no two of which +have any terms in common. Choose out, in every possible way, one term +and only one from each of the classes composing k. By doing this in all +possible ways, we get a class of classes, called the multiplicative +class of k. The number of terms in this class is defined to be the +product of the numbers of terms in the various classes which are members +of k. Where k has a finite number of members, it is easy to see that +this agrees with the usual definition. Let u, v, w be the members of k, +and let them have respectively α, β, γ terms. Then one term can be +chosen out of u in α ways: for every way there are β ways of choosing +one term out of v, and for every way of choosing one term out of u and +one out of v, there are γ ways of choosing one out of w. Hence there are +αβγ ways of choosing one term out of each, when multiplication is +understood in its usual sense. The multiplicative class is an important +notion, by means of which transfinite cardinal Arithmetic can be carried +a good deal further than Cantor has carried it. + +**287.** All the above definitions apply to finite and transfinite +integers alike, and, as we see, the formal laws of Arithmetic still +hold. Transfinite integers differ from finite ones, however, both in the +properties of their relation to the classes of which they are the +numbers, and also in regard to the properties of classes of the integers +themselves. Classes of numbers have, in fact, very different properties +according as the numbers are all finite or are in part at least +transfinite. + +Among transfinite cardinals, some are particularly important, especially +the number of finite numbers, and the number of the continuum. The +number of finite numbers, it is plain, is not itself a finite number; +for the class finite number is similar to the class even finite number, +which is a part of itself. Or again the same conclusion may be proved by +mathematical induction—a principle which also serves to define finite +numbers, but which, being of a more ordinal nature, I shall not consider +until the [next chapter](#chapter38). The number of finite numbers, +then, is transfinite. This number Cantor denotes by the Hebrew Aleph +with the suffix 0; for us it will be more convenient to denote it by α0. +Cantor proves that this is the least of all the transfinite cardinals. +This results from the following theorems (loc. cit. §6): + +(A) Every transfinite collection contains others as parts whose number +is α0. + +(B) Every transfinite collection which is part of one whose number is +α0, also has the number α0. + +(C) No finite collection is similar to any proper part of itself. + +(D) Every transfinite collection is similar to some proper part of +itself[\*](#fn309-1). + +From these theorems it follows that no transfinite number is less than +the number of finite numbers. Collections which have this number are +said to be denumerable, because it is always possible to count such +collections, in the sense that, given any term of such a collection, +there is some finite number n such that the given term is the nth. This +is merely another way of saying that all the terms of a denumerable +collection have a one-one correlation with the finite numbers, which +again is equivalent to saying that the number of the collection is the +same as that of the finite numbers. It is easy to see that the even +numbers, the primes, the perfect squares, or any other class of finite +numbers having no maximum, will form a denumerable series. For, +arranging any such class in order of magnitude, there will be a finite +number of terms, say n, before any given term, which will thus be the (n ++ 1)th term. What is more remarkable is, that all the rationals, and +even all real roots of equations of a finite degree and with rational +coefficients (i.e. all algebraic numbers), form a denumerable series. +And even an n-dimensional series of such terms, where n is a finite +number, or the smallest transfinite ordinal, is still +denumerable[\*](#fn310-1). That the rational numbers are denumerable can +be easily seen, by arranging them in the order in which those with +smaller sum of numerator and denominator precede those with larger sum, +and of those with equal sums, those with the smaller numerators precede +those with larger ones. Thus we get the series + +1, 1/2, 2, 1/3, 3, 1/4, 2/3, 3/2, 4, 1/5 … + +This is a discrete series, with a beginning and no end; every rational +number will occur in this series, and will have a finite number of +predecessors. In the other cases the proof is rather more difficult. + +All denumerable series have the same cardinal number α0, however +different they may appear. But it must not be supposed that there is no +number greater than α0. On the contrary, there is an infinite series of +such numbers[†](#fn310-2). The transfinite cardinals are asserted by +Cantor to be well-ordered, that is, such that every one of them except +the last of all (if there be a last) has an immediate successor, and so +has every class of them which has any numbers at all after it. But they +do not all have an immediate predecessor; for example, α0 itself has no +immediate predecessor. For if it had one, this would have to be the last +of the finite numbers; but we know that there is no last finite number. +But Cantor’s grounds for his assertion that the cardinals are +well-ordered seem insufficient, so that for the present this must remain +an open question. + +**288.** Of the transfinite numbers other than α0, the most important is +the number of the continuum. Cantor has proved that this number is not +α0[‡](#fn310-3), and hopes to prove that it is α1[§](#fn310-4)—a hope +which, though he has long cherished it, remains unfulfilled. He has +shown that the number of the continuum is 2α0[‖](#fn310-5)—a most +curious theorem; but it must still remain doubtful whether this number +is α1, though there are reasons which rendered this +probable[¶](#fn310-6). As to the definition of α1 and of the whole +succession of transfinite cardinals, this is a matter which is better +postponed until we have discussed the transfinite ordinals. It must not +be supposed that we can obtain a new transfinite cardinal by merely +adding one to it, or even by adding any finite number or α0. On the +contrary, such puny weapons cannot disturb the transfinite cardinals. It +is known that in the case of α0 and a certain class of transfinite +cardinals, a number is equal to its double; also that in the case of α0 +and a presumably different class of transfinite cardinals, a number is +equal to its square. The sum of two numbers belonging to the former of +these classes is equal to the greater of the two numbers. It is not +known whether all transfinite cardinals belong to one or both of these +classes[\*](#fn311-1). + +**289.** It may be asked: In what respect do the finite and transfinite +cardinals together form a single series? Is not the series of finite +numbers complete in itself, without the possibility of extending its +generating relation? If we define the series of integers by means of the +generating relation of differing by one—the method which is most natural +when the series is to be considered as a progression—then, it must be +confessed, the finite integers form a complete series, and there is no +possibility of adding terms to them. But if, as is appropriate in the +theory of cardinals, we consider the series as arising by correlation +with that of whole and part among classes of which the integers can be +asserted, then we see that this relation does extend beyond finite +numbers. There are an infinite number of infinite classes in which any +given finite class is contained; and thus, by correlation with these, +the number of the given finite class precedes that of any one of the +infinite classes. Whether there is any other sense in which all +integers, finite and transfinite, form a single series, I leave +undecided; the above sense would be sufficient to show that there is no +logical error in regarding them as a single series, if it were known +that of any two cardinals one must be the greater. But it is now time to +turn our attention to the transfinite ordinals. + +Notes + +α0 results very simply from the proposition of α0 (vide supra), and the +number of finite classes is α0. Hence the number of all infinite classes +of finite integers is 2α0 for the subtraction of α0 does not diminish +any number greater than α0; 2α0 is therefore the number of the +continuum. To prove that this number is α1 it would therefore be +sufficient to show that the number of infinite classes of finite +integers is the same as the number of types of series that can be formed +of all the finite integers; for the latter number, as we shall see in +the α1. + +The theorem that the number of the continuum is 2results very simply +from the proposition of [Chapter xxxvi](#chapter36) , that infinite +classes of finite integers form a continuous series. The number of all +classes of finite integers is 2(vide supra), and the number of finite +classes is. Hence the number of all infinite classes of finite integers +is 2for the subtraction ofdoes not diminish any number greater than; 2is +therefore the number of the continuum. To prove that this number isit +would therefore be sufficient to show that the number of infinite +classes of finite integers is the same as the number of types of series +that can be formed of all the finite integers; for the latter number, as +we shall see in the [next chapter](#chapter38) , is + +## CHAPTER XXXVIII. +Transfinite Ordinals. + +**290.** The transfinite ordinals are, if possible, even more +interesting and remarkable than the transfinite cardinals. Unlike the +latter, they do not obey the commutative law, and their arithmetic is +therefore quite different from elementary arithmetic. For every +transfinite cardinal, or at any rate for any one of a certain class, +there is an infinite collection of transfinite ordinals, although the +cardinal number of all ordinals is the same as or less than that of all +cardinals. The ordinals which belong to series whose cardinal number is +α0 are called the second class of ordinals; those corresponding to α1 +are called the third class, and so on. The ordinal numbers are +essentially classes of series, or better still, classes of generating +relations of series; they are defined, for the most part, by some +relation to mathematical induction. The finite ordinals, also, may be +conceived as types of series: for example, the ordinal number n may be +taken to mean “a serial relation of n terms;” or, in popular language, n +terms in a row. This is an ordinal notion, distinct from “nth,” and +logically prior to it[\*](#fn312-1). In this sense, n is the name of a +class of serial relations. It is this sense, not that expressed by +“nth,” which is generalized by Cantor so as to apply to infinite +series. + +**291.** Let us begin with Cantor’s definition of the second class of +ordinal numbers[†](#fn312-2). + +“It is now to be shown,” he says, “how we are led to the definitions of +the new numbers, and in what way are obtained the natural sections, +which I call classes of numbers, in the absolutely endless series of +real integers …. The series (1) of positive real whole numbers 1, 2, 3, +… ν, … arises from repeated positing and combination of units which +are presupposed and regarded as equal; the number ν is the expression +both for a certain finite amount (Anzahl) of such successive positings, +and for the combination of the units posited into a whole. Thus the +formation of finite real whole numbers rests on the addition of a unit +to a number which has already been formed; I call this moment, which, as +we shall see immediately, also plays an essential part in the formation +of the higher integers, the first principle of formation. The amount +(Anzahl) of possible numbers ν of the class (1) is infinite, and there +is no greatest among them. Thus however contradictory it would be to +speak of a greatest number of the class (1), there is yet nothing +objectionable in imagining a new number, which we will call ω, which is +to express that the whole collection (1) is given by its law in its +natural order of succession. (In the same way as ν expresses the +combination of a certain finite amount of units into a whole.) It is +even permissible to think of the newly created number ω as a limit, +towards which the numbers ν tend, if by this nothing else is understood +but that ω is the first integer which follows all the numbers ν, i.e. is +to be called greater than each of the numbers ν. By allowing further +additions of units to follow the positing of the number ω we obtain, by +the help of first principle of formation, the further numbers + +ω + 1, ω + 2, ……… ω + ν, ………; + +Since here again we come to no greatest number, we imagine a new one, +which we may call 2ω, and which is to be the first after all previous +numbers ν and ω + ν. + +“The logical function which has given us the two numbers ω and 2ω is +evidently different from the first principle of formation; I call it the +second principle of formation of real integers, and define it more +exactly as follows: If we have any determinate succession of defined +real integers, among which there is no greatest number, by means of this +second principle of formation a new number is created, which is regarded +as the limit of those numbers, i.e. is defined as the next number +greater than all of them.” + +The two principles of formation will be made clearer by considering that +an ordinal number is merely a type or class of series, or rather of +their generating relations. Thus if we have any series which has no last +term, every part of such a series which can be defined as all the terms +up to and including a certain term of the series will have a last term. +But since the series itself has no last term, it is of a different type +from any such part or segment of itself. Hence the ordinal number +representing the series as a whole must be different from that +representing any such segment of itself, and must be a number having no +immediate predecessor, since the series has no last term. Thus ω is +simply the name of the class progression, or of the generating relations +of series of this class. The second principle of formation, in short, is +that by which we define a certain type of series having no last term. +Considering the ordinals preceding any ordinal α which is obtained by +the second principle as representing segments of a series represented by +α, the ordinal α itself represents the limit of such segments; and as we +saw before, the segments always have a limit (provided they have no +maximum), even when the original series has none[\*](#fn314-1). + +In order to define a class among transfinite ordinals (of which, as is +evident, the succession is infinite). Cantor introduces what he calls a +principle of limitation (Hemmungsprincip)[†](#fn314-2). According to +this principle, the second class of ordinals is to consist only of those +whose predecessors, from 1 upwards, form a series of the first power, +i.e. a series whose cardinal number is α0, or one whose terms, in a +suitable order, have a one-one relation to the finite integers. It is +then shown that the power, or cardinal number, of the second class of +ordinals as a whole, is different from α0 (p. 35), and is further the +very next cardinal number after α0 (p. 37). What is meant by the next +cardinal number to α0 results clearly from the following proposition (p. +38): “If M be any well-defined collection of the power of the second +class of numbers, and if any infinite portion M′ of M be taken, then +either the collection M′ can be considered as a simply infinite series, +or it is possible to establish a unique and reciprocal correspondence +between M and M′.” That is to say, any part of a collection of the +second power is either finite, or of the first power, or of the second; +and hence there is no power between the first and second. + +**292.** Before proceeding to the addition, multiplication, etc., of +ordinals, it will be well to take the above propositions, as far as +possible, out of their mathematical dress, and to state, in ordinary +language, exactly what it is they mean. As for the ordinal ω, this is +simply the name for the class of generating relations of progressions. +We have seen how a progression is defined: it is a series which has a +first term, and a term next after each term, and which obeys +mathematical induction. By mathematical induction itself we can show +that every part of a progression, if it has a last term, has some finite +ordinal number n, where n denotes the class of series consisting of n +terms in order; while every part which has no last term is itself a +progression; also we can show (what is indeed obvious) that no finite +ordinal will represent a progression. Now progressions are a perfectly +definite class of series, and the principle of abstraction shows that +there is some entity to which all of them have a relation which they +have to nothing else—for all progressions are ordinally similar (i.e. +have a one-one relation such that earlier terms are correlated with +earlier ones, and later with later), and ordinal similarity is +symmetrical, transitive, and (among series) reflexive. This entity, to +which the principle of abstraction points, may be taken to be the type +or class of serial relations, since no series can belong to more than +one type of series. The type to which progressions belong, then, is what +Cantor calls ω. Mathematical induction, starting from any finite +ordinal, can never reach ω, since ω is not a member of the class of +finite ordinals. Indeed, we may define the finite ordinals or +cardinals—and where series are concerned, this seems the best +definition—as those which, starting from 0 or 1, can be reached by +mathematical induction. This principle, therefore, is not to be taken as +an axiom or postulate, but as the definition of finitude. It is to be +observed that, in virtue of the principle that every number has an +immediate successor, we can prove that any assigned number, say, 10,937, +is finite—provided, of course, that the number assigned is a finite +number. That is to say, every proposition concerning 10,937 can be +proved without the use of mathematical induction, which, as most of us +can remember, was not mentioned in the Arithmetic of our childhood. +There is therefore no kind of logical error in using the principle as a +definition of the class of finite numbers, nor is there a shadow of a +reason for supposing that the principle applies to all ordinal or all +cardinal numbers. + +At this point, a word to the philosophers may be in season. Most of them +seem to suppose that the distinction between the finite and the infinite +is one whose meaning is immediately evident, and they reason on the +subject as though no precise definitions were needed. But the fact is, +that the distinction of the finite from the infinite is by no means +easy, and has only been brought to light by modern mathematicians. The +numbers 0 and 1 are capable of logical definition, and it can be shown +logically that every number has a successor. We can now define finite +numbers either by the fact that mathematical induction can reach them, +starting from 0 or 1—in Dedekind’s language, that they form the chain of +0 or 1—or by the fact that they are the numbers of collections such that +no proper part of them has the same number as the whole. These two +conditions may be easily shown to be equivalent. But they alone +precisely distinguish the finite from the infinite, and any discussion +of infinity which neglects them must be more or less frivolous. + +**293.** With regard to numbers of the second class other than ω, we may +make the following remark. A collection of two or more terms is always, +except possibly for some very large infinite collections, the field of +more than one serial relation. Men may be arranged by their rank, age, +wealth, or in alphabetical order: all these relations among men generate +series, and each places mankind in a different order. But when a +collection is finite, all possible orders give one and the same ordinal +number, namely that corresponding to the cardinal number of the +collection. That is to say, all series which can be formed of a certain +finite number of terms are ordinally similar. With infinite series, this +is quite different. An infinite collection of terms which is capable of +different orders may belong, in its various orders, to quite different +types. We have already seen that the rationals, in one order, form a +compact series with no beginning or end, while in another order they +form a progression. These are series of entirely different types; and +the same possibility extends to all infinite series. The ordinal type of +a series is not changed by the interchange of two consecutive terms, +nor, consequently, in virtue of mathematical induction, by any finite +number of such interchanges. The general principle is, that the type of +a series is not changed by what may be called a permutation. That is, if +P be a serial relation by which the terms of u are ordered, R a one-one +relation whose domain and whose converse domain are both u, then ˘RPR is +a serial relation of the same type as P; and all serial relations whose +field is u, and which are of the same type as P, are of the above form +˘RPR. But by a rearrangement not reducible to a permutation, the type, +in general, is changed. Consider, for example, the natural numbers, +first in their natural order, and then in the order in which 2 comes +first, then all the higher numbers in their natural order, and last of +all 1. In the first order, the natural numbers form a progression; in +the second, they form a progression together with a last term. In the +second form, mathematical induction no longer applies; there are +propositions which hold of 2, and of every subsequent finite number, but +not of 1. The first form is the type of any fundamental series of the +kind we considered in [Chapter xxxvi](#chapter36); the second is the +type of any such series together with its limit. Cantor has shown that +every denumerable collection can be given an order which corresponds to +any assigned ordinal number of the second class[\*](#fn316-1). Hence the +second class of ordinal numbers may be defined as all the types of +well-ordered series in which any one given denumerable collection can be +arranged by means of different generating relations. The possibility of +such different types depends upon the fundamental property of infinite +collections, that an infinite part of an infinite collection can always +be found, which will have a one-one correlation with the whole. If the +original collection was a series, the part, by this correlation, becomes +a series ordinally similar to the whole: the remaining terms, if added +after all the terms of the infinite part, will then make the whole +ordinally different from what it was[†](#fn316-2). + +We may assimilate the theory of ordinals to that of cardinals as +follows. Two relations will be said to be like when there is a one-one +relation S, whose domain is the field of one of them (P), and which is +such that the other relation is ˘SPS. If P be a well-ordered relation. +i.e. one which generates a well-ordered series, the class of relations +like P may be defined as the ordinal number of P. Thus ordinal numbers +result from likeness among relations as cardinals from similarity among +classes. + +**294.** We can now understand the rules for the addition and +multiplication of transfinite ordinals. Both operations obey the +associative, but not the commutative law. The distributive law is true, +in general, only in the form + +γ(α + β) = γα + γβ, + +where α + β, α, β are multipliers[\*](#fn317-1). That addition does not +obey the commutative law may be easily seen. Take for example ω + 1 and +1 + ω. The first denotes a progression followed by a single term: this +is the type presented by a progression and its limit, which is different +from a simple progression. Hence ω + 1 is a different ordinal from ω. +But 1 + ω denotes a progression preceded by a single term, and this is +again a progression. Hence 1 + ω = ω, but 1 + ω does not equal ω + +1[†](#fn317-2). The numbers of the second class are, in fact, of two +kinds, (1) those which have an immediate predecessor, (2) those which +have none. Numbers such as ω, ω . 2, ω . 3, … ω2, ω3 … ωω … have no +immediate predecessor. If any of these numbers be added to a finite +number, the same transfinite number reappears; but if a finite number be +added to any of these numbers, we get a new number. The numbers with no +predecessor represent series which have no end, while those which have a +predecessor represent series which have an end. It is plain that terms +added at the beginning of a series with no end leave it endless; but the +addition of a terminating series after an endless one produces a +terminating series, and therefore a new type of order. Thus there is +nothing mysterious about these rules of addition, which simply express +the type of series resulting from the combination of two given series. + +Hence it is easy to obtain the rules of subtraction[‡](#fn317-3). If α +is less than β, the equation + +α + ξ = β + +has always one and only one solution in ξ, which we may represent by β − +α. This gives the type of series that must be added after α to produce +β. But the equation + +ξ + α = β + +will sometimes have no solution, and at other times an infinite number +of solutions. Thus the equation + +ξ + ω = ω + 1 + +has no solution at all: no number of terms added at the beginning of a +progression will produce a progression together with a last term. In +fact, in the equation ξ + α = β, if α represents an endless type, while +β represents a terminating type, it is sufficiently evident that terms +added before α can never produce a terminating type, and therefore can +never produce the type β. On the other hand, if we consider the equation + +ξ + ω = ω . 2 + +this will be satisfied by ξ = ω + n, where n is zero or any finite +number. For n before the second ω will coalesce with this to form ω, and +thus ω + n + ω = ω . 2. In this case, therefore, ξ has an infinite +number of values. In all such cases, however, the possible values of ξ +have a minimum, which is a sort of principal value of the difference +between β and α. Thus subtraction is of two kinds, according as we seek +a number which, added to α, will give β, or a number to which α may be +added so as to give β. In the first case, provided α is less than β, +there is always a unique solution; in the second case, there may be no +solution, and there may be an infinite number of solutions. + +**295.** The multiplication of ordinals is defined as +follows[\*](#fn318-1). Let M and N be two series of the types α and β. +In N, in place of each element n, substitute a series Mn of the type α; +and let S be the series formed of all the terms of all series Mn, taken +in the following order: (1) any two elements of S which belong to the +same series Mn are to preserve the order they had in Mn; two elements +which belong to different series Mn, Mn′ are to have the order which n +and n′ have in N. Then the type of S depends only upon α and β, and is +defined to be their product αβ, where α is the multiplicand, and β the +multiplicator. It is easy to see that products do not always obey the +commutative law. For example, 2 . ω is the type of series presented by + +e1, f1; e2, f2, e3, f3; … eν, fν; …… + +which is a progression, so that 2 . ω = ω. But ω . 2 is the type + +e1, e2, e3 … eν, …; f1, f2, f3 … fν, … + +which is a combination of two progressions, but not a single +progression. In the former series, there is only one term, e1, which has +no immediate predecessor; in the latter there are two, e1 and f1. + +Of division, as of subtraction, two kinds must be +distinguished[†](#fn318-2). If there are three ordinals α, β, γ, such +that β = αγ, then the equation β = αξ has no other solution than ξ = γ, +and we may therefore denote γ by β/α[\*](#fn319-1). But the equation β = +ξα, if soluble at all, may have several or even an infinity of roots; of +which, however, one is always the smallest. This smallest root is +denoted by β//α. + +Multiplication of ordinals is the process of representing a series of +series as a single series, each series being taken as a whole, and +preserving its place in the series of series. Division, on the other +hand, is the process of splitting up a single series into a series of +series, without altering the order of its terms. Both these processes +have some importance in connection with dimensions. Division, as is +plain, is only possible with some types of series; those with which it +is not possible may be called primes. The theory of primes is +interesting, but it is not necessary for us to go into it[†](#fn319-2). + +**296.** Every rational integral or exponential function of ω is a +number of the second class, even when such numbers as ωω, ωω2, etc., +occur[‡](#fn319-3). But it must not be supposed that all types of +denumerable series are capable of such a form. For example, the type η, +which represents the rationals in order of magnitude[§](#fn319-4), is +wholly incapable of expression in terms of ω. Such a type is not called +by Cantor an ordinal number. The term ordinal number is reserved for +well-ordered series, i.e. such as have the following two +properties[‖](#fn319-5): + +1. There is in the series F a first term. +2. If F′ is a part of F, and if F possesses one or more terms which + come after all the terms of F′, then there is a term f′ of F which + immediately follows F′, so that there is no term of F before f′ and + after all terms of F′. + +All possible functions of ω and finite ordinals only, to the exclusion +of other types such as that of the rationals, represent well-ordered +series, though the converse does not hold. In every well-ordered series, +there is a term next after any given term, except the last term if there +be one; and provided the series is infinite, it always contains parts +which are progressions. A term which comes next after a progression has +no immediate predecessor, and the type of the segment formed of its +predecessors is of what is called the second species. The other terms +have immediate predecessors, and the types of the segments formed of +their predecessors are said to be of the first species. + +**297.** The consideration of series which are not well-ordered is +important, though the results have far less affinity to Arithmetic than +in the case of well-ordered series. Thus the type η is not expressible +as a function of ω, since all functions of ω represent series with a +first term, whereas η has no first term, and all functions of ω +represent series in which every term has an immediate successor, which +again is not the case with η. Even the series of negative and positive +integers and zero cannot be expressed in terms of ω, since this series +has no beginning. Cantor defines for this purpose a serial type \*ω, +which may be taken as the type of a regression (ib. §7). The definition +of a progression, as we have seen, is relative to some one-one +aliorelative P[†](#fn320-1). When ˘P generates a progression, this +progression with respect to ˘P is a regression with respect to P, and +its type, considered as generated by P, is denoted by \*ω. Thus the +whole series of negative and positive integers is of the type \*ω + ω. +Such a series can be divided anywhere into two progressions, generated +by converse relations; but in regard to one relation, it is not +reducible to any combination of progressions. Such a series is +completely defined, by the methods of [Part IV](#part4), as follows: P +is a one-one aliorelative; the field of P is identical with that of ˘P; +the disjunctive relation “some finite positive power of P” is transitive +and asymmetrical; and the series consists of all terms having this +relation or its converse to a given term together with the given term. +The class of series corresponding to any transfinite ordinal type may +always be thus defined by the methods of [Part IV](#part4); but where a +type cannot be expressed as a function of ω or \*ω to or both, it will +usually be necessary, if we are to define our type completely, either to +bring in a reference to some other relation, in regard to which the +terms of our series form a progression, or to specify the behaviour of +our series with respect to limits. Thus the type of the series of +rationals is not defined by specifying that it is compact, and has no +beginning or end; this definition applies also, for example, to what +Cantor calls the semi-continuum, i.e. the continuum with its ends cut +off. We must add that the rationals are denumerable, i.e. that, with +respect to another relation, they form a progression. I doubt whether, +in this case, the behaviour of the rationals with regard to limits can +be used for definition. Their chief characteristics in this respect are: +(1) that they are condensed in themselves, i.e. every term of them is +the limit of certain progressions and regressions; (2) in any interval, +a progression or a regression which has no limit is contained. But both +these characteristics belong to the series of irrational numbers, i.e. +to the series obtained by omitting all rationals from the series of real +numbers; yet this series is not denumerable. Thus it would seem that we +cannot define the type η, to which the rationals belong, without +reference to two generating relations. The type η is that of endless +compact series whose terms, with reference to another relation, form a +progression. + +From the last remark, we see clearly the importance of the correlation +of series, with which we began the discussions of [Part V](#part5). For +it is only by means of correlation that the type of the rationals, and +hence the continuum, can be defined. Until we bring in some other +relation than that by which the order of magnitude among rationals +arises, there is nothing to distinguish the type of the rationals from +that of the irrationals. + +**298.** The consideration of ordinals not expressible as functions of ω +shows clearly that ordinals in general are to be considered—as I +suggested at the beginning of this chapter—as classes or types of serial +relations, and to this view Cantor himself now apparently adheres; for +in the article in the Mathematische Annalen, Vol. xlvi, he speaks of +them always as types of order, not as numbers, and in the following +article (Math. Annalen, xlix, §12), he definitely restricts ordinal +numbers to well-ordered series. In his earlier writings, he confined +himself more to functions of ω, which bear many analogies to more +familiar kinds of numbers. These are, in fact, types of order which may +be presented by series of finite and transfinite cardinals which begin +with some cardinal. But other types of order, as we have now seen, have +very little resemblance to numbers. + +**299.** It is worth while to repeat the definitions of general notions +involved in terms of what may be called +relation-arithmetic[\*](#fn321-1). If P, Q be two relations such that +there is a one-one relation S whose domain is the field of P and which +is such that Q = ˘SPS, then P and Q are said to be like. The class of +relations like P, which I denote by λP, is called P’s relation-number. +If the fields of P and Q have no common terms, P + Q is defined to be P +or Q or the relation which holds between any term of the field of P and +any term of the field of Q, and between no other terms. Thus P + Q is +not equal to Q + P. Again λP + λQ is defined as λ(P + Q). For the +summation of an infinite number of relations, we require an aliorelative +whose field is composed of relations whose fields are mutually +exclusive. Let P be such a relation, p its field, so that p is a class +of relations. Then ΣPp is to denote either one of the relations of the +class p or the relation of any term belonging to the field of some +relation Q of the class p to a term belonging to the field of another +relation R (of the class p) to which Q has the relation P. (If P be a +serial relation, and p a class of serial relations, ΣPp will be the +generating relation of the sum of the various series generated by terms +of p taken in the order generated by P.) We may define the sum of the +relation-numbers of the various terms of p as the relation-number of +ΣPp. If all the terms of p have the same relation-number, say α, and if +β be the relation-number of P, a × β will be defined to be the +relation-number of ΣPp. Proceeding in this way, it is easy to prove +generally the three formal laws which hold of well-ordered series, +namely: + +(α + β) + γ = α + (β + γ)α(β + γ) = αβ + αγ(αβ)γ = α(βγ). + +The proofs are very closely analogous to those discovered by Mr +Whitehead for cardinal numbers (Amer. Journal of Math., Vol. xxiv); but +they differ by the fact that no method has yet been discovered for +defining an infinite product of relation-numbers, or even of ordinal +numbers. + +**300.** It is to be observed that the merit of the above method is that +it allows no doubt as to existence-theorems—a point in which Cantor’s +work leaves something to be desired. As this is an important matter, and +one in which philosophers are apt to be sceptical, I shall here repeat +the argument in outline. It may be shown, to begin with, that no finite +class embraces all terms: this results, with a little care, from the +fact that, since 0 is a cardinal number, the number of numbers up to and +including a finite number n is n + 1. Further, if n be a finite number, +n + 1 is a new finite number different from all its predecessors. Hence +finite cardinals form a progression, and therefore the ordinal number ω +and the cardinal number α0 exist (in the mathematical sense). Hence, by +mere rearrangements of the series of finite cardinals, we obtain all +ordinals of Cantor’s second class. We may now define the ordinal number +ω1 as the class of serial relations such that, if u be a class +contained in the field of one of them, to say that u has successors +implies and is implied by saying that u has α0 terms or a finite number +of terms; and it is easy to show that the series of ordinals of the +first and second classes in order of magnitude is of this type. Hence +the existence of ω1 is proved; and α1 is defined to be the number of +terms in a series whose generating relation is of the type ω1. Hence we +can advance to ω2 and α2 and so on, and even to ωω and αω, whose +existence can be similarly proved: ωω will be the type of generating +relation of a series such that, if u be a class contained in the series, +to say that u has successors is equivalent to saying that u is finite or +has, for a suitable finite value of n, αn terms. This process gives us a +one-one correlation of ordinals with cardinals: it is evident that, by +extending the process, we can make each cardinal which can belong to a +well-ordered series correspond to one and only one ordinal. Cantor +assumes as an axiom that every class is the field of some well-ordered +series, and deduces that all cardinals can be correlated with ordinals +by the above method. This assumption seems to me unwarranted, especially +in view of the fact that no one has yet succeeded in arranging a class +of 2α0 terms in a well-ordered series. We do not know that of any two +different cardinal numbers one must be the greater, and it may be that +2α0 is neither greater nor less than α1 and α2 and their successors, +which may be called well-ordered cardinals because they apply to +well-ordered classes. + +**301.** There is a difficulty as regards the type of the whole series +of ordinal numbers. It is easy to prove that every segment of this +series is well-ordered, and it is natural to suppose that the whole +series is also well-ordered. If so, its type would have to be the +greatest of all ordinal numbers, for the ordinals less than a given +ordinal form, in order of magnitude, a series whose type is the given +ordinal. But there cannot be a greatest ordinal number, because every +ordinal is increased by the addition of 1. From this contradiction, M. +Burali-Forti, who discovered it[\*](#fn323-1), infers that of two +different ordinals, as of two different cardinals, it is not necessary +that one should be greater and the other less. In this, however, he +consciously contradicts a theorem of Cantor’s which affirms the +opposite[†](#fn323-2). I have examined this theorem with all possible +care, and have failed to find any flaw in the proof[‡](#fn323-3). But +there is another premiss in M. Burali-Forti’s argument, which appears to +me more capable of denial, and that is, that the series of all ordinal +numbers is well-ordered. This does not follow from the fact that all its +segments are well-ordered, and must, I think, be rejected, since, so far +as I know, it is incapable of proof. In this way, it would seem, the +contradiction in question can be avoided. + +**302.** We may now return to the subject of the successive derivatives +of a series, already briefly discussed in [Chapter xxxvi](#chapter36). +This forms one of the most interesting applications of those ordinals +which are functions of ω, and may even be used as an independent method +of defining them. We have already seen how, from a series P, its first +derivative is obtained[§](#fn323-4). The first derivative of P, which is +denoted by P′, is the class of its limiting points. P′′, the second +derivative of P, consists of the limiting-points of P′, and so on. Every +infinite collection has at least one limiting-point: for example, ω is +the limit of the finite ordinals. By induction we can define any +derivative of finite order Pν. If Pν consists of a finite number of +points, Pν+1 vanishes; if this happens for any finite number ν, P is +said to be of the 1st genus and the νth species. But it may happen that +no Pν vanishes, and in this case all finite derivatives may have common +points. The points which all have in common form a collection which is +defined as Pω. It is to be observed that Pω is thus defined without +requiring the definition of ω. A term x belongs to Pω if, whatever +finite integer ν may be, x belongs to Pν. It is to be observed that, +though P′ may contain points not belonging to P, yet subsequent +derivatives introduce no new points. This illustrates the creative +nature of the method of limits, or rather of segments: when it is first +applied, it may yield new terms, but later applications give no further +terms. That is, there is an intrinsic difference between a series which +has been, or may have been, obtained as the derivative of some other +series, and one not so obtainable. Every series which contains its first +derivative is itself the derivative of an infinite number of other +series[\*](#fn324-1). The successive derivatives, like the segments +determined by the various terms of a regression, form a series in which +each term is part of each of its predecessors; hence Pω, if it exists, +is the lower limit of all the derivatives of finite order. From Pω it is +easy to go on to Pω+ν, Pω.2, etc. Series can be actually constructed in +which any assigned derivative, finite or transfinite of the second +class, is the first to vanish. When none of the finite derivatives +vanishes, P is said to be of the second genus. It must not be inferred, +however, that P is not denumerable. On the contrary, the first +derivative of the rationals is the number-continuum, which is perfect, +so that all its derivatives are identical with itself; yet the +rationals, as we know, are denumerable. But when Pν vanishes, P is +always denumerable, if ν be finite or of the second class. + +The theory of derivatives is of great importance to the theory of real +functions[†](#fn324-2), where it practically enables us to extend +mathematical induction to any ordinal of the second class. But for +philosophy, it seems unnecessary to say more of it than is contained in +the above remarks and in those of [Chapter xxxvi](#chapter36). Popularly +speaking, the first derivative consists of all points in whose +neighbourhood an infinite number of terms of the collection are heaped +up; and subsequent derivatives give, as it were, different degrees of +concentration in any neighbourhood. Thus it is easy to see why +derivatives are relevant to continuity: to be continuous, a collection +must be as concentrated as possible in every neighbourhood containing +any terms of the collection. But such popular modes of expression are +incapable of the precision which belongs to Cantor’s terminology. + +Notes + +## CHAPTER XXXIX. +The Infinitesimal Calculus. + +**303.** The Infinitesimal Calculus is the traditional name for the +differential and integral calculus together, and as such I have retained +it; although, as we shall shortly see, there is no allusion to, or +implication of, the infinitesimal in any part of this branch of +mathematics. + +The philosophical theory of the Calculus has been, ever since the +subject was invented, in a somewhat disgraceful condition. Leibniz +himself—who, one would have supposed, should have been competent to give +a correct account of his own invention—had ideas, upon this topic, which +can only be described as extremely crude. He appears to have held that, +if metaphysical subtleties are left aside, the Calculus is only +approximate, but is justified practically by the fact that the errors to +which it gives rise are less than those of observation[\*](#fn325-1). +When he was thinking of Dynamics, his belief in the actual infinitesimal +hindered him from discovering that the Calculus rests on the doctrine of +limits, and made him regard his dx and dy as neither zero, nor finite, +nor mathematical fictions, but as really representing the units to +which, in his philosophy, infinite division was supposed to +lead[†](#fn325-2). And in his mathematical expositions of the subject, +he avoided giving careful proofs, contenting himself with the +enumeration of rules[‡](#fn325-3). At other times, it is true, he +definitely rejects infinitesimals as philosophically valid[§](#fn325-4); +but he failed to show how, without the use of infinitesimals, the +results obtained by means of the Calculus could yet be exact, and not +approximate. In this respect, Newton is preferable to Leibniz: his +Lemmas[‖](#fn325-5) give the true foundation of the Calculus in the +doctrine of limits, and, assuming the continuity of space and time in +Cantor’s sense, they give valid proofs of its rules so far as +spatio-temporal magnitudes are concerned. But Newton was, of course, +entirely ignorant of the fact that his Lemmas depend upon the modern +theory of continuity; moreover, the appeal to time and change, which +appears in the word fluxion, and to space, which appears in the Lemmas, +was wholly unnecessary, and served merely to hide the fact that no +definition of continuity had been given. Whether Leibniz avoided this +error, seems highly doubtful; it is at any rate certain that, in his +first published account of the Calculus, he defined the differential +coefficient by means of the tangent to a curve. And by his emphasis on +the infinitesimal, he gave a wrong direction to speculation as to the +Calculus, which misled all mathematicians before Weierstrass (with the +exception, perhaps, of De Morgan), and all philosophers down to the +present day. It is only in the last thirty or forty years that +mathematicians have provided the requisite mathematical foundations for +a philosophy of the Calculus; and these foundations, as is natural, are +as yet little known among philosophers, except in France[\*](#fn326-1). +Philosophical works on the subject, such as Cohen’s Princip der +Infinitesimalmethode und seine Geschichte[†](#fn326-2), are vitiated, as +regards the constructive theory, by an undue mysticism, inherited from +Kant, and leading to such results as the identification of intensive +magnitude with the extensive infinitesimal[‡](#fn326-3). I shall examine +in the [next chapter](#chapter40) the conception of the infinitesimal, +which is essential to all philosophical theories of the Calculus +hitherto propounded. For the present, I am only concerned to give the +constructive theory as it results from modern mathematics. + +**304.** The differential coefficient depends essentially upon the +notion of a continuous function of a continuous variable. The notion to +be defined is not purely ordinal; on the contrary, it is applicable, in +the first instance, only to series of numbers, and thence, by extension, +to series in which distances or stretches are numerically measureable. +But first of all we must define a continuous function. + +We have already seen ([Chap. xxxii](#chapter32)) what is meant by a +function of a variable, and what is meant by a continuous variable +([Chap. xxxvi](#chapter36)). If the function is one-valued, and is only +ordered by correlation with the variable, then, when the variable is +continuous, there is no sense in asking whether the function is +continuous; for such a series by correlation is always ordinally similar +to its prototype. But when, as where the variable and the field of the +function are both classes of numbers, the function has an order +independent of correlation, it may or may not happen that the values of +the function, in the order obtained by correlation, form a continuous +series in the independent order. When they do so in any interval, the +function is said to be continuous in that interval. The precise +definitions of continuous and discontinuous functions, where both x and +f(x) are numerical, are given by Dini[\*](#fn327-1) as follows. The +independent variable x is considered to consist of the real numbers, or +of all the real numbers in a certain interval; f(x), in the interval +considered, is to be one-valued, even at the end-points of the interval, +and is to be also composed of real numbers. We then have the following +definitions, the function being defined for the interval between α and +β, and a being some real number in this interval. + +“We call f(x) continuous for x = a, or in the point a, in which it has +the value f(a), if for every positive number σ, different from 0, but as +small as we please, there exists a positive number ε, different from 0, +such that, for all values of δ which are numerically less than ε, the +difference f(a + δ) − f(a) is numerically less than σ. In other words, +f(x) is continuous in the point x = a, where it has the value f(a), if +the limit of its values to the right and left of a is the same, and +equal to f(a).” + +“Again, f(x) is discontinuous for x = a, if, for any[†](#fn327-2) +positive value of σ, there is no corresponding positive value of ε such +that, for all values of δ which are numerically less than ε, f(a + δ) − +f(a) is always less than σ; in other words, f(x) is discontinuous for x += a, when the values f(a + h) of f(x) to the right of a, and the values +f(a − h) of f(x) to the left of a, the one and the other, have no +determinate limits, or, if they have such, these are different on the +two sides of a; or, if they are the same, they differ from the value +f(a), which the function has in the point a.” + +These definitions of the continuity and discontinuity of a function, it +must be confessed, are somewhat complicated; but it seems impossible to +introduce any simplification without loss of rigour. Roughly, we may say +that a function is continuous in the neighbourhood of a, when its values +as it approaches a approach the value f(a), and have f(a) for their +limit both to left and right. But the notion of the limit of a function +is a somewhat more complicated notion than that of a limit in general, +with which we have been hitherto concerned. A function of a perfectly +general kind will have no limit as it approaches any given point. In +order that it should have a limit as x approaches a from the left, it is +necessary and sufficient that, if any number ε be mentioned, any two +values of f(x), when x is sufficiently near to a, but less than a, will +differ by less than ε; in popular language, the value of the function +does not make any sudden jumps as x approaches a from the left. Under +similar circumstances, f(x) will have a limit as it approaches a from +the right. But these two limits, even when both exist, need not be equal +either to each other, or to f(a), the value of the function when x = a. +The precise condition for a determinate finite limit may be thus +stated[\*](#fn328-1): + +“In order that the values of y to the right or left of a finite number a +(for instance to the right) should have a determinate and finite limit, +it is necessary and sufficient that, for every arbitrarily small +positive number σ, there should be a positive number ε, such that the +difference ya+ε − ya+δ between the value ya+ε of y for x = a + ε, and +the value ya+δ which corresponds to the value a + δ of x, should be +numerically less than σ, for every δ which is greater than 0 and less +than ε.” + +It is possible, instead of thus defining the limit of a function, and +then discussing whether it exists, to define generally a whole class of +limits[†](#fn328-2). In this method, a number z belongs to the class of +limits of y for x = a, if, within any interval containing a, however +small, y will approach nearer to z than by any given difference. Thus, +for example, sin 1/x, as x approaches zero, will take every value from +−1 to +1 (both inclusive) in every finite interval containing zero, +however small. Thus the interval from −1 to +1 forms, in this case, the +class of limits for x = 0. This method has the advantage that the class +of limits always exists. It is then easy to define the limit as the only +member of the class of limits, in case this class should happen to have +only one member. This method seems at once simpler and more general. + +**305.** Being now agreed as to the meaning of a continuous function, +and of the limit of a function, we can attack the question of the +derivative of a function, or differential coefficient. It was formerly +supposed that all continuous functions could be differentiated, but this +is now known to be erroneous. Some can be differentiated everywhere, +others everywhere except in one point, others have everywhere a +differential on the right, but sometimes none on the left, others +contain an infinite number of points, in any finite interval, in which +they cannot be differentiated, though in an infinitely greater number of +points they can be differentiated, others lastly—and these are properly +the most general class—cannot be differentiated anywhere at +all[‡](#fn328-3). But the conditions under which a function may be +differentiated, though they are of some importance to the philosophy of +space and of motion, need not greatly concern us here; and in any case, +we must first know what a differential is. + +If f(x) be a function which is finite and continuous at the point x, +then it may happen that the fraction + +{f(x + δ) − f(x)}/δ + +has a definite limit as δ approaches to zero. If this does happen, the +limit is denoted by f′(x), and is called the derivative or differential +of f(x) in the point x. If, that is to say, there be some number z such +that, given any number ε however small, if δ be any number less than +some number η, but positive, then {f{x ± δ) − f(x)}/±δ differs from z by +less than ε, then z is the derivative of f(x) in the point x. If the +limit in question does not exist, then f(x) has no derivative at the +point x. It f(x) be not continuous at this point, the limit does not +exist; if f(x) be continuous, the limit may or may not exist. + +**306.** The only point which it is important to notice at present is, +that there is no implication of the infinitesimal in this definition. +The number δ is always finite, and in the definition of the limit there +is nothing to imply the contrary. In fact, {f(x + δ) − f(x)}/δ, regarded +as a function of δ, is wholly indeterminate when δ = 0. The limit of a +function for a given value of the independent variable is, as we have +seen, an entirely different notion from its value for the said value of +the independent variable, and the two may or may not be the same number. +In the present case, the limit may be definite, but the value for δ = 0 +can have no meaning. Thus it is the doctrine of limits that underlies +the Calculus, and not any pretended use of the infinitesimal. This is +the only point of philosophic importance in the present subject, and it +is only to elicit this point that I have dragged the reader through so +much mathematics. + +**307.** Before examining the infinitesimal on its own account, it +remains to define the definite integral, and to show that this, too, +does not involve the infinitesimal. The indefinite integral, which is +the mere converse of the differential, is of no importance to us; but +the definite integral has an independent definition, which must be +briefly examined. + +Just as the derivative of a function is the limit of a fraction, so the +definite integral is the limit of a sum[\*](#fn329-1). The definite +integral may be defined as follows: Let f(x) be a function which is +one-valued and finite in the interval α to β (both inclusive). Divide +this interval into any n portions by means of the (n − 1) points x1, x2, +… xn−1, and denote by δ1, δ2, … δn the n intervals x1 − α, x1 − x2, … β +− xn+1. In each of these intervals, δS, take any one of the values, +say f(ζS), which f(x) assumes in this interval, and multiply this value +by the interval δS. Now form the sum n∑1f(ζS) δS. This sum will always +be finite. If now, as n increases, this sum tends to one definite limit, +however f(ζS) may be chosen in its interval, and however the intervals +be chosen (provided only that all are less than any assigned number for +sufficiently great values of n)—then this one limit is called the +definite integral of f(x) from α to β. If there is no such limit, f(x) +is not integrable from α to β. + +**308.** As in the case of the derivative, there is only one important +remark to make about this definition. The definite integral involves +neither the infinite nor the infinitesimal, and is itself not a sum, but +only and strictly the limit of a sum. All the terms which occur in the +sum whose limit is the definite integral are finite, and the sum itself +is finite. If we were to suppose the limit actually attained, it is +true, the number of intervals would be infinite, and the magnitude of +each would be infinitesimal; but in this case, the sum becomes +meaningless. Thus the sum must not be regarded as actually attaining its +limit. But this is a respect in which series in general agree. Any +series which always ascends or always descends and has no last term +cannot reach its limit; other infinite series may have a term equal to +their limit, but if so, this is a mere accident. The general rule is, +that the limit does not belong to the series which it limits; and in the +definition of the derivative and the definite integral we have merely +another instance of this fact. The so-called infinitesimal calculus, +therefore, has nothing to do with the infinitesimal, and has only +indirectly to do with the infinite—its connection with the infinite +being, that it involves limits, and only infinite series have limits. + +The above definitions, since they involve multiplication and division, +are essentially arithmetical. Unlike the definitions of limits and +continuity, they cannot be rendered purely ordinal. But it is evident +that they may be at once extended to any numerically measurable +magnitudes, and therefore to all series in which stretches or distances +can be measured. Since spaces, times, and motions are included under +this head, the Calculus is applicable to Geometry and Dynamics. As to +the axioms involved in the assumption that geometrical and dynamical +functions can be differentiated and integrated, I shall have something +to say at a later stage. For the present, it is time to make a critical +examination of the infinitesimal on its own account. + +Notes + +## CHAPTER XL. +The Infinitesimal and the Improper Infinite. + +**309.** Until recent times, it was universally believed that +continuity, the derivative, and the definite integral, all involved +actual infinitesimals, i.e. that even if the definitions of these +notions could be formally freed from explicit mention of the +infinitesimal, yet, where the definitions applied, the actual +infinitesimal must always be found. This belief is now generally +abandoned. The definitions which have been given in previous chapters do +not in any way imply the infinitesimal, and this notion appears to have +become mathematically useless. In the present chapter, I shall first +give a definition of the infinitesimal, and then examine the cases where +this notion arises. I shall end by a critical discussion of the belief +that continuity implies the infinitesimal. + +The infinitesimal has, in general, been very vaguely defined. It has +been regarded as a number or magnitude which, though not zero, is less +than any finite number or magnitude. It has been the dx or dy of the +Calculus, the time during which a ball thrown vertically upwards is at +rest at the highest point of its course, the distance between a point on +a line and the next point, etc., etc. But none of these notions are at +all precise. The dx and dy, as we saw in the last chapter, are nothing +at all: dy/dx is the limit of a fraction whose numerator and denominator +are finite, but is not itself a fraction at all. The time during which a +ball is at rest at its highest point is a very complex notion, involving +the whole philosophic theory of motion: in [Part VII](#part7) we shall +find, when this theory has been developed, that there is no such time. +The distance between consecutive points presupposes that there are +consecutive points—a view which there is every reason to deny. And so +with most instances—they afford no precise definition of what is meant +by the infinitesimal. + +**310.** There is, so far as I know, only one precise definition, which +renders the infinitesimal a purely relative notion, correlative to +something arbitrarily assumed to be finite. When, instead, we regard +what had been taken to be infinitesimal as finite, the correlative +notion is what Cantor calls the improper infinite +(Uneigentlich-Unendliches). The definition of the relation in question +is obtained by denying the axiom of Archimedes, just as the transfinite +was obtained by denying mathematical induction. If P, Q be any two +numbers, or any two measurable magnitudes, they are said to be finite +with respect to each other when, if P be the lesser, there exists a +finite integer n such that nP is greater than Q. The existence of such +an integer constitutes the axiom of Archimedes and the definition of +relative finitude. It will be observed that it presupposes the +definition of absolute finitude among numbers—a definition which, as we +have seen, depends upon two points, (1) the connection of 1 with the +logical notion of simplicity, or of 0 with the logical notion of the +null-class; (2) the principle of mathematical induction. The notion of +relative finitude is plainly distinct from that of absolute finitude. +The latter applies only to numbers, classes and divisibilities, whereas +the former applies to any kind of measurable magnitude. Any two numbers, +classes, or divisibilities, which are both absolutely finite are also +relatively finite; but the converse does not hold. For example, ω and ω +. 2, an inch and a foot, a day and a year, are relatively finite pairs, +though all three consist of terms which are absolutely infinite. + +The definition of the infinitesimal and the improper infinite is then as +follows. If P, Q be two numbers, or two measurable magnitudes of the +same kind, and if, n being any finite integer whatever, nP is always +less than Q, then P is infinitesimal with respect to Q, and Q is +infinite with respect to P. With regard to numbers, these relative terms +are not required; for if, in the case supposed, P is absolutely finite, +then Q is absolutely infinite; while if it were possible for Q to be +absolutely finite, P would be absolutely infinitesimal—a case, however, +which we shall see reason to regard as impossible. Hence I shall assume +in future that P and Q are not numbers, but are magnitudes of a kind of +which some, at least, are numerically measurable. It should be observed +that, as regards magnitudes, the axiom of Archimedes is the only way of +defining, not only the infinitesimal, but the infinite also. Of a +magnitude not numerically measurable, there is nothing to be said except +that it is greater than some of its kind, and less than others; but from +such propositions infinity cannot be obtained. Even if there be a +magnitude greater than all others of its kind, there is no reason for +regarding it as infinite. Finitude and infinity are essentially +numerical notions, and it is only by relation to numbers that these +terms can be applied to other entities. + +**311.** The next question to be discussed is. What instances of +infinitesimals are to be found? Although there are far fewer instances +than was formerly supposed, there are yet some that are important. To +begin with, if we have been right in regarding divisibility as a +magnitude, it is plain that the divisibility of any whole containing a +finite number of simple parts is infinitesimal as compared with one +containing an infinite number. The number of parts being taken as the +measure, every infinite whole will be greater than n times every finite +whole, whatever finite number n may be. This is therefore a perfectly +clear instance. But it must not be supposed that the ratio of the +divisibilities of two wholes, of which one at least is transfinite, can +be measured by the ratio of the cardinal numbers of their simple parts. +There are two reasons why this cannot be done. The first is, that two +transfinite cardinals do not have any relation strictly analogous to +ratio; indeed, the definition of ratio is effected by means of +mathematical induction. The relation of two transfinite cardinals α, γ +expressed by the equation αβ = γ bears a certain resemblance to integral +ratios, and αβ = γδ may be used to define other ratios. But ratios so +defined are not very similar to finite ratios. The other reason why +infinite divisibilities must not be measured by transfinite numbers is, +that the whole must always have more divisibility than the part +(provided the remaining part is not relatively infinitesimal), though it +may have the same transfinite number. In short, divisibilities, like +ordinals, are equal, so long as the wholes are finite, when and only +when the cardinal numbers of the wholes are the same; but the notion of +magnitude of divisibility is distinct from that of cardinal number, and +separates itself visibly as soon as we come to infinite wholes. + +Two infinite wholes may be such that one is infinitely less divisible +than the other. Consider, for example, the length of a finite straight +line and the area of the square upon that straight line; or the length +of a finite straight line and the length of the whole straight line of +which it forms part (except in finite spaces); or an area and a volume; +or the rational numbers and the real numbers; or the collection of +points on a finite part of a line obtainable by von Staudt’s +quadrilateral construction, and the total collection of points on the +said finite part[\*](#fn333-1). All these are magnitudes of one and the +same kind, namely divisibilities, and all are infinite divisibilities; +but they are of many different orders. The points on a limited portion +of a line obtainable by the quadrilateral construction form a collection +which is infinitesimal with respect to the said portion; this portion is +ordinally infinitesimal[†](#fn333-2) with respect to any bounded area; +any bounded area is ordinally infinitesimal with respect to any bounded +volume; and any bounded volume (except in finite spaces) is ordinally +infinitesimal with respect to all space. In all these cases, the word +infinitesimal is used strictly according to the above definition, +obtained from the axiom of Archimedes. What makes these various +infinitesimals somewhat unimportant, from a mathematical standpoint, is, +that measurement essentially depends upon the axiom of Archimedes, and +cannot, in general, be extended by means of transfinite numbers, for the +reasons which have just been explained. Hence two divisibilities, of +which one is infinitesimal with respect to the other, are regarded +usually as different kinds of magnitude; and to regard them as of the +same kind gives no advantage save philosophic correctness. All of them, +however, are strictly instances of infinitesimals, and the series of +them well illustrates the relativity of the term infinitesimal. + +An interesting method of comparing certain magnitudes, analogous to the +divisibilities of any infinite collections of points, with those of +continuous stretches is given by Stolz[\*](#fn334-1), and a very similar +but more general method is given by Cantor[†](#fn334-2). These methods +are too mathematical to be fully explained here, but the gist of Stolz’s +method may be briefly explained. Let a collection of points x′ be +contained in some finite interval a to b. Divide the interval into any +number n of parts, and divide each of these parts again into any number +of parts, and so on; and let the successive divisions be so effected +that all parts become in time less than any assigned number δ. At each +stage, add together all the parts that contain points of x′. At the mth +stage, let the resulting sum be Sm. Then subsequent divisions may +diminish this sum, but cannot increase it. Hence as the number of +divisions increases, Sm must approach a limit L. If x′ is compact +throughout the interval, we shall have L = b − a; if any finite +derivative of x′ vanishes, L = 0. L obviously bears an analogy to a +definite integral; but no conditions are required for the existence of +L. But L cannot be identified with the divisibility; for some compact +series, e.g. that of rationals, are less divisible than others, e.g. the +continuum, but give the same value of L. + +**312.** The case in which infinitesimals were formerly supposed to be +peculiarly evident is that of compact series. In this case, however, it +is possible to prove that there can be no infinitesimal +segments[‡](#fn334-3), provided numerical measurement be possible at +all—and if it be not possible, the infinitesimal, as we have seen, is +not definable. In the first place, it is evident that the segment +contained between two different terms is always infinitely divisible; +for since there is a term c between any two a and b, there is another d +between a and c, and so on. Thus no terminated segment can contain a +finite number of terms. But segments defined by a class of terms may (as +we saw in [Chapter xxxiv](#chapter34)) have no limiting term. In this +case, however, provided the segment does not consist of a single term a, +it will contain some other term b, and therefore an infinite number of +terms. Thus all segments are infinitely divisible. The next point is to +define multiples of segments. Two terminated segments can be added by +placing a segment equal to the one at the end of the other to form a new +segment; and if the two were equal, the new one is said to be double of +each of them. But if the two segments are not terminated, this process +cannot be employed. Their sum, in this case, is defined by Professor +Peano as the logical sum of all the segments obtained by adding two +terminated segments contained respectively in the two segments to be +added[\*](#fn335-1). Having defined this sum, we can define any finite +multiple of a segment. Hence we can define the class of terms contained +in some finite multiple of our segment, i.e. the logical sum of all its +finite multiples. If, with respect to all greater segments, our segment +obeys the axiom of Archimedes, then this new class will contain all +terms that come after the origin of our segment. But if our segment be +infinitesimal with respect to any other segment, then the class in +question will fail to contain some points of this other segment. In this +case, it is shown that all transfinite multiples of our segment are +equal to each other. Hence it follows that the class formed by the +logical sum of all finite multiples of our segment, which may be called +the infinite multiple of our segment, must be a non-terminated segment, +for a terminated segment is always increased by being doubled. “Each of +these results,” so Professor Peano concludes, “is in contradiction with +the usual notion of a segment. And from the fact that the infinitesimal +segment cannot be rendered finite by means of any actually infinite +multiplication, I conclude, with Cantor, that it cannot be an element in +finite magnitudes” (p. 62). But I think an even stronger conclusion is +warranted. For we have seen that, in compact series, there is, +corresponding to every segment, a segment of segments, and that this is +always terminated by its defining segment; further that the numerical +measurement of segments of segments is exactly the same as that of +simple segments; whence, by applying the above result to segments of +segments, we obtain a definite contradiction, since none of them can be +unterminated, and an infinitesimal one cannot be terminated. + +In the case of the rational or the real numbers, the complete knowledge +which we possess concerning them renders the non-existence of +infinitesimals demonstrable. A rational number is the ratio of two +finite integers, and any such ratio is finite. A real number other than +zero is a segment of the series of rationals; hence if x be a real +number other than zero, there is a class u, not null, of rationals such +that, if y is a u, and z is less than y, z is an x, i.e. belongs to the +segment which is x. Hence every real number other than zero is a class +containing rationals, and all rationals are finite; consequently every +real number is finite. Consequently if it were possible, in any sense, +to speak of infinitesimal numbers, it would have to be in some radically +new sense. + +**313.** I come now to a very difficult question, on which I would +gladly say nothing—I mean, the question of the orders of infinity and +infinitesimality of functions. On this question the greatest authorities +are divided: Du Bois Reymond, Stolz, and many others, maintaining that +these form a special class of magnitudes, in which actual infinitesimals +occur, while Cantor holds strongly that the whole theory is +erroneous[\*](#fn336-1). To put the matter as simply as possible, +consider a function f(x) whose limit, as x approaches zero, is zero. It +may happen that, for some finite real number α, the ratio f(x)/xα has a +finite limit as x approaches zero. There can be only one such number, +but there may be none. Then α, if there is such a number, may be called +the order to which f(x) becomes infinitesimal, or the order of smallness +of f(x) as x approaches zero. But for some functions, e.g. 1/log x, +there is no such number α. If α be any finite real number, the limit of +1/xα log x, as x approaches zero, is infinite. That is, when x is +sufficiently small, 1/xα log x is very large, and may be made larger +than any assigned number by making x sufficiently small—and this +whatever finite number α may be. Hence, to express the order of +smallness of 1/log x, it is necessary to invent a new infinitesimal +number, which may be denoted by 1/g. Similarly we shall need infinitely +great numbers to express the order of smallness of (say) e−1/x as x +approaches zero. And there is no end to the succession of these orders +of smallness: that of 1/log (log x), for example, is infinitely smaller +than that of 1/log x, and so on. Thus we have a whole hierarchy of +magnitudes, of which all in any one class are infinitesimal with respect +to all in any higher class, and of which one class only is formed of all +the finite real numbers. + +In this development. Cantor finds a vicious circle; and though the +question is difficult, it would seem that Cantor is in the right. He +objects (loc. cit.) that such magnitudes cannot be introduced unless we +have reason to think that there are such magnitudes. The point is +similar to that concerning limits; and Cantor maintains that, in the +present case, definite contradictions may be proved concerning the +supposed infinitesimals. If there were infinitesimal numbers j, then +even for them we should have + +Limx=0 1/(log x . xj) = 0 + +since xj must ultimately exceed ½. And he shows that even continuous, +differentiable, and uniformly growing functions may have an entirely +ambiguous order of smallness or infinity: that, in fact, for some such +functions, this order oscillates between infinite and infinitesimal +values, according to the manner in which the limit is approached. Hence +we may, I think, conclude that these infinitesimals are mathematical +fictions. And this may be reinforced by the consideration that, if there +were infinitesimal numbers, there would be infinitesimal segments of the +number-continuum, which we have just seen to be impossible. + +**314.** Thus to sum up what has been said concerning the infinitesimal, +we see, to begin with, that it is a relative term, and that, as regards +magnitudes other than divisibilities, or divisibilities of wholes which +are infinite in the absolute sense, it is not capable of being other +than a relative term. But where it has an absolute meaning, there this +meaning is indistinguishable from finitude. We saw that the +infinitesimal, though completely useless in mathematics, does occur in +certain instances—for example, lengths of bounded straight lines are +infinitesimal as compared to areas of polygons, and these again as +compared to volumes of polyhedra. But such genuine cases of +infinitesimals, as we saw, are always regarded by mathematics as +magnitudes of another kind, because no numerical comparison is possible, +even by means of transfinite numbers, between an area, and a length, or +a volume and an area. Numerical measurement, in fact, is wholly +dependent upon the axiom of Archimedes, and cannot be extended as Cantor +has extended numbers. And finally we saw that there are no infinitesimal +segments in compact series, and—what is closely connected—that orders of +smallness of functions are not to be regarded as genuine infinitesimals. +The infinitesimal, therefore—so we may conclude—is a very restricted and +mathematically very unimportant conception, of which infinity and +continuity are alike independent. + +Notes + +## CHAPTER XLI. +Philosophical Arguments Concerning The Infinitesimal. + +**315.** We have now completed our summary review of what mathematics +has to say concerning the continuous, the infinite, and the +infinitesimal. And here, if no previous philosophers had treated of +these topics, we might leave the discussion, and apply our doctrines to +space and time. For I hold the paradoxical opinion that what can be +mathematically demonstrated is true. As, however, almost all +philosophers disagree with this opinion, and as many have written +elaborate arguments in favour of views different from those above +expounded, it will be necessary to examine controversially the principal +types of opposing theories, and to defend, as far as possible, the +points in which I differ from standard writers. For this purpose, the +work of Cohen already referred to will be specially useful, not only +because it deals explicitly with our present theme, but also because, +largely owing to its historical excellence, certain very important +mathematical errors, which it appears to me to contain, have led astray +other philosophers who have not an acquaintance with modern mathematics +at first hand[\*](#fn338-1). + +**316.** In the above exposition, the differential appeared as a +philosophically unimportant application of the doctrine of limits. +Indeed, but for its traditional importance, it would scarcely have +deserved even mention. And we saw that its definition nowhere involves +the infinitesimal. The dx and dy of a differential are nothing in +themselves, and dy/dx is not a fraction. Hence, in modern works on the +Calculus, the notation f′(x) has replaced dy/dx, since the latter form +suggests erroneous notions. The notation f′(x), it may be observed, is +more similar to Newton’s ẏ, and its similarity is due to the fact that, +on this point, modern mathematics is more in harmony with Newton than +with Leibniz. Leibniz employed the form dy/dx because he believed in +infinitesimals; Newton, on the other hand, definitely asserts that his +fluxion is not a fraction. “Those ultimate ratios,” he says, “with which +quantities vanish are not truly the ratios of ultimate quantities, but +limits towards which the ratios of quantities decreasing without limit +do always converge, and to which they approach nearer than by any given +difference[\*](#fn339-1).” + +But when we turn to such works as Cohen’s, we find the dx and the dy +treated as separate entities, as real infinitesimals, as the intensively +real elements of which the continuum is composed (pp. 14, 28, 144, 147). +The view that the Calculus requires infinitesimals is apparently not +thought open to question; at any rate, no arguments whatever are brought +up to support it. This view is certainly assumed as self-evident by most +philosophers who discuss the Calculus. Let us see for ourselves what +kind of grounds can be urged in its favour. + +**317.** Many arguments in favour of the view in question are derived by +most writers from space and motion—arguments which Cohen to some extent +countenances (pp. 34, 37), though he admits that the differential can be +obtained from numbers alone, which however, following Kant, he regards +as implying time (pp. 20, 21). Since the analysis of space and motion is +still to come, I shall confine myself for the present to such arguments +as can be derived from purely numerical instances. For the sake of +definiteness, I shall as far as possible extract the opinions to be +controverted from Cohen. + +**318.** Cohen begins (p. 1) by asserting that the problem of the +infinitesimal is not purely logical: it belongs rather to Epistemology, +which is distinguished, I imagine, by the fact that it depends upon the +pure intuitions as well as the categories. This Kantian opinion is +wholly opposed to the philosophy which underlies the present work; but +it would take us too far from our theme to discuss it here, and I +mention it chiefly to explain the phraseology of the work we are +examining. Cohen proceeds at once to reject the view that the +infinitesimal calculus can be independently derived by mathematics from +the method of limits. This method, he says (p. 1), “consists in the +notion that the elementary conception of equality must be completed by +the exact notion of the limit. Thus in the first place the conception of +equality is presupposed …. Again, in the second place, the method of +limits presupposes the conception of magnitude …. But in the presupposed +conception of magnitude the limiting magnitude is at the same time +presupposed. The equality which is defined in the elementary doctrine of +magnitude pays no attention to these limiting magnitudes. For it, +magnitudes count as equal if and although their difference consists in a +limiting magnitude. Hence the elementary conception of equality must +be—this is the notion of the method of limits—not so much completed as +corrected by the exact conception of the limit. Equality is to be +regarded as an earlier stage of the limiting relation[\*](#fn340-1).” + +**319.** I have quoted this passage in full, because its errors are +typical of those to which non-mathematicians are liable in this +question. In the first place, equality has no relevance to limits. I +imagine that Cohen has in mind such cases as a circle and the inscribed +polygon, where we cannot say that the circle is equal to any of the +polygons, but only that it is their limit; or, to take an arithmetical +instance, a convergent series whose sum is π or √2. But in all such +instances there is much that is irrelevant and adventitious, and there +are many unnecessary complications. The absolutely simplest instance of +a limit is ω considered as the limit of the ordinal numbers. There is +here certainly no kind of equality. Yet in all cases where limits are +defined by progressions—and these are the usual cases—we have a series +of the type presented by the finite ordinals together with ω. Consider, +for example, the series 2 − 1n together with 2, the n being capable of +all positive integral finite values. Here the series is of the same type +as before, and here, as before, 2 is the limit of the series. But +here—and this is what has misled Cohen—the difference between 2 and +the successive terms of the series becomes less than any assigned +magnitude, and thus we seem to have a sort of extended quality between 2 +and the late terms of the series 2 − 1n. But let us examine this. In the +first place, it depends upon the fact that rationals are a series in +which we have distances which are again rationals. But we know that +distances are unnecessary to limits, and that stretches are equally +effective. Now considering stretches, 2 is the limit of 2 − 1n because +no rational comes between 2 and all terms of the series 2 − 1n precisely +the sense in which ω is the limit of the finite integers. And it is only +because 2 − 1n forms a progression, i.e. is similar to the series of +finite integers, that we know its limit to be 2. The fact that the +terms, as we advance, differ little from 2, depends either upon our +having a series in which there is distance, which is a fortuitous and +irrelevant circumstance, or upon the fact that the successive stretches +up to 2 may be made less than any assigned stretch up to 2, which +follows from the notion of a limit, but has nothing to do with equality. +And whenever our series which is to have a limit is part of a series +which is a function of ω, the stretch from any term to the limit is +always infinite in the only sense in which such series have infinite +stretches; and in a very real sense the stretch grows no smaller as we +approach the limit, for both the ordinal and the cardinal number of its +terms remain constant. + +We have seen so fully already in what sense, and how far, magnitude is +involved in limits, that it seems unnecessary to say much on this +subject here. Magnitude is certainly not involved in the sense, which is +undoubtedly that intended by Cohen, that the limit and the terms limited +must be magnitudes. Every progression which forms part of a series which +is a function of ω, and in which there are terms after the progression, +has a limit, whatever may be the nature of the terms. Every endless +series of segments of a compact series has a limit, whatever may be the +nature of the compact series. Now of course in all series we have +magnitudes, namely the divisibilities of stretches; but it is not of +these that we find the limit. Even in the case of segments, the limit is +an actual segment, not the magnitude of a segment; and what is relevant +is only that the segments are classes, not that they are quantities. But +the distinction of quantities and magnitudes is, of course, wholly +foreign to Cohen’s order of ideas. + +**320.** But we now come to a greater error. The conception of +magnitude, Cohen says, which is presupposed in limits, in turn +presupposes limiting magnitudes. By limiting magnitudes, as appears from +the context, he means infinitesimals, the ultimate differences, I +suppose, between the terms of a series and its limit. What he means +seems to be, that the kinds of magnitude which lead to limits are +compact series, and that, in compact series, we must have +infinitesimals. Every point in this opinion is mistaken. Limits, we have +just seen, need not be limits of magnitudes; segments of a compact +series, as we saw in the [preceding chapter](#chapter40), cannot be +infinitesimal; and limits do not in any way imply that the series in +which they occur are compact. These points have been so fully proved +already that it is unnecessary to dwell upon them. + +**321.** But the crowning mistake is the supposition that limits +introduce a new meaning of equality. Among magnitudes, equality, as we +saw in [Part III](#part3), has an absolutely rigid and unique meaning: +it applies only to quantities, and means that they have the same +magnitude. There is no question of approximation here: what is meant is +simply absolute logical identity of magnitude. Among numbers (which +Cohen probably regards as magnitudes), there is no such thing as +equality. There is identity, and there is the relation which is usually +expressed by the sign of equality, as in the equation 2 × 3 = 6. This +relation had puzzled those who endeavoured to philosophize about +Arithmetic, until it was explained by Professor Peano[\*](#fn341-1). +When one term of the equation is a single number, while the other is an +expression composed of two or more numbers, the equation expresses the +fact that the class defined by the expression contains only one term, +which is the single number on the other side of the equation. This +definition again is absolutely rigid: there is nothing whatever +approximate in it, and it is incapable of any modification by +infinitesimals. I imagine that what Cohen means may be expressed as +follows. In forming a differential coefficient, we consider two numbers +x and x + dx, and two others y and y + dy. In elementary Arithmetic, x +and x + dx would count as equal, but not in the Calculus. There are, in +fact, two ways of defining equality. Two terms may be said to be equal +when their ratio is unity, or when their difference is zero. But when we +allow real infinitesimals dx, x and x + dx will have the ratio unity, +but will not have zero for their difference, since dx is different from +absolute zero. This view, which I suggest as equivalent to Cohen’s, +depends upon a misunderstanding of limits and the Calculus. There are in +the Calculus no such magnitudes as dx and dy. There are finite +differences Δx and Δy, but no view, however elementary, will make x +equal to x + Δx. There are ratios of finite differences, Δy/Δx, and in +cases where the derivative of y exists, there is one real number to +which Δy/Δx can be made to approach as near as we like by diminishing Δx +and Δy. This single real number we choose to denote by dy/dx; but it is +not a fraction, and dx and dy are nothing but typographical parts of one +symbol. There is no correction whatever of the notion of equality by the +doctrine of limits; the only new element introduced is the consideration +of infinite classes of terms chosen out of a series. + +**322.** As regards the nature of the infinitesimal, we are told (p. 15) +that the differential, or the inextensive, is to be identified with the +intensive, and the differential is regarded as the embodiment of Kant’s +category of reality. This view (in so far as it is independent of Kant) +is quoted with approval from Leibniz; but to me, I must confess, it +seems destitute of all justification. It is to be observed that dx and +dy, if we allow that they are entities at all, are not to be identified +with single terms of our series, nor yet with differences between +consecutive terms, but must be always stretches containing an infinite +number of terms, or distances corresponding to such stretches. Here a +distinction must be made between series of numbers and series in which +we have only measurable distances or stretches. The latter is the case +of space and time. Here dx and dy are not points or instants, which +alone would be truly inextensive; they are primarily numbers, and hence +must correspond to infinitesimal stretches or distances—for it would be +preposterous to assign a numerical ratio to two points, or—as in the +case of velocity—to a point and an instant. But dx and dy cannot +represent the distances of consecutive points, nor yet the stretch +formed by two consecutive points. Against this we have, in the first +place, the general ground that our series must be regarded as compact, +which precludes the idea of consecutive terms. To evade this, if we are +dealing with a series in which there are only stretches, not distances, +would be impossible: for to say that there are always an infinite number +of intermediate points except when the stretch consists of a finite +number of terms would be a mere tautology. But when there is distance, +it might be said that the distance of two terms may be finite or +infinitesimal, and that, as regards infinitesimal distances, the stretch +is not compact, but consists of a finite number of terms. This being +allowed for the moment, our dx and dy may be made to be the distances of +consecutive points, or else the stretches composed of consecutive +points. But now the distance of consecutive points, supposing for +example that both are on one straight line, would seem to be a constant, +which would give dy/dx = ±1. We cannot suppose, in cases where x and y +are both continuous, and the function y is one-valued, as the Calculus +requires, that x and x + dx are consecutive, but not y and y + dy; for +every value of y will be correlated with one and only one value of x, +and vice versâ; thus y cannot skip any supposed intermediate values +between y and y + dy. Hence, given the values of x and y, even supposing +the distances of consecutive terms to differ from place to place, the +value of dy/dx will be determinate; and any other function y′ which, for +some value of x, is equal to y, will, for that value, have an equal +derivative, which is an absurd conclusion. And leaving these +mathematical arguments, it is evident, from the fact that dy and dx are +to have a numerical ratio, that if they be intensive magnitudes, as is +suggested, they must be numerically measurable ones: but how this +measurement is effected, it is certainly not easy to see. This point may +be made clearer by confining ourselves to the fundamental case in which +both x and y are numbers. If we regard x and x + dx as, consecutive, we +must suppose either that y and y + dy are consecutive, or that they are +identical, or that there are a finite number of terms between them, or +that there are an infinite number. If we take stretches to measure dx +and dy, it will follow that dy/dx must be always zero, or integral, or +infinite, which is absurd. It will even follow that, if y is not +constant, dy/dx must be ±1. Take for example y = x2, where x and y are +positive real numbers. As x passes from one number to the next, y must +do so likewise; for to every value of y corresponds one of x, and y +grows as x grows. Hence if y skipped the number next to any one of its +values, it could never come back to pick it up; but we know that every +real number is among the values of y. Hence y and y + dy must be +consecutive, and dy/dx = 1. If we measure by distances, not stretches, +the distance dy must be fixed when y is given, and the distance dx when +x is given. Now if x = 1, y = 1, dy/dx = 2; but, since x and y are the +same number, dx and dy must be equal, since each is the distance to the +next number: therefore dy/dx = 1, which is absurd. Similarly, if we take +for y a decreasing function, we shall find dy/dx = −1. Hence the +admission of consecutive numbers is fatal to the Calculus; and since the +Calculus must be maintained, the Calculus is fatal to consecutive +numbers. + +**323.** The notion that there must be consecutive numbers is reinforced +by the idea of continuous change, which is embodied in calling x and y +“variables.” Change in time is a topic which we shall have to discuss +at a later stage, but which has, undoubtedly, greatly influenced the +philosophy of the Calculus. People picture a variable to +themselves—often unconsciously—as successively assuming a series of +values, as might happen in a dynamical problem. Thus they might say: How +can x pass from x1 to x2, without passing through all intermediate +values? And in this passage, must there not be a next value, which it +assumes on first leaving the value x1? Everything is conceived on the +analogy of motion, in which a point is supposed to pass through all +intermediate positions in its path. Whether or not this view of motion +is correct, I do not now decide: at any rate it is irrelevant where a +fundamental point in the theory of continuous series is concerned, since +time and the path of motion must both be continuous series, and the +properties of such series must be decided before appealing to motion to +confirm our views. For my part, to return to Cohen, I must confess, it +seems evident that intensive magnitude is something wholly different +from infinitesimal extensive magnitude: for the latter must always be +smaller than finite extensive magnitudes, and must therefore be of the +same kind with them; while intensive magnitudes seem never in any sense +smaller than any extensive magnitudes. Thus the metaphysical theory by +which infinitesimals are to be rescued seems, both mathematically and +philosophically, destitute of grounds in its favour. + +**324.** We cannot, then, agree with the following summary of Cohen’s +theory (p. 28): “That I may be able to posit an element in and for +itself, is the desideratum, to which corresponds the instrument of +thought reality. This instrument of thought must first be set up, in +order to be able to enter into that combination with intuition, with the +consciousness of being given, which is completed in the principle of +intensive magnitude. This presupposition of intensive reality is latent +in all principles, and must therefore be made independent. This +presupposition is the meaning of reality and the secret of the concept +of the differential.” What we can agree to, and what, I believe, +confusedly underlies the above statement, is, that every continuum must +consist of elements or terms; but these, as we have just seen, will not +fulfil the function of the dx and dy which occur in old-fashioned +accounts of the Calculus. Nor can we agree that “this finite” (i.e. that +which is the object of physical science) “can be thought as a sum of +those infinitesimal intensive realities, as a definite integral” (p. +144). The definite integral is not a sum of elements of a continuum, +although there are such elements: for example, the length of a curve, as +obtained by integration, is not the sum of its points, but strictly and +only the limit of the lengths of inscribed polygons. The only sense +which can be given to the sum of the points of the curve is the logical +class to which they all belong, i.e. the curve itself, not its length. +All lengths are magnitudes of divisibility of stretches, and all +stretches consist of an infinite number of points; and any two +terminated stretches have a finite ratio to each other. There is no such +thing as an infinitesimal stretch; if there were, it would not be an +element of the continuum; the Calculus does not require it, and to +suppose its existence leads to contradictions. And as for the notion +that in every series there must be, consecutive terms, that was shown, +in the last Chapter of [Part III](#part3), to involve an illegitimate +use of mathematical induction. Hence infinitesimals as explaining +continuity must be regarded as unnecessary, erroneous, and +self-contradictory. + +Notes + +## CHAPTER XLII. +The Philosophy of the Continuum. + +**325.** The word continuity has borne among philosophers, especially +since the time of Hegel, a meaning totally unlike that given to it by +Cantor. Thus Hegel says[\*](#fn346-1): “Quantity, as we saw, has two +sources: the exclusive unit, and the identification or equalization of +these units. When we look, therefore, at its immediate relation to self, +or at the characteristic of selfsameness made explicit by abstraction, +quantity is Continuous magnitude; but when we look at the other +characteristic, the One implied in it, it is Discrete magnitude.” When +we remember that quantity and magnitude, in Hegel, both mean “cardinal +number,” we may conjecture that this assertion amounts to the following: +“Many terms, considered as having a cardinal number, must all be members +of one class; in so far as they are each merely an instance of the +class-concept, they are indistinguishable one from another, and in this +aspect the whole which they compose is called continuous; but in order +to their maniness, they must be different instances of the +class-concept, and in this aspect the whole which they compose is called +discrete.” Now I am far from denying—indeed I strongly hold—that this +opposition of identity and diversity in a collection constitutes a +fundamental problem of Logic—perhaps even the fundamental problem of +philosophy. And being fundamental, it is certainly relevant to the study +of the mathematical continuum as to everything else. But beyond this +general connection, it has no special relation to the mathematical +meaning of continuity, as may be seen at once from the fact that it has +no reference whatever to order. In this chapter, it is the mathematical +meaning that is to be discussed. I have quoted the philosophic meaning +only in order to state definitely that this is not here in question; and +since disputes about words are futile, I must ask philosophers to divest +themselves, for the time, of their habitual associations with the word, +and allow it no signification but that obtained from Cantor’s +definition. + +**326.** In confining ourselves to the arithmetical continuum, we +conflict in another way with common preconceptions. Of the arithmetical +continuum, M. Poincaré justly remarks[\*](#fn347-1): “The continuum thus +conceived is nothing but a collection of individuals arranged in a +certain order, infinite in number, it is true, but external to each +other. This is not the ordinary conception, in which there is supposed +to be, between the elements of the continuum, a sort of intimate bond +which makes a whole of them, in which the point is not prior to the +line, but the line to the point. Of the famous formula, the continuum is +unity in multiplicity, the multiplicity alone subsists, the unity has +disappeared.” + +It has always been held to be an open question whether the continuum is +composed of elements; and even when it has been allowed to contain +elements, it has been often alleged to be not composed of these. This +latter view was maintained even by so stout a supporter of elements in +everything as Leibniz[†](#fn347-2). But all these views are only +possible in regard to such continua as those of space and time. The +arithmetical continuum is an object selected by definition, consisting +of elements in virtue of the definition, and known to be embodied in at +least one instance, namely the segments of the rational numbers. I shall +maintain in [Part VI](#part6) that spaces afford other instances of the +arithmetical continuum. The chief reason for the elaborate and +paradoxical theories of space and time and their continuity, which have +been constructed by philosophers, has been the supposed contradictions +in a continuum composed of elements. The thesis of the present chapter +is, that Cantor’s continuum is free from contradictions. This thesis, as +is evident, must be firmly established, before we can allow the +possibility that spatio-temporal continuity may be of Cantor’s kind. In +this argument, I shall assume as proved the thesis of the preceding +chapter, that the continuity to be discussed does not involve the +admission of actual infinitesimals. + +**327.** In this capricious world, nothing is more capricious than +posthumous fame. One of the most notable victims of posterity’s lack of +judgment is the Eleatic Zeno. Having invented four arguments, all +immeasurably subtle and profound, the grossness of subsequent +philosophers pronounced him to be a mere ingenious juggler, and his +arguments to be one and all sophisms. After two thousand years of +continual refutation, these sophisms were reinstated, and made the +foundation of a mathematical renaissance, by a German professor, who +probably never dreamed of any connection between himself and Zeno. +Weierstrass, by strictly banishing all infinitesimals, has at last shown +that we live in an unchanging world, and that the arrow, at every moment +of its flight, is truly at rest. The only point where Zeno probably +erred was in inferring (if he did infer) that, because there is no +change, therefore the world must be in the same state at one time as at +another. This consequence by no means follows, and in this point the +German professor is more constructive than the ingenious Greek. +Weierstrass, being able to embody his opinions in mathematics, where +familiarity with truth eliminates the vulgar prejudices of common sense, +has been able to give to his propositions the respectable air of +platitudes; and if the result is less delightful to the lover of reason +than Zeno’s bold defiance, it is at any rate more calculated to appease +the mass of academic mankind. + +Zeno’s arguments are specially concerned with motion, and are not +therefore, as they stand, relevant to our present purpose. But it is +instructive to translate them, so far as possible, into arithmetical +language[\*](#fn348-1). + +**328.** The first argument, that of dichotomy, asserts: “There is no +motion, for what moves must reach the middle of its course before it +reaches the end.” That is to say, whatever motion we assume to have +taken place, this presupposes another motion, and this in turn another, +and so on ad infinitum. Hence there is an endless regress in the mere +idea of any assigned motion. This argument can be put into an +arithmetical form, but it appears then far less plausible. Consider a +variable x which is capable of all real (or rational) values between two +assigned limits, say 0 and 1. The class of its values is an infinite +whole, whose parts are logically prior to it: for it has parts, and it +cannot subsist if any of the parts are lacking. Thus the numbers from 0 +to 1 presuppose those from 0 to 1/2, these presuppose the numbers from 0 +to 1/4, and so on. Hence, it would seem, there is an infinite regress in +the notion of any infinite whole; but without such infinite wholes, real +numbers cannot be defined, and arithmetical continuity, which applies to +an infinite series, breaks down. + +This argument may be met in two ways, either of which, at first sight, +might seem sufficient, but both of which are really necessary. First, we +may distinguish two kinds of infinite regresses, of which one is +harmless. Secondly, we may distinguish two kinds of whole, the +collective and the distributive, and assert that, in the latter kind, +parts of equal complexity with the whole are not logically prior to it. +These two points must be separately explained. + +**329.** An infinite regress may be of two kinds. In the objectionable +kind, two or more propositions join to constitute the meaning of some +proposition; of these constituents, there is one at least whose meaning +is similarly compounded; and so on ad infinitum. This form of regress +commonly results from circular definitions. Such definitions may be +expanded in a manner analogous to that in which continued fractions are +developed from quadratic equations. But at every stage the term to be +defined will reappear, and no definition will result. Take for example +the following: “Two people are said to have the same idea when they have +ideas which are similar; and ideas are similar when they contain an +identical part.” If an idea may have a part which is not an idea, such a +definition is not logically objectionable; but if part of an idea is an +idea, then, in the second place where identity of ideas occurs, the +definition must be substituted; and so on. Thus wherever the meaning of +a proposition is in question, an infinite regress is objectionable, +since we never reach a proposition which has a definite meaning. But +many infinite regresses are not of this form. If A be a proposition +whose meaning is perfectly definite, and A implies B, B implies C, and +so on, we have an infinite regress of a quite unobjectionable kind. This +depends upon the fact that implication is a synthetic relation, and +that, although, if A be an aggregate of propositions, A implies any +proposition which is part of A, it by no means follows that any +proposition which A implies is part of A. Thus there is no logical +necessity, as there was in the previous case, to complete the infinite +regress before A acquires a meaning. If, then, it can be shown that the +implication of the parts in the whole, when the whole is an infinite +class of numbers, is of this latter kind, the regress suggested by +Zeno’s argument of dichotomy will have lost its sting. + +**330.** In order to show that this is the case, we must distinguish +wholes which are defined extensionally, i.e. by enumerating their terms, +from such as are defined intensionally, i.e. as the class of terms +having some given relation to some given term, or, more simply, as a +class of terms. (For a class of terms, when it forms a whole, is merely +all terms having the class-relation to a class-concept[\*](#fn349-1).) +Now an extensional whole—at least so far as human powers extend—is +necessarily finite: we cannot enumerate more than a finite number of +parts belonging to a whole, and if the number of parts be infinite, this +must be known otherwise than by enumeration. But this is precisely what +a class-concept effects: a whole whose parts are the terms of a class is +completely defined when the class-concept is specified; and any definite +individual either belongs, or does\* not belong, to the class in +question. An individual of the class is part of the whole extension of +the class, and is logically prior to this extension taken collectively; +but the extension itself is definable without any reference to any +specified individual, and subsists as a genuine entity even when the +class contains no terms. And to say, of such a class, that it is +infinite, is to say that, though it has terms, the number of these terms +is not any finite number—a proposition which, again, may be established +without the impossible process of enumerating all finite numbers. And +this is precisely the case of the real numbers between 0 and 1. They +form a definite class, whose meaning is known as soon as we know what is +meant by real number, 0, 1, and between. The particular members of the +class, and the smaller classes contained in it, are not logically prior +to the class. Thus the infinite regress consists merely in the fact that +every segment of real or rational numbers has parts which are again +segments; but these parts are not logically prior to it, and the +infinite regress is perfectly harmless. Thus the solution of the +difficulty lies in the theory of denoting and the intensional definition +of a class. With this an answer is made to Zeno’s first argument as it +appears in Arithmetic. + +**331.** The second of Zeno’s arguments is the most famous: it is the +one which concerns Achilles and the tortoise. “The slower,” it says, +“will never be overtaken by the swifter, for the pursuer must first +reach the point whence the fugitive is departed, so that the slower must +always necessarily remain ahead.” When this argument is translated into +arithmetical language, it is seen to be concerned with the one-one +correlation of two infinite classes. If Achilles were to overtake the +tortoise, then the course of the tortoise would be part of that of +Achilles; but, since each is at each moment at some point of his course, +simultaneity establishes a one-one correlation between the positions of +Achilles and those of the tortoise. Now it follows from this that the +tortoise, in any given time, visits just as many places as Achilles +does; hence—so it is hoped we shall conclude—it is impossible that the +tortoise’s path should be part of that of Achilles. This point is purely +ordinal, and may be illustrated by Arithmetic. Consider, for example, 1 ++ 2x and 2 + x, and let x lie between 0 and 1, both inclusive. For each +value of 1 + 2x there is one and only one value of 2 + x; and vice +versâ. Hence as x grows from 0 to 1, the number of values assumed by 1 ++ 2x will be the same as the number assumed by 2 + x. But 1 + 2x started +from 1 and ends at 3, while 2 + x started from 2 and ends at 3. Thus +there should be half as many values of 2 + x as of 1 + 2x. This very +serious difficulty has been resolved, as we have seen, by Cantor; but as +it belongs rather to the philosophy of the infinite than to that of the +continuum, I leave its further discussion to the [next +chapter](#chapter43). + +**332.** The third argument is concerned with the arrow. “If everything +is in rest or in motion in a space equal to itself, and if what moves is +always in the instant, the arrow in its flight is immovable.” This has +usually been thought so monstrous a paradox as scarcely to deserve +serious discussion. To my mind, I must confess, it seems a very plain +statement of a very elementary fact, and its neglect has, I think, +caused the quagmire in which the philosophy of change has long been +immersed. In [Part VII](#part7), I shall set forth a theory of change +which may be called static, since it allows the justice of Zeno’s +remark. For the present, I wish to divest the remark of all reference to +change. We shall then find that it is a very important and very widely +applicable platitude, namely: “Every possible value of a variable is a +constant.” If x be a variable which can take all values from 0 to 1, all +the values it can take are definite numbers, such as 1/2 or 1/3, which +are all absolute constants. And here a few words may be inserted +concerning variables. A variable is a fundamental concept of logic, as +of daily life. Though it is always connected with some class, it is not +the class, nor a particular member of the class, nor yet the whole +class, but any member of the class. On the other hand, it is not the +concept “any member of the class,” but it is that (or those) which this +concept denotes. On the logical difficulties of this conception, I need +not now enlarge; enough has been said on this subject in [Part +I](#part1). The usual x in Algebra, for example, does not stand for a +particular number, nor for all numbers, nor yet for the class number. +This may be easily seen by considering some identity, say + +(x + 1)2 = x2 + 2x + 1. + +This certainly does not mean what it would become if, say, 391 were +substituted for x, though it implies that the result of such a +substitution would be a true proposition. Nor does it mean what results +from substituting for x the class-concept number, for we cannot add 1 to +this concept. For the same reason, x does not denote the concept any +number: to this, too, 1 cannot be added. It denotes the disjunction +formed by the various numbers; or at least this view may be taken as +roughly correct[\*](#fn351-1). The values of x are then the terms of the +disjunction; and each of these is a constant. This simple logical fact +seems to constitute the essence of Zeno’s contention that the arrow is +always at rest. + +**333.** But Zeno’s argument contains an element which is specially +applicable to continua. In the case of motion, it denies that there is +such a thing as a state of motion. In the general case of a continuous +variable, it may be taken as denying actual infinitesimals. For +infinitesimals are an attempt to extend to the values of a variable the +variability which belongs to it alone. When once it is firmly realized +that all the values of a variable are constants, it becomes easy to see, +by taking any two such values, that their difference is always finite, +and hence that there are no infinitesimal differences. If x be a +variable which may take all real values from 0 to 1, then, taking any +two of these values, we see that their difference is finite, although x +is a continuous variable. It is true the difference might have been less +than the one we chose; but if it had been, it would still have been +finite. The lower limit to possible differences is zero, but all +possible differences are finite; and in this there is no shadow of +contradiction. This static theory of the variable is due to the +mathematicians, and its absence in Zeno’s day led him to suppose that +continuous change was impossible without a state of change, which +involves infinitesimals and the contradiction of a body’s being where it +is not. + +**334.** The last of Zeno’s arguments is that of the measure. This is +closely analogous to one which I employed in the [preceding +chapter](#chapter41), against those who regard dx and dy as distances of +consecutive terms. It is only applicable, as M. Noël points out (loc. +cit. p. 116), against those who hold to indivisibles among stretches, +the previous arguments being held to have sufficiently refuted the +partisans of infinite divisibility. We are now to suppose a set of +discrete moments and discrete places, motion consisting in the fact that +at one moment a body is in one of these discrete places, in another at +another. + +abcd ···· a′b′c′d′ ···· a′′b′′c′′d′′ ···· abcd ···· a′b′c′d′ ···· +a′′b′′c′′d′′ ···· + +Imagine three parallel lines composed of the points a, b, c, d; a′, b′, +c′, d′; a′′, b′′, c′′, d′′ respectively. Suppose the second line, in one +instant, to move all its points to the left by one place, while the +third moves them all one place to the right. Then although the instant +is indivisible, c′, which was over c′′, and is now over a′′, must have +passed b′′ during the instant; hence the instant is divisible, contra +hyp. This argument is virtually that by which I proved, in the +[preceding chapter](#chapter41), that, if there are consecutive terms, +then dx/dy = ±1 always; or rather, it is this argument together with an +instance in which dy/dx = 2. It may be put thus: Let y, z be two +functions of x, and let dy/dx = 1, dz/dx = −1. Then ddx(y − z) = 2, +which contradicts the principle that the value of every derivative must +be ±1. To the argument in Zeno’s form, M. Evellin, who is an advocate of +indivisible stretches, replies that a′′ and b′ do not cross each other +at all[\*](#fn352-1). For if instants are indivisible—and this is the +hypothesis—all we can say is, that at one instant a′ is over a′, in the +next, c′ is over a′′. Nothing has happened between the instants, and to +suppose that a′′ and b′ have crossed is to beg the question by a covert +appeal to the continuity of motion. This reply is valid, I think, in the +case of motion; both time and space may, without positive contradiction, +be held to be discrete, by adhering strictly to distances in addition to +stretches. Geometry, Kinematics, and Dynamics become false; but there is +no very good reason to think them true. In the case of Arithmetic, the +matter is otherwise, since no empirical question of existence is +involved. And in this case, as we see from the above argument concerning +derivatives, Zeno’s argument is absolutely sound. Numbers are entities +whose nature can be established beyond question; and among numbers, the +various forms of continuity which occur cannot be denied without +positive contradiction. For this reason the problem of continuity is +better discussed in connection with numbers than in connection with +space, time, or motion. + +**335.** We have now seen that Zeno’s arguments, though they prove a +very great deal, do not prove that the continuum, as we have become +acquainted with it, contains any contradictions whatever. Since his day +the attacks on the continuum have not, so far as I know, been conducted +with any new or more powerful weapons. It only remains, therefore, to +make a few general remarks. + +The notion to which Cantor gives the name of continuum may, of course, +be called by any other name in or out of the dictionary, and it is open +to every one to assert that he himself means something quite different +by the continuum. But these verbal questions are purely frivolous. +Cantor’s merit lies, not in meaning what other people mean, but in +telling us what he means himself—an almost unique merit, where +continuity is concerned. He has defined, accurately and generally, a +purely ordinal notion, free, as we now see, from contradictions, and +sufficient for all Analysis, Geometry, and Dynamics. This notion was +presupposed in existing mathematics, though it was not known exactly +what it was that was presupposed. And Cantor, by his almost unexampled +lucidity, has successfully analyzed the extremely complex nature of +spatial series, by which, as we shall see in [Part VI](#part6), he has +rendered possible a revolution in the philosophy of space and motion. +The salient points in the definition of the continuum are (1) the +connection with the doctrine of limits, (2) the denial of infinitesimal +segments. These two points being borne in mind, the whole philosophy of +the subject becomes illuminated. + +**336.** The denial of infinitesimal segments resolves an antinomy which +had long been an open scandal, I mean the antinomy that the continuum +both does and does not consist of elements. We see now that both may be +said, though in different senses. Every continuum is a series consisting +of terms, and the terms, if not indivisible, at any rate are not +divisible into new terms of the continuum. In this sense there are +elements. But if we take consecutive terms together with their +asymmetrical relation as constituting what may be called (though not in +the sense of [Part IV](#part4)) an ordinal element, then, in this sense, +our continuum has no elements. If we take a stretch to be essentially +serial, so that it must consist of at least two terms, then there are no +elementary stretches; and if our continuum be one in which there is +distance, then likewise there are no elementary distances. But in +neither of these cases is there the slightest logical ground for +elements. The demand for consecutive terms springs, as we saw in [Part +III](#part3), from an illegitimate use of mathematical induction. And as +regards distance, small distances are no simpler than large ones, but +all, as we saw in [Part III](#part3), are alike simple. And large +distances do not presuppose small ones: being intensive magnitudes, they +may exist where there are no smaller ones at all. Thus the infinite +regress from greater to smaller distances or stretches is of the +harmless kind, and the lack of elements need not cause any logical +inconvenience. Hence the antinomy is resolved, and the continuum, so far +at least as I am able to discover, is wholly free from contradictions. + +It only remains to inquire whether the same conclusion holds concerning +the infinite—an inquiry with which this Fifth Part will come to a close. + +Notes + +## CHAPTER XLIII. +The Philosophy of the Infinite. + +**337.** In our previous discussions of the infinite we have been +compelled to go into so many mathematical points that there has been no +adequate opportunity for purely philosophical treatment of the question. +In the present chapter, I wish, leaving mathematics aside, to inquire +whether any contradiction can be found in the notion of the infinite. + +Those who have objected to infinity have not, as a rule, thought it +worth while to exhibit precise contradictions in it. To have done so is +one of the great merits of Kant. Of the mathematical antinomies, the +second, which is concerned, essentially, with the question whether or +not the continuum has elements, was resolved in the [preceding +chapter](#chapter42), on the supposition that there may be an actual +infinite—that is, it was reduced to the question of infinite number. The +first antinomy is concerned with the infinite, but in an essentially +temporal form; for Arithmetic, therefore, this antinomy is irrelevant, +except on the Kantian view that numbers must be schematized in time. +This view is supported by the argument that it takes time to count, and +therefore without time we could not know the number of anything. By this +argument we can prove that battles always happen near telegraph wires, +because if they did not we should not hear of them. In fact, we can +prove generally that we know what we know. But it remains conceivable +that we don’t know what we don’t know; and hence the necessity of time +remains unproved. + +Of other philosophers, Zeno has already been examined in connection with +the continuum; and the paradox which underlies Achilles and the tortoise +will be examined shortly. Plato’s Parmenides—which is perhaps the best +collection of antinomies ever made—is scarcely relevant here, being +concerned with difficulties more fundamental than any that have to do +with infinity. And as for Hegel, he cries wolf so often that when he +gives the alarm of a contradiction we finally cease to be disturbed. +Leibniz, as we have seen, gives as a contradiction the one-one +correlation of whole and part, which underlies the Achilles. This is, in +fact, the only point on which most arguments against infinity turn. In +what follows I shall put the arguments in a form adapted to our present +mathematical knowledge; and this will prevent me from quoting them from +any classic opponents of infinity. + +**338.** Let us first recapitulate briefly the positive theory of the +infinite to which we have been led. Accepting as indefinable the notion +proposition and the notion constituent of a proposition, we may denote +by φ(a) a proposition in which a is a constituent. We can then transform +a into a variable x, and consider φ(x), where φ(x) is any proposition +differing from φ(a), if at all, only by the fact that some other object +appears in the place of a; φ(x) is what we called a propositional +function. It will happen, in general, that φ(x) is true for some values +of x and false for others. All the values of x, for which φ(x) is true, +form what we called the class defined by φ(x); thus every propositional +function defines a class, and the actual enumeration of the members of a +class is not necessary for its definition. Again, without enumeration we +can define the similarity of two classes: two classes u, v are similar +when there is a one-one relation R such that “x is u” always implies +“there is a v to which x has the relation R,” and “y is a v” always +implies “there is a u which has the relation R to y.” Further, R is a +one-one relation if xRy, xRz together always imply that y is identical +with z, and xRz, yRz together always imply that x is identical with y; +and “x is identical with y” is defined as meaning “every propositional +function which holds of x also holds of y.” We now define the cardinal +number of a class u as the class of all classes which are similar to u; +and every class has a cardinal number, since “u is similar to v” is a +propositional function of v, if v be variable. Moreover u itself is a +member of its cardinal number, since every class is similar to itself. +The above definition of a cardinal number, it should be observed, is +based upon the notion of propositional functions, and nowhere involves +enumeration; consequently there is no reason to suppose that there will +be any difficulty as regards the numbers of classes whose terms cannot +be counted in the usual elementary fashion. Classes can be divided into +two kinds, according as they are or are not similar to proper parts of +themselves. In the former case they are called infinite, in the latter +finite. Again, the number of a class defined by a propositional function +which is always false is called 0; 1 is defined as the number of a class +u such that there is a term x, belonging to u, such that “y is a u and y +differs from x” is always false; and if n be any number, n + 1 is +defined as the number of a class u which has a member x such that the +propositional function “y is a u and y differs from x” defines a class +whose number is n. If n is finite, n + 1 differs from n; if not, not. In +this way, starting from 0, we obtain a progression of numbers, since any +number n leads to a new number n + 1. It is easily proved that all the +numbers belonging to the progression which starts from 1 and is +generated in this way are different; that is to say, if n belongs to +this progression, and m be any one of its predecessors, a class of n +terms cannot have a one-one correlation with one of m terms. The +progression so defined is the series of finite numbers. But there is no +reason to think that all numbers can be so obtained; indeed it is +capable of formal proof that the number of the finite numbers themselves +cannot be a term in the progression of finite numbers. A number not +belonging to this progression is called infinite. The proof that n and n ++ 1 are different numbers proceeds from the fact that 0 and 1, or 1 and +2, are different numbers, by means of mathematical induction; if n and n ++ 1 be not terms of this progression, the proof fails; and what is more, +there is direct proof of the contrary. But since the previous proof +depended upon mathematical induction, there is not the slightest reason +why the theorem should extend to infinite numbers. Infinite numbers +cannot be expressed, like finite ones, by the decimal system of +notation, but they can be distinguished by the classes to which they +apply. The finite numbers being all defined by the above progression, if +a class u has terms, but not any finite number of terms, then it has an +infinite number. This is the positive theory of infinity. + +**339.** That there are infinite classes is so evident that it will +scarcely be denied. Since, however, it is capable of formal proof, it +may be as well to prove it. A very simple proof is that suggested in the +Parmenides, which is as follows. Let it be granted that there is a +number 1. Then 1 is, or has Being, and therefore there is Being. But 1 +and Being are two: hence there is a number 2; and so on. Formally, we +have proved that 1 is not the number of numbers; we prove that n is the +number of numbers from 1 to n, and that these numbers together with +Being form a class which has a new finite number, so that n is not the +number of finite numbers. Thus 1 is not the number of finite numbers; +and if n − 1 is not the number of finite numbers, no more is n. Hence +the finite numbers, by mathematical induction, are all contained in the +class of things which are not the number of finite numbers. Since the +relation of similarity is reflexive for classes, every class has a +number; therefore the class of finite numbers has a number which, not +being finite, is infinite. A better proof, analogous to the above, is +derived from the fact that, if n be any finite number, the number of +numbers from 0 up to and including n is n + 1, whence it follows that n +is not the number of numbers. Again, it may be proved directly, by the +correlation of whole and part, that the number of propositions or +concepts is infinite[\*](#fn357-1). For of every term or concept there +is an idea, different from that of which it is the idea, but again a +term or concept. On the other hand, not every term or concept is an +idea. There are tables, and ideas of tables; numbers, and ideas of +numbers; and so on. Thus there is a one-one relation between terms and +ideas, but ideas are only some among terms. Hence there is an infinite +number of terms and of ideas[\*](#fn358-1). + +**340.** The possibility that whole and part may have the same number of +terms is, it must be confessed, shocking to common-sense. Zeno’s +Achilles ingeniously shows that the opposite view also has shocking +consequences; for if whole and part cannot be correlated term for term, +it does strictly follow that, if two material points travel along the +same path, the one following the other, the one which is behind can +never catch up: if it did, we should have, correlating simultaneous +positions, a unique and reciprocal correspondence of all the terms of a +whole with all the terms of a part. Common-sense, therefore, is here in +a very sorry plight; it must choose between the paradox of Zeno and the +paradox of Cantor. I do not propose to help it, since I consider that, +in the face of proofs, it ought to commit suicide in despair. But I will +give the paradox of Cantor a form resembling that of Zeno. Tristram +Shandy, as we know, took two years writing the history of the first two +days of his life, and lamented that, at this rate, material would +accumulate faster than he could deal with it, so that he could never +come to an end. Now I maintain that, if he had lived for ever, and not +wearied of his task, then, even if his life had continued as eventfully +as it began, no part of his biography would have remained unwritten. +This paradox, which, as I shall show, is strictly correlative to the +Achilles, may be called for convenience the Tristram Shandy. + +In cases of this kind, no care is superfluous in rendering our arguments +formal. I shall therefore set forth both the Achilles and the Tristram +Shandy in strict logical shape. + +I. (1) For every position of the tortoise there is one and only one of +Achilles; for every position of Achilles there is one and only one of +the tortoise. + + (2) Hence the series of positions occupied by Achilles has the same +number of terms as the series of positions occupied by the tortoise. + + (3) A part has fewer terms than a whole in which it is contained and +with which it is not coextensive. + + (4) Hence the series of positions occupied by the tortoise is not a +proper part of the series of positions occupied by Achilles. + +II. (1) Tristram Shandy writes in a year the events of a day. + + (2) The series of days and years has no last term. + + (3) The events of the nth day are written in the nth year. + + (4) Any assigned day is the nth, for a suitable value of n. + + (5) Hence any assigned day will be written about. + + (6) Hence no part of the biography will remain unwritten. + + (7) Since there is a one-one correlation between the times of happening +and the times of writing, and the former are part of the latter, the +whole and the part have the same number of terms. + +Let us express both these paradoxes as abstractly as possible. For this +purpose, let u be a compact series of any kind, and let x be a variable +which can take all values in u after a certain value, which we will call +0. Let f(x) be a one-valued function of x, and x a one-valued function +of f(x); also let all the values of f(x) belong to u. Then the arguments +are the following. + +I. Let f(0) be a term preceding 0; let f(x) grow as x grows, i.e. if +xPx′ (where P is the generating relation), let f(x) P f(x′). Further +let f(x) take all values in u intermediate between any two values of +f(x). If, then, for some value a of x, such that O P a, we have f(a) = +a, then the series of values of f(x) will be all terms from f(0) to a, +while that of x will be only the terms from 0 to a, which are a part of +those from f(0) to a. Thus to suppose f(a) = a is to suppose a one-one +correlation, term for term, of whole and part, which Zeno and +common-sense pronounce impossible. + +II. Let f(x) be a function which is 0 when x is 0, and which grows +uniformly as x grows, our series being one in which there is +measurement. Then if x takes all values after 0, so does f(x); and if +f(x) takes all such values, so does x. The class of values of the one is +therefore identical with that of the other. But if at any time the value +of x is greater than that of f(x), since f(x) grows at a uniform rate, x +will always be greater than f(x). Hence for any assigned value of x, the +class of values of f(x) from 0 to f(x) is a proper part of the values of +x from 0 to x. Hence we might infer that all the values of f(x) were a +proper part of all the values of x; but this, as we have seen, is +fallacious. + +These two paradoxes are correlative. Both, by reference to segments, may +be stated in terms of limits. The Achilles proves that two variables in +a continuous series, which approach equality from the same side, cannot +ever have a common limit; the Tristram Shandy proves that two variables +which start from a common term, and proceed in the same direction, but +diverge more and more, may yet determine the same limiting class (which, +however, is not necessarily a segment, because segments were defined as +having terms beyond them). The Achilles assumes that whole and part +cannot be similar, and deduces a paradox; the other, starting from a +platitude, deduces that whole and part may be similar. For common-sense, +it must be confessed, this is a most unfortunate state of things. + +**341.** There is no doubt which is the correct course. The Achilles +must be rejected, being directly contradicted by Arithmetic. The +Tristram Shandy must be accepted, since it does not involve the axiom +that the whole cannot be similar to the part. This axiom, as we have +seen, is essential to the proof of the Achilles; and it is an axiom +doubtless very agreeable to common-sense. But there is no evidence for +the axiom except supposed self-evidence, and its admission leads to +perfectly precise contradictions. The axiom is not only useless, but +positively destructive, in mathematics, and against its rejection there +is nothing to be set except prejudice. It is one of the chief merits of +proofs that they instil a certain scepticism as to the result proved. As +soon as it was found that the similarity of whole and part could be +proved to be impossible for every finite whole[\*](#fn360-1), it became +not unplausible to suppose that for infinite wholes, where the +impossibility could not be proved, there was in fact no such +impossibility. In fact, as regards the numbers dealt with in daily +life—in engineering, astronomy, or accounts, even those of Rockefeller +and the Chancellor of the Exchequer—the similarity of whole and part is +impossible; and hence the supposition that it is always impossible is +easily explained. But the supposition rests on no better foundation than +that formerly entertained by the inductive philosophers of Central +Africa, that all men are black. + +**342.** It may be worth while, as helping to explain the difference +between finite and infinite wholes, to point out that whole and part are +terms capable of two definitions where the whole is finite, but of only +one of these, at least practically, where the whole is +infinite[†](#fn360-2). A finite whole may be taken collectively, as +such and such individuals, A, B, C, D, E say. A part of this whole may +be obtained by enumerating some, but not all, of the terms composing the +whole; and in this way a single individual is part of the whole. Neither +the whole nor its parts need be taken as classes, but each may be +defined by extension, i.e. by enumeration of individuals. On the other +hand, the whole and the parts may be both defined by intension, i.e. by +class-concepts. Thus we know without enumeration that Englishmen are +part of Europeans; for whoever is an Englishman is a European, but not +vice versâ. Though this might be established by enumeration, it need not +be so established. When we come to infinite wholes, this twofold +definition disappears, and we have only the definition by intension. The +whole and the part must both be classes, and the definition of whole and +part is effected by means of the notions of a variable and of logical +implication. If a be a class-concept, an individual of a is a term +having to a that specific relation which we call the class-relation. If +now b be another class such that, for all values of x, “x is an a” +implies “x is a b,” then the extension of a (i.e. the variable x) is +said to be part of the extension of b[‡](#fn360-3). Here no enumeration +of individuals is required, and the relation of whole and part has no +longer that simple meaning which it had where finite parts were +concerned. To say now that a and b are similar, is to say that there +exists some one-one relation R fulfilling the following conditions: if x +be an a, there is a term y of the class b such that xRy; if y′ be a b, +there is a term x′ of the class a such that x′Ry′ . Although a is part +of b, such a state of things cannot be proved impossible, for the +impossibility could only be proved by enumeration, and there is no +reason to suppose enumeration possible. The definition of whole and part +without enumeration is the key to the whole mystery. The above +definition, which is due to Professor Peano, is that which is naturally +and necessarily applied to infinite wholes. For example, the primes are +a proper part of the integers, but this cannot be proved by enumeration. +It is deduced from “if x be a prime, x is a number,” and “if x be a +number, it does not follow that x is a prime.” That the class of primes +should be similar to the class of numbers only seems impossible because +we imagine whole and part defined by enumeration. As soon as we rid +ourselves of this idea the supposed contradiction vanishes. + +**343.** It is very important to realize, as regards to ω or α0, that +neither has a number immediately preceding it. This characteristic they +share with all limits, for the limit of a series is never immediately +preceded by any term of the series which it limits. But ω is in some +sense logically prior to other limits, for the finite ordinal numbers +together with ω present the formal type of a progression together with +its limit. When it is forgotten that ω has no immediate predecessor, all +sorts of contradictions emerge. For suppose n to be the last number +before ω; then n is a finite number, and the number of finite numbers is +n + 1. In fact, to say that ω has no predecessor is merely to say that +the finite numbers have no last term. Though ω is preceded by all finite +numbers, it is not preceded immediately by any of them: there is none +next to ω. Cantor’s transfinite numbers have the peculiarity that, +although there is one next after any assigned number, there is not +always one next before. Thus there seem to be gaps in the series. We +have the series 1, 2, 3, … ν, … , which is infinite and has no last +term. We have another series ω, ω + 1, ω + 2, … ω + ν, … which equally +is infinite and has no last term. This second series comes wholly after +the first, though there is no one term of the first which ω immediately +succeeds. This state of things may, however, be paralleled by very +elementary series, such as the series whose general terms are 1 − 1/ν +and 2 − 1/ν, where ν may be any finite integer. The second series comes +wholly after the first, and has a definite first term, namely 1. But +there is no term of the first series which immediately precedes 1. What +is necessary, in order that the second series should come after the +first, is that there should be some series in which both are contained. +If we call an ordinal part of a series any series which can be obtained +by omitting some of the terms of our series without changing the order +of the remaining terms, then the finite and transfinite ordinals all +form one series, whose generating relation is that of ordinal whole and +part among the series to which the various ordinals apply. If ν be any +finite ordinal, series of the type ν are ordinal parts of progressions; +similarly every series of the type ω + 1 contains a progression as an +ordinal part. The relation ordinal part is transitive and asymmetrical, +and thus the finite and transfinite ordinals all belong to one series. +The existence of ω (in the mathematical sense of existence) is not open +to question, since ω is the type of order presented by the natural +numbers themselves. To deny ω would be to affirm that there is a last +finite number—a view which, as we have seen, leads at once to definite +contradictions. And when this is admitted, ω + 1 is the type of the +series of ordinals including ω, i.e. of the series whose terms are all +series of integers from 1 up to any finite number together with the +whole series of integers. Hence all the infinite hierarchy of +transfinite numbers easily follows. + +**344.** The usual objections to infinite numbers, and classes, and +series, and the notion that the infinite as such is self-contradictory, +may thus be dismissed as groundless. There remains, however, a very +grave difficulty, connected with the contradiction discussed in [Chapter +x](#chapter10). This difficulty does not concern the infinite as such, +but only certain very large infinite classes. Briefly, the difficulty +may be stated as follows. Cantor has given a proof[\*](#fn362-1) that +there can be no greatest cardinal number, and when this proof is +examined, it is found to state that, if u be a class, the number of +classes contained in u is greater than the number of terms of u, or +(what is equivalent), if α be any number, 2α is greater than α. But +there are certain classes concerning which it is easy to give an +apparently valid proof that they have as many terms as possible. Such +are the class of all terms, the class of all classes, or the class of +all propositions. Thus it would seem as though Cantor’s proof must +contain some assumption which is not verified in the case of such +classes. But when we apply the reasoning of his proof to the cases in +question, we find ourselves met by definite contradictions, of which the +one discussed in [Chapter x](#chapter10) is an example[†](#fn362-2). The +difficulty arises whenever we try to deal with the class of all entities +absolutely, or with any equally numerous class; but for the difficulty +of such a view, one would be tempted to say that the conception of the +totality of things, or of the whole universe of entities and existents, +is in some way illegitimate and inherently contrary to logic. But it is +undesirable to adopt so desperate a measure as long as hope remains of +some less heroic solution. + +It may be observed, to begin with, that the class of numbers is not, as +might be supposed, one of those in regard to which difficulties occur. +Among finite numbers, if n were the number of numbers, we should have to +infer that n − 1 was the greatest of numbers, so that there would be no +number n at all. But this is a peculiarity of finite numbers. The number +of numbers up to and including α0 is α0, but this is also the number of +numbers up to and including αβ, where β is any finite ordinal or any +ordinal applicable to a denumerable well-ordered series. Thus the number +of numbers up to and including α, where α is infinite, is usually less +than α, and there is no reason to suppose that the number of all numbers +is the greatest number. The number of numbers may be less than the +greatest number, and no contradiction arises from the fact (if it be a +fact) that the number of individuals is greater than the number of +numbers. + +But although the class of numbers causes no difficulty, there are other +classes with which it is very hard to deal. Let us first examine +Cantor’s proofs that there is no greatest cardinal number, and then +discuss the cases in which contradictions arise. + +**345.** In the first of Cantor’s proofs[\*](#fn363-1), the argument +depends upon the supposed fact that there is a one-one correspondence +between the ordinals and the cardinals[†](#fn363-2). We saw that, when +we consider the cardinal number of the series of the type represented by +any ordinal, an infinite number of ordinals correspond to one +cardinal—for example, all ordinals of the second class, which form a +non-denumerable collection, correspond to the single cardinal α0. But +there is another method of correlation, in which only one ordinal +corresponds to each cardinal. This method results from considering the +series of cardinals itself. In this series, α0 corresponds to ω, α1 to ω ++ 1, and so on: there is always one and only one ordinal to describe the +type of series presented by the cardinals from 0 up to any one of them. +It seems to be assumed that there is a cardinal for every ordinal, and +that no class can have so many terms that no well-ordered series can +have a greater number of terms. For my part I do not see any grounds for +either supposition, and I do see definite grounds against the latter. +For every term of a series must be an individual, and must be a +different individual (a point often overlooked) from every other term of +the series. It must be different, because there are no instances of an +individual: each individual is absolutely unique, and in the nature of +the case only one. But two terms in a series are two, and are therefore +not one and the same individual. This most important point is obscured +by the fact that we do not, as a rule, fully describe the terms of our +series. When we say: Consider a series a, b, c, d, b, d, e, a, … , where +terms are repeated at intervals—such a series, for example, as is +presented by the digits in a decimal—we forget the theorem that where +there is repetition our series is only obtainable by correlation; that +is, the terms do not themselves have an order, but they have a one-many +(not one-one) relation to terms which have an order[\*](#fn364-1). Hence +if we wish for a genuine series we must either go back to the series +with which our terms are correlated, or we must form the complex terms +compounded of those of the original series and those of the correlated +series in pairs. But in either of these series there is no repetition. +Hence every ordinal number must correspond to a series of individuals, +each of which differs from each other. Now it may be doubted whether all +individuals form a series at all: for my part I cannot discover any +transitive asymmetrical relation which holds between every pair of +terms. Cantor, it is true, regards it as a law of thought that every +definite aggregate can be well-ordered; but I see no ground for this +opinion. But allowing this view, the ordinals will have a perfectly +definite maximum, namely that ordinal which represents the type of +series formed by all terms without exception[†](#fn364-2). If the +collection of all terms does not form a series it is impossible to prove +that there must be a maximum ordinal, which in any case there are +reasons for denying[‡](#fn364-3). But in this case we may legitimately +doubt whether there are as many ordinals as there are cardinals. Of +course, if all cardinals form a well-ordered series, then there must be +an ordinal for each cardinal. But although Cantor professes that he has +a proof that of two different cardinals one must be the greater (Math. +Annalen, xlvi, §2), I cannot persuade myself that he does more than +prove that there is a series, whose terms are cardinals of which any one +is greater or less than any other. That all cardinals are in this series +I see no reason to think. There may be two classes such that it is not +possible to correlate either with a part of the other; in this case the +cardinal number of the one will be neither equal to, greater than, nor +less than, that of the other. If all terms belong to a single +well-ordered series, this is impossible; but if not, I cannot see any +way of showing that such a case cannot arise. Thus the first proof that +there is no cardinal which cannot be increased seems to break down. + +**346.** The second of the proofs above referred to[§](#fn364-4) is +quite different, and is far more definite. The proof is interesting and +important on its own account, and will be produced in outline. The +article in which it occurs consists of three points: (1) a simple proof +that there are powers higher than the first, (2) the remark that this +method of proof can be applied to any power, (3) the application of the +method to prove that there are powers higher than that of the +continuum[‖](#fn364-5). Let us examine the first of the above points, +and then see whether the method is really general. + +Let m and w, Cantor says, be two mutually exclusive characters, and +consider a collection M of elements E, where each element E is a +denumerable collection, x1, x2, … xn, … , and each x is either an m or a +w. (The two characters m and w may be considered respectively as greater +and less than some fixed term. Thus the x’s may be rational numbers, +each of which is an m when it is greater than 1, and a w when it is less +than 1. These remarks are logically irrelevant, but they make the +argument easier to follow.) The collection M is to consist of all +possible elements E of the above description. Then M is not denumerable, +i.e. is of a power higher than the first. For let us take any +denumerable collection of E’s, which are defined as follows: + +E1 = (a11, a12, … a1n, …) E2 = (a21, a22, … a2n, …) Ep += (ap1, ap2, … apn, …) + +where the a’s are each an m or a w in some determinate manner. (For +example, the first p terms of Ep might be m’s, the rest all w’s. Or an +other law might be suggested, which insures that the E’s of our series +are all different.) Then however our series of E’s be chosen, we can +always find a term E0, belonging to the collection M, but not to the +denumerable series of E’s. For let E0 be the series (b1, b2, … bn …), +where, for every n, bn is different from ann—i.e. if ann is an m, bn is +a w, and vice versâ. Then every one of our denumerable series of E’s +contains at least one term not identical with the corresponding term of +E0, and hence E0 is not any one of the terms of our denumerable series +of E’s. Hence no such series can contain all the E’s, and therefore the +E’s are not denumerable, i.e. M has a power higher than the first. + +We need not stop to examine the proof that there is a power higher than +that of the continuum, which is easily obtained from the above proof. We +may proceed at once to the general proof that, given any collection +whatever, there is a collection of a higher power. This proof is quite +as simple as the proof of the particular case. It proceeds as follows. +Let u be any class, and consider the class K of relations such that, if +R be a relation of the class, every term of the class u has the relation +R either to 0 or to 1. (Any other pair of terms will do as well as 0 and +1.) Then the class K has a higher power than the class u. To prove this, +observe in the first place that K has certainly not a lower power; for, +if x be any u, there will be a relation R of the class K such that every +u except x has the relation R to 0, but x has this relation to 1. +Relations of this kind, for the various values of x, form a class having +a one-one correlation with the terms of u, and contained in the class K. +Hence K has at least the same power as u. To prove that K has a greater +power, consider any class contained in K and having a one-one +correlation with u. Then any relation of this class may be called Rx, +where x is some u—the suffix x denoting correlation with x. Let us now +define a relation R′ by the following conditions: For every term x of u +for which x has the relation Rx to 0, let x have the relation R′ to 1; +and for every term y of u for which y has the relation Ry to 1, let y +have the relation R′ to 0. Then R′ is defined for all terms of u, and is +a relation of the class K; but it is not any one of the relations Rx. +Hence, whatever class contained in K and of the same power as u we may +take, there is always a term of K not belonging to this class; and +therefore K has a higher power than u. + +**347.** We may, to begin with, somewhat simplify this argument, by +eliminating the mention of 0 and 1 and relations to them. Each of the +relations of the class K is defined when we know which of the terms of u +have this relation to 0, that is, it is defined by means of a class +contained in u (including the null-class and u itself). Thus there is +one relation of the class K for every class contained in u, and the +number of K is the same as that of classes contained in u. Thus if k be +any class whatever, the logical product ku is a class contained in u, +and the number of K is that of ku, where k is a variable which may be +any class. Thus the argument is reduced to this: that the number of +classes contained in any class exceeds the number of terms belonging to +the class[\*](#fn366-1). + +Another form of the same argument is the following. Take any relation R +which has the two properties (1) that its domain, which we will call ρ, +is equal to its converse domain, (2) that no two terms of the domain +have exactly the same set of relata. Then by means of R, any term of ρ +is correlated with a class contained in ρ, namely the class of relata to +which the said term is referent; and this correlation is one-one. We +have to show that at least one class contained in ρ is omitted in this +correlation. The class omitted is the class w which consists of all +terms of the domain which do not have the relation R to themselves, i.e. +the class w which is the domain of the logical product of R and +diversity. For, if y be any term of the domain, and therefore of the +converse domain, y belongs to w if it does not belong to the class +correlated with y, and does not belong to w in the contrary case. Hence +w is not the same class as the correlate of y; and this applies to +whatever term y we select. Hence the class w is necessarily omitted in +the correlation. + +**348.** The above argument, it must be confessed, appears to contain no +dubitable assumption. Yet there are certain cases in which the +conclusion seems plainly false. To begin with the class of all terms. If +we assume, as was done in [§47](#sec47), that every constituent of every +proposition is a term, then classes will be only some among terms. And +conversely, since there is, for every term, a class consisting of that +term only, there is a one-one correlation of all terms with some +classes. Hence the number of classes should be the same as the number of +terms[\*](#fn367-1). This case is adequately met by the doctrine of +types[†](#fn367-2), and so is the exactly analogous case of classes and +classes of classes. But if we admit the notion of all +objects[‡](#fn367-3) of every kind, it becomes evident that classes of +objects must be only some among objects, while yet Cantor’s argument +would show that there are more of them than there are objects. Or again, +take the class of propositions. Every object can occur in some +proposition, and it seems indubitable that there are at least as many +propositions as there are objects. For, if u be a fixed class, “x is a +u” will be a different proposition for every different value of x; if, +according to the doctrine of types, we hold that, for a given u, x has a +restricted range if “x is a u” is to remain significant, we only have to +vary u suitably in order to obtain propositions of this form for every +possible x, and thus the number of propositions must be at least as +great as that of objects. But classes of propositions are only some +among objects, yet Cantor’s argument shows that there are more of them +than there are propositions. Again, we can easily prove that there are +more propositional functions than objects. For suppose a correlation of +all objects and some propositional functions to have been affected, and +let φx be the correlate of x. Then “not-φx(x),” i.e. “φx does not hold +of x,” is a propositional function not contained in the correlation; for +it is true or false of x according as φx is false or true of x, and +therefore it differs from φx for every value of x. But this case may +perhaps be more or less met by the doctrine of types. + +**349.** It is instructive to examine in detail the application of +Cantor’s argument to such cases by means of an actual attempted +correlation. In the case of terms and classes, for example, if x be not +a class, let us correlate it with ιx, i.e. the class whose only member +is x, but if x be a class, let us correlate it with itself. (This is not +a one-one, but a many-one correlation, for x and ιx are both correlated +with ιx; but it will serve to illustrate the point in question.) Then +the class which, according to Cantor’s argument, should be omitted from +the correlation, is the class w of those classes which are not members +of themselves; yet this, being a class, should be correlated with +itself. But w, as we saw in [Chapter x](#chapter10), is a +self-contradictory class, which both is and is not a member of itself. +The contradiction, in this case, can be solved by the doctrine of types; +but the case of propositions is more difficult. In this case, let us +correlate every class of propositions with the proposition which is its +logical product; by this means we appear to have a one-one relation of +all classes of propositions to some propositions. But applying Cantor’s +argument, we find that we have omitted the class w of those propositions +which are logical products, but are not members of the classes of +propositions whose logical products they are. This class, according to +the definition of our correlation, should be correlated with its own +logical product, but on examining this logical product, we find that it +both is and is not a member of the class w whose logical product it is. + +Thus the application of Cantor’s argument to the doubtful cases yields +contradictions, though I have been unable to find any point in which the +argument appears faulty. The only solution I can suggest is, to accept +the conclusion that there is no greatest number and the doctrine of +types, and to deny that there are any true propositions concerning all +objects or all propositions. Yet the latter, at least, seems plainly +false, since all propositions are at any rate true or false, even if +they had no other common properties. In this unsatisfactory state, I +reluctantly leave the problem to the ingenuity of the reader. + +**350.** To sum up the discussions of this Part: We saw, to begin with, +that irrationals are to be defined as those segments of rationals which +have no limit, and that in this way analysis is able to dispense with +any special axiom of continuity. We saw that it is possible to define, +in a purely ordinal manner, the kind of continuity which belongs to real +numbers, and that continuity so defined is not self-contradictory. We +found that the differential and integral calculus has no need of the +infinitesimal, and that, though some forms of infinitesimal are +admissible, the most usual form, that of infinitesimal segments in a +compact series, is not implied by either compactness or continuity, and +is in fact self-contradictory. Finally we discussed the philosophical +questions concerning continuity and infinity, and found that the +arguments of Zeno, though largely valid, raise no sort of serious +difficulty. Having grasped clearly the twofold definition of the +infinite, as that which cannot be reached by mathematical induction +starting from 1, and as that which has parts which have the same number +of terms as itself—definitions which may be distinguished as ordinal and +cardinal respectively—we found that all the usual arguments, both as to +infinity and as to continuity, are fallacious, and that no definite +contradiction can be proved concerning either, although certain special +infinite classes do give rise to hitherto unsolved contradictions. + +It remains to apply to space, time, and motion, the three chief results +of this discussion, which are (1) the impossibility of infinitesimal +segments, (2) the definition of continuity, and (3) the definition and +the consistent doctrine of the infinite. These applications will, I +hope, persuade the reader that the above somewhat lengthy discussions +have not been superfluous. + +Notes + +# PART VI. +SPACE. + +## CHAPTER XLIV. +Dimensions and Complex Numbers. + +**351.** The discussions of the preceding Parts have been concerned with +two main themes, the logical theory of numbers and the theory of +one-dimensional series. In the first two Parts, it was shown how, from +the indispensable apparatus of general logical notions, the theory of +finite integers and of rational numbers without sign could be developed. +In the [third Part](#part3), a particular case of order, namely the +order of magnitude, was examined on its own account, and it was found +that most of the problems arising in the theory of quantity are purely +ordinal. In the [fourth Part](#part4), the general nature of +one-dimensional series was set forth, and it was shown that all the +arithmetical propositions obtained by means of the logical theory of +finite numbers could also be proved by assuming that the finite integers +form a series of the kind which we called a progression. In the [fifth +Part](#part5), we examined the problems raised by endless series and by +compact series—problems which, under the names of infinity and +continuity, have defied philosophers ever since the dawn of abstract +thought. The discussion of these problems led to a combination of the +logical and ordinal theories of Arithmetic, and to the rejection, as +universally valid, of two connected principles which, following Cantor, +we regarded as definitions of the finite, not as applicable to all +collections or series. These two principles were: (1) If one class be +wholly contained in, but not coextensive with, another, then the one has +not the same number of terms as the other; (2) mathematical induction, +which is purely ordinal, and may be stated as follows: A series +generated by a one-one relation, and having a first term, is such that +any property, belonging to the first term and to the successor of any +possessor of the property, belongs to every term of the series. These +two principles we regarded as definitions of finite classes and of +progressions or finite series respectively, but as inapplicable to some +classes and some series. This view, we found, resolves all the +difficulties of infinity and continuity, except a purely logical +difficulty as to the notion of all classes. With this result, we +completed the philosophical theory of one-dimensional series. + +**352.** But in all our previous discussions, large branches of +mathematics have remained unmentioned. One of the generalizations of +number, namely complex numbers, has been excluded completely, and no +mention has been made of the imaginary. The whole of Geometry, also, has +been hitherto foreign to our thoughts. These two omissions were +connected. Not that we are to accept a geometrical, i.e. spatial, theory +of complex numbers: this would be as much out of place as a geometrical +theory of irrationals. Although this Part is called Space, we are to +remain in the region of pure mathematics: the mathematical entities +discussed will have certain affinities to the space of the actual world, +but they will be discussed without any logical dependence upon these +affinities. Geometry may be considered as a pure à priori science, or as +the study of actual space. In the latter sense, I hold it to be an +experimental science, to be conducted by means of careful measurements. +But it is not in this latter sense that I wish to discuss it. As a +branch of pure mathematics, Geometry is strictly deductive, indifferent +to the choice of its premisses and to the question whether there exist +(in the strict sense) such entities as its premisses define. Many +different and even inconsistent sets of premisses lead to propositions +which would be called geometrical, but all such sets have a common +element. This element is wholly summed up by the statement that Geometry +deals with series of more than one dimension. The question what may be +the actual terms of such series is indifferent to Geometry, which +examines only the consequences of the relations which it postulates +among the terms. These relations are always such as to generate a series +of more than one dimension, but have, so far as I can see, no other +general point of agreement. Series of more than one dimension I shall +call multiple series: those of one dimension will be called simple. What +is meant by dimensions I shall endeavour to explain in the course of the +present chapter. At present, I shall set up, by anticipation, the +following definition: Geometry is the study of series of two or more +dimensions. This definition, it will be seen, causes complex numbers to +form part of the subject-matter of Geometry, since they constitute a +two-dimensional series; but it does not show that complex numbers have +any logical dependence upon actual space. + +The above definition of Geometry is, no doubt, somewhat unusual, and +will produce, especially upon Kantian philosophers, an appearance of +wilful misuse of words. I believe, however, that it represents correctly +the present usage of mathematicians, though it is not necessary for them +to give an explicit definition of their subject. How it has come to bear +this meaning, may be explained by a brief historical retrospect, which +will illustrate also the difference between pure and applied +mathematics. + +**353.** Until the nineteenth century. Geometry meant Euclidean +Geometry, i.e. a certain system of propositions deduced from premisses +which were supposed to describe the space in which we live. The subject +was pursued very largely because (what is no doubt important to the +engineer) its results were practically applicable in the existent world, +and embodied in themselves scientific truths. But in order to be sure +that this was so, one of two things was necessary. Either we must be +certain of the truth of the premisses on their own account, or we must +be able to show that no other set of premisses would give results +consistent with experience. The first of these alternatives was adopted +by the idealists and was especially advocated by Kant. The second +alternative represents, roughly, the position of empiricists before the +non-Euclidean period (among whom we must include Mill). But objections +were raised to both alternatives. For the Kantian view, it was necessary +to maintain that all the axioms are self-evident—a view which honest +people found it hard to extend to the axiom of parallels. Hence arose a +search for more plausible axioms, which might be declared à priori +truths. But, though many such axioms were suggested, all could sanely be +doubted, and the search only led to scepticism. The second +alternative—the view that no other axioms would give results +consistent with experience—could only be tested by a greater +mathematical ability than falls to the lot of most philosophers. +Accordingly the test was wanting until Lobatchewsky and Bolyai developed +their non-Euclidean system. It was then proved, with all the cogency of +mathematical demonstration, that premisses other than Euclid’s could +give results empirically indistinguishable, within the limits of +observation, from those of the orthodox system. Hence the empirical +argument for Euclid was also destroyed. But the investigation produced a +new spirit among Geometers. Having found that the denial of Euclid’s +axiom of parallels led to a different system, which was self-consistent, +and possibly true of the actual world, mathematicians became interested +in the development of the consequences flowing from other sets of axioms +more or less resembling Euclid’s. Hence arose a large number of +Geometries, inconsistent, as a rule, with each other, but each +internally self-consistent. The resemblance to Euclid required in a +suggested set of axioms has gradually grown less, and possible deductive +systems have been more and more investigated on their own account. In +this way. Geometry has become (what it was formerly mistakenly called) a +branch of pure mathematics, that is to say, a subject in which the +assertions are that such and such consequences follow from such and such +premisses, not that entities such as the premisses describe actually +exist. That is to say, if Euclid’s axioms be called A, and P be any +proposition implied by A, then, in the Geometry which preceded +Lobatchewsky, P itself would be asserted, since A was asserted. But +now-a-days, the geometer would only assert that A implies P, leaving A +and P themselves doubtful. And he would have other sets of axioms, A1, +A2 … implying P1, P2 … respectively: the implications would belong to +Geometry, but not A1 or P1 or any of the other actual axioms and +propositions. Thus Geometry no longer throws any direct light on the +nature of actual space. But indirectly, the increased analysis and +knowledge of possibilities, resulting from modern Geometry, has thrown +immense light upon our actual space. Moreover it is now proved (what is +fatal to the Kantian philosophy) that every Geometry is rigidly +deductive, and does not employ any forms of reasoning but such as apply +to Arithmetic and all other deductive sciences. My aim, in what follows, +will be to set forth first, in brief outlines, what is philosophically +important in the deductions which constitute modern Geometry, and then +to proceed to those questions, in the philosophy of space, upon which +mathematics throws light. In the first section of this Part, though I +shall be discussing Geometries as branches of pure mathematics, I shall +select for discussion only those which throw the most light either upon +actual space, or upon the nature of mathematical reasoning. A treatise +on non-Euclidean Geometry is neither necessary nor desirable in a +general work such as the present, and will therefore not be found in the +following chapters. + +**354.** Geometry, we said, is the study of series which have more than +one dimension. It is now time to define dimensions, and to explain what +is meant by a multiple series. The relevance of our definition to +Geometry will appear from the fact that the mere definition of +dimensions leads to a duality closely analogous to that of projective +Geometry. + +Let us begin with two dimensions. A series of two dimensions arises as +follows. Let there be some asymmetrical transitive relation P, which +generates a series u1. Let every term of u1 be itself an asymmetrical +transitive relation, which generates a series. Let all the field of P +form a simple series of asymmetrical relations, and let each of these +have a simple series of terms for its field. Then the class u2 of terms +forming the fields of all the relations in the series generated by P is +a two-dimensional series. In other words, the total field of a class of +asymmetrical transitive relations forming a simple series is a double +series. But instead of starting from the asymmetrical relation P, we may +start from the terms. Let there be a class of terms u2, of which any +given one (with possibly one exception) belongs to the field of one and +only one of a certain class u1 of serial relations. That is if x be a +term of u2, x is also a term of the field of some relation of the class +u1. Now further let u1 be a series. Then u2 will be a double series. +This seems to constitute the definition of two-dimensional series. + +To obtain three dimensions, we have only to suppose that u2 itself +consists of series, or of asymmetrical transitive relations. Or, +starting with the terms of the three-dimensional series, let any term of +a certain class u2 belong to one and only one series (again with one +possible exception, which may belong to many series) of a certain class +u2. Let every term of u2 be a term of some series belonging to a class +u1 of series, and let u1 itself be a simple series. Then u3 is a triple +series, or a series of three dimensions. Proceeding in this way, we +obtain the definition of n dimensions, which may be given as follows: +Let there be some series u1 whose terms are all themselves serial +relations. If x1 be any term of u1, and x2 any term of the field of x1, +let x2 be again a serial relation, and so on. Proceeding to x3, x4, +etc., let xn−1, however obtained, be always a relation generating a +simple series. Then all the terms xn belonging to the field of any +serial relation xn−1, form an n-dimensional series. Or, to give the +definition which starts from the terms: Let un be a class of terms, any +one of which, xn say, belongs to the field of some serial relation, xn−1 +say, which itself belongs to a definite class un−1 of serial relations. +Let each term xn in general belong to the field of only one serial +relation xn−1 (with exceptions which need not be discussed at present). +Let un−1 lead to a new class un−2 of serial relations, in exactly the +way in which un led to un−1. Let this proceed until we reach a class u1, +and let u1 be a simple series. Then un is a series of n dimensions. + +**355.** Before proceeding further, some observations on the above +definitions may be useful. In the first place, we have just seen that +alternative definitions of dimensions suggest themselves, which have a +relation analogous to what is called duality in projective Geometry. How +far this analogy extends, is a question which we cannot discuss until we +have examined projective Geometry. In the second place, every series of +n dimensions involves series of all smaller numbers of dimensions, but a +series of (n − 1) dimensions does not in general imply one of n +dimensions. In the second form of the definition of n dimensions, the +class un−1 is a series of (n − 1) dimensions, and generally, if m be +less than n, the class un−m is a series of (n − m) dimensions. And in +the other method, all possible terms xn−1 together form a series of (n − +1) dimensions, and so on. In the third place, if n be finite, a class +which is an n-dimensional series is also a one-dimensional series. This +may be established by the following rules: In the class u1, which is a +simple series, preserve the order unchanged. In u2, keep the internal +order of each series unchanged, and place that series before which comes +before in u1, and that after which comes after in u2. Thus u2 is +converted into a simple series. Apply now the same process to u3, and so +on. Then by mathematical induction, if n be finite, or be any infinite +ordinal number, un can be converted into a simple series. This +remarkable fact, which was discovered, for finite numbers and ω, by +Cantor[\*](#fn375-1), has a very important bearing on the foundations of +Geometry. In the fourth place, the definition of n dimensions can be +extended to the case where n is ω, the first of the transfinite +ordinals. For this purpose, it is only necessary to suppose that, +whatever finite number m we may take, any um will belong to some simple +series of series um+1; and that the sequence of classes of series so +obtained obeys mathematical induction, and is therefore a progression. +Then the number of dimensions is ω. This case brings out, what does not +appear so clearly from the case of a finite number of dimensions, that +the number of dimensions is an ordinal number. + +**356.** There are very many ways of generating multiple series, as +there are of generating simple series. The discussion of these various +ways is not, however, of great importance, since it would follow closely +the discussion of [Part IV](#part4), [Chapter xxiv](#chapter24). +Instances will meet us in the course of our examination of the various +Geometries; and this examination will give opportunities of testing our +definition of dimensions. For the present, it is only important to +observe that dimensions, like order and continuity, are defined in +purely abstract terms, without any reference to actual space. Thus when +we say that space has three dimensions, we are not merely attributing to +it an idea which can only be obtained from space, but we are effecting +part of the actual logical analysis of space. This will appear more +clearly from the applicability of dimensions to complex numbers, to +which we must now turn our attention. + +**357.** The theory of imaginaries was formerly considered a very +important branch of mathematical philosophy, but it has lost its +philosophical importance by ceasing to be controversial. The examination +of imaginaries led, on the Continent, to the Theory of Functions—a +subject which, in spite of its overwhelming mathematical importance, +appears to have little interest for the philosopher. But among ourselves +the same examination took a more abstract direction: it led to an +examination of the principles of symbolism, the formal laws of addition +and multiplication, and the general nature of a Calculus. Hence arose a +freer spirit towards ordinary Algebra, and the possibility of regarding +it (like ordinary Geometry) as one species of a genus. This was the +guiding spirit of Sir William Hamilton, De Morgan, Jevons and Peirce—to +whom, as regards the result, though not as regards the motive, we must +add Boole and Grassmann. Hence the philosophy of imaginaries became +merged in the far wider and more interesting problems of Universal +Algebra[\*](#fn376-1). These problems cannot, in my opinion, be dealt +with by starting with the genus, and asking ourselves: what are the +essential principles of any Calculus? It is necessary to adopt a more +inductive method, and examine the various species one by one. The +mathematical portion of this task has been admirably performed by Mr +Whitehead: the philosophical portion is attempted in the present work. +The possibility of a deductive Universal Algebra is often based upon a +supposed principle of the Permanence of Form. Thus it is said, for +example, that complex numbers must, in virtue of this principle, obey +the same laws of addition and multiplication as real numbers obey. But +as a matter of fact there is no such principle. In Universal Algebra, +our symbols of operation, such as + and ×, are variables, the hypothesis +of any one Algebra being that these symbols obey certain prescribed +rules. In order that such an Algebra should be important, it is +necessary that there should be at least one instance in which the +suggested rules of operation are verified. But even this restriction +does not enable us to make any general formal statement as to all +possible rules of operation. The principle of the Permanence of Form, +therefore, must be regarded as simply a mistake: other operations than +arithmetical addition may have some or all of its formal properties, but +operations can easily be suggested which lack some or all of these +properties. + +**358.** Complex numbers first appeared in mathematics through the +algebraical generalization of number. The principle of this +generalization is the following: Given some class of numbers, it is +required that numbers should be discovered or invented which will render +soluble any equation in one variable, whose coefficients are chosen from +the said class of numbers. Starting with positive integers, this method +leads at once, by means of simple equations alone, to all rational +numbers positive and negative. Equations of finite degrees will give all +the so-called algebraic numbers, but to obtain transcendent numbers, +such as e and π, we need equations which are not of any finite degree. +In this respect the algebraical generalization is very inferior to the +arithmetical, since the latter gives all irrationals by a uniform +method, whereas the former, strictly speaking, will give only the +algebraic numbers. But with regard to complex numbers, the matter is +otherwise. No arithmetical problem leads to these, and they are wholly +incapable of arithmetical definition. But the attempt to solve such +equations as of x2 + 1 = 0, or x2 + x + 1 = 0, at once demands a new +class of numbers, since, in the whole domain of real numbers, none can +be found to satisfy these equations. To meet such cases, the algebraical +generalization defined new numbers by means of the equations whose roots +they were. It showed that, assuming these new numbers to obey the usual +laws of multiplication, each of them fell into two parts, one real, the +other the product of some real number and a fixed number of the new +kind. This fixed number could be chosen arbitrarily, and was always +taken to be one of the square roots of −1. Numbers thus composed of two +parts were called complex numbers, and it was shown that no algebraic +operation upon them could lead to any new class of numbers. What is +still more remarkable, it was proved that any further generalization +must lead to numbers disobeying some of the formal laws of +Arithmetic[\*](#fn378-1). But the algebraical generalization was wholly +unable (as it was, in truth, at every previous stage) to prove that +there are such entities as those which it postulated. If the said +equations have roots, then the roots have such and such properties; this +is all that the algebraical method allows us to infer. There is, +however, no law of nature to the effect that every equation must have a +root; on the contrary, it is quite essential to be able to point out +actual entities which do have the properties demanded by the algebraical +generalization. + +**359.** The discovery of such entities is only to be obtained by means +of the theory of dimensions. Ordinary complex numbers form a series of +two dimensions of a certain type, which happen to occur as roots of +equations in which the coefficients are real. Complex numbers of a +higher order represent a certain type of n-dimensional series, but here +there is no algebraical problem concerning real numbers which they are +required to solve. As a matter of fact, however, the algebraical +generalization, as we have seen, does not tell us what our new entities +are, nor whether they are entities at all: moreover it encourages the +erroneous view that complex numbers whose imaginary part vanishes are +real numbers. This error is analogous to that of supposing that some +real numbers are rational, some rationals integral, and positive +integers identical with signless integers. All the above errors having +been exposed at length, the reader will probably be willing to admit the +corresponding error in the present case. No complex number, then, is a +real number, but each is a term in some multiple series. It is not worth +while to examine specially the usual two-dimensional complex numbers, +whose claims, as we have seen, are purely technical. I shall therefore +proceed at once to systems with n units. I shall give first the usual +purely formal definition[†](#fn378-2), then the logical objections to +this definition, and then the definition which I propose to substitute. + +Let n different entities, e1, e2, …… en, which we may call elements or +units, be given; and let each be capable of association with any real +number, or, in special cases, with any rational or any integer. In this +way let entities αrer arise, where αr is a number, and αrer differs from +αses unless r = s and αr = αs. That is, if either the numerical or the +non-numerical parts of αrer and αses be different, then the wholes are +different. Further, let there be a way of combining α1e1, α2e2, …, αnen, +for each set of values α1, α2, …, αn to form a new entity. (The class +whose members are α1e1, α2e2, …, αnen will be such an entity.) Then the +combination, which may be written as + +a = α1e1 + α2e2 + α3e3 + … + αnen, + +is a complex number of the nth order. The arrangement of the component +terms α1e1, α2e2, …, αnen may or may not be essential to the definition; +but the only thing always essential is, that the combination should be +such that a difference in any one or more of the numbers α1, α2, …, αn +insures a difference in the resulting complex number. + +**360.** The above definition suffers from the defect that it does not +point out any one entity which is the complex number defined by a set of +real numbers. Given two real numbers, a, b, the two complex numbers a + +ib, b + ia are determinate; and it is desirable that such +determinateness should appear in the general definition of complex +numbers of any order. But the e’s in the above definition are variables, +and the suggested complex number is only determinate when the e’s are +specified as well as the α’s. Where, as in metrical Geometry or in the +Dynamics of a finite system of particles, there are important meanings +for the e’s, we may find that complex numbers in the above sense are +important. But no special interpretation can give us the complex number +associated with a given set of real numbers. We might take as the +complex number the class of all such entities as the above for all +possible values of the e’s; but such a class would be too general to +serve our purposes. A better method seems to be the following. + +We wish a complex number of the nth order to be specified by the +enumeration of n real numbers in a certain order, i.e. by the numbers +α1, α2, … αn, where the order is indicated by the suffix. But we cannot +define a complex number as a series of n real numbers, because the same +real number may recur, i.e. αr and αs need not be different whenever r +and s are different. Thus what defines a real number is a one-many +relation whose domain consists of real numbers and whose converse domain +consists of the first n integers (or, in the case of a complex number of +infinite order, of all the integers); for the suffix in αr, indicates +correlation with the integer r. Such one-many relations may be defined +to be the complex numbers, and in this way a purely arithmetical +definition is obtained. The n-dimensional series of complex numbers of +order n results from arranging all complex numbers which differ only as +to (say) αr in the order of the real numbers which are αr in the various +cases. + +In order that complex numbers in the sense defined by Stolz should have +any importance, there must be some motive for considering assemblages of +terms selected out of continua. Such a motive exists in a metrical space +of n dimensions, owing to a circumstance which is essential to the +utility, though not to the definition, of complex numbers. Let a +collection of entities (points) be given, each of which has to each of +the entities e1, e2, … en a numerically measurable relation (distance), +and let each be uniquely defined by the n relations which it has to e1, +e2, … en. Then the complex number a will represent one of this +collection of entities, and the elements e1, e2, … en will themselves be +terms of the collection[\*](#fn380-1). Thus there is a motive for +considering the numbers a, which in the general case is practically +absent[†](#fn380-2). But what is essential to observe, and what applies +equally to the usual complex numbers of Algebra, is this: our numbers +are not purely arithmetical, but involve essential reference to a +plurality of dimensions. Thus we have definitely passed beyond the +domain of Arithmetic, and this was my reason for postponing the +consideration of complex numbers to this late stage. + +Notes + +## CHAPTER XLV. +Projective Geometry. + +**361.** The foundations of Geometry have been subjected, in recent +times, to a threefold scrutiny. First came the work of the +non-Euclideans, which showed that various axioms, long known to be +sufficient for certain results, were also necessary, i.e. that results +inconsistent with the usual results but consistent with each other +followed from the denial of those axioms. Next came the work of Dedekind +and Cantor on the nature of continuity, which showed the necessity of +investigating carefully the prerequisites of analytical Geometry. +Lastly, a great change has been introduced by the Italian work on closed +series, mentioned in [Part IV](#part4), in virtue of which we are able, +given a certain type of relation between four points of a line, to +introduce an order of all the points of a line. The work of the +non-Euclideans has, by this time, produced probably almost all the +modifications that it is likely to produce in the foundations, while the +work of Dedekind and Cantor only becomes relevant at a fairly advanced +stage of Geometry. The work on closed series, on the contrary, being +very recent, has not yet been universally recognized, although, as we +shall see in the present chapter, it has enormously increased the range +of pure projective Geometry. + +**362.** In the discussions of the present Part, I shall not divide +Geometries, as a rule, into Euclidean, hyperbolic, elliptic, and so on, +though I shall of course recognize this division and mention it whenever +it is relevant. But this is not so fundamental a division as another, +which applies, generally speaking, within each of the above kinds of +Geometry, and corresponds to a greater logical difference. The above +kinds differ, not in respect of the indefinables with which we start, +nor yet in respect of the majority of the axioms, but only in respect of +comparatively few and late axioms. The three kinds which I wish to +discuss differ both in respect of the indefinables and in respect of the +axioms, but unlike the three previous kinds, they are, roughly speaking, +mutually compatible. That is to say, given a certain body of geometrical +propositions concerning a certain number of entities, it is more or less +arbitrary which of the entities we take as indefinable and which of the +propositions as indemonstrable. But the logical differences which result +from different selections are very great, and the systems of deductions +to which different selections lead must be separately discussed. + +All Geometries, as commonly developed, agree in starting with points as +indefinables. That is, there is a certain class-concept point (which +need not be the same in different Geometries), of which we assume that +there are at least two, or three, or four instances, according to +circumstances. Further instances, i.e. further points, result from +special assumptions in the various cases. Where the three great types of +Geometry begin to diverge is as regards the straight line. Projective +Geometry begins with the whole straight line, i.e. it asserts that any +two points determine a certain class of points which is also determined +by any two other members of the class. If this class be regarded as +determined in virtue of a relation between the two points, then this +relation is symmetrical. What I shall call Descriptive Geometry, on the +contrary, begins with an asymmetrical relation, or a line with sense, +which may be called a ray; or again it may begin by regarding two points +as determining the stretch of points between them. Metrical Geometry, +finally, takes the straight line in either of the above senses, and adds +either a second relation between any two points, namely distance, which +is a magnitude, or else the consideration of stretches as magnitudes. +Thus in regard to the relations of two points, the three kinds of +Geometry take different indefinables, and have corresponding differences +of axioms. Any one of the three, by a suitable choice of axioms, will +lead to any required Euclidean or non-Euclidean space; but the first, as +we shall see, is not capable of yielding as many propositions as result +from the second or the third. In the present chapter, I am going to +assume that set of axioms which gives the simplest form of projective +Geometry; and I shall call any collection of entities satisfying these +axioms a projective space. We shall see in the [next +chapter](#chapter46) how to obtain a set of entities forming a +projective space from a set forming a Euclidean or hyperbolic space; +projective space itself is, so far as it goes, indistinguishable from +the polar form of elliptic space. It is defined, like all mathematical +entities, solely by the formal nature of the relations between its +constituents, not by what those constituents are in themselves. Thus we +shall see in the following chapter that the “points” of a projective +space may each be an infinite class of straight lines in a +non-projective space. So long as the “points” have the requisite type of +mutual relations, the definition is satisfied. + +**363.** Projective Geometry assumes a class of entities, called points, +to which it assigns certain properties[\*](#fn382-1); In the first +place, there are to be at least two different points, a and b say. These +two points are to determine a certain class of points, their straight +line, which we will call ab. This class is determined by b and a, as +well as by a and b, i.e. there is no order of a and b involved; moreover +a (and therefore b) is itself a member of the class. Further, the class +contains at least one point other than a and b; if c be any such point, +then b belongs to the class ac, and every point of ac belongs to ab. +With these assumptions it follows[\*](#fn383-1) that, if c, d be any +points of ab, then cd and ab coincide—i.e. any two points of a line +determine that line, or two lines coincide if they have two points in +common. + +Before proceeding further, let us consider for a moment what is meant by +saying that two points determine a class of points. This expression is +often thought to require no explanation, but as a matter of fact it is +not a perfectly precise statement. The precise statement of what is +meant is this: There is a certain definite relation (K say) which holds +between any couple of points and one and only one corresponding class of +points. Without some such definite relation, there could be no question +of two points determining a class. The relation K may be ultimate and +indefinable, in which case we need the above properties of the class ab. +We may obtain, however, a derivative relation between two points, b and +c say, namely that of being both collinear with a given point a. This +relation will be transitive and symmetrical, but will always involve +reference to a term other than those (b and c) which are its terms. This +suggests, as a simplification, that instead of a relation K between a +couple of points and a class of points, we might have a relation R +between the two points a and b. If R be a symmetrical aliorelative, +transitive so far as its being an aliorelative will permit (i.e. if aRb +and bRc imply aRc, unless a and c are identical), the above properties +of the straight line will belong to the class of terms having to a the +relation R together with a itself. This view seems simpler than the +former, and leads to the same results. Since the view that the straight +line is derived from a relation of two points is the simpler, I shall in +general adopt it. Any two points a, b have, then, a relation Rab; a, c +have a relation Rac. If Rab and Rac are identical, while b and c differ, +Rbc is identical with both Rab and Rac; if not, not. It is to be +observed that the formal properties of any such relation R are those +belonging to the disjunction of an asymmetrical transitive relation and +its converse—e.g. greater or less, before or after, etc. These are all +symmetrical aliorelatives, and are transitive so far as their being +aliorelatives will permit. But not all relations of the type in question +are analyzable into a transitive asymmetrical relation or its converse; +for diversity, which is of the above type, is not so analyzable. Hence +to assume that the straight line can be generated by an asymmetrical +relation and its converse is a new assumption, characteristic of what I +shall call Descriptive Geometry. For the present, such an assumption +would be out of place. We have, then, two indefinables, namely point, +and the relation R or K[\*](#fn384-1). No others are required in +projective space. + +**364.** The next point is the definition of the plane. It is one of the +merits of projective space that, unlike other spaces, it allows a very +simple and easy definition of the plane. For this purpose, we need a new +axiom, namely: If a, b be two distinct points, there is at least one +point not belonging to ab. Let this be c. Then the plane is the class of +points lying on any line determined by c and any point x of ab. That is, +if x be any point of ab, and y any point of cx, then y is a point of the +plane cab; and if y be a point of the plane cab, then there is some +point x in ab such that y is a point of cx. It is to be observed that +this definition will not apply to the Euclidean or hyperbolic plane, +since in these two lines may fail to intersect. The exclusion of +Euclidean and hyperbolic space results from the following +axiom[†](#fn384-2): “If a, b, c be three non-collinear points, and a′ +be a point of bc other than b and c, b′ a point of ac other than a and +c, then there is a point common to aa′ and bb′.” By means of this axiom +we can prove that the plane cab is the same as the plane abc or bac, and +generally that, if d, e, f be any three non-collinear points of abc, the +plane def coincides with the plane abc; we can also show that any two +lines in a plane intersect. + +**365.** We can now proceed to the harmonic range and von Staudt’s +quadrilateral construction. Given three collinear points a, b, c take +any two points u, v collinear with c but not on ab. Construct the points +of intersection au . bv and av . bu; join these points, and let the line +joining them meet ab in d. This construction is called the quadrilateral +construction. If we now assume that outside the plane abu there is at +least one point, we can prove that the point d is independent of u and +v, and is uniquely determined by a, b, c. The point d is called the +harmonic of c with respect to a and b, and the four points are said to +form a harmonic range. The uniqueness[‡](#fn384-3) of the above +construction—the proof of which, it should be observed, requires a point +not in the plane of the construction[‖](#fn384-4)—is the fundamental +proposition of projective Geometry. It gives a relation which may hold +between four points of a line, and which, when two are given, is one-one +as regards the other two. Denoting “c and d are harmonic with respect to +a and b” by cHabd, the following properties of the relation are +important: (1) cHabd implies dHabc, i.e. Hab is symmetrical; (2) cHabd +implies aHcdb, i.e. the relation of the pairs ab, cd is symmetrical; (3) +cHabd implies that c and d are different points, i.e. Hab is an +aliorelative. This last property is independent of the others, and has +to be introduced by an axiom[\*](#fn385-1). + +Having obtained the harmonic range, we may proceed in two different +directions. We may regard the harmonic relation as a relation of two +pairs of points: hence, by keeping one of the pairs fixed, we obtain +what is called an involution. Or we may regard the harmonic relation, as +in the symbol cHabd, as a relation between two points, which involves a +reference to two others. In this way, regarding a, b, c, as fixed, we +obtain three new points d, e, f on the line ab by the relations cHabd, +aHbce, bHacf. Each of these may be used, with two of the previous +points, to determine a fourth point, and so on. This leads to what +Möbius[†](#fn385-2) calls a net, and forms the method by which +Klein[‡](#fn385-3) introduces projective coordinates. This +construction gives also the method of defining an harmonic ratio. These +two directions in which projective Geometry may be developed must be +separately pursued to begin with. I shall take the former first. + +**366.** By means of the harmonic relation, we define an involution. +This consists of all pairs of points which are harmonic conjugates with +respect to two fixed points[‖](#fn385-4). That is to say, if a, b be the +two fixed points, an involution is composed of all pairs of points x, y +such that xHaby. If four points x, y, x′, y′ be given, it may or may not +happen that there exist two points a, b such that xHaby and x′Haby′. The +possibility of finding such points a, b constitutes a certain relation +of x, y to x′, y′. It is plain that this relation sometimes holds, for +it holds when x, y are respectively identical with x′, y′. It is plain +also that it sometimes does not hold; for if x and y be identical, but +not x′ and y′ then the relation is impossible. Pieri[§](#fn385-5) has +shown how, by means of certain axioms, this relation of four terms may +be used to divide the straight line into two segments with respect to +any two of its points, and to generate an order of all the points on a +line. (It must be borne in mind that, in projective Geometry, the points +of a line do not have an order to begin with.) This projective order is +obtained as follows. + +**367.** Given any three different points a, b, c on a line, consider +the class of points x such that a and c, b and x are each harmonic +conjugates with respect to some pair of points y, y′—in other words, a +and c, b and x are pairs in an involution whose double points are y, y′. +Here y, y′ are supposed variable: that is, if any such points can be +found, x is to belong to the class considered. This class contains the +point b, but not a or c. Let us call it the segment (abc). Let us denote +the relation of b to x (a and c being fixed) by bQacx. Then Qac is +symmetrical, and also bQacx implies aQbxc. We have here a relation of +four points, from which, as we saw in [Part IV](#part4), [Chapter +xxiv](#chapter24), an order will result if certain further axioms are +fulfilled. Three such axioms are required, and are given by Pieri as +follows. + +(1) If d is on the line ab, but does not belong to the segment (abc), +and does not coincide with a or with c, then d must belong to the +segment (bca). (If d coincides with c, we know already that d belongs to +the segment (bca). This case is therefore excluded from the axiom to +avoid a superfluity of assumptions.) In virtue of this axiom, if a, b, +c, d be distinct points on a line, we must have either bQacd or cQabd. +It follows that we must have either bQacd or aQbcd. Thus at least two +Q-relations hold between any four distinct collinear points. (2) If a, +b, c be distinct collinear points, and d be a point belonging to both +the segments (bca) and (cab), then d cannot belong to the segment (abc). +That is, of the three segments to which d may belong, it never belongs +to more than two. From this and the previous axiom it results that, if d +be distinct from a, b and c, then d belongs to two and only two of the +three segments defined by a, b and c. (3) If a, b, c be distinct +collinear points, and d a point, other than b, of the segment (abc), and +e a point of the segment (adc), then e is a point of the segment (abc). +(Here again, the condition that d is to be other than b is required only +to avoid superfluity, not for the truth of the axiom.) In terms of Q, +this axiom states that bQacd and dQace imply bQace; that is, Qac is +transitive. We saw already that Qac is symmetrical. We can now prove +that, by means of this relation, all points of the line except a and c +are divided into two classes, which we may call (ac)1 and (ac)2. Any two +points in the same class have the relation Qac, any two in different +classes have not. The division into two classes results from the fact +that, if we do not have bQacd, nor yet dQace (b, d, e being points other +than a and c), then we do have bQace. That is to say, Qac has the formal +properties of sameness of sign, and divides the line into two classes, +just as sameness of sign divides numbers into positive and negative. + +The opposite of Qac, which I shall denote by Tac, corresponds in like +manner to difference of sign. Tac is not to denote the mere negation of +Qac, but the fact of belonging to different segments. That is, bTacd +means that d does not coincide with a or c, that d lies in the line ac, +but not in the segment (abc). Then bTacd may be taken as meaning that b +and d are separated by a and c. It is a relation which has the formal +properties of separation of couples, as enumerated in [Part IV](#part4), +[Chapter xxiv](#chapter24). If a, b, c, d, e be five distinct points in +one straight line, we have the following properties of the T-relation. +(1) bTacd is equivalent to dTacb, aTbdc, cTbda, cTdba, etc. (2) We have +one and only one of the three relations aTbcd, aTbdC, aTcdb. (3) dTacb +implies dTace or eTacb[\*](#fn387-1). + +By comparing the above properties of T with those of separation of +couples, it will be seen that T leads to a closed series (in the sense +of [Part IV](#part4)), i.e. to a series in which there is a first term, +but this first term is arbitrary. The definition of the generating +relation of the series (which involves, as in the general case, three +fixed points) is given by Pieri as follows. With regard to the natural +order abc, a precedes every other point of the line; c precedes every +point d not belonging to (abc) and not coinciding with a or c, i.e. +every point d such that dTacb; a general point d precedes a general +point e if dQacb and eQadc, or if dTacb and eTadc, i.e. if d belongs to +the segment (abc) and e to the segment (acd), or if b and d are +separated by a and c, and likewise c and e by a and d. It is then shown, +that of any two points of the line, one precedes the other, and that the +relation is transitive and asymmetrical; hence all the points of the +line acquire an order. + +Having now obtained an order among our points, we can introduce an axiom +of continuity, to which Pieri[†](#fn387-2) gives a form analogous to +that of Dedekind’s axiom, namely: If any segment (abc) be divided into +two parts h and k, such that, with regard to the order abc, every point +of h precedes every point of k, while h and k each contain at least one +point, then there must be in (abc) at least one point x such that every +point of (abc) which precedes x belongs to h, and every point of (abc) +which follows x belongs to k. It follows from this axiom that every +infinite class contained in (abc) and having no last (or first) term has +a limit, which is either a point of (abc) or c (or a); and it is easy to +prove that, when h and k are given, there can be only one such point as +x in the axiom. + +By means of the projective segment, it is easy to define triangles and +tetrahedra. Three points determine four triangles, which between them +contain all the points of the plane, and have no common points except +the angles. Also we can define harmonic transformations, and prove their +properties without any further axiom[\*](#fn388-1). Only one other axiom +is required to complete our Geometry, namely: A plane and a line not in +the plane always have a common point. This amounts to the axiom of three +dimensions. Nothing is altered, in what precedes, by denying it, and +proceeding to a space of n dimensions or of an infinite number of +dimensions. This last, in fact, requires fewer axioms than a space of +three dimensions[†](#fn388-2). + +**368.** Let us now resume the other direction in which projective +Geometry may be developed, in which we start from three fixed points on +a line, and examine all the points obtainable from these three by +successive quadrilateral constructions. We do not here, as in the +development we have been examining, require any new axiom; but there is +a corresponding restriction in the results obtainable. In order to give +projective Geometry its fullest possible development we must combine the +results of both directions. + +Confining ourselves, to begin with, to one straight line, let us see how +to construct a net and introduce projective coordinates. Denoting by +aHbcd, as before, the proposition “a and d are harmonic conjugates with +respect to b and c,” we can, by the quadrilateral construction, when a, +b, c are given, determine the only point d satisfying this proposition. +We next construct the point e for which bHcde, then f for which dHcef, g +for which eHcfg, and so on. In this way we obtain a progression of +points on our line, such that any three consecutive points, together +with c, form a harmonic range. With our former definition of a segment, +all these points will belong to the segments (abc) and (bca). We may +number these points, beginning with a, 0, 1, 2, …, n, …. Since c does +not belong to the progression, we may assign to it the number +∞[‡](#fn388-3). Consider next the points obtained as follows. Let d′ +be such that d′Habc, let e′Hadb, f′Hacd′, and so on. We have thus a new +progression of points, such that any three consecutive points together +with a form a harmonic range, and all belonging to the segments (abc), +(cab). To these points let us assign the numbers 1/n in order. Similarly +we can construct a progression belonging to the two segments (cab), +(bca), and assign to them the negative integers. By proceeding in a +similar manner with any triad of points so obtained, we can obtain more +and more points. The principle adopted in assigning numbers to points (a +principle which, from our present standpoint, has no motive save +convenience) is the following: if p, q, r be the numbers assigned to +three points already constructed, and s be the number to be assigned to +the harmonic conjugate (supposed not previously constructed) of the +q-point with respect to the p-point and the r-point, then we are to have +p − qr − q∕p − sr − s = −1. In this manner, we can find one and only one +point of our line for each rational number, positive or +negative[\*](#fn389-1). Thus we obtain a denumerable endless compact +series of points on our line. Whether these are all the points of our +line or not, we cannot decide without a further axiom. If our line is to +be a continuous series, or a collection of the power of the continuum, +we must of course assume points not obtainable by quadrilateral +constructions, however often repeated, which start with three given +elements. But as the definition of our space is optional, we may, if we +like, content ourselves with a rational space, and introduce an axiom to +the effect that all points of our line can be obtained from three given +points. + +**369.** Before proceeding further, it may be well to point out a +logical error, which is very apt to be committed, and has been +committed, I think, even by Klein[†](#fn389-2). So long as Pieri’s three +axioms above enumerated are not assumed, our points have no order but +that which results from the net, whose construction has just been +explained. Hence only rational points (i.e. such as, starting from three +given points, have rational coordinates) can have an order at all. If +there be any other points, there can be no sense in which these can be +limits of series of rational points, nor any reason for assigning +irrational coordinates to them. For a limit and the series which it +limits must both belong to some one series; but in this case, the +rational points form the whole of the series. Hence other points (if +there be any) cannot be assigned as limits of series of rational points. +The notion that this can be done springs merely from the habit of +assuming that all the points of a line form a series, without explicitly +stating this or its equivalent as an axiom. Indeed, just as we found +that series of rationals properly have no limit except when they happen +to have a rational limit, so series of points obtainable by the +quadrilateral construction will not have limits, quâ terms of the series +obtained from the quadrilateral construction, except where they happen +to have a limit within this series, i.e. when their coordinates have a +rational limit. At this point, therefore, it is highly desirable to +introduce Pieri’s three axioms, in virtue of which all the points of a +line have an order. We shall find that, in the natural order cab, the +order of the rational points, resulting from Pieri’s axioms, is the same +as that of their coordinates assigned on the above +principle[\*](#fn390-1). Thus we have only to assume that all infinite +series of rational points have limits, as parts of Pieri’s series, and +that all points are either rational or limits of rational series, in +order to show that our straight line has continuity in Cantor’s sense. +In this case we shall assign to non-rational points the irrational +numbers corresponding to the series which such points limit. + +**370.** Returning now to the quadrilateral construction, we define as +the anharmonic ratio of four points whose coordinates are p, q, r, s the +number p − qr − q∕p − sr − s. It can be shown that this number is +independent of the choice of our three original points a, b, c. It +expresses the series of quadrilateral constructions required to obtain s +when p, q, r are given, and thus expresses a purely projective relation +of the four points. By the introduction of irrational points, in the +manner just explained, it follows that any four points on a line have an +anharmonic ratio. (This cannot possibly be proved without Pieri’s three +axioms or some equivalent to them.) The anharmonic ratio is unaltered by +any linear transformation, i.e. by substituting for every point x the +point whose coordinate is (αx + β)/(γx + δ), where α, β, γ, δ are any +fixed numbers such that αδ − βγ is not zero. From this point we can at +last advance to what was formerly the beginning of projective Geometry, +namely the operation of projection, to which it owes its name. + +It can be shown that, if p, r be harmonic conjugates with respect to q, +s, and p, q, r, s be joined to some point o, and if op, oq, or, os meet +any line in p′, q′, r′, s′, then p′, r′ are harmonic conjugates with +respect to q′, s′. Hence we can show that all anharmonic ratios are +unaltered by the above operation. Similarly if l be any straight line +not coplanar with pqrs, and the planes lp, lq, lr, ls meet any line not +coplanar with l in p′, q′, r′, s′, these four points will have the same +anharmonic ratio as p, q, r, s. These facts are expressed by saying that +anharmonic ratio is unaltered by projection. From this point we can +proceed to the assignment of coordinates to any point in +space[†](#fn390-2). + +**371.** To begin with a plane, take three points a, b, c not in one +straight line, and assign coordinates in the above manner to the points +of ab, ac. Let p be any point of the plane abc, but not on the line bc. +Then if cp meets ab in p1, and bp meets ac in p2, and x, y are the +coordinates of p1, p2 respectively, let (x, y) be the two coordinates of +p. In this way all points of the plane not on bc acquire coordinates. To +avoid this restriction, let us introduce three homogeneous coordinates, +as follows. Take any four points a, b, c, e in a plane, no three of +which are collinear; let ae meet bc in e1, be meet ca in e2, ce meet ab +in e3. Assign coordinates to the points of bc, ca, ab as before, giving +the coordinate 1 to e1, e2, e3, and in ab giving 0 to a, and ∞ to b, and +similarly for the other sides. In place of the single coordinate x of +any point of bc, let us introduce the homogeneous coordinates x2, x3, +where x = x2/x3. If now p be any point of the plane abc, let ap meet bc +in p1, bp meet ca in p2, and cp meet ab in p3. Let x2, x3 be the +homogeneous coordinates of p1, x3, x1 those of p2; then x1, x2 will be +those of p3[\*](#fn391-1). Hence we may assign x1, x2, x3 as homogeneous +coordinates of p. In like manner we can assign four homogeneous +coordinates to any point of space. We can also assign coordinates to the +lines through a point, or the planes through a line, or all the planes +of space, by means of the anharmonic ratios of lines and +planes[†](#fn391-2). It is easy to show that, in point-coordinates, a +plane has a linear equation, and a linear equation represents a plane; +and that, in plane-coordinates, a point has a linear equation, and a +linear equation represents a point. Thus we secure all the advantages of +analytical Geometry. From this point onwards, the subject is purely +technical, and ceases to have philosophic interest. + +**372.** It is now time to ask ourselves what portions of the Geometry +to which we are accustomed are not included in projective Geometry. In +the first place, the series of points on a line, being obtained from a +four-term relation, is closed in the sense of [Part IV](#part4). That +is, the order of points requires three fixed points to be given before +it can be defined. The practical effect of this is, that given only +three points on a line, no one of them is between the other two. This is +a definite difference between projective space and Euclidean or +hyperbolic space. But it is easy to exaggerate this difference. We saw +in [Part IV](#part4) that, wherever a series is generated by a two-term +relation, there is also the four-term relation of separation of couples, +by which we can generate a closed series consisting of the same terms. +Hence in this respect the difference does not amount to an +inconsistency. Euclidean and hyperbolic spaces contain what projective +space contains, and something more besides. We saw that the relation by +which the projective straight line is defined has the formal properties +of “P or ˘P,” where P is transitive and asymmetrical. If the said +relation be actually of this form, we shall have an open series with +respect to P, and of three collinear points one will be between the +other two. It is to be observed that, where the straight line is taken +to be essentially closed, as in elliptic space, between must be excluded +where three points only are given. Hence elliptic space, in this +respect, is not only consistent with the projective axioms, but contains +nothing more than they do. + +It is when we come to the plane that actual inconsistencies arise +between projective Geometry and Euclidean or hyperbolic Geometry. In +projective space, any two lines in a plane intersect; in the Euclidean +and hyperbolic Geometries, this does not occur. In elliptic Geometry, +any two lines in a plane intersect; but in the antipodal form they +intersect twice. Thus only the polar form wholly satisfies the +projective axioms. Analogous considerations apply to the intersection of +two planes, or of a line and a plane. These differences render the +projective definition of a plane inapplicable to Euclidean and +hyperbolic spaces, and render the theory of these spaces far more +complicated than that of projective space. + +Finally, in metrical Geometry it is assumed either that two points have +a quantitative relation called distance, which is determined when the +points are given, or that stretches satisfy axioms in virtue of which +their divisibilities become numerically measurable. In this point, even +elliptic space differs from projective space, though the difference is +of the nature of an addition, not an inconsistency. But this matter +cannot be discussed until we have examined metrical Geometry, when we +shall be in a position to examine also the projective theory of distance +to more advantage than is at present possible. + +**373.** A few words may be added concerning the principle of duality. +This principle states, in three dimensions, that the class of planes is +also a projective space, the intersection of two planes being, as +before, the straight line, and the intersection of three non-collinear +planes taking the place of the point. In n dimensions, similarly, a +projective space results from all sub-classes of (n − 1) dimensions. +Such a duality, as we saw in [Chapter xliv](#chapter44), belongs always +to n-dimensional series as such. It would seem (though this is only a +conjecture) that projective Geometry employs the smallest number of +axioms from which it is possible to generate a series of more than two +dimensions, and that projective duality therefore flows from that of +dimensions in general. Other spaces have properties additional to those +required to make them n-dimensional series, and in other spaces, +accordingly, duality is liable to various limitations. + +Notes + +## CHAPTER XLVI. +Descriptive Geometry. + +**374.** The subject which I have called descriptive Geometry is not, as +a rule, sharply distinguished from projective Geometry. These two terms, +and the term “Geometry of Position,” are commonly used as synonyms. But +it seems improper to include in projective Geometry any property which +is not unaltered by projection, and it is by the introduction of one +such property that I wish to define the subject of the present chapter. +We have seen that, in projective space, three points on a line are not +such that a definite one of them is between the other two. The simplest +possible proposition involving between, in projective Geometry, requires +four points, and is as follows: “If a, b, c be distinct collinear +points, and d is on ac, but does not belong to the segment (abc), nor +yet coincide with a or c, then, with regard to the order abc, c is +between b and d.” When we reflect that the definition of the segment +(abc) involves the quadrilateral construction—which demands, for its +proof, a point outside its own plane, and four pairs of triangles in +perspective—we shall admit that the projective method of generating +order is somewhat complicated. But at any rate the ordinal propositions +which result are unaltered by projection. The elementary sense of +between, on the contrary, which is to be introduced in the present +chapter, is in general not unaltered by projection[\*](#fn393-1). + +In descriptive Geometry, we start, as before, with points, and as +before, any two points determine a class of points. But this class now +consists only of the points between the two given points. What is to be +understood by between is not explained by any writer on this subject +except Vailati, in terms of a transitive asymmetrical relation of two +points; and Vailati’s explanation is condemned by Peano[\*](#fn394-1), +on the ground that between is a relation of three points, not of two +only. This ground, as we know from [Part IV](#part4), is inadequate and +even irrelevant. But on the subject of relations, even the best +mathematicians go astray, for want, I think, of familiarity with the +Logic of Relations. In the present case, as in that of projective +Geometry, we may start either with a relation of two points, or with a +relation between a pair and a class of points: either method is equally +legitimate, and leads to the same results, but the former is far +simpler. Let us examine first the method of Pasch and Peano, then that +of Vailati. + +**375.** We start, in the former method, with two indefinables, point, +and between. If a, b, c be three points, and c is between a and b, we +say that c is an ab, or belongs to the class of points ab. Professor +Peano has enumerated, with his usual care, the postulates required as +regards the class ab[†](#fn394-2). In the first place, the points a and +b must be distinct, and when they are so, there always is a point +between them. If c is between a and b, it is also between b and a: a +itself (and therefore b) is not between a and b. We now introduce a new +definition. If a, b be any two distinct points, then a′b is the class of +all points c such that b is between a and c. Similarly b′a will be the +class of points d such that a is between b and d. We then proceed to new +postulates. If a and b be distinct points, a′b must contain at least one +point. If a, b, c, d be points, and c is between a and d, b between a +and c, then b is between a and d. If b and c be between a and d, b is +between a and c, or identical with c, or between c and d. If c, d belong +to a′b, then either c and d are identical, or c is between b and d, or d +is between b and c. If b is between a and c, and c is between b and d, +then c is between a and d. This makes in all nine postulates with regard +to between. Peano confesses[‡](#fn394-3) that he is unable to prove that +all of them are independent: hence they are only shown to be sufficient, +not necessary. The complete straight line (ab) is defined as b′a and a +and ab and b and a′b; that is, (1) points between which and b the point +a lies; (2) the point a; (3) points between a and b; (4) the point b; +(5) points between which and a the point b lies. + +Concerning this method, we may observe to begin with that it is very +complicated. In the second place, we must remark, as before, that the +phrase “two points determine a class of points” must be expanded as +follows: “There is a certain specific relation K, to whose domain +belongs every couple of distinct points. K is a many-one relation, and +the relatum, corresponding to a couple of points as referent, is a class +of points.” In the third place, we may observe that the points of the +line only acquire order by relation to the segments which they +terminate, and that these acquire order by the relation of whole and +part, or logical inclusion. Let a, b be any two points, and consider the +class of points ab or b or a′b. Let c, d be any two distinct points of +this class. Then either ac is a proper part of ad, or ad is a proper +part of ac. Here ac and ad may be called segments, and we see that +segments whose origin is a and whose limits belong to ab or b or a′b +form a series in virtue of the transitive asymmetrical relation of whole +and part. By correlation with these segments, their extremities also +acquire an order; and it is easy to prove that this order is unchanged +when we substitute for a any point of ab′. But the order still results, +as it always must, from a transitive asymmetrical relation of two terms, +and nothing is gained by not admitting such a relation immediately +between points. + +**376.** Passing now to what I have called Vailati’s theory, we find a +very great simplification. We may state the present theory (which is not +in every detail identical with that of Vailati) as follows. There is a +certain class, which we will call K, of transitive asymmetrical +relations. Between any two points there is one and only one relation of +the class K. If R be a relation of the class K, ˘R is also a relation of +this class. Every such relation R defines a straight line; that is, if +a, b be two points such that aRb, then a belongs to the straight line ρ. +(I use the corresponding Greek letter to denote the domain of a +relation; thus if S be a relation, σ is the class of terms having the +relation S to some term or other.) If aRb, then there is some point c +such that aRc and cRb; also there is a point d such that bRd. Further, +if a, b be any two distinct points belonging to ρ, then either aRb or +bRa. With this apparatus we have all that we require. + +We may do well to enumerate formally the above definition of the class +K, or rather the postulates concerning its members—for K itself is not +defined. I may remark to begin with that I define the field of a class +of relations as the logical sum of the fields of the constituent +relations; and that, if K be the class, I denote its field by k. Then +the axioms we require are as follows. + +(1) There is a class of relations K, whose field is defined to be the +class point. + +(2) There is at least one point. + +If R be any term of K we have, + +(3) R is an aliorelative. + +(4) ˘R is a term of K. + +(5) R2 = R. + +(6) ˘ρ (the domain of ˘R) is contained in ρ. + +(7) Between any two points there is one and only one relation of the +class K. + +(8) If a, b be points of ρ, then either aRb or bRa. + +The mutual independence of these axioms is easy to see. But let us first +briefly sketch the proof that they give all the required results. Since +there is, by (2), at least one point, and since by (1) this point has +some relation of the class K, and since by (3) all relations of the +class K are aliorelatives, it follows that there is some term, other +than the one point, to which this one point has a relation R of the +class K. But since ˘R, by (4), is a relation of the class K, it follows +that the term to which the one point is so related is also a point. +Hence there are at least two distinct points. Let a, b be two distinct +points, and let R be the one relation of the class K between a and b. +Thus we have aRb. But we do not have bRa, for if we did, since R2 = R, +by (5), we should have aRa, which contradicts (3). Thus R and ˘R are +always different, i.e. each is asymmetrical. Since R2 = R, aRb and bRc +imply aRc, i.e. R is transitive. Hence the points which have to a the +relation R or ˘R, together with a itself, form a series. Since R = R2, +aRb implies that there is some point c such that aRc, cRb; i.e. the +series generated by R is compact. Since, by (6), ˘ρ is contained in ρ, +aRb implies that there is some point c such that bRc. Applying the same +argument to ˘R, there is a point d such that dRa. Thus we have ρ = ˘ρ, +and the field of R has no beginning or end. By (8), the field of R is +what, in [Part IV](#part4), we called a connected series, that is, it +does not fall apart into two or more detached portions, but of any two +of its terms one is before and the other after. By (7), if there be more +than one relation of the class K, the fields of two such relations +cannot, unless one is the converse of the other, have more than one +point in common. The field of one relation of the class K is called a +straight line; and thus (7) assures us that two straight lines have at +most one common point, while (8) assures us that, if ab, cd be the same +line, so are ac and bd. Thus it is proved that our axioms are sufficient +for the geometry of a line, while (7) goes beyond a single line, but is +inserted here because it does not imply the existence of points outside +a single line, or of more than one relation of the class K. It is most +important to observe that, in the above enumeration of fundamentals, +there is only one indefinable, namely K, not two as in Peano’s system. + +**377.** With regard to the mutual independence of the axioms, it is to +be observed that (1) is not properly an axiom, but the assumption of our +indefinable K. (2) may obviously be denied while all the others are +maintained. If (3) be denied, and R be taken to be the symmetrical +relation of projective Geometry, together with identity with some term +of ρ, we obtain projective Geometry, which is different from the present +system, but self-consistent. If (4) be denied, all the rest can be +maintained; the only difficulty is as regards (7), for if aRb, and ˘R is +not a term of K, b will not have to a any relation of the class K, +unless indeed it has one which is not ˘R, which seems to be not +contradictory. As regards (5), we may deny either that R is contained in +R2, or that R2 is contained in R. To deny the former makes our series +not compact, to which there is no logical objection. The latter, but not +the former, is false as regards angles[\*](#fn397-1), which can be made +to satisfy all the other axioms here laid down. (6) will become false if +our lines have last terms: thus the space on the left of a plane, +together with this plane, will satisfy all the axioms except (6). As +regards (7), it is plainly independent of all the rest; it consists of +two parts, (a) the assertion that between any two points there is at +least one relation of the class K, (b) the assertion that there is not +more than one such relation between two given points. If we consider a +Euclidean and a hyperbolic space together, all the axioms will be true +except (a). If we combine two different classes K1, K2 of relations of +the above kind, such that k1 = k2, (b) alone will be false. Nevertheless +it seems plain that (b) cannot be deduced from the other axioms. As +regards (8), it alone is false if we take for K the class of directions +in Euclidean space, in which a set of parallel lines all have the same +direction. Thus the necessity of all except one of our axioms is +strictly proved, and that of this one is highly probable. + +**378.** We saw that the above method enabled us to content ourselves +with one indefinable, namely the class of relations K. But we may go +further, and dispense altogether with indefinables. The axioms +concerning the class K were all capable of statement in terms of the +logic of relations. Hence we can define a class C of classes of +relations, such that every member of C is a class of relations +satisfying our axioms. The axioms then become parts of a definition, and +we have neither indefinables nor axioms. If K be any member of the class +C, and k be the field of K, then k is a descriptive space, and every +term of k is a descriptive point. Here every concept is defined in terms +of general logical concepts. The same method can be applied to +projective space, or to any other mathematical entity except the +indefinables of logic. This is, indeed, though grammatically +inconvenient, the true way, philosophically speaking, to define +mathematical notions. Outside logic, indefinables and primitive +propositions are not required by pure mathematics, and should therefore, +strictly speaking, not be introduced. This subject will be resumed in +[Chapter xlix](#chapter49). + +**379.** The two ways of defining the straight line—that of Pasch and +Peano, and that which I have just explained—seem equally legitimate, and +lead to the same consequences. The choice between them is therefore of +no mathematical importance. The two methods agree in enabling us, in +terms of two points only, to define three parts of a straight line, +namely the part before a (b′a), the part between a and b (ab), and the +part after b (a′b). This is a point in which descriptive Geometry +differs from projective Geometry: there we had, with respect to a and b, +only two segments of the straight line ab, and these could not be +defined without reference to another point c of the line, and to the +quadrilateral construction. + +The straight line may be regarded either as the class of points forming +the field of a relation R, or as this relation itself. For the sake of +distinction, it will be well to call the relation R a ray, since this +word suggests a sense; ˘R will then be the opposite ray. In considering +a number of lines all passing through one point O, it will be well to +give the name of ray also to the class of points to which O has some +relation R, i.e. to those points of a line through O which lie on one +side of O. Those on the other side of O will then be the opposite ray. +The context will show in which sense the word is used. + +**380.** I come now to the plane. Easy as it is to define the plane in +projective space, its definition when the line is not a closed series, +or rather, when we wish to call coplanar some pairs of lines which do +not intersect, is a matter of some difficulty. Pasch[\*](#fn398-1) takes +the plane, or rather a finite portion of the plane, as a new +indefinable. It is, however, capable of definition, as, following Peano, +I shall now show. + +We need, to begin with, some new axioms. First, if ρ be any straight +line, there is at least one point not belonging to ρ. Next, if a, b, c +be three points not in one straight line, and d be a point of bc between +b and c, e a point of ad between a and d, then be will meet ac in a +point f and e will be between b and f, f between a and c. Again, a, b, +c, d being as before, if y be a point between a and c, then ad and bf +will intersect in a point e between a and d and between b and +f[†](#fn398-2). We now define what may be regarded as the product (in +a geometrical sense) of a point and a figure. If a be any point, and k +any figure, ak is to denote the points which lie on the various segments +between a and the points of k. That is, if p be any point of k, and x +any point of the segment ap, then x belongs to the class ak. This +definition may be applied even when a is a point of k, and x is a +straight line or part of one. The figure ak will then be the whole line +or some continuous portion of it. Peano now proves, by purely logical +transformations, that, if a, b, c be distinct non-collinear points, +a(bc) = b(ac). This figure is called the triangle abc, and is thus +wholly determined by its three defining points. It is also shown that, +if p, q be points of the segments ab, ac respectively, the segment pq is +wholly contained in the triangle abc. After some more theorems, we come +to a new definition. If a be a point, and k any figure (i.e. class of +points), a′k is to denote all the points between which and a lies some +point of k, that is, as Peano remarks, the whole shadow of k if a be an +illuminated point. Thus if a, b, c be non-collinear points, a′(bc) will +represent the class of points beyond bc and bounded by ab, ac produced. +This enables us to define the plane (abc) as consisting of the straight +lines bc, ca, ab, the triangle abc, and the figures a′bc, b′ca, c′ab, +b′c′a, c′a′b, a′b′c[\*](#fn399-1). It is then easy to show that any +other three points of the plane define the same plane, and that the line +joining two points of a plane lies wholly in the plane. But in place of +the proposition that any two lines in a plane intersect, we have a more +complicated proposition, namely: If a, b, c, d be coplanar points, no +three of which are collinear, then either the lines ab, cd intersect, or +ac, bd do so, or ad, bc do so. + +**381.** Having successfully defined the plane, we can now advance to +solid Geometry. For this we need, to begin with, the axiom: Given any +plane, there is at least one point outside the plane. We can then define +a tetrahedron exactly as we defined a triangle. But in order to know +that two planes, which have a point in common, have a line in common, we +need a new axiom, which shows that the space we are dealing with has +three dimensions. In projective space, this axiom was simply that a line +and a plane always have at least one point in common. But here, no such +simple axiom holds. The following is given by Peano (loc. cit. p. 74): +If p be a plane, and a a point not on p, and b a point of a′p (i.e. a +point such that the segment ab contains a point of p, or, in common +language, a point on the other side of the plane from a), then if x be +any point, either x lies on the plane, or the segment ax contains a +point of the plane, or else the segment bx contains a point of the +plane. By adding to this, finally, an axiom of continuity, we have all +the apparatus of three-dimensional descriptive Geometry[†](#fn399-2). + +**382.** Descriptive Geometry, as above defined, applies equally to +Euclidean and to hyperbolic space: none of the axioms mentioned +discriminate between these two. Elliptic space, on the contrary, which +was included in projective Geometry, is here excluded. It is impossible, +or rather, it has hitherto proved so, to set up a general set of axioms +which will lead to a general Geometry applying to all three spaces, for +at some point our axioms must lead to either an open or a closed series +of points on a line. Such a general Geometry can be constructed +symbolically, but this results from giving different interpretations to +our symbols, the indefinables in one interpretation being definable in +another, and vice versâ. This will become plain by examining the method +in which projective Geometry is made applicable to the space above +defined, which, for want of a better name, I shall call descriptive +space. + +**383.** When we try to apply projective Geometry to descriptive space, +we are met by the difficulty that some of the points required in a +construction may not exist. Thus in the quadrilateral construction, +given three points a, b, c, the fourth point d may not exist at all. We +can prove as before that, if it exists, it is unique, and so with other +projective propositions: they become hypothetical, since the +construction indicated is not always possible. This has led to the +introduction of what are called ideal elements (points, lines and +planes), by means of which it becomes possible to state our projective +theorems generally. These ideal elements have a certain analogy to +complex numbers in Algebra—an analogy which in analytical Geometry +becomes very close. Before explaining in detail how these elements are +introduced, it may be well to state the logical nature of the process. +By means of the points, lines and planes of descriptive Geometry, we +define a new set of entities, some of which correspond (i.e. have a +one-one relation) to our points, lines and planes respectively, while +others do not. These new entities we call ideal points, lines and +planes; and we find that they have all the properties of projective +points, lines and planes. Hence they constitute a projective space, and +all projective propositions apply to them. Since our ideal elements are +defined by means of the elements of descriptive space, projective +propositions concerning these ideal elements are theorems concerning +descriptive space, though not concerning its actual points, lines and +planes. Pasch, who has given the best account of the way in which ideal +elements are to be defined[\*](#fn400-1), has not perceived (or, at any +rate, does not state) that no ideal point is an actual point, even where +it has a one-one relation to an actual point, and that the same holds of +lines and planes. This is exactly the same remark as we have had to make +concerning rationals, positive numbers, real numbers, and complex +numbers, all of which are supposed, by the mathematician, to contain the +cardinals or the ordinals, whereas no one of them can ever be one of the +cardinals or ordinals. So here, an ideal element is never identical with +an actual point, line or plane. If this be borne in mind, the air of +magic which surrounds the usual expositions disappears. + +**384.** An ideal point is defined as follows. Consider first the class +of all the lines passing through some point, called the vertex. This +class of lines is called a sheaf of lines (Strahlenbündel). A sheaf so +defined has certain properties which can be stated without reference to +the vertex[†](#fn400-2). Such are, for example, the following: Through +any point (other than the vertex) there is one and only one line of the +sheaf; and any two lines of the sheaf are coplanar. All the properties +of a sheaf, which can be stated without reference to the vertex, are +found to belong to certain classes of lines having no vertex, and such +that no two of the class intersect. For these a simple construction can +be given, as follows[\*](#fn401-1). Let l, m be any two lines in one +plane, A any point not in this plane. Then the planes Al, Am have a line +in common. The class of such lines, for all possible points A outside +the plane lm, has the properties above alluded to, and the word sheaf is +extended to all classes of lines so defined. It is plain that if l, m +intersect, the sheaf has a vertex; if not, it has none. Thus, in +Euclidean space, all the lines parallel to a given line form a sheaf +which has no vertex. When our sheaf has no vertex, we define an ideal +point by means of the sheaf. But this must not be supposed to be really +a point: it is merely another name for the sheaf itself, and so, when +our sheaf has a vertex, if we are to make propositions in which ideal +points occur, we must substitute the sheaf for its vertex. That is, an +ideal point is simply a sheaf, and no sheaf is an actual point. + +Concerning sheaves of lines we may observe the following points. Any two +straight lines in one plane uniquely determine a sheaf. Two sheaves both +having a vertex always determine a line, namely that joining the +vertices, which is common to both sheaves. Three sheaves, of which one +at least has a vertex, determine a plane, unless they are collinear. A +line and a plane always have a common sheaf, and so have three planes of +which two at least have a common point. + +**385.** Thus sheaves of lines have some projective properties, in +relation to lines and planes, which are lacking to points. In order to +obtain entities with further projective properties, we must, to begin +with, replace our lines by ideal lines. For this purpose we must first +define pencils of planes (axial pencils, Ebenenbüschel). An axial pencil +consists, in the first instance, of all the planes through a given +straight line, called the axis. But as in the case of sheaves, it is +found that such a figure has many properties independent of the axis, +and that these properties all belong to certain other classes of planes, +to which the name of pencil is therefore extended. These figures are +defined as follows[†](#fn401-2). Let A, B be two sheaves of lines. Let D +be a point not on the line (if there be one) common to the two sheaves +A, B. Then A, B, D determine uniquely a plane, which we may call ABD, or +P (say). This will be the plane containing those lines of A and B that +pass through D. Any other point E, not in the plane P, will determine a +different plane ABE, or Q. The class of planes so obtained, by varying D +or E, is a pencil of planes, and has all the properties of a pencil +having a real axis, except those in which the axis is explicitly +mentioned. Any two planes P and Q belonging to the pencil completely +determine it. Moreover, in place of A and B above, we may substitute any +other sheaves of lines A′, B′, belonging to both P and Q. (A sheaf +belongs to a plane when one of its lines lies in the plane.) Any two +sheaves belonging to both P and Q will serve to define the pencil of +planes, and will belong to every plane of the pencil. Hence if, in place +of actual points, we substitute ideal points, i.e. sheaves of lines, +every pencil of planes has an axis, consisting of a certain collection +of sheaves of lines, any two of which define the pencil. This collection +of sheaves is called an ideal line[\*](#fn402-1). + +**386.** Substituting ideal points and lines for actual ones, we find +that we have now made a further advance towards projective space. Two +ideal points determine one and only one ideal line; a given plane is +determined by any three of its ideal points which do not belong to one +ideal line, but three ideal points do not always determine a plane. Two +ideal lines in a plane always have a common ideal point, and so have a +plane and an ideal line. Also two planes always have a common ideal +line, and three planes always have either a common ideal point or a +common ideal line. The only point where our space is not strictly +projective is in regard to planes. There is a plane through any two +ideal points and one actual point, or through an ideal point and an +actual line. If there is a plane at all through three non-collinear +ideal points, or through an ideal line and an ideal point not on the +line, then there is only one such plane; but in some cases there is no +such plane. To remedy this, we must introduce one more new class of +entities, namely ideal planes. + +The definition of ideal planes[†](#fn402-2) is comparatively simple. If +A, B, C be any three ideal points, D an ideal point on the ideal line +AB, and E on AC, then the ideal line DE has an ideal point in common +with BC, whether there be an actual plane determined by A, B, C or not. +Thus if B, C, D be any three ideal points, and E any other ideal point +such that BD, CE intersect, then BC, DE intersect, and so do BE, CD. +Hence, if B, C, D be not collinear, we define the ideal plane BCD as +that class of ideal points E which are such that the ideal lines BD, CE +intersect. + +For the sake of clearness, let us repeat this definition in terms of our +original points, lines and planes, without the use of the word ideal. +Given three sheaves of lines B, C, D, which are not all contained in a +common pencil of planes, let E be another sheaf of lines such that there +is a sheaf of lines common to the two pencils of planes BD, CE. Then the +class of all sheaves E satisfying this condition is called the ideal +plane BCD. + +The usual properties of planes are easily proved concerning our new +ideal planes, as that any three of their points determine them, that the +ideal line joining two of their ideal points is wholly contained in +them, and so forth. In fact, we find now that the new points, lines and +planes constitute a projective space, with all the properties described +in the [preceding chapter](#chapter45). The elementary order of points +on a line, with which we began, has disappeared, and a new order has to +be generated by means of the separation of couples[\*](#fn403-1). Thus +all projective Geometry becomes available; and wherever our ideal +points, lines and planes correspond to actual ones, we have a +corresponding projective proposition concerning the latter. + +**387.** I have explained this development at length, partly because it +shows the very wide applicability of projective Geometry, partly because +it affords a good instance of the emphasis which mathematics lays upon +relations. To the mathematician, it is wholly irrelevant what his +entities are, so long as they have relations of a specified type. It is +plain, for example, that an instant is a very different thing from a +point; but to the mathematician as such there is no relevant distinction +between the instants of time and the points on a line. So in our present +instance, the highly complex notion of a sheaf of lines—an infinite +class of infinite classes—is philosophically very widely dissimilar to +the simple notion of a point. But since classes of sheaves can be +formed, having the same relations to their constituent sheaves that +projective lines and planes have to projective points, a sheaf of lines +in descriptive space is, for mathematical purposes, a projective point. +It is not, however, even for mathematical purposes, a point of +descriptive space, and the above transformation clearly shows that +descriptive space is not a species of projective space, but a radically +distinct entity. And this is, for philosophy, the principal result of +the present chapter. + +It is a remarkable fact, which the above generation of a projective +space demonstrates, that if we remove from a projective space all the +points of a plane, or all the points on one side of a closed +quadric[†](#fn403-2), the remaining points form a descriptive space, +Euclidean in the first case, hyperbolic in the second. Yet, in ordinary +metrical language, the projective space is finite, while the part of it +which is descriptive is infinite. This illustrates the comparatively +superficial nature of metrical notions. + +Notes + +## CHAPTER XLVII. +Metrical Geometry. + +**388.** The subject of the present chapter is elementary Geometry, as +treated by Euclid or by any other author prior to the nineteenth +century. This subject includes the usual analytical Geometry, whether +Euclidean or non-Euclidean; it is distinguished from projective and +descriptive Geometry, not by any opposition corresponding to that of +Euclid and non-Euclid, but by its method and its indefinables. The +question whether its indefinables can, or cannot, be defined in terms of +those of projective and descriptive Geometry, is a very difficult one, +which I postpone to the [following chapter](#chapter48). For the +present, I shall develop the subject straightforwardly, in a manner as +similar to Euclid’s as is consistent with the requisite generality and +with the avoidance of fallacies. Metrical Geometry is logically +subsequent to the two kinds which we have examined, for it necessarily +assumes one or other of these two kinds, to which it merely adds further +specifications. I shall, as a rule, assume descriptive Geometry, +mentioning projective Geometry only in connection with points in which +it shows important metrical differences from descriptive Geometry. In +the former case, all the first twenty-six propositions of Euclid will +hold. In the latter, the first, seventh, sixteenth, and seventeenth +require modification; for these propositions assume, in one form or +another, that the straight line is not a closed series. Propositions +after the twenty-sixth—or, with a suitable definition of parallels, +after the twenty-eighth—depend, with few exceptions, upon the postulate +of parallels, and are therefore not to be assumed generally. + +**389.** Since Euclid still has popularly, and even with mathematicians, +a reputation for rigour, in virtue of which his circumlocution and +long-windedness are condoned, it may be worth while to point out, to +begin with, a few of the errors in his first twenty-six +propositions[\*](#fn404-1). To begin with the first proposition. There +is no evidence whatever that the circles which we are told to construct +intersect, and if they do not, the whole proposition fails. Euclid’s +problems are often regarded as existence-theorems, and from this point +of view, it is plain, the assumption that the circles in question +intersect is precisely the same as the assumption that there is an +equilateral triangle on a given base. And in elliptic space, where the +straight line is a closed series, the construction fails when the length +of the base exceeds half the length of the whole straight line. As +regards the second and third propositions, there is nothing to be said, +except that they are not existence-theorems. The corresponding +existence-theorem—i.e. on any straight line, in either direction from a +given point on the line, there is a point whose distance from the given +point is equal to a given distance—is equivalent to the postulate +concerning the circle, and is thus prior to the second and third +propositions. With regard to the fourth, there is a great deal to be +said; indeed Euclid’s proof is so bad that he would have done better to +assume this proposition as an axiom[\*](#fn405-1). As the issues raised +by this proof are of great importance, both to mathematics and to +philosophy, I shall set forth its fallacies at some length. + +**390.** The fourth proposition is the first in which Euclid employs the +method of superposition—a method which, since he will make any détour to +avoid it[†](#fn405-2), he evidently dislikes, and rightly, since it has +no logical validity, and strikes every intelligent child as a juggle. In +the first place, to speak of motion implies that our triangles are not +spatial, but material. For a point of space is a position, and can no +more change its position than the leopard can change his spots. The +motion of a point of space is a phantom directly contradictory to the +law of identity: it is the supposition that a given point can be now one +point and now another. Hence motion, in the ordinary sense, is only +possible to matter, not to space. But in this case superposition proves +no geometrical property. Suppose that the triangle ABC is by the window, +and the side AB consists of the column of mercury in a thermometer; +suppose also that DEF is by the fire. Let us apply ABC to DEF as Euclid +directs, and let AB just cover DE. Then we are to conclude that ABC and +DEF, before the motion, were equal in all respects. But if we had +brought DEF to ABC, no such result would have followed. But how +foolish\! I shall be told; of course ABC and DEF are to be both rigid +bodies. Well and good. But two little difficulties remain. In the first +place—and for my opponent, who is an empirical philosopher, this point +is serious—it is as certain as anything can be that there are no rigid +bodies in the universe. In the second place—and if my opponent were not +an empiricist, he would find this objection far more fatal—the meaning +of rigidity presupposes a purely spatial metrical equality, logically +independent of matter. For what is meant by a rigid body? It is one +which, throughout a continuous portion of time, preserves all its +metrical properties unchanged. Hence we incur a most fatally vicious +circle if we attempt to define metrical properties by rigidity. If αβγ +be a material triangle, which occupies at one time the space ABC, at +another the space A′B′C′, to say that αβγ is rigid means that, however +the two times be chosen (within some assigned period), the triangles +ABC, A′B′C′ are equal in all respects. If we are to avoid this +conclusion, we must define rigidity in some wholly non-geometrical +manner. We may say, for example, that a rigid body means one which is +made of steel, or of brass. But then it becomes a logical error to +regard brass eternal as slave to mortal rage; and if we define equal +spaces as those which can be occupied by one and the same rigid body, +the propositions of metrical Geometry will be one and all false. + +The fact is that motion, as the word is used by geometers, has a meaning +entirely different from that which it has in daily life, just as a +variable, in mathematics, is not something which changes, but is +usually, on the contrary, something incapable of change. So it is with +motion. Motion is a certain class of one-one relations, each of which +has every point of space for its extension, and each of which has a +converse also belonging to the class. That is, a motion is a one-one +relation, in which the referent and the relatum are both points, and in +which every point may appear as referent and again as relatum. A motion +is not this only: on the contrary, it has this further characteristic, +that the metrical properties of any class of referents are identical +with those of the corresponding class of relata. This characteristic, +together with the other, defines a motion as used in Geometry, or +rather, it defines a motion or a reflexion; but this point need not be +elucidated at present. What is clear is, that a motion presupposes the +existence, in different parts of space, of figures having the same +metrical properties, and cannot be used to define those properties. And +it is this sense of the word motion, not the usual material sense, which +is relevant to Euclid’s use of superposition. + +**391.** Returning now to Euclid’s fourth proposition, we see that the +superposition of ABC on DEF involves the following assumptions. (1) On +the line DE there is a point E, on either side of D, such that DE = AB. +This is provided for by the postulate about the circle. (2) On either +side of the ray DE, there is a ray DF such that the angle EDF is equal +to the angle BAC. This is required for the possibility of a triangle DEF +such as the enunciation demands, but no axiom from which this follows +can be found in Euclid. The problem, to construct an angle EDF equal to +BAC, does not occur till I. 23, and there I. 4 is used in the proof. +Hence the present assumption must be added to Euclid’s axioms. It now +follows that on DF there is a point F such that DF = AC. Hence the +possibility of two such triangles as the enunciation demands is +established. But in order to prove that DEF is equal in all respects to +ABC, we need a further axiom, namely: With one angle at D, one side +along the ray DE, and the other side to the right (or left) of DE, there +exists a triangle which is equal in all respects to the triangle +ABC[\*](#fn407-1). This is, in fact, the exact assumption which is +concealed in the method of superposition. With this assumption, it +finally becomes possible to prove that DEF is the triangle satisfying +the above conditions and equal in all respects to ABC. + +The next remark concerns I. 6. Here Euclid first employs an axiom of +which he is wholly unconscious, though it is very essential to his +system, namely: If OA, OB, OC be three rays which meet a straight line +not passing through O in A, B, C respectively, and if B be between A and +C, then the angle AOB is less than the angle AOC. This axiom, it will be +seen, is not applicable in projective space, since it presupposes that +the line is not a closed series. In I. 7, if this proposition is to +apply to hyperbolic space, we require further the axiom: If three +non-intersecting lines in one plane meet two lines in A, B, C; A′, B′, +C′, respectively; and if B be between A and C; then B′ is between A′ +and C′. Also it may be observed that Euclid gives no definition of the +two sides of a line, a notion which again presupposes that the straight +line is not a closed series. And with regard to angles, I. 7 requires +sufficient axioms to show that they are a series of the kind explained +in [Part IV](#part4), [Chapter xxiv](#chapter34); or else we must assume +the descriptive axiom of the last chapter, to the effect that, if A, B, +C, D be coplanar points, no three of which are collinear, there is a +point common to the stretches AB, CD, or to AC, BD, or to AD, BC. All +these assumptions will be found implicit in I. 7, as may be seen by +attempting a symbolic proof in which no figure is used. + +Similar remarks apply to I. 16. In I. 12 it is assumed that a circle +must meet a line in two points, if at all. But enough has been said to +show that Euclid is not faultless, and that his explicit axioms are very +insufficient. Let us, then, make an independent examination of metrical +Geometry. + +**392.** Metrical Geometry is usually said to be distinguished by the +introduction of quantity. It is sufficient for the characterization of +metrical Geometry to observe that it introduces, between every pair of +points, a relation having certain properties in virtue of which it is +numerically measurable—i.e. such that numbers can be given a one-one +correspondence with the various relations of the class in question. The +class of relations is called distance, and will be regarded, though this +is not strictly necessary, as a class of magnitudes. Some of the +properties of distance are as follows. + +(1) Every pair of points has one and only one distance. + +(2) Distances are symmetrical relations. + +(3) On a given straight line through a given point, there are two and +only two points at a given distance from the given point. + +(4) There is no maximum distance. + +(5) The distance of a point from itself is zero[\*](#fn408-1). + +(6) There is no minimum to the distance between distinct points. + +(7) If d, δ be two given distances, and A0, A1, A2, … An, … be distinct +points on a straight line, whose distances one from the next are all δ, +then for some value of n, A0An is greater than d. + +(8) If A0, An be any two points, there exist n − 1 distinct points +(whatever integer n may be) on the straight line A0An, such that the +distances of each from the next, of A0 from the first, and of An from +the last, are all equal[†](#fn408-2). + +**393.** It may be observed that, if we admit the axiom that the whole +is greater than the part, the properties (1), (4), (5) and (6) belong to +stretches, while (2) becomes admissible by abstracting from the sense of +a stretch. With regard to the remaining properties, (3), (7) and (8), +there is nothing in descriptive Geometry to show whether or not they +belong to stretches. Hence we may, if we choose, regard these three +properties as axioms regarding stretches, and drop the word distance +altogether. I believe that this represents the simplest course, and, as +regards actual space, the most correct. At the same time, there is no +contradiction in regarding distances as new relations distinct from +stretches[‡](#fn408-3). If we identify distance and stretch, what +distinguishes metrical from descriptive Geometry is primarily the three +additional axioms (3), (7) and (8), applied to a new indefinable, +namely, the magnitude of divisibility of a stretch. This is not properly +a notion of pure mathematics, since it cannot be derived from our +original apparatus of logical notions. On the other hand, distance is +not indefinable, being a class of one-one relations with certain +assignable properties. On this point either course is logically +permissible, but only distance can be introduced into pure mathematics +in the strict sense in which the word is used in this work. + +The above axioms are required for showing that all distances are +numerically measurable in terms of any standard distance[§](#fn408-4). +It is not necessary that distances should be magnitudes, or even +relations; all that is essential is that distances should form a series +with certain properties. If the points of a line form a continuous +series, then distances do so also, in virtue of (3); thus all signless +real numbers will be required for their measurement. + +**394.** Assuming that distance and stretch are distinct, it may be +asked whether distances do not suffice for generating order on the +straight line, without the need of any asymmetrical transitive relation +of points. This represents, I think, the usual view of philosophers; but +it is by no means easy to decide whether it represents a tenable view. +It might perhaps be thought that (2) might be dropped, and distance +regarded as an asymmetrical relation. So long as we confine our +attention to one line, this view seems unobjectionable. But as soon as +we consider the fact that distances on different lines may be equal, we +see that the difference of sense between AB and BA is not relevant to +distance, since there is no such difference between distances on +different lines. Thus if CD be a distance on another line, CD may be +equal both to AB and BA, and hence AB and BA must be equal, not +opposite, distances. And the same thing may be made evident by +considering a sphere. For this certainly consists of points at a given +distance from the centre; and thus points at opposite ends of a diameter +must have the same distance from the centre. Distance, then, is +symmetrical; but it does not follow that the order on a line cannot be +generated by distance. Let A, B be given points on a line, and let C, C′ +be two points on AB whose distances from A are equal, and less than AB. +If we now set up the axiom that either BC or BC′ is less than AB, while +the other, BC′ or BC, is greater than AB, we shall, I think, after some +further axioms, be able to generate order without any other relation +than distance. If A, B, C be three collinear points such that the +distances AC, CB are both less than AB, then we shall say that C is +between A and B. If A, B, C′ be points such that AC′, AB are both less +than BC′, then we shall say that A is between B and C′. If, finally, A, +B, C′′ be points such that AB, BC′′ are both less than AC′′, we shall +say that B is between A and C′′. It remains to see whether, as the +generation of a series requires, one of these always happens. Let A, B, +C be any three collinear points. First suppose, if possible, that the +distances AB, BC, CA are all equal. This case is not excluded by +anything hitherto assumed; we require, therefore, the further axiom +that, if AB, BC be equal, AC is not equal to either of them; and I think +it will be prudent to assume that AC is greater than either. Thus the +case of two equal distances and one less than either is excluded. Of the +three distances AB, BC, AC, therefore, one must be the greatest: let +this be AC. Then in virtue of the definition, B will be between A and C. +But our difficulties are not at an end. For we require further that any +point between A and B shall be between A and C; and that, if A be +between D and C, B shall be between D and C. With regard to the first +point, if E be between A and B, AE and EB are less than AB, and +therefore less than AC. But nothing assures us that EC is less than AC. +For this purpose we need a new axiom, which will be just what we set out +to prove, namely: If AE, EB be both less than AB, and AB, BC be both +less than AC, then EC is less than AC. Finally, to prove that, if A be +between D and C, and B between A and C, then B is between D and C. Here +DA, AC are less than DC, and AB, BC are less than AC. Hence BC is less +than DC; but nothing proves BD less than DC. For this we shall need a +new axiom, and then at last our order will be definite. But the process, +as is evident, is extremely complicated. + +**395.** Moreover we still need a method of defining the straight line. +Pieri has shown, in an admirable memoir[\*](#fn410-1), how to deduce +metrical geometry by taking point and motion as the only indefinables. +In [§390](#sec390), we objected to the introduction of motion, as +usually effected, on the ground that its definition presupposes metrical +properties; but Pieri escapes this objection by not defining motion at +all, except through the postulates assumed concerning it. The straight +line joining two points is the class of points that are unchanged by a +motion which leaves the two points fixed. The sphere, the plane, +perpendicularity, the order of points on a line, etc. are easily +defined. This procedure is logically unimpeachable, and is probably the +simplest possible for elementary geometry. But we must now return to the +consideration of other suggested systems. + +There is a method, invented by Leibniz[†](#fn410-2) and revived by +Frischauf[‡](#fn410-3) and Peano[§](#fn410-4), in which distance alone +is fundamental, and the straight line is defined by its means. In this +method distances are given to begin with as a class of relations which +are the field of a certain transitive asymmetrical relation (greater and +smaller); if we assume this relation to be continuous, distances will be +measurable; all distances have the same domain and the same converse +domain, namely all the points of the space in question; the locus of +points equidistant from two fixed points is called a plane, and the +intersection of two non-coincident planes, when it is not null, is +called a straight line. (The definition of the straight line given by +Peano[‖](#fn410-5) is as follows: The straight line ab is the class of +points x such that any point y, whose distances from a and b are +respectively equal to the distances of x from a and b, must be +coincident with x.) Leibniz, who invented this method, failed, according +to Couturat, to prove that there are straight lines, or that a straight +line is determined by any two of its points. Peano has not, so far as I +am aware, succeeded in proving either of these propositions, but it is +of course possible to introduce them by means of axioms. Frischauf +professes to demonstrate them, but his proofs are very informal, and it +is difficult to know what axioms he is assuming. In any case, however, +the definitions prove that, by a sufficient use of axioms, it is +possible to construct a geometry in which distance is fundamental, and +the straight line derivative. The method is so complicated as to be not +practically desirable; but its logical possibility is nevertheless +important. + +**396.** It is thus plain that the straight line must be independent of +distance, while distance may be independent of the straight line. Taking +both as symmetrical relations, we can, by a very complicated series of +axioms, succeed in generating order on the straight line and in +explaining the addition and measurement of distances. But this +complication, in most spaces[\*](#fn411-1), is logically unnecessary, +and is wholly avoided by deriving distances from stretches. We now +start, as in descriptive Geometry, with an asymmetrical transitive +relation by which the straight line is both defined and shown to be a +series. We define as the distance of two points A and B the magnitude of +divisibility of the stretch from A to B or B to A—for divisibility is a +signless magnitude. Divisibility being a kind of magnitude, any two +distances will be equal or unequal. As with all divisibilities, the sum +of the divisibilities of AB and EF is the divisibility of the logical +sum of the classes AB and EF, provided these classes have no common +part. If they have a common part, we substitute for EF a stretch E′F′ +equal to it and having no part in common with AB. The difference of the +distances AB, EF (supposing AB the greater) is the divisibility of a +stretch CD which, added logically to EF, and having no part in common +with EF, produces a stretch equal to AB. It follows at once that, if A, +B, C be collinear, and B be between A and C, AB + BC = AC and AC − AB = +BC. No further axiom is required for these propositions. For the +proposition that, if AB = A′B′ , and CD = C′D′, then AB + CD = A′B′ + +C′D′, we require only the general axiom, applicable to all +divisibilities, that the sums of equals are equal. Thus by the help of +the axioms (3), (7), (8) above, we have everything that is required for +the numerical measurement (theoretically speaking) of all distances in +terms of any given distance, and for the proof that change of unit +involves multiplication throughout by a common factor. + +**397.** With regard to magnitude of divisibility, in the sense in which +this is relevant to metrical Geometry, it is important to realize that +it is an ordinal notion, expressing a property of relations, not of +their fields. We wish to say that a stretch of two inches has twice as +much divisibility as a stretch of one inch, and that an area is +infinitely more divisible than a stretch. Now, if we are dealing (as +will be assumed in this discussion) with a continuous space, every +stretch, area or volume is a class of 2α0 terms; and considered as a +class, it is the field of an infinite number of relations beside that +(or those) belonging to it in respect of the space we are considering. +The habit of allowing the imagination to dwell upon actual space has +made the order of points appear in some way intrinsic or essential, and +not merely relative to one of many possible ordering relations. But this +point of view is not logical: it arises, in regard to actual space, only +from the fact that the generating relations of actual space have a quite +peculiar connection with our perceptions, and, through the continuity of +motion, with time. From the standpoint of logic, no one of the relations +having a given field has any preeminence, and the points of actual +space, like any other class of 2α0 terms, form, with regard to other +sets of generating relations, other sorts of continuous spaces—indeed +any other continuous space, having any finite number of dimensions, or +even ω dimensions, can be formed of the points of a Euclidean space by +attending to other generating relations. + +From this it follows that magnitude of divisibility, if it is to +distinguish a long stretch from a short one, or an area from a stretch, +must be a property of the relations involved, not of the class of points +composing the area or the stretch. It is not quite easy to define the +exact property which is required; for any two stretches are ordinally +similar. We require some sense for the equality or inequality of the +relations whose fields are the given stretches. Where coordinates (i.e. +a correlation of the points of a line with the real numbers) have been +already introduced, we may define the magnitude of a stretch as the +difference of the coordinates of its end-points or its limits (according +as the stretch has ends or not); but if this is done, the magnitudes of +stretches will depend upon the necessarily more or less arbitrary plan +upon which we have introduced our coordinates. This is the course +adopted in the projective theory of distance—a course which has the +merit of making metrical Geometry a logical development from projective +axioms alone (see [next chapter](#chapter48)). The other course that may +be adopted is, to assume that the generating relations of any two +stretches have either a symmetrical transitive relation (equality), or +an asymmetrical transitive relation or its converse (greater or less). +Certain axioms will be required, as, for example, that if the points A, +B, C, D are collinear, and AC is greater than AD, then BC is greater +than BD[\*](#fn412-1). The relations of equal, greater and less may be +regarded as defined by these axioms, and the common property of the +generating relations of those stretches that are equal to a given +stretch may be defined as the magnitude of divisibility of the said +generating relations. The sense in which an area has infinitely more +divisibility than a stretch is that, if n be any finite integer, and n +stretches equal to a given stretch be removed from an area, there always +remains an area, however great n may be. What is important to observe, +in the above discussion, is that the logical parity of all the orders of +which a class of terms is capable makes it necessary to regard the +magnitudes with which metrical Geometry deals as belonging to relations +or classes of relations, not, as is commonly supposed, to the class of +points forming their fields. + +**398.** In elliptic space, where the straight line is a closed series, +the attempt to make distance independent of stretch leads to still +further complications. We now no longer have the axiom that, if A, B, C +be collinear, we cannot have AB = BC = CA; and we have to recognize two +distances between every pair of points, which, when distance is taken as +fundamental, becomes extremely awkward. We may however avoid admitting +two distances by refusing to regard the greater of the two as properly a +distance. This will then be only a stretch. If two distances are +admitted, one is always greater than the other, except in a limiting +case, when both are the lower limit of the greater distances and the +upper limit of the lesser distances. Further if a, b, c, d be any four +distinct points, the greater of the two distances ab is always greater +than the lesser of the two distances cd. Thus the whole class of greater +distances may be banished, and only greater stretches be admitted. + +We must now proceed as follows. Distances are a class of symmetrical +relations, which are magnitudes of one kind, having a maximum, which is +a one-one relation whose field is all points, and a minimum, which is +the distance of any point from itself. Every point on a given line has a +given distance other than the maximum or minimum from two and only two +other points on the line. If a, b, c, d be four distinct points on one +line, we shall say that a and c are separated by b and d in the +following four cases, of which (1) and (2) and also (3) and (4) are not +mutually exclusive: + +(1) If ab \< ac . bc \< ac . ad \> ac. + +(2) If ab \< ac . bc \< ac . dc \> ac. + +(3) If ab \> ac . ad \< ac . dc \< ac. + +(4) If bc \> ac . ad \< ac . dc \< ac. + +We then need Vailati’s five axioms enumerated in [Part IV](#part4), +[Chap. xxiv](#chapter24), in order to generate a closed series from the +separation of couples so defined. Thus it is possible, though by a +somewhat complicated process, to generate a closed series of points on a +line by means of the symmetrical relation of distance. + +I shall not work out in further detail the consequences of this +hypothesis in elliptic space, but proceed at once to the hypothesis that +distances are the magnitudes of stretches. When the number of dimensions +exceeds two, the polar form of elliptic space is merely projective space +together with the necessary metrical axioms; the antipodal form is a +space in which two antipodal points together have the properties of a +single projective point. Neglecting the latter, to which similar remarks +will apply, I shall confine myself to the polar form. Since this is a +projective space, every pair of points determines two segments on the +line joining the points. The sum of these two segments, together with +the two points, is the whole line, and therefore constant. It is an +axiom that all complete straight lines have the same divisibility. The +divisibility of either segment is a distance between the two points: +when the two distances are equal, either may be called the distance; +when they are unequal, it will be convenient to call the smaller the +distance, except in special problems. The whole theory then proceeds as +in the case of descriptive space. But it is important to observe that, +in elliptic space, the quadrilateral construction and the generation of +order, being prior to stretches, are prior to distances, and are +presupposed in metrical Geometry. + +**399.** So far, therefore, metrical Geometry introduces three new +axioms, and one new indefinable. The stretch in every series is a +quantity, and metrical Geometry merely introduces such axioms as make +all stretches of points measurable. A few words may be useful as to the +sense in which, in a theoretical discussion, the word measurement is to +be understood. The actual application of the foot-rule is here not in +question, but only those properties of pure space which are presupposed +in the use of the foot-rule. A set of magnitudes is theoretically +measurable when there is a one-one relation between them and some or all +numbers; it is practically measurable when, given any magnitude, we can +discover, with a certain margin of error, what the number is to which +our magnitude has the relation in, question. But how we are to discover +this is a subsequent question, presupposing that there is such a +proposition to be discovered, and soluble, if at all, by empirical means +to be invented in the laboratory. With practical measurement, then, we +are not at all concerned in the present discussion. + +**400.** I come now to a more difficult question than distance, namely +the question as to the definition of angle. Here, to begin with, we must +deal with rays, not with whole straight lines. The ray may be taken +either as an asymmetrical relation, or as the half-line on one side of a +given point on a line. The latter usage is very convenient, and I shall +frequently employ it. Elementary Geometry assumes that two rays starting +from the same point determine a certain magnitude, called the angle +between them. This magnitude may, however, be defined in various ways. +In the first place, we must observe that, since the rays in a plane +through a point form a closed series, every pair of rays through a point +defines two stretches of rays. Of these, however, one stretch contains +the opposites of both rays, while the other stretch contains the +opposites of neither—except, indeed, in the one case where the two rays +are each other’s opposites. This case is met by Euclid’s postulate that +all right angles are equal—a postulate, however, which is now known to +be demonstrable[\*](#fn415-1). Omitting this case, the angle between two +rays may be defined as that stretch of rays through their intersection +which is bounded by the two rays and does not contain the opposite of +either, i.e. if A, B be the rays, and ˘A, ˘B their opposites, the angle +is the class of rays C which are separated from ˘A or ˘B by A and B. We +might also, but for an objection to be mentioned shortly, define the +angle as all the points on such rays. A definition equivalent to this +last, but simpler in form, and avoiding the mention of the opposite +rays, is the following[†](#fn415-2). Let a, b be any two points of the +rays A, B, and let c be any point of the stretch ab. Then the class of +points c, for all possible positions of a and b on their respective +rays, is the angle between A and B. That is, every pair of intersecting +rays divides the plane of the rays into two parts: the part defined as +above is the angle. Or rather, the part so defined is the angle as a +quantity: the angle as a magnitude is the divisibility of this part. But +to these latter definitions we shall find fatal objections, and we shall +find it necessary to adhere to the definition as a stretch of rays. + +**401.** Thus angle, like distance, is not a new indefinable, but like +distance, it requires some new axioms. The angle between a ray A and its +opposite A′ cannot be defined as above, but may be defined as the +logical sum of the angles between A and B, B and A′ respectively. This +limiting angle is greater than any other at the point, being in fact the +whole half of the plane on one side of the straight line AA′. If the +angles between A and B, B and A′ are equal, each is called a right +angle. (That there are such angles, can be proved if we assume +continuity.) Two intersecting straight lines make four angles, which are +equal in pairs. The order of a collection of rays through a point in a +plane may be obtained by correlation with the points where these rays +intersect a given straight line, provided there is any straight line +which all of them intersect. But since rays through a point in a plane +form a closed series, while the points on a line do not, we require a +four-term relation for the former order. The following definition seems +adequate. Given four rays OA, OB, OC, OD through a point O and in one +plane, if these all meet a certain straight line in A, B, C, D +respectively, and A and C are separated by B and D, then OA and OC are +said to be separated by OB and OD. In projective space this suffices. +But in descriptive space we must provide for other cases. Thus if OA, +OB, OC meet the given line, and B is between OA and OC, while OD does +not meet the given line, then OA and OC are again said to be separated +by OB and OD. If, finally, OA′ and OB′ be the opposites of OA and OB, +then OA and OA′ are separated by OB and OB′. In virtue of the +descriptive axioms of the [preceding chapter](#chapter46), the order +among the rays so obtained will be unambiguous, i.e. independent of our +choice of the line ABC, and will cover all cases. + +But now we need axioms analogous to those which, in the case of +distance, were numbered (3), (7) and (8). At any given point in a given +ray, there must be, in a given plane, two and only two rays, on opposite +sides of the given ray (i.e. separated from each other by the given ray +and its opposite), which make a given angle with the given ray; and +angles must obey the axioms of Archimedes and of linearity. But in +addition to these axioms, which insure that angles shall be numerically +measurable, we must have some method of connecting the measure of angles +with that of distances, such as is required for the solution of +triangles. Does this require a new axiom? Euclid appears to obtain this, +by means of I. 47, II. 12, and II. 13, without any fresh axiom. For this +result we depend upon the propositions on the congruence of triangles +(I. 4, 8, 26), which demand only, as we saw, the axiom that, with one +angle at a given point, and one side along a given ray through that +point, there exist two and only two triangles in a given plane through +the ray (one on each side of the given ray), which are equal in all +respects to a given triangle. Thus it would seem that no fresh axioms +are required for angles in a plane. + +**402.** With regard to the definition of an angle as a portion of a +plane, it is necessary (as in many other cases), if we retain this +definition, somewhat to restrict the axiom that the whole is greater +than the part. If a whole A has two parts B, C, which together +constitute A, and if C be infinitesimal with respect to A, then B will +be equal to A. This case occurs in a plane under the following +circumstances. Let O, O′ be any two points, OP, O′P′ lines in one plane +and making equal angles with the ray OO′[\*](#fn416-1). Then in +Euclidean or hyperbolic space these lines OP, O′P′ will not intersect; +thus the angle between OO′ and O′P′ will be part of the angle O′OP. +Hence the above restriction is necessary as regards the axiom that the +whole is greater than the part. + +In Euclidean space this answer is sufficient, since, if OP makes with +OO′ a less angle than O′P′ does, OP and O′P′ will intersect. But in +hyperbolic space, OP and O′P′ may not intersect even then. Hence if we +adhere to the above definition of angle, we shall have to hold that the +whole may be less than the part. This, however, is intolerable, and +shows that the definition in question must be rejected. We may, however, +still regard angle as the stretch of rays; for the rays in the angle at +O′ are not part of the rays in the angle at O. Hence it is only as a +stretch of rays, or as the magnitude of such a stretch, that an angle +can be properly defined. + +As showing, in a curious manner, the increased power of deduction which +results from the above axioms concerning distances and angles, we may +remark that the uniqueness of the quadrilateral construction, which +before could not be proved without three dimensions, can now be proved, +as regards all constructions in one plane, without any assumption of +points outside that plane. Nothing is easier than to prove this +proposition by the methods of elementary coordinate Geometry. Thus +although projective Geometry, as an independent science, requires three +dimensions, any projective proposition concerning plane figures can be +metrically proved, if the above axioms hold, for a two-dimensional +space. + +**403.** As regards figures of three dimensions, angles between planes +and solid angles can be defined exactly as rectilinear angles were +defined. Moreover fresh axioms will not be required, for the measurement +of such angles can be deduced from the data we already possess. + +With regard to areas and volumes some remarks seem necessary. Areas and +volumes, like angles, are classes of points when taken as quantities, +and divisibilities when taken as magnitudes. For areas and volumes we do +not require afresh the axioms of Archimedes and of linearity, but we +require one axiom apiece to give a criterion of equal areas and volumes, +i.e. to connect their equality with that of distances and angles. Such +an axiom is supplied, as regards areas, by the axiom that two congruent +triangles have the same area, and as regards volumes, by the +corresponding axiom concerning tetrahedra. But the existence of +congruent tetrahedra, like that of congruent triangles, demands an +axiom. For this purpose, Pasch[\*](#fn417-1) gives the following general +axiom: If two figures are congruent, and a new point be added to one of +them, a new point can be added to the other so that the two new figures +are congruent. This axiom allows us to infer congruent tetrahedra from +congruent triangles; and hence the measurement of volumes proceeds +smoothly. + +**404.** In three dimensions, a curious fact has to be taken account of, +namely, the disjunction of right and left-handedness, or of clockwise +and counter-clockwise. This fact is itself of a descriptive nature, and +may be defined as follows. Between two non-coplanar rays, or between +four non-coplanar points taken in an assigned order, there is always one +of two opposite relations, which may be called right and left. The +formal properties of these relations have been explained in [Part +IV](#part4) ([§222](#sec222)); for the present I am concerned with their +geometrical consequences. In the first place, they cause volumes to +become magnitudes with sign, in exactly the way in which distances on a +straight line have sign when compounded with their sense. But in the +case of distances, since not all are on one straight line, we could not +thus compound distance and sense generally: we should require, for a +compound, some more general notion than sense, such as vectors supply. +Here, on the contrary, since, in a three-dimensional space, all volumes +have one or other of two senses, the compound can be made for all +volumes. Thus if the volume of the tetrahedron abcd has one sign, that +of bacd will have the opposite sign. This is the familiar geometrical +fact that the determinant giving the volume of a tetrahedron abcd has +one or other sign according as the sense of abcd is the same as or +different from that of OXYZ, where O is the origin and X, Y, Z any +positive points on the axes. It is this fact, also, which gives signs to +angular momentum in Dynamics. The importance of the fact (which itself +seems to be an independent axiom) is this, that it makes a distinction +between two figures whose metrical properties are all identical. It is +this distinction which puzzled Kant, who, like most of his +contemporaries, supposed all geometrical facts to be metrical. In +itself, the fact would be no more puzzling than, the distinction between +the stretches AB and BA, which are metrically indistinguishable. But it +becomes puzzling when metrical equality is supposed to result from +motion and superposition. In our former definition of motion +([§390](#sec390)) we omitted (as was then observed) a condition +essential to its definition. Not only must two congruent figures be +metrically equal, but there must be a continuous series of equal figures +leading from the one to the other. Or, what amounts to the same thing, +if a, b, c, d and a′, b′, c′, d′ be homologous non-coplanar points in +the two figures, the tetrahedra abcd, a′b′c′d′ must have the same sense. +In the case of equal and opposite tetrahedra, these conditions fail. For +there is no gradual transition from clockwise to counter-clockwise; thus +at some point in the series a sudden jump would be necessary. No motion +will transform abcd into a tetrahedron metrically equal in all respects, +but with the opposite sense. In this fact, however, there seems, to my +mind, to be nothing mysterious, but merely a result of confining +ourselves to three dimensions. In one dimension, the same would hold of +distances with opposite senses; in two dimensions, of areas. It is only +to those who regard motion as essential to the notion of metrical +equality that right and left-handedness form a difficulty; in our +theory, they are rather a confirmation than a stumbling-block. + +With this we may end our brief review of metrical Geometry, leaving it +to the [next chapter](#chapter48) to discuss its relation to projective +Geometry and the projective theory of distance and angle. + +Notes + +## CHAPTER XLVIII. +Relation of Metrical to Projective and Descriptive Geometry. + +**405.** In the present chapter I wish to discuss two questions. First, +can projective and descriptive Geometry be established without any +metrical presuppositions, or even without implying metrical properties? +Secondly, can metrical Geometry be deduced from either of the others, +or, if not, what unavoidable novelties does it introduce? The previous +exposition has already dogmatically assumed certain answers to these +questions, but we are now to examine critically the various possible +answers. + +The distinction between projective and descriptive Geometry is very +recent, and is of an essentially ordinal nature. If we adopt the +view—which, as we saw, is the simpler of two legitimate views—that the +straight line is defined by a certain relation between any two of its +points, then in projective Geometry this relation is symmetrical, while +in descriptive Geometry it is asymmetrical. Beyond this we have the +difference that, in projective Geometry, a line and a plane, two planes, +or two lines in a plane, always intersect, while in descriptive Geometry +the question whether this is the case or not is left open. But these +differences are not very important for our present purpose, and it will +therefore be convenient to speak of projective and descriptive Geometry +together as non-quantitative Geometry. + +The logical independence of non-quantitative Geometry is now scarcely +open to question. We have seen, in Chapters [xlv](#chapter45) and +[xlvi](#chapter46), how it may be built up without any reference +whatever to quantitative considerations. Quantity, in fact, though +philosophers appear still to regard it as very essential to mathematics, +does not occur in pure mathematics, and does occur in many cases not at +present amenable to mathematical treatment. The notion which does occupy +the place traditionally assigned to quantity is order; and this notion, +we saw, is present in both kinds of non-quantitative Geometry. But the +purity of the notion of order has been much obscured by the belief that +all order depends upon distance—a belief which, though it is entertained +by so excellent a writer as Meinong, we have seen to be false. Distance +being essentially quantitative, to admit that series depend upon +distance is to admit that order depends upon quantity. But this view +leads at once to an endless regress, since distances have an order of +magnitude, which would have to be derived from new distances of +distances, and so on. And positively, an asymmetrical transitive +relation suffices to generate a series, but does not imply distance. +Hence the fact that the points of a line form a series does not show +that Geometry must have metrical presuppositions, and no such +presuppositions appear in the detail of projective or descriptive +Geometry. + +**406.** But although non-quantitative Geometry, as it now exists, is +plainly independent of everything metrical, the historical development +of the subject has tended greatly to obscure this independence. A brief +historical review of the subject may be useful in showing the relation +of the more modern to the more traditional methods. + +In Euclid, and in Greek geometers generally, hardly any descriptive +theorems are to be found. One of the earliest discoveries of an +important descriptive theorem was the one named after +Pascal[\*](#fn420-1). Gradually it was found that propositions which +assert points to be collinear or lines to be concurrent, or propositions +concerning tangents, poles and polars, and similar matters, were +unaltered by projection; that is, any such property belonging to a plane +figure would belong also to the projection or shadow of this figure from +any point on to any plane. All such properties (as, for instance, those +common to all conics) were called projective or descriptive. Among these +properties was anharmonic ratio, which was defined as follows. If A, B, +C, D be four points on one straight line, their anharmonic ratio is +ABCB∕ADCD ; if OA, OB, OC, OD be four lines through a point, their +anharmonic ratio is sin AOBsin COB∕sin AODsin COD. In Chasles’s great +work on descriptive Geometry, and even in most recent works (such as +Cremona’s projective Geometry), this definition will be found at a very +early stage in the development of the subject, together with a proof +that anharmonic ratio is unaltered by projection. But such a definition +is itself metrical, and cannot therefore be used to found a subject +independent of metrical Geometry. With other portions of what used to be +called descriptive or projective Geometry, the same lack of independence +will be found. Consider, for example, the definition of a conic. To +define it as a curve of the second degree would require projective +coordinates, which there was no known method of introducing. To define +it as a curve meeting any straight line in not more than two points +would require the distinction of real and imaginary points, for if we +confine ourselves to real points there are innumerable curves other than +conics which satisfy the definition. But imaginary points are, in +ordinary metrical Geometry, imaginary coordinates, for which there is no +purely geometrical interpretation; thus without projective coordinates, +our definition again fails. To define a conic as the locus of points P +for which the anharmonic ratio of PA, PB, PC, PD (where A, B, C, D are +fixed points) is constant, again involves metrical considerations, so +long as we have no projective definition of anharmonic ratio. And the +same dependence upon metrical Geometry appears as regards any other +projective or descriptive theorem, so long as the traditional order of +ideas is adhered to. + +The true founder of non-quantitative Geometry is von +Staudt[\*](#fn421-1). It was he who introduced the definition of a +harmonic range by means of the quadrilateral construction, and who +rendered it possible, by repetitions of this construction, to give +projective definitions of all rational anharmonic ratios[†](#fn421-2). +These definitions indicate the succession of quadrilateral constructions +required in order to obtain a fourth point from three given points; +thus, though they are essentially numerical, they have no reference +whatever to quantity. But there remained one further step, before +projective Geometry could be considered complete, and this step was +taken by Pieri. In Klein’s account, it remains doubtful whether all sets +of four collinear points have an anharmonic ratio, and whether any +meaning can be assigned to irrational anharmonic ratios. For this +purpose, we require a method of generating order among all the points of +a line. For, if there be no order but that obtained from Klein’s method, +there is no sense in which we can regard a point not obtained by that +method as the limit of a series of points which are so obtained, since +the limit and the series which it limits must always both belong to some +one series. Hence there will be no way of assigning irrational, +coordinates to the points which do not have rational coordinates. There +is, of course, no projective reason for supposing that there are such +points; but there are metrical reasons, and in any case it is well, if +possible, to be able to deal projectively with a continuous space. This +is effected by Pieri, with the help of certain new axioms, but without +any new indefinables. Thus at last the long process by which projective +Geometry has purified itself from every metrical taint is completed. + +**407.** Projective Geometry, having achieved its own independence, has, +however, embarked upon a career of foreign aggrandisement; and in this +we shall, I think, though on the whole favourable, be obliged to make +some slight reservations. The so-called projective theory of distance +aims at proving that metrical is merely a branch of projective Geometry, +and that distances are merely logarithms of certain anharmonic ratios. +If this theory be correct, there is not a special subject of metrical +Geometry, and the axioms by which, in the [preceding +chapter](#chapter47), we distinguished this subject, must be +consequences of projective axioms. Let us examine the manner in which +this result is obtained[\*](#fn422-1). + +We have already seen how to assign coordinates to every point of a line +in projective space, and how to define the anharmonic ratio of any four +points. We have seen also how to obtain a projective from a descriptive +space. In a descriptive space, when an ideal point has a real +correlative (i.e. when it is a sheaf of lines which has a vertex), we +assign to the real point the coordinate which belongs to the ideal point +considered as belonging to a projective space. In this way, the +coordinate Geometry of the two spaces becomes very similar, the +difference being that, in projective space, every real set of +coordinates gives a real point, whereas, in descriptive space, this +holds of each coordinate only within certain limits (both of which +limits are excluded). In what follows, therefore, remarks concerning +projective space will apply also to descriptive space except when the +contrary is expressly stated. + +Let us consider the anharmonic ratios of all ranges axby, where a, b are +fixed points and x, y variable points on our line. Let α, ξ, β, η be the +coordinates of these points. Then ξ − αξ − β∕η − αη − β will be the +anharmonic ratio of the four points, which, since a, β are constants, +may be conveniently denoted by (ξη). If now ζ be the coordinate of any +other point z, we have + +(ξη)(ηζ) = (ξζ). Hencelog (ξη) + log (ηζ) = log (ξζ). + +Thus the logarithm of the anharmonic ratio in question has one of the +essential properties of distance, namely additiveness. If xy, yz, xz be +the distances of x, y, z taken as having sign, we must have + +xy + yz = xz. + +We have also log (ξξ) = 0 and log (ξη) = −log (ηξ), which are two +further properties of distance. From these properties (of which the +third follows from the other two) it is easy to show that all properties +of distances which have no reference to the fixed points a, b belong to +the logarithm in question. Hence, if the distances of points from a and +b can also be made, by a suitable choice of a and b, to agree with those +derived from the logarithm, we shall be able to identify distance with +this logarithm. In this way—so it is contended—metrical Geometry may be +wholly brought under the projective sway; for a similar theory applies +to angles between lines or planes. + +**408.** Let us consider first the case where our projective points are +the ideal points of a descriptive space. Let x be considered fixed, and +distinct from a and b. Let y be moved so that η becomes more and more +nearly equal to β. Then as η approaches β, log (ξη) will be always +finite, but will assume values exceeding any that may be assigned. This +is mathematically expressed by saying that, if ξ be any number other +than α and β, then log (ξβ) is infinite. (If ξ be equal to α or β, log +(ξα) and log (ξβ) are indeterminate; this case will therefore be +supposed excluded in what follows.) Hence a and b must be at an infinite +distance from every point except each other; and their distance from +each other is indeterminate. Again x and y must not be separated by a +and b, i.e. y must belong to the segment axb, if we wish the distance to +be real; for if ξ − α and ξ − β have the same sign, η − α and η − β must +also have the same sign, but if ξ − α and ξ − β have different signs, η +− α and η − β must also have different signs; and these conditions +amount to the same as the condition that y must belong to the segment +axb. Hence if we insist that any two real points (i.e. points which are +not merely ideal) are to have a real distance (i.e. a distance measured +by a number which is not complex or purely imaginary), we shall require +a and b to fulfil the following conditions: (1) they must be ideal +points to which no real ones correspond; (2) they must be the two limits +of the series of those ideal points to which real points do correspond. +These two conditions include all that has been said. For, in the first +place, there is no real distance of any point from α or β; hence α and β +must not be coordinates of real points. In the second place, on one of +the two segments defined by a and b, there is a real distance xy however +near ξ or η may approach to α or β; hence a and b are the limits of the +ideal points to which real ones correspond. In the third place, it +follows from the last proposition that all ideal points to which real +ones correspond belong to one of the two segments ab, and all ideal +points to which no real ones correspond (except a and b themselves) +belong to the other of the two segments ab. When these conditions are +satisfied, the function log (ξη) will have all the properties which are +required for a measure of distance. + +The above theory is only applicable to descriptive space, for it is only +there that we have a distinction between ideal and actual points. And in +descriptive space we begin with an asymmetrical transitive relation by +which order is generated on the straight line. Before developing a +theory which is applicable to pure projective space, let us examine a +little further the above theory, which may be called the descriptive +theory of distance. + +In the first place, the ideal points to which real ones correspond, +which for shortness I shall call proper points, form part of the whole +series of ideal points, which is closed. The proper points are a +semi-continuous portion of this closed series, i.e. they have all the +properties of a continuum except that of having two ends. It may happen +that there is only one ideal point which is not proper, or it may happen +that there are many. In the former case, the one purely ideal point will +be the limit of the proper points in both directions. This is the case +of Euclidean space, for in Euclidean space there is only one sheaf of +lines to which a given line belongs and which has no vertex, namely the +sheaf of lines parallel to the given line. Hence in this case the points +a and b must be taken to be identical. The function log (ξη) is then +zero for all values of ξ and η, and is therefore useless as a measure of +distance. But by a familiar process of proceeding to the limit, we can, +in this case, obtain the value ξ − η for the distance[\*](#fn424-1). +This is the usual measure of elementary Geometry; and for the distance +of two points in a plane or in space we should similarly obtain the +usual formula in this case. We see here the exact meaning of the common +phrase that, in Euclidean space, +∞ is the same as −∞, or that the two +ends of a line coincide. The fact is, of course, that the line has no +ends, but that it determines only one ideal point which is not proper, +and that this is the limit of proper ideal points in both directions: +when it is added to the proper ideal points, we obtain a closed +continuous series of sheaves to which the line in question belongs. In +this way, a somewhat cryptic expression is found to have a very simple +interpretation. + +But it may happen also—and this is the case of hyperbolic space—that +there are many improper ideal points on a line. In this case, the proper +ideal points will have two different limits; these will be the sheaves +of Lobatchewsky’s parallels in the two directions. In this case, our +function log (ξη) requires no modification, but expresses distance as it +stands. The ideal points a and b are distinct, which is commonly +expressed by saying that our line has two real and distinct points at +infinity. + +Thus in descriptive space, in which our coordinates are obtained by +correlation with those of the derived projective space, it is always +possible to define a certain function of our projective coordinates +which will fulfil the conditions required for a measure of distance. +These conditions may be enumerated as follows[†](#fn424-2). (1) Every +pair of real points is to have a distance whose measure is real and +finite, and vanishes only when the two points coincide. (2) If x, y, z +are collinear, and y lies between x and z, the sum of the measures of xy +and yz is to be the measure of xz. (3) As the ideal point corresponding +to y approaches the ideal point which is the limit of proper ideal +points, while x remains fixed, the absolute value of the measure of xy +is to grow without limit. + +It may well be asked, however, why we should desire to define a function +of two variable points possessing these properties. If the mathematician +replies that his only object is amusement, his procedure will be +logically irreproachable, but extremely frivolous. He will, however, +scarcely make this reply. We have, as a matter of fact, the notion of a +stretch, and, in virtue of the general axiom that every class has some +magnitude of divisibility, we know that the stretch has magnitude. But +we do not know, without a special assumption to that effect, that the +stretch fulfils the axioms of Archimedes and of linearity. When once +these are assumed, the above properties of the measure of distance +become properties which must belong to the measure of stretch. But if +these two axioms are not assumed, there is no reason why there should be +any magnitude having a measure possessing the above four +characteristics. Thus the descriptive theory of distance, unless we +regard it as purely frivolous, does not dispense with the need of the +above axioms. What it does show—and this fact is extremely remarkable—is +that, if stretches are numerically measurable, then they are measured by +a constant multiple of the logarithm of the anharmonic ratio of the two +ideal points associated with the ends of the stretch together with the +two ideal points which limit the series of proper ideal points; or, in +case the latter pair are identical, the stretch is measured by a +function obtained as the limit of the above when the said pair approach +to identity and the constant factor increases without limit. This is a +most curious result, but it does not obviate the need for the axioms +which distinguish metrical Geometry. The same conclusion follows as +regards metrical Geometry in a plane or in three dimensions; but here +new complications are introduced, which are irrelevant to the present +issue, and will therefore not be discussed. + +It is important to realize that the reference to two fixed ideal points, +introduced by the descriptive theory of distance, has no analogue in the +nature of distance or stretch itself. This reference is, in fact, a +convenient device, but nothing more. The stretch, in descriptive space, +is completely defined by its end-points, and in no way requires a +reference to two further ideal points. And as descriptive Geometry +starts with the stretch, it would be a needless complication to +endeavour subsequently to obtain a definition of stretch in terms of +four points. In short, even if we had a projective theory of distance in +descriptive space, this would still be not purely projective, since the +whole projective space composed of ideal elements is derived from axioms +which do not hold in projective space. + +**409.** It remains to examine the projective theory of distance in +projective space. The theory we have hitherto examined, since it used +the distinction of real and ideal elements, was descriptive, not +projective; we have now to examine the corresponding theory for pure +projective Geometry. Here there are no ideal elements of the above sort +associated with our line; if, therefore, α and β be real and distinct +numbers, they will be the coordinates of real and distinct points. Hence +there will he real points x, y which will be separated by a and b, and +will have an imaginary measure of distance. To this there could be no +objection, but for the fact that we wish our measure to be the measure +of a stretch. This is the reason why it is desired that any two real +points should have a real measure of distance. In order to insure this +result in a pure projective space, it is necessary that α and β should +not be the coordinates of points at all, but should be conjugate complex +numbers. It is further necessary that the constant multiple of the +logarithm should be a pure imaginary. We then find that the distance of +two real points always has a real measure, which is an inverse +cosine[\*](#fn426-1). In a projective space, the condition (2) of [p. +424](#page424) introduces complications, since between has not, as in +descriptive space, a simple meaning. The definition of between in this +case is dealt with fully by Mr Whitehead in his Universal Algebra +(§206). + +**410.** But if such a function is to be properly geometrical, and to +give a truly projective theory of distance, it will be necessary to find +some geometrical entity to which our conjugate complex numbers α and β +correspond. This can be done by means of involutions. Although, in a +projective space, there are no ideal points, yet there are what may be +called ideal point-pairs. In [Chapter xlv](#chapter45) we considered +involutions with real double points: if a, b be two points on a line, +all point-pairs x, x′ such that x, x′ are harmonic conjugates with +respect to a, b form an involution. In this case, x and x′ are said to +be conjugate; a and b are each self-conjugate, and are called the double +points of the involution. But there are also involutions without real +double points. The general definition of an involution may be given as +follows (substituting the relation of x to x′ for the pair x, x′): An +involution of points is a symmetrical one-one relation, other than +identity, whose domain and converse domain are the same straight line, +and which is such that any class of referents is projectively similar to +the corresponding class of relata. Such a relation is either strictly an +aliorelative, or is a self-relative as regards two and only two points, +namely the double points of the involution. For every pair of distinct +points on the line as double points there will be one and only one +involution: all point-pairs (using this expression so as to exclude the +identity of the two points of the pair) have a one-one correlation with +some involutions. Thus involutions may be called ideal point-pairs: +those that correspond to an actual point-pair are called hyperbolic, the +others elliptic. Thus an ideal point-pair is one and indivisible, being +in fact a one-one relation. Two proper ideal point-pairs have an +anharmonic ratio defined by their respective double points: two improper +ideal point-pairs, or a proper and an improper ideal point-pair, have an +analogous projective relation, which is measured by the function +obtained as above from the supposition that α and β are conjugate +complex numbers. This function may be called the anharmonic ratio of the +two ideal point-pairs. If one be fixed and improper, the other variable +and proper, an imaginary multiple of the logarithm of the resulting +anharmonic ratio has the properties required for a measure of the +distance of the actual point-pair corresponding to the proper ideal +point-pair. This gives the pure projective theory of distance. But to +this theory, as anything more than a technical development, there are +the same objections as in the case of descriptive space; i.e. unless +there be some magnitude determined by every actual point-pair, there is +no reason for the process by which we obtain the above measure of +distance; and if there is such a magnitude, then the above process gives +merely the measure, not the definition, of the magnitude in question. +Thus stretch or distance remains a fundamental entity, of which the +properties are such that the above method gives a measure of it, but not +a definition[\*](#fn427-1). + +**411.** There is however another and a simpler way of introducing +metrical notions into a projective space, and in this way distance +becomes a natural accompaniment of the introduction of coordinates. Let +p, q, r be three fixed points, abc a line not passing through p or q or +r but in the plane pqr. Let qr pass through a, rp through b, pq through +c. Let R1 be the relation which holds between x and y when these are +points on abc, and xr, yq meet on ap; and let R2, R3 be similarly +defined. Then a Möbius net may be regarded as constructed by repetitions +of the relations R1, R2, R3. We shall have, if xR1y, yR1z, then xHayx. +We can define the square root of R1, or any power of R1 whose index is a +positive or negative power of 2. Further, if s is any point of qr, and +xR1′y means that x and y are on abc and xr, ys meet on ap, then R1R1′ = +R1′R1. From these propositions, which are proved by pure projective +methods, it follows that if α and β be numbers, we may define R1α+β to +mean R1αR1β, provided R1α and R1β have been already defined; whence, +since R12n can be defined if n is a positive or negative integer, all +rational powers of R1 can be defined, and irrational powers can be +defined as limits. Hence, if x be any real number, positive or negative, +we can define R1x, for we may identify R1−x with ˘R1x. We may now take +this relation R1x as the distance of any two points between which it +holds, and regard x as the measure of the distance. We shall find that +distances so defined have the usual properties of Euclidean distances, +except that the distance of a from any other point is infinite. Thus on +a projective line any two points do actually have a relation which may +be called distance, and in this sense a projective theory of metrical +properties can be justified. But I do not know whether this method can +be extended to a plane or to space. + +To sum up: Although the usual so-called projective theory of distance, +both in descriptive and in projective space, is purely technical, yet +such spaces do necessarily possess metrical properties, which can be +defined and deduced without new indefinables or indemonstrables. But +metrical Geometry, as an independent subject, requires the new idea of +the magnitude of divisibility of a series, which is indefinable, and +does not belong, properly speaking, to pure mathematics. This idea is +applied to stretches, angles, areas, etc., and it is assumed that all +the magnitudes dealt with obey the axioms of Archimedes and linearity. +Without these axioms, many of the usual metrical propositions cannot be +proved in the usual metrical manner; with these axioms, the usual kind +of elementary Geometry becomes possible, and such results as the +uniqueness of the quadrilateral construction can be proved without three +dimensions. Thus there is a genuinely distinct science of metrical +Geometry, but, since it introduces a new indefinable, it does not belong +to pure mathematics in the sense in which we have used the word in this +work. It does not, as is often supposed, require distances and angles as +new relations between points or lines or planes, but stretches and +magnitudes of divisibility suffice throughout. On the other hand, +projective and descriptive Geometry are both independent of all metrical +assumptions, and allow the development of metrical properties out of +themselves; hence, since these subjects belong to pure mathematics, the +pure mathematician should adopt their theory of metrical matters. There +is, it is true, another metrical Geometry, which does work with +distances, defined as one-one relations having certain properties, and +this subject is part of pure mathematics; but it is terribly +complicated, and requires a bewildering number of axioms. Hence the +deduction of metrical properties from the definition of a projective or +descriptive space has real importance, and, in spite of appearances to +the contrary, it affords, from the point of view of pure mathematics, a +genuine simplification and unification of method. + +Notes + +## CHAPTER XLIX. +Definitions of Various Spaces. + +**412.** In the preceding discussions of different Geometries, I have +usually, for the sake of convenience, adhered to the distinction between +definitions and indefinables on the one hand, and axioms or postulates +on the other. But this distinction, in pure mathematics, has no validity +except as regards the ideas and propositions of Logic. In pure +mathematics, all the propositions state logical implications containing +a variable. This is, in fact, the definition, or part of the definition, +of pure mathematics. The implications stated must flow wholly from the +propositions of Logic, which are prior to those of other branches of +mathematics. Logic and the rest of pure mathematics are distinguished +from applied mathematics by the fact that, in it, all the constants are +definable in terms of some eight fundamental notions, which we agreed to +call logical constants. What distinguishes other branches of mathematics +from Logic is merely complication, which usually takes the form of a +hypothesis that the variable belongs to some rather complicated class. +Such a class will usually be denoted by a single symbol; and the +statement that the class in question is to be represented by such and +such a symbol is what mathematicians call a definition. That is to say, +a definition is no part of mathematics at all, and does not make any +statement concerning the entities dealt with by mathematics, but is +simply and solely a statement of a symbolic abbreviation: it is a +proposition concerning symbols, not concerning what is symbolized. I do +not mean, of course, to affirm that the word definition has no other +meaning, but only that this is its true mathematical meaning. All +mathematics is built up by combinations of a certain number of primitive +ideas, and all its propositions can, but for the length of the resulting +formulae, be explicitly stated in terms of these primitive ideas; hence +all definitions are theoretically superfluous. But further, when Logic +is extended, as it should be, so as to include the general theory of +relations, there are, I believe, no primitive ideas in mathematics +except such as belong to the domain of Logic. In the previous chapters +of this Part, I have spoken, as most authors do, of certain indefinables +in Geometry. But this was a concession, and must now be rectified. In +mathematics, two classes of entities which have internal relations of +the same logical type are equivalent. Hence we are never dealing with +one particular class of entities, but with a whole class of classes, +namely, with all classes having internal relations of some specified +type. And by the type of a relation I mean its purely logical +properties, such as are denoted by the words one-one, transitive, +symmetrical, and so on. Thus for example we defined the class of classes +called progression by certain logical characteristics of the internal +relations of terms of any class which is a progression, and we found +that finite Arithmetic, in so far as it deals with numbers, and not with +the terms or classes of which numbers can be asserted, applies equally +to all progressions. And when it is realized that all mathematical +ideas, except those of Logic, can be defined, it is seen also that there +are no primitive propositions in mathematics except those of Logic. The +so-called axioms of Geometry, for example, when Geometry is considered +as a branch of pure mathematics, are merely the protasis in the +hypotheticals which constitute the science. They would be primitive +propositions if, as in applied mathematics, they were themselves +asserted; but so long as we only assert hypotheticals (i.e. propositions +of the form “A implies B”) in which the supposed axioms appear as +protasis, there is no reason to assert the protasis, nor, consequently, +to admit genuine axioms. My object in the present chapter is to execute +the purely formal task imposed by these considerations, and to set forth +the strict definitions of various spaces, from which, without +indefinables and without primitive propositions, the various Geometries +will follow. I shall content myself with the definition of some of the +more important spaces, since my object is chiefly to show that such +definitions are possible. + +**413.** (1) Projective Space of three dimensions. A projective space of +three dimensions is any class of entities such that there are at least +two members of the class; between any two distinct members there is one +and only one symmetrical aliorelative, which is connected, and is +transitive so far as its being an aliorelative will permit, and has +further properties to be enumerated shortly; whatever such aliorelative +may be taken, there is a term of the projective space not belonging to +the field of the said aliorelative, which field is wholly contained in +the projective space, and is called, for shortness, a straight line, and +is denoted by ab, if a, b be any two of its terms; every straight line +which contains two terms contains at least one other term; if a, b, c be +any three terms of the projective space, such that c does not belong to +the class ab, then there is at least one term of the projective space +not belonging to any class cx, where x is any term of ab; under the same +circumstances, if a′ be a term of bc, b′ a term of ac, the classes aa′, +bb′ have a common part; if d be any term, other than a and b, of the +class ab, and u, v any two terms such that d belongs to the class uv, +but neither u nor v belongs to the class ab, and if y be the only term +of the common part of au and bv, z the only term of the common part of +av and bu, x the only term of the common part of yz and ab, then x is +not identical with d (under these circumstances it may be proved that +the term x is independent of u and v, and is uniquely determined by a, +b, d; hence x and d have a symmetrical one-one relation which may be +denoted, for brevity, by xHabd; if y, e be two further terms of the +projective space, belonging to the class xd, and such that there are two +terms g, h of the class xd for which we have gHxdh and gHyeh, then we +write for shortness yQxde to express this relation of the four terms x, +d, y, e); a projective space is such that the relation Qxd, whatever +terms of the space x and d may be, is transitive; also that, if a, b, c, +d be any four distinct terms of one straight line, two and only two of +the propositions aQbcd, aQbdc, aQcdb will hold; from these properties of +projective space it results that the terms of a line form a series; this +series is continuous in the sense defined in [§277](#sec277); finally, +if a, b, c, d, e be any five terms of a projective space, there will be +in the class ae at least one term x, and in the class cd at least one +term y, such that x belongs to the class by. + +This is a formal definition of a projective space of three dimensions. +Whatever class of entities fulfils this definition is a projective +space. I have enclosed in brackets a passage in which no new properties +of projective space are introduced, which serves only the purpose of +convenience of language. There is a whole class of projective spaces, +and this class has an infinite number of members. The existence-theorem +may be proved to begin with, by constructing a projective space out of +complex numbers in the purely arithmetical sense defined in +[§360](#sec360). We then know that the class of projective spaces has +at least four members, since we know of four sub-classes contained under +it, each of which has at least one member. In the first place, we have +the above arithmetical space. In the second place, we have the +projective space of descriptive Geometry, in which the terms of the +projective space are sheaves of lines in the descriptive space. In the +third place, we have the polar form of elliptic space, which is +distinguished by the addition of certain metrical properties of +stretches, consistent with, but not implied by, the definition of +projective space; in the fourth place, we have the antipodal form of +elliptic Geometry, in which the terms of the projective space are pairs +of terms of the said elliptic space. And any number of varieties of +projective space may be obtained by adding properties not inconsistent +with the definition—for example, by insisting that all planes are to be +red or blue. In fact, every class of 2α0 terms (i.e. of the number of +terms in a continuous series) is a projective space; for when two +classes are similar, if one is the field of a certain relation, the +other will be the field of a like relation. Hence by correlation with a +projective space, any class of 2α0 terms becomes itself a projective +space. The fact is, that the standpoint of line-Geometry is more +fundamental where definition is concerned: a projective space would be +best defined as a class K of relations whose fields are straight lines +satisfying the above conditions. This point is strictly analogous to the +substitution of serial relations for series which we found desirable in +[Part IV](#part4). When a set of terms are to be regarded as the field +of a class of relations, it is convenient to drop the terms and mention +only the class of relations, since the latter involve the former, but +not the former the latter. + +It is important to observe that the definition of a space, as of most +other entities of a certain complexity, is arbitrary within certain +limits. For if there be any property which implies and is implied by one +or more of the properties used in the definition, we may make a +substitution of the new property in place of the one or more in +question. For example, in place of defining the line by a relation +between points, it is possible to define the line as a class having a +certain relation to a couple of points. In such cases, we can only be +guided by motives of simplicity. + +It seems scarcely necessary to give a formal definition of descriptive +or metrical space, since the above model serves to show how such a +definition might be constructed. I shall instead give a definition of +Euclidean space. This I shall give in a form which is inappropriate when +Euclidean space is considered as the limit of certain non-Euclidean +spaces, but is very appropriate to quaternions and the vector Calculus. +This form has been adopted by Peano[\*](#fn432-1), and leads to a very +simple account of the Euclidean axioms. I shall not strictly follow +Peano, but my account will be very similar to his. + +**414.** (2) Euclidean space of three dimensions. A Euclidean space of +three dimensions is a class of terms containing at least two members, +and such that any two of them have one and only one asymmetrical one-one +relation of a class, which will be called the class of vectors, defined +by the following characteristics[†](#fn432-2): the converse of a vector, +or the relative product of two vectors, is a vector; if a given vector +holds between a and b, c and d, then the vector which holds between a +and c is the same as that which holds between b and d; any term of the +space has any assigned relation of the class to at least one term of the +space; if the nth power (where n is any integer) of any vector of the +class is identity, then the vector itself is identity; there is a vector +whose nth power is a given vector; any two vectors have one and only one +symmetrical relation of a certain class having the following properties: +the relation of any two vectors is measured by a real number, positive +or negative, and is such that the relation of a vector to itself is +always measured by a positive number, and that the measure of the +relation of the relative product of two vectors to a third vector is the +sum of the measures of their several relations to the third vector; +there is a vector satisfying the definition of an irrational power of a +vector given below; there are vectors which are not relative products of +powers of two given vectors; if i, j, k be three vectors, no one of +which is a relative product of powers of one or both of the others, then +all vectors are relative products of powers of i, j, k. + +The only points calling for explanation here are the notion of an +irrational power of a vector and the measurable relation of two vectors. +All rational powers are definite; for every vector has an nth root, and +the nth root has an mth power, which is the m/nth power of the original +vector. But it does not follow that real powers which are not rational +can be defined. The definition of limits of classes of vectors given by +Peano[\*](#fn433-1) is, when translated into relational language, the +following. Let u be a class of real numbers, x0 a number belonging to +the derivative of u. Let some one-one relation subsist between all u’s +and some or all vectors; and let v be the class of vectors correlative +to u. Then the vector a is said to be the limit of the class v as x +approaches x0 in the class u, when the limit of the measure of the +relation to itself of the vector which, multiplied relatively into a, +will give the correlate to x in the class v, is zero. The point of this +definition is the use of the order obtained among vectors by means of +the measurable relation which each has to itself. Thus suppose we have a +progression x1, x2, … xn, … of rational numbers, and suppose these to be +respectively the measures of the relations to themselves of the vectors +a1, a2, … an, … Then if x be the limit of x1, x2, … xn, …, there is to +be a vector whose relation to itself is measured by x, and this is to be +the limit of the vectors a1, a2, … an, …; and thus irrational powers of +a vector become definable. The other point to be examined is the +measurable relation between two vectors. This relation measures, in +terms of elementary Geometry, the product of the two stretches +represented by the vectors into the cosine of the angle between them; it +is, in the language of the calculus of extension, the internal product +of the two vectors. To say that the relation is measurable in terms of +real numbers means, in the sense in which this statement is employed, +that all such relations have a one-one relation to some or all of the +real numbers; hence, from the existence of irrational powers, it follows +that all such relations form a continuous series; to say that the +relation of a vector to itself is always measured by a positive number +means that there exists a section (in Dedekind’s sense) of the +continuous series of relations, such that all those relations that +vectors can have to themselves appear on one side of the section; while +it can be proved that the relation which defines the section is that +which the vector identity has to itself. + +This definition is, of course, by no means the only one which can be +given of Euclidean space, but it is, I think, the simplest. For this +reason, and also because it belongs to an order of ideas which, being +essentially Euclidean, is foreign to the methods of previous chapters, I +have thought it worth while to insert it here. + +**415.** As another example which may serve to enlarge our ideas, I +shall take the space invented by Clifford, or rather the space which is +formally analogous to his surface of zero curvature and finite +extent[\*](#fn434-1). I shall first briefly explain the nature of this +space, and then proceed to a formal definition. Spaces of the type in +question may have any number of dimensions, but for the sake of +simplicity I shall confine myself to two dimensions. In this space, most +of the usual Euclidean properties hold as regards figures not exceeding +a certain size; that is to say, the sum of the angles of a triangle is +two right angles, and there are motions, which may be called +translations, in which all points travel along straight lines. But in +other respects, the space is very different from Euclidean space. To +begin with, the straight line is a closed series, and the whole space +has a finite area. In the second place, every motion is a translation; a +circular transformation (i.e. one which preserves distances from a +certain fixed point unaltered) is never a motion, i.e. never leaves +every distance unaltered; but all translations can, as in Euclidean +space, be compounded out of translations in two fixed directions. In +this space, as in Euclid, we have parallels, i.e. straight lines which +remain at a constant distance apart, and can be simultaneously described +in a motion; also straight lines can be represented by linear equations. +But the formula for distance is quite unlike the Euclidean formula. Thus +if πk be the length of the whole straight line, and (x, y), (x′, y′) be +the coordinates of any two points (choosing a system in which the +straight line has a linear equation), then if ω be the angle between the +lines x = 0, y = 0, the distance of the two points in question is d, +where + +cos dk = cos (x − x′) − cos (y − y′) − cos ω sin (x − x′) sin (y − y′), + +and the formula for the angle between two lines is similarly +complicated. We may, in order to lead to these results, set up the +following definition. + +(3) Clifford’s space of two dimensions. A Clifford’s space of two +dimensions is a class of at least two terms, between any two of which +there are two relations of different classes, called respectively +distance and direction, and possessing the following properties: a +direction is a symmetrical aliorelative, transitive so far as its being +an aliorelative will permit, but not connected; a term of the space +together with all the terms to which the said term has a given relation +of direction form what is called a straight line; no straight line +contains all the terms of the space; every term of the space has any +assigned relation of direction to some but not all other terms of the +space; no pair of terms has more than one relation of direction; +distances are a class of symmetrical relations forming a continuous +series, having two ends, one of which is identity; all distances except +identity are intransitive aliorelatives; every term of the space has any +assigned relation of distance to some but not all of the terms of the +space; any given term of the space has any given distance and direction +from two and only two other terms of the space, unless the given +distance be either end of the series of distances; in this case, if the +given distance be identity, there is no term having this distance and +also the given direction from the given term, but if the distance be the +other end of the series, there is one and only one term having the given +distance and the given direction from the given term; distances in one +straight line have the properties, mentioned in [Chapter +xlvii](#chapter47), required for generating an order among the terms of +one straight line; the only motions, i.e. one-one relations whose domain +and converse domain are each the space in question and which leave all +distances among the relata the same as those among the corresponding +referents, are such as consist in combining a given distance, a given +direction, and one of the two senses of the series constituting a +straight line; and every such combination is equivalent to the relative +product of some distance in one fixed direction with some distance in +another fixed direction, both taken with a suitable sense; finally all +possible directions form a single closed continuous series in virtue of +mutual relations. + +This completes, I think, the definition of a Clifford’s space of two +dimensions. It is to be observed that, in this space, distance cannot be +identified with stretch, because (1) we have only two dimensions, so +that we cannot generate a closed series of terms on a line by means of +projective methods[\*](#fn435-1), (2) the line is to be closed, so that +we cannot generate order on the straight line by the descriptive method. +It is for similar reasons that both directions and distances have to be +taken as symmetrical relations; thus it is only after an order has been +generated on a line that we can distinguish two senses, which may be +associated with direction to render it asymmetrical, and with distances +in a given direction to give them signs. It is important to observe +that, when distance is taken as independent of the straight line, it +becomes necessary, in order to distinguish different spaces, to assign +some property or properties of the one-one relations or transformations +which leave distances unchanged. This method has been adopted by Lie in +applying to Geometry the theory of continuous groups[\*](#fn436-1), and +has produced, in his hands and those of Klein, results of the greatest +interest to non-Euclidean Geometry. But since, in most spaces, it is +unnecessary to take distance as indefinable, I have been able, except in +this instance of Clifford’s space[†](#fn436-2), to adopt a simpler +method of specifying spaces. For this reason, it was important to +consider briefly some such space as Clifford’s, in order to give an +instance of the use of distance, and of what geometers call motion, in +the definition of a space. + +Enough has now been said, I hope, to show that the definition of a kind +of space is always possible in purely logical terms, and that new +indefinables are not required. Not only are the actual terms composing a +space irrelevant, and only their relations important, but even the +relations do not require individual determination, but only +specification as members of certain logical classes of relations. These +logical classes are the elements used in geometrical definitions, and +these are definable in terms of the small collection of indefinables out +of which the logical calculus (including that of relations) is built up. +This result, which holds throughout pure mathematics, was the principal +object of the present chapter. + +Notes + +## CHAPTER L. +The Continuity Of Space. + +**416.** It has been commonly supposed by philosophers that the +continuity of space was something incapable of further analysis, to be +regarded as a mystery, not critically inspected by the profane +intellect. In [Part V](#part5), I asserted that Cantor’s continuity is +all that we require in dealing with space. In the present chapter, I +wish to make good this assertion, in so far as is possible without +raising the question of absolute and relative position, which I reserve +for the [next chapter](#chapter51). + +Let us begin with the continuity of projective space. We have seen that +the points of descriptive space are ordinally similar to those of a +semi-continuous portion of a projective space, namely to the ideal +points which have real correlatives. Hence the continuity of descriptive +space is of the same kind as that of projective space, and need not, +therefore, be separately considered. But metrical space will require a +new discussion. + +It is to be observed that Geometries, as they are treated now-a-days, do +not begin by assuming spaces with an infinite number of points; in fact, +space is, as Peano remarks[\*](#fn437-1), a word with which Geometry can +very easily dispense. Geometries begin by assuming a class-concept +point, together with certain axioms from which conclusions can be drawn +as to the number of points. So, in projective Geometry, we begin with +the assumption that there are at least two points, and that any two +points determine a class of points, the straight line, to which they and +at least one other point belong. Hence we have three points. We now +introduce the new assumption that there is at least one point not on any +given straight line. This gives us a fourth point, and since there must +be points on the lines joining it to our previous points, we obtain +three more points—seven in all. Hence we can obtain an infinite +denumerable series of points and lines, but we cannot, without a further +assumption, prove that there are more than three points on any one line. +Four points on a line result from the assumption that, if b and d be +harmonic with respect to a and c, then b and d are distinct. But in +order to obtain an infinite number of points on a line, we need the +further assumptions from which the projective order +results[\*](#fn438-1). These assumptions necessitate a denumerable +series of points on our line. With these, if we chose, we might be +content. Such a series of points is obtained by successive quadrilateral +constructions; and if we chose to define a space in which all points on +a line could be obtained by successive quadrilateral constructions +starting with any three points of the line, no contradiction would +emerge. Such a space would have the ordinal type of the positive +rationals and zero: the points on a line would form a compact +denumerable series with one end. The extension, introduced by assuming +that the series of points is continuous, is only necessary if our +projective space is to possess the usual metrical properties—if, that is +to say, there is to be a stretch, with one end and its straight line +given, which is to be equal to any given stretch. With only rational +points, this property (which is Euclid’s postulate of the existence of +the circle) cannot hold universally. But for pure projective purposes, +it is irrelevant whether our space possesses or does not possess this +property. The axiom of continuity itself may be stated in either of the +two following forms. (1) All points on a line are limits of series of +rational points, and all infinite series of rational points have limits; +(2) if all points of a line be divided into two classes, of which one +wholly precedes the other, then either the first class has a last term, +or the last has a first term, but both do not happen. In the first of +these ways, the continuity which results is exactly Cantor’s, but the +second, which is Dedekind’s definition, is a necessary, not a +sufficient, condition for Cantor’s continuity. Adopting this first +definition, the rational points, omitting their first term, form an +endless compact denumerable series; all points form a perfect series; +and between any two points there is a rational point, which is precisely +the ordinal definition of continuity[†](#fn438-2). Thus if a projective +space is to have continuity at all, it must have the kind of continuity +which belongs to the real numbers. + +**417.** Let us consider next the continuity of a metrical space; and, +for the sake of definiteness, let us take Euclidean space. The question +is here more difficult, for continuity is not usually introduced by an +axiom ad hoc, but appears to result, in some sense, from the axioms of +distance. It was already known to Plato that not all lengths are +commensurable, and a strict proof of this fact is contained in the tenth +book of Euclid. But this does not take us very far in the direction of +Cantor’s continuity. The gist of the assertion that not all lengths are +commensurable, together with the postulate of the circle, may be +expressed as follows. If AB, AC he two lengths along the same straight +line, it may happen that, if AB be divided into m equal parts, and AC +into n equal parts, then, however m and n may be chosen, one of the +parts of AB will not be equal to one of the parts of AC, but will be +greater for some values of m and n, and less for others; also lengths +equal to either may be taken along any given line and with any given +end-points[\*](#fn439-1). But this fact by no means proves that the +points on a line are not denumerable, since all algebraic numbers are +denumerable. Let us see, then, what our axioms allow us to infer. + +In Greek Geometry there were two great sources of irrationals, namely, +the diagonal of a square and the circumference of a circle. But there +could be no knowledge that these are irrationals of different kinds, the +one being measured by an algebraic number, the other by a transcendent +number. No general method was known for constructing any assigned +algebraic number[†](#fn439-2), still less for constructing an assigned +transcendent number. And so far as I know, such methods, except by means +of limits, are still wanting. Some algebraic and some transcendent +numbers can be constructed geometrically without the use of limits, but +the constructions are isolated, and do not follow any general plan. +Hence, for the present, it cannot be inferred from Euclid’s axioms that +space has continuity in Cantor’s sense, or that the points of space are +not denumerable. Since the introduction of analytic Geometry, some +equivalent assumption has been always tacitly made. For example, it has +been assumed that any equation which is satisfied by real values of the +variables will represent a figure in space; and it seems even to be +universally supposed that to every set of real Cartesian coordinates a +point must correspond. These assumptions were made, until quite recent +times, without any discussion at all, and apparently without any +consciousness that they were assumptions. + +When once these assumptions are recognized as such, it becomes apparent +that, here as in projective space, continuity must be introduced by an +axiom ad hoc. But as against the philosophers, we may make the following +remark. Cantor’s continuity is indubitably sufficient to satisfy all +metrical axioms, and the only question is, whether existent space need +have continuity of so high an order. In any case, if measurement is to +be theoretically possible, space must not have a greater continuity than +that of the real numbers. + +The axiom that the points on a line form a continuous series may be put +in the form which results from amending Dedekind, or in the form that a +line is a perfect series. In the first form, every section of the line +is definable by a single point, which is at one end of one of the parts +produced by the section, while the other part has no end. In the second +form, which is preferable because, unlike the first, it completely +defines the ordinal type, every infinite series of points has a limit, +and every point is a limiting point. It is not necessary to add that the +line has cohesion[\*](#fn440-1), for this results from the axioms of +Archimedes and of linearity, which are in any case essential to +measurement. Whether the axiom of continuity be true as regards our +actual space, is a question which I see no means of deciding. For any +such question must be empirical, and it would be quite impossible to +distinguish empirically what may be called a rational space from a +continuous space. But in any case there is no reason to think that space +has a higher power than that of the continuum. + +**418.** The axiom of continuity enables us to dispense with the +postulate of the circle, and to substitute for it the following pair. +(1) On any straight line there is a point whose distance from a given +point on the line is less than a given distance. (2) On any straight +line there is a point whose distance from a given point on or off the +line is greater than a given distance. From these two assumptions, +together with continuity, the existence of the circle can be proved. +Since it is not possible, conversely, to deduce continuity from the +circle, and since much of analytic Geometry might be false in a +discontinuous space, it seems a distinct advance to banish the circle +from our initial assumptions, and substitute continuity with the above +pair of axioms. + +**419.** There is thus no mystery in the continuity of space, and no +need of any notions not definable in Arithmetic. There is, however, +among most philosophers, a notion that, in space, the whole is prior to +the parts[†](#fn440-2); that although every length, area, or volume can +be divided into lengths, areas, or volumes, yet there are no +indivisibles of which such entities are composed. According to this +view, points are mere fictions, and only volumes are genuine entities. +Volumes are not to be regarded as classes of points, but as wholes +containing parts which are never simple. Some such view as this is, +indeed, often put forward as giving the very essence of what should be +called continuity. This question is distinct from the question of +absolute and relative position, which I shall discuss in the [following +chapter](#chapter51); For, if we regard position as relative, our +present question will arise again concerning continuous portions of +matter. This present question is, in fact, essentially concerned with +continuity, and may therefore be appropriately discussed here. + +The series which arise in Arithmetic, whether continuous or not, are +essentially composed of terms—integers, rationals, real numbers, etc. +And where we come near to the continuity of space, as in the case of the +real numbers, each real number is a segment or infinite class of +rationals, and no denial that a segment is composed of elements is +possible. In this case, we start from the elements and gradually +construct various infinite wholes. But in the case of space, we are +told, it is infinite wholes that are given to begin with; the elements +are only inferred, and the inference, we are assured, is very rash. This +question is in the main one of Logic. Let us see how the above view is +supported. + +Those who deny indivisible points as constituents of space have had, in +the past, two lines of argument by which to maintain their denial. They +had the difficulties of continuity and infinity, and they had the way in +which space is presented in what, according to their school, they called +intuition or sensation or perception. The difficulties of continuity and +infinity, as we saw in [Part V](#part5), are a thing of the past; hence +this line of argument is no longer open to those who deny points. As +regards the other argument, it is extremely difficult to give it a +precise form—indeed I suspect that it is impossible. We may take it as +agreed that everything spatial, of whose existence we become immediately +aware in sensation or intuition, is complex and divisible. Thus the +empirical premiss, in the investigation of space, is the existence of +divisible entities with certain properties. But here it may be well to +make a little digression into the meaning of an empirical premiss. + +**420.** An empirical premiss is a proposition which, for some reason or +for no reason, I believe, and which, we may add, is existential. Having +agreed to accept this proposition, we shall usually find, on +examination, that it is complex, and that there are one or more sets of +simpler propositions from which it may be deduced. If P be the empirical +premiss, let A be the class of sets of propositions (in their simplest +form) from which P may be deduced; and let two members of the class A be +considered equivalent when they imply one another. From the truth of P +we infer the truth of one set of the class A. If A has only one member, +that member must be true. But if there are many members of the class A, +not all equivalent, we endeavour to find some other empirical premiss +P′, implied by all sets of simple propositions of the class A′. If now +it should happen that the classes A and A′ have only one common member, +and the other members of A are inconsistent with the other members of +A′, the common member must be true. If not, we seek a new empirical +premiss P′′, and so on. This is the essence of induction[\*](#fn441-1). +The empirical premiss is not in any essential sense a premiss, but is a +proposition which we wish our deduction to arrive at. In choosing the +premisses of our deduction, we are only guided by logical simplicity and +the deducibility of our empirical premiss. + +**421.** Applying these remarks to Geometry, we see that the common +desire for self-evident axioms is entirely mistaken. This desire is due +to the belief that the Geometry of our actual space is an à priori +science, based on intuition. If this were the case, it would be properly +deducible from self-evident axioms, as Kant believed. But if we place it +along with other sciences concerning what exists, as an empirical study +based upon observation, we see that all that can be legitimately +demanded is that observed facts should follow from our premisses, and, +if possible, from no set of premisses not equivalent to those which we +assume. No one objects to the law of gravitation as being not +self-evident, and similarly, when Geometry is taken as empirical, no one +can legitimately object to the axiom of parallels—except, of course, on +the ground that, like the law of gravitation, it need only be +approximately true in order to yield observed facts. It cannot be +maintained that no premisses except those of Euclidean Geometry will +yield observed results; but others which are permissible must closely +approximate to the Euclidean premisses. And so it is with continuity: we +cannot prove that our actual space must be continuous, but we cannot +prove that it is not so, and we can prove that a continuous space would +not differ in any discoverable manner from that in which we live. + +**422.** To return from this digression: we agreed that the empirical +premisses, as regards the continuity of space, are concerned always with +divisible entities which have divisible parts. The question before us is +whether we are to infer from this that the logical premisses for the +science of existing space (i.e. the definition of existing space) may or +must be concerned with divisible entities. The question whether our +premisses must be concerned with divisible entities is fully answered, +in the negative, by actual Geometry, where, by means of indivisible +points, a space empirically indistinguishable from that in which we live +is constructed. The only reasons hitherto alleged by philosophers +against regarding this answer as satisfactory, are either such as were +derived from the difficulties of infinity and continuity, or such as +were based upon a certain logical theory of relations. The former have +been already disproved; the latter will be discussed in the [next +chapter](#chapter51). The question whether our premisses may be +concerned with divisible entities is far more difficult, and can be +answered only by means of the logical discussions of [Part II](#part2). +Whatever is complex, we then decided ([§143](#sec143)), must be composed +of simple elements; and this conclusion carries us a long way towards +the decision of our present question. But it does not quite end our +doubts. We distinguished, in [Part II](#part2), two kinds of wholes, +namely aggregates and unities. The former may be identified, at any rate +for present purposes, with classes, while the latter seem to be +indistinguishable from propositions. Aggregates consist of units from +whose addition (in the sense presupposed in Arithmetic) they result; +unities, on the contrary, are not reconstituted by the addition of their +constituents. In all unities, one term at least is either a predicated +predicate or a relating relation; in aggregates, there is no such term. +Now what is really maintained by those who deny that space is composed +of points is, I imagine, the view that space is a unity, whose +constituents do not reconstitute it. I do not mean to say that this view +is consciously held by all who make the denial in question, but that it +seems the only view which renders the said denial reasonable. + +Before discussing this opinion, it is necessary to make a distinction. +An aggregate may be an aggregate of unities, and need by no means be an +aggregate of simple terms. The question whether a space is an aggregate +of unities or of simple terms is mathematically, though not +philosophically, irrelevant; the difference of the two cases is +illustrated by the difference between an independent projective space +and the projective space defined in terms of the elements of a +descriptive space. For the present, I do not wish to discuss whether +points are unities or simple terms, but whether space is or is not an +aggregate of points. + +This question is one in which confusions are very liable to occur, and +have, I think, actually occurred among those who have denied that a +space is an aggregate. Relations are, of course, quite essential to a +space, and this has led to the belief that a space is, not only its +terms, but also the relations relating them. Here, however, it is easy +to see that, if a space be the field of a certain class of relations, +then a space is an aggregate; and if relations are essential to the +definition of a space, there must be some class of relations having a +field which is the space. The relations essential to Geometry will not +hold between two spatially divisible terms: there is no straight line +joining two volumes, and no distance between two surfaces. Thus, if a +space is to be defined by means of a class of relations, it does not +follow, as is suggested, that a space is a unity, but rather, on the +contrary, that it is an aggregate, namely the field of the said class of +relations. And against any view which starts from volumes or surfaces, +or indeed anything except points and straight lines, we may urge, with +Peano[\*](#fn443-1), that the distinction between curves, surfaces, and +volumes, is only to be effected by means of the straight line, and +requires, even then, the most elaborate developments[†](#fn443-2). There +is, therefore, no possibility of any definite Geometry without points, +no logical reason against points, and strong logical reasons in their +favour. We may therefore take it as proved that, if we are to construct +any self-consistent theory of space, we must hold space to be an +aggregate of points, and not a unity which is indefinable as a class. +Space is, in fact, essentially a class, since it cannot be defined by +enumeration of its terms, but only by means of its relation to the +class-concept point. Space is nothing but the extension of the concept +point, as the British army is the extension of the concept British +soldier; only, since the number of points is infinite, Geometry is +unable to imitate the Army-List by the issue of a Space-List. + +Space, then, is composed of points; and if analytical Geometry is to be +possible, the number of points must be either equal to, or less than, +the number of the continuum. If the number be less, some propositions of +the accepted Geometry will be false; but a space in which the number of +points is equal to the number of finite numbers, and in which the points +of a line form a series ordinally similar to the rationals, will, with +suitable axioms, be empirically indistinguishable from a continuous +space, and may be actual. Thus Arithmetic, as enlarged by Cantor, is +undoubtedly adequate to deal with Geometry; the only question is, +whether the more elaborate parts of its machinery are required. It is in +number that we become certain of the continuum; among actual existents, +so far as present evidence shows, continuity is possible, but cannot be +rendered certain and indubitable. + +Notes + +## CHAPTER LI. +Logical Arguments Against Points. + +**423.** It has been an almost universal opinion among philosophers, +ever since the time of Leibniz, that a space composed of points is +logically impossible. It is maintained that the spatial relations with +which we have been concerned do not hold between spatial points, which +essentially and timelessly have the relations which they do have, but +between material points, which are capable of motion, i.e. of a change +in their spatial relations. This is called the theory of relative +position, whereas the theory of spatial points is called the theory of +absolute position. Those who advocate relative position usually also +maintain that matter and spatial relations, on account of certain +contradictions supposed to be found in them, are not real, but belong +only to the world of appearance. This is, however, a further point, +which need not be explicitly discussed in what follows. Apart from this +point, the issue between the absolute and relative theories may be +stated as follows: The absolute theory holds that there are true +propositions in which spatial relations are asserted to hold timelessly +between certain terms, which may be called spatial points; the +relational theory holds that every true proposition asserting a spatial +relation involves a time at which this relation holds between its terms, +so that the simplest spatial propositions assert triangular relations of +a time and two terms, which may be called material points. + +The question as to which of these two theories applies to the actual +world is, like all questions concerning the actual world, in itself +irrelevant to pure mathematics[\*](#fn445-1). But the argument against +absolute position usually takes the form of maintaining that a space +composed of points is logically inadmissible, and hence issues are +raised which a philosophy of mathematics must discuss. In what follows, +I am concerned only with the question: Is a space composed of points +self-contradictory? It is true that, if this question be answered in the +negative, the sole ground for denying that such a space exists in the +actual world is removed; but this is a further point, which, being +irrelevant to our subject, will be left entirely to the sagacity of the +reader. + +**424.** The arguments against the absolute theory are, in my opinion, +one and all fallacious. They are best collected in Lotze’s Metaphysic +(§108ff.). They are there confused with arguments for the subjectivity +of space—an entirely distinct question, as should have been evident from +the fact that Kant, in the Critique, appears to have advocated the +theory of absolute position[\*](#fn446-1). Omitting arguments only +bearing on this latter point, we have the following summary of Lotze’s +arguments against absolute space. + +(1) Relations only are either (α) as presentations in a relating +consciousness, or (β) as internal states in the real elements which are +said to stand in these relations (§109). + +(2) The being of empty space is neither the being which works effects +(which belongs to a thing), nor the mere validity of a truth, nor the +fact of being presented by us. What kind of being is it then? (§109). + +(3) All points are exactly alike, yet every pair have a relation +peculiar to themselves; but being exactly like every other pair, the +relation should be the same for all pairs (§111). + +(4) The being of every point must consist in the fact that it +distinguishes itself from every other, and takes up an invariable +position relatively to every other. Hence the being of space consists in +an active mutual conditioning of its various points, which is really an +interaction (§110). + +(5) If the relations of points were a mere fact, they could be altered, +at least in thought; but this is impossible: we cannot move points or +imagine holes in space. This impossibility is easily explained by a +subjective theory (§110). + +(6) If there are real points, either (α) one point creates others in +appropriate relations to itself, or (β) it brings already existing +points into appropriate relations, which are indifferent to their +natures (§111). + +**425.** (1) All these arguments depend, at bottom, upon the first, the +dogma concerning relations. As it is of the essence of the absolute +theory to deny this dogma, I shall begin by examining it at some +length[†](#fn446-2). “All relations,” Lotze tells us, “only are as +presentations in a relating consciousness, or as internal states in the +real elements which, as we are wont to say, stand in these relations.” +This dogma Lotze regards as self-evident, as indeed he well may; for I +doubt if there is one anterior philosopher, unless it be Plato, who does +not, consciously or unconsciously, employ the dogma as an essential part +of his system. To deny it, therefore, is a somewhat hardy undertaking. +Let us, nevertheless, examine the consequences to which the dogma leads +us. + +It would seem that, if we accept the dogma, we must distinguish two kind +of relations, (α) those which are presentations in a relating +consciousness, and (β) those which are internal states of the elements +supposed to be related. These may be ultimately identical, but it will +be safer in the mean time to treat them as different. Let us begin with +those which are only presentations in a relating consciousness. These +presentations, we must suppose, are beliefs in propositions asserting +relations between the terms which appear related. For it must be allowed +that there are beliefs in such propositions, and only such beliefs seem +capable of being regarded as presentations in which relations have their +being. But these beliefs, if the relations believed to hold have no +being except in the beliefs themselves, are necessarily false. If I +believe A to be B’s father, when this is not the case, my belief is +erroneous; and if I believe A to be west of B, when westerliness in fact +exists only in my mind, I am again mistaken. Thus this first class of +relations has no validity whatever, and consists merely in a collection +of mistaken beliefs. The objects concerning which the beliefs are +entertained are as a matter of fact wholly unrelated; indeed there +cannot even be objects, for the plural implies diversity, and all +beliefs in the relation of diversity must be erroneous. There cannot +even be one object distinct from myself, since this would have to have +the relation of diversity to me, which is impossible. Thus we are +committed, so far as this class of relations goes, to a rigid monism. + +But now, what shall we say of the second class of relations, those +namely which are reducible to internal states of the apparently related +objects? It must be observed that this class of relations presupposes a +plurality of objects (two at least), and hence involves the relation of +diversity. Now we have seen that, if there be diversity, it cannot be a +relation of the first class; hence it must itself be of the second +class. That is, the mere fact that A is different from B must be +reducible to internal states of A and B. But is it not evident that, +before we can distinguish the internal states of A from those of B, we +must first distinguish A from B? i.e. A and B must be different, before +they can have different states. If it be said that A and B are precisely +similar, and are yet two, it follows even more evidently that their +diversity is not due to difference of internal states, but is prior to +it. Thus the mere admission that there are internal states of different +things destroys the theory that the essence of relations is to be found +in these states. We are thus brought back to the notion that the +apparent relations of two things consist in the internal states of one +thing, which leads us again to the rigid monism implied in the first +type of relation. + +Thus the theory of relations propounded by Lotze is, in fact, a theory +that there are no relations. This has been recognised by the most +logical adherents of the dogma—e.g. Spinoza and Mr Bradley—who have +asserted that there is only one thing, God or the Absolute, and only one +type of proposition, namely that ascribing predicates to the Absolute. +In order to meet this development of the above theory of relations, it +will be necessary to examine the doctrine of subject and predicate. + +**426.** Every proposition, true or false—so the present theory +contends—ascribes a predicate to a subject, and—what is a corollary +from the above—there is only one subject. The consequences of this +doctrine are so strange, that I cannot believe they have been realised +by those who maintain it. The theory is in fact self-contradictory. For +if the Absolute has predicates, then there are predicates; but the +proposition “there are predicates” is not one which the present theory +can admit. We cannot escape by saying that the predicates merely qualify +the Absolute; for the Absolute cannot be qualified by nothing, so that +the proposition “there are predicates” is logically prior to the +proposition “the Absolute has predicates.” Thus the theory itself +demands, as its logical prius, a proposition without a subject and a +predicate; moreover this proposition involves diversity, for even if +there be only one predicate, this must be different from the one +subject. Again, since there is a predicate, the predicate is an entity, +and its predicability of the Absolute is a relation between it and the +Absolute. Thus the very proposition which was to be non-relational turns +out to be, after all, relational, and to express a relation which +current philosophical language would describe as purely external. For +both subject and predicate are simply what they are—neither is modified +by its relation to the other. To be modified by the relation could only +be to have some other predicate, and hence we should be led into an +endless regress. In short, no relation ever modifies either of its +terms. For if it holds between A and B, then it is between A and B that +it holds, and to say that it modifies A and B is to say that it really +holds between different terms C and D. To say that two terms which are +related would be different if they were not related, is to say something +perfectly barren; for if they were different, they would be other, and +it would not be the terms in question, but a different pair, that would +be unrelated. The notion that a term can be modified arises from neglect +to observe the eternal self-identity of all terms and all logical +concepts, which alone form the constituents of +propositions[\*](#fn448-1). What is called modification consists merely +in having at one time, but not at another, some specific relation to +some other specific term; but the term which sometimes has and sometimes +has not the relation in question must be unchanged, otherwise it would +not be that term which had ceased to have the relation. + +The general objection to Lotze’s theory of relations may be thus summed +up. The theory implies that all propositions consist in the ascription +of a predicate to a subject, and that this ascription is not a relation. +The objection is, that the predicate is either something or nothing. If +nothing, it cannot be predicated, and the pretended proposition +collapses. If something, predication expresses a relation, and a +relation of the very kind which the theory was designed to avoid. Thus +in either case the theory stands condemned, and there is no reason for +regarding relations as all reducible to the subject-predicate form. + +**427.** (2) I come now to the second of Lotze’s objections to empty +space. This is again of a somewhat abstract logical character, but it is +far easier to dispose of, since it depends upon a view more or less +peculiar to Lotze. There are, it says, three and only three kinds of +being, no one of which belongs to space. These are (α) the being of +things, which consists in activity or the power to produce effects; (β) +the validity of a truth; (γ) the being which belongs to the contents of +our presentations. + +The answer to this is, that there is only one kind of being, namely, +being simpliciter, and only one kind of existence, namely, existence +simpliciter. Both being and existence, I believe, belong to empty space; +but being alone is relevant to the refutation of the relational +theory—existence belongs to the question which Lotze confounds with +the above, namely, as to the reality or subjectivity of space. It may be +well first to explain the distinction of being and existence, and then +to return to Lotze’s three kinds of being. + +Being is that which belongs to every conceivable term, to every possible +object of thought—in short to everything that can possibly occur in any +proposition, true or false, and to all such propositions themselves. +Being belongs to whatever can be counted. If A be any term that can be +counted as one, it is plain that A is something, and therefore that A +is. “A is not” must always be either false or meaningless. For if A were +nothing, it could not be said not to be; “A is not” implies that there +is a term A whose being is denied, and hence that A is. Thus unless “A +is not” be an empty sound, it must be false—whatever A may be, it +certainly is. Numbers, the Homeric gods, relations, chimeras and +four-dimensional spaces all have being, for if they were not entities of +a kind, we could make no propositions about them. Thus being is a +general attribute of everything, and to mention anything is to show that +it is. + +Existence, on the contrary, is the prerogative of some only amongst +beings. To exist is to have a specific relation to existence—a relation, +by the way, which existence itself does not have. This shows, +incidentally, the weakness of the existential theory of judgment—the +theory, that is, that every proposition is concerned with something that +exists. For if this theory were true, it would still be true that +existence itself is an entity, and it must be admitted that existence +does not exist. Thus the consideration of existence itself leads to +non-existential propositions, and so contradicts the theory. The theory +seems, in fact, to have arisen from neglect of the distinction between +existence and being. Yet this distinction is essential, if we are ever +to deny the existence of anything. For what does not exist must be +something, or it would be meaningless to deny its existence; and hence +we need the concept of being, as that which belongs even to the +non-existent. + +Returning now to Lotze’s three kinds of being, it is sufficiently +evident that his views involve hopeless confusions. + +(α) The being of things, Lotze thinks—following Leibniz here as +elsewhere—consists in activity. Now activity is a highly complex notion, +which Lotze falsely supposed unanalyzable. But at any rate it is plain +that, if there be activity, what is active must both be and exist, in +the senses explained above. It will also be conceded, I imagine, that +existence is conceptually distinguishable from activity. Activity may be +a universal mark of what exists, but can hardly be synonymous with +existence. Hence Lotze requires the highly disputable proposition that +whatever exists must be active. The true answer to this proposition lies +(1) in disproving the grounds alleged in its favour, (2) in proving that +activity implies the existence of time, which cannot be itself active. +For the moment, however, it may suffice to point out that, since +existence and activity are logically separable, the supposition that +something which is not active exists cannot be logically absurd. + +(β) The validity of a truth—which is Lotze’s second kind of being—is in +reality no kind of being at all. The phrase, in the first place, is +ill-chosen—what is meant is the truth of a truth, or rather the truth of +a proposition. Now the truth of a proposition consists in a certain +relation to truth, and presupposes the being of the proposition. And as +regards being, false propositions are on exactly the same level, since +to be false a proposition must already be. Thus validity is not a kind +of being, but being belongs to valid and invalid propositions alike. + +(γ) The being which belongs to the contents of our presentations is a +subject upon which there exists everywhere the greatest confusion. This +kind is described by Lotze as “ein Vorgestelltwerden durch uns.” Lotze +presumably holds that the mind is in some sense creative—that what it +intuits acquires, in some sense, an existence which it would not have if +it were not intuited. Some such theory is essential to every form of +Kantianism—to the belief, that is, that propositions which are believed +solely because the mind is so made that we cannot but believe them may +yet be true in virtue of our belief. But the whole theory rests, if I am +not mistaken, upon neglect of the fundamental distinction between an +idea and its object. Misled by neglect of being, people have supposed +that what does not exist is nothing. Seeing that numbers, relations, and +many other objects of thought, do not exist outside the mind, they have +supposed that the thoughts in which we think of these entities actually +create their own objects. Every one except a philosopher can see the +difference between a post and my idea of a post, but few see the +difference between the number 2 and my idea of the number 2. Yet the +distinction is as necessary in one case as in the other. The argument +that 2 is mental requires that 2 should be essentially an existent. But +in that case it would be particular, and it would be impossible for 2 to +be in two minds, or in one mind at two times. Thus 2 must be in any case +an entity, which will have being even if it is in no mind[\*](#fn451-1). +But further, there are reasons for denying that 2 is created by the +thought which thinks it. For, in this case, there could never be two +thoughts until some one thought so; hence what the person so thinking +supposed to be two thoughts would not have been two, and the opinion, +when it did arise, would be erroneous. And applying the same doctrine to +1; there cannot be one thought until some one thinks so. Hence Adam’s +first thought must have been concerned with the number 1; for not a +single thought could precede this thought. In short, all knowledge must +be recognition, on pain of being mere delusion; Arithmetic must be +discovered in just the same sense in which Columbus discovered the West +Indies, and we no more create numbers than he created the Indians. The +number 2 is not purely mental, but is an entity which may be thought of. +Whatever can be thought of has being, and its being is a precondition, +not a result, of its being thought of. As regards the existence of an +object of thought, however, nothing can be inferred from the fact of its +being thought of, since it certainly does not exist in the thought which +thinks of it. Hence, finally, no special kind of being belongs to the +objects of our presentations as such. With this conclusion, Lotze’s +second argument is disposed of. + +**428.** (3) Lotze’s third argument has been a great favourite, ever +since Leibniz introduced it. All points, we are told, are exactly alike, +and therefore any two must have the same mutual relation as any other +two; yet their mutual distances must differ, and even, according to +Lotze (though in this, in the sense in which he seems to mean it, he is +mistaken), the relation of every pair must be peculiar to that pair. +This argument will be found to depend again upon the subject-predicate +logic which we have already examined. To be exactly alike can only +mean—as in Leibniz’s Identity of Indiscernibles—not to have different +predicates. But when once it is recognised that there is no essential +distinction between subjects and predicates, it is seen that any two +simple terms simply differ immediately—they are two, and this is the +sum-total of their differences. Complex terms, it is true, have +differences which can be revealed by analysis. The constituents of the +one may be A, B, C, D, while those of the other are A, E, F, G. But the +differences of B, C, D from E, F, G are still immediate differences, and +immediate differences must be the source of all mediate differences. +Indeed it is a sheer logical error to suppose that, if there were an +ultimate distinction between subjects and predicates, subjects could be +distinguished by differences of predicates. For before two subjects can +differ as to predicates, they must already be two; and thus the +immediate diversity is prior to that obtained from diversity of +predicates. Again, two terms cannot be distinguished in the first +instance by difference of relation to other terms; for difference of +relation presupposes two distinct terms, and cannot therefore be the +ground of their distinctness. Thus if there is to be any diversity at +all, there must be immediate diversity, and this kind belongs to points. + +Again, points have also the subsequent kind of diversity consisting in +difference of relation. They differ not only, as Lotze urges, in their +relations to each other, but also in their relations to the objects in +them. Thus they seem to be in the same position as colours, sounds, or +smells. Two colours, or two simple smells, have no intrinsic difference +save immediate diversity, but have, like points, different relations to +other terms. + +Wherein, then, lies the plausibility of the notion that all points are +exactly alike? This notion is, I believe, a psychological illusion, due +to the fact that we cannot remember a point, so as to know it when we +meet it again. Among simultaneously presented points it is easy to +distinguish; but though we are perpetually moving, and thus being +brought among new points, we are quite unable to detect this fact by our +senses, and we recognise places only by the objects they contain. But +this seems to be a mere blindness on our part—there is no difficulty, so +far as I can see, in supposing an immediate difference between points, +as between colours, but a difference which our senses are not +constructed to be aware of. Let us take an analogy: Suppose a man with a +very bad memory for faces: he would be able to know, at any moment, +whether he saw one face or many, but he would not be aware whether he +had ever seen any of the faces before. Thus he might be led to define +people by the rooms in which he saw them, and to suppose it +self-contradictory that new people should come to his lectures, or old +people cease to do so. In the latter point, at least, it will be +admitted by lecturers that he would be mistaken. And as with faces, so +with points—inability to recognise them must be attributed, not to the +absence of individuality, but merely to our incapacity. + +**429.** (4) Lotze’s fourth argument is an endeavour to effect a +reductio ad absurdum, by proving that, on the absolute theory, points +must interact. The being of every point, Lotze contends, must consist in +the fact that it distinguishes itself from every other, and takes up an +invariable position relatively to every other. Many fallacies are +contained in this argument. In the first place, there is what may be +called the ratiocinator’s fallacy, which consists in supposing that +everything has to be explained by showing that it is something else. +Thus the being of a point, for Lotze, must be found in its difference +from other points, while, as a matter of fact, its being is simply its +being. So far from being explained by something else, the being of a +point is presupposed in all other propositions about it, as e.g. in the +proposition that the point differs from other points. Again, the phrase +that the point distinguishes itself from all other points seems to be +designed to imply some kind of self-assertion, as though the point would +not be different unless it chose to differ. This suggestion helps out +the conclusion, that the relations between points are in reality a form +of interaction. Lotze, believing as he does that activity is essential +to existence, is unable to imagine any other relation between existents +than that of interaction. How hopelessly inapplicable such a view is, +will appear from an analysis of interaction. Interaction is an +enormously complex notion, presupposing a host of other relations, and +involving, in its usual form, the distinction of a thing from its +qualities—a distinction dependent on the subject-predicate logic already +criticized. Interaction, to begin with, is either the simultaneous +action of A on B and B on A, or the action of the present states of A +and B conjointly on their states at the next instant. In either case it +implies action. Action generally may be defined as a causal relation +between one or more states of one or more things at the present instant +and one or more states of the same or different things at a subsequent +instant. When there is only one thing in both cases, the action is +immanent if the thing be the same in cause and effect, transient if the +cause be in one thing and the effect in another. In order to speak of +action, rather than causality simply, it is necessary to suppose things +enduring for a certain time, and having changing states. Thus the notion +of interaction presupposes the following relations: (1) diversity +between things; (2) diversity between the states of things; (3) +simultaneity; (4) succession; (5) causality; (6) the relation of a thing +to its states. This notion, involving, as a moment’s inspection shows, +six simpler relations in its analysis, is supposed to be the fundamental +relation\! No wonder absurdities are produced by such a supposition. But +the absurdities belong to Lotze, not to space. To reduce the relations +of points to interactions, on the ground that interaction is the type of +all relations, is to display a complete incapacity in the simplest +problems of analysis. The relations of points are not interactions, any +more than before and after, or diversity, or greater and less, are +interactions. They are eternal relations of entities, like the relation +of 1 to 2 or of interaction itself to causality. Points do not assign +positions to each other, as though they were each other’s pew-openers: +they eternally have the relations which they have, just like all other +entities. The whole argument, indeed, rests upon an absurd dogma, +supported by a false and scholastic logic. + +**430.** (5) The fifth argument seems to be designed to prove the +Kantian apriority of space. There are, it says, necessary propositions +concerning space, which show that the nature of space is not a “mere +fact.” We are intended to infer that space is an à priori intuition, and +a psychological reason is given why we cannot imagine holes in space. +The impossibility of holes is apparently what is called a necessity of +thought. This argument again involves much purely logical discussion. +Concerning necessities of thought, the Kantian theory seems to lead to +the curious result that whatever we cannot help believing must be false. +What we cannot help believing, in this case, is something as to the +nature of space, not as to the nature of our minds. The explanation +offered is, that there is no space outside our minds; whence it is to be +inferred that our unavoidable beliefs about space are all mistaken. +Moreover we only push one stage farther back the region of “mere fact,” +for the constitution of our minds remains still a mere fact. + +The theory of necessity urged by Kant, and adopted here by Lotze, +appears radically vicious. Everything is in a sense a mere fact. A +proposition is said to be proved when it is deduced from premisses; but +the premisses, ultimately, and the rule of inference, have to be simply +assumed. Thus any ultimate premiss is, in a certain sense, a mere fact. +On the other hand, there seems to be no true proposition of which there +is any sense in saying that it might have been false. One might as well +say that redness might have been a taste and not a colour. What is true, +is true; what is false, is false; and concerning fundamentals, there is +nothing more to be said. The only logical meaning of necessity seems to +be derived from implication. A proposition is more or less necessary +according as the class of propositions for which it is a premiss is +greater or smaller[\*](#fn454-1). In this sense the propositions of +logic have the greatest necessity, and those of geometry have a high +degree of necessity. But this sense of necessity yields no valid +argument from our inability to imagine holes in space to the conclusion +that there cannot really be any space at all except in our imaginations. + +**431.** (6) The last argument may be shortly disposed of. If points be +independent entities, Lotze argues—so I interpret him—that we can +imagine a new point coming into existence. This point, then, must have +the appropriate relations to other points. Either it creates the other +points with the relations, or it merely creates the relations to already +existing points. Now it must be allowed that, if there be real points, +it is not self-contradictory to suppose some of them non-existent. But +strictly speaking, no single proposition whatever is self-contradictory. +The nearest approach would be “No proposition is true,” since this +implies its own truth. But even here, it is not strictly +self-contradictory to deny the implication. Everywhere we come upon +propositions accepted because they are self-evident, and for no other +reason: the law of contradiction itself is such a proposition. The +mutual implication of all the points of space seems to be another; the +denial of some only among points is rejected for the same reason as the +assertion that such and such a proposition is both true and false, +namely, because both are obviously untrue. But if, per impossibile, a +point previously missing were to come into existence, it would not +create new points, but would have the appropriate relations to already +existing points. The point, in fact, would have already had being, and +as an entity would have eternally had to other points the same relations +as it has when it comes into existence. Thus Lotze’s argument on this, +as on other points, depends upon a faulty logic, and is easily met by +more correct views as to the nature of judgment. + +I conclude, from the above discussion, that absolute position is not +logically inadmissible, and that a space composed of points is not +self-contradictory. The difficulties which used to be found in the +nature of infinity depended upon adherence to one definite axiom, +namely, that a whole must have more terms than a part; those in the +nature of space, on the other hand, seem to have been derived almost +exclusively from general logic. With a subject-predicate theory of +judgment, space necessarily appears to involve contradictions; but when +once the irreducible nature of relational propositions is admitted, all +the supposed difficulties vanish like smoke[\*](#fn455-1). There is no +reason, therefore, so far as I am able to perceive, to deny the ultimate +and absolute philosophical validity of a theory of geometry which +regards space as composed of points, and not as a mere assemblage of +relations between non-spatial terms. + +Notes + +## CHAPTER LII. +Kant’s Theory of Space. + +**432.** In the present chapter I do not propose to undertake a minute +or textual examination of Kant’s opinions; this has been done elsewhere, +and notably in Vaihinger’s monumental commentary, so well that it need +not be done over again here. It is only the broad outlines of the +Kantian doctrine that I wish to discuss. This doctrine, more or less +modified, has held the field for over a century, and has won a nearly +universal acceptance. As my views are, on almost every point of +mathematical theory, diametrically opposed to those of Kant, it becomes +necessary explicitly to defend the opinions in which I differ from +him[\*](#fn456-1). In this I shall pay special attention to what Kant +calls the transcendental arguments, i.e. those derived from the nature +of mathematics. + +**433.** Broadly speaking, the way in which Kant seeks to deduce his +theory of space from mathematics (especially in the Prolegomena) is as +follows. Starting from the question: “How is pure mathematics possible?” +Kant first points out that all the propositions of mathematics are +synthetic. He infers hence that these propositions cannot, as Leibniz +had hoped, be proved by means of a logical calculus; on the contrary, +they require, he says, certain synthetic à priori propositions, which +may be called axioms, and even then (it would seem) the reasoning +employed in deductions from the axioms is different from that of pure +logic. Now Kant was not willing to admit that knowledge of the external +world could be obtained otherwise than by experience; hence he concluded +that the propositions of mathematics all deal with something subjective, +which he calls a form of intuition. Of these forms there are two, space +and time; time is the source of Arithmetic, space of Geometry. It is +only in the forms of time and space that objects can be experienced by a +subject; and thus pure mathematics must be applicable to all experience. +What is essential, from the logical point of view, is, that the à priori +intuitions supply methods of reasoning and inference which formal logic +does not admit; and these methods, we are told, make the figure (which +may of course be merely imagined) essential to all geometrical proofs. +The opinion that time and space are subjective is reinforced by the +antinomies, where Kant endeavours to prove that, if they be anything +more than forms of experience, they must be definitely +self-contradictory. + +In the above outline I have omitted everything not relevant to the +philosophy of mathematics. The questions of chief importance to us, as +regards the Kantian theory, are two, namely, (1) are the reasonings in +mathematics in any way different from those of Formal Logic? (2) are +there any contradictions in the notions of time and space? If these two +pillars of the Kantian edifice can be pulled down, we shall have +successfully played the part of Samson towards his disciples. + +**434.** The question of the nature of mathematical reasoning was +obscured in Kant’s day by several causes. In the first place, Kant never +doubted for a moment that the propositions of logic are analytic, +whereas he rightly perceived that those of mathematics are synthetic. It +has since appeared that logic is just as synthetic as all other kinds of +truth; but this is a purely philosophical question, which I shall here +pass by[\*](#fn457-1). In the second place, formal logic was, in Kant’s +day, in a very much more backward state than at present. It was still +possible to hold, as Kant did, that no great advance had been made since +Aristotle, and that none, therefore, was likely to occur in the future. +The syllogism still remained the one type of formally correct reasoning; +and the syllogism was certainly inadequate for mathematics. But now, +thanks mainly to the mathematical logicians, formal logic is enriched by +several forms of reasoning not reducible to the syllogism[†](#fn457-2), +and by means of these all mathematics can be, and large parts of +mathematics actually have been, developed strictly according to the +rules. In the third place, in Kant’s day, mathematics itself was, +logically, very inferior to what it is now. It is perfectly true, for +example, that any one who attempts, without the use of the figure, to +deduce Euclid’s seventh proposition from Euclid’s axioms, will find the +task impossible; and there probably did not exist, in the eighteenth +century, any single logically correct piece of mathematical reasoning, +that is to say, any reasoning which correctly deduced its result from +the explicit premisses laid down by the author. Since the correctness of +the result seemed indubitable, it was natural to suppose that +mathematical proof was something different from logical proof. But the +fact is, that the whole difference lay in the fact that mathematical +proofs were simply unsound. On closer examination, it has been found +that many of the propositions which, to Kant, were undoubted truths, are +as a matter of fact demonstrably false[\*](#fn458-1). A still larger +class of propositions—for instance, Euclid’s seventh proposition +mentioned above—can be rigidly deduced from certain premisses, but it is +quite doubtful whether the premisses themselves are true or false. Thus +the supposed peculiarity of mathematical reasoning has disappeared. + +The belief that the reasonings of Geometry are in any way peculiar has +been, I hope, sufficiently refuted already by the detailed accounts +which have been given of these reasonings, and especially by [Chapter +xlix](#chapter49). We have seen that all geometrical results follow, by +the mere rules of logic, from the definitions of the various spaces. And +as regards the opinion that Arithmetic depends upon time, this too, I +hope, has been answered by our accounts of the relation of Arithmetic to +Logic. Indeed, apart from any detail, it seems to be refuted by the +simple observation that time must have parts, and therefore plurality, +whole and part, are prior to any theory of time. All mathematics, we may +say—and in proof of our assertion we have the actual development of the +subject—is deducible from the primitive propositions of formal logic: +these being admitted, no further assumptions are required. + +But admitting the reasonings of Geometry to be purely formal, a Kantian +may still maintain that an à priori intuition assures him that the +definition of three-dimensional Euclidean space, alone among the +definitions of possible spaces, is the definition of an existent, or at +any rate of an entity having some relation to existents which other +spaces do not have. This opinion is, strictly speaking, irrelevant to +the philosophy of mathematics, since mathematics is throughout +indifferent to the question whether its entities exist. Kant thought +that the actual reasoning of mathematics was different from that of +logic; the suggested emendation drops this opinion, and maintains merely +a new primitive proposition, to the effect that Euclidean space is that +of the actual world. Thus, although I do not believe in any immediate +intuition guaranteeing any such primitive proposition, I shall not +undertake the refutation of this opinion. It is enough, for my purpose, +to have shown that no such intuition is relevant in any strictly +mathematical proposition. + +**435.** It remains to discuss the mathematical antinomies. These are +concerned with infinity and continuity, which Kant supposed to be +specially spatio-temporal. We have already seen that this view is +mistaken, since both occur in pure Arithmetic. We have seen also in +[Part V](#part5) (especially in [Chapter xlii](#chapter42)) that the +supposed antinomies of infinity and continuity, in their arithmetical +form, are soluble; it remains to prove the same conclusion concerning +Kant’s spatio-temporal form. The third and fourth antinomies are not +relevant here, since they involve causality; only the first two, +therefore, will be examined. + +First Antinomy. Thesis: “The world has a beginning in time, and as +regards space also is enclosed within limits.” This statement is not +concerned with pure time and pure space, but with the things in them. +The proof, such as it is, applies in the first instance to time only, +and is effected by reductio ad absurdum. “For assume,” it says, “that +the world has no beginning in time, then an eternity has passed away +(abgelaufen) before every given point of time, and consequently an +infinite series of conditions of the things in the world has happened. +But the infinity of a series consists in this, that it can never be +completed by successive synthesis. Consequently an infinite past series +of things in the world (Weltreihe) is impossible, and a beginning of the +world is a necessary condition of its existence, which was first to be +proved.” + +This argument is difficult to follow, and suggests a covert appeal to +causality and the supposed necessity for a first cause. Neglecting this +aspect of the argument, it would seem that, like most of the arguments +against infinity, it fails to understand the use of the class-concept +and the word any. It is supposed—so it would seem—that the events +preceding a given event ought to be definable by extension, which, if +their number is infinite, is obviously not the case. “Completion by +successive synthesis” seems roughly equivalent to enumeration, and it is +true that enumeration of an infinite series is practically impossible. +But the series may be none the less perfectly definable, as the class of +terms having a specified relation to a specified term. It then remains a +question, as with all classes, whether the class is finite or infinite; +and in the latter alternative, as we saw in [Part V](#part5), that there +is nothing self-contradictory. In fact, to elicit a contradiction, it +would be necessary to state as an axiom that every class must have a +finite number of terms—an axiom which can be refuted, and for which +there are no grounds. It seems, however, that previous events are +regarded by Kant as causes of later ones, and that the cause is supposed +to be logically prior to the effect. This, no doubt, is the reason for +speaking of conditions, and for confining the antinomy to events instead +of moments. If the cause were logically prior to the effect, this +argument would, I think, be valid; but we shall find, in [Part +VII](#part7), that cause and effect are on the same logical level. Thus +the thesis of the first antinomy, in so far as it concerns time, must be +rejected as false, and the argument concerning space, since it depends +upon that regarding time, falls also. + +Antithesis. “The world has no beginning, and no limits in space, but is +infinite both in respect of time and space.” The proof of this +proposition assumes the infinity of pure time and space, and argues that +these imply events and things to fill them. This view was rejected, as +regards space, in the [preceding chapter](#chapter51), and can be +disproved, as regards time, by precisely similar arguments; it is in any +case irrelevant to our contention, since no proof is offered that time +and space are themselves infinite. This, in fact, seems incapable of +proof, since it depends upon the merely self-evident axiom that there is +a moment before any given moment, and a point beyond any given point. +But as no converse proof is valid, we may, in this instance, regard the +self-evident as true. Whether events had a beginning, and whether matter +is bounded by empty space, are questions which, if our philosophy of +space and time be sound, no argument independent of causality can +decide. + +Second Antinomy. Thesis: “Every complex substance in the world consists +of simple parts, and nothing exists anywhere except the simple, or what +is composed of simple parts.” Here, again, the argument applies to +things in space and time, not to space and time themselves. We may +extend it to space and time, and to all collections, whether existent or +not. It is indeed obvious that the proposition, true or false, is +concerned purely with whole and part, and has no special relation to +space and time. Instead of a complex substance, we might consider the +numbers between 1 and 2, or any other definable collection. And with +this extension, the proof of the proposition must, I think, be admitted; +only that terms or concepts should be substituted for substances, and +that, instead of the argument that relations between substances are +accidental (zufällig), we should content ourselves with saying that +relations imply terms, and complexity implies relations. + +Antithesis. “No complex thing in the world consists of simple parts, and +nothing simple exists in it anywhere.” The proof of this proposition, as +of the first antithesis, assumes, what is alone really interesting, to +us, the corresponding property of space. “Space,” Kant says, “does not +consist of simple parts, but of spaces.” This dogma is regarded as +self-evident, though all employment of points shows that it is not +universally accepted. It appears to me that the argument of the thesis, +extended as I have just suggested, applies to pure space as to any other +collection, and demonstrates the existence of simple points which +compose space. As the dogma is not argued, we can only conjecture the +grounds upon which it is held. The usual argument from infinite division +is probably what influenced Kant. However many parts we divide a space +into, these parts are still spaces, not points. But however many parts +we divide the stretch of ratios between 1 and 2 into, the parts are +still stretches, not single numbers. Thus the argument against points +proves that there are no numbers, and will equally prove that there are +no colours or tones. All these absurdities involve a covert use of the +axiom of finitude, i.e. the axiom that, if a space does consist of +points, it must consist of some finite number of points. When once this +is denied, we may admit that no finite number of divisions of a space +will lead to points, while yet holding every space to be composed of +points. A finite space is a whole consisting of simple parts, but not of +any finite number of simple parts. Exactly the same thing is true of the +stretch between 1 and 2. Thus the antinomy is not specially spatial, and +any answer which is applicable in Arithmetic is applicable here also. +The thesis, which is an essential postulate of Logic, should be +accepted, while the antithesis should be rejected. + +Thus Kant’s antinomies do not specially involve space and time: any +other continuous series, including that of real numbers, raises the same +problems. And what is more, the properties of space and time, to which +Kant appeals, are general properties of such series. Other antinomies +than Kant’s—e.g. that concerning absolute and relative position, or +concerning the straight line as both a relation and a collection of +points—have been solved in the preceding chapters of this Part. Kant’s +antinomies, which involve the difficulties of infinity, are by far the +most serious, and these being essentially arithmetical, have been +already solved in [Part V](#part5). + +**436.** Before proceeding to matter and motion, let us briefly +recapitulate the results of this Part. Geometry, we said, is the study +of series having more than one dimension; and such series arise wherever +we have a series whose terms are series. This subject is important in +pure mathematics, because it gives us new kinds of order and new methods +of generating order. It is important in applied mathematics, because at +least one series of several dimensions exists, namely, space. We found +that the abstract logical method, based upon the logic of relations, +which had served hitherto, was still adequate, and enabled us to define +all the classes of entities which mathematicians call spaces, and to +deduce from the definitions all the propositions of the corresponding +Geometries. We found that the continuity and infinity of a space can +always be arithmetically defined, and that no new indefinables occur in +Geometry. We saw that the philosophical objections to points raised by +most philosophers are all capable of being answered by an amended logic, +and that Kant’s belief in the peculiarity of geometrical reasoning, and +in the existence of certain antinomies peculiar to space and time, has +been disproved by the modern realization of Leibniz’s universal +characteristic. Thus, although we discussed no problems specially +concerned with what actually exists, we incidentally answered all the +arguments usually alleged against the existence of an absolute space. +Since common sense affirms this existence, there seems therefore no +longer any reason for denying it; and this conclusion, we shall find, +will give us the greatest assistance in the philosophy of Dynamics. + +Notes + +# PART VII. +MATTER AND MOTION. + +## CHAPTER LIII. +Matter. + +**437.** The nature of matter, even more than that of space, has always +been regarded as a cardinal problem of philosophy. In the present work, +however, we are not concerned with the question: What is the nature of +the matter that actually exists? We are concerned merely with the +analysis of rational Dynamics considered as a branch of pure +mathematics, which introduces its subject-matter by definition, not by +observation of the actual world. Thus we are not confined to laws of +motion which are empirically verified: non-Newtonian Dynamics, like +non-Euclidean Geometry, must be as interesting to us as the orthodox +system. It is true that philosophical arguments against the reality of +matter usually endeavour to raise logical objections to the notion of +matter, and these objections, like the objections to absolute space, are +relevant to a discussion of mathematical principles. But they need not +greatly concern us at this stage, as they have mostly been dealt with +incidentally in the vindication of space. Those who have agreed that a +space composed of points is possible, will probably agree also that +matter is possible. But the question of possibility is in any case +subsequent to our immediate question, which is: What is matter? And here +matter is to mean, matter as it occurs in rational Dynamics, quite +independently of all questions as to its actual existence. + +**438.** There is—so we decided in [Part VI](#part6)—no logical +implication of other entities in space. It does not follow, merely +because there is space, that therefore there are things in it. If we are +to believe this, we must believe it on new grounds, or rather on what is +called the evidence of the senses. Thus we are here taking an entirely +new step. Among terms which appear to exist, there are, we may say, four +great classes: (1) instants, (2) points, (3) terms which occupy instants +but not points, (4) terms which occupy both points and instants. It +seems to be the fact that there are no terms which occupy points but not +instants. What is meant by occupying a point or an instant, analysis +cannot explain; this is a fundamental relation, expressed by in or at, +asymmetrical and intransitive, indefinable and simple. It is evident +that bits of matter are among the terms of (4). Matter or materiality +itself, the class-concept, is among the terms which do not exist, but +bits of matter exist both in time and in space. They do not, however, +form the whole of class (4): there are, besides, the so-called secondary +qualities, at least colours, which exist in time and space, but are not +matter. We are not called upon to decide as to the subjectivity of +secondary qualities, but at least we must agree that they differ from +matter. How, then, is matter to be defined? + +**439.** There is a well-worn traditional answer to this question. +Matter, we are told, is a substance, a thing, a subject, of which +secondary qualities are the predicates. But this traditional answer +cannot content us. The whole doctrine of subject and predicate, as we +have already had occasion to argue, is radically false, and must be +abandoned. It may be questioned whether, without it, any sense other +than that of [Chapter iv](#chapter4) can be made of the notion of thing. +We are sometimes told that things are organic unities, composed of many +parts expressing the whole and expressed in the whole. This notion is +apt to replace the older notion of substance, not, I think, to the +advantage of precise thinking. The only kind of unity to which I can +attach any precise sense—apart from the unity of the absolutely +simple—is that of a whole composed of parts. But this form of unity +cannot be what is called organic; for if the parts express the whole or +the other parts, they must be complex, and therefore themselves contain +parts: if the parts have been analyzed as far as possible, they must be +simple terms, incapable of expressing anything except themselves. A +distinction is made, in support of organic unities, between conceptual +analysis and real division into parts. What is really indivisible, we +are told, may be conceptually analyzable. This distinction, if the +conceptual analysis be regarded as subjective, seems to me wholly +inadmissible. All complexity is conceptual in the sense that it is due +to a whole capable of logical analysis, but is real in the sense that it +has no dependence upon the mind, but only upon the nature of the object. +Where the mind can distinguish elements, there must be different +elements to distinguish; though, alas\! there are often different +elements which the mind does not distinguish. The analysis of a finite +space into points is no more objective than the analysis (say) of +causality into time-sequence + ground and consequent, or of equality +into sameness of relation to a given magnitude. In every case of +analysis, there is a whole consisting of parts with relations; it is +only the nature of the parts and the relations which distinguishes +different cases. Thus the notion of an organic whole in the above sense +must be attributed to defective analysis, and cannot be used to explain +things. + +It is also said that analysis is falsification, that the complex is not +equivalent to the sum of its constituents and is changed when analyzed +into these. In this doctrine, as we saw in Parts [I](#part1) and +[II](#part2), there is a measure of truth, when what is to be analyzed +is a unity. A proposition has a certain indefinable unity, in virtue of +which it is an assertion; and this is so completely lost by analysis +that no enumeration of constituents will restore it, even though itself +be mentioned as a constituent. There is, it must be confessed, a grave +logical difficulty in this fact, for it is difficult not to believe that +a whole must be constituted by its constituents. For us, however, it is +sufficient to observe that all unities are propositions or propositional +concepts, and that consequently nothing that exists is a unity. If, +therefore, it is maintained that things are unities, we must reply that +no things exist. + +**440.** Thus no form of the notion of substance seems applicable to the +definition of matter. The question remains: How and why is matter +distinguished from the so-called secondary qualities? It cannot, I +think, be distinguished as belonging to a different logical class of +concepts; the only classes appear to be things, predicates, and +relations, and both matter and the secondary qualities belong to the +first class. Nevertheless the world of dynamics is sharply distinguished +from that of the secondary qualities, and the elementary properties of +matter are quite different from those of colours. Let us examine these +properties with a view to definition. + +The most fundamental characteristic of matter lies in the nature of its +connection with space and time. Two pieces of matter cannot occupy the +same place at the same moment, and the same piece cannot occupy two +places at the same moment, though it may occupy two moments at the same +place. That is, whatever, at a given moment, has extension, is not an +indivisible piece of matter: division of space always implies division +of any matter occupying the space, but division of time has no +corresponding implication. (These properties are commonly attributed to +matter: I do not wish to assert that they do actually belong to it.) By +these properties, matter is distinguished from whatever else is in +space. Consider colours for example: these possess impenetrability, so +that no two colours can be in the same place at the same time, but they +do not possess the other property of matter, since the same colour may +be in many places at once. Other pairs of qualities, as colour and +hardness, may also coexist in one place. On the view which regarded +matter as the subject of which qualities were attributes, one piece of +colour was distinguished from another by the matter whose attribute it +was, even when the two colours were exactly similar. I should prefer to +say that the colour is the same, and has no direct relation to the +matter in the place. The relation is indirect, and consists in +occupation of the same place. (I do not wish to decide any moot +questions as to the secondary qualities, but merely to show the +difference between the common-sense notions of these and of matter +respectively.) Thus impenetrability and its converse seem to +characterize matter sufficiently to distinguish it from whatever else +exists in space. Two pieces of matter cannot occupy the same place and +the same time, and one piece of matter cannot occupy two places at the +same time. But the latter property must be understood of a simple piece +of matter, one which is incapable of analysis or division. + +Other properties of matter flow from the nature of motion. Every piece +of matter persists through time: if it exists once, it would seem that +it must always exist. It either retains its spatial position, or changes +it continuously, so that its positions at various times form a +continuous series in space. Both these properties require considerable +discussion, which will follow at a later stage. They are purely +kinematical, i.e. they involve none of the so-called laws of motion, but +only the nature of motion itself. + +A controversy has always existed, since early Greek times, as to the +possibility of a vacuum. The question whether there is a vacuum cannot, +I think, be decided on philosophical grounds, i.e. no decision is +possible from the nature of matter or of motion. The answer belongs +properly to Science, and therefore none will be suggested here. + +We may sum up the nature of matter as follows. Material unit is a +class-concept, applicable to whatever has the following characteristics: +(1) A simple material unit occupies a spatial point at any moment; two +units cannot occupy the same point at the same moment, and one cannot +occupy two points at the same moment. (2) Every material unit persists +through time; its positions in space at any two moments may be the same +or different; but if different, the positions at times intermediate +between the two chosen must form a continuous series. (3) Two material +units differ in the same immediate manner as two points or two colours; +they agree in having the relation of inclusion in a class to the general +concept matter, or rather to the general concept material unit. Matter +itself seems to be a collective name for all pieces of matter, as space +for all points and time for all instants. It is thus the peculiar +relation to space and time which distinguishes matter from other +qualities, and not any logical difference such as that of subject and +predicate, or substance and attribute. + +**441.** We can now attempt an abstract logical statement of what +rational Dynamics requires its matter to be. In the first place, time +and space may be replaced by a one-dimensional and n-dimensional series +respectively. Next, it is plain that the only relevant function of a +material point is to establish a correlation between all moments of time +and some points of space, and that this correlation is many-one. So soon +as the correlation is given, the actual material point ceases to have +any importance. Thus we may replace a material point by a many-one +relation whose domain is a certain one-dimensional series, and whose +converse domain is contained in a certain three-dimensional series. To +obtain a material universe, so far as kinematical considerations go, we +have only to consider a class of such relations subject to the condition +that the logical product of any two relations of the class is to be +null. This condition insures impenetrability. If we add that the +one-dimensional and the three-dimensional series are to be both +continuous, and that each many-one relation is to define a continuous +function, we have all the kinematical conditions for a system of +material particles, generalized and expressed in terms of logical +constants. + +## CHAPTER LIV. +Motion. + +**442.** Much has been written concerning the laws of motion, the +possibility of dispensing with Causality in Dynamics, the relativity of +motion, and other kindred questions. But there are several preliminary +questions, of great difficulty and importance, concerning which little +has been said. Yet these questions, speaking logically, must be settled +before the more complex problems usually discussed can be attacked with +any hope of success. Most of the relevant modern philosophical +literature will illustrate the truth of these remarks: the theories +suggested usually repose on a common dogmatic basis, and can be easily +seen to be unsatisfactory. So long as an author confines himself to +demolishing his opponents, he is irrefutable; when he constructs his own +theory, he exposes himself, as a rule, to a similar demolition by the +next author. Under these circumstances, we must seek some different +path, whose by-ways remain unexplained. “Back to Newton” is the +watchword of reform in this matter. Newton’s scholium to the definitions +contains arguments which are unrefuted, and so far as I know, +irrefutable: they have been before the world two hundred years, and it +is time they were refuted or accepted. Being unequal to the former, I +have adopted the latter alternative. + +The concept of motion is logically subsequent to that of occupying a +place at a time, and also to that of change. Motion is the occupation, +by one entity, of a continuous series of places at a continuous series +of times. Change is the difference, in respect of truth or falsehood, +between a proposition concerning an entity and a time T and a +proposition concerning the same entity and another time T′, provided +that the two propositions differ only by the fact that T occurs in the +one where T′ occurs in the other. Change is continuous when the +propositions of the above kind form a continuous series correlated with +a continuous series of moments. Change thus always involves (1) a fixed +entity, (2) a three-cornered relation between this entity, another +entity, and some but not all, of the moments of time. This is its bare +minimum. Mere existence at some but not all moments constitutes change +on this definition. Consider pleasure, for example. This, we know, +exists at some moments, and we may suppose that there are moments when +it does not exist. Thus there is a relation between pleasure, existence, +and some moments, which does not subsist between pleasure, existence, +and other moments. According to the definition, therefore, pleasure +changes in passing from existence to non-existence or vice versâ. This +shows that the definition requires emendation, if it is to accord with +usage. Usage does not permit us to speak of change except where what +changes is an existent throughout, or is at least a class-concept one of +whose particulars always exists. Thus we should say, in the case of +pleasure, that my mind is what changes when the pleasure ceases to +exist. On the other hand, if my pleasure is of different magnitudes at +different times, we should say the pleasure changes its amount, though +we agreed in [Part III](#part3) that not pleasure, but only particular +amounts of pleasure, are capable of existence. Similarly we should say +that colour changes, meaning that there are different colours at +different times in some connection; though not colour, but only +particular shades of colour, can exist. And generally, where both the +class-concept and the particulars are simple, usage would allow us to +say, if a series of particulars exists at a continuous series of times, +that the class-concept changes. Indeed it seems better to regard this as +the only kind of change, and to regard as unchanging a term which itself +exists throughout a given period of time. But if we are to do this, we +must say that wholes consisting of existent parts do not exist, or else +that a whole cannot preserve its identity if any of its parts be +changed. The latter is the correct alternative, but some subtlety is +required to maintain it. Thus people say they change their minds: they +say that the mind changes when pleasure ceases to exist in it. If this +expression is to be correct, the mind must not be the sum of its +constituents. For if it were the sum of all its constituents throughout +time, it would be evidently unchanging; if it were the sum of its +constituents at one time, it would lose its identity as soon as a former +constituent ceased to exist or a new one began to exist. Thus if the +mind is anything, and if it can change, it must be something persistent +and constant, to which all constituents of a psychical state have one +and the same relation. Personal identity could be constituted by the +persistence of this term, to which all a person’s states (and nothing +else) would have a fixed relation. The change of mind would then consist +merely in the fact that these states are not the same at all times. + +Thus we may say that a term changes, when it has a fixed relation to a +collection of other terms, each of which exists at some part of time, +while all do not exist at exactly the same series of moments. Can we +say, with this definition, that the universe changes? The universe is a +somewhat ambiguous term: it may mean all the things that exist at a +single moment, or all the things that ever have existed or will exist, +or the common quality of whatever exists. In the two former senses it +cannot change; in the last, if it be other than existence, it can +change. Existence itself would not be held to change, though different +terms exist at different times; for existence is involved in the notion +of change as commonly employed, which applies only in virtue of the +difference between the things that exist at different times. On the +whole, then, we shall keep nearest to usage if we say that the fixed +relation, mentioned at the beginning of this paragraph, must be that of +a simple class-concept to simple particulars contained under it. + +**443.** The notion of change has been much obscured by the doctrine of +substance, by the distinction between a thing’s nature and its external +relations, and by the pre-eminence of subject-predicate propositions. It +has been supposed that a thing could, in some way, be different and yet +the same: that though predicates define a thing, yet it may have +different predicates at different times. Hence the distinction of the +essential and the accidental, and a number of other useless +distinctions, which were (I hope) employed precisely and consciously by +the scholastics, but are used vaguely and unconsciously by the moderns. +Change, in this metaphysical sense, I do not at all admit. The so-called +predicates of a term are mostly derived from relations to other terms; +change is due, ultimately, to the fact that many terms have relations to +some parts of time which they do not have to others. But every term is +eternal, timeless, and immutable; the relations it may have to parts of +time are equally immutable. It is merely the fact that different terms +are related to different times that makes the difference between what +exists at one time and what exists at another. And though a term may +cease to exist, it cannot cease to be; it is still an entity, which can +be counted as one, and concerning which some propositions are true and +others false. + +**444.** Thus the important point is the relation of terms to the times +they occupy, and to existence. Can a term occupy a time without +existing? At first sight, one is tempted to say that it can. It is hard +to deny that Waverley’s adventures occupied the time of the ’45, or that +the stories in the 1,001 Nights occupy the period of Harun al Raschid. I +should not say, with Mr Bradley, that these times are not parts of real +time; on the contrary, I should give them a definite position in the +Christian Era. But I should say that the events are not real, in the +sense that they never existed. Nevertheless, when a term exists at a +time, there is an ultimate triangular relation, not reducible to a +combination of separate relations to existence and the time +respectively. This may be shown as follows. If “A exists now” can be +analyzed into “A is now” and “A exists,” where exists is used without +any tense, we shall have to hold that “A is then” is logically possible +even if A did not exist then; for if occupation of a time be separable +from existence, a term may occupy a time at which it does not exist, +even if there are other times when it does exist. But, on the theory in +question, “A is then” and “A exists” constitute the very meaning of “A +existed then,” and therefore, when these two propositions are true, A +must have existed then. This can only be avoided by denying the +possibility of analyzing “A exists now” into a combination of two-term +relations; and hence non-existential occupation of a time, if possible +at all, is radically different from the existential kind of occupation. + +It should be observed, however, that the above discussion has a merely +philosophical interest, and is strictly irrelevant to our theme. For +existence, being a constant term, need not be mentioned, from a +mathematical point of view, in defining the moments occupied by a term. +From the mathematical point of view, change arises from the fact that +there are propositional functions which are true of some but not all +moments of time, and if these involve existence, that is a further point +with which mathematics as such need not concern itself. + +**445.** Before applying these remarks to motion, we must examine the +difficult idea of occupying a place at a time. Here again we seem to +have an irreducible triangular relation. If there is to be motion, we +must not analyze the relation into occupation of a place and occupation +of a time. For a moving particle occupies many places, and the essence +of motion lies in the fact that they are occupied at different times. If +“A is here now” were analyzable into “A is here” and “A is now,” it +would follow that “A is there then” is analyzable into “A is there” and +“A is then.” If all these propositions were independent, we could +combine them differently: we could, from “A is now” and “A is there,” +infer “A is there now,” which we know to be false, if A is a material +point. The suggested analysis is therefore inadmissible. If we are +determined to avoid a relation of three terms, we may reduce “A is here +now” to “A’s occupation of this place is now.” Thus we have a relation +between this time and a complex concept, A’s occupation of this place. +But this seems merely to substitute another equivalent proposition for +the one which it professes to explain. But mathematically, the whole +requisite conclusion is that, in relation to a given term which occupies +a place, there is a correlation between a place and a time. + +**446.** We can now consider the nature of motion, which need not, I +think, cause any great difficulty. A simple unit of matter, we agreed, +can only occupy one place at one time. Thus if A be a material point, “A +is here now” excludes “A is there now,” but not “A is here then.” Thus +any given moment has a unique relation, not direct, but viâ A, to a +single place, whose occupation by A is at the given moment; but there +need not be a unique relation of a given place to a given time, since +the occupation of the place may fill several times. A moment such that +an interval containing the given moment otherwise than as an end-point +can be assigned, at any moment within which interval A is in the same +place, is a moment when A is at rest. A moment when this cannot be done +is a moment when A is in motion, provided A occupies some place at +neighbouring moments on either side. A moment when there are such +intervals, but all have the said moment as an end-term, is one of +transition from rest to motion or vice versâ. Motion consists in the +fact that, by the occupation of a place at a time, a correlation is +established between places and times; when different times, throughout +any period however short, are correlated with different places, there is +motion; when different times, throughout some period however short, are +all correlated with the same place, there is rest. + +We may now proceed to state our doctrine of motion in abstract logical +terms, remembering that material particles are replaced by many-one +relations of all times to some places, or of all terms of a continuous +one-dimensional series t to some terms of a continuous three-dimensional +series s. Motion consists broadly in the correlation of different terms +of t with different terms of s. A relation R which has a single term of +s for its converse domain corresponds to a material particle which is at +rest throughout all time. A relation R which correlates all the terms of +t in a certain interval with a single term of s corresponds to a +material particle which is at rest throughout the interval, with the +possible exclusion of its end-terms (if any), which may be terms of +transition between rest and motion. A time of momentary rest is given by +any term for which the differential coefficient of the motion is zero. +The motion is continuous if the correlating relation R defines a +continuous function. It is to be taken as part of the definition of +motion that it is continuous, and that further it has first and second +differential coefficients. This is an entirely new assumption, having no +kind of necessity, but serving merely the purpose of giving a subject +akin to rational Dynamics. + +**447.** It is to be observed that, in consequence of the denial of the +infinitesimal, and in consequence of the allied purely technical view of +the derivative of a function, we must entirely reject the notion of a +state of motion. Motion consists merely in the occupation of different +places at different times, subject to continuity as explained in [Part +V](#part5). There is no transition from place to place, no consecutive +moment or consecutive position, no such thing as velocity except in the +sense of a real number which is the limit of a certain set of quotients. +The rejection of velocity and acceleration as physical facts (i.e. as +properties belonging at each instant to a moving point, and not merely +real numbers expressing limits of certain ratios) involves, as we shall +see, some difficulties in the statement of the laws of motion; but the +reform introduced by Weierstrass in the infinitesimal calculus has +rendered this rejection imperative. + +## CHAPTER LV. +Causality. + +**448.** A great controversy has existed in recent times, among those +who are interested in the principles of Dynamics, on the question +whether the notion of causality occurs in the subject or not. +Kirchoff[\*](#fn474-1) and Mach, and, in our own country, Karl Pearson, +have upheld the view that Dynamics is purely descriptive, while those +who adhere to the more traditional opinion maintain that it not merely +registers sequences, but discovers causal connections. This controversy +is discussed in a very interesting manner in Professor James Ward’s +Naturalism and Agnosticism, in which the descriptive theory is used to +prove that Dynamics cannot give metaphysical truths about the real +world. But I do not find, either in Professor Ward’s book or elsewhere, +a very clear statement of the issue between the two schools. The +practical mathematical form of the question arises as regards force, and +in this form, there can be no doubt that the descriptive school are in +the right: the notion of force is one which ought not to be introduced +into the principles of Dynamics. The reasons for this assertion are +quite conclusive. Force is the supposed cause of acceleration: many +forces are supposed to concur in producing a resultant acceleration. Now +an acceleration, as was pointed out at the end of the [preceding +chapter](#chapter54), is a mere mathematical fiction, a number, not a +physical fact; and a component acceleration is doubly a fiction, for, +like the component of any other vector sum, it is not part of the +resultant, which alone could be supposed to exist. Hence a force, if it +be a cause, is the cause of an effect which never takes place. But this +conclusion does not suffice to show that causality never occurs in +Dynamics. If the descriptive theory were strictly correct, inferences +from what occurs at some times to what occurs at others would be +impossible. Such inferences must involve a relation of implication +between events at different times, and any such relation is in a general +sense causal. What does appear to be the case is, that the only +causality occurring in Dynamics requires the whole configuration of the +material world as a datum, and does not yield relations of particulars +to particulars, such as are usually called causal. In this respect, +there is a difficulty in interpreting such seeming causation of +particulars by particulars as appears, for example, in the law of +gravitation. On account of this difficulty, it will be necessary to +treat causation at some length, examining first the meaning to be +assigned to the causation of particulars by particulars as commonly +understood, then the meaning of causality which is essential to rational +Dynamics, and finally the difficulty as regards component acceleration. + +**449.** The first subject of the present chapter is the logical nature +of causal propositions. In this subject there is a considerable +difficulty, due to the fact that temporal succession is not a relation +between events directly, but only between moments[\*](#fn475-1). If two +events could be successive, we could regard causation as a relation of +succession holding between two events without regard to the time at +which they occur. If “A precedes B” (where A and B are actual or +possible temporal existents) be a true proposition, involving no +reference to any actual part of time, but only to temporal succession, +then we say A causes B. The law of causality would then consist in +asserting that, among the things which actually precede a given +particular existent B now, there is always one series of events at +successive moments which would necessarily have preceded B then, just as +well as B now; the temporal relations of B to the terms of this series +may then be abstracted from all particular times, and asserted per se. + +Such would have been the account of causality, if we had admitted that +events can be successive. But as we have denied this, we require a +different and more complicated theory. As a preliminary, let us examine +some characteristics of the causal relation. + +A causal relation between two events, whatever its nature may be, +certainly involves no reference to constant particular parts of time. It +is impossible that we should have such a proposition as “A causes B now, +but not then.” Such a proposition would merely mean that A exists now +but not then, and therefore B will exist at a slightly subsequent +moment, though it did not exist at a time slightly subsequent to the +former time. But the causal relation itself is eternal: if A had existed +at any other time, B would have existed at the subsequent moment. Thus +“A causes B” has no reference to constant particular parts of time. + +Again, neither A nor B need ever exist, though if A should exist at any +moment, B must exist at a subsequent moment, and vice versâ. In all +Dynamics (as I shall prove later) we work with causal connections; yet, +except when applied to concrete cases, our terms are not existents. +Their non-existence is, in fact, the mark of what is called rational +Dynamics. To take another example: All deliberation and choice, all +decisions as to policies, demand the validity of causal series whose +terms do not and will not exist. For the rational choice depends upon +the construction of two causal series, only one of which can be made to +exist. Unless both were valid, the choice could have no foundation. The +rejected series consists of equally valid causal connections, but the +events connected are not to be found among existents. Thus all +statesmanship, and all rational conduct of life, is based upon the +method of the frivolous historical game, in which we discuss what the +world would be if Cleopatra’s nose had been half an inch longer. + +A causal relation, we have seen, has no essential reference to +existence, as to particular parts of time. But it has, none the less, +some kind of connection with both. If one of its terms is among +existents, so is the other; if one is non-existent, the other is also +non-existent. If one of the terms is at one moment, the other is at a +later or earlier moment. Thus if A causes B, we have also “A’s existence +implies B’s” and “A’s being at this moment implies B’s being at a +subsequent moment.” These two propositions are implied by “A causes B”; +the second, at least, also implies “A causes B,” so that we have here a +mutual implication. Whether the first also implies “A causes B,” is a +difficult question. Some people would hold that two moments of time, or +two points of space, imply each other’s existence; yet the relation +between these cannot be said to be causal. + +It would seem that whatever exists at any part of time has causal +relations. This is not a distinguishing characteristic of what exists, +since we have seen that two non-existent terms may be cause and effect. +But the absence of this characteristic distinguishes terms which cannot +exist from terms which might exist. Excluding space and time, we may +define as a possible existent any term which has a causal relation to +some other term. This definition excludes numbers, and all so-called +abstract ideas. But it admits the entities of rational Dynamics, which +might exist, though we have no reason to suppose that they do. + +If we admit (what seems undeniable) that whatever occupies any given +time is both a cause and an effect, we obtain a reason for either the +infinity or the circularity of time, and a proof that, if there are +events at any part of time, there always have been and always will be +events. If, moreover, we admit that a single existent A can be isolated +as the cause of another single existent B, which in turn causes C, then +the world consists of as many independent causal series as there are +existents at any one time. This leads to an absolute Leibnizian +monadism—a view which has always been held to be paradoxical, and to +indicate an error in the theory from which it springs. Let us, then, +return to the meaning of causality, and endeavour to avoid the paradox +of independent causal series. + +**450.** The proposition “A causes B” is, as it stands, incomplete. The +only meaning of which it seems capable is “A’s existence at any time +implies B’s existence at some future time.” It has always been customary +to suppose that cause and effect must occupy consecutive moments; but as +time is assumed to be a compact series, there cannot be any consecutive +moments, and the interval between any two moments will always be finite. +Thus in order to obtain a more complete causal proposition, we must +specify the interval between A and B. A causal connection then asserts +that the existence of A at any one time implies the existence of B after +an interval which is independent of the particular time at which A +existed. In other words, we assert: “There is an interval t such that +A’s existence at any time t1 implies B’s existence at a time t1 + t.” +This requires the measurement of time, and consequently involves either +temporal distance, or magnitude of divisibility, which last we agreed to +regard as not a notion of pure mathematics. Thus if our measure is +effected by means of distance, our proposition is capable of the +generalization which is required for a purely logical statement. + +**451.** A very difficult question remains—the question which, when the +problem is precisely stated, discriminates most clearly between monism +and monadism. Can the causal relation hold between particular events, or +does it hold only between the whole present state of the universe and +the whole subsequent state? Or can we take a middle position, and regard +one group of events now as causally connected with one group at another +time, but not with any other events at that other time? + +I will illustrate this difficulty by the case of gravitating particles. +Let there be three particles A, B, C. We say that B and C both cause +accelerations in A, and we compound these two accelerations by the +parallelogram law. But this composition is not truly addition, for the +components are not parts of the resultant. The resultant is a new term, +as simple as its components, and not by any means their sum. Thus the +effects attributed to B and C are never produced, but a third term +different from either is produced. This, we may say, is produced by B +and C together, taken as one whole. But the effect which they produce as +a whole can only be discovered by supposing each to produce a separate +effect: if this were not supposed, it would be impossible to obtain the +two accelerations whose resultant is the actual acceleration. Thus we +seem to reach an antinomy: the whole has no effect except what results +from the effects of the parts, but the effects of the parts are +non-existent. + +The examination of this difficulty will rudely shake our cherished +prejudices concerning causation. The laws of motion, we shall find, +actually contradict the received view, and demand a quite different and +far more complicated view. In Dynamics, we shall find (1) that the +causal relation holds between events at three times, not at two; (2) +that the whole state of the material universe at two of the three times +is necessary to the statement of a causal relation. In order to provide +for this conclusion, let us re-examine causality in a less conventional +spirit. + +**452.** Causality, generally, is the principle in virtue of which, from +a sufficient number of events at a sufficient number of moments, one or +more events at one or more new moments can be inferred. Let us suppose, +for example, that, by means of the principle, if we are given e1 events +at a time t1, e2 at a time t2, … en at a time tn, then we can infer en+1 +events at a time tn+1. If, then, er+1 ⪚ er, and if the times tr are +arbitrary, except that tr+1 is after tr, it follows that, from the +original data, we can infer certain events at all future times. For we +may choose e1 of the events e2, … en of the events en+1, and infer en+1 +events at a new time tn+2. Hence by means of our supposed law, inference +to future times is assured. And if, for any value of r, er+1 \> er, then +more than en+1 events can be inferred at the time tn+2, since there are +several ways of choosing er events out of er+1 events. But if for any +value of r, er+1 \> er, then inference to the past becomes in general +impossible. In order that an unambiguous inference to the past may be +possible, it is necessary that the implication should be reciprocal, +i.e. that e1 events at time t1 should be implied by e2 at t2 … en+1 at +tn+1. But some inference to the past is possible without this condition, +namely, that at time t1 there were e1 events implying, with the others +up to tn, the en+1 events at time tn+1. But even this inference soon +fails if, for any value of r, er+1 \> er, since, after inferring e1 +events at time t1, er for the next inference takes the place of er+1, +but is too small to allow the inference. Thus if unambiguous inference +to any part of time is to be possible, it is necessary and sufficient +(1) that any one of the n + 1 groups of events should be implied by the +other n groups; (2) that er = er+1 for all values of r. Since causality +demands the possibility of such inference, we may take these two +conditions as satisfied. + +Another somewhat complicated point is the following. If e1 e2 … en cause +en+1, and e2 … en+1, cause en+2 and so on, we have an independent causal +series, and a return to monadism, though the monad is now complex, being +at each moment a group of events. But this result is not necessary. It +may happen that only certain groups e1 e2 … en allow inference to en+1, +and that e2 e3 … en, en+1 is not such a group. Thus suppose e′1 e′2 … +e′n simultaneous with e1 … en, and causing e′n+1. It may be that e2 e3 +… en e′n+1 and e′2 e′3 … e′n en+1 form the next causal groups, causing +en+2 and e′n+2 respectively. In this way no independent causal series +will arise, in spite of particular causal sequences. This however +remains a mere possibility, of which, so far as I know, no instance +occurs. + +Do the general remarks on the logical nature of causal propositions +still hold good? Must we suppose the causal relation to hold directly +between the events e1 e2 … en+1, and merely to imply their temporal +succession? There are difficulties in this view. For, having recognized +that consecutive times are impossible, it has become necessary to assume +finite intervals of time between e1 and e2, e2 and e3 etc. Hence the +length of these intervals must be specified, and thus a mere reference +to events, without regard to temporal position, becomes impossible. All +we can say is, that only relative position is relevant. Given a causal +relation in which the times are tr, this relation will still be valid +for times T + tr. Thus the ultimate statement seems to be: given m +events at any moment, m other events at a moment whose distance from the +first is specified, and so on till we have n groups of events, then m +new events can be inferred at any new moment whose distance from the +first is specified, provided m and n have suitable values, and the +groups of events be suitably chosen—where, however, the values to be +assigned to m and n may depend upon the nature of the events in +question. For example, in a material system consisting of N particles, +we shall have m = N, n = 2. Here m depends upon the nature of the +material system in question. What circumstances obtain in Psychology, it +is as yet impossible to say, since psychologists have failed to +establish any strict causal laws. + +Thus rational Dynamics assume that, in an independent material system, +the configurations at any two moments imply the configuration at any +other moment. This statement is capable of translation into the language +of pure mathematics, as we shall see in the [next chapter](#chapter56). +But it remains a question what we are to say concerning such causation +of particulars by particulars as appears to be involved in such +principles as the law of gravitation. But this discussion must be +postponed until we have examined the so-called laws of motion. + +Notes + +## CHAPTER LVI. +Definition of a Dynamical World. + +**453.** Before proceeding to the laws of motion, which introduce new +complications of which some are difficult to express in terms of pure +mathematics, I wish briefly to define in logical language the dynamical +world as it results from previous chapters. + +Let t be a one-dimensional continuous series, s a three-dimensional +continuous series, which we will not assume to be Euclidean as yet. If R +be a many-one relation whose domain is t and whose converse domain is +contained in s, then R defines a motion of a material particle. The +indestructibility and ingenerability of matter are expressed in the fact +that R has the whole of t for its field. Let us assume further that R +defines a continuous function in s. + +In order to define the motions of a material system, it is only +necessary to consider a class of relations having the properties +assigned above to R, and such that the logical product of any two of +them is null. This last condition expresses impenetrability. For it +asserts that no two of our relations relate the same moment to the same +point, i.e. no two particles can be at the same place at the same time. +A set of relations fulfilling these conditions will be called a class of +kinematical motions. + +With these conditions, we have all that kinematics requires for the +definition of matter; and if the descriptive school were wholly in the +right, our definition would not add the new condition which takes us +from kinematics to kinetics. Nevertheless this condition is essential to +inference from events at one time to events at another, without which +Dynamics would lose its distinctive feature. + +**454.** A generalized form of the statement of causality which we +require is the following: A class of kinetic motions is a class of +kinematical motions such that, given the relata of the various component +relations at n given times, the relata at all times are determinate. In +ordinary Dynamics we have n = 2, and this assumption may be made without +the loss of any interesting generality. Our assertion then amounts to +saying that there is a certain specific many-one relation which holds +between any two configurations and their times and any third time, as +referent, and the configuration at the third time as relatum; in +ordinary language, given two configurations at two given times, the +configuration at any other time is determinate. Formally, the principle +of causality in this form may be stated as follows. If R be a relation +which is any one of our motions, and t any time, let Rt be the relation +holding only between t and the term to which t has the relation R. If K +be the whole class of motions, let Kt be the whole class of such terms +as Rt. Then Kt expresses the configuration of the system at the time t. +Now let t′, t′′ be any other two times. Then K is a class of kinetic +motions if there is a many-one relation S, the same for any three times, +which holds between the class whose terms are t, t′, t′′, Kt, Kt′, as +referent and the configuration Kt′′ as relatum. + +The particular causal laws of the particular universe considered are +given when S is given, and vice versâ[\*](#fn481-1). We may treat of a +whole set of universes agreeing in having the same S, i.e. the same +causal laws, and differing only in respect of the distribution of +matter, i.e. the class K. This is the ordinary procedure of rational +Dynamics, which commonly defines its S in the way believed to apply to +the actual world, and uses its liberty only to imagine different +material systems. + +It will be observed that, owing to the rejection of the infinitesimal, +it is necessary to give an integrated form to our general law of +causality. We cannot introduce velocities and accelerations into +statements of general principles, though they become necessary as soon +as we descend to the laws of motion. A large part of Newton’s laws, as +we shall see in the [next chapter](#chapter57), is contained in the +above definition, but the third law introduces a radical novelty, and +gives rise to the difficulty as to the causation of particulars by +particulars, which we have mentioned but not yet examined. + +Notes + +## CHAPTER LVII. +Newton’s Laws of Motion. + +**455.** The present chapter will adopt, for the moment, a naïve +attitude towards Newton’s Laws. It will not examine whether they really +hold, or whether there are other really ultimate laws applying to the +ether; its problem is merely to give those laws a meaning. + +The first thing to be remembered is—what physicists now-a-days will +scarcely deny—that force is a mathematical fiction, not a physical +entity. The second point is that, in virtue of the philosophy of the +calculus, acceleration is a mere mathematical limit, and does not itself +express a definite state of an accelerated particle. It may be +remembered that, in discussing derivatives, we inquired whether it was +possible to regard them otherwise than as limits—whether, in fact, they +could be treated as themselves fractions. This we found impossible. In +this conclusion there was nothing new, but its application in Dynamics +will yield much that is distinctly new. It has been customary to regard +velocity and acceleration as physical facts, and thus to regard the laws +of motion as connecting configuration and acceleration. This, however, +as an ultimate account, is forbidden to us. It becomes necessary to seek +a more integrated form for the laws of motion, and this form, as is +evident, must be one connecting three configurations. + +**456.** The first law of motion is regarded sometimes as a definition +of equal times. This view is radically absurd. In the first place, equal +times have no definition except as times whose magnitude is the same. In +the second place, unless the first law told us when there is no +acceleration (which it does not do), it would not enable us to discover +what motions are uniform. In the third place, if it is always +significant to say that a given motion is uniform, there can be no +motion by which uniformity is defined. In the fourth place, science +holds that no motion occurring in nature is uniform; hence there must be +a meaning of uniformity independent of all actual motions—and this +definition is, the description of equal absolute distances in equal +absolute times. + +The first law, in Newton’s form, asserts that velocity is unchanged in +the absence of causal action from some other piece of matter. As it +stands, this law is wholly confused. It tells us nothing as to how we +are to discover causal action, or as to the circumstances under which +causal action occurs. But an important meaning may be found for it, by +remembering that velocity is a fiction, and that the only events that +occur in any material system are the various positions of its various +particles. If we then assume (as all the laws of motion tacitly do) that +there is to be some relation between different configurations, the law +tells us that such a relation can only hold between three +configurations, not between two. For two configurations are required for +velocity, and another for change of velocity, which is what the law +asserts to be relevant. Thus in any dynamical system, when the special +laws (other than the laws of motion) which regulate that system are +specified, the configuration at any given time can be inferred when two +configurations at two given times are known. + +**457.** The second and third laws introduce the new idea of mass; the +third also gives one respect in which acceleration depends upon +configuration. + +The second law as it stands is worthless. For we know nothing about the +impressed force except that it produces change of motion, and thus the +law might seem to be a mere tautology. But by relating the impressed +force to the configuration, an important law may be discovered, which is +as follows. In any material system consisting of n particles, there are +certain constant coefficients (masses) m1, m2, … mn to be associated +with these particles respectively; and when these coefficients are +considered as forming part of the configuration, then m1 multiplied by +the corresponding acceleration is a certain function of the momentary +configuration; this is the same function for all times and all +configurations. It is also a function dependent only upon the relative +positions: the same configuration in another part of space will lead to +the same accelerations. That is, if xr, yr, zr, be the coordinates of mr +at time t, we have xr = fr(t) etc., and + +m1 ẍ1 = F(m1, m2, m3, … mn, x2 − x1, x3 − x1 … xn − x1, y2 − y1, …). + +This involves the assumption that x1 = f1(r) is a function having a +second differential coefficient ẍ1; the use of the equation involves the +further assumption that ẍ1 has a first and second integral. The above, +however, is a very specialized form of the second law; in its general +form, the function F may involve other coefficients than the masses, and +velocities as well as positions. + +**458.** The third law is very interesting, and allows the analysis of F +into a vector sum of functions each depending only on m1, and one other +particle mr and their relative position. It asserts that the +acceleration of m1 is made up of component accelerations having special +reference respectively to m2, m3 … mn,; and if these components be f12, +f13, … f1n, it asserts that the acceleration of any other particle mr +has a corresponding component fr1 such that + +mrfr1 = −m1f1r. + +This law leads to the usual properties of the centre of mass. For if ẍ12 +be the x-component of f12, we have m1 ẍ12 + m2 ẍ21 = 0, and thus + +∑r ∑s mr ẍrs = 0. + +Again, the special reference of f12 to m2 can only be a reference to the +mass m2, the distance r12, and the direction of the line 12; for these +are the only intrinsic relations of the two particles. It is often +specified as part of the third law that the acceleration is in the +direction 12, and this seems worthy to be included, as specifying the +dependence of f12 upon the line 12. Thus f12, is along 12, and + +f12= φ(m1, m2, r12), f21= φ(m2, m1, −r12) andm1 φ(m1, m2, r12)= −m2 +φ(m2, m1, −r12), + +or, measuring f12 from 1 towards 2, and f21 from 2 towards 1, both will +have the same sign, and + +m1 φ(m1, m2, r12) = m2 φ(m2, m1, r12). + +Hence m1 φ(m1, m2, r12) is a symmetrical function of m1 and m2, say + +ψ(m1, m2, r12). + +Thusf12 = + +1 + +m1 + +ψ(m1, m2, r12), f21 = + +1 + +m2 + +ψ(m1, m2, r12). + +Thus the resultant acceleration of each particle is analyzable into +components depending only upon itself and one other particle; but this +analysis applies only to the statement in terms of acceleration. No such +analysis is possible when we compare, not configuration and +acceleration, but three configurations. At any moment, though the change +of distance and straight line 12 is not due to m1 and m2, alone, yet the +acceleration of m1 consists of components each of which is the same as +it would be if there were only one other particle in the field. But +where a finite time is in question this is no longer the case. The total +change in the position of m1 during a time t is not what it would have +been if m2 had first operated alone for a time t, then m3 alone and so +on. Thus we cannot speak of any total effect of m2 or of m3; and since +momentary effects are fictions, there are really no independent effects +of separate particles on m1. The statement by means of accelerations is +to be regarded as a mathematical device, not as though there really were +an actual acceleration which is caused in one particle by one other. And +thus we escape the very grave difficulty which we should otherwise have +to meet, namely, that the component accelerations, not being (in +general) parts of the resultant acceleration, would not be actual even +if we allowed that acceleration is an actual fact. + +**459.** The first two laws are completely contained in the following +statement: In any independent system; the configuration at any time is a +function of that time and of the configurations at two given times, +provided we include in configuration the masses of the various particles +composing the system. The third law adds the further fact that the +configuration can be analyzed into distances and straight lines; the +function of the configuration which represents the acceleration of any +particle is a vector-sum of functions containing only one distance, one +straight line, and two masses each—moreover, if we accept the addition +to the third law spoken of above, each of these functions is a vector +along the join of the two particles which enter into it. But for this +law, it might happen that the acceleration of m1 would involve the area +of the triangle 1 2 3, or the volume of the tetrahedron 1 2 3 4; and but +for this law, we should not have the usual properties of the centre of +mass. + +The three laws together, as now expounded, give the greater part of the +law of gravitation; this law merely tells us that, so far as gravitation +is concerned, the above function + +ψ(m1, m2, r12) = m1 m2 / r122. + +It should be remembered that nothing is known, from the laws of motion, +as to the form of ψ, and that we might have e.g. ψ = 0 if r12 \> R. If ψ +had this form, provided R were small compared to sensible distances, the +world would seem as though there were no action at a distance. + +It is to be observed that the first two laws, according to the above +analysis, merely state the general form of the law of causality +explained in [Chapter lv](#chapter55). From this it results that we +shall be able, with the assumptions commonly made as to continuity and +the existence of first and second derivatives, to determine a motion +completely when the configuration and velocities at a given instant are +given; and in particular, these data will enable us to determine the +acceleration at the given instant. The third law and the law of +gravitation together add the further properties that the momentary +accelerations depend only upon the momentary configuration, not upon the +momentary velocities, and that the resultant acceleration of any +particle is the vector-sum of components each dependent only on the +masses and distances of the given particle and one other. + +The question whether Newtonian Dynamics applies in such problems as +those of the motion of the ether is an interesting and important one; +but in so far as it deals with the truth or falsehood of the laws of +motion in relation to the actual world, it is for us irrelevant. For us, +as pure mathematicians, the laws of motion and the law of gravitation +are not properly laws at all, but parts of the definition of a certain +kind of matter. + +**460.** By the above account the view of causality which has usually +satisfied philosophers is contravened in two respects, (1) in that the +relation embodied in a causal law holds between three events, not +between two; (2) in that the causal law has the unity of a formula or +function, i.e. of a constant relation, not merely that derived from +repetition of the same cause. The first of these is necessitated by +modern theories of the infinitesimal calculus; the second was always +necessary, at least since Newton’s time. Both demand some elucidation. + +(1) The whole essence of dynamical causation is contained in the +following equation: if t1, t2 be specified times, C1, C2 the +corresponding configurations of any self-contained system, and C the +configuration at any time t, then + +C = F(C1, t1, C2, t2, t) + +(a compressed form for as many equations as C has coordinates). The form +of F depends only upon the number of particles and the dynamical laws of +the system, not upon the choice of C1 or C2. The cause must be taken to +be the two configurations C1 and C2, and the interval t2 − t1 may be any +we please. Further t may fall between t1 and t2, or before both. The +effect is any single one of the coordinates of the system at time t, or +any collection of these coordinates; but it seems better to regard each +coordinate as one effect, since each is given in one equation. Thus the +language of cause and effect has to be greatly strained to meet the +case, and seems scarcely worth preserving. The cause is two states of +the whole system, at times as far apart as we please; the effect is one +coordinate of the system at any time before, after, or between the times +in the cause. Nothing could well be more unlike the views which it has +pleased philosophers to advocate. Thus on the whole it is not worth +while preserving the word cause: it is enough to say, what is far less +misleading, that any two configurations allow us to infer any other. + +(2) The causal law regulating any system is contained in the form of F. +The law does not assert that one event A will always be followed by +another B; if A be the configuration of the system at one time, nothing +can be inferred as to that at another; the configuration might recur +without a recurrence of any configuration that formerly followed it. If +A be two configurations whose distance in time is given, then indeed our +causal law does tell us what configurations will follow them, and if A +recurred, so would its consequences. But if this were all that our +causal law told us, it would afford cold comfort, since no configuration +ever does actually recur. Moreover, we should need an infinite number of +causal laws to meet the requirements of a system which has successively +an infinite number of configurations. What our law does is to assert +that an infinite class of effects have each the same functional relation +to one of an infinite class of causes; and this is done by means of a +formula. One formula connects any three configurations, and but for this +fact continuous motions would not be amenable to causal laws, which +consist in specifications of the formula. + +**461.** I have spoken hitherto of independent systems of n particles. +It remains to examine whether any difficulties are introduced by the +fact that, in the dynamical world, there are no independent systems +short of the material universe. We have seen that no effect can be +ascribed, within a material system, to any one part of the system; the +whole system is necessary for any inference as to what will happen to +one particle. The only effect traditionally attributed to the action of +a single particle on another is a component acceleration; but (α) this +is not part of the resultant acceleration, (β) the resultant +acceleration itself is not an event, or a physical fact, but a mere +mathematical limit. Hence nothing can be attributed to particular +particles. But it may be objected that we cannot know the whole material +universe, and that, since no effect is attributable to any part as such, +we cannot consequently know anything about the effect of the whole. For +example, in calculating the motions of planets, we neglect the fixed +stars; we pretend that the solar system is the whole universe. By what +right, then, do we assume that the effects of this feigned universe in +any way resemble those of the actual universe? + +The answer to this question is found in the law of gravitation. We can +show that, if we compare the motions of a particle in a number of +universes differing only as regards the matter at a greater distance +than R, while much within this distance all of them contain much matter, +then the motion of the particle in question relatively to the matter +well within the distance R will be approximately the same in all the +universes[\*](#fn487-1). This is possible because, by the third law, a +kind of fictitious analysis into partial effects is possible. Thus we +can approximately calculate the effect of a universe of which part only +is known. We must not say that the effect of the fixed stars is +insensible, for we assume that they have no effect per se; we must say +that the effect of a universe in which they exist differs little from +that of one in which they do not exist; and this we are able to prove in +the case of gravitation. Speaking broadly, we require (recurring to our +previous function φ) that, if ε be any number, however small, there +should be some distance R such that, recurring to our previous function +φ, if dds denote differentiation in any direction, then + +dds∫∞r φ(r) dr \< ε if r \> R. + +When this condition is satisfied, the difference between the relative +accelerations of two particles within a certain region, which results +from assuming different distributions of matter at a distance greater +than R from a certain point within the region, will have an assignable +upper limit; and hence there is an upper limit to the error incurred by +pretending that there is no matter outside the space of radius R. Hence +approximation becomes possible in spite of the fact that the whole +universe is involved in the exact determination of any motion. + +The above leads to two observations of some interest. First, no law +which does not satisfy the above inequality is capable of being +practically applied or tested. The assumption that gravity varies as the +direct distance, for example, could only be tested in a finite universe. +And in all phenomena, such as those of electricity, we must assume, +where the total effect is a sum or integral, or is calculated by means +of a sum or integral, that the portion contributed to relative motions +by large values of r is small. Secondly, the denial of any partial +effect of a part is quite necessary if we are to apply our formulae to +an infinite universe in the form of integrals. For an integral is not +really an infinite sum, but the limit of a finite sum. Thus if each +particle had a partial effect, the total effect of an infinite number of +particles would not be an integral. But though an integral cannot +represent an infinite sum, there seems no reason whatever why it should +not represent the effect of a universe which has an infinite number of +parts. If there are finite volumes containing an infinite number of +particles, the notion of mass must be modified so as to apply no longer +to single particles, but to infinite classes of particles. The density +at a point will then be not the mass of that point, but the differential +coefficient, at the point, of the mass with respect to the volume. + +It should be observed that the impossibility of an independent system +short of the whole universe does not result from the laws of motion, but +from the special laws, such as that of gravitation, which the laws of +motion lead us to seek. + +**462.** The laws of motion, to conclude, have no vestige of +self-evidence; on the contrary, they contradict the form of causality +which has usually been considered evident. Whether they are ultimately +valid, or are merely approximate generalizations, must remain doubtful; +the more so as, in all their usual forms, they assume the truth of the +axiom of parallels, of which we have so far no evidence. The laws of +motion, like the axiom of parallels in regard to space, may be viewed +either as parts of a definition of a class of possible material +universes, or as empirically verified assertions concerning the actual +material universe. But in no way can they be taken as à priori truths +necessarily applicable to any possible material world. The à priori +truths involved in Dynamics are only those of logic: as a system of +deductive reasoning, Dynamics requires nothing further, while as a +science of what exists, it requires experiment and observation. Those +who have admitted a similar conclusion in Geometry are not likely to +question it here; but it is important to establish separately every +instance of the principle that knowledge as to what exists is never +derivable from general philosophical considerations, but is always and +wholly empirical. + +Notes + +## CHAPTER LVIII. +Absolute and Relative Motion. + +**463.** In the justly famous scholium to the definitions, Newton has +stated, with admirable precision, the doctrine of absolute space, time, +and motion. Not being a skilled philosopher, he was unable to give +grounds for his views, except an empirical argument derived from actual +Dynamics. Leibniz, with an unrivalled philosophical equipment, +controverted Newton’s position in his letters against +Clarke[\*](#fn489-1); and the victory, in the opinion of subsequent +philosophers, rested wholly with Leibniz. Although it would seem that +Kant, in the Transcendental Aesthetic, inclines to absolute position in +space, yet in the Metaphysische Anfangsgründe der Naturwissenschaft he +quite definitely adopts the relational view. Not only other +philosophers, but also men of science, have been nearly unanimous in +rejecting absolute motion, the latter on the ground that it is not +capable of being observed, and cannot therefore be a datum in an +empirical study. + +But a great difficulty has always remained as regards the argument from +absolute rotation, adduced by Newton himself. This argument, in spite of +a definite assertion that all motion is relative, is accepted and +endorsed by Clerk Maxwell[†](#fn489-2). It has been revived and +emphasized by Heymans[‡](#fn489-3), combated by Mach[§](#fn489-4), Karl +Pearson[‖](#fn489-5), and many others, and made part of the basis of a +general attack on Dynamics in Professor Ward’s Naturalism and +Agnosticism. Let us first state the argument in various forms, and then +examine some of the attempts to reply to it. For us, since absolute time +and space have been admitted, there is no need to avoid absolute motion, +and indeed no possibility of doing so. But if absolute motion is in any +case unavoidable, this affords a new argument in favour of the justice +of our logic, which, unlike the logic current among philosophers, admits +and even urges its possibility. + +**464.** If a bucket containing water is rotated, Newton observes, the +water will become concave and mount up the sides of the bucket. But if +the bucket be left at rest in a rotating vessel, the water will remain +level in spite of the relative rotation. Thus absolute rotation is +involved in the phenomenon in question. Similarly, from Foucault’s +pendulum and other similar experiments, the rotation of the earth can be +demonstrated, and could be demonstrated if there were no heavenly bodies +in relation to which the rotation becomes sensible. But this requires us +to admit that the earth’s rotation is absolute. Simpler instances may be +given, such as the case of two gravitating particles. If the motion +dealt with in Dynamics were wholly relative, these particles, if they +constituted the whole universe, could only move in the line joining +them, and would therefore ultimately fall into one another. But Dynamics +teaches that, if they have initially a relative velocity not in the line +joining them, they will describe conics about their common centre of +gravity as focus. And generally, if acceleration be expressed in polars, +there are terms in the acceleration which, instead of containing several +differentials, contain squares of angular velocities: these terms +require absolute angular velocity, and are inexplicable so long as +relative motion is adhered to. + +If the law of gravitation be regarded as universal, the point may be +stated as follows. The laws of motion require to be stated by reference +to what have been called kinetic axes: these are in reality axes having +no absolute acceleration and no absolute rotation. It is asserted, for +example, when the third law is combined with the notion of mass, that, +if m, m′ be the masses of two particles between which there is a force, +the component accelerations of the two particles due to this force are +in the ratio m2 : m1. But this will only be true if the accelerations +are measured relatively to axes which themselves have no acceleration. +We cannot here introduce the centre of mass, for, according to the +principle that dynamical facts must be, or be derived from, observable +data, the masses, and therefore the centre of mass, must be obtained +from the acceleration, and not vice versâ. Hence any dynamical motion, +if it is to obey the laws of motion, must be referred to axes which are +not subject to any forces. But, if the law of gravitation be accepted, +no material axes will satisfy this condition. Hence we shall have to +take spatial axes, and motions relative to these are of course absolute +motions. + +**465.** In order to avoid this conclusion, C. Neumann[\*](#fn490-1) +assumes as an essential part of the laws of motion the existence, +somewhere, of an absolutely rigid “Body Alpha,” by reference to which +all motions are to be estimated. This suggestion misses the essence of +the discussion, which is (or should be) as to the logical meaning of +dynamical propositions, not as to the way in which they are discovered. +It seems sufficiently evident that, if it is necessary to invent a fixed +body, purely hypothetical and serving no purpose except to be fixed, the +reason is that what is really relevant is a fixed place, and that the +body occupying it is irrelevant. It is true that Neumann does not incur +the vicious circle which would be involved in saying that the Body Alpha +is fixed, while all motions are relative to it; he asserts that it is +rigid, but rightly avoids any statement as to its rest or motion, which, +in his theory, would be wholly unmeaning. Nevertheless, it seems evident +that the question whether one body is at rest or in motion must have as +good a meaning as the same question concerning any other body; and this +seems sufficient to condemn Neumann’s suggested escape from absolute +motion. + +**466.** A development of Neumann’s views is undertaken by +Streintz[\*](#fn491-1), who refers motions to what he calls “fundamental +bodies” and “fundamental axes.” These are defined as bodies or axes +which do not rotate and are independent of all outside influences. +Streintz follows Kant’s Anfangsgründe in regarding it as possible to +admit absolute rotation while denying absolute translation. This is a +view which I shall discuss shortly, and which, as we shall see, though +fatal to what is desired of the relational theory, is yet logically +tenable, though Streintz does not show that it is so. But apart from +this question, two objections may be made to his theory. (1) If motion +means motion relative to fundamental bodies (and if not, their +introduction is no gain from a logical point of view), then the law of +gravitation becomes strictly meaningless if taken to be universal—a view +which seems impossible to defend. The theory requires that there should +be matter not subject to any forces, and this is denied by the law of +gravitation. The point is not so much that universal gravitation must be +true, as that it must be significant—whether true or false is an +irrelevant question. (2) We have already seen that absolute +accelerations are required even as regards translations, and that the +failure to perceive this is due to overlooking the fact that the centre +of mass is not a piece of matter, but a spatial point which is only +determined by means of accelerations. + +**467.** Somewhat similar remarks apply to Mr W. H. Macaulay’s article +on “Newton’s Theory of Kinetics[†](#fn491-2).” Mr Macaulay asserts that +the true way to state Newton’s theory (omitting points irrelevant to the +present issue) is as follows: “Axes of reference can be so chosen, and +the assignment of masses so arranged, that a certain decomposition of +the rates of change of momenta, relative to the axes, of all the +particles of the universe is possible, namely one in which the +components occur in pairs; the members of each pair belonging to two +different particles, and being opposite in direction, in the line +joining the particles, and equal in magnitude” (p. 368). Here again, a +purely logical point remains. The above statement appears +unobjectionable, but it does not show that absolute motion is +unnecessary. The axes cannot be material, for all matter is or may be +subject to forces, and therefore unsuitable for our purpose; they cannot +even be defined by any fixed geometrical relation to matter. Thus our +axes will really be spatial; and if there were no absolute space, the +suggested axes could not exist. For apart from absolute space, any axes +would have to be material or nothing. The axes can, in a sense, be +defined by relation to matter, but not by a constant geometrical +relation; and when we ask what property is changed by motion relative to +such axes, the only possible answer is that the absolute position has +changed. Thus absolute space and absolute motion are not avoided by Mr +Macaulay’s statement of Newton’s laws. + +**468.** If absolute rotation alone were in question, it would be +possible, by abandoning all that recommends the relational theory to +philosophers and men of science, to keep its logical essence intact. +What is aimed at is, to state the principles of Dynamics in terms of +sensible entities. Among these we find the metrical properties of space, +but not straight lines and planes. Collinearity and coplanarity may be +included, but if a set of collinear material points change their +straight line, there is no sensible intrinsic change. Hence all +advocates of the relational theory, when they are thorough, endeavour, +like Leibniz[\*](#fn492-1), to deduce the straight line from distance. +For this there is also the reason that the field of a given distance is +all space, whereas the field of the generating relation of a straight +line is only that straight line, whence the latter, but not the former, +makes an intrinsic distinction among the points of space, which the +relational theory seeks to avoid. Still, we might regard straight lines +as relations between material points, and absolute rotation would then +appear as change in a relation between material points, which is +logically compatible with a relational theory of space. We should have +to admit, however, that the straight line was not a sensible property of +two particles between which it was a relation; and in any case, the +necessity for absolute translational accelerations remains fatal to any +relational theory of motion. + +**469.** Mach[†](#fn492-2) has a very curious argument by which he +attempts to refute the grounds in favour of absolute rotation. He +remarks that, in the actual world, the earth rotates relating to the +fixed stars, and that the universe is not given twice over in different +shapes, but only once, and as we find it. Hence any argument that the +rotation of the earth could be inferred if there were no heavenly bodies +is futile. This argument contains the very essence of empiricism, in a +sense in which empiricism is radically opposed to the philosophy +advocated in the present work[\*](#fn493-1). The logical basis of the +argument is that all propositions are essentially concerned with actual +existents, not with entities which may or may not exist. For if, as has +been held throughout our previous discussions, the whole dynamical world +with its laws can be considered without regard to existence, then it can +be no part of the meaning of these laws to assert that the matter to +which they apply exists, and therefore they can be applied to universes +which do not exist. Apart from general arguments, it is evident that the +laws are so applied throughout rational Dynamics, and that, in all exact +calculations, the distribution of matter which is assumed is not that of +the actual world. It seems impossible to deny significance to such +calculations; and yet, if they have significance, if they contain +propositions at all, whether true or false, then it can be no necessary +part of their meaning to assert the existence of the matter to which +they are applied. This being so, the universe is given, as an entity, +not only twice, but as many times as there are possible distributions of +matter, and Mach’s argument falls to the ground. The point is important, +as illustrating a respect in which the philosophy here advocated is to +be reckoned with idealism and not with empiricism, in spite of the +contention that what exists can only be known empirically. + +Thus, to conclude: Absolute motion is essential to Dynamics, and +involves absolute space. This fact, which is a difficulty in current +philosophies, is for us a powerful confirmation of the logic upon which +our discussions have been based. + +Notes + +## CHAPTER LIX. +Hertz’s Dynamics. + +**470.** We have seen that Newton’s Laws are wholly lacking in +self-evidence—so much so, indeed, that they contradict the law of +causation in a form which has usually been held to be indubitable. We +have seen also that these laws are specially suggestive of the law of +gravitation. In order to eliminate what, in elementary Dynamics, is +specially Newtonian, from what is really essential to the subject, we +shall do well to examine some attempts to re-state the fundamental +principles in a form more applicable to such sciences as Electricity. +For this purpose the most suitable work seems to be that of +Hertz[\*](#fn494-1). + +The fundamental principles of Hertz’s theory are so simple and so +admirable that it seems worth while to expound them briefly. His object, +like that of most recent writers, is to construct a system in which +there are only three fundamental concepts, space, time, and mass. The +elimination of a fourth concept, such as force or energy, though +evidently demanded by theory, is difficult to carry out mathematically. +Hertz seems, however, to have overcome the difficulty in a satisfactory +manner. There are, in his system, three stages in the specification of a +motion. In the first stage, only the relations of space and time are +considered: this stage is purely kinematical. Matter appears here merely +as a means of establishing, through the motion of a particle, a one-one +correlation between a series of points and a series of instants. At this +stage a collection of n particles has 3n coordinates, all so far +independent: the motions which result when all are regarded as +independent are all the thinkable motions of the system. But before +coming to kinetics, Hertz introduces an intermediate stage. Without +introducing time, there are in any free material system direct relations +between space and mass, which form the geometrical connections of the +system. (These may introduce time in the sense of involving velocities, +but they are independent of time in the sense that they are expressed at +all times by the same equations, and that these do not contain the time +explicitly.) Those among thinkable motions which satisfy the equations +of connection are called possible motions. The connections among the +parts of a system are assumed further to be continuous in a certain +well-defined sense (p. 89). It then follows that they can be expressed +by homogeneous linear differential equations of the first order among +the coordinates. But now a further principle is needed to discriminate +among possible motions, and here Hertz introduces his only law of +motion, which is as follows: + +“Every free system persists in its state of rest or of uniform motion in +a straightest path.” + +This law requires some explanation. In the first place, when there are +in a system unequal particles, each is split into a number of particles +proportional to its mass. By this means all particles become equal. If +now there are n particles, their 3n coordinates are regarded as the +coordinates of a point in space of 3n dimensions. The above law then +asserts that, in a free system, the velocity of this representative +point is constant, and its path from a given point to another +neighbouring point in a given direction is that one, among the possible +paths through these two points, which has the smallest curvature. Such a +path is called a natural path, and motion in it is called a natural +motion. + +**471.** It will be seen that this system, though far simpler and more +philosophical in form than Newton’s, does not differ very greatly in +regard to the problems discussed in the [preceding chapter](#chapter58). +We still have, what we found to be the essence of the law of inertia, +the necessity for three configurations in order to obtain a causal +relation. This broad fact must reappear in every system at all +resembling ordinary Dynamics, and is exhibited in the necessity for +differential equations of the second order, which pervades all Physics. +But there is one very material difference between Hertz’s system and +Newton’s—a difference which, as Hertz points out, renders an +experimental decision between the two at least theoretically possible. +The special laws, other than the laws of motion, which regulate any +particular system, are for Newton laws concerning mutual accelerations, +such as gravitation itself. For Hertz, these special laws are all +contained in the geometrical connections of the system, and are +expressed in equations involving only velocities (v. p. 48). This is a +considerable simplification, and is shown by Hertz to be more +conformable to phenomena in all departments except where gravitation is +concerned. It is also a great simplification to have only one law of +motion, instead of Newton’s three. But for the philosopher, so long as +this law involves second differentials (which are introduced through the +curvature), it is a comparatively minor matter that the special laws of +special systems should be of the first order. + +The definition of mass as number of particles, it should be observed, is +a mere mathematical device, and is not, I think, regarded by Hertz as +anything more (v. p. 54). Not only must we allow the possibility of +incommensurable masses, but even if this difficulty were overcome, it +would still remain significant to assert that all our ultimate particles +were equal. Mass would therefore still be a variety of magnitude, only +that all particles would happen to be of the same magnitude as regards +their mass. This would not effect any theoretical simplification, and we +shall do well, therefore, to retain mass as an intensive quantity of +which a certain magnitude belongs to a certain particle, without any +implication that the particle is divisible. There is, in fact, no valid +ground for denying ultimately different masses to different particles. +The whole question is, indeed, purely empirical, and the philosopher +should, in this matter, accept passively what the physicist finds +requisite. + +With regard to ether and its relations to matter, a similar remark seems +to be applicable. Ether is, of course, matter in the philosophical +sense; but beyond this the present state of Science will scarcely permit +us to go. It should be observed, however, that in Electricity, as +elsewhere, our equations are of the second order, thus indicating that +the law of inertia, as interpreted in the [preceding +chapter](#chapter58), still holds good. This broad fact seems, indeed, +to be the chief result, for philosophy, of our discussion of dynamical +principles. + +**472.** Thus to sum up, we have two principal results: + +(1) In any independent system, there is a relation between the +configurations at three given times, which is such that, given the +configurations at two of the times, the configuration at the third time +is determinate. + +(2) There is no independent system in the actual world except the whole +material universe; but if two universes which have the same causal laws +as the actual universe differ only in regard to the matter at a great +distance from a given region, the relative motions within this region +will be approximately the same in the two universes—i.e. an upper limit +can be found for the difference between the two sets of motions. + +These two principles apply equally to the Dynamics of Newton and to that +of Hertz. When these are abandoned, other principles will give a science +having but little resemblance to received Dynamics. + +**473.** One general principle, which is commonly stated as vital to +Dynamics, deserves at least a passing mention. This is the principle +that the cause and effect are equal. Owing to pre-occupation with +quantity and ignorance of symbolic logic, it appears to have not been +perceived that this statement is equivalent to the assertion that the +implication between cause and effect is mutual. All equations, at +bottom, are logical equations, i.e. mutual implications; quantitative +equality between variables, such as cause and effect, involves a mutual +formal implication. Thus the principle in question can only be +maintained if cause and effect be placed on the same logical level, +which, with the interpretation we were compelled to give to causality, +it is no longer possible to do. Nevertheless, when one state of the +universe is given, any two others have a mutual implication; and this is +the source of the various laws of conservation which pervade Dynamics, +and give the truth underlying the supposed equality of cause and effect. + +**474.** We may now review the whole course of the arguments contained +in the present work. In [Part I](#part1), an attempt is made to analyze +the nature of deduction, and of the logical concepts involved in it. Of +these, the most puzzling is the notion of class, and from the +contradiction discussed in [Chapter x](#chapter10) (though this is +perhaps soluble by the doctrine of types[\*](#fn497-1)), it appeared +that a tenable theory as to the nature of classes is very hard to +obtain. In subsequent Parts, it was shown that existing pure mathematics +(including Geometry and Rational Dynamics) can be derived wholly from +the indefinables and indemonstrables of [Part I](#part1). In this +process, two points are specially important: the definitions and the +existence-theorems. A definition is always either the definition of a +class, or the definition of the single member of a unit class: this is a +necessary result of the plain fact that a definition can only be +effected by assigning a property of the object or objects to be defined, +i.e. by stating a propositional function which they are to satisfy. A +kind of grammar controls definitions, making it impossible e.g. to +define Euclidean Space, but possible to define the class of Euclidean +spaces. And wherever the principle of abstraction is employed, i.e. +where the object to be defined is obtained from a transitive symmetrical +relation, some class of classes will always be the object required. When +symbolic expressions are used, the requirements of what may be called +grammar become evident, and it is seen that the logical type of the +entity defined is in no way optional. + +The existence-theorems of mathematics—i.e. the proofs that the various +classes defined are not null—are almost all obtained from Arithmetic. It +may be well here to collect the more important of them. The existence of +zero is derived from the fact that the null-class is a member of it; the +existence of 1 from the fact that zero is a unit-class (for the +null-class is its only member). Hence, from the fact that, if n be a +finite number, n + 1 is the number of numbers from 0 to n (both +inclusive), the existence-theorem follows for all finite numbers. Hence, +from the class of the finite cardinal numbers themselves, follows the +existence of α0, the smallest of the infinite cardinal numbers; and from +the series of finite cardinals in order of magnitude follows the +existence of ω, the smallest of infinite ordinals. From the definition +of the rational numbers and of their order of magnitude follows the +existence of η, the type of endless compact denumerable series; thence, +from the segments of the series of rationals, the existence of the real +numbers, and of θ, the type of continuous series. The terms of the +series of well-ordered types are proved to exist from the two facts: (1) +that the number of well-ordered types from 0 to α is α + 1, (2) that if +u be a class of well-ordered types having no maximum, the series of all +types not greater than every u is itself of a type greater than every u. +From the existence of θ, by the definition of complex numbers ([Chapter +xliv](#chapter44)), we prove the existence of the class of Euclidean +spaces of any number of dimensions; thence, by the process of [Chapter +xlvi](#chapter46), we prove the existence of the class of projective +spaces, and thence, by removing the points outside a closed quadric, we +prove the existence of the class of non-Euclidean descriptive +(hyperbolic) spaces. By the methods of [Chapter xlviii](#chapter48), we +prove the existence of spaces with various metrical properties. Lastly, +by correlating some of the points of a space with all the terms of a +continuous series in the ways explained in [Chapter lvi](#chapter56), we +prove the existence of the class of dynamical worlds. Throughout this +process, no entities are employed but such as are definable in terms of +the fundamental logical constants. Thus the chain of definitions and +existence-theorems is complete, and the purely logical nature of +mathematics is established throughout. + +Notes + +# APPENDIXES + +LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS. + +Bs.Begriffsschrift. Eine der arithmetischen nachgebildete Formelsprache +des reinen Denkens. Halle a/S, 1879. Gl.Grundlagen der Arithmetik. Eine +logisch-mathematische Untersuchung über den Begriff der Zahl. Breslau, +1884. FT.Ueber formale Theorien der Arithmetik. Sitzungsberichte der +Jenaischen Gesellschaft für Medicin und Naturwissenschaft, 1885. +FuB.Function und Begriff. Vortrag gehalten in der Sitzung vom 9. Januar, +1891, der Jenaischen Gesellschaft für Medicin und Naturwissenschaft. +Jena, 1891. BuG.Ueber Begriff und Gegenstand. Vierteljahrschrift für +wiss. Phil., xvi 2 (1892). SuB.Ueber Sinn und Bedeutung. Zeitschrift für +Phil. und phil. Kritik, vol. 100 (1892). KB.Kritische Beleuchtung +einiger Punkte in E. Schröder’s Vorlesungen über die Algebra der Logik. +Archiv für syst. Phil., Vol. i (1895). BP.Ueber die Begriffsschrift des +Herrn Peano und meine eigene. Berichte der math.-physischen Classe der +Königl. Sächs. Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Leipzig (1896). +Gg.Grundgesetze der Arithmetik. Begriffsschriftlich abgeleitet. Vol. i. +Jena, 1893. Vol. ii. 1903. + +## APPENDIX A. +THE LOGICAL AND ARITHMETICAL DOCTRINES OF FREGE. + +**475.** The work of Frege, which appears to be far less known than it +deserves, contains many of the doctrines set forth in Parts [I](#part1) +and [II](#part2) of the present work, and where it differs from the +views which I have advocated, the differences demand discussion. Frege’s +work abounds in subtle distinctions, and avoids all the usual fallacies +which beset writers on Logic. His symbolism, though unfortunately so +cumbrous as to be very difficult to employ in practice, is based upon an +analysis of logical notions much more profound than Peano’s, and is +philosophically very superior to its more convenient rival. In what +follows, I shall try briefly to expound Frege’s theories on the most +important points, and to explain my grounds for differing where I do +differ. But the points of disagreement are very few and slight compared +to those of agreement. They all result from difference on three points: +(1) Frege does not think that there is a contradiction in the notion of +concepts which cannot be made logical subjects (see [§49](#sec49) +supra); (2) he thinks that, if a term a occurs in a proposition, the +proposition can always be analysed into a and an assertion about a (see +[Chapter vii](#chapter7)); (3) he is not aware of the contradiction +discussed in [Chapter x](#chapter10). These are very fundamental +matters, and it will be well here to discuss them afresh, since the +previous discussion was written in almost complete ignorance of Frege’s +work. + +Frege is compelled, as I have been, to employ common words in technical +senses which depart more or less from usage. As his departures are +frequently different from mine, a difficulty arises as regards the +translation of his terms. Some of these, to avoid confusion, I shall +leave untranslated, since every English equivalent that I can think of +has been already employed by me in a slightly different sense. + +The principal heads under which Frege’s doctrines may be discussed are +the following: (1) meaning and indication; (2) truth-values and +judgment; (3) Begriff and Gegenstand; (4) classes; (5) implication and +symbolic logic; (6) the definition of integers and the principle of +abstraction; (7) mathematical induction and the theory of progressions. +I shall deal successively with these topics. + +**476.** Meaning and indication. The distinction between meaning (Sinn) +and indication (Bedeutung)[\*](#fn502-1) is roughly, though not exactly, +equivalent to my distinction between a concept as such and what the +concept denotes ([§96](#sec96)). Frege did not possess this distinction +in the first two of the works under consideration (the Begriffsschrift +and the Grundlagen der Arithmetik); it appears first in BuG. (cf. p. +198), and is specially dealt with in SuB. Before making the distinction, +he thought that identity has to do with the names of objects (Bs. p. +13): “A is identical with B” means, he says, that the sign A and the +sign B have the same signification (Bs. p. 15)—a definition which, +verbally at least, suffers from circulariiy. But later he explains +identity in much the same way as it was explained in [§64](#sec64). +“Identity,” he says, “calls for reflection owing to questions which +attach to it and are not quite easy to answer. Is it a relation? A +relation between Gegenstände? or between names or signs of Gegenstande?” +(SuB. p. 25). We must distinguish, he says, the meaning, in which is +contained the way of being given, from what is indicated (from the +Bedeutung). Thus “the evening star” and “the morning star” have the same +indication, but not the same meaning. A word ordinarily stands for its +indication; if we wish to speak of its meaning, we must use inverted +commas or some such device (pp. 27–8). The indication of a proper name +is the object which it indicates; the presentation which goes with it is +quite subjective; between the two lies the meaning, which is not +subjective and yet is not the object (p. 30). A proper name expresses +its meaning, and indicates its indication (p. 31). + +This theory of indication is more sweeping and general than mine, as +appears from the fact that every proper name is supposed to have the two +sides. It seems to me that only such proper names as are derived from +concepts by means of the can be said to have meaning, and that such +words as John merely indicate without meaning. If one allows, as I do, +that concepts can be objects and have proper names, it seems fairly +evident that their proper names, as a rule, will indicate them without +having any distinct meaning; but the opposite view, though it leads to +an endless regress, does not appear to be logically impossible. The +further discussion of this point must be postponed until we come to +Frege’s theory of Begriffe. + +**477.** Truth-values and Judgment. The problem to be discussed under +this head is the same as the one raised in [§52](#sec52)[†](#fn502-2), +concerning the difference between asserted and unasserted propositions. +But Frege’s position on this question is more subtle than mine, and +involves a more radical analysis of judgment. His Begriffsschrift, owing +to the absence of the distinction between meaning and indication, has a +simpler theory than his later works. I shall therefore omit it from the +discussions. + +There are, we are told (Gg. p. x), three elements in judgment: (1) the +recognition of truth, (2) the Gedanke, (3) the truth-value +(Wahrheitswerth). Here the Gedanke is what I have called an unasserted +proposition—or rather, what I called by this name covers both the +Gedanke alone and the Gedanke together with its truth-value. It will be +well to have names for these two distinct notions; I shall call the +Gedanke alone a propositional concept; the truth-value of a Gedanke I +shall call an assumption[\*](#fn503-1). Formally at least, an assumption +does not require that its content should be a propositional concept: +whatever x may be, “the truth of x” is a definite notion. This means the +true if x is true, and if x is false or not a proposition it means the +false (FuB. p. 21). In like manner, according to Frege, there is “the +falsehood of x”; these are not assertions and negations of propositions, +but only assertions of truth or of falsity, i.e. negation belongs to +what is asserted, and is not the opposite of assertion[†](#fn503-2). +Thus we have first a propositional concept, next its truth or falsity as +the case may be, and finally the assertion of its truth or falsity. Thus +in a hypothetical judgment, we have a relation, not of two judgments, +but of two propositional concepts (SuB. p. 43). + +This theory is connected in a very curious way with the theory of +meaning and indication. It is held that every assumption indicates the +true or the false (which are called truth-values), while it means the +corresponding propositional concept. The assumption “22 = 4” indicates +the true, we are told, just as “22” indicates 4[‡](#fn503-3) (FuB. p. +13; SuB. p. 32). In a dependent clause, or where a name occurs (such as +Odysseus) which indicates nothing, a sentence may have no indication. +But when a sentence has a truth-value, this is its indication. Thus +every assertive sentence (Behauptungssatz) is a proper name, which +indicates the true or the false (SuB. pp. 32–4; Gg. p. 7). The sign of +judgment (Urtheilstrich) does not combine with other signs to denote an +object; a judgment indicates nothing, but asserts something. Frege has a +special symbol for judgment, which is something distinct from and +additional to the truth-value of a propositional concept (Gg. pp. 9–10). + +**478.** There are some difficulties in the above theory which it will +be well to discuss. In the first place, it seems doubtful whether the +introduction of truth-values marks any real analysis. If we consider, +say, “Caesar died,” it would seem that what is asserted is the +propositional concept “the death of Caesar,” not “the truth of the death +of Caesar.” This latter seems to be merely another propositional +concept, asserted in “the death of Caesar is true,” which is not, I +think, the same proposition as “Caesar died.” There is great difficulty +in avoiding psychological elements here, and it would seem that Frege +has allowed them to intrude in describing judgment as the recognition of +truth (Gg. p. x). The difficulty is due to the fact that there is a +psychological sense of assertion, which is what is lacking to Meinong’s +Annahmen, and that this does not run parallel with the logical sense. +Psychologically, any proposition, whether true or false, may be merely +thought of, or may be actually asserted: but for this possibility, error +would be impossible. But logically, true propositions only are asserted, +though they may occur in an unasserted form as parts of other +propositions. In “p implies q,” either or both of the propositions p, q +may be true, yet each, in this proposition, is unasserted in a logical, +and not merely in a psychological, sense. Thus assertion has a definite +place among logical notions, though there is a psychological notion of +assertion to which nothing logical corresponds. But assertion does not +seem to be a constituent of an asserted proposition, although it is, in +some sense, contained in an asserted proposition. If p is a proposition, +“p’s truth” is a concept which has being even if p is false, and thus +“p’s truth” is not the same as p asserted. Thus no concept can be +found which is equivalent to p asserted, and therefore assertion is not +a constituent in p asserted. Yet assertion is not a term to which p, +when asserted, has an external relation; for any such relation would +need to be itself asserted in order to yield what we want. Also a +difficulty arises owing to the apparent fact, which may however be +doubted, that an asserted proposition can never be part of another +proposition: thus, if this be a fact, where any statement is made about +p asserted, it is not really about p asserted, but only about the +assertion of p. This difficulty becomes serious in the case of Frege’s +one and only principle of inference (Bs. p. 9): “p is true and p implies +q; therefore q is true[\*](#fn504-1).” Here it is quite essential that +there should be three actual assertions, otherwise the assertion of +propositions deduced from asserted premisses would be impossible; yet +the three assertions together form one proposition, whose unity is shown +by the word therefore, without which q would not have been deduced, but +would have been asserted as a fresh premiss. + +It is also almost impossible, at least to me, to divorce assertion from +truth, as Frege does. An asserted proposition, it would seem, must be +the same as a true proposition. We may allow that negation belongs to +the content of a proposition (Bs. p. 4), and regard every assertion as +asserting something to be true. We shall then correlate p and not-p as +unasserted propositions, and regard “p is false” as meaning “not-p is +true.” But to divorce assertion from truth seems only possible by taking +assertion in a psychological sense. + +**479.** Frege’s theory that assumptions are proper names for the true +or the false, as the case may be, appears to me also untenable. Direct +inspection seems to show that the relation of a proposition to the true +or the false is quite different from that of (say), “the present King of +England” to Edward VII. Moreover, if Frege’s view were correct on this +point, we should have to hold that in an asserted proposition it is the +meaning, not the indication, that is asserted, for otherwise, all +asserted propositions would assert the very same thing, namely the true, +(for false propositions are not asserted). Thus asserted propositions +would not differ from one another in any way, but would be all strictly +and simply identical. Asserted propositions have no indication (FuB. p. +21), and can only differ, if at all, in some way analogous to meaning. +Thus the meaning of the unasserted proposition together with its +truth-value must be what is asserted, if the meaning simply is rejected. +But there seems no purpose in introducing the truth-value here: it seems +quite sufficient to say that an asserted proposition is one whose +meaning is true, and that to say the meaning is true is the same as to +say the meaning is asserted. We might then conclude that true +propositions, even when they occur as parts of others, are always and +essentially asserted, while false propositions are always unasserted, +thus escaping the difficulty about therefore discussed above. It may +also be objected to Frege that “the true” and “the false,” as opposed to +truth and falsehood, do not denote single definite things, but rather +the classes of true and false propositions respectively. This objection, +however, would be met by his theory of ranges, which correspond +approximately to my classes; these, he says, are things, and the true +and the false are ranges (v. inf.). + +**480.** Begriff and Gegenstand. Functions. I come now to a point in +which Frege’s work is very important, and requires careful examination. +His use of the word Begriff does not correspond exactly to any notion in +my vocabulary, though it comes very near to the notion of an assertion +as defined in [§43](#sec43), and discussed in [Chapter vii](#chapter7). +On the other hand, his Gegenstand seems to correspond exactly to what I +have called a thing ([§48](#sec48)). I shall therefore translate +Gegenstand by thing. The meaning of proper name seems to be the same for +him as for me, but he regards the range of proper names as confined to +things, because they alone, in his opinion, can be logical subjects. + +Frege’s theory of functions and Begriffe is set forth simply in FuB. and +defended against the criticisms of Kerry[\*](#fn505-1) in BuG. He +regards functions—and in this I agree with him—as more fundamental than +predicates and relations; but he adopts concerning functions the theory +of subject and assertion which we discussed and rejected in [Chapter +vii](#chapter7). The acceptance of this view gives a simplicity to his +exposition which I have been unable to attain; but I do not find +anything in his work to persuade me of the legitimacy of his analysis. + +An arithmetical function, e.g. 2x3 + x, does not denote, Frege says, the +result of an arithmetical operation, for that is merely a number, which +would be nothing new (FuB. p. 5). The essence of a function is what is +left when the x is taken away, i.e., in the above instance, 2(  )3 + +(  ). The argument x does not belong to the function, but the two +together make a whole (ib. p. 6). A function may be a proposition for +every value of the variable; its value is then always a truth-value (p. +13). A proposition may be divided into two parts, as “Caesar” and +“conquered Gaul.” The former Frege calls the argument, the latter the +function. Any thing whatever is a possible argument for a function (p. +17). (This division of propositions corresponds exactly to my subject +and assertion as explained in [§43](#sec43), but Frege does not restrict +this method of analysis as I do in [Chapter vii](#chapter7).) A thing is +anything which is not a function, i.e. whose expression leaves no empty +place. The two following accounts of the nature of a function are quoted +from the earliest and one of the latest of Frege’s works respectively. + +(1) “If in an expression, whose content need not be propositional +(beurtheilbar), a simple or composite sign occurs in one or more places, +and we regard it as replaceable, in one or more of these places, by +something else, but by the same everywhere, then we call the part of the +expression which remains invariable in this process a function, and the +replaceable part we call its argument” (Bs. p. 16). + +(2) “If from a proper name we exclude a proper name, which is part or +the whole of the first, in some or all of the places where it occurs, +but in such a way that these places remain recognizable as to be filled +by one and the same arbitrary proper name (as argument positions of the +first kind), I call what we thereby obtain the name of a function of the +first order with one argument. Such a name, together with a proper name +which fills the argument-places, forms a proper name” (Gg. p. 44). + +The latter definition may become plainer by the help of some examples. +“The present king of England” is, according to Frege, a proper name, +and “England” is a proper name which is part of it. Thus here we may +regard England as the argument, and “the present king of” as function. +Thus we are led to “the present king of x.” This expression will always +have a meaning, but it will not have an indication except for those +values of x which at present are monarchies. The above function is not +propositional. But “Caesar conquered Gaul” leads to “x conquered Gaul”; +here we have a propositional function. There is here a minor point to be +noticed: the asserted proposition is not a proper name, but only the +assumption is a proper name for the true or the false (v. supra); thus +it is not “Caesar conquered Gaul” as asserted, but only the +corresponding assumption, that is involved in the genesis of a +propositional function. This is indeed sufficiently obvious, since we +wish x to be able to be any thing in “x conquered Gaul,” whereas there +is no such asserted proposition except when x did actually perform this +feat. Again consider “Socrates is a man implies Socrates is a mortal.” +This (unasserted) is, according to Frege, a proper name for the true. By +varying the proper name “Socrates,” we can obtain three propositional +functions, namely “x is a man implies Socrates is a mortal,” “Socrates +is a man implies x is a mortal,” “x is a man implies x is a mortal.” Of +these the first and third are true for all values of x, the second is +true when and only when x is a mortal. + +By suppressing in like manner a proper name in the name of a function of +the first order with one argument, we obtain the name of a function of +the first order with two arguments (Gg. p. 44). Thus e.g. starting from +“1 \< 2,” we get first “x \< 2,” which is the name of a function of +the first order with one argument, and thence “x \< y,” which is the +name of a function of the first order with two arguments. By suppressing +a function in like manner, Frege says, we obtain the name of a function +of the second order (Gg. p. 44). Thus e.g. the assertion of existence in +the mathematical sense is a function of the second order: “There is at +least one value of x satisfying φx” is not a function of x, but may be +regarded as a function of φ. Here φ must on no account be a thing, but +may be any function. Thus this proposition, considered as a function of +φ, is quite different from functions of the first order, by the fact +that the possible arguments are different. Thus given any proposition, +say f(a), we may consider either f(x), the function of the first order +resulting from varying a and keeping f constant, or φ(a), the function +of the second order got by varying f and keeping a fixed; or, finally, +we may consider φ(x), in which both f and a are separately varied. (It +is to be observed that such notions as φ(a), in which we consider any +proposition concerning a, are involved in the identity of indiscernibles +as stated in [§43](#sec43).) Functions of the first order with two +variables, Frege points out, express relations (Bs. p. 17); the referent +and the relatum are both subjects in a relational proposition (Gl. p. +82). Relations, just as much as predicates, belong, Frege rightly says, +to pure logic (ib. p. 83). + +**481.** The word Begriff is used by Frege to mean nearly the same thing +as propositional function (e.g. FuB. p. 28)[\*](#fn507-1); when there +are two variables, the Begriff is a relation. A thing is anything not a +function, i.e. anything whose expression leaves no empty place (ib. p. +18). To Frege’s theory of the essential cleavage between things and +Begriffe, Kerry objects (loc. cit. p. 272ff.) that Begriffe also can +occur as subjects. To this Frege makes two replies. In the first place, +it is, he says, an important distinction that some terms can only occur +as subjects, while others can occur also as concepts, even if Begriffe +can also occur as subjects (BuG. p. 195). In this I agree with him +entirely; the distinction is the one employed in §§[48](#sec48), +[49](#sec49). But he goes on to a second point which appears to me +mistaken. We can, he says, have a concept falling under a higher one (as +Socrates falls under man, he means, not as Greek falls under man); but +in such cases, it is not the concept itself, but its name, that is in +question (BuG. p. 195). “The concept horse,” he says, is not a concept, +but a thing; the peculiar use is indicated by inverted commas (ib. p. +196). But a few pages later he makes statements which seem to involve a +different view. A concept, he says, is essentially predicative even when +something is asserted of it: an assertion which can be made of a concept +does not fit an object. When a thing is said to fall under a concept, +and when a concept is said to fall under a higher concept, the two +relations involved, though similar, are not the same (ib. p. 201). It is +difficult to me to reconcile these remarks with those of p. 195; but I +shall return to this point shortly. + +Frege recognizes the unity of a proposition: of the parts of a +propositional concept, he says, not all can be complete, but one at +least must be incomplete (ungesättigt) or predicative, otherwise the +parts would not cohere (ib. p. 205). He recognizes also, though he does +not discuss, the oddities resulting from any and every and such words: +thus he remarks that every positive integer is the sum of four squares, +but “every positive integer” is not a possible value of x in “x is the +sum of four squares.” The meaning of “every positive integer,” he says, +depends upon the context (Bs. p. 17)—a remark which is doubtless +correct, but does not exhaust the subject. Self-contradictory notions +are admitted as concepts: F is a concept if “a falls under the concept +F” is a proposition whatever thing a may be (Gl. p. 87). A concept is +the indication of a predicate; a thing is what can never be the whole +indication of a predicate, though it may be that of a subject (BuG. p. +198). + +**482.** The above theory, in spite of close resemblance, differs in +some important points from the theory set forth in [Part I](#part1) +above. Before examining the differences, I shall briefly recapitulate my +own theory. + +Given any propositional concept, or any unity (see [§136](#sec136)), +which may in the limit be simple, its constituents are in general of two +sorts: (1) those which may be replaced by anything else whatever without +destroying the unity of the whole; (2) those which have not this +property. Thus in “the death of Caesar,” anything else may be +substituted for Caesar, but a proper name must not be substituted for +death, and hardly anything can be substituted for of. Of the unity in +question, the former class of constituents will be called terms, the +latter concepts. We have then, in regard to any unity, to consider the +following objects: + +(1) What remains of the said unity when one of its terms is simply +removed, or, if the term occurs several times, when it is removed from +one or more of the places in which it occurs, or, if the unity has more +than one term, when two or more of its terms are removed from some or +all of the places where they occur. This is what Frege calls a function. + +(2) The class of unities differing from the said unity, if at all, only +by the fact that one of its terms has been replaced, in one or more of +the places where it occurs, by some other terms, or by the fact that two +or more of its terms have been thus replaced by other terms. + +(3) Any member of the class (2). + +(4) The assertion that every member of the class (2) is true. + +(5) The assertion that some member of the class (2) is true. + +(6) The relation of a member of the class (2) to the value which the +variable has in that member. + +The fundamental case is that where our unity is a propositional concept. +From this is derived the usual mathematical notion of function, which +might at first sight seem simpler. If f(x) is not a propositional +function, its value for a given value of x (f(x) being assumed to be +one-valued) is the term y satisfying the propositional function y = +f(x), i.e. satisfying, for the given value of x, some relational +proposition; this relational proposition is involved in the definition +of f(x), and some such propositional function is required in the +definition of any function which is not propositional. + +As regards (1), confining ourselves to one variable, it was maintained +in [Chapter vii](#chapter7) that, except where the proposition from +which we start is predicative or else asserts a fixed relation to a +fixed term, there is no such entity: the analysis into argument and +assertion cannot be performed in the manner required. Thus what Frege +calls a, function, if our conclusion was sound, is in general a +non-entity. Another point of difference from Frege, in which, however, +he appears to be in the right, lies in the fact that I place no +restriction upon the variation of the variable, whereas Frege, according +to the nature of the function, confines the variable to things, +functions of the first order with one variable, functions of the first +order with two variables, functions of the second order with one +variable, and so on. There are thus for him an infinite number of +different kinds of variability. This arises from the fact that he +regards as distinct the concept occurring as such and the concept +occurring as term, which I ([§49](#sec49)) have identified. For me, the +functions, which cannot be values of variables in functions of the first +order, are non-entities and false abstractions. Instead of the rump of a +proposition considered in (1), I substitute (2) or (3) or (4) according +to circumstances. The ground for regarding the analysis into argument +and function as not always possible is that, when one term is removed +from a propositional concept, the remainder is apt to have no sort of +unity, but to fall apart into a set of disjointed terms. Thus what is +fundamental in such a case is (2). Frege’s general definition of a +function, which is intended to cover also functions which are not +propositional, may be shown to be inadequate by considering what may be +called the identical function, i.e. x as a function of x. If we follow +Frege’s advice, and remove x in hopes of having the function left, we +find that nothing is left at all; yet nothing is not the meaning of the +identical function. Frege wishes to have the empty places where the +argument is to be inserted indicated in some way; thus he says that in +2x3 + x the function is 2(  )3 + (  ). But here his requirement that the +two empty places are to be filled by the same letter cannot be +indicated: there is no way of distinguishing what we mean from the +function involved in 2x3 + y. The fact seems to be that we want the +notion of any term of a certain class, and that this is what our empty +places really stand for. The function, as a single entity, is the +relation (6) above; we can then consider any relatum of this relation, +or the assertion of all or some of the relata, and any relation can be +expressed in terms of the corresponding referent, as “Socrates is a man” +is expressed in terms of Socrates. But the usual formal apparatus of the +calculus of relations cannot be employed, because it presupposes +propositional functions. We may say that a propositional function is a +many-one relation which has all terms for the class of its referents, +and has its relata contained among propositions[\*](#fn509-1): or, if we +prefer, we may call the class of relata of such a relation a +propositional function. But the air of formal definition about these +statements is fallacious, since propositional functions are presupposed +in defining the class of referents and relata of a relation. + +Thus by means of propositional functions, propositions are collected +into classes. (These classes are not mutually exclusive.) But we may +also collect them into classes by the terms which occur in them: all +propositions containing a given term a will form a class. In this way we +obtain propositions concerning variable propositional functions. In the +notation φ(x), the φ is essentially variable; if we wish it not to be +so, we must take some particular proposition about x, such as “x is a +class” or “x implies x.” Thus φ(x) essentially contains two variables. +But, if we have decided that φ is not a separable entity, we cannot +regard φ itself as the second variable. It will be necessary to take as +our variable either the relation of x to φ(x), or else the class of +propositions φ(y) for different values of y but for constant φ. This +does not matter formally, but it is important for logic to be clear as +to the meaning of what appears as the variation of φ. We obtain in this +way another division of propositions into classes, but again these +classes are not mutually exclusive. + +In the above manner, it would seem, we can make use of propositional +functions without having to introduce the objects which Frege calls +functions. It is to be observed, however, that the kind of relation by +which propositional functions are defined is less general than the class +of many-one relations having their domain coextensive with terms and +their converse domain contained in propositions. For in this way any +proposition would, for a suitable relation, be relatum to any term, +whereas the term which is referent must, for a propositional function, +be a constituent of the proposition which is its relatum[\*](#fn510-1). +This point illustrates again that the class of relations involved is +fundamental and incapable of definition. But it would seem also to show +that Frege’s different kinds of variability are unavoidable, for in +considering (say) φ(2), where φ is variable, the variable would have to +have as its range the above class of relations, which we may call +propositional relations. Otherwise, φ(2) is not a proposition, and is +indeed meaningless, for we are dealing with an indefinable, which +demands that φ(2) should be the relatum of 2 with regard to some +propositional relation. The contradiction discussed in [Chapter +x](#chapter10) seems to show that some mystery lurks in the variation of +propositional functions; but for the present, Frege’s theory of +different kinds of variables must, I think, be accepted. + +**483.** It remains to discuss afresh the question whether concepts can +be made into logical subjects without change of meaning. Frege’s theory, +that when this appears to be done it is really the name of the concept +that is involved, will not, I think, bear investigation. In the first +place, the mere assertion “not the concept, but its name, is involved,” +has already made the concept a subject. In the second place, it seems +always legitimate to ask: “what is it that is named by this name?” If +there were no answer, the name could not be a name; but if there is an +answer, the concept, as opposed to its name, can be made a subject. +(Frege, it may be observed, does not seem to have clearly disentangled +the logical and linguistic elements of naming: the former depend upon +denoting, and have, I think, a much more restricted range than Frege +allows them.) It is true that we found difficulties in the doctrine that +everything can be a logical subject: as regards “any a,” for example, +and also as regards plurals. But in the case of “any a,” there is +ambiguity, which introduces a new class of problems; and as regards +plurals, there are propositions in which the many behave like a logical +subject in every respect except that they are many subjects and not one +only (see §§[127](#sec127), [128](#sec128)). In the case of concepts, +however, no such escapes are possible. The case of asserted propositions +is difficult, but is met, I think, by holding that an asserted +proposition is merely a true proposition, and is therefore asserted +wherever it occurs, even when grammar would lead to the opposite +conclusion. Thus, on the whole, the doctrine of concepts which cannot be +made subjects seems untenable. + +**484.** Classes. Frege’s theory of classes is very difficult, and I am +not sure that I have thoroughly understood it. He gives the name +Werthverlauf[\*](#fn511-1) to an entity which appears to be nearly the +same as what I call the class as one. The concept of the class, and the +class as many, do not appear in his exposition. He differs from the +theory set forth in [Chapter vi](#chapter6) chiefly by the fact that he +adopts a more intensional view of classes than I have done, being led +thereto mainly by the desirability of admitting the null-class and of +distinguishing a term from a class whose only member it is. I agree +entirely that these two objects cannot be attained by an extensional +theory, though I have tried to show how to satisfy the requirements of +formalism (§§[69](#sec69), [73](#sec73)). + +The extension of a Begriff, Frege says, is the range of a function whose +value for every argument is a truth-value (FuB. p. 16). Ranges are +things, whereas functions are not (ib. p. 19). There would be no +null-class, if classes were taken in extension; for the null-class is +only possible if a class is not a collection of terms (KB. pp. 436–7). +If x be a term, we cannot identify x, as the extensional view requires, +with the class whose only member is x; for suppose x to be a class +having more than one member, and let y, z be two different members of x; +then if x is identical with the class whose only member is x, y and z +will both be members of this class, and will therefore be identical with +x and with each other, contrary to the hypothesis[†](#fn511-2). The +extension of a Begriff has its being in the Begriff itself, not in the +individuals falling under the Begriff (ib. p. 451). When I say something +about all men, I say nothing about some wretch in the centre of Africa, +who is in no way indicated, and does not belong to the indication of man +(p. 454). Begriffe are prior to their extension, and it is a mistake to +attempt, as Schröder does, to base extension on individuals; this leads +to the calculus of regions (Gebiete), not to Logic (p. 455). + +What Frege understands by a range, and in what way it is to be conceived +without reference to objects, he endeavours to explain in his +Grundgesetze der Arithmetik. He begins by deciding that two +propositional functions are to have the same range when they have the +same value for every value of x, i.e. for every value of x both are true +or both false (pp. 7, 14) This is laid down as a primitive proposition. +But this only determines the equality of ranges, not what they are in +themselves. If X(ξ) be a function which never has the same value for +different values of ξ and if we denote by φ′ the range of φx, we shall +have X(φ′) = X(ψ′) when and only when φ′ and ψ′ are equal, i.e. when and +only when φx and ψx always have the same value. Thus the conditions for +the equality of ranges do not of themselves decide what ranges are to be +(p. 16). Let us decide arbitrarily—since the notion of a range is not +yet fixed—that the true is to be the range of the function “x is true” +(as an assumption, not an asserted proposition), and the false is to be +the range of the function “x = not every term is identical with itself.” +It follows that the range of φx is the true when and only when the true +and nothing else falls under the Begriff φx; the range of φx is the +false when and only when the false and nothing else falls under the +Begriff φx; in other cases, the range is neither the true nor the false +(pp. 17–18). If only one thing falls under a concept, this one thing is +distinct from the range of the concept in question (p. 18, note)—the +reason is the same as that mentioned above. + +There is an argument (p. 49) to prove that the name of the range of a +function always has an indication, i.e. that the symbol employed for it +is never meaningless. In view of the contradiction discussed in [Chapter +x](#chapter10), I should be inclined to deny a meaning to a range when +we have a proposition of the form φ\[f(φ)\], where f is constant and φ +variable, or of the form fx(x), where x is variable and fx is a +propositional function which is determinate when x is given, but varies +from one value of x to another—provided, when fx is analyzed into things +and concepts, the part dependent on x does not consist only of things, +but contains also at least one concept. This is a very complicated case, +in which, I should say, there is no class as one, my only reason for +saying so being that we can thus escape the contradiction. + +**485.** By means of variable propositional functions, Frege obtains a +definition of the relation which Peano calls ε, namely the relation of a +term to a class of which it is a member[\*](#fn512-1). The definition is +as follows: “aεu” is to mean the term (or the range of terms if there be +none or many) x such that there is a propositional function φ which is +such that u is the range of φ and φa is identical with x (p. 53). It is +observed that this defines aεu whatever things a and u may be. In the +first place, suppose u to be a range. Then there is at least one φ whose +range is u, and any two whose range is u are regarded by Frege as +identical. Thus we may speak of the function φ whose range is u. In this +case, aεu is the proposition φa, which is true when a is a member of u, +and is false otherwise. If, in the second place, u is not a range, then +there, is no such propositional function as φ, and therefore aεu is the +range of a propositional function which is always false, i.e. the +null-range. Thus aεu indicates the true when u is a range and a is a +member of u; aεu indicates the false when u is a range and a is not a +member of u; in other cases, aεu indicates the null-range. + +It is to be observed that from the equivalence of xεu, and xεv for all +values of x we can only infer the identity of u and v when u and v are +ranges. When they are not ranges, the equivalence will always hold, +since xεu and xεv are the null-range for all values of x; thus if we +allowed the inference in this case, any two objects which are not ranges +would be identical, which is absurd. One might be tempted to doubt +whether u and v must be identical even when they are ranges: with an +intensional view of classes, this becomes open to question. + +Frege proceeds (p. 55) to an analogous definition of the propositional +function of three variables which I have symbolised as, xRy, and here +again he gives a definition which does not place any restrictions on the +variability of R. This is done by introducing a double range, defined by +a propositional function of two variables; we may regard this as a class +of couples with sense[†](#fn512-2). If then R is such a class of +couples, and if (x; y) is a member of this class, xRy is to hold; in +other cases it is to be false or null as before. On this basis, Frege +successfully erects as much of the logic of relations as is required for +his Arithmetic; and he is free from the restrictions on the variability +of R which arise from the intensional view of relations adopted in the +present work (cf. [§83](#sec83)). + +**486.** The chief difficulty which arises in the above theory of +classes is as to the kind of entity that a range is to be. The reason +which led me, against my inclination, to adopt an extensional view of +classes, was the necessity of discovering some entity determinate for a +given propositional function, and the same for any equivalent +propositional function. Thus “x is a man” is equivalent (we will +suppose) to “x is a featherless biped,” and we wish to discover some one +entity which is determined in the same way by both these propositional +functions. The only single entity I have been able to discover is the +class as one—except the derivative class (also as one) of propositional +functions equivalent to either of the given propositional functions. +This latter class is plainly a more complex notion, which will not +enable us to dispense with the general notion of class; but this more +complex notion (so we agreed in [§73](#sec73)) must be substituted for +the class of terms in the symbolic treatment, if there is to be any +null-class and if the class whose only member is a given term is to be +distinguished from that term. It would certainly be a very great +simplification to admit, as Frege does, a range which is something other +than the whole composed of the terms satisfying the propositional +function in question; but for my part, inspection reveals to me no such +entity. On this ground, and also on account of the contradiction, I feel +compelled to adhere to the extensional theory of classes, though not +quite as set forth in [Chapter vi](#chapter6). + +**487.** That some modification in that doctrine is necessary, is proved +by the argument of KB. p. 444. This argument appears capable of proving +that a class, even as one, cannot be identified with the class of which +it is the only member. In [§74](#sec74), I contended that the argument +was met by the distinction between the class as one and the class as +many, but this contention now appears to me mistaken. For this reason, +it is necessary to re-examine the whole doctrine of classes. + +Frege’s argument is as follows. If a is a class of more than one term, +and if a is identical with the class whose only term is a, then to be a +term of a is the same thing as to be a term of the class whose only term +is a, whence a is the only term of a. This argument appears to prove not +merely that the extensional view of classes is inadequate, but rather +that it is wholly inadmissible. For suppose a to be a collection, and +suppose that a collection of one term is identical with that one term. +Then, if a can be regarded as one collection, the above argument proves +that a is the only term of a. We cannot escape by saying that ε is to be +a relation to the class-concept or the concept of the class or the class +as many, for if there is any such entity as the class as one, there will +be a relation, which we may call ε, between terms and their classes as +one. Thus the above argument leads to the conclusion that either (α) a +collection of more than one term is not identical with the collection +whose only term it is, or (β) there is no collection as one term at all +in the case of a collection of many terms, but the collection is +strictly and only many. One or other of these must be admitted in virtue +of the above argument. + +**488.** (α) To either of these views there are grave objections. The +former is the view of Frege and Peano. To realize the paradoxical nature +of this view, it must be clearly grasped that it is not only the +collection as many, but the collection as one, that is distinct from the +collection whose only term it is. (I speak of collections, because it is +important to examine the bearing of Frege’s argument upon the +possibility of an extensional standpoint.) This view, in spite of its +paradox, is certainly the one which seems to be required by the +symbolism. It is quite essential that we should be able to regard a +class as a single object, that there should be a null-class, and that a +term should not (in general, at any rate) be identical with the class of +which it is the only member. It is subject to these conditions that the +symbolic meaning of class has to be interpreted. Frege’s notion of a +range may be identified with the collection as one, and all will then go +well. But it is very hard to see any entity such as Frege’s range, and +the argument that there must be such an entity gives us little help. +Moreover, in virtue of the contradiction, there certainly are cases +where we have a collection as many, but no collection as one +([§104](#sec104)). Let us then examine (β), and see whether this offers +a better solution. + +(β) Let us suppose that a collection of one term is that one term, and +that a collection of many terms is (or rather are) those many terms, so +that there is not a single term at all which is the collection of the +many terms in question. In this view there is, at first sight at any +rate, nothing paradoxical, and it has the merit of admitting universally +what the Contradiction shows to be sometimes the case. In this case, +unless we abandon one of our fundamental dogmas, ε will have to be a +relation of a term to its class-concept, not to its class; if a is a +class-concept, what appears symbolically as the class whose only term is +a will (one might suppose) be the class-concept under which falls only +the concept a, which is of course (in general, if not always) different +from a. We shall maintain, on account of the contradiction, that there +is not always a class-concept for a given propositional function φx, +i.e. that there is not always, for every φ, some class-concept a such +that xεa is equivalent to φx for all values of x; and the cases where +there is no such class-concept will be cases in which φ is a quadratic +form. + +So far, all goes well. But now we no longer have one definite entity +which is determined equally by any one of a set of equivalent +propositional functions, i.e. there is, it might be urged, no meaning of +class left which is determined by the extension alone. Thus, to take a +case where this leads to confusion, if a and b be different +class-concepts such that xεa and xεb are equivalent for all values of x, +the class-concept under which a falls and nothing else will not be +identical with that under which falls b and nothing else. Thus we cannot +get any way of denoting what should symbolically correspond to the class +as one. Or again, if u and v be similar but different classes, “similar +to u” is a different concept from “similar to v”; thus, unless we can +find some extensional meaning for class, we shall not be able to say +that the number of u is the same as that of v. And all the usual +elementary problems as to combinations (i.e. as to the number of classes +of specified kinds contained in a given class) will have become +impossible and even meaningless. For these various reasons, an objector +might contend, something like the class as one must be maintained; and +Frege’s range fulfils the conditions required. It would seem necessary +therefore to accept ranges by an act of faith, without waiting to see +whether there are such things. + +Nevertheless, the non-identification of the class with the class as one, +whether in my form or in the form of Frege’s range, appears unavoidable, +and by a process of exclusion the class as many is left as the only +object which can play the part of a class. By a modification of the +logic hitherto advocated in the present work, we shall, I think, be able +at once to satisfy the requirements of the Contradiction and to keep in +harmony with common sense[\*](#fn515-1). + +**489.** Let us begin by recapitulating the possible theories of classes +which have presented themselves. A class may be identified with (α) the +predicate, (β) the class concept, (γ) the concept of the class, (δ) +Frege’s range, (ε) the numerical conjunction of the terms of the class, +(ζ) the whole composed of the terms of the class. + +Of these theories, the first three, which are intensional, have the +defect that they do not render a class determinate when its terms are +given. The other three do not have this defect, but they have others. +(δ) suffers from a doubt as to there being such an entity, and also +from the fact that, if ranges are terms, the contradiction is +inevitable, (ε) is logically unobjectionable, but is not a single +entity, except when the class has only one member. (ζ) cannot always +exist as a term, for the same reason as applies against (δ); also it +cannot be identified with the class on account of Frege’s +argument[†](#fn515-2). + +Nevertheless, without a single object[‡](#fn515-3) to represent an +extension, Mathematics crumbles. Two propositional functions which are +equivalent for all values of the variable may not be identical, but it +is necessary that there should be some object determined by both. Any +object that may be proposed, however, presupposes the notion of class. +We may define class optatively as follows: A class is an object uniquely +determined by a propositional function, and determined equally by any +equivalent propositional function. Now we cannot take as this object (as +in other cases of symmetrical transitive relations) the class of +propositional functions equivalent to a given propositional function, +unless we already have the notion of class. Again, equivalent relations, +considered intensionally, may be distinct: we want therefore to find +some one object determined equally by any one of a set of equivalent +relations. But the only objects that suggest themselves are the class of +relations or the class of couples forming their common range; and these +both presuppose class. And without the notion of class, elementary +problems, such as “how many combinations can be formed of m objects n at +a time?” become meaningless. Moreover, it appears immediately evident +that there is some sense in saying that two class-concepts have the same +extension, and this requires that there should be some object which can +be called the extension of a class-concept. But it is exceedingly +difficult to discover any such object, and the contradiction proves +conclusively that, even if there be such an object sometimes, there are +propositional functions for which the extension is not one term. + +The class as many, which we numbered (ε) in the above enumeration, is +unobjectionable, but is many and not one. We may, if we choose, +represent this by a single symbol: thus xεu will mean “x is one of the +u’s.” This must not be taken as a relation of two terms, x and u, +because u as the numerical conjunction is not a single term, and we wish +to have a meaning for xεu which would be the same if for u we +substituted an equal class v, which prevents us from interpreting u +intensionally. Thus we may regard “x is one of the u’s” as expressing a +relation of x to many terms, among which x is included. The main +objection to this view, if only single terms can be subjects, is that, +if u is a symbol standing essentially for many terms, we cannot make u a +logical subject without risk of error. We can no longer speak, one might +suppose, of a class of classes; for what should be the terms of such a +class are not single terms, but are each many terms[\*](#fn516-1). We +cannot assert a predicate of many, one would suppose, except in the +sense of asserting it of each of the many; but what is required here is +the assertion of a predicate concerning the many as many, not concerning +each nor yet concerning the whole (if any) which all compose. Thus a +class of classes will be many many’s; its constituents will each be only +many, and cannot therefore in any sense, one might suppose, be single +constituents. Now I find myself forced to maintain, in spite of the +apparent logical difficulty, that this is precisely what is required for +the assertion of number. If we have a class of classes, each of whose +members has two terms, it is necessary that the members should each be +genuinely two-fold, and should not be each one. Or again, “Brown and +Jones are two” requires that we should not combine Brown and Jones into +a single whole, and yet it has the form of a subject-predicate +proposition. But now a difficulty arises as to the number of members of +a class of classes. In what sense can we speak of two couples? This +seems to require that each couple should be a single entity; yet if it +were, we should have two units, not two couples. We require a sense for +diversity of collections, meaning thereby, apparently, if u and v are +the collections in question, that xεu and xεv are not equivalent for all +values of x. + +**490.** The logical doctrine which is thus forced upon us is this: The +subject of a proposition may be not a single term, but essentially many +terms; this is the case with all propositions asserting numbers other +than 0 and 1. But the predicates or class-concepts or relations which +can occur in propositions having plural subjects are different (with +some exceptions) from those that can occur in propositions having single +terms as subjects. Although a class is many and not one, yet there is +identity and diversity among classes, and thus classes can be counted as +though each were a genuine unity; and in this sense we can speak of one +class and of the classes which are members of a class of classes. One +must be held, however, to be somewhat different when asserted of a class +from what it is when asserted of a term; that is, there is a meaning of +one which is applicable in speaking of one term, and another which is +applicable in speaking of one class, but there is also a general meaning +applicable to both cases. The fundamental doctrine upon which all rests +is the doctrine that the subject of a proposition may be plural, and +that such plural subjects are what is meant by classes which have more +than one term[\*](#fn517-1). + +It will now be necessary to distinguish (1) terms, (2) classes, (3) +classes of classes, and so on ad infinitum; we shall have to hold that +no member of one set is a member of any other set, and that xεu requires +that x should be of a set of a degree lower by one than the set to which +u belongs. Thus xεx will become a meaningless proposition; and in this +way the contradiction is avoided. + +**491.** But we must now consider the problem of classes which have one +member or none. The case of the null-class might be met by a bare +denial—this is only inconvenient, not self-contradictory. But in the +case of classes having only one term, it is still necessary to +distinguish them from their sole members. This results from Frege’s +argument, which we may repeat as follows. Let u be a class having more +than one term; let ιu be the class of classes whose only member is u. +Then ιu has one member, u has many; hence u and ιu are not identical. It +may be doubted, at first sight, whether this argument is valid. The +relation of x to u expressed by xεu is a relation of a single term to +many terms; the relation of u to ιu expressed by uειu is a relation of +many terms (as subject) to many terms (as predicate)[†](#fn517-2). This +is, so an objector might contend, a different relation from the previous +one; and thus the argument breaks down. It is in different senses that x +is a member of u and that u is a member of ιu; thus u and ιu may be +identical in spite of the argument. + +This attempt, however, to escape from Frege’s argument, is capable of +refutation. For all the purposes of Arithmetic, to begin with, and for +many of the purposes of logic, it is necessary to have a meaning for ε +which is equally applicable to the relation of a term to a class, of a +class to a class of classes, and so on. But the chief point is that, if +every single term is a class, the proposition xεx, which gives rise to +the Contradiction, must be admissible. It is only by distinguishing x +and ιx, and insisting that in xεu the u must always be of a type higher +by one than x, that the contradiction can be avoided. Thus, although we +may identify the class with the numerical conjunction of its terms, +wherever there are many terms, yet where there is only one term we shall +have to accept Frege’s range as an object distinct from its only term. +And having done this, we may of course also admit a range in the case of +a null propositional function. We shall differ from Frege only in +regarding a range as in no case a term, but an object of a different +logical type, in the sense that a propositional function φ(x), in which +x may be any term, is in general meaningless if for x we substitute a +range; and if x may be any range of terms, φ(x) will in general be +meaningless if for x we substitute either a term or a range of ranges of +terms. Ranges, finally, are what are properly to be called classes, and +it is of them that cardinal numbers are asserted. + +**492.** According to the view here advocated, it will be necessary, +with every variable, to indicate whether its field of significance is +terms, classes, classes of classes, or so on[\*](#fn518-1). A variable +will not be able, except in special cases, to extend from one of these +sets into another; and in xεu, the x and the u must always belong to +different types; ε will not be a relation between objects of the same +type, but ε˘ε or εR˘ε[†](#fn518-2) will be, provided R is so. We shall +have to distinguish also among relations according to the types to which +their domains and converse domains belong; also variables whose fields +include relations, these being understood as classes of couples, will +not as a rule include anything else, and relations between relations +will be different in type from relations between terms. This seems to +give the truth—though in a thoroughly extensional form—underlying +Frege’s distinction between terms and the various kinds of functions. +Moreover the opinion here advocated seems to adhere very closely indeed +to common sense. + +Thus the final conclusion is, that the correct theory of classes is even +more extensional than that of [Chapter vi](#chapter6); that the class as +many is the only object always defined by a propositional function, and +that this is adequate for formal purposes; that the class as one, or the +whole composed of the terms of the class, is probably a genuine entity +except where the class is defined by a quadratic function (see +[§103](#sec103)), but that in these cases, and in other cases possibly, +the class as many is the only object uniquely defined. + +The theory that there are different kinds of variables demands a reform +in the doctrine of formal implication. In a formal implication, the +variable does not, in general, take all the values of which variables +are susceptible, but only all those that make the propositional function +in question a proposition. For other values of the variable, it must be +held that any given propositional function becomes meaningless. Thus in +xεu, u must be a class, or a class of classes, or etc., and x must be a +term if u is a class, a class if u is a class of classes, and so on; in +every propositional function there will be some range permissible to the +variable, but in general there will be possible values for other +variables which are not admissible in the given case. This fact will +require a certain modification of the principles of Symbolic Logic; but +it remains true that, in a formal implication, all propositions +belonging to a given propositional function are asserted. + +With this we come to the end of the more philosophical part of Frege’s +work. It remains to deal briefly with his Symbolic Logic and Arithmetic; +but here I find myself in such complete agreement with him that it is +hardly necessary to do more than acknowledge his discovery of +propositions which, when I wrote, I believed to have been new. + +**493.** Implication and Symbolic Logic. The relation which Frege +employs as fundamental in the logic of propositions is not exactly the +same as what I have called implication: it is a relation which holds +between p and q whenever q is true or p is not true, whereas the +relation which I employ holds whenever p and q are propositions, and q +is true or p is false. That is to say, Frege’s relation holds when p is +not a proposition at all, whatever q may be; mine does not hold unless p +and q are propositions. His definition has the formal advantage that it +avoids the necessity for hypotheses of the form “p and q are +propositions”; but it has the disadvantage that it does not lead to a +definition of proposition and of negation. In fact, negation is taken by +Frege as indefinable; proposition is introduced by means of the +indefinable notion of a truth-value. Whatever x may be, “the truth-value +of x” is to indicate the true if x is true, and the false in all other +cases. Frege’s notation has certain advantages over Peano’s, in spite of +the fact that it is exceedingly cumbrous and difficult to use. He +invariably defines expressions for all values of the variable, whereas +Peano’s definitions are often preceded by a hypothesis. He has a special +symbol for assertion, and he is able to assert for all values of x a +propositional function not stating an implication, which Peano’s +symbolism will not do. He also distinguishes, by the use of Latin and +German letters respectively, between any proposition of a certain +propositional function and all such propositions. By always using +implications, Frege avoids the logical product of two propositions, and +therefore has no axioms corresponding to Importation and +Exportation[\*](#fn519-1). Thus the joint assertion of p and q is the +denial of “p implies not-q.” + +**494.** Arithmetic. Frege gives exactly the same definition of cardinal +numbers as I have given, at least if we identify his range with my +class[†](#fn519-2). But following his intensional theory of classes, he +regards the number as a property of the class-concept, not of the class +in extension. If u be a range, the number of u is the range of the +concept “range similar to u.” In the Grundlagen der Arithmetik, other +possible theories of number are discussed and dismissed. Numbers cannot +be asserted of objects, because the same set of objects may have +different numbers assigned to them (Gl. p. 29); for example, one army is +so many regiments and such another number of soldiers. This view seems +to me to involve too physical a view of objects: I do not consider the +army to be the same object as the regiments. A stronger argument for the +same view is that 0 will not apply to objects, but only to concepts (p. +59). This argument is, I think, conclusive up to a certain point; but it +is satisfied by the view of the symbolic meaning of classes set forth in +[§73](#sec73). Numbers themselves, like other ranges, are things (p. +67). For defining numbers as ranges, Frege gives the same general ground +as I have given, namely what I call the principle of +abstraction[‡](#fn519-3). In the Grundgesetze der Arithmetik, various +theorems in the foundations of cardinal Arithmetic are proved with great +elaboration, so great that it is often very difficult to discover the +difference between successive steps in a demonstration. In view of the +contradiction of [Chapter x](#chapter10), it is plain that some +emendation is required in Frege’s principles; but it is hard to believe +that it can do more than introduce some general limitation which leaves +the details unaffected. + +**495.** In addition to his work on cardinal numbers, Frege has, already +in the Begriffsschrift, a very admirable theory of progressions, or +rather of all series that can be generated by many-one relations. Frege +does not confine himself to one-one relations: as long as we move in +only one direction, a many-one relation also will generate a series. In +some parts of his theory, he even deals with general relations. He +begins by considering, for any relation f(x, y), functions F which are +such that, if f(x, y) holds, then F(x) implies F(y). If this condition +holds, Frege says that the property F is inherited in the f-series (Bs. +pp. 55–58). From this he goes on to define, without the use of numbers, +a relation which is equivalent to “some positive power of the given +relation.” This is defined as follows. The relation in question holds +between x and y if every property F, which is inherited in the f-series +and is such that f(x, z) implies F(z) for all values of z, belongs to y +(Bs. p. 60). On this basis, a non-numerical theory of series is very +successfully erected, and is applied in Gg. to the proof of propositions +concerning the number of finite numbers and kindred topics. This is, so +far as I know, the best method of treating such questions, and Frege’s +definition just quoted gives, apparently, the best form of mathematical +induction. But as no controversy is involved, I shall not pursue this +subject any further. + +Frege’s works contain much admirable criticism of the psychological +standpoint in logic, and also of the formalist theory of mathematics, +which believes that the actual symbols are the subject-matter dealt +with, and that their properties can be arbitrarily assigned by +definition. In both these points, I find myself in complete agreement +with him. + +**496.** Kerry (loc. cit.) has criticized Frege very severely, and +professes to have proved that a purely logical theory of Arithmetic is +impossible (p. 304). On the question whether concepts can be made +logical subjects, I find myself in agreement with his criticisms; on +other points, they seem to rest on mere misunderstandings. As these are +such as would naturally occur to any one unfamiliar with symbolic logic, +I shall briefly discuss them. + +The definition of numbers as classes is, Kerry asserts, a ὕστερον +πρότερον. We must know that every concept has only one extension, +and we must know what one object is; Frege’s numbers, in fact, are +merely convenient symbols for what are commonly called numbers (p. 277). +It must be admitted, I think, that the notion of a term is indefinable +(cf. [§132](#sec132) supra), and is presupposed in the definition of the +number 1. But Frege argues—and his argument at least deserves +discussion—that one is not a predicate, attaching to every imaginable +term, but has a less general meaning, and attaches to concepts (Gl. p. +40). Thus a term is not to be analyzed into one and term, and does not +presuppose the notion of one (cf. [§72](#sec72) supra). As to the +assumption that every concept has only one extension, it is not +necessary to be able to state this in language which employs the number +1: all we need is, that if φx and ψx are equivalent propositions for all +values of x, then they have the same extension—a primitive proposition +whose symbolic expression in no way presupposes the number 1. From this +it follows that if a and b are both extensions of φx, a and b are +identical, which again does not formally involve the number 1. In like +manner, other objections to Frege’s definition can be met. + +Kerry is misled by a certain passage (Gl. p. 80, note) into the belief +that Frege identifies a concept with its extension. The passage in +question appears to assert that the number of u might be defined as the +concept “similar to u” and not as the range of this concept; but it does +not say that the two definitions are equivalent. + +There is a long criticism of Frege’s proof that 0 is a number, which +reveals fundamental errors as to the existential import of universal +propositions. The point is to prove that, if u and v are null-classes, +they are similar. Frege defines similarity to mean that there is a +one-one relation R such that “x is a u” implies “there is a v to which x +stands in the relation R,” and vice versa. (I have altered the +expressions into conformity with my usual language.) This, he says, is +equivalent to “there is a one-one relation R such that ‘x is a u’ and +‘there is no term of v to which x stands in the relation R’ cannot +both be true, whatever value x may have, and vice versa”; and this +proposition is true if “x is a u” and “y is a v” are always false. This +strikes Kerry as absurd (pp. 287–9). Similarity of classes, he thinks, +implies that they have terms. He affirms that Frege’s assertion above is +contradicted by a later one (Gl. p. 89): “If a is a u, and nothing is a +v, then ‘a is a u’ and ‘no term is a v which has the relation R to a’ +are both true for all values of R.” I do not quite know where Kerry +finds the contradiction; but he evidently does not realize that false +propositions imply all propositions and that universal propositions have +no existential import, so that “all a is b” and “no a is b” will both be +true if a is the null-class. + +Kerry objects (p. 290, note) to the generality of Frege’s notion of +relation. Frege asserts that any proposition containing a and b affirms +a relation between a and b (Gl. p. 83); hence Kerry (rightly) concludes +that it is self-contradictory to deny that a and b are related. So +general a notion, he says, can have neither sense nor purpose. As for +sense, that a and b should both be constituents of one proposition seems +a perfectly intelligible sense; as for purpose, the whole logic of +relations, indeed the whole of mathematics, may be adduced in answer. +There is, however, what seems at first sight to be a formal disproof of +Frege’s view. Consider the propositional function “R and S are relations +which are identical, and the relation R does not hold between R and S.” +This contains two variables, R and S; let us suppose that it is +equivalent to “R has the relation T to S.” Then substituting T for both +R and S, we find, since T is identical with T, that “T does not have the +relation T to T” is equivalent to “T has the relation T to T.” This is a +contradiction, showing that there is no such relation as T. Frege might +object to this instance, on the ground that it treats relations as +terms; but his double ranges, which, like single ranges, he holds to be +things, will bring out the same result. The point involved is closely +analogous to that involved in the Contradiction: it was there shown that +some propositional functions with one variable are not equivalent to any +propositional function asserting membership of a fixed class, while here +it is shown that some containing two variables are not equivalent to the +assertion of any fixed relation. But the refutation is the same in the +case of relations as it was in the previous case. There is a hierarchy +of relations according to the type of objects constituting their fields. +Thus relations, between terms are distinct from those between classes, +and these again are distinct from relations between relations. Thus no +relation can have itself both as referent and as relatum, for if it be +of the same order as the one, it must be of a higher order than the +other; the proposed propositional function is therefore meaningless for +all values of the variables R and S. + +It is affirmed (p. 291) that only the concepts of 0 and 1, not the +objects themselves, are defined by Frege. But if we allow that the range +of a Begriff is an object, this cannot be maintained; for the assigning +of a concept will carry with it the assigning of its range. Kerry does +not perceive that the uniqueness of 1 has been proved (ib.): he thinks +that, with Frege’s definition, there might be several 1’s. I do not +understand how this can be supposed: the proof of uniqueness is precise +and formal. + +The definition of immediate sequence in the series of natural numbers is +also severely criticized (p. 292ff.). This depends upon the general +theory of series set forth in Bs. Kerry objects that Frege has defined +“F is inherited in the f-series,” but has not defined “the f-series” +nor “F is inherited.” The latter essentially ought not to be defined, +having no precise sense; the former is easily defined, if necessary, as +the field of the relation f. This objection is therefore trivial. Again, +there is an attack on the definition: “y follows x in the f-series if y +has all the properties inherited in the f-series and belonging to all +terms to which x has the relation f[\*](#fn522-1).” This criterion, we +are told, is of doubtful value, because no catalogue of such properties +exists, and further because, as Frege himself proves, following x is +itself one of these properties, whence a vicious circle. This argument, +to my mind, radically misconceives the nature of deduction. In +deduction, a proposition is proved to hold concerning every member of a +class, and may then be asserted of a particular member: but the +proposition concerning every does not necessarily result from +enumeration of the entries in a catalogue. Kerry’s position involves +acceptance of Mill’s objection to Barbara, that the mortality of +Socrates is a necessary premiss for the mortality of all men. The fact +is, of course, that general propositions can often be established where +no means exist of cataloguing the terms of the class for which they +hold; and even, as we have abundantly seen, general propositions fully +stated hold of all terms, or, as in the above case, of all functions, of +which no catalogue can be conceived. Kerry’s argument, therefore, is +answered by a correct theory of deduction; and the logical theory of +Arithmetic is vindicated against its critics. + +Note. The second volume of Gg., which appeared too late to be noticed in +the Appendix, contains an interesting discussion of the contradiction +(pp. 253–265), suggesting that the solution is to be found by denying +that two propositional functions which determine equal classes must be +equivalent. As it seems very likely that this is the true solution, the +reader is strongly recommended to examine Frege’s argument on the point. + +Notes + +## APPENDIX B. +THE DOCTRINE OF TYPES. + +**497.** The doctrine of types is here put forward tentatively, as +affording a possible solution of the contradiction; but it requires, in +all probability, to be transformed into some subtler shape before it can +answer all difficulties. In case, however, it should be found to be a +first step towards the truth, I shall endeavour in this Appendix to set +forth its main outlines, as well as some problems which it fails to +solve. + +Every propositional function φ(x)—so it is contended—has, in addition to +its range of truth, a range of significance, i.e. a range within which x +must lie if φ(x) is to be a proposition at all, whether true or false. +This is the first point in the theory of types; the second point is that +ranges of significance form types, i.e. if x belongs to the range of +significance of φ(x), then there is a class of objects, the type of x, +all of which must also belong to the range of significance of φ(x), +however φ may be varied; and the range of significance is always either +a single type or a sum of several whole types. The second point is less +precise than the first, and the case of numbers introduces difficulties; +but in what follows its importance and meaning will, I hope, become +plainer. + +A term or individual is any object which is not a range. This is the +lowest type of object. If such an object—say a certain point in +space—occurs in a proposition, any other individual may always be +substituted without loss of significance. What we called, in [Chapter +vi](#chapter6), the class as one, is an individual, provided its members +are individuals; the objects of daily life, persons, tables, chairs, +apples, etc., are classes as one. (A person is a class of psychical +existents, the others are classes of material points, with perhaps some +reference to secondary qualities.) These objects, therefore, are of the +same type as simple individuals. It would seem that all objects +designated by single words, whether things or concepts, are of this +type. Thus e.g. the relations that occur in actual relational +propositions are of the same type as things, though relations in +extension, which are what Symbolic Logic employs, are of a different +type. (The intensional relations which occur in ordinary relational +propositions are not determinate when their extensions are given, but +the extensional relations of Symbolic Logic are classes of couples.) +Individuals are the only objects of which numbers cannot be +significantly asserted. + +The next type consists of ranges or classes of individuals. (No ordinal +ideas are to be associated with the word range.) Thus “Brown and Jones” +is an object of this type, and will in general not yield a significant +proposition if substituted for “Brown” in any true or false proposition +of which Brown is a constituent. (This constitutes, in a kind of way, a +justification for the grammatical distinction of singular and plural; +but the analogy is not close, since a range may have one term or more, +and where it has many, it may yet appear as singular in certain +propositions.) If u be a range determined by a propositional function +φ(x), not-u will consist of all objects for which φ(x) is false, so +that not-u is contained in the range of significance of φ(x), and +contains only objects of the same type as the members of u. There is a +difficulty in this connection, arising from the fact that two +propositional functions φ(x), ψ(x) may have the same range of truth u, +while their ranges of significance may be different; thus not-u becomes +ambiguous. There will always be a minimum type within which u is +contained, and not-u may be defined as the rest of this type. (The sum +of two or more types is a type; a minimum type is one which is not such +a sum.) In view of the Contradiction, this view seems the best; for +not-u must be the range of falsehood of “x is a u” and “x is an x” must +be in general meaningless; consequently “x is a u” must require that x +and u should be of different types. It is doubtful whether this result +can be insured except by confining ourselves, in this connection, to +minimum types. + +There is an unavoidable conflict with common sense in the necessity for +denying that a mixed class (i.e. one whose members are not all of the +same minimum type) can ever be of the same type as one of its members. +Consider, for example, such phrases as “Heine and the French.” If this +is to be a class consisting of two individuals, “the French” must be +understood as “the French nation,” i.e., as the class as one. If we are +speaking of the French as many, we get a class consisting not of two +members, but of one more than there are Frenchmen. Whether it is +possible to form a class of which one member is Heine, while the other +is the French as many, is a point to which I shall return later; for the +present it is enough to remark that, if there be such a class, it must, +if the Contradiction is to be avoided, be of a different type both from +classes of individuals and from classes of classes of individuals. + +The next type after classes of individuals consists of classes of +classes of individuals. Such are, for example, associations of clubs; +the members of such associations, the clubs, are themselves classes of +individuals. It will be convenient to speak of classes only where we +have classes of individuals, of classes of classes only where we have +classes of classes of individuals, and so on. For the general notion, I +shall use the word range. There is a progression of such types, since a +range may be formed of objects of any given type, and the result is a +range of higher type than its members. + +A new series of types begins with the couple with sense. A range of such +types is what Symbolic Logic treats as a relation: this is the +extensional view of relations. We may then form ranges of relations, or +relations of relations, or relations of couples (such as separation in +Projective Geometry[\*](#fn524-1)), or relations of individuals to +couples, and so on; and in this way we get, not merely a single +progression, but a whole infinite series of progressions. We have also +the types formed of trios, which are the members of triple relations +taken in extension as ranges; but of trios there are several kinds that +are reducible to previous types. Thus if φ(x, y, z) be a propositional +function, it may be a product of propositions φ1(x) . φ2(y) . φ3(z) or a +product φ1(x) . φ2(y, z), or a proposition about x and the couple (y, +z), or it may be analyzable in other analogous ways. In such cases, a +new type does not arise. But if our proposition is not so analyzable—and +there seems no à priori reason why it should always be so—then we obtain +a new type, namely the trio. We can form ranges of trios, couples of +trios, trios of trios, couples of a trio and an individual, and so on. +All these yield new types. Thus we obtain an immense hierarchy of types, +and it is difficult to be sure how many there may be; but the method of +obtaining new types suggests that the total number is only α0 (the +number of finite integers), since the series obtained more or less +resembles the series of rationals in the order 1, 2, … , n, …, 1/2, 1/3, +…, 1/n, …, 2/3, …, 2/5, … 2/(2n + 1), … This, however, is only a +conjecture. + +Each of the types above enumerated is a minimum type; i.e., if φ(x) be a +propositional function which is significant for one value of x belonging +to one of the above types, then φ(x) is significant for every value of x +belonging to the said type. But it would seem—though of this I am +doubtful—that the sum of any number of minimum types is a type, i.e. is +a range of significance for certain propositional functions. Whether or +not this is universally true, all ranges certainly form a type, since +every range has a number; and so do all objects, since every object is +identical with itself. + +Outside the above series of types lies the type proposition; and from +this as starting-point a new hierarchy, one might suppose, could be +started; but there are certain difficulties in the way of such a view, +which render it doubtful whether propositions can be treated like other +objects. + +**498.** Numbers, also, are a type lying outside the above series, and +presenting certain difficulties, owing to the fact that every number +selects certain objects out of every other type of ranges, namely those +ranges which have the given number of members. This renders the obvious +definition of 0 erroneous; for every type of range will have its own +null-range, which will be a member of 0 considered as a range of ranges, +so that we cannot say that 0 is the range whose only member is the +null-range. Also numbers require a consideration of the totality of +types and ranges; and in this consideration there may be difficulties. + +Since all ranges have numbers, ranges are a range; consequently xεx is +sometimes significant, and in these cases its denial is also +significant. Consequently there is a range w of ranges for which xεx is +false: thus the Contradiction proves that this range w does not belong +to the range of significance of xεx. We may observe that xεx can only be +significant when x is of a type of infinite order, since, in xεu, u must +always be of a type higher by one than x; but the range of all ranges is +of course of a type of infinite order. + +Since numbers are a type, the propositional function “x is not a u,” +where u is a range of numbers, must mean “x is a number which is not a +u”; unless, indeed, to escape this somewhat paradoxical result, we say +that, although numbers are a type in regard to certain propositions, +they are not a type in regard to such propositions as “u is contained in +v” or “x is a u.” Such a view is perfectly tenable, though it leads to +complications of which it is hard to see the end. + +That propositions are a type results from the fact—if it be a fact—that +only propositions can significantly be said to be true or false. +Certainly true propositions appear to form a type, since they alone are +asserted (cf. [Appendix A](#appendixA). [§479](#sec479)). But if so, the +number of propositions is as great as that of all objects absolutely, +since every object is identical with itself, and “x is identical with x” +has a one-one relation to x. In this there are, however, two +difficulties. First, what we called the propositional concept appears to +be always an individual; consequently there should be no more +propositions than individuals. Secondly, if it is possible, as it seems +to be, to form ranges of propositions, there must be more such ranges +than there are propositions, although such ranges are only some among +objects (cf. [§343](#sec343)). These two difficulties are very serious, +and demand a full discussion. + +**499.** The first point may be illustrated by somewhat simpler ones. +There are, we know, more classes than individuals; but predicates are +individuals. Consequently not all classes have defining predicates. This +result, which is also deducible from the Contradiction, shows how +necessary it is to distinguish classes from predicates, and to adhere to +the extensional view of classes. Similarly there are more ranges of +couples than there are couples, and therefore more than there are +individuals; but verbs, which express relations intensionally, are +individuals. Consequently not every range of couples forms the extension +of some verb, although every such range forms the extension of some +propositional function containing two variables. Although, therefore, +verbs are essential in the logical genesis of such propositional +functions, the intensional standpoint is inadequate to give all the +objects which Symbolic Logic regards as relations. + +In the case of propositions, it seems as though there were always an +associated verbal noun which is an individual. We have “x is identical +with x” and “the self-identity of x,” “x differs from y” and “the +difference of x and y”; and so on. The verbal noun, which is what we +called the propositional concept, appears on inspection to be an +individual; but this is impossible, for “the self-identity of x” has as +many values as there are objects, and therefore more values than there +are individuals. This results from the fact that there are propositions +concerning every conceivable object, and the definition of identity +shows ([§26](#sec26)) that every object concerning which there are +propositions, is identical with itself. The only method of evading this +difficulty is to deny that propositional concepts are individuals; and +this seems to be the course to which we are driven. It is undeniable, +however, that a propositional concept and a colour are two objects; +hence we shall have to admit that it is possible to form mixed ranges, +whose members are not all of the same type; but such ranges will be +always of a different type from what we may call pure ranges, i.e. such +as have only members of one type. The propositional concept seems, in +fact, to be nothing other than the proposition itself, the difference +being merely the psychological one that we do not assert the proposition +in the one case, and do assert it in the other. + +**500.** The second point presents greater difficulties. We cannot deny +that there are ranges of propositions, for we often wish to assert the +logical product of such ranges; yet we cannot admit that there are more +ranges than propositions. At first sight, the difficulty might be +thought to be solved by the fact that there is a proposition associated +with every range of propositions which is not null, namely the logical +product of the propositions of the range[\*](#fn527-1); but this does +not destroy Cantor’s proof that a range has more sub-ranges than +members. Let us apply the proof by assuming a particular one-one +relation, which associates every proposition p which is not a logical +product with the range whose only member is p, while it associates the +product of all propositions with the null-range of propositions, and +associates every other logical product of propositions with the range of +its own factors. Then the range w which, by the general principle of +Cantor’s proof, is not correlated with any proposition, is the range of +propositions which are logical products, but are not themselves factors +of themselves. But, by the definition of the correlating relation, w +ought to be correlated with the logical product of w. It will be found +that the old contradiction breaks out afresh; for we can prove that the +logical product of w both is and is not a member of w. This seems to +show that there is no such range as w; but the doctrine of types does +not show why there is no such range. It seems to follow that the +Contradiction requires further subtleties for its solution; but what +these are, I am at a loss to imagine. + +Let us state this new contradiction more fully. If m be a class of +propositions, the proposition “every m is true” may or may not be itself +an m. But there is a one-one relation of this proposition to m: if n be +different from m, “every n is true” is not the same proposition as +“every m is true.” Consider now the whole class of propositions of the +form “every m is true,” and having the property of not being members of +their respective m’s. Let this class be w, and let p be the proposition +“every w is true.” If p is a w, it must possess the defining property +of w; but this property demands that p should not be a w. On the other +hand, if p be not a w, then p does possess the defining property of w, +and therefore is a w. Thus the contradiction appears unavoidable. + +In order to deal with this contradiction, it is desirable to reopen the +question of the identity of equivalent propositional functions and of +the nature of the logical product of two propositions. These questions +arise as follows. If m be a class of propositions, their logical product +is the proposition “every m is true,” which I shall denote by ∧‘m. If we +now consider the logical product of the class of propositions composed +of m together with ∧‘m, this is equivalent to “Every m is true and every +m is true,” i.e. to “every m is true” i.e. to ∧‘m. Thus the logical +product of the new class of propositions is equivalent to a member of +the new class, which is the same as the logical product of m. Thus if we +identify equivalent propositional functions (∧‘m being a propositional +function of m), the proof of the above contradiction fails, since every +proposition of the form ∧‘m is the logical product both of a class of +which it is a member and of a class of which it is not a member. + +But such an escape is, in reality, impracticable, for it is quite +self-evident that equivalent propositional functions are often not +identical. Who will maintain, for example, that “x is an even prime +other than 2” is identical with “x is one of Charles II.’s wise deeds or +foolish sayings”? Yet these are equivalent, if a well-known epitaph is +to be credited. The logical product of all the propositions of the class +composed of m and ∧‘m is “Every proposition which either is an m or +asserts that every m is true, is true”; and this is not identical with +“every m is true,” although the two are equivalent. Thus there seems +no simple method of avoiding the contradiction in question. + +The close analogy of this contradiction with the one discussed in +[Chapter x](#chapter10) strongly suggests that the two must have the +same solution, or at least very similar solutions. It is possible, of +course, to hold that propositions themselves are of various types, and +that logical products must have propositions of only one type as +factors. But this suggestion seems harsh and highly artificial. + +To sum up: it appears that the special contradiction of [Chapter +x](#chapter10) is solved by the doctrine of types, but that there is at +least one closely analogous contradiction which is probably not soluble +by this doctrine. The totality of all logical objects, or of all +propositions, involves, it would seem, a fundamental logical difficulty. +What the complete solution of the difficulty may be, I have not +succeeded in discovering; but as it affects the very foundations of +reasoning, I earnestly commend the study of it to the attention of all +students of logic. + +Notes + +## INDEX. + +The references are to pages. References in black type are to passages +where a technical term is defined or explained. + +Absolute, [226](#page226), [448](#page448) + +Abstraction, principle of, [ix](#pageix), [166](#page166), +[**219**](#page219), [242](#page242), [285](#page285), [305](#page305), +[314](#page314), [497](#page497), [519](#page519) + +Acceleration, [474](#page474), [483](#page483); absolute, +[490](#page490), [491](#page491) + +Achilles and the tortoise, [350](#page350), [358](#page358) + +Action and Reaction, [483](#page483) + +Activity, [450](#page450) + +Addition, arithmetical, [118](#page118), [307](#page307); of +individuals, [71](#page71), [133](#page133)–[135](#page135); logical, +[**17**](#page17), [21](#page21), [116](#page116); ordinal, +[318](#page318); of quantities, [179](#page179), [180](#page180); +relational, [182](#page182), [254](#page254); of relations, +[321](#page321); relative, [**26**](#page26), [387n](#fn387-1).; of +vectors, [477](#page477) + +Adjectives, [20n](#fn20-1)., [42](#page42) + +Aggregates, [67](#page67), [**139**](#page139), [442](#page442); and +classes as one, [141](#page141); infinite, [143](#page143) + +Algebra, universal, [376](#page376) + +Aliorelative, [**203**n](#fn203-1)., [320n](#fn320-1). + +All, [72](#page72), [105](#page105), [113](#page113), [305](#page305) + +Analysis, how far falsification, [141](#page141), [466](#page466); +conceptual and real, [466](#page466) + +And, [67](#page67), [69](#page69), [**71**](#page71), [130](#page130) + +Angles, [205](#page205), [414](#page414); axioms of, [415](#page415), +[416](#page416) + +Anharmonic ratio, [**390**](#page390), [391](#page391), [420](#page420) + +Antinomies, of infinity, [188](#page188), +[190](#page190)–[193](#page193); Kant’s, [259](#page259), +[458](#page458)–[461](#page461) + +Any, [45](#page45), [46](#page46), [**57**](#page57), [105](#page105), +[263](#page263), [305](#page305), [351](#page351); and kindred words, +[55](#page55), [**56**](#page56), [59](#page59), [89](#page89), +[91](#page91) + +Archimedes, axiom of, [181](#page181), [252](#page252), +[**254**](#page254), [288](#page288), [332](#page332), [333](#page333), +[337](#page337), [408](#page408) + +Area, [333](#page333), [417](#page417) + +Arithmetic, has no indemonstrables, [127](#page127); and progressions, +[240](#page240); relation-, [321](#page321) + +Arrow, Zeno’s argument of, [350](#page350) + +Assertion, [**34**](#page34)–[**35**](#page35), [48](#page48), +[100](#page100), [502](#page502)ff. + +Assertions, [39](#page39), [44](#page44), [82](#page82), [83](#page83), +[98](#page98), [106](#page106), [505](#page505) + +Associative law, [307](#page307) + +Assumptions, [503](#page503) + +Axioms, in Geometry, [373](#page373), [441](#page441) + +Being, [43](#page43), [49](#page49), [71](#page71), [446](#page446), +[449](#page449) + +Bernoulli, [329n](#fn329-1). + +Bernstein, [306n](#fn306-1), [367n](#fn367-1). + +Bettazzi, [181n](#fn181-1)., [185](#page185) + +Between, [200](#page200), [201](#page201), [205](#page205), +[207](#page207), [**214**](#page214); three theories of, +[208](#page208); is a relation between its terms? [210](#page210); and +difference of sense, [211](#page211); indefinable? [213](#page213); in +projective Geometry, [391](#page391), [393](#page393), [426](#page426); +in descriptive Geometry, [393](#page393) + +Bolyai, [373](#page373) + +Bolzano, [70](#page70), [201n](#fn201-1)., [307](#page307), +[357n](#fn357-1). + +Boole, [10](#page10), [24](#page24), [376](#page376) + +Borel, [306n](#fn306-1)., [367n](#fn367-1). + +Bradley, [41](#page41), [43n](#fn43-1)., [47](#page47), [90](#page90), +[99](#page99), [161n](#fn161-1), [221](#page221), [224](#page224), +[448](#page448), [471](#page471) + +Burali-Forti, [112n](#fn112-1)., [323](#page323), [364n](#fn364-1). + +Calculus, propositional, [13](#page13)–[18](#page18); of classes, +[18](#page18)–[23](#page23); of relations, [23](#page23)–[26](#page26); +logical, [142](#page142); infinitesimal, [259](#page259), +[276](#page276), [304](#page304), [325](#page325)–[330](#page330), +[338](#page338)ff.; principles of a, [376](#page376) + +Cantor, Georg, [viii](#pageviii), [101](#page101), [111](#page111), +[112](#page112), [119](#page119), [120](#page120), [121n](#fn121-1)., +[144](#page144), [157](#page157), [161](#page161), [177](#page177), +[199](#page199), [239n](#fn239-1)., [245](#page245), [259](#page259)ff., +[267](#page267), [270](#page270)ff., [282](#page282), [331](#page331), +[334](#page334), [347](#page347), [350](#page350), [353](#page353), +[371](#page371), [375](#page375), [381](#page381), [390](#page390), +[437](#page437)ff., [444](#page444), [527](#page527); on irrationals, +[283](#page283); on continuity, [287](#page287)ff.; on transfinite +cardinals, [304](#page304)–[311](#page311); on transfinite ordinals, +[312](#page312)–[324](#page324); on infinitesimal segments, +[335](#page335); on orders of infinity, [336](#page336); against +greatest number, [363](#page363)ff. + +Carroll, Lewis, [18n](#fn18-1)., [35](#page35) + +Cassirer, [287n](#fn287-1). + +Cauchy, [329n](#fn329-1). + +Causal laws, [481](#page481), [486](#page486) + +Causality, [474](#page474)–[479](#page479), [481](#page481); in rational +dynamics, [479](#page479) + +Causation, of particulars by particulars, [vii](#pagevii), +[475](#page475), [477](#page477), [481](#page481), [487](#page487) + +Cause, equal to effect? [496](#page496) + +Cayley, [422n](#fn422-1). + +Chain, [245](#page245), [**246**](#page246); of an element, +[245](#page245), [246](#page246) + +Change, [347](#page347), [469](#page469)ff. + +Chasles, [420](#page420) + +Circle, postulate of, [438](#page438), [440](#page440) + +Class, [v](#pagev), [ix](#pageix), [18](#page18)ff., [40](#page40), +[66](#page66)–[81](#page81), [349](#page349), [356](#page356), +[497](#page497), [510](#page510)ff.; extensional view of, [20](#page20), +[67](#page67), [69](#page69), [131](#page131)ff., [513](#page513), +[526](#page526); intensional genesis of, [67](#page67), [515](#page515); +concept of, [**67**](#page67); as many, [68](#page68), [76](#page76), +[104](#page104), [106](#page106), [132](#page132); as one, +[76](#page76), [103](#page103), [104](#page104), [106](#page106), +[132](#page132), [513](#page513), [523](#page523); always definable by a +predicate? [98](#page98), [526](#page526); when a member of itself, +[102](#page102); defined by relation, [97](#page97), [98](#page98); of +terms not haying a given relation to themselves, [102](#page102); +multiplicative, [308](#page308); infinite, [72](#page72), +[106](#page106), [260](#page260), [306](#page306), [356](#page356), +[357](#page357); denumerable, [309](#page309); and well-ordered series, +[322](#page322); of one term, see [Individual](#ind-individual) + +Class-concept, [19](#page19), [20](#page20), [54](#page54), +[56](#page56), [58](#page58), [67](#page67), [101](#page101), +[113](#page113); distinct from class, [68](#page68), [116](#page116), +[131](#page131), [514](#page514) + +Clifford, [434](#page434) + +Cohen, [276n](#fn276-1)., [326](#page326), +[338](#page338)–[345](#page345) + +Collections, [69](#page69), [133](#page133), [140](#page140), +[513](#page513), [514](#page514) + +Colours, [466](#page466), [467](#page467) + +Commutative law, [118](#page118), [240](#page240), [307](#page307), +[312](#page312) + +Composition, [**17**](#page17), [31](#page31) + +Concepts, [**44**](#page44), [211](#page211), [508](#page508); as such +and as terms, [45](#page45); variation of, [86](#page86); propositional, +[503](#page503), [526](#page526); can they be subjects? [46](#page46), +[507](#page507), [510](#page510) + +Congruent figures, [417](#page417) + +Conjunction, numerical, [**57**](#page57), [67](#page67), [72](#page72), +[113](#page113), [131](#page131)ff.; propositional, [**57**](#page57); +variable, [**57**](#page57) + +Connection, [202](#page202), [**239**](#page239) + +Consecutive, [**201**](#page201) + +Constants, logical, [**3**](#page3), [7](#page7), [8](#page8), +[11](#page11), [106](#page106), [429](#page429); and parameters, +[6](#page6) + +Constituent, of a proposition, [356](#page356), [510](#page510); of a +whole, [**143**](#page143), [144](#page144) + +Continuity, [188](#page188), [193](#page193), [259](#page259), +[286](#page286)ff., [368](#page368); Dedekind’s axiom of, +[279](#page279), [294](#page294); ordinal, +[296](#page296)–[303](#page303); philosophy of, +[346](#page346)–[354](#page354); antinomies of, [347](#page347)ff.; in +projective Geometry, [387](#page387), [390](#page390), [437](#page437); +of Euclidean space, [438](#page438)ff. + +Continuum, in philosophical sense, [146](#page146), [440](#page440); in +mathematical sense, [**297**](#page297), [**299**n](#fn299-1)., +[310](#page310); composed of elements, [344](#page344), [347](#page347), +[353](#page353), [440](#page440)ff.; primarily arithmetical, +[444](#page444) + +Contradiction, the, [vi](#pagevi), [ix](#pageix), [20](#page20), +[66](#page66), [79](#page79), [97](#page97), +[101](#page101)–[107](#page107), [305](#page305), [362](#page362), +[513](#page513), [515](#page515), [517](#page517), [523](#page523), +[524](#page524), [525](#page525); Frege’s solution of, [522](#page522); +law of, [455](#page455) + +Coordinates, [439](#page439); projective, [385](#page385), +[388](#page388), [390](#page390), [422](#page422), [427](#page427) + +Correlation, [260](#page260); of classes, [**261**](#page261); of +series, [**261**](#page261), [321](#page321) + +Counting, [114](#page114), [133](#page133), [309](#page309) + +Couples, are relations classes of? [24](#page24), [99](#page99), +[524](#page524); with sense, [99](#page99), [512](#page512), +[524](#page524) + +Couples, separation of, [200](#page200), [205](#page205), +[214](#page214), [237](#page237); and transitive asymmetrical relations, +[215](#page215), [238](#page238); in projective geometry, +[386](#page386), [387](#page387) + +Couturat, [66](#page66), [194n](#fn194-1)., [267n](#fn267-1)., +[291n](#fn291-1)., [296n](#fn296-1)., [310n](#fn310-1)., +[326n](#fn326-1)., [410n](#fn410-1)., [441n](#fn441-1). + +Cremona, [384n](#fn384-1)., [420](#page420) + +Dedekind, [90](#page90), [111](#page111), [157](#page157), +[199](#page199), [239n](#fn239-1)., [245](#page245)–[251](#page251), +[294](#page294), [307](#page307), [315](#page315), [357n](#fn357-1)., +[381](#page381), [387](#page387), [438](#page438); on irrationals, +[278](#page278)ff. + +Deduction, [522](#page522); principles of, [4](#page4), [15](#page15), +[**16**](#page16) + +Definition, [15](#page15), [27](#page27), [111](#page111), +[429](#page429), [497](#page497); and the, [62](#page62); always +nominal, [112](#page112); by abstraction, [114](#page114), +[219](#page219), [249](#page249) + +De Morgan, [23](#page23), [64n](#fn64-1)., [218n](#fn218-1)., +[219n](#fn219-1)., [326](#page326), [376](#page376) + +Denoting, [45](#page45), [47](#page47), [**53**](#page53), +[106](#page106), [131](#page131); and predicates, [54](#page54); and +any, etc., [55](#page55), [62](#page62); are there different kinds of? +[56](#page56), [61](#page61); and identity, [63](#page63); and infinite +classes, [72](#page72), [73](#page73), [145](#page145), [350](#page350) + +Derivatives, of a series, [**290**](#page290)ff., [323](#page323); of +functions, [328](#page328) + +Descartes, [157](#page157) + +Dichotomy, Zeno’s argument of, [348](#page348) + +Differential coefficients, [173](#page173), [**328**](#page328) + +Dimensions, [372](#page372), [**374**](#page374); definable logically, +[376](#page376); axiom of three, [388](#page388), [399](#page399) + +Dini, [324n](#fn324-1)., [327](#page327), [328n](#fn328-1)., +[329n](#fn329-1). + +Direction, [435](#page435) + +Disjunction, [15n](#fn15-1)., [**17**](#page17), [31](#page31); variable +and constant, [22](#page22), [**58**](#page58) + +Distance, [171](#page171), [179](#page179), [182n](#fn182-1)., +[195](#page195), [252](#page252)–[256](#page256), [288](#page288), +[353](#page353); measurement of, [180](#page180), [181](#page181), +[254](#page254), [408](#page408); and order, [204](#page204), +[409](#page409), [419](#page419); and relative position, +[252](#page252); not implied by order, [252](#page252), [254](#page254); +definition of, [253](#page253); and limits, [254](#page254); and +stretch, [254](#page254), [342](#page342), [352](#page352), +[408](#page408)ff., [435](#page435); in Arithmetic, [254](#page254); +axioms of, [407](#page407)ff., [413](#page413), [424](#page424); and +straight line, [410](#page410); projective theory of, [422](#page422), +[425](#page425), [427](#page427); descriptive theory of, +[423](#page423)–[425](#page425) + +Distributive law, [240](#page240), [307](#page307) + +Diversity, [**23**](#page23); conceptual, [46](#page46) + +Divisibility, infinite, [460](#page460) + +Divisibility, magnitude of, [149](#page149), [151](#page151), +[153](#page153), [173](#page173), [230](#page230), [333](#page333), +[345](#page345), [**411**](#page411), [425](#page425), [428](#page428); +and measurement, [178](#page178); not a property of wholes as such, +[179](#page179), [412](#page412) + +Domain, see [Relation](#ind-relation) + +Duality, logical, [26](#page26); geometrical, [375](#page375), +[392](#page392) + +Du Bois Reymond, [181n](#fn181-1)., [254](#page254), [336](#page336) + +Dynamics, [vi](#pagevi); as pure mathematics, [465](#page465); two +principles of, [496](#page496) + +Economics, mathematical, [233n](#fn233-1). + +Electricity, [494](#page494), [496](#page496) + +Empiricism, [373](#page373), [492](#page492) + +Epistemology, [339](#page339) + +Equality, [219](#page219), [339](#page339); of classes, [21](#page21); +of relations, [24](#page24); of quantities, [159](#page159) + +Equivalence, of propositions, [15](#page15), [527](#page527) + +Ether, [485](#page485), [496](#page496) + +Euclid, [157](#page157), [287](#page287), [373](#page373), +[404](#page404), [420](#page420), [438](#page438); his errors, +[405](#page405)–[407](#page407) + +Euler, [329n](#fn329-1). + +Evellin, [352](#page352) + +Existence, [vii](#pagevii), [449](#page449), [458](#page458), +[472](#page472); of a class, [**21**](#page21), [32](#page32) + +Existence-theorems, [ix](#pageix), [322](#page322), [431](#page431), +[497](#page497); and Euclid’s problems, [404](#page404) + +Exponentiation, [120](#page120), [308](#page308) + +Exportation, [**16**](#page16) + +Extension and Intension, [66](#page66) + +Fano, [385n](#fn385-1). + +Field, see [Relation](#ind-relation) + +Finite, [**121**](#page121), [192](#page192), [371](#page371) + +Finitude, axiom of, [188](#page188), [191](#page191), [460](#page460); +absolute and relative, [332](#page332) + +Force, [474](#page474), [482](#page482) + +Formal truth, [40](#page40), [105](#page105) + +Formalism, limits of, [16](#page16), [41](#page41) + +Formula, [267](#page267) + +Fractions, [149](#page149), [150](#page150), [**151**](#page151) + +Frege, [vi](#pagevi), [viii](#pageviii), [19](#page19), [68n](#fn68-1)., +[76n](#fn76-1)., [111](#page111), [124n](#fn124-1)., [132](#page132), +[142](#page142), [451n](#fn451-1)., [501](#page501)ff.; three points of +disagreement with, [501](#page501); his three elements in judgment, +[502](#page502); his sign of judgment, [503](#page503), [519](#page519); +his theory of ranges, [505](#page505), [510](#page510)ff.; his Begriff, +[505](#page505), [507](#page507); his Symbolic Logic, [518](#page518); +his Arithmetic, [519](#page519); his theory of progressions, +[520](#page520); Kerry’s criticism of, [520](#page520) + +Frischauf, [410](#page410) + +Functions, [32](#page32), [262](#page262), [**263**](#page263); +non-serial, [263](#page263); numerical, [265](#page265); complex, +[266](#page266), [376](#page376); real, [324](#page324); continuous, +[**326**](#page326); Frege’s theory of, [505](#page505)ff. + +Functions, propositional, [13](#page13), [**19**](#page19), +[82](#page82)–[88](#page88), [92](#page92), [263](#page263), +[356](#page356), [508](#page508)ff.; definable? [83](#page83); +indefinable, [88](#page88), [106](#page106); more numerous than terms? +[103](#page103); and the contradiction, [103](#page103); with two +variables, [94](#page94), [506](#page506); and classes, [19](#page19), +[88](#page88), [93](#page93), [98](#page98); variable, [103](#page103), +[104](#page104); cardinal number of, [367](#page367); range of +significance of, [523](#page523) + +Fundamental bodies, [491](#page491) + +Generalization, [7](#page7); algebraical, [267](#page267), +[377](#page377) + +Geometry, [199](#page199), [**372**](#page372); distance and stretch +theories of, [181](#page181); and actual space, [372](#page372), +[374](#page374); three kinds of, [381](#page381); based on distance, +[410](#page410), [492](#page492); and order, [419](#page419); has no +indemonstrables, [429](#page429) + +Geometry, descriptive, [199](#page199), [382](#page382), +[393](#page393)–[403](#page403); indefinables of, [394](#page394), +[395](#page395), [397](#page397); axioms of, [394](#page394)ff.; their +mutual independence, [396](#page396); relation to projective Geometry, +[400](#page400)ff.; and distance, [423](#page423)–[425](#page425) + +Geometry, elliptic, [206](#page206), [382](#page382), [391](#page391), +[399](#page399), [413](#page413); Euclidean, [391](#page391), +[399](#page399), [442](#page442); hyperbolic, [255](#page255), +[382](#page382), [391](#page391), [399](#page399); non-Euclidean, +[158](#page158), [179](#page179), [255](#page255), [373](#page373), +[381](#page381), [436](#page436); of position, [393](#page393) + +Geometry, metrical, [382](#page382), [392](#page392), [403](#page403), +[404](#page404)–[418](#page418); and quantity, [407](#page407); and +distance, [407](#page407); and stretch, [414](#page414); relation to +projective and descriptive Geometry, [419](#page419)–[428](#page428) + +Geometry, projective, [199](#page199), [206](#page206), +[381](#page381)–[392](#page392); and order, [385](#page385)ff., +[389](#page389), [421](#page421); requires three dimensions, +[394](#page394), [399n](#fn399-1).; differences from descriptive +Geometry, [419](#page419); independent of metrical Geometry, +[419](#page419)–[421](#page421); history of, [420](#page420); and +distance, [421](#page421), [425](#page425), [427](#page427) + +Gilman, [203n](#fn203-1). + +Grammar, [42](#page42), [497](#page497) + +Grassmann, [376](#page376) + +Gravitation, [485](#page485), [487](#page487), [490](#page490), +[491](#page491) + +Greater, [**122**](#page122), [159](#page159), [222](#page222), +[306](#page306), [323](#page323), [364](#page364) + +Groups, continuous, [436](#page436) + +Hamilton, [376](#page376) + +Harmonic relation, [384](#page384) + +Hegel, [105](#page105), [137](#page137), [287](#page287), +[346](#page346), [355](#page355) + +Helmholtz, [241](#page241) + +Hertz, [494](#page494)–[496](#page496) + +Heymans, [489](#page489) + +Hilbert, [384n](#fn384-1)., [405n](#fn405-1)., [415n](#fn415-1). + +Idea and object, [450](#page450) + +Identity, [**20**](#page20), [96](#page96), [219](#page219), +[502](#page502); distinguished from equality, [21](#page21); and +denoting, [63](#page63); of indiscernibles, [451](#page451) + +Imaginaries, [376](#page376) + +Impenetrability, [467](#page467), [480](#page480) + +Implication, formal, [5](#page5), [11](#page11), [14](#page14), +[**36**](#page36)–[**41**](#page41), [89](#page89), [106](#page106), +[518](#page518); asserts a class of material implications, +[38](#page38); and any, etc., [91](#page91) + +Implication, material, [**14**](#page14), [26](#page26), +[33](#page33)–[36](#page36), [106](#page106), [203n](#fn203-1).; +Frege’s theory of, [518](#page518) + +Importation, [**16**](#page16) + +Inclusion, of classes, [19](#page19), [36](#page36), [40](#page40), +[78](#page78) + +Incommensurables, [287](#page287), [438](#page438), [439](#page439) + +Incompatibility, synthetic, [233](#page233) + +Indefinables, [v](#pagev), [112](#page112) + +Indication, [502](#page502) + +Individual, relation to class, [18](#page18), [**19**](#page19), +[26](#page26), [77](#page77), [103](#page103), [512](#page512), +[522](#page522); distinct from class whose only member it is? +[vi](#pagevi), [23](#page23), [68](#page68), [106](#page106), +[130](#page130), [513](#page513), [514](#page514), [517](#page517) + +Induction, [11n](#fn11-1)., [441](#page441); mathematical, +[123](#page123), [192](#page192), [240](#page240), [245](#page245), +[246](#page246), [248](#page248), [260](#page260), [307](#page307), +[314](#page314), [315](#page315), [357](#page357), [371](#page371), +[520](#page520) + +Inertia, law of, [482](#page482) + +Inextensive, [342](#page342) + +Inference, asyllogistic, [10](#page10); and deduction, [11n](#fn11-1).; +logical and psychological, [33](#page33); two premisses unnecessary, +[35](#page35) + +Infinite, [**121**](#page121), [259](#page259), [260](#page260), +[315](#page315), [368](#page368); antinomies of, [188](#page188), +[190](#page190), [355](#page355); not specially quantitative, +[194](#page194); as limit of segments, [273](#page273); mathematical +theory of, [304](#page304), [355](#page355); philosophy of, +[355](#page355)–[368](#page368); improper, +[331](#page331)–[337](#page337); orders of, [335](#page335) + +Infinitesimal, [188](#page188), [260](#page260), [276](#page276), +[325](#page325), [330](#page330), [331](#page331)–[337](#page337); +defined, [331](#page331); instances of, [332](#page332); philosophy of, +[338](#page338)–[345](#page345); and continuity, [344](#page344); and +change, [347](#page347) + +Integers, infinite classes of, [299](#page299), [310n](#fn310-1). + +Integral, definite, [**329**](#page329) + +Intensity, [164](#page164) + +Interaction, [446](#page446), [453](#page453) + +Intuition, [260](#page260), [339](#page339), [456](#page456) + +Involution, [385](#page385), [426](#page426) + +Is, [49](#page49), [64n](#fn64-1)., [100](#page100), [106](#page106) + +Isolated points, [**290**](#page290) + +Jevons, [376](#page376) + +Johnson, viii, [435n](#fn435-1). + +Jordan, [329n](#fn329-1). + +Kant, [4](#page4), [143](#page143), [158](#page158), [168](#page168), +[177](#page177), [184](#page184), [223n](#fn223-1)., [227](#page227), +[259](#page259), [326](#page326), [339](#page339), [342](#page342), +[355](#page355), [373](#page373), [442](#page442), [446](#page446), +[450](#page450), [454](#page454), [456](#page456)–[461](#page461), +[489](#page489) + +Kerry, [505](#page505), [520](#page520)–[522](#page522) + +Killing, [400n](#fn400-1)., [404n](#fn404-1)., [405n](#fn405-1)., +[415n](#fn415-1)., [434n](#fn434-1). + +Kinetic axes, [490](#page490) + +Kirchoff, [474](#page474) + +Klein, [385](#page385), [389](#page389), [390n](#fn390-1)., +[421](#page421), [422n](#fn422-1)., [424n](#fn424-1)., +[426n](#fn426-1)., [434n](#fn434-1)., [436](#page436) + +Kronecker, [241](#page241) + +Law, [268](#page268) + +Leibniz, [5](#page5), [10](#page10), [132](#page132), [143](#page143), +[144](#page144), [145n](#fn145-1)., [221](#page221), [222](#page222), +[227](#page227), [228](#page228), [252](#page252), [287](#page287), +[306](#page306), [325](#page325), [329n](#fn329-1)., [338](#page338), +[342](#page342), [347](#page347), [355](#page355), [410](#page410), +[440n](#fn440-1)., [445](#page445), [450](#page450), [451](#page451), +[456](#page456), [461](#page461), [489](#page489), [492](#page492) + +Lie, [436](#page436) + +Likeness, [**242**](#page242), [261](#page261), [**262**](#page262), +[317](#page317), [321](#page321) + +Limitation, principle of, [314](#page314) + +Limiting-point, [**290**](#page290), [323](#page323) + +Limits, [276](#page276)ff., [320](#page320), [361](#page361); and +infinity, [188](#page188), [189](#page189), [260](#page260); and +continuity, [353](#page353); conditions for existence of, +[291](#page291)ff., [389](#page389); and the infinitesimal calculus, +[325](#page325), [339](#page339); of functions, [327](#page327), +[328](#page328); and magnitude, [341](#page341) + +Line, see [Straight](#ind-straight) + +Line-Geometry, [432](#page432) + +Linearity, axiom of, [**181**](#page181), [252](#page252), +[254](#page254), [408](#page408) + +Lobatchewsky, [373](#page373) + +Logic, symbolic, [10](#page10)–[32](#page32); three parts of, +[11](#page11); and mathematics, [v](#pagev), [5](#page5), [8](#page8), +[106](#page106), [397](#page397), [429](#page429), [457](#page457) + +Lotze, [221](#page221), [446](#page446)ff. + +Macaulay, [491](#page491) + +Mach, [474](#page474), [489](#page489), [492](#page492) + +Magnitude, [159](#page159), [164](#page164)ff., [194](#page194); +relative theory of, [162](#page162); absolute theory of, +[164](#page164); axioms of, [163](#page163), [165](#page165), +[168](#page168); kinds of, [164](#page164), [334](#page334); and +divisibility, [173](#page173); and existence, [174](#page174), +[177](#page177), [342](#page342); extensive, [182](#page182); intensive, +[182](#page182), [326](#page326), [342](#page342); discrete and +continuous, [193](#page193), [346](#page346); positive and negative, +[229](#page229)–[231](#page231); infinitesimal, [332](#page332); +limiting, [341](#page341) + +Manifold, [67](#page67) + +Mass, [481n](#fn481-1)., [483](#page483), [488](#page488), +[495](#page495); centre of, [490](#page490) + +Mathematics, pure, [vii](#pagevii), [**3**](#page3), [106](#page106), +[112](#page112), [397](#page397), [429](#page429), [456](#page456), +[497](#page497); applied, [5](#page5), [8](#page8), [112](#page112), +[429](#page429); arithmetization of, [259](#page259) + +Matter, [465](#page465)–[468](#page468); as substance, [466](#page466); +relation to space and time, [467](#page467); logical definition of, +[468](#page468) + +Maxwell, [489](#page489) + +McColl, [12](#page12), [13](#page13), [22](#page22) + +Meaning, [47](#page47), [502](#page502) + +Measure, Zeno’s argument of, [352](#page352) + +Measurement, [157](#page157), [176](#page176)–[183](#page183), +[195](#page195); + +Meinong, [55n](#fn55-1)., [162n](#fn162-1)., [168](#page168), +[171n](#fn171-1)., [173n](#fn173-1)., [181n](#fn181-1)., +[184](#page184), [187](#page187), [252](#page252), [253](#page253), +[289](#page289), [419](#page419), [502n](#fn502-1)., [503](#page503) + +Mill, [373](#page373), [522](#page522) + +Möbius net, [385](#page385), [388](#page388) + +Monadism, [476](#page476) + +Monism, [44](#page44), [447](#page447) + +Moore, [viii](#pageviii), [24](#page24), [44n](#fn44-1)., +[51n](#fn51-1)., [446n](#fn446-1)., [448n](#fn448-1)., [454n](#fn454-1). + +Motion, [265](#page265), [344](#page344), [405](#page405), +[469](#page469)–[473](#page473); state of, [351](#page351), +[473](#page473); in geometry, [406](#page406), [418](#page418); logical +definition of, [473](#page473); laws of, +[482](#page482)–[488](#page488); absolute and relative, +[489](#page489)–[493](#page493); Hertz’s law of, [495](#page495) + +Motions, kinematical, [480](#page480); kinetic, [480](#page480); +thinkable, [494](#page494); possible, [495](#page495); natural, +[495](#page495) + +Multiplication, arithmetical, [119](#page119), [307](#page307), +[308](#page308); ordinal, [318](#page318) + +nth, [243](#page243), [250](#page250), [312](#page312) + +Necessity, [454](#page454) + +Negation, of propositions, [**18**](#page18), [31](#page31); of classes, +[23](#page23), [31](#page31), [524](#page524); of relations, +[25](#page25) + +Neumann, [490](#page490) + +Newton, [325](#page325), [338](#page338), [469](#page469), +[481](#page481), [482](#page482)–[492](#page492) + +Noël, [348](#page348), [352](#page352) + +Null-class, [vi](#pagevi), [22](#page22), [**23**](#page23), +[32](#page32), [38](#page38), [68](#page68), [73](#page73), +[106](#page106), [517](#page517), [525](#page525) + +Number, algebraical generalization of, [267](#page267) + +Number, cardinal, logical theory of. [111](#page111)ff., +[241](#page241), [519](#page519), [520](#page520)–[522](#page522); +definable? [111](#page111), [112](#page112), [130](#page130); defined, +[115](#page115), [305](#page305); and classes, [112](#page112), +[305](#page305), [306](#page306), [519](#page519); defined by +abstraction, [114](#page114); transfinite, [112](#page112), +[260](#page260), [304](#page304)–[311](#page311); finite, +[124](#page124), [260](#page260), [357](#page357); Dedekind’s definition +of, [247](#page247), [249](#page249); Cantor’s definition of, +[304](#page304); addition of, [118](#page118), [307](#page307); +multiplication of, [119](#page119), [307](#page307), [308](#page308); of +finite integers, [122](#page122), [309](#page309), [364](#page364); +well-ordered, [**323**](#page323), [364](#page364); of the continuum, +[310](#page310), [364](#page364); is there a greatest? [101](#page101), +[362](#page362)ff.; of cardinal numbers, [362](#page362); of classes, +[362](#page362); of propositions, [362](#page362), [526](#page526), +[527](#page527); as a logical type, [525](#page525) + +Number, ordinal, [240](#page240), [319](#page319); defined, +[242](#page242), [317](#page317); Dedekind’s definition of, +[248](#page248); not prior to cardinal, [241](#page241), +[249](#page249)–[251](#page251); transfinite, [240n](#fn240-1)., +[260](#page260), [312](#page312)–[324](#page324); finite, +[243](#page243), [260](#page260); of finite ordinals, [243](#page243), +[313](#page313); second class of, [**312**](#page312), [315](#page315), +[322](#page322); two principles of formation of, [313](#page313); +addition of, [317](#page317); subtraction of, [317](#page317); +multiplication of, [318](#page318); division of, [318](#page318); no +greatest, [323](#page323), [364](#page364); positive and negative, +[244](#page244) + +Number, relation-, [**262**](#page262), [321](#page321) + +Numbers, complex, [372](#page372), [376](#page376)ff., +[**379**](#page379); ordinal, series of, [323](#page323); positive and +negative, [229](#page229); real, [270](#page270) + +Numbers, irrational, [157](#page157), [270](#page270)ff., +[320](#page320); arithmetical theories of, [277](#page277)ff. + +Numbers, rational, [**149**](#page149)ff., [259](#page259), +[335](#page335); cardinal number of, [310](#page310); ordinal type of, +[296](#page296), [316](#page316), [320](#page320) + +Object, [**55**n](#fn55-1). + +Occupation (of space or time), [465](#page465), [469](#page469), +[471](#page471), [472](#page472) + +One, [241](#page241), [356](#page356), [520](#page520); definable? +[112](#page112), [130](#page130), [135](#page135); applicable to +individuals or to classes? [130](#page130), [132](#page132), +[517](#page517) + +Oppositeness, [96](#page96), [205](#page205) + +Order, [199](#page199)ff., [207](#page207)–[217](#page217), +[255](#page255); not psychological, [242](#page242); cyclic, +[199](#page199); and infinity, [188](#page188), [189](#page189), +[191](#page191), [195](#page195); in projective space, +[385](#page385)ff., [389](#page389); in descriptive space, +[394](#page394), [395](#page395) + +Ordinal element, [200](#page200), [353](#page353) + +Padoa, [111n](#fn111-1)., [114n](#fn114-1)., [125](#page125), +[205](#page205) + +Parallelism, psychophysical, [177](#page177) + +Parallelogram law, [477](#page477) + +Parallels, axiom of, [404](#page404) + +Part, [360](#page360); proper, [**121**](#page121), [246n](#fn246-1).; +ordinal, [361](#page361); three kinds of, [138](#page138), +[143](#page143); similarity to whole, [121](#page121), [143](#page143), +[306](#page306), [316](#page316), [350](#page350), [355](#page355), +[358](#page358), [371](#page371) + +Pascal, [420](#page420) + +Pasch, [390n](#fn390-1)., [391n](#fn391-1)., [393](#page393)ff., +[407n](#fn407-1)., [417](#page417) + +Peano, [vi](#pagevi), [vii](#pagevii), [4](#page4), [10](#page10)ff., +[23](#page23), [26](#page26)–[32](#page32), [36](#page36), +[62](#page62), [68](#page68), [78](#page78)ff., [111](#page111), +[114](#page114), [115](#page115), [131](#page131), [139](#page139), +[142](#page142), [152](#page152), [159n](#fn159-1)., [163n](#fn163-1)., +[199](#page199), [205n](#fn205-1)., [219](#page219), [241n](#fn241-1)., +[248](#page248), [270](#page270), [290](#page290), [300n](#fn300-1)., +[328n](#fn328-1)., [334n](#fn334-1)., [335](#page335), [341](#page341), +[360](#page360), [410](#page410), [437](#page437), [443](#page443), +[501](#page501), [514](#page514), [519](#page519); his indefinables, +[27](#page27), [112](#page112); his indemonstrables, [29](#page29); his +Arithmetic, [124](#page124)–[128](#page128), [239n](#fn239-1).; on real +numbers, [274](#page274); on descriptive geometry, [393](#page393)ff.; +on theory of vectors, [432](#page432) + +Pearson, [474](#page474), [489](#page489) + +Peirce, [23](#page23), [26](#page26), [203n](#fn203-1)., +[232n](#fn232-1)., [320n](#fn320-1)., [376](#page376), [387n](#fn387-1). + +Pencils of planes, [400](#page400) + +Perception, its function in philosophy, [v](#pagev), [129](#page129) + +Permutations, [**316**](#page316) + +Philosophy, of Mathematics, [**4**](#page4), [226](#page226); +distinguished from Mathematics, [128](#page128); and Mathematics, +[338](#page338) + +Pieri, [199](#page199), [216n](#fn216-1)., [382](#page382)ff., +[410](#page410), [421](#page421) + +Planes, projective, [384](#page384); kinds of, [391](#page391); +descriptive, [398](#page398); ideal, [400](#page400), [402](#page402); +metrical [410](#page410) + +Plato, [73](#page73), [355](#page355), [357](#page357), [438](#page438), +[446](#page446) + +Pleasure, quantity of, [162](#page162), [174](#page174); magnitude of, +[164](#page164); and pain, [233n](#fn233-1). + +Pluralism, [viii](#pageviii) + +Poincaré, [347](#page347) + +Point-pairs, [426](#page426) + +Points, [382](#page382), [394](#page394), [437](#page437), +[443](#page443); rational and irrational, [389](#page389); ideal, +[400](#page400); proper and improper ideal, [423](#page423); imaginary, +[420](#page420); logical objections to, [445](#page445)–[455](#page455); +material, [445](#page445); indiscernible? [446](#page446), +[451](#page451) + +Position, absolute and relative, [220](#page220), [221](#page221), +[444](#page444)ff. + +Power, [364](#page364)n. See [Number, cardinal](#ind-nc) + +Predicates, [**45**](#page45), [56](#page56); predicable of themselves, +[96](#page96), [97](#page97), [102](#page102) + +Premiss, empirical, [441](#page441) + +Presentations, [446](#page446), [450](#page450) + +Primes, ordinal, [319](#page319) + +Process, endless. See [Regress](#ind-regress) + +Product, logical, of propositions, [**16**](#page16), [519](#page519), +[527](#page527); of classes, [**21**](#page21) + +Product, relative, [**25**](#page25), [98](#page98) + +Progressions, [199](#page199), [239](#page239)ff., [247](#page247), +[283](#page283), [313](#page313), [314](#page314), [520](#page520); +existence of, [322](#page322), [497](#page497) + +Projection, [390](#page390), [393](#page393) + +Proper names, [42](#page42), [**44**](#page44), [502](#page502) + +Propositions, [ix](#pageix), [13](#page13), [15](#page15), +[211](#page211), [502](#page502), [525](#page525); unity of, +[50](#page50), [51](#page51), [107](#page107), [139](#page139), +[466](#page466), [507](#page507); when analyzable into subject and +assertion, [83](#page83)ff., [106](#page106), +[505](#page505)–[510](#page510); can they be infinitely complex? +[145](#page145); cardinal number of, [367](#page367); contradiction as +to number of, [527](#page527); existential theory of, [viii](#pageviii), +[449](#page449), [493](#page493) + +Quadratic forms, [**104**](#page104), [512](#page512), [514](#page514) + +Quadrics, [403](#page403) + +Quadrilateral construction, [333](#page333), [384](#page384); in +metrical geometry, [417](#page417) + +Quantity, [**159**](#page159); relation to number, [157](#page157), +[158](#page158), [160](#page160); not always divisible, [160](#page160), +[170](#page170); sometimes a relation, [161](#page161), [172](#page172); +range of, [170](#page170)–[175](#page175); and infinity, +[188](#page188); does not occur in pure mathematics, [158](#page158), +[419](#page419) + +Quaternions, [432](#page432) + +Ranges, [511](#page511)ff., [524](#page524); extensional or intensional? +[511](#page511); double, [512](#page512) + +Ratio, [**149**](#page149), [336](#page336) + +Rays, [231](#page231), [398](#page398), [414](#page414); order of, +[415](#page415) + +Reality, Kant’s category of, [342](#page342), [344](#page344) + +Reduction, [**17**](#page17) + +Referent, [24](#page24), [**96**](#page96), [99](#page99), +[263](#page263) + +Regress, endless. [50](#page50), [99](#page99), [223](#page223), +[348](#page348) + +Regression, [**291**](#page291), [300](#page300), [320](#page320) + +Relation, [**95**](#page95), [107](#page107); peculiar to two terms, +[**25**](#page25), [99](#page99), [268](#page268); domain of, +[26](#page26), [**97**](#page97), [98](#page98); converse domain of, +[**97**](#page97), [98](#page98); field of, [**97**](#page97), +[98](#page98); in itself and as relating, [49](#page49), +[100](#page100); of a term to itself, [86](#page86), [96](#page96), +[97](#page97), [105](#page105); definable as a class of couples? +[99](#page99), [512](#page512); of a relation to its terms, +[99](#page99); fundamental, [112](#page112); when analyzable, +[163](#page163); particularized by its terms, [51n](#fn51-1)., +[52](#page52), [211](#page211); finite, [**262**](#page262) + +Relations, intensional view of, [24](#page24), [523](#page523), +[526](#page526); extensional view of, [99](#page99), [523](#page523), +[526](#page526); monistic and monadistic theories of, +[221](#page221)ff.; as functions of two variables, [507](#page507), +[521](#page521); converse of, [**25**](#page25), [95](#page95), +[97](#page97), [201n](#fn201-1)., [228](#page228); reality of? +[viii](#pageviii), [99](#page99), [221](#page221), [224](#page224), +[446](#page446)ff.; sense of, [86](#page86), [95](#page95), +[99](#page99), [107](#page107), [225](#page225), [227](#page227); +difference from numbers, [95](#page95); with assigned domains, +[26](#page26), [268](#page268); types of, [8](#page8), [23](#page23), +[403](#page403), [436](#page436); symmetrical, [**25**](#page25), +[96](#page96), [114](#page114), [203n](#fn203-1)., [**218**](#page218); +asymmetrical, [**25**](#page25), [200](#page200), [203n](#fn203-1)., +[**218**](#page218)–[226](#page226); not-symmetrical, [**25**](#page25), +[96](#page96), [**218**](#page218); transitive, [114](#page114), +[203](#page203), [**218**](#page218); intransitive, [**218**](#page218); +not-transitive, [**218**](#page218); reflexive, [114](#page114), +[159n](#fn159-1)., [**219**](#page219), [220](#page220); many-one, +[114](#page114), [**246**n](#fn246-1); one-one, [**113**](#page113), +[130](#page130), [305](#page305); non-repeating, [**232**n](#fn232-1).; +serial, [242](#page242); propositional, [510](#page510); triangular, +[204](#page204), [211](#page211), [471](#page471), [472](#page472). See +[Verbs](#ind-verbs) + +Relation-number. See [Number, relation-](#ind-relation-number) + +Relatum, [24](#page24), [**96**](#page96), [99](#page99), +[263](#page263) + +Representation, of a system, [**245**](#page245) + +Resemblance, immediate, [171](#page171) + +Rest, [265](#page265) + +Reye, [403n](#fn403-1). + +Riemann, [266](#page266) + +Right and left, [223n](#fn223-1)., [231](#page231), [417](#page417) + +Rigidity, [405](#page405) + +Rotation, absolute, [489](#page489)ff. + +Schröder, [10n](#fn10-1)., [12n](#fn12-1)., [13](#page13), +[22](#page22), [24](#page24), [26](#page26), [142](#page142), +[201n](#fn201-1)., [221n](#fn221-1)., [232](#page232), +[306n](#fn306-1)., [320n](#fn320-1)., [367n](#fn367-1). + +Segments, [**271**](#page271), [359](#page359); and limits, +[292](#page292); completed, [**289**](#page289), [303](#page303); of +compact series, [299](#page299)–[302](#page302); of well-ordered series, +[314n](#fn314-1).; infinitesimal, [334](#page334), [353](#page353), +[368](#page368); in projective geometry, [385](#page385)ff.; in +descriptive geometry, [394](#page394), [397](#page397) + +Semi-continuum, [**320**](#page320) + +Separation. See [Couples](#ind-couples) + +Series, [199](#page199); compact, [193n](#fn193-1)., [203](#page203), +[259](#page259), [271](#page271), [277](#page277), [287](#page287), +[289](#page289), [299](#page299)–[303](#page303); closed, +[202](#page202), [204](#page204), [205](#page205), +[234](#page234)–[238](#page238), [**297**](#page297), [381](#page381), +[387](#page387); infinite, [204](#page204), [239](#page239); +denumerable, [296](#page296), [298](#page298); continuous, +[205](#page205), [271](#page271), [287](#page287)ff.; well-ordered, +[310](#page310), [**319**](#page319), [322](#page322), [363](#page363); +independent, [262](#page262); by correlation, [262](#page262), +[363](#page363); complete, [269](#page269), [303](#page303); perfect, +[273](#page273), [288](#page288), [290](#page290), [**292**](#page292), +[297](#page297); coherent, [274](#page274), [283](#page283), +[297](#page297); cohesive, [**288**](#page288); fundamental, +[283](#page283), [297](#page297); simple and multiple, [372](#page372); +and distance, [204](#page204); and triangular relations, [204](#page204) + +Sheaves, [400](#page400) + +Sign, difference of, [227](#page227)–[233](#page233) + +Similarity, of classes, [**113**](#page113), [249](#page249), +[261](#page261), [305](#page305), [356](#page356); of null-classes, +[521](#page521); of whole and part, see [Part](#ind-part) + +Simplification, [**16**](#page16) + +Some, distinguished from a, [56n](#fn56-1)., [59](#page59) + +Space, [372](#page372), [436](#page436), [442](#page442); an infinite +aggregate, [143](#page143), [443](#page443), [455](#page455); absolute, +[227](#page227), [445](#page445)ff.; finite and infinite, +[403](#page403); continuity of, [437](#page437)–[444](#page444); +subjective? [446](#page446); empty, [446](#page446), [449](#page449), +[465](#page465); à priori? [454](#page454); and existence, +[vii](#pagevii), [458](#page458), [461](#page461) + +Spaces, projective, defined, [430](#page430); Euclidean, defined, +[432](#page432); Clifford’s, defined, [434](#page434) + +Spinoza, [221](#page221), [448](#page448) + +Staudt, von, [199](#page199), [216](#page216), [333](#page333), +[384](#page384), [385n](#fn385-1)., [421](#page421), [427n](#fn427-1). + +Stolz, [90](#page90), [282n](#fn282-1)., [283n](#fn283-1)., +[334](#page334), [336](#page336), [378n](#fn378-1)., [379](#page379) + +Straight lines, elliptic, [205](#page205); projective, +[382](#page382)ff., [387](#page387), [391](#page391); segments of +projective, [385](#page385); descriptive, +[394](#page394)–[398](#page398); segments of descriptive, +[394](#page394), [397](#page397); ideal, [400](#page400), +[402](#page402); metrical, [410](#page410); kinds of, [382](#page382), +[391](#page391); and distance, [410](#page410), [492](#page492) + +Streintz, [491](#page491) + +Stretch, [181](#page181), [182n](#fn182-1)., [230](#page230), +[254](#page254), [288](#page288), [342](#page342), [353](#page353), +[408](#page408)ff., [425](#page425) + +Sub-classes, number contained in a given class, [366](#page366), +[527](#page527) + +Subject, and predicate, [47](#page47), [54](#page54), [77](#page77), +[95](#page95), [211](#page211), [221](#page221), [448](#page448), +[451](#page451), [471](#page471); logical, can it be plural? +[69](#page69), [76](#page76), [132](#page132), [136](#page136), +[516](#page516) + +Substance, [43](#page43), [471](#page471) + +Substantives, [42](#page42) + +Such that, [3](#page3), [11](#page11), [19](#page19), [**20**](#page20), +[28](#page28), [79](#page79), [82](#page82) + +Sum, logical, [21](#page21); relative, [**26**](#page26) + +Superposition, [161](#page161), [405](#page405) + +Syllogism, [10](#page10), [**16**](#page16), [21](#page21), +[30](#page30), [457](#page457) + +System, singly infinite, [245](#page245), [**247**](#page247) + +Tautology, law of, [**23**](#page23) + +Terms, [**43**](#page43), [55n](#fn55-1)., [152](#page152), +[211](#page211), [448](#page448), [471](#page471), [522](#page522); of a +proposition, [**45**](#page45), [95](#page95), [211](#page211); +combinations of, [55](#page55), [**56**](#page56); simple and complex, +[137](#page137); of a whole, [**143**](#page143); principal, in a +series, [297](#page297); four classes of, [465](#page465); cardinal +number of, [362](#page362), [366](#page366) + +Tetrahedra, [387](#page387), [399](#page399) + +Than, [100](#page100) + +The, [62](#page62) + +Therefore, [**35**](#page35), [504](#page504) + +Things, [**44**](#page44), [106](#page106), [466](#page466), +[505](#page505); and change, [471](#page471) + +Time, an infinite aggregate, [144](#page144); relational theory of, +[265](#page265); Kant’s theory of, [456](#page456), [458](#page458) + +Totality, [362](#page362), [368](#page368), [528](#page528) + +Transcendental Aesthetic, [259](#page259); Dialectic, [259](#page259) + +Triangles, [387](#page387), [398](#page398) + +Trios, [525](#page525) + +Tristram Shandy, paradox of, [358](#page358) + +Truth, [3](#page3), [35](#page35), [48](#page48), [504](#page504) + +Truth-values, [502](#page502), [519](#page519) + +Two, [135](#page135); not mental, [451](#page451) + +Types, logical, [103](#page103), [104](#page104), [107](#page107), +[131](#page131), [139n](#fn139-1)., [367](#page367), [368](#page368), +[521](#page521), [523](#page523)–[528](#page528); minimum, +[524](#page524), [525](#page525); mixed, [524](#page524), +[526](#page526); number of, [525](#page525); of infinite order, +[525](#page525) + +Types, ordinal, [261](#page261), [321](#page321) + +Unequal, [**160**n](#fn160-1). + +Unit, [136](#page136), [140](#page140); material, [468](#page468) + +Unities, [**139**](#page139), [442](#page442); infinite, +[144](#page144), [223n](#fn223-1).; organic, [466](#page466) + +Vacuum, [468](#page468) + +Vaihinger, [446n](#fn446-1)., [456](#page456) + +Vailati, [205](#page205), [215](#page215), [235](#page235), +[393n](#fn393-1)., [394](#page394), [395](#page395), [413](#page413) + +Validity, [450](#page450) + +Variable, [5](#page5), [6](#page6), [19](#page19), +[89](#page89)–[94](#page94), [107](#page107), [264](#page264); +apparent and real, [13](#page13); range of, [36](#page36), +[518](#page518); as concept, [86](#page86); and generality, +[90](#page90); in Arithmetic, [90](#page90); does not vary, +[90](#page90), [344](#page344), [351](#page351); restricted, +[90](#page90); conjunctive and disjunctive, [92](#page92); individuality +of, [94](#page94); independent, [263](#page263) + +Vectors, [432](#page432) + +Velocity, [473](#page473), [482](#page482) + +Verbs, [20n](#fn20-1)., [42](#page42), [47](#page47)–[52](#page52), +[106](#page106); and relations, [49](#page49), [526](#page526) + +Vieta, [157](#page157) + +Vivanti, [203n](#fn203-1)., [288n](#fn288-1)., [307n](#fn307-1)., +[308](#page308) + +Volumes, [231](#page231), [333](#page333), [417](#page417), +[440](#page440), [443](#page443) + +Ward, [474](#page474), [489](#page489) + +Weierstrass, [111](#page111), [157](#page157), [259](#page259), +[326](#page326), [347](#page347), [473](#page473); on irrationals, +[282](#page282) + +Whitehead, [vi](#pagevi), [viii](#pageviii), [119](#page119), +[253n](#fn253-1)., [299n](#fn299-1)., [307n](#fn307-1)., +[308](#page308), [311n](#fn311-1)., [322](#page322), [376n](#fn376-1)., +[377](#page377), [424n](#fn424-1)., [426](#page426) + +Wholes, [77](#page77), [137](#page137); distinct from classes as many, +[69](#page69), [132](#page132), [134n](#fn134-1).; and logical priority, +[137](#page137), [147](#page147); two kinds of, [138](#page138); +distinct from all their parts, [140](#page140), [141](#page141), +[225](#page225); infinite, [143](#page143)–[148](#page148), +[333](#page333), [349](#page349); always either aggregates or unities? +[146](#page146), [440](#page440), [460](#page460); collective and +distributive, [348](#page348); and enumeration, [360](#page360) + +Zeno, [347](#page347)ff., [355](#page355), [358](#page358) + +Zermelo, [306n](#fn306-1). + +Zero, [168](#page168), [195](#page195), [356](#page356); Meinong’s +theory of, [184](#page184), [187](#page187); as minimum, +[185](#page185); of distance, [186](#page186); as null-segment, +[186](#page186), [273](#page273); and negation, [186](#page186), +[187](#page187); and existence, [187](#page187) + +[![Public Domain +Mark](http://i.creativecommons.org/p/mark/1.0/88x31.png)](http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/mark/1.0/) +Bertrand Russell’s The Principles of Mathematics is in the + +Bertrand Russell’s The Principles of Mathematics is in the [Public +Domain](http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/mark/1.0/) diff --git a/_stories/1911/11701542.md b/_stories/1911/11701542.md deleted file mode 100644 index 5ece916..0000000 --- a/_stories/1911/11701542.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,240 +0,0 @@ ---- -created_at: '2016-05-15T16:34:55.000Z' -title: Standard Oil Company Must Dissolve in 6 Months (1911) -url: http://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1911/05/16/104825255.html -author: davidbarker -points: 101 -story_text: -comment_text: -num_comments: 91 -story_id: -story_title: -story_url: -parent_id: -created_at_i: 1463330095 -_tags: -- story -- author_davidbarker -- story_11701542 -objectID: '11701542' - ---- -[Source](https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1911/05/16/104825255.html "Permalink to TimesMachine: STANDARD OIL COMPANY MUST DISSOLVE IN 6 MONTHS; ONLY UNREASONABLE RESTRAINT OF TRADE FORBIDDEN; And of Such Unreasonable Restraint the Supreme Court Finds the Standard Guilty. - NYTimes.com") - -# TimesMachine: STANDARD OIL COMPANY MUST DISSOLVE IN 6 MONTHS; ONLY UNREASONABLE RESTRAINT OF TRADE FORBIDDEN; And of Such Unreasonable Restraint the Supreme Court Finds the Standard Guilty. - NYTimes.com - -__ HOME - -__ - -__ SEARCH ARCHIVE - -The New York Times - -Buy Reprints in the NYT Store - -SUBSCRIBE NOW - -[NYTimes.com Home][1] - -* [TimesMachine Home][2] -* [Terms of Service][3] -* [Privacy Policy][4] -* Feedback - -INDEX - -  - -PAGEOF 0010 - -__ __ - -CHANGE DATE - -Go - -This date is unavailable. 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Just enough to keep the life in you.” + +“What did you do all that time?” + +“We had to be looking out always; you had to be on your knees, too, for +that. No sleep—o’ course you dozed a bit now and then, but mostly you +had to be watchin’.” + +Impossible to go forwards or backwards, impossible to believed; +stupefied with the bitter icy waiting. I was told later the German +officers had maintained that nine days’ delay. The Bulgarians would +never have held the comitadjis  back so long. + +“And how did the boys feel?” + +“Oh—“ he stopped, puzzled. Fortunately he was no psychologist or he +would have told me how the boys felt, and I should not have learned that +there are times when you do not feel. + +“The last two days—“ he began, and stopped again, puzzled. “Well, +we—didn’t feel good,” he finished lamely. + +“What do you mean?—You sort of woke up, and felt—?” + +“We felt something coming,” he said, tersely; and just for an instant I +felt what those men, a yard apart in the knee-high trenches that were no +protection at all, had felt. + +“We knew they were getting ready for something,” he said, with another +stop, in that elliptical fashion of his. + +“Artillery?” I asked. + +“Yes,” he said, “artillery.” + +“What about your own?” + +“Oh, the English guns were no good at all,” he said, decidedly. “The +French was all right. The Bulgarians worked theirs fine.” + +At the foreign office they had told me the English and French artillery +worked much better than the Bulgarian, but Jimmie had been out there +nine days and nights, in Balkan mountain wind and tropical clothing, and +at the end the Bulgars had come “with the knife.” I do not imagine you +can remember much difference between shrapnel and bayonets sometimes. +Moreover, it is true that the effect of only the enemy’s shrapnel was +apparent to Jimmie; but it is equally true that the Bulgarians are so +inordinately proud of their prowess with the “knife” that they gladly +belittle any other excellence of the army merely to enhance the glory of +their bayonets. “Ein dummer Pat\!” Herbst of the Intelligence Office +said impatiently, when I repeated to him what Jimmie had said of the +Bulgarian artillery. + +“Yes,” Jimmie said again, in his even tone, “ours was all mismanaged—bad +handlin’—I think it was the Colonel’s fault.” + +“Then the Bulgarians came?” I prompted. “Did you check them at all?” + +“We was fagged—no life in us left. And then they were three to one, and +we each of us a yard apart.” He bent down and stroked over his wound +again. + +That was all. January first, took the King’s shilling, and later took +four months of the Dardenelles; after that he marched “fine o’ heart” +with a tropically clothed division the majority of whose members had +never seen service into an early Macedonian winter to meet the +Bulgarians, was rippled with a bayonet through the left thigh and now +lay comfortable and quite content in the Red Cross Hospital in Sofia +where he received every care the Bulgarians themselves received. + +“The only trouble is—they don’t understand you,” he said, not by way of +complaint, but to explain. + +One year this bit of flesh and blood and bone had played the game with +steel, and he was one of those who had come through, even survived the +errors of his officers. I looked at the mild amiable man, with his large +girl’s eyes and face with no indication of energy or personal assertion. +This Irishman, who in the normal course of events might never have gone +from Dublin to London, here in Sofia. For all the purposeless pain of +the situation it was shriekingly comic. + +“Who fights the point?” I asked, rather pointlessly. + +He smiled at the stupidity of the question. + +“Oh, the Bulgarians,” he said, with the nearest approach to emphasis I +had heard from him, bending down over the discomfort of his wound again. diff --git a/_stories/1924/14023255.md b/_stories/1924/14023255.md index 5504adc..f8b5e74 100644 --- a/_stories/1924/14023255.md +++ b/_stories/1924/14023255.md @@ -19,7 +19,7 @@ _tags: objectID: '14023255' --- -[Source](http://www.washingtonpost.com/news/volokh-conspiracy/wp/2017/04/03/new-york-times-in-1924-hitler-tamed-by-prison/ "Permalink to ") - - +From the New York Times archives (I checked myself), Dec. 21, 1924: +Who knows — it may have seemed like a completely sensible prediction at +the time. (“Mein Kampf” was published the following year.) diff --git a/_stories/1930/9872387.md b/_stories/1930/9872387.md index 8ae31f4..52deb57 100644 --- a/_stories/1930/9872387.md +++ b/_stories/1930/9872387.md @@ -19,724 +19,7 @@ _tags: objectID: '9872387' --- -[Source](https://www.sciencenews.org/archive/suns-new-trans-neptunian-planet "Permalink to The Sun's New Trans-Neptunian Planet | Science News") - -# The Sun's New Trans-Neptunian Planet | Science News - -[Skip to main content][2] - -[Menu][3] [Search][3] [Science News][4] - -## Donate - -* [Donate][5] - -## Account - -[Log In][6] - -## The Society - -* [The Society][7] -* [Science News][8] -* [Science News for Students][9] -* [Student Science][10] - -![Science News][11] - -## [Science News][12] - -MISSION CRITICAL - -Support credible science journalism. - -Subscribe to _Science News _today. - -[SUBSCRIBE][13] - -* [ Menu ][14] -* [ Topics ][15] - - * [ Atom & Cosmos ][16] - * [ Body & Brain ][17] - * [ Earth & Environment ][18] - * [ Genes & Cells ][19] - * [ Life & Evolution ][20] - * [ Humans & Society ][21] - * [ Math & Technology ][22] - * [ Matter & Energy ][23] -* [ Blogs ][24] - - * [ Context | Tom Siegfried ][25] - * [ Growth Curve | Laura Sanders ][26] - * [ Scicurious | Bethany Brookshire ][27] - * [ Science Ticker | Science News Staff ][28] - * [ Science & the Public | Science News Staff ][29] - * [ Wild Things | Sarah Zielinski ][30] -* [ Editor's Picks ][31] - - * [ Top stories of 2017 ][32] - * [ Favorite books of 2017 ][33] - * [ Gravitational waves ][34] - * [ Eclipse 2017 ][35] - * [ Cassini mission to Saturn ][36] - * [ See More ][31] -* [ Magazine ][37] - -![3/03 cover][38]][39] - -In the March 3 _SN_: Redefining dinosaurs, minibrain recipes, how flu spreads, lions vs. zebras, Venus prospects, a whale speaks and more.  - -[Current Issue][39] - -## Explore - -* ### Topics - - * [Atom & Cosmos][16] - - * [Biology][40] - - * [Chemistry][41] - - * [Doing Research][42] - - * [Earth Sciences][43] - - * [Environmental Science][44] - - * [Other Disciplines][45] - - * [Physics][46] -* ### Blogs - - * [Context][25] - - * [Growth Curve][47] - - * [Scicurious][27] - - * [Science Ticker][28] - - * [Science & the Public][29] - - * [Wild Things][30] - - * [Culture Beaker][48] - - * [Gory Details][49] -* ### Editor's Picks - - * [2017 Top 10][32] - - * [Favorite books of 2017][33] - - * [Gravitational waves][50] - - * [AGU 2017][51] - - * [Scientists to Watch][52] - - * [Nobels 2017][53] - - * [Cassini mission to Saturn][36] - - * [Eclipse 2017][35] -* ### SN Magazine - - * [March 3, 2018][54] - * [February 17, 2018][55] - * [February 3, 2018][56] - * [January 20, 2018][57] - * [December 23, 2017][58] - * [December 9, 2017][59] - * [November 25, 2017][60] - * [November 11, 2017][61] - -[Latest][62] [Most Viewed][62] - -### All News - -Sort by Published atMost Viewed - -* Science Visualized - -[New mapping shows just how much fishing impacts the world's seas][63] - -February 22, 2018 - -by Carolyn Gramling - -* Science Stats - -[Global Virome Project is hunting for more than 1 million unknown viruses ][64] - -February 22, 2018 - -by Laurel Hamers - -* News - -[Cave art suggests Neandertals were ancient humans' mental equals ][65] - -February 22, 2018 - -by Bruce Bower - -* News in Brief - -[The last wild horses aren't truly wild][66] - -February 22, 2018 - -by Erika Engelhaupt - -* Editor's Note - -[Building a bright future for science journalism][67] - -February 22, 2018 - -by Nancy Shute - -* Society Update - -[Congratulations to the 40 Regeneron Science Talent Search finalists!][68] - -* Letters to the Editor - -[Readers weigh in on human gene editing and more][69] - -February 22, 2018 - -by Science News Staff - -* 50 Years Ago - -[50 years ago, early organ transplants brought triumph and tragedy][70] - -February 22, 2018 - -by Bethany Brookshire - -* Feature - -[New fossils are redefining what makes a dinosaur][71] - -February 21, 2018 - -by Carolyn Gramling - -* News in Brief - -[An amateur astronomer caught a supernova explosion on camera][72] - -February 21, 2018 - -by Lisa Grossman - -* Growth Curve - -[A new study eases fears of a link between autism and prenatal ultrasounds][73] - -February 21, 2018 - -by Laura Sanders - -* Society Update - -[Changing toothpastes? 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Russell + ") -# -In Praise of Idleness - -By Bertrand Russell - +# +In Praise of Idleness + +By Bertrand Russell + ## In Praise of Idleness @@ -102,16 +102,7 @@ Above all, there will be happiness and joy of life, instead of frayed nerves, we _ This text was first provided by the Massachusetts Green Party. | -* * * - -[Add Your Comments][2] \- [Intolerance & Idleness][3] @_z Times_ - -[Back][4] to the Anarchist Reading List - -from the Anarchist Reading List at: http://www.zpub.com/notes/aan-read.html - [1]: http://www.zpub.com/br.html [2]: http://www.greenspun.com/com/zpub/notes/idle.html [3]: http://www.zpub.com/z/zt-vol2-1.html [4]: http://www.zpub.com/aan-read.html - diff --git a/_stories/1932/11648160.md b/_stories/1932/11648160.md index 61ee83b..3168844 100644 --- a/_stories/1932/11648160.md +++ b/_stories/1932/11648160.md @@ -19,7 +19,448 @@ _tags: objectID: '11648160' --- -[Source](https://www.winstonchurchill.org/publications/finest-hour/23-finest-hour-136/2251-my-new-york-misadventure/ "Permalink to ") +FINEST HOUR 136, AUTUMN 2007 +BY WINSTON S. CHURCHILL +First published in two parts in The Daily Mail, 4/5 January 1932, and +later in volume form in The Collected Essays of Sir Winston Churchill, +vol. IV, Churchill at Large (London: Library of Imperial History, 1975). +Copyright © Winston S. Churchill, reprinted in Finest Hour by kind +permission of Curtis Brown, Ltd., and the Churchill Literary Estate. +\================== + +INTRODUCTION + +In New York in December 1931, on a lecture tour seeking to recoup his +1929 losses in the stock market crash, Churchill was searching for his +friend Bernard Baruch’s apartment. Looking the wrong way halfway across +Fifth Avenue, he was struck by a car and almost killed. In hospital, he +began dictating, while his bodyguard Sgt. Thompson took measures to +maintain his privacy— “which included flinging all the clothes out of +incoming laundry baskets to prevent reporters from disturbing the +sickroom by hiding in the baskets to gain admittance,” according to +Robert Lewis Taylor in Winston Churchill: An Informal Study of Greatness +(New York: Doubleday, 1952). No working writer can be unimpressed with +Churchill’s ability to turn mishap into opportunity. Taylor adds: + +Churchill was in agreement with his doctors that he should be guarded +from upsets. His concern, while identical to theirs, was prompted by a +different reason. Propped up in bed, he was busily at work on a rush +article tentatively titled, “My New York Misadventure.” He finished it +without distraction, sold it for $2500, then got up and took a +convalescent trip to the Bahamas on the proceeds. Some weeks later, back +home at Chartwell, he resumed the massive writing projects to which he +was now dedicated. + +Today, two things strike us about this article. The first is amusing: it +could have happened yesterday, not seventy-five years ago; yet much +would be avoided— Churchill would have had a cell phone\! The second is +more profound. It is the lesson Churchill offers us in facing death: + +“There is no room for remorse or fears. If at any moment in this long +series of sensations a grey veil deepening into blackness had descended +upon the sanctum I should have felt or feared nothing additional. Nature +is merciful and does not try her children, man or beast, beyond their +compass….For the rest—live dangerously; take things as they come; dread +naught, all will be well. ” —RML + +\==================== + +Some years ago there was a play at the Grand Guignol called “At the +Telephone,” which attracted much attention. A husband, called away to +Paris, leaves his wife in their suburban home. Every precaution is taken +against burglars. There is the maid who will stay in the kitchen; there +is the door which is locked; there is the revolver in the drawer of the +writing table; and lastly, of course, there is, if needed, the appeal +for help by the telephone. + +One by one the usefulness of all these measures disappears. The servant +is called away; she leaves the front door unlocked so that she can +return. She takes with her the key of the drawer in which the revolver +is kept. Darkness comes on, and in the final act the agonized husband +hears over the telephone his wife’s appeal for help while she is the +victim of a murderous outrage. An impressive effect is given of doom +marching forward step by step and of every human preventive slipping +silently out of the path. + +Something of this impression rests with me when I recall my experiences +of the night of 13 December 1931. I had finished dinner and was inclined +to go to bed; but an old friend of mine rang up and suggested that I +should go round to his house. He was Mr. Bernard Baruch, who was the +head of the War Industries Board during the two years I was Minister of +Munitions. We made friends over a long period of official cables on +grave business, and have preserved these relations through the now +lengthening years of peace. He said he had one or two mutual friends +whom I was most anxious to meet, and as the hour was a little after half +past nine, I was readily enlisted in the project. + +I descended by lift the thirty-nine storeys which separated my room from +the street level. When I arrived at the bottom it occurred to me that I +did not know the exact number in Fifth Avenue of my friend’s house. I +knew it was somewhere near 1100. I knew the aspect of the house; I had +been there by daylight on several occasions. It was a house of only five +or six storeys standing with one or two others of similar construction +amid large apartment buildings of more than double the height. I thought +it probable I would pick it out from the windows of my waiting taxicab, +so after a vain search in the telephone book—only Mr. Baruch’s +business address was there—I started. + +Fifth Avenue is an immensely long thoroughfare, and the traffic upon it, +as elsewhere in New York, is regulated by red and green lights. When the +red light shows, every vehicle must stop at the nearest crossroad. When +after an interval of two minutes the lights turn green, they all go as +hard as possible until the light changes into red. Thus we progressed by +a series of jerks. + +When I got near the eleven hundreds I peered out of the cab window and +scanned the houses as we sped past, but could not see any like the one I +was seeking They all seemed to be tall buildings of fourteen or fifteen +storeys. On the left lay the dark expanse of Central Park. + +At length we reached the twelve hundreds and it was certain I had +overshot my mark. I told the cabman to turn round and go back slowly so +that I could scan every building in turn. Hitherto we had been moving up +the right or centre of the thoroughfare and could at any moment have +stopped opposite any house. Now we had turned round. We were on the +Park, or far side from the houses, with a stream of traffic between us +and the pavement. + +At length I saw a house smaller than the rest and told the cabman to +turn in there to make inquiries. It occurred to me that as we must be +within a hundred houses of Mr. Baruch’s address, and that as he was so +prominent a citizen, any of the porters of the big apartment houses +would know which his house was. A London butler nearly always knows who +lives in the three or four houses on the right or left. + +The porter of the apartment house at which I inquired recognized me at +once and said he had served in the South African War. He had no idea +where Mr. Baruch lived, but eagerly produced the telephone book, which +could, as I have stated, give no clue in my present quest. + +In order to stop opposite this house we had to wait until the light +changed, then turn round on to the opposite course, draw up at the +pavement \[sidewalk in USA\], and thereafter make a second turn, again +being very likely stopped by a change in the light. When this had +happened three times and we were unlucky in missing the permissive green +light, I began to be a little impatient. + +It was now nearly half-past ten. My friends knew I had started an hour +before. Ordinarily the journey should not have taken ten minutes. They +might think some accident had happened to me or that I had changed my +mind and was not coming at all. They would be waiting about for a tardy +guest. I began to be worried about the situation at the house I was +seeking. I thought I might have, after all, to go back to my hotel and +go to bed. + +We had now arrived, as I supposed, at about the nine hundreds, and here +were certainly houses much smaller than the others. So instead of going +through this long ritual of cab-turning on to the other side of the +street, with all the delays of the lights, and then returning again on +to its general course, I told the cabman to stop where he was on the +Central Park side of the avenue; I would walk across the road myself and +inquire at the most likely house. + +In England we frequently cross roads along which fast traffic is moving +in both directions. I did not think the task I set myself now either +difficult or rash. But at this moment habit played me a deadly trick. I +no sooner got out of the cab somewhere about the middle of the road and +told the driver to wait than I instinctively turned my eyes to the left. +About 200 yards away were the yellow headlights of an approaching car. I +thought I had just time to cross the road before it arrived; and I +started to do so in the prepossession—wholly unwarranted— that my only +dangers were from the left. The yellow-lighted car drew near and I +increased my pace towards the pavement, perhaps twenty feet away. + +Suddenly upon my right I was aware of something utterly unexpected and +boding mortal peril. I turned my head sharply. Right upon me, scarcely +its own length away, was what seemed a long dark car rushing forward at +full speed. + +There was one moment—I cannot measure it in time—of a world aglare, of a +man aghast. I certainly thought quickly enough to achieve the idea, “I +am going to be run down and probably killed.” Then came the blow. + +I felt it on my forehead and across the thighs. But besides the blow +there was an impact, a shock, a concussion indescribably violent. Many +years ago at “Plugstreet” in Flanders, a 4.2 shell burst in a corner of +the little room in which we were gathered for luncheon, reducing all to +dust and devastation. This shock was of the same order as the shell +explosion. In my case it blotted out everything except thought. + +Mario Constasino\*, owner of a medium-sized automobile, was running +between 30 and 35 miles an hour on roads which were wet and greasy. He +was on his proper side of the road and perfectly entitled to make the +best speed he could, when suddenly a dark figure appeared immediately in +front of him. He applied all his brakes, and at the same moment, before +they could act, he struck a heavy body. The car shuddered, and, after +skidding somewhat under the brakes, came to rest in probably a few +lengths. Three or four feet from the right-hand wheel lay a black, +shapeless mass. + +Mario had driven for eight or nine years and had never had an accident. +He seems to have been overpoweringly agitated and distressed. He heard a +loud cry, “A man has been killed\!” The traffic banked up on either +side. People came running from all directions. Constables appeared. One +group clustered around Mario, another around the prostrate figure. + +A friend of mine of mathematical predilections\*\* has been kind enough +to calculate the stresses involved in the collision. The car weighed +some 2400 pounds. With my evening coat on I could not have weighed much +less than 200 pounds. Taking the rate of the car at 35 miles an hour—I +think a moderate estimate—I had actually to absorb in my body 6000 +foot-pounds. It was the equivalent of falling thirty feet on to a +pavement. The energy absorbed, though not, of course, the application of +destructive force, was the equivalent of stopping ten pounds of buckshot +dropped 600 feet, or two charges of buckshot at point-blank range. + +I do not understand why I was not broken like an egg-shell or squashed +like a gooseberry. I have seen that the poor policeman who was killed on +the Oxford road was hit by a vehicle travelling at very much the same +speed and was completely shattered. I certainly must be very tough or +very lucky, or both. + +Meanwhile, I had not lost consciousness for an instant. Somewhere in the +black bundle towards which the passers-by are running there is a small +chamber or sanctum wherein all is orderly and undisturbed. There sits +enthroned a mind intact and unshaken. Before it is a keyboard of letters +or buttons directing the body. Above, a whole series of loudspeakers +report the sensations and experiences of the empire controlled from this +tiny headquarters. This mind is in possession of the following +conclusion: + +“I have been run over by a motorcar in America. All those worries about +being late are now swept away. They do not matter any more. Here is a +real catastrophe. Perhaps it is the end.” + +The reader will observe from this authentic record that I experienced no +emotion of regret or fear. I simply registered facts without, except for +a general sense of disaster, the power to moralize upon them. But now +all the loudspeakers began to blare together their information from the +body. My mind was overpowered by the hideous noise they made from which +no intelligible conclusion could be drawn. Wave upon wave of convulsive, +painful sensations seemed to flood into this small room, +preventing thought, paralysing action, but impossible to comprehend. I +had, for instance, no knowledge of whether I was lying on my back or +side or face. + +How long this period lasted I cannot tell. I am told that from the time +I was struck down to when I was lifted into a taxicab was perhaps five +minutes, but although I was in no way stunned, my physical sensations +were so violent that I could not achieve any continuous mental process. +I just had to endure them. + +Presently, however, from my headquarters I see a swirl of figures +assembling around me. I have an impression of traffic arrested and of +dramatically gathered crowds. Friendly hands are laid upon me. + +I suppose I ought now to have had some very pious and inspiring +reflections. However, all that occurred to me was, “I shall not be able +to give my lecture tomorrow night in Brooklyn. Whatever will my poor +agent do about it?” Then more definite impressions. A constable is +bending over me. My head and shoulders are being raised towards him. He +has a book, quite a big book, in his hand. + +“What is your name?” + +“Winston Churchill.” + +I protest I am no snob, but on this occasion I thought it lawful and +prudent to add, “The Right Honourable Winston Churchill from England.” + +I heard distinctly respectful “Oh, ohs” from the crowd. + +“What is your age?” asked the officer, adhering to his routine. + +“Fifty-seven,” I replied, and at the same moment this odd thought +obtruded itself upon my mind. “How very odd to be knocked down in the +street by a motorcar. I shall have a very poor chance of getting over +it.” + +The constable proceeded to demand particulars of the accident My mind +and speech apparatus worked apparently without hitch, and I could +volubly have told him all that is set down here; but instead, to save +trouble, I said: “I am entirely to blame; it is all my own fault.” Later +it seemed that another constable came with the question, “Do you make +any charge against any person?” To which I replied, “I exonerate +everyone.” + +At this the interrogation ceased abruptly, and Mario in the background +(though I did not know this until afterwards) was released from +captivity. + +During all this time I was in what I suppose would be called great pain; +though the sensations really presented themselves to me mainly as an +overpowering of the mind. Gradually I began to be more aware of all that +was going on around me. + +It appears that an ambulance was passing, and the crowd stopped it and +demanded that it should take me to the nearest hospital. The ambulance, +which had a serious case on board, refused. Thereupon a taximan +exclaimed in a voice which I would perfectly well hear, “Take him in my +cab. There’s the Lenox Hill Hospital on 76th Street.” + +Accordingly I was lifted by perhaps eight or ten persons to the floor of +the taxicab. I now discovered that my overcoat had been half torn off me +and trussed my arms back. I thought both shoulders were dislocated. My +right shoulder dislocates chronically, and I asked repeatedly that care +should be taken in lifting me by it. Eventually the constable and two +others got into the cab and we all started, jammed up together. + +Up till now nothing could have been more calm and clear than my interior +thought, apart from the blaring of pain and discomfort which came +through the loud-speakers. All was in order in my inner sanctum, but I +had not ventured to touch the keyboard of action and had been content to +remain an entirely inert mass. + +I now saw, as I lay on the floor of the cab, both my hands, very white +and covered with blood, lying across my breast. So I decided to give +them an order to move their fingers and at the same time I pulled the +levers which affect the toes. Neither hands nor feet took the slightest +notice. They might as well have belonged to someone else for all the +attention they paid to my will. + +I now became, for the first time, seriously alarmed. I feared that in +this bundle of dull pain which people were carting about, and which was +my body, there might be some grave, serious injury to the spine. The +impression “crippled for life” registered itself in the sanctum. Yet +even then there was so much going on that one could not focus it very +clearly or grieve about it much. + +What a nice thing it would be to get to the hospital and have this +overcoat cut off, to have my shoulders put back into their sockets, and, +above all to lie down straight upon a bed. My companions kept cheering +me up. “We are very near now: only another block or two,” and so on. So +we rumbled on. + +And then a most blessed thing happened. I began to experience violent +pins and needles in both my upper arms. They hurt intensely; but I did +not mind, because at the same time I found my fingers beginning to move +in accordance with my will. Almost immediately afterwards the toes +responded to my orders. Then swiftly, by waves of pins and needles +almost agonizing in their intensity, warmth, life and obedience began to +flow back into the whole of my trunk. + +By the time we pulled up at the hospital I had the assurance that, +although I might have an arm or leg or two broken and was certainly +bruised and shaken, the whole main structure of my body was sound. Blood +continued to flow freely from my forehead and my nose; but I did not +worry about that at all, because in my sanctum we had decided: “There +can be no brain injury, as we have never lost consciousness even for a +second.” + +At last we arrive at the hospital. A wheeled chair is brought. I am +carried into it. I am wheeled up steps into a hall and a lift. By now I +feel battered but perfectly competent. They said afterwards I was +confused; but I did not feel so. + +“Are you prepared to pay for a private room and doctor?” asked a clerk. + +“Yes, bring all the best you have ….Take me to a private room….Where is +your telephone?….Give me the Waldorf Astoria….I will tell my wife myself +that whatever has happened. I am going to get quite well.” + +But after an interval they said, “She is already on the way here.” + +Not for one moment had I felt up to the present any sensation of +faintness, but now I said, “Give me sal volatile, or something like +that.” A reviver was brought. A house surgeon staunched my wound. + +“Let me,” I asked, “get these clothes off and lie down. I can stand for +a moment if you hold me up.” + +Soon I am on a bed. Presently come keen, comprehending eyes and deft, +firm fingers. + +“We shall have to dress that scalp wound at once. It is cut to the +bone.” + +“Will it hurt?” + +“Yes.” + +“I do not wish to be hurt any more. Give me chloroform or something.” + +“The anaesthetist is already on the way.” + +More lifting and wheeling. The operating room. White glaring lights. The +mask of a nitrous-oxide inhaler. Whenever I have taken gas or chloroform +I always follow this rule. I imagine myself sitting on a chair with my +back to a lovely swimming bath into which I am to be tilted, and throw +myself backwards; or, again, as if one were throwing one’s self back +after a tiring day into a vast armchair. This helps the process of +anaesthesia wonderfully. A few deep breaths, and one has no longer the +power to speak to the world. + +With me the nitrous-oxide trance usually takes this form: the sanctum is +occupied by alien powers. I see the absolute truth and explanation of +things, but something is left out which upsets the whole, so by a larger +sleep of the mind I have to see a greater truth and a more complete +explanation which comprises the erring element. Nevertheless, there is +still something left out. So we have to take a still wider sweep. This +almost breaks mortal comprehension. It is beyond anything the human mind +was ever meant to master. + +The process continues inexorably. Depth beyond depth of unendurable +truth opens. I have, therefore, always regarded the nitrous-oxide trance +as a mere substitution of mental for physical pain. + +Pain it certainly is; but suddenly these poignant experiences end and +without a perceptible interval consciousness returns. Reassuring words +are spoken. I see a beloved face. My wife is smiling. In the background +there rises the grave, venerable countenance of Mr Bernard Baruch. So I +ask: + +“Tell me, Baruch, what is the number of your house?” + +“1055.” + +“How near was I to it when I was smashed up?” + +“Not within ten blocks.” (Half a mile.) + +Such in short were my experiences on the night of 13 December; and the +message I bring back from these dark places is one of encouragement. I +certainly suffered every pang, mental and physical, that a street +accident or, I suppose, a shell wound can produce. None is unendurable. +There is neither the time nor the strength for self-pity. There is no +room for remorse or fears. If at any moment in this long series of +sensations a grey veil deepening into blackness had descended upon the +sanctum I should have felt or feared nothing additional. Nature is +merciful and does not try her children, man or beast, beyond their +compass. It is only where the cruelty of man intervenes that hellish +torments appear. For the rest— live dangerously; take things as they +come; dread naught, all will be well. + +I ought not to forget to add that I have since looked into my despatch +box and I have found that my far-seeing private secretary in England, +Mrs. Pearman, had furnished me with a travelling address book of people +I might want to communicate with in the United States, and in this I +read; “Baruch, 1055 Fifth Avenue,” with the private telephone number +duly set out. + +All of which goes to show that even the best human precautions afford no +definite guarantee of safety. + +\=================== + +\*On 28 January, Conscasino was among 2000 at the Brooklyn Academy of +Music to hear Churchill’s first lecture after his recovery. WSC also +presented him with an inscribed copy of My Early Life. + +\*\*WSC cabled Professor Frederick Lindemann for a description of what +had happened to him. Lindemann replied on 30 December: + +“Collision equivalent falling thirty feet onto pavement, equal six +thousand foot-pounds of energy. Equivalent stopping ten pound brick +dropped six hundred feet, or two charges buckshot pointblank range. +Shock probably proportional rate energy transferred. Rate inversely +proportional thickness cushion surrounding skeleton and give of frame. +If assume average one inch, your body transferred during impact at rate +eight thousand horsepower. Congratulations on preparing suitable +cushion, and skill in taking bump.” + +### Related Story + + - diff --git a/_stories/1933/13068641.md b/_stories/1933/13068641.md index eb4c6fb..5468740 100644 --- a/_stories/1933/13068641.md +++ b/_stories/1933/13068641.md @@ -19,7 +19,702 @@ _tags: objectID: '13068641' --- -[Source](https://www.wanttoknow.info/warisaracket.shtml "Permalink to ") +# **** +War is a Racket + +By General Smedley D. Butler +**That war is a racket has been told us by many, but rarely by one of +this stature. Though he died in 1940, the highly decorated [General +Butler](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smedley_Butler) (two esteemed +Medals of Honor) deserves to be heralded for his timeless message, which +rings true today more than ever. His riveting 1935 book War is a Racket +merits inclusion as required reading for every high school student, and +for every member of our armed forces today. Below is a ten-page summary +of the best of this powerful exposé. For a concise, two-page version, +[click here](https://www.WantToKnow.info/war/war-corruption).** + +**Foreword** +**Excerpt from a speech delivered in 1933 by General Smedley Butler, +USMC** + +War is just a racket. There are only two things we should fight for. One +is the defense of our homes and the other is the Bill of Rights. War for +any other reason is simply a racket. + +It may seem odd for me, a military man to adopt such a comparison. +Truthfulness compels me to. I spent thirty-three years and four months +in active military service as a member of this country's most agile +military force, the Marine Corps. I served in all commissioned ranks +from Second Lieutenant to Major-General. And during that period, I spent +most of my time being a high class muscle-man for Big Business, for Wall +Street and for the Bankers. + +I suspected I was just part of a racket at the time. Now I am sure of +it. Like all the members of the military profession, I never had a +thought of my own until I left the service. My mental faculties remained +in suspended animation while I obeyed the orders of higher-ups. This is +typical with everyone in the military service. + +**I helped make Mexico safe for American oil interests in 1914. I helped +make Haiti and Cuba a decent place for the National City Bank boys. I +helped in the raping of half a dozen Central American republics for the +benefits of Wall Street. I helped purify Nicaragua for the international +banking house of Brown Brothers in 1909-1912. I brought light to the +Dominican Republic for American sugar interests in 1916. In China I +helped to see to it that Standard Oil went its way unmolested.** + +During those years, I had, as the boys in the back room would say, a +swell racket. Looking back on it, I feel that I could have given Al +Capone a few hints. The best he could do was to operate his racket in +three districts. I operated on three continents. + +**CHAPTER ONE: War Is A Racket ** + +**War is a racket. It always has been. It is possibly the oldest, easily +the most profitable, surely the most vicious. It is international in +scope. It is the only one in which the profits are reckoned in dollars +and the losses in lives.** + +A racket is best described, I believe, as something that is not what it +seems to the majority of the people. Only a small "inside" group knows +what it is about. It is conducted for the benefit of the very few, at +the expense of the very many. Out of war a few people make huge +fortunes. + +In the World War \[I\] a mere handful garnered the profits of the +conflict. **At least 21,000 new millionaires and billionaires were made +in the United States during the World War.** That many admitted their +huge blood gains in their income tax returns. How many other war +millionaires falsified their tax returns no one knows. \[Please note +these are 1935 U.S. dollars. To adjust for inflation, multiply all +figures [X 15 or +more](ftp://ftp.bls.gov/pub/special.requests/cpi/cpiai.txt)\] + +How many of these war millionaires shouldered a rifle? How many of them +dug a trench? How many of them knew what it meant to go hungry in a +rat-infested dug-out? How many of them spent sleepless, frightened +nights, ducking shells and shrapnel and machine gun bullets? How many of +them were wounded or killed in battle? + +Out of war nations acquire additional territory, if they are victorious. +They just take it. This newly acquired territory promptly is exploited +by the few – the selfsame few who wrung dollars out of blood in the war. +The general public shoulders the bill. And what is this bill? + +This bill renders a horrible accounting. Newly placed gravestones. +Mangled bodies. Shattered minds. Broken hearts and homes. Economic +instability. Depression and all its attendant miseries. Back-breaking +taxation for generations and generations. + +**For a great many years, as a soldier, I had a suspicion that war was a +racket; not until I retired to civil life did I fully realize it. Now +that I see the international war clouds gathering, as they are today, I +must face it and speak out.** + +**Again they are choosing sides. France and Russia met and agreed to +stand side by side. Italy and Austria hurried to make a similar +agreement. Poland and Germany cast sheep's eyes at each other. All of +them are looking ahead to war. Not the people – not those who fight and +pay and die – only those who foment wars and remain safely at home to +profit.** + +There are 40,000,000 men under arms in the world today, and our +statesmen and diplomats have the temerity to say that war is not in the +making. Hell's bells\! Are these 40,000,000 men being trained to be +dancers? + +Not in Italy, to be sure. Premier Mussolini knows what they are being +trained for. He, at least, is frank enough to speak out. The publication +of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, said:  "And above +all, Fascism… believes neither in the possibility nor the utility of +perpetual peace…War alone brings up to its highest tension all human +energy and puts the stamp of nobility upon the people who have the +courage to meet it." + +Undoubtedly Mussolini means exactly what he says. His well-trained army, +his great fleet of planes, and even his navy are ready for war. His +recent stand at the side of Hungary in the latter's dispute with +Yugoslavia showed that. And the hurried mobilization of his troops on +the Austrian border after the assassination of Dollfuss showed it too. +There are others in Europe too whose sabre rattling presages war, sooner +or later. Herr Hitler, with his rearming Germany and his constant +demands for more and more arms, is an equal if not greater menace to +peace. + +Yes, all over, nations are camping in their arms. The mad dogs of Europe +are on the loose. The trend is to poison us against the Japanese. What +does the "open door" policy to China mean to us? Our trade with China is +about $90,000,000 a year. Or the Philippine Islands? We have spent about +$600,000,000 in the Philippines in thirty-five years and we (our bankers +and industrialists and speculators) have private investments there of +less than $200,000,000. + +Then, to save that China trade of about $90,000,000, or to protect these +private investments of less than $200,000,000 in the Philippines, we +would be all stirred up to hate Japan and go to war – a war that might +well cost us tens of billions of dollars, hundreds of thousands of lives +of Americans, and many more hundreds of thousands of physically maimed +and mentally unbalanced men. + +Of course, for this loss, there would be a compensating profit – +fortunes would be made. Millions and billions of dollars would be piled +up. By a few. Munitions makers. Bankers. Ship builders. Manufacturers. +Meat packers. Speculators. They would fare well. Yes, they are getting +ready for another war. Why shouldn't they? It pays high dividends. + +But what does it profit the men who are killed? What does it profit +their mothers and sisters, their wives and their sweethearts? What does +it profit their children? What does it profit anyone except the very few +to whom war means huge profits? Yes, and what does it profit the nation? + +**Take our own case. Until 1898 we didn't own a bit of territory outside +the mainland of North America. At that time our national debt was a +little more than $1,000,000,000. Then we became "internationally +minded." We forgot, or shunted aside, George Washington's warning about +"entangling alliances." We went to war. We acquired outside territory. +At the end of the World War period, as a direct result of our fiddling +in international affairs, our national debt had jumped to over +$25,000,000,000.** + +It would have been far cheaper (not to say safer) for the average +American who pays the bills to stay out of foreign entanglements. For a +very few this racket, like bootlegging and other underworld rackets, +brings fancy profits, but the cost of operations is always transferred +to the people – who do not profit.  + +**CHAPTER TWO: Who Makes The Profits? ** + +The World War cost the United States some $52,000,000,000. Figure it +out. That means $400 \[over $6,000 in today's dollars\] to every +American man, woman, and child. And we haven't paid the debt yet. We are +paying it, our children will pay it, and our children's children +probably still will be paying the cost of that war. + +**The normal profits of a business concern in the United States are 6, +8, 10, and sometimes 12%. But war-time profits – ah\! that is another +matter – 20, 60, 100, 300, and even 1,800% – the sky is the limit. All +that traffic will bear. Uncle Sam has the money. Let's get it. Of +course, it isn't put that crudely in war time. It is dressed into +speeches about patriotism, love of country, and "we must all put our +shoulders to the wheel," but the profits jump and leap and skyrocket – +and are safely pocketed. Let's just take a few examples.** + +**Take our friends the du Ponts, the powder people – didn't one of them +testify before a Senate committee recently that their powder won the +war? Or saved the world for democracy? How did they do in the war? Well, +the average earnings of the du Ponts for the period 1910 to 1914 were +$6,000,000 a year. It wasn't much, but the du Ponts managed to get along +on it. Now let's look at their average yearly profit during the war +years, 1914 to 1918. Fifty-eight million dollars a year profit we find\! +Nearly ten times that of normal times, and the profits of normal times +were pretty good. An increase in profits of more than 950 per cent.** + +Take one of our little steel companies that patriotically shunted aside +the making of rails and girders and bridges to manufacture war +materials. Well, their 1910 - 1914 yearly earnings averaged $6,000,000. +Then came the war. And, like loyal citizens, Bethlehem Steel promptly +turned to munitions making. Did their profits jump – or did they let +Uncle Sam in for a bargain? Well, their 1914 - 1918 average was +$49,000,000 a year\! + +Or, let's take United States Steel. The normal earnings during the +five-year period prior to the war were $105,000,000 a year. Not bad. +Then along came the war and up went the profits. The average yearly +profit for the period 1914 - 1918 was $240,000,000. Not bad. There you +have some of the steel and powder earnings. Let's look at something +else. + +A little copper, perhaps. That always does well in war times. Anaconda, +for instance. Average yearly earnings during the pre-war years 1910 - +1914 of $10,000,000. During the war years 1914 - 1918 profits leaped to +$34,000,000 per year. Or Utah Copper. Average of $5,000,000 per year +during the 1910 - 1914 period. Jumped to an average of $21,000,000 +yearly profits for the war period. + +Let's group these five, with three smaller companies. The total yearly +average profits of the pre-war period 1910 - 1914 were $137,480,000. +Then along came the war. The average yearly profits for this group +skyrocketed to $408,300,000. A little increase in profits of +approximately 200 per cent. Does war pay? It paid them. + +But they aren't the only ones. There are still others. Let's take +leather. For the three-year period before the war the total profits of +Central Leather Company were $3,500,000. That was approximately +$1,167,000 a year. Well, in 1916 Central Leather returned a profit of +$15,000,000, a small increase of 1,100 per cent. That's all. The General +Chemical Company averaged a profit for the three years before the war of +a little over $800,000 a year. Came the war, and the profits jumped to +$12,000,000 – a leap of 1,400 per cent. + +International Nickel Company – and you can't have a war without nickel – +showed an increase in profits from a mere average of $4,000,000 a year +to $73,000,000 yearly. Not bad? An increase of more than 1,700 per +cent. American Sugar Refining Company averaged $2,000,000 a year for +the three years before the war. In 1916 a profit of $6,000,000 was +recorded. + +Listen to Senate Document No. 259. The Sixty-Fifth Congress, reporting +on corporate earnings and government revenues. Considering the profits +of 122 meat packers, 153 cotton manufacturers, 299 garment makers, 49 +steel plants, and 340 coal producers during the war. Profits under 25 +per cent were exceptional. For instance the coal companies made between +100 per cent and 7,856 per cent on their capital stock during the war. +The Chicago packers doubled and tripled their earnings. + +**And let us not forget the bankers who financed the great war. If +anyone had the cream of the profits it was the bankers. Being +partnerships rather than incorporated organizations, they do not have to +report to stockholders. And their profits were as secret as they were +immense. How the bankers made their millions and their billions I do not +know, because [those little +secrets](https://www.WantToKnow.info/financialbankingcoverup) never +become public – even before a Senate investigatory body.** + +Here's how other patriotic industrialists and speculators chiseled their +way into war profits. + +Take the shoe people. They like war. It brings business with abnormal +profits. They made huge profits on sales abroad to our allies. Perhaps, +like the munitions manufacturers and armament makers, they also sold to +the enemy. For a dollar is a dollar whether it comes from Germany or +from France. But they did well by Uncle Sam too. **They sold Uncle Sam +35,000,000 pairs of hobnailed service shoes. There were 4,000,000 +soldiers. Eight pairs, and more, to a soldier. My regiment during the +war had only one pair to a soldier. Some of these shoes probably are +still in existence. They were good shoes. But when the war was over +Uncle Sam has a matter of 25,000,000 pairs left over. Bought – and paid +for. Profits recorded and pocketed.** + +There was still lots of leather left. So the leather people sold your +Uncle Sam hundreds of thousands of McClellan saddles for the cavalry. +But there wasn't any American cavalry overseas\! Somebody had to get rid +of this leather, however. Somebody had to make a profit in it – so we +had a lot of McClellan saddles. And we probably have those yet. + +Also somebody had a lot of mosquito netting. They sold your Uncle Sam +20,000,000 mosquito nets for the use of the soldiers overseas. I suppose +the boys were expected to put it over them as they tried to sleep in +muddy trenches – one hand scratching cooties on their backs and the +other making passes at scurrying rats. Well, not one of these mosquito +nets ever got to France\! + +Anyhow, these thoughtful manufacturers wanted to make sure that no +soldier would be without his mosquito net, so 40,000,000 additional +yards of mosquito netting were sold to Uncle Sam. There were pretty good +profits in mosquito netting in those days, even if there were no +mosquitoes in France. I suppose, if the war had lasted just a little +longer, the enterprising mosquito netting manufacturers would have sold +your Uncle Sam a couple of consignments of mosquitoes to plant in France +so that more mosquito netting would be in order. + +**Airplane and engine manufacturers felt they, too, should get their +just profits out of this war. Why not? Everybody else was getting +theirs. So $1,000,000,000 – count them if you live long enough – was +spent by Uncle Sam in building airplane engines that never left the +ground\! Not one plane, or motor, out of the billion dollars worth +ordered, ever got into a battle in France. Just the same the +manufacturers made their little profit of 30, 100, or perhaps 300%.** + +Undershirts for soldiers cost 14¢ \[cents\] to make and uncle Sam paid +30¢ to 40¢ each for them – a nice little profit for the undershirt +manufacturer. And the stocking manufacturer and the uniform +manufacturers and the cap manufacturers and the steel helmet +manufacturers – all got theirs. When the war was over some 4,000,000 +sets of equipment – knapsacks and the things that go to fill them – +crammed warehouses on this side. Now they are being scrapped because the +regulations have changed the contents. But the manufacturers collected +their wartime profits on them – and they will do it all over again the +next time. + +There were lots of brilliant ideas for profit making during the war. + +**One very versatile patriot sold Uncle Sam twelve dozen 48-inch +wrenches. Oh, they were very nice wrenches. The only trouble was that +there was only one nut ever made that was large enough for these +wrenches. That is the one that holds the turbines at Niagara Falls.** +Well, after Uncle Sam had bought them and the manufacturer had pocketed +the profit, the wrenches were put on freight cars and shunted all around +the United States in an effort to find a use for them. When the +Armistice was signed it was indeed a sad blow to the wrench +manufacturer. He was just about to make some nuts to fit the wrenches. +Then he planned to sell these, too, to your Uncle Sam. + +The shipbuilders felt they should come in on some of it, too. They built +a lot of ships that made a lot of profit. More than $3,000,000,000 +worth. Some of the ships were all right. But $635,000,000 worth of them +were made of wood and wouldn't float\! The seams opened up – and they +sank. We paid for them, though. And somebody pocketed the profits. + +It has been estimated by statisticians and economists and researchers +that the war cost your Uncle Sam $52,000,000,000. Of this sum, +$39,000,000,000 was expended in the actual war itself. This expenditure +yielded $16,000,000,000 in profits. That is how the 21,000 billionaires +and millionaires got that way. This $16,000,000,000 profits is not to be +sneezed at. It is quite a tidy sum. And it went to a very few. + +The Senate committee probe of the munitions industry and its wartime +profits, despite its sensational disclosures, hardly has scratched the +surface. Even so, it has had some effect. The State Department has been +studying "for some time" methods of keeping out of war. The War +Department suddenly decides it has a wonderful plan to spring. The +Administration names a committee – with the War and Navy Departments +ably represented under the chairmanship of a Wall Street speculator – to +limit profits in war time. To what extent isn't suggested. Hmmm. +Possibly the profits of 300 and 600 and 1,600 per cent of those who +turned blood into gold in the World War would be limited to some smaller +figure. + +Apparently, however, the plan does not call for any limitation of losses +– that is, the losses of those who fight the war. As far as I have been +able to ascertain there is nothing in the scheme to limit a soldier to +the loss of but one eye, or one arm, or to limit his wounds to one or +two or three. Or to limit the loss of life. + +There is nothing in this scheme, apparently, that says not more than 12 +per cent of a regiment shall be wounded in battle, or that not more than +7 per cent in a division shall be killed. Of course, the committee +cannot be bothered with such trifling matters.  + +**CHAPTER THREE: Who Pays The Bills? ** + +**Who provides the profits – these nice little profits of 20, 100, 300, +1,500 and 1,800 per cent? We all pay them – in taxation. We paid the +bankers their profits when we bought Liberty Bonds at $100.00 and sold +them back at $84 or $86 to the bankers. These bankers collected $100 +plus.** It was a simple manipulation. The bankers control the security +marts. It was easy for them to depress the price of these bonds. Then +all of us – the people – got frightened and sold the bonds at $84 or +$86. The bankers bought them. Then these same bankers stimulated a boom +and government bonds went to par – and above. Then the bankers collected +their profits. + +**But the soldier pays the biggest part of the bill.** + +If you don't believe this, visit the American cemeteries on the +battlefields abroad. Or visit any of the veteran's hospitals in the +United States. On a tour of the country, in the midst of which I am at +the time of this writing, **I have visited eighteen government hospitals +for veterans. In them are a total of about 50,000 destroyed men – men +who were the pick of the nation eighteen years ago.** The very able +chief surgeon at the government hospital; at Milwaukee, where there are +3,800 of the living dead, told me that mortality among veterans is three +times as great as among those who stayed at home. + +Boys with a normal viewpoint were taken out of the fields and offices +and factories and classrooms and put into the ranks. There they were +remolded; they were made over; they were made to "about face" to regard +murder as the order of the day. They were put shoulder to shoulder and, +through mass psychology, they were entirely changed. We used them for a +couple of years and trained them to think nothing at all of killing or +of being killed. + +Then, suddenly, we discharged them and told them to make another "about +face"\! This time they had to do their own readjustment, sans +\[without\] mass psychology, sans officers' aid and advice and sans +nation-wide propaganda. We didn't need them any more. So we scattered +them about without any "three-minute" or "Liberty Loan" speeches or +parades. Many, too many, of these fine young boys are eventually +destroyed, mentally, because they could not make that final "about face" +alone. + +In the government hospital in Marion, Indiana, 1,800 of these boys are +in pens\! Five hundred of them in a barracks with steel bars and wires +all around outside the buildings and on the porches. These already have +been mentally destroyed. These boys don't even look like human beings. +Oh, the looks on their faces\! Physically, they are in good shape; +mentally, they are gone. + +There are thousands and thousands of these cases, and more and more are +coming in all the time. The tremendous excitement of the war, the sudden +cutting off of that excitement – the young boys couldn't stand it. + +That's a part of the bill. So much for the dead – they have paid their +part of the war profits. So much for the mentally and physically wounded +– they are paying now their share of the war profits. But the others +paid, too – they paid with heartbreaks when they tore themselves away +from their firesides and their families to don the uniform of Uncle Sam +– on which a profit had been made. They paid another part in the +training camps where they were regimented and drilled while others took +their jobs and their places in the lives of their communities. The paid +for it in the trenches where they shot and were shot; where they were +hungry for days at a time; where they slept in the mud and the cold and +in the rain – with the moans and shrieks of the dying for a horrible +lullaby. + +But don't forget – the soldier paid part of the dollars and cents bill +too. Up to and including the Spanish-American War, we had a prize +system, and soldiers and sailors fought for money. During the Civil War +they were paid bonuses, in many instances, before they went into +service. The government, or states, paid as high as $1,200 for an +enlistment. In the Spanish-American War they gave prize money. When we +captured any vessels, the soldiers all got their share – at least, they +were supposed to. Then it was found that we could reduce the cost of +wars by taking all the prize money and keeping it, but conscripting +\[drafting\] the soldier anyway. Then soldiers couldn't bargain for +their labor, Everyone else could bargain, but the soldier couldn't. + +Napoleon once said, "All men are enamored of decorations... They +positively hunger for them." So by developing the Napoleonic system – +the medal business – the government learned it could get soldiers for +less money, because the boys liked to be decorated. Until the Civil War +there were no medals. Then the Congressional Medal of Honor was handed +out. It made enlistments easier. After the Civil War no new medals were +issued until the Spanish-American War. + +**In the World War, we used propaganda to make the boys accept +conscription. They were made to feel ashamed if they didn't join the +army. So vicious was this war propaganda that even God was brought into +it.** With few exceptions our clergymen joined in the clamor to kill, +kill, kill. To kill the Germans. God is on our side. It is His will that +the Germans be killed. And in Germany, the good pastors called upon the +Germans to kill the allies ... to please the same God. That was a part +of the propaganda, built up to make people war conscious and murder +conscious. + +**Beautiful ideals were painted for our boys who were sent out to die. +This was the "war to end all wars." This was the "war to make the world +safe for democracy." No one mentioned to them, as they marched away, +that their going and their dying would mean huge war profits. No one +told these American soldiers that they might be shot down by bullets +made by their own brothers here. No one told them that the ships on +which they were going to cross might be torpedoed by submarines built +with United States patents. They were just told it was to be a "glorious +adventure."** + +Thus, having stuffed patriotism down their throats, it was decided to +make them help pay for the war, too. So, we gave them the large salary +of $30 a month. All they had to do for this munificent sum was to leave +their dear ones behind, give up their jobs, lie in swampy trenches, eat +canned willy (when they could get it) and kill and kill and kill ... and +be killed. + +But wait\! Half of that wage (just a little more than a riveter in a +shipyard or a laborer in a munitions factory safe at home made in a day) +was promptly taken from him to support his dependents, so that they +would not become a charge upon his community. Then we made him pay what +amounted to accident insurance – something the employer pays for in an +enlightened state – and that cost him $6 a month. He had less than $9 a +month left. + +Then, the most crowning insolence of all – he was virtually blackjacked +into paying for his own ammunition, clothing, and food by being made to +buy Liberty Bonds. Most soldiers got no money at all on pay days. We +made them buy Liberty Bonds at $100 and then we bought them back – when +they came back from the war and couldn't find work – at $84 and $86. And +the soldiers bought about $2,000,000,000 worth of these bonds\! + +Yes, the soldier pays the greater part of the bill. His family pays too. +They pay it in the same heart-break that he does. As he suffers, they +suffer. At nights, as he lay in the trenches and watched shrapnel burst +about him, they lay home in their beds and tossed sleeplessly – his +father, his mother, his wife, his sisters, his brothers, his sons, and +his daughters. + +When he returned home minus an eye, or minus a leg or with his mind +broken, they suffered too – as much as and even sometimes more than he. +Yes, and they, too, contributed their dollars to the profits of the +munitions makers and bankers and shipbuilders and the manufacturers and +the speculators made. They, too, bought Liberty Bonds and contributed to +the profit of the bankers after the Armistice in the hocus-pocus of +manipulated Liberty Bond prices. + +And even now the families of the wounded men and of the mentally broken +and those who never were able to readjust themselves are still suffering +and still paying.  + +**CHAPTER FOUR: How To Smash This Racket\! ** + +Well, it's a racket, all right. A few profit – and the many pay. But +there is a way to stop it. You can't end it by disarmament conferences. +You can't eliminate it by peace parleys at Geneva. Well-meaning but +impractical groups can't wipe it out by resolutions. **It can be smashed +effectively only by taking the profit out of war.** + +The only way to smash this racket is to conscript capital and industry +and labor before the nations manhood can be conscripted. One month +before the Government can conscript the young men of the nation – it +must conscript capital and industry and labor. **Let the officers and +the directors and the high-powered executives of our armament factories +and our munitions makers and our shipbuilders and our airplane builders +and the manufacturers of all the other things that provide profit in war +time as well as the bankers and the speculators, be conscripted – to get +$30 a month, the same wage as the lads in the trenches get.** + +Let the workers in these plants get the same wages – all the workers, +all presidents, all executives, all directors, all managers, all bankers +– yes, and all generals and all admirals and all officers and all +politicians and all government office holders – everyone in the nation +be restricted to a total monthly income not to exceed that paid to the +soldier in the trenches\! + +Let all these kings and tycoons and masters of business and all those +workers in industry and all our senators and governors and majors pay +half of their monthly $30 wage to their families and pay war risk +insurance and buy Liberty Bonds. Why shouldn't they? They aren't running +any risk of being killed or of having their bodies mangled or their +minds shattered. They aren't sleeping in muddy trenches. They aren't +hungry. The soldiers are\! Give capital and industry and labor thirty +days to think it over and you will find, by that time, there will be no +war. That will smash the war racket – that and nothing else. + +Maybe I am a little too optimistic. Capital still has some say. So +capital won't permit the taking of the profit out of war until the +people – those who do the suffering and still pay the price – make up +their minds that those they elect to office shall do their bidding, and +not that of the profiteers. + +Another step necessary in this fight to smash the war racket is the +limited plebiscite to determine whether a war should be declared. A +plebiscite not of all the voters but merely of those who would be called +upon to do the fighting and dying. There wouldn't be very much sense in +having a 76-year-old president of a munitions factory or the flat-footed +head of an international banking firm or the cross-eyed manager of a +uniform manufacturing plant – all of whom see visions of tremendous +profits in the event of war – voting on whether the nation should go to +war or not. They never would be called upon to shoulder arms – to sleep +in a trench and to be shot. Only those who would be called upon to risk +their lives for their country should have the privilege of voting to +determine whether the nation should go to war. + +It would be a simple matter each year for the men coming of military age +to register in their communities as they did in the draft during the +World War and be examined physically. Those who could pass and who would +therefore be called upon to bear arms in the event of war would be +eligible to vote in a limited plebiscite. They should be the ones to +have the power to decide – and not a Congress few of whose members are +within the age limit and fewer still of whom are in physical condition +to bear arms. Only those who must suffer should have the right to vote. + +**A third step in this business of smashing the war racket is to make +certain that our military forces are truly forces for defense only.** + +At each session of Congress the question of further naval appropriations +comes up. The swivel-chair admirals of Washington (and there are always +a lot of them) are very adroit lobbyists. And they are smart. They don't +shout that "We need a lot of battleships to war on this nation or that +nation." Oh no. First of all, they let it be known that America is +menaced by a great naval power. Almost any day, these admirals will tell +you, the great fleet of this supposed enemy will strike suddenly and +annihilate 125,000,000 people. Just like that. Then they begin to cry +for a larger navy. For what? To fight the enemy? Oh my, no. Oh, no. For +defense purposes only. + +Then, incidentally, they announce maneuvers in the Pacific. For defense. +Uh, huh. The Pacific is a great big ocean. We have a tremendous +coastline on the Pacific. Will the maneuvers be off the coast, two or +three hundred miles? Oh, no. The maneuvers will be two thousand, yes, +perhaps even thirty-five hundred miles, off the coast. The Japanese, a +proud people, of course will be pleased beyond expression to see the +United States fleet so close to Nippon's shores. Even as pleased as +would be the residents of California were they to dimly discern through +the morning mist, the Japanese fleet playing at war games off Los +Angeles. + +**The ships of our navy, it can be seen, should be specifically limited, +by law, to within 200 miles of our coastline. Had that been the law in +1898 the Maine would never have gone to Havana Harbor. She never would +have been blown up. There would have been no war with Spain with its +attendant loss of life.** Two hundred miles is ample, in the opinion of +experts, for defense purposes. Our nation cannot start an offensive war +if its ships can't go further than 200 miles from the coastline. Planes +might be permitted to go as far as 500 miles from the coast for purposes +of reconnaissance. And the army should never leave the territorial +limits of our nation. + +**To summarize: Three steps must be taken to smash the war racket: 1.) +We must take the profit out of war; 2.) We must permit the youth of the +land who would bear arms to decide whether or not there should be war; +3.) We must limit our military forces to home defense purposes. ** + +**CHAPTER FIVE : To Hell With War\!** + +I am not a fool as to believe that war is a thing of the past. I know +the people do not want war, but there is no use in saying we cannot be +pushed into another war. Looking back, **Woodrow Wilson was re-elected +president in 1916 on a platform that he had "kept us out of war" and on +the implied promise that he would "keep us out of war." Yet, five months +later he asked Congress to declare war on Germany.** + +In that five-month interval the people had not been asked whether they +had changed their minds. The 4,000,000 young men who put on uniforms and +marched or sailed away were not asked whether they wanted to go forth to +suffer and die. Then what caused our government to change its mind so +suddenly? + +Money. + +An allied commission, it may be recalled, came over shortly before the +war declaration and called on the President. The President summoned a +group of advisers. The head of the commission spoke. Stripped of its +diplomatic language, this is what he told the President and his group:  + +> **"There is no use kidding ourselves any longer. The cause of the +> allies is lost. We now owe you (American bankers, munitions makers, +> American manufacturers, speculators, American exporters) five or six +> billion dollars. If we lose (and without the help of the United States +> we must lose) we, England, France and Italy, cannot pay back this +> money ... and Germany won't. So....."** + +**Had secrecy been outlawed as far as war negotiations were concerned, +and had the press been invited to be present at that conference, or had +radio been available to broadcast the proceedings, America never would +have entered the World War.** But this conference, like all war +discussions, was shrouded in utmost secrecy. When our boys were sent off +to war they were told it was a "war to make the world safe for +democracy" and a "war to end all wars." + +Well, eighteen years after, the world has less of democracy than it had +then. Besides, what business is it of ours whether Russia or Germany or +England or France or Italy or Austria live under democracies or +monarchies? Whether they are Fascists or Communists? Our problem is to +preserve our own democracy. And very little, if anything, has been +accomplished to assure us that the World War was really the war to end +all wars. + +Yes, we have had disarmament conferences and limitations of arms +conferences. They don't mean a thing. One has just failed; the results +of another have been nullified. We send our professional soldiers and +our sailors and our politicians and our diplomats to these conferences. +And what happens? + +The professional soldiers and sailors don't want to disarm. No admiral +wants to be without a ship. No general wants to be without a command. +Both mean men without jobs. They are not for disarmament. They cannot be +for limitations of arms. **And at all these conferences, lurking in the +background but all-powerful, just the same, are the sinister agents of +those who profit by war. They see to it that these conferences do not +disarm or seriously limit armaments. **The chief aim of any power at any +of these conferences has not been to achieve disarmament to prevent war +but rather to get more armament for itself and less for any potential +foe. + +There is only one way to disarm with any semblance of practicability. +That is for all nations to get together and scrap every ship, every gun, +every rifle, every tank, every war plane. + + So ... I say, TO HELL WITH WAR\! + + +**Note:** Imagine if we took General Butler's advice and in wartime +forced corporations to join our soldiers in making sacrifices for their +country. **We could pass laws which guarantee that corporate profits +decrease during war rather than increase.** Do you think that wars would +still drag on for years as in Vietnam and Iraq? Please help to make this +a reality by sending this information to your friends and colleagues and +contacting your government representatives. + +**For powerful, reliable information on war manipulations, [click +here](https://www.WantToKnow.info/warinformation) +To order General Butler's book War is a Racket on Amazon.com, [click +here](http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0922915865/ref=pd_ecc_rvi_1/102-8123938-9404104?tag=wanttinfo-20) +For an excellent article on the intrepid Butler, including a plot of +intrigue, [click +here](http://replay.web.archive.org/20090219220506/http://www.americanheritage.com/articles/magazine/ah/1987/7/1987_7_14.shtml) +For key, engaging book on Butler's exposing of a plot to overthrow FDR, +[click here](https://www.WantToKnow.info/plottoseizethewhitehouse) +For a History Channel video on how Butler stopped a plot to overthrow +FDR, [click +here](http://www.google.com/search?q=the%20plot%20to%20overthrow%20fdr&oe=utf-8&rls=org.mozilla:en-US:official&client=firefox-a&um=1&ie=UTF-8&tbo=u&tbs=vid:1&source=og&sa=N&hl=en&tab=wv)** diff --git a/_stories/1934/7616566.md b/_stories/1934/7616566.md index 2b11bb2..dba6ee8 100644 --- a/_stories/1934/7616566.md +++ b/_stories/1934/7616566.md @@ -19,7 +19,701 @@ _tags: objectID: '7616566' --- -[Source](https://www.newstatesman.com/politics/2014/04/h-g-wells-it-seems-me-i-am-more-left-you-mr-stalin "Permalink to ") +  +In 1934, H G Wells arrived in Moscow to meet Soviet writers interested +in joining the international PEN Club, of which he was then president. +While there, Stalin granted him an interview. His deferential +conversation was criticised by J M Keynes and George Bernard Shaw, among +others, in the New Statesman. First published as a special NS supplement +on 27 October 1934. +  +**Wells** I am very much obliged to you, Mr Stalin, for agreeing to see +me. I was in the United States recently. I had a long conversation with +President Roosevelt and tried to ascertain what his leading ideas were. +Now I have come to ask you what you are doing to change the world . . . + +**Stalin** Not so very much. + +**Wells** I wander around the world as a common man and, as a common +man, observe what is going on around me. + +**Stalin** Important public men like yourself are not “common men”. Of +course, history alone can show how important this or that public man has +been; at all events, you do not look at the world as a “common man”. + +**Wells** I am not pretending humility. What I mean is that I try to see +the world through the eyes of the common man, and not as a party +politician or a responsible administrator. My visit to the United States +excited my mind. The old financial world is collapsing; the economic +life of the country is being reorganised on new lines. + +Lenin said: “We must learn to do business,” learn this from the +capitalists. Today the capitalists have to learn from you, to grasp the +spirit of Socialism. It seems to me that what is taking place in the +United States is a profound reorganisation, the creation of planned, +that is, Socialist, economy. You and Roosevelt begin from two different +starting points. But is there not a relation in ideas, a kinship of +ideas, between Moscow and Washington? + +In Washington I was struck by the same thing I see going on here; they +are building offices, they are creating a number of state regulation +bodies, they are organising a long-needed civil service. Their need, +like yours, is directive ability. + +  + +## America and Russia + +**Stalin** The United States is pursuing a different aim from that which +we are pursuing in the USSR. The aim which the Americans are pursuing +arose out of the economic troubles, out of the economic crisis. The +Americans want to rid themselves of the crisis on the basis of private +capitalist activity, without changing the economic basis. They are +trying to reduce to a minimum the ruin, the losses caused by the +existing economic system. + +Here, however, as you know, in place of the old, destroyed economic +basis, an entirely different, a new economic basis has been created. +Even if the Americans you mention partly achieve their aim, ie, reduce +these losses to a minimum, they will not destroy the roots of the +anarchy which is inherent in the existing capitalist system. They are +preserving the economic system which must inevitably lead, and cannot +but lead, to anarchy in production. Thus, at best, it will be a matter, +not of the reorganisation of society, not of abolishing the old social +system which gives rise to anarchy and crises, but of restricting +certain of its excesses. Subjectively, perhaps, these Americans think +they are reorganising society; objectively, however, they are preserving +the present basis of society. That is why, objectively, there will be no +reorganisation of society. + +Nor will there be planned economy. What is planned economy? What are +some of its attributes? Planned economy tries to abolish unemployment. +Let us suppose it is possible, while preserving the capitalist system, +to reduce unemployment to a certain minimum. But surely, no capitalist +would ever agree to the complete abolition of unemployment, to the +abolition of the reserve army of unemployed, the purpose of which is to +bring pressure on the labour market, to ensure a supply of cheap labour. +You will never compel a capitalist to incur loss to himself and agree to +a lower rate of profit for the sake of satisfying the needs of the +people. + +Without getting rid of the capitalists, without abolishing the principle +of private property in the means of production, it is impossible to +create planned economy. + +**Wells** I agree with much of what you have said. But I would like to +stress the point that if a country as a whole adopts the principle of +planned economy, if the government, gradually, step by step, begins +consistently to apply this principle, the financial oligarchy will at +last be abolished and Socialism, in the Anglo-Saxon meaning of the word, +will be brought about. + +The effect of the ideas of Roosevelt’s “New Deal” is most powerful, and +in my opinion they are Socialist ideas. It seems to me that instead of +stressing the antagonism between the two worlds, we should, in the +present circumstances, strive to establish a common tongue for all the +constructive forces. + +**Stalin** In speaking of the impossibility of realising the principles +of planned economy while preserving the economic basis of capitalism, I +do not in the least desire to belittle the outstanding personal +qualities of Roosevelt, his initiative, courage and determination. +Undoubtedly Roosevelt stands out as one of the strongest figures among +all the captains of the contemporary capitalist world. That is why I +would like once again to emphasise the point that my conviction that +planned economy is impossible under the conditions of capitalism does +not mean that I have any doubts about the personal abilities, talent and +courage of President Roosevelt. + +But if the circumstances are unfavourable, the most talented captain +cannot reach the goal you refer to. Theoretically, of course, the +possibility of marching gradually, step by step, under the conditions of +capitalism, towards the goal which you call Socialism in the Anglo-Saxon +meaning of the word, is not precluded. But what will this “Socialism” +be? At best, bridling to some extent the most unbridled of individual +representatives of capitalist profit, some increase in the application +of the principle of regulation in national economy. That is all very +well. But as soon as Roosevelt, or any other captain in the contemporary +bourgeois world, proceeds to undertake something serious against the +foundation of capitalism, he will inevitably suffer utter defeat. The +banks, the industries, the large enterprises, the large farms are not in +Roosevelt’s hands. All these are private property. The railroads, the +mercantile fleet, all these belong to private owners. And, finally, the +army of skilled workers, the engineers, the technicians, these too are +not at Roosevelt’s command, they are at the command of the private +owners; they all work for the private owners. + +We must not forget the functions of the State in the bourgeois world. +The State is an institution that organises the defence of the country, +organises the maintenance of “order”; it is an apparatus for collecting +taxes. The capitalist State does not deal much with economy in the +strict sense of the word; the latter is not in the hands of the State. +On the contrary, the State is in the hands of capitalist economy. That +is why I fear that in spite of all his energies and abilities, Roosevelt +will not achieve the goal you mention, if indeed that is his goal. +Perhaps in the course of several generations it will be possible to +approach this goal somewhat; but I personally think that even this is +not very probable. + +  + +## Socialism and Individualism + +**Wells** Perhaps I believe more strongly in the economic interpretation +of politics than you do. Huge forces striving for better organisation, +for the better functioning of the community, that is, for Socialism, +have been brought into action by invention +and modern science. Organisation, and the regulation of individual +action, have become mechanical necessities, irrespective of social +theories. If we begin with the State control of the banks and then +follow with the control of the heavy industries, of industry in general, +of commerce, etc, such an all-embracing control will be equivalent to +the State ownership of all branches of national economy. + +Socialism and Individualism are not opposites like black and white. +There are many intermediate stages between them. There is Individualism +that borders on brigandage, and there is discipline and organisation +that are the equivalent of Socialism. The introduction of planned +economy depends, to a large degree, upon the organisers of economy, upon +the skilled technical intelligentsia who, step by step, can be converted +to the Socialist principles of organisation. And this is the most +important thing, because organisation comes before Socialism. It is the +more important fact. Without organisation the Socialist idea is a mere +idea. + +**Stalin** There is no, nor should there be, irreconcilable contrast +between the individual and the collective, between the interests of the +individual person and the interests of the collective. There should be +no such contrast, because collectivism, Socialism, does not deny, but +combines individual interests with the interests of the collective. +Socialism cannot abstract itself from individual interests. + +Socialist society alone can most fully satisfy these personal interests. +More than that, Socialist society alone can firmly safeguard the +interests of the individual. In this sense there is no irreconcilable +contrast between Individualism and Socialism. But can we deny the +contrast between classes, between the propertied class, the capitalist +class, and the toiling class, the proletarian class? On the one hand we +have the propertied class which owns the banks, the factories, the +mines, transport, the plantations in colonies. These people see nothing +but their own interests, their striving after profits. They do not +submit to the will of the collective; they strive to subordinate every +collective to their will. On the other hand we have the class of the +poor, the exploited class, which owns neither factories nor works, nor +banks, which is compelled to live by selling its labour power to the +capitalists and which lacks the opportunity to satisfy its most +elementary requirements. + +How can such opposite interests and strivings be reconciled? As far as I +know, Roosevelt has not succeeded in finding the path of conciliation +between these interests. And it is impossible, as experience has shown. +Incidentally, you know the situation in the US better than I do, as I +have never been there and I watch American affairs mainly from +literature. But I have some experience in fighting for Socialism, and +this experience tells me that if Roosevelt makes a real attempt to +satisfy the interests of the proletarian class at the expense of the +capitalist class, the latter will put another President in his place. +The capitalists will say: Presidents come and Presidents go, but we go +on for ever; if this or that President does not protect our interests, +we shall find another. What can the President oppose to the will of the +capitalist class? + +**Wells** I object to this simplified classification of mankind into +poor and rich. Of course there is a category of people which strive only +for profit. But are not these people regarded as nuisances in the West +just as much as here? Are there not plenty of people in the West for +whom profit is not an end, who own a certain amount of wealth, who want +to invest and obtain a profit from this investment, but who do not +regard this as the main object? In my opinion there is a numerous class +of people who admit that the present system is unsatisfactory and who +are destined to play a great role in future capitalist society. + +During the past few years I have been much engaged in and have thought +of the need for conducting propaganda in favour of Socialism and +cosmopolitanism among wide circles of engineers, airmen, military +technical people, etc. It is useless to approach these circles with +two-track class-war propaganda. These people understand the condition of +the world. They understand that it is a bloody muddle, but they regard +your simple class-war antagonism as nonsense. + +  + +## The class war + +**Stalin** You object to the simplified classification into rich and +poor. Of course there is a middle stratum, there is the technical +intelligentsia that you have mentioned and among which there are very +good and very honest people. Among them there are also dishonest and +wicked people; there are all sorts of people among them. But first of +all mankind is divided into rich and poor, into property owners and +exploited; and to abstract oneself from this fundamental division and +from the antagonism between poor and rich means abstracting oneself from +the fundamental fact. + +I do not deny the existence of intermediate middle strata, which either +take the side of one or the other of these two conflicting classes, or +else take up a neutral or semi-neutral position in the struggle. But, I +repeat, to abstract oneself from this fundamental division in society +and from the fundamental struggle between the two main classes means +ignoring facts. The struggle is going on and will continue. The outcome +will be determined by the proletarian class – the working class. + +**Wells** But are there not many people who are not poor, but who work +and work productively? + +**Stalin** Of course, there are small landowners, artisans, small +traders, but it is not these people who decide the fate of a country, +but the toiling masses, who produce all the things society requires. + +**Wells** But there are very different kinds of capitalists. There are +capitalists who only think about profit, about getting rich; but there +are also those who are prepared to make sacrifices. Take old \[J P\] +Morgan, for example. He only thought about profit; he was a parasite on +society, simply, he merely accumulated wealth. But take \[John D\] +Rockefeller. He is a brilliant organiser; he has set an example of how +to organise the delivery of oil that is worthy of emulation. + +Or take \[Henry\] Ford. Of course Ford is selfish. But is he not a +passionate organiser of rationalised production from whom you take +lessons? I would like to emphasise the fact that recently an important +change in opinion towards the USSR has taken place in English-speaking +countries. The reason for this, first of all, is the position of Japan, +and the events in Germany. But there are other reasons besides those +arising from international politics. There is a more profound reason, +namely, the recognition by many people of the fact that the system based +on private profit is breaking down. Under these circumstances, it seems +to me, we must not bring to the forefront the antagonism between the two +worlds, but should strive to combine all the constructive movements, all +the constructive forces in one line as much as possible. It seems to me +that I am more to the Left than you, Mr Stalin; I think the old system +is nearer to its end than you think. + +  + +## The technician class + +**Stalin** In speaking of the capitalists who strive only for profit, +only to get rich, I do not want to say that these are the most worthless +people, capable of nothing else. Many of them undoubtedly possess great +organising talent, which I do not dream of denying. We Soviet people +learn a great deal from the capitalists. And Morgan, whom you +characterise so unfavourably, was undoubtedly a good, capable organiser. +But if you mean people who are prepared to reconstruct the world, of +course, you will not be able to find them in the ranks of those who +faithfully serve the cause of profit. We and they stand at opposite +poles. + +You mentioned Ford. Of course, he is a capable organiser of production. +But don’t you know his attitude towards the working class? Don’t you +know how many workers he throws on the street? The capitalist is riveted +to profit; and no power on earth can tear him away from it. Capitalism +will be abolished, not by “organisers” of production, not by the +technical intelligentsia, but by the working class, because the +aforementioned strata do not play an independent role. The engineer, the +organiser of production, does not work as he would like to, but as he is +ordered, in such a way as to serve the interests of his employers. There +are exceptions of course; there are people in this stratum who have +awakened from the intoxication of capitalism. The technical +intelligentsia can, under certain conditions, perform miracles and +greatly benefit mankind. But it can also cause great harm. + +We Soviet people have not a little experience of the technical +intelligentsia. After the October Revolution, a certain section of the +technical intelligentsia refused to take part in the work of +constructing the new society; they opposed this work of construction and +sabotaged it. We did all we possibly could to bring the technical +intelligentsia into this work of construction; we tried this way and +that. Not a little time passed before our technical intelligentsia +agreed actively to assist the new system. Today the best section of this +technical intelligentsia is in the front rank of the builders of +Socialist society. Having this experience, we are far from +underestimating the good and the bad sides of the technical +intelligentsia, and we know that on the one hand it can do harm, and on +the other hand it can perform “miracles”. + +Of course, things would be different if it were possible, at one stroke, +spiritually to tear the technical intelligentsia away from the +capitalist world. But that is Utopia. Are there many of the technical +in­telligentsia who would dare break away from the bourgeois world and +set to work reconstructing society? Do you think there are many people +of this kind, say, in England or in France? No; there are few who would +be willing to break away from their employers and begin reconstructing +the world. + +  + +## Achievement of political power + +**Stalin** Besides, can we lose sight of the fact that in order to +transform the world it is necessary to have political power? It seems to +me, Mr Wells, that you greatly underestimate the question of political +power, that it entirely drops out of your conception. + +What can those, even with the best intentions in the world, do if they +are unable to raise the question of seizing power, and do not possess +power? At best they can help the class which takes power, but they +cannot change the world themselves. This can only be done by a great +class which will take the place of the capitalist class and become the +sovereign master as the latter was before. This class is the working +class. Of course, the assistance of the technical intelligentsia must be +accepted; and the latter, in turn, must be assisted. But it must not be +thought that the technical intelligentsia can play an independent +historical role. + +The transformation of the world is a great, complicated and painful +process. For this task a great class is required. Big ships go on long +voyages. + +**Wells** Yes, but for long voyages a captain and navigator are +required. + +**Stalin** That is true; but what is first required for a long voyage is +a big ship. What is a navigator without a ship? An idle man. + +**Wells** The big ship is humanity, not a class. + +**Stalin** You, Mr Wells, evidently start out with the assumption that +all men are good. I, however, do not forget that there are many wicked +men. I do not believe in the goodness of the bourgeoisie. + +**Wells** I remember the situation with regard to the technical +intelligentsia several decades ago. At that time the technical +intelligentsia was numerically small, but there was much to do and every +engineer, technician and intellectual found his opportunity. That is why +the technical intelligentsia was the least revolutionary class. Now, +however, there is a super­abundance of technical intellectuals, and +their mentality has changed very sharply. The skilled man, who would +formerly never listen to revolutionary talk, is now greatly interested +in it. + +Recently I was dining with the Royal Society, our great English +scientific society. The President’s speech was a speech for social +planning and scientific control. Thirty years ago, they would not have +listened to what I say to them now. Today, the man at the head of the +Royal Society holds revolutionary views, and insists on the scientific +reorganisation of human society. Your class-war propaganda has not kept +pace with these facts. Mentality changes. + +**Stalin** Yes, I know this, and this is to be explained by the fact +that capitalist society is now in a cul de sac. The capitalists are +seeking, but cannot find, a way out of this cul de sac that would be +compatible with the dignity of this class, compatible with the interests +of this class. They could, to some extent, crawl out of the crisis on +their hands and knees, but they cannot find an exit that would enable +them to walk out of it with head raised high, a way out that would not +fundamentally disturb the interests of capitalism. + +This, of course, is realised by wide circles of the technical +intelligentsia. A large section of it is beginning to realise the +community of its interests with those of the class which is capable of +pointing the way out of the cul de sac. + +**Wells** You of all people know something about revolutions, Mr Stalin, +from the practical side. Do the masses ever rise? Is it not an +established truth that all revolutions are made by a minority? + +**Stalin** To bring about a revolution a leading revolutionary minority +is required; but the most talented, devoted and energetic minority would +be helpless if it did not rely upon the at least passive support of +millions. + +**Wells** At least passive? Perhaps subconscious? + +**Stalin** Partly also the semi-instinctive and semi-conscious, but +without the support of millions, the best minority is impotent. + +  + +## The place of violence + +**Wells** I watch Communist propaganda in the West, and it seems to me +that in modern conditions this propaganda sounds very old-fashioned, +because it is insurrectionary propaganda. + +Propaganda in favour of the violent overthrow of the social system was +all very well when it was directed against tyranny. But under modern +conditions, when the system is collapsing anyhow, stress should be laid +on efficiency, on competence, on productiveness, and not on +insurrection. + +It seems to me that the insurrectionary note is obsolete. The Communist +propaganda in the West is a nuisance to constructive-minded people. + +**Stalin** Of course the old system is breaking down, decaying. That is +true. But it is also true that new efforts are being made by other +methods, by every means, to protect, to save this dying system. You draw +a wrong conclusion from a correct postulate. You rightly state that the +old world is breaking down. But you are wrong in thinking that it is +breaking down of its own accord. No; the substitution of one social +system for another is a complicated and long revolutionary process. It +is not simply a spontaneous process, but a struggle; it is a process +connected with the clash of classes. + +Capitalism is decaying, but it must not be compared simply with a tree +which has decayed to such an extent that it must fall to the ground of +its own accord. No, revolution, the substitution of one social system +for another, has always been a struggle, a painful and a cruel struggle, +a life-and-death struggle. And every time the people of the new world +came into power they had to defend themselves against the attempts of +the old world to restore the old power by force; these people of the new +world always had to be on the alert, always had to be ready to repel the +attacks of the old world upon the new system. + +Yes, you are right when you say that the old social system is breaking +down; but it is not breaking down of its own accord. Take Fascism for +example. Fascism is a reactionary force which is trying to preserve the +old system by means of violence. What will you do with the Fascists? +Argue with them? Try to convince them? But this will have no effect upon +them at all. Communists do not in the least idealise methods of +violence. But they, the Communists, do not want to be taken by surprise; +they cannot count on the old world voluntarily departing from the stage; +they see that the old system is violently defending itself, and that is +why the Communists say to the working class: Answer violence with +violence; do all you can to prevent the old dying order from crushing +you, do not permit it to put manacles on your hands, on the hands with +which you will overthrow the old system. + +As you see, the Communists regard the substitution of one social system +for another, not simply as a spontaneous and peaceful process, but as a +complicated, long and violent process. Communists cannot ignore facts. + +**Wells** But look at what is now going on in the capitalist world. The +collapse is not a simple one; it is the outbreak of reactionary violence +which is degenerating to gangsterism. And it seems to me that when it +comes to a conflict with reactionary and unintelligent violence, +Socialists can appeal to the law, and instead of regarding the police as +the enemy they should support them in the fight against the +reactionaries. I think that it is useless operating with the methods of +the old insurrectionary Socialism. + +  + +## The lessons of history + +**Stalin** The Communists base themselves on rich historical experience +which teaches that obsolete classes do not voluntarily abandon the stage +of history. + +Recall the history of England in the seventeenth century. Did not many +say that the old social system had decayed? But did it not, +nevertheless, require a Cromwell to crush it by force? + +**Wells** Cromwell acted on the basis of the constitution and in the +name of constitutional order. + +**Stalin** In the name of the constitution he resorted to violence, +beheaded the king, dispersed Parliament, arrested some and beheaded +others\! + +Or take an example from our history. Was it not clear for a long time +that the Tsarist system was decaying, was breaking down? But how much +blood had to be shed in order to overthrow it? + +And what about the October Revolution? Were there not plenty of people +who knew that we alone, the Bolsheviks, were indicating the only correct +way out? Was it not clear that Russian capitalism had decayed? But you +know how great was the resistance, how much blood had to be shed in +order to defend the October Revolution from all its enemies. + +Or take France at the end of the eighteenth century. Long before 1789 it +was clear to many how rotten the royal power, the feudal system, was. +But a popular insurrection, a clash of classes was not, could not be +avoided. Why? Because the classes which must abandon the stage of +history are the last to become convinced that their role is ended. It is +impossible to convince them of this. They think that the fissures in the +decaying edifice of the old order can be repaired and saved. + +That is why dying classes take to arms and resort to every means to save +their existence as a ruling class. + +**Wells** But were there not a few lawyers at the head of the great +French Revolution? + +**Stalin** I do not deny the role of the intelligentsia in revolutionary +movements. Was the great French Revolution a lawyers’ revolution and not +a popular revolution, which achieved victory by rousing vast masses of +the people against feudalism and championed the interests of the Third +Estate? And did the lawyers among the leaders of the great French +Revolution act in accordance with the laws of the old order? Did they +not introduce new, bourgeois-revolutionary law? + +The rich experience of history teaches that up to now not a single class +has voluntarily made way for another class. There is no such precedent +in history. The Communists have learned this lesson of history. +Communists would welcome the voluntary departure of the bourgeoisie. But +such a turn of affairs is improbable, that is what experience teaches. +That is why the Communists want to be prepared for the worst and call +upon the working class to be vigilant, to be prepared for battle. + +Who wants a captain who lulls the vigilance of his army, a captain who +does not understand that the enemy will not surrender, that he must be +crushed? To be such a captain means deceiving, betraying the working +class. That is why I think that what seems to you to be old-fashioned is +in fact a measure of revolutionary expediency for the working class. + +  + +## How to make a revolution + +**Wells** I do not deny that force has to be used, but I think the forms +of the struggle should fit as closely as possible to the opportunities +presented by the existing laws, which must be defended against +reactionary attacks. There is no need to disorganise the old system +because it is disorganising itself enough as it is. That is why it seems +to me insurrection against the old order, against the law, is obsolete, +old-fashioned. Incidentally, I exaggerate in order to bring the truth +out more clearly. I can formulate my point of view in the following way: +first, I am for order; second, I attack the present system in so far as +it cannot assure order; third, I think that class war propaganda may +detach from Socialism just those educated people whom Socialism needs. + +**Stalin** In order to achieve a great object, an important social +object, there must be a main force, a bulwark, a revolutionary class. +Next it is necessary to organise the assistance of an auxiliary force +for this main force; in this case this auxiliary force is the party, to +which the best forces of the intelligentsia belong. Just now you spoke +about “educated people”. But what educated people did you have in mind? +Were there not plenty of educated people on the side of the old order in +England in the seventeenth century, in France at the end of the +eighteenth century, and in Russia in the epoch of the October +Revolution? The old order had in its service many highly educated people +who defended the old order, who opposed the new order. + +Education is a weapon the effect of which is determined by the hands +which wield it, by who is to be struck down. Of course, the proletariat, +Socialism, needs highly educated people. Clearly, simpletons cannot help +the proletariat to fight for Socialism, to build a new society. + +I do not under-estimate the role of the intelligentsia; on the contrary, +I emphasise it. The question is, however, which intelligentsia are we +discussing? Because there are different kinds of intelligentsia. + +**Wells** There can be no revolution without a radical change in the +educational system. It is sufficient to quote two examples – the example +of the German Republic, which did not touch the old educational system, +and therefore never became a republic; and the example of the British +Labour Party, which lacks the determination to insist on a radical +change in the educational system. + +**Stalin** That is a correct observation. Permit me now to reply to your +three points. First, the main thing for the revolution is the existence +of a social bulwark. This bulwark of the revolution is the working +class. + +Second, an auxiliary force is required, that which the Communists call a +Party. To the Party belong the intelligent workers and those elements of +the technical intelligentsia which are closely connected with the +working class. The intelligentsia can be strong only if it combines with +the working class. If it opposes the working class it becomes a cipher. + +Third, political power is required as a lever for change. The new +political power creates the new laws, the new order, which is +revolutionary order. + +I do not stand for any kind of order. I stand for order that corresponds +to the interests of the working class. If, however, any of the laws of +the old order can be utilised in the interests of the struggle for the +new order, the old laws should be utilised. + +And, finally, you are wrong if you think that the Communists are +enamoured of violence. They would be very pleased to drop violent +methods if the ruling class agreed to give way to the working class. But +the experience of history speaks against such an assumption. + +**Wells** There was a case in the history of England, however, of a +class voluntarily handing over power to another class. In the period +between 1830 and 1870, the aristocracy, whose influence was still very +considerable at the end of the eighteenth century, voluntarily, without +a severe struggle, surrendered power to the bourgeoisie, which serves as +a sentimental support of the monarchy. Subsequently, this transference +of power led to the establishment of the rule of the financial +oligarchy. + +**Stalin** But you have imperceptibly passed from questions of +revolution to questions of reform. This is not the same thing. Don’t you +think that the Chartist movement played a great role in the reforms in +England in the nineteenth century? + +**Wells** The Chartists did little and disappeared without leaving a +trace. + +**Stalin** I do not agree with you. The Chartists, and the strike +movement which they organised, played a great role; they compelled the +ruling class to make a number of concessions in regard to the franchise, +in regard to abolishing the so-called “rotten boroughs”, and in regard +to some of the points of the “Charter”. Chartism played a not +unimportant historical role and compelled a section of the ruling +classes to make certain concessions, reforms, in order to avert great +shocks. Generally speaking, it must be said that of all the ruling +classes, the ruling classes of England, both the aristocracy and the +bourgeoisie, proved to be the cleverest, most flexible from the point of +view of their class interests, from the point of view of maintaining +their power. + +Take as an example, say, from modern history, the General Strike in +England in 1926. The first thing any other bourgeoisie would have done +in the face of such an event, when the General Council of Trade Unions +called for a strike, would have been to arrest the Trade Union leaders. +The Brit­ish bourgeoisie did not do that, and it acted cleverly from the +point of view of its own interests. I cannot conceive of such a flexible +strategy being employed by the bourgeoisie in the United States, Germany +or France. In order to maintain their rule, the ruling classes of Great +Britain have never forsworn small concessions, reforms. But it would be +a mistake to think that these reforms were revolutionary. + +**Wells** You have a higher opinion of the ruling classes of my country +than I have. But is there a great difference between a small revolution +and a great reform? Is not a reform a small revolution? + +**Stalin** Owing to pressure from below, the pressure of the masses, the +bourgeoisie may sometimes concede certain partial reforms while +remaining on the basis of the existing social-economic system. Acting in +this way, it calculates that these concessions are necessary in order to +preserve its class rule. This is the essence of reform. Revolution, +however, means the transference of power from one class to another. That +is why it is impossible to describe any reform as revolution. + +  + +## What Russia is doing wrong + +**Wells** I am very grateful to you for this talk, which has meant a +great deal to me. In explaining things to me you probably called to mind +how you had to explain the fundamentals of Socialism in the illegal +circles before the revolution. At the present time there are only two +persons to whose opinion, to whose every word, millions are listening – +you and Roosevelt. Others may preach as much as they like; what they say +will never be printed or heeded. + +I cannot yet appreciate what has been done in your country; I only +arrived yesterday. But I have already seen the happy faces of healthy +men and women and I know that something very considerable is being done +here. The contrast with 1920 is astounding. + +**Stalin** Much more could have been done had we Bolsheviks been +cleverer. + +**Wells** No, if human beings were cleverer. It would be a good thing to +invent a Five-Year Plan for the reconstruction of the human brain, which +obviously lacks many things needed for a perfect social order. +\[Laughter\] + +**Stalin** Don’t you intend to stay for the Congress of the Soviet +Writers’ Union? + +**Wells** Unfortunately, I have various engagements to fulfil and I can +stay in the USSR only for a week. I came to see you and I am very +satisfied by our talk. But I intend to discuss with such Soviet writers +as I can meet the possibility of their affiliating to the PEN Club. The +organisation is still weak, but it has branches in many countries, and +what is more important, the speeches of its members are widely reported +in the press. It insists upon this, free expression of opinion – even of +opposition opinion. I hope to discuss this point with Gorki. I do not +know if you are prepared yet for that much freedom . . . + +**Stalin** We Bolsheviks call it “self-criticism”. It is widely used in +the USSR. If there is anything I can do to help you I shall be glad to +do so. diff --git a/_stories/1935/5866498.md b/_stories/1935/5866498.md index 163a1cc..faf3e89 100644 --- a/_stories/1935/5866498.md +++ b/_stories/1935/5866498.md @@ -19,7 +19,61 @@ _tags: objectID: '5866498' --- -[Source](https://www.poets.org/viewmedia.php/prmMID/15609 "Permalink to ") +When Hades decided he loved this girl +he built for her a duplicate of earth, +everything the same, down to the meadow, +but with a bed added. +Everything the same, including sunlight, +because it would be hard on a young girl +to go so quickly from bright light to utter darkness +Gradually, he thought, he'd introduce the night, +first as the shadows of fluttering leaves. +Then moon, then stars. Then no moon, no stars. +Let Persephone get used to it slowly. +In the end, he thought, she'd find it comforting. +A replica of earth +except there was love here. +Doesn't everyone want love? + +He waited many years, +building a world, watching +Persephone in the meadow. +Persephone, a smeller, a taster. +If you have one appetite, he thought, +you have them all. + +Doesn't everyone want to feel in the night +the beloved body, compass, polestar, +to hear the quiet breathing that says +I am alive, that means also +you are alive, because you hear me, +you are here with me. And when one turns, +the other turns— + +That's what he felt, the lord of darkness, +looking at the world he had +constructed for Persephone. It never crossed his mind +that there'd be no more smelling here, +certainly no more eating. + +Guilt? Terror? The fear of love? +These things he couldn't imagine; +no lover ever imagines them. + +He dreams, he wonders what to call this place. +First he thinks: The New Hell. Then: The Garden. +In the end, he decides to name it +Persephone's Girlhood. + +A soft light rising above the level meadow, +behind the bed. He takes her in his arms. +He wants to say I love you, nothing can hurt you + +but he thinks +this is a lie, so he says in the end +you're dead, nothing can hurt you +which seems to him +a more promising beginning, more true. diff --git a/_stories/1945/13098468.md b/_stories/1945/13098468.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..828337b --- /dev/null +++ b/_stories/1945/13098468.md @@ -0,0 +1,1915 @@ +--- +created_at: '2016-12-04T02:16:14.000Z' +title: Science the Endless Frontier – Vannevar Bush (1945) +url: https://www.nsf.gov/od/lpa/nsf50/vbush1945.htm +author: maverick_iceman +points: 45 +story_text: +comment_text: +num_comments: 1 +story_id: +story_title: +story_url: +parent_id: +created_at_i: 1480817774 +_tags: +- story +- author_maverick_iceman +- story_13098468 +objectID: '13098468' + +--- +# Science The Endless Frontier + +## A Report to the President by Vannevar Bush, Director of the Office of Scientific Research and Development, July 1945 + +#### (United States Government Printing Office, Washington: 1945) + +## TABLE OF CONTENTS + + - Appendices + - 1\. Committees Consulted + - 2\. Report of the Medical Advisory Committee, Dr. W. W. Palmer, + Chairman + - 3\. Report of the Committee on Science and the Public Welfare, + Dr. Isaiah Bowman, Chairman + - 4\. Report of the Committee on Discovery and Development of + Scientific Talent, Mr. Henry Allen Moe, Chairman + - 5\. Report of the Committee on Publication of Scientific + Information, Dr. Irvin Stewart, Chairman + +\_\_\_ + + OFFICE OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT + 1530 P Street, NW. + Washington 25, D.C. + JULY 25, 1945 + + DEAR MR. PRESIDENT: + +In a letter dated November 17, 1944, President Roosevelt requested my +recommendations on the following points: + +(1) What can be done, consistent with military security, and with the +prior approval of the military authorities, to make known to the world +as soon as possible the contributions which have been made during our +war effort to scientific knowledge? + +(2) With particular reference to the war of science against disease, +what can be done now to organize a program for continuing in the future +the work which has been done in medicine and related sciences? + +(3) What can the Government do now and in the future to aid research +activities by public and private organizations? + +(4) Can an effective program be proposed for discovering and developing +scientific talent in American youth so that the continuing future of +scientific research in this country may be assured on a level comparable +to what has been done during the war? + +It is clear from President Roosevelt's letter that in speaking of +science that he had in mind the natural sciences, including biology and +medicine, and I have so interpreted his questions. Progress in other +fields, such as the social sciences and the humanities, is likewise +important; but the program for science presented in my report warrants +immediate attention. + +In seeking answers to President Roosevelt's questions I have had the +assistance of distinguished committees specially qualified to advise in +respect to these subjects. The committees have given these matters the +serious attention they deserve; indeed, they have regarded this as an +opportunity to participate in shaping the policy of the country with +reference to scientific research. They have had many meetings and have +submitted formal reports. I have been in close touch with the work of +the committees and with their members throughout. I have examined all of +the data they assembled and the suggestions they submitted on the points +raised in President Roosevelt's letter. + +Although the report which I submit herewith is my own, the facts, +conclusions, and recommendations are based on the findings of the +committees which have studied these questions. Since my report is +necessarily brief, I am including as appendices the full reports of the +committees. + +A single mechanism for implementing the recommendations of the several +committees is essential. In proposing such a mechanism I have departed +somewhat from the specific recommendations of the committees, but I have +since been assured that the plan I am proposing is fully acceptable to +the committee members. + +The pioneer spirit is still vigorous within this nation. Science offers +a largely unexplored hinterland for the pioneer who has the tools for +his task. The rewards of such exploration both for the Nation and the +individual are great. Scientific progress is one essential key to our +security as a nation, to our better health, to more jobs, to a higher +standard of living, and to our cultural progress. + +``` + Respectfully yours, + (s) V. Bush, Director +``` + + THE PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES, + The White House, + Washington, D. C. + +\_\_\_ + +``` + THE WHITE HOUSE + Washington, D. C. + November 17, 1944 +``` + +DEAR DR. BUSH: The Office of Scientific Research and Development, of +which you are the Director, represents a unique experiment of team-work +and cooperation in coordinating scientific research and in applying +existing scientific knowledge to the solution of the technical problems +paramount in war. Its work has been conducted in the utmost secrecy and +carried on without public recognition of any kind; but its tangible +results can be found in the communiques coming in from the battlefronts +all over the world. Some day the full story of its achievements can be +told. + +There is, however, no reason why the lessons to be found in this +experiment cannot be profitably employed in times of peace. The +information, the techniques, and the research experience developed by +the Office of Scientific Research and Development and by the thousands +of scientists in the universities and in private industry, should be +used in the days of peace ahead for the improvement of the national +health, the creation of new enterprises bringing new jobs, and the +betterment of the national standard of living. + +It is with that objective in mind that I would like to have your +recommendations on the following four major points: + +First: What can be done, consistent with military security, and with the +prior approval of the military authorities, to make known to the world +as soon as possible the contributions which have been made during our +war effort to scientific knowledge? + +The diffusion of such knowledge should help us stimulate new +enterprises, provide jobs four our returning servicemen and other +workers, and make possible great strides for the improvement of the +national well-being. + +Second: With particular reference to the war of science against disease, +what can be done now to organize a program for continuing in the future +the work which has been done in medicine and related sciences? + +The fact that the annual deaths in this country from one or two diseases +alone are far in excess of the total number of lives lost by us in +battle during this war should make us conscious of the duty we owe +future generations. + +Third: What can the Government do now and in the future to aid research +activities by public and private organizations? The proper roles of +public and of private research, and their interrelation, should be +carefully considered. + +Fourth: Can an effective program be proposed for discovering and +developing scientific talent in American youth so that the continuing +future of scientific research in this country may be assured on a level +comparable to what has been done during the war? + +New frontiers of the mind are before us, and if they are pioneered with +the same vision, boldness, and drive with which we have waged this war +we can create a fuller and more fruitful employment and a fuller and +more fruitful life. + +I hope that, after such consultation as you may deem advisable with your +associates and others, you can let me have your considered judgment on +these matters as soon as convenient - reporting on each when you are +ready, rather than waiting for completion of your studies in all. + + Very sincerely yours, + (s) FRANKLIN D. ROOSEVELT + + Dr. VANNEVAR BUSH, + Office of Scientific Research and Development, + Washington, D. C. + +\_\_ + +# SCIENCE - THE ENDLESS FRONTIER + +"New frontiers of the mind are before us, and if they are pioneered with +the same vision, boldness, and drive with which we have waged this war +we can create a fuller and more fruitful employment and a fuller and +more fruitful life."-- + +``` + FRANKLIN D. ROOSEVELT + November 17, 1944. +``` + +\_\_\_ --- + +## SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS IS ESSENTIAL + +Progress in the war against disease depends upon a flow of new +scientific knowledge. New products, new industries, and more jobs +require continuous additions to knowledge of the laws of nature, and the +application of that knowledge to practical purposes. Similarly, our +defense against aggression demands new knowledge so that we can develop +new and improved weapons. This essential, new knowledge can be obtained +only through basic scientific research. + +Science can be effective in the national welfare only as a member of a +team, whether the conditions be peace or war. But without scientific +progress no amount of achievement in other directions can insure our +health, prosperity, and security as a nation in the modern world. + +#### For the War Against Disease + +We have taken great strides in the war against disease. The death rate +for all diseases in the Army, including overseas forces, has been +reduced from 14.1 per thousand in the last war to 0.6 per thousand in +this war. In the last 40 years life expectancy has increased from 49 to +65 years, largely as a consequence of the reduction in the death rates +of infants and children. But we are far from the goal. The annual deaths +from one or two diseases far exceed the total number of American lives +lost in battle during this war. A large fraction of these deaths in our +civilian population cut short the useful lives of our citizens. +Approximately 7,000,000 persons in the United States are mentally ill +and their care costs the public over $175,000,000 a year. Clearly much +illness remains for which adequate means of prevention and cure are not +yet known. + +The responsibility for basic research in medicine and the underlying +sciences, so essential to progress in the war against disease, falls +primarily upon the medical schools and universities. Yet we find that +the traditional sources of support for medical research in the medical +schools and universities, largely endowment income, foundation grants, +and private donations, are diminishing and there is no immediate +prospect of a change in this trend. Meanwhile, the cost of medical +research has been rising. If we are to maintain the progress in medicine +which has marked the last 25 years, the Government should extend +financial support to basic medical research in the medical schools and +in universities. + +#### For Our National Security + +The bitter and dangerous battle against the U-boat was a battle of +scientific techniques - and our margin of success was dangerously small. +The new eyes which radar has supplied can sometimes be blinded by new +scientific developments. V-2 was countered only by capture of the +launching sites. + +We cannot again rely on our allies to hold off the enemy while we +struggle to catch up. There must be more - and more adequate - military +research in peacetime. It is essential that the civilian scientists +continue in peacetime some portion of those contributions to national +security which they have made so effectively during the war. This can +best be done through a civilian-controlled organization with close +liaison with the Army and Navy, but with funds direct from Congress, and +the clear power to initiate military research which will supplement and +strengthen that carried on directly under the control of the Army and +Navy. + +#### And for the Public Welfare + +One of our hopes is that after the war there will be full employment. To +reach that goal the full creative and productive energies of the +American people must be released. To create more jobs we must make new +and better and cheaper products. We want plenty of new, vigorous +enterprises. But new products and processes are not born full-grown. +They are founded on new principles and new conceptions which in turn +result from basic scientific research. Basic scientific research is +scientific capital. Moreover, we cannot any longer depend upon Europe as +a major source of this scientific capital. Clearly, more and better +scientific research is one essential to the achievement of our goal of +full employment. + +How do we increase this scientific capital? First, we must have plenty +of men and women trained in science, for upon them depends both the +creation of new knowledge and its application to practical purposes. +Second, we must strengthen the centers of basic research which are +principally the colleges, universities, and research institutes. These +institutions provide the environment which is most conducive to the +creation of new scientific knowledge and least under pressure for +immediate, tangible results. With some notable exceptions, most research +in industry and Government involves application of existing scientific +knowledge to practical problems. It is only the colleges, universities, +and a few research institutes that devote most of their research efforts +to expanding the frontiers of knowledge. + +Expenditures for scientific research by industry and Government +increased from $140,000,000 in 1930 to $309,000,000 in 1940. Those for +the colleges and universities increased from $20,000,000 to $31,000,000, +while those for the research institutes declined from $5,200,000 to +$4,500,000 during the same period. If the colleges, universities, and +research institutes are to meet the rapidly increasing demands of +industry and Government for new scientific knowledge, their basic +research should be strengthened by use of public funds. + +For science to serve as a powerful factor in our national welfare, +applied research both in Government and in industry must be vigorous. To +improve the quality of scientific research within the Government, steps +should be taken to modify the procedures for recruiting, classifying, +and compensating scientific personnel in order to reduce the present +handicap of governmental scientific bureaus in competing with industry +and the universities for top-grade scientific talent. To provide +coordination of the common scientific activities of these governmental +agencies as to policies and budgets, a permanent Science Advisory Board +should be created to advise the executive and legislative branches of +Government on these matters. + +The most important ways in which the Government can promote industrial +research are to increase the flow of new scientific knowledge through +support of basic research, and to aid in the development of scientific +talent. In addition, the Government should provide suitable incentives +to industry to conduct research, (a) by clarification of present +uncertainties in the Internal Revenue Code in regard to the +deductibility of research and development expenditures as current +charges against net income, and (b) by strengthening the patent system +so as to eliminate uncertainties which now bear heavily on small +industries and so as to prevent abuses which reflect discredit upon a +basically sound system. In addition, ways should be found to cause the +benefits of basic research to reach industries which do not now utilize +new scientific knowledge. + +### WE MUST RENEW OUR SCIENTIFIC TALENT + +The responsibility for the creation of new scientific knowledge - and +for most of its application - rests on that small body of men and women +who understand the fundamental laws of nature and are skilled in the +techniques of scientific research. We shall have rapid or slow advance +on any scientific frontier depending on the number of highly qualified +and trained scientists exploring it. + +The deficit of science and technology students who, but for the war, +would have received bachelor's degrees is about 150,000. It is estimated +that the deficit of those obtaining advanced degrees in these fields +will amount in 1955 to about 17,000 - for it takes at least 6 years from +college entry to achieve a doctor's degree or its equivalent in science +or engineering. The real ceiling on our productivity of new scientific +knowledge and its application in the war against disease, and the +development of new products and new industries, is the number of trained +scientists available. + +The training of a scientist is a long and expensive process. Studies +clearly show that there are talented individuals in every part of the +population, but with few exceptions, those without the means of buying +higher education go without it. If ability, and not the circumstance of +family fortune, determines who shall receive higher education in +science, then we shall be assured of constantly improving quality at +every level of scientific activity. The Government should provide a +reasonable number of undergraduate scholarships and graduate fellowships +in order to develop scientific talent in American youth. The plans +should be designed to attract into science only that proportion of +youthful talent appropriate to the needs of science in relation to the +other needs of the nation for high abilities. + +#### Including Those in Uniform + +The most immediate prospect of making up the deficit in scientific +personnel is to develop the scientific talent in the generation now in +uniform. Even if we should start now to train the current crop of +high-school graduates none would complete graduate studies before 1951. +The Armed Services should comb their records for men who, prior to or +during the war, have given evidence of talent for science, and make +prompt arrangements, consistent with current discharge plans, for +ordering those who remain in uniform, as soon as militarily possible, to +duty at institutions here and overseas where they can continue their +scientific education. Moreover, the Services should see that those who +study overseas have the benefit of the latest scientific information +resulting from research during the war. + +### THE LID MUST BE LIFTED + +While most of the war research has involved the application of existing +scientific knowledge to the problems of war, rather than basic research, +there has been accumulated a vast amount of information relating to the +application of science to particular problems. Much of this can be used +by industry. It is also needed for teaching in the colleges and +universities here and in the Armed Forces Institutes overseas. Some of +this information must remain secret, but most of it should be made +public as soon as there is ground for belief that the enemy will not be +able to turn it against us in this war. To select that portion which +should be made public, to coordinate its release, and definitely to +encourage its publication, a Board composed of Army, Navy, and civilian +scientific members should be promptly established. + +### A PROGRAM FOR ACTION + +The Government should accept new responsibilities for promoting the flow +of new scientific knowledge and the development of scientific talent in +our youth. These responsibilities are the proper concern of the +Government, for they vitally affect our health, our jobs, and our +national security. It is in keeping also with basic United States policy +that the Government should foster the opening of new frontiers and this +is the modern way to do it. For many years the Government has wisely +supported research in the agricultural colleges and the benefits have +been great. The time has come when such support should be extended to +other fields. + +The effective discharge of these new responsibilities will require the +full attention of some over-all agency devoted to that purpose. There is +not now in the permanent Governmental structure receiving its funds from +Congress an agency adapted to supplementing the support of basic +research in the colleges, universities, and research institutes, both in +medicine and the natural sciences, adapted to supporting research on new +weapons for both Services, or adapted to administering a program of +science scholarships and fellowships. + +Therefore I recommend that a new agency for these purposes be +established. Such an agency should be composed of persons of broad +interest and experience, having an understanding of the peculiarities of +scientific research and scientific education. It should have stability +of funds so that long-range programs may be undertaken. It should +recognize that freedom of inquiry must be preserved and should leave +internal control of policy, personnel, and the method and scope of +research to the institutions in which it is carried on. It should be +fully responsible to the President and through him to the Congress for +its program. + +Early action on these recommendations is imperative if this nation is to +meet the challenge of science in the crucial years ahead. On the wisdom +with which we bring science to bear in the war against disease, in the +creation of new industries, and in the strengthening of our Armed Forces +depends in large measure our future as a nation. + +We all know how much the new drug, penicillin, has meant to our +grievously wounded men on the grim battlefronts of this war - the +countless lives it has saved - the incalculable suffering which its use +has prevented. Science and the great practical genius of this nation +made this achievement possible. + +Some of us know the vital role which radar has played in bringing the +United Nations to victory over Nazi Germany and in driving the Japanese +steadily back from their island bastions. Again it was painstaking +scientific research over many years that made radar possible. + +What we often forget are the millions of pay envelopes on a peacetime +Saturday night which are filled because new products and new industries +have provided jobs for countless Americans. Science made that possible, +too. + +In 1939 millions of people were employed in industries which did not +even exist at the close of the last war - radio, air conditioning, rayon +and other synthetic fibers, and plastics are examples of the products of +these industries. But these things do not mark the end of progress - +they are but the beginning if we make full use of our scientific +resources. New manufacturing industries can be started and many older +industries greatly strengthened and expanded if we continue to study +nature's laws and apply new knowledge to practical purposes. + +Great advances in agriculture are also based upon scientific research. +Plants which are more resistant to disease and are adapted to short +growing season, the prevention and cure of livestock diseases, the +control of our insect enemies, better fertilizers, and improved +agricultural practices, all stem from painstaking scientific research. + +Advances in science when put to practical use mean more jobs, higher +wages, shorter hours, more abundant crops, more leisure for recreation, +for study, for learning how to live without the deadening drudgery which +has been the burden of the common man for ages past. Advances in science +will also bring higher standards of living, will lead to the prevention +or cure of diseases, will promote conservation of our limited national +resources, and will assure means of defense against aggression. But to +achieve these objectives - to secure a high level of employment, to +maintain a position of world leadership - the flow of new scientific +knowledge must be both continuous and substantial. + +Our population increased from 75 million to 130 million between 1900 and +1940. In some countries comparable increases have been accompanied by +famine. In this country the increase has been accompanied by more +abundant food supply, better living, more leisure, longer life, and +better health. This is, largely, the product of three factors - the free +play of initiative of a vigorous people under democracy, the heritage of +great national wealth, and the advance of science and its application. + +Science, by itself, provides no panacea for individual, social, and +economic ills. It can be effective in the national welfare only as a +member of a team, whether the conditions be peace or war. But without +scientific progress no amount of achievement in other directions can +insure our health, prosperity, and security as a nation in the modern +world. + +It has been basic United States policy that Government should foster the +opening of new frontiers. It opened the seas to clipper ships and +furnished land for pioneers. Although these frontiers have more or less +disappeared, the frontier of science remains. It is in keeping with the +American tradition - one which has made the United States great - that +new frontiers shall be made accessible for development by all American +citizens. + +Moreover, since health, well-being, and security are proper concerns of +Government, scientific progress is, and must be, of vital interest to +Government. Without scientific progress the national health would +deteriorate; without scientific progress we could not hope for +improvement in our standard of living or for an increased number of jobs +for our citizens; and without scientific progress we could not have +maintained our liberties against tyranny. + +From early days the Government has taken an active interest in +scientific matters. During the nineteenth century the Coast and Geodetic +Survey, the Naval Observatory, the Department of Agriculture, and the +Geological Survey were established. Through the Land Grant College acts +the Government has supported research in state institutions for more +than 80 years on a gradually increasing scale. Since 1900 a large number +of scientific agencies have been established within the Federal +Government, until in 1939 they numbered more than 40. + +Much of the scientific research done by Government agencies is +intermediate in character between the two types of work commonly +referred to as basic and applied research. Almost all Government +scientific work has ultimate practical objectives but, in many fields of +broad national concern, it commonly involves long-term investigation of +a fundamental nature. Generally speaking, the scientific agencies of +Government are not so concerned with immediate practical objectives as +are the laboratories of industry nor, on the other hand, are they as +free to explore any natural phenomena without regard to possible +economic applications as are the educational and private research +institutions. Government scientific agencies have splendid records of +achievement, but they are limited in function. + +We have no national policy for science. The Government has only begun to +utilize science in the nation's welfare. There is no body within the +Government charged with formulating or executing a national science +policy. There are no standing committees of the Congress devoted to this +important subject. Science has been in the wings. It should be brought +to the center of the stage - for in it lies much of our hope for the +future. + +There are areas of science in which the public interest is acute but +which are likely to be cultivated inadequately if left without more +support than will come from private sources. These areas - such as +research on military problems, agriculture, housing, public health, +certain medical research, and research involving expensive capital +facilities beyond the capacity of private institutions - should be +advanced by active Government support. To date, with the exception of +the intensive war research conducted by the Office of Scientific +Research and Development, such support has been meager and intermittent. + +For reasons presented in this report we are entering a period when +science needs and deserves increased support from public funds. + +The publicly and privately supported colleges, universities, and +research institutes are the centers of basic research. They are the +wellsprings of knowledge and understanding. As long as they are vigorous +and healthy and their scientists are free to pursue the truth wherever +it may lead, there will be a flow of new scientific knowledge to those +who can apply it to practical problems in Government, in industry, or +elsewhere. + +Many of the lessons learned in the war-time application of science under +Government can be profitably applied in peace. The Government is +peculiarly fitted to perform certain functions, such as the coordination +and support of broad programs on problems of great national importance. +But we must proceed with caution in carrying over the methods which work +in wartime to the very different conditions of peace. We must remove the +rigid controls which we have had to impose, and recover freedom of +inquiry and that healthy competitive scientific spirit so necessary for +expansion of the frontiers of scientific knowledge. + +Scientific progress on a broad front results from the free play of free +intellects, working on subjects of their own choice, in the manner +dictated by their curiosity for exploration of the unknown. Freedom of +inquiry must be preserved under any plan for Government support of +science in accordance with the Five Fundamentals listed on [page +26](#ch6.3). + +The study of the momentous questions presented in President Roosevelt's +letter has been made by able committees working diligently. This report +presents conclusions and recommendations based upon the studies of these +committees which appear in full as the appendices. Only in the creation +of one over-all mechanism rather than several does this report depart +from the specific recommendations of the committees. The members of the +committees have reviewed the recommendations in regard to the single +mechanism and have found this plan thoroughly acceptable. + +The death rate for all diseases in the Army, including the overseas +forces, has been reduced from 14.1 per thousand in the last war to 0.6 +per thousand in this war. + +Such ravaging diseases as yellow fever, dysentery, typhus, tetanus, +pneumonia, and meningitis have been all but conquered by penicillin and +the sulfa drugs, the insecticide DDT, better vaccines, and improved +hygenic measures. Malaria has been controlled. There has been dramatic +progress in surgery. + +The striking advances in medicine during the war have been possible only +because we had a large backlog of scientific data accumulated through +basic research in many scientific fields in the years before the war. + +In the last 40 years life expectancy in the United States has increased +from 49 to 65 years largely as a consequence of the reduction in the +death rates of infants and children; in the last 20 years the death rate +from the diseases of childhood has been reduced 87 percent. + +Diabetes has been brought under control by insulin, pernicious anemia by +liver extracts; and the once widespread deficiency diseases have been +much reduced, even in the lowest income groups, by accessory food +factors and improvement of diet. Notable advances have been made in the +early diagnosis of cancer, and in the surgical and radiation treatment +of the disease. + +These results have been achieved through a great amount of basic +research in medicine and the preclinical sciences, and by the +dissemination of this new scientific knowledge through the physicians +and medical services and public health agencies of the country. In this +cooperative endeavour the pharmaceutical industry has played an +important role, especially during the war. All of the medical and public +health groups share credit for these achievements; they form +interdependent members of a team. + +Progress in combating disease depends upon an expanding body of new +scientific knowledge. + +As President Roosevelt observed, the annual deaths from one or two +diseases are far in excess of the total number of American lives lost in +battle during this war. A large fraction of these deaths in our civilian +population cut short the useful lives of our citizens. This is our +present position despite the fact that in the last three decades notable +progress has been made in civilian medicine. The reduction in death rate +from diseases of childhood has shifted the emphasis to the middle and +old age groups, particularly to the malignant diseases and the +degenerative processes prominent in later life. Cardiovascular disease, +including chronic disease of the kidneys, arteriosclerosis, and cerebral +hemorrhage, now account for 45 percent of the deaths in the United +States. Second are the infectious diseases, and third is cancer. Added +to these are many maladies (for example, the common cold, arthritis, +asthma and hay fever, peptic ulcer) which, through infrequently fatal, +cause incalculable disability. + +Another aspect of the changing emphasis is the increase of mental +diseases. Approximately 7 million persons in the United States are +mentally ill; more than one-third of the hospital beds are occupied by +such persons, at a cost of $175 million a year. Each year 125,000 new +mental cases are hospitalized. + +Notwithstanding great progress in prolonging the span of life and relief +of suffering, much illness remains for which adequate means of +prevention and cure are not yet known. While additional physicians, +hospitals, and health programs are needed, their full usefulness cannot +be attained unless we enlarge our knowledge of the human organism and +the nature of disease. Any extension of medical facilities must be +accompanied by an expanded program of medical training and research. + +Discoveries pertinent to medical progress have often come from remote +and unexpected sources, and it is certain that this will be true in the +future. It is wholly probable that progress in the treatment of +cardiovascular disease, renal disease, cancer, and similar refractory +diseases will be made as the result of fundamental discoveries in +subjects unrelated to those diseases, and perhaps entirely unexpected by +the investigator. Further progress requires that the entire front of +medicine and the underlying sciences of chemistry, physics, anatomy, +biochemistry, physiology, pharmacology, bacteriology, pathology, +parasitology, etc., be broadly developed. + +Progress in the war against disease results from discoveries in remote +and unexpected fields of medicine and the underlying sciences. + +Penicillin reached our troops in time to save countless lives because +the Government coordinated and supported the program of research and +development on the drug. The development moved from the early laboratory +stage to large scale production and use in a fraction of the time it +would have taken without such leadership. The search for better +anti-malarials, which proceeded at a moderate tempo for many years, has +been accelerated enormously by Government support during the war. Other +examples can be cited in which medical progress has been similarly +advanced. In achieving these results, the Government has provided +over-all coordination and support; it has not dictated how the work +should be done within any cooperating institution. + +Discovery of new therapeutic agents and methods usually results from +basic studies in medicine and the underlying sciences. The development +of such materials and methods to the point at which they become +available to medical practitioners requires teamwork involving the +medical schools, the science departments of universities, Government and +the pharmaceutical industry. Government initiative, support, and +coordination can be very effective in this development phase. + +Government initiative and support for the development of newly +discovered therapeutic materials and methods can reduce the time +required to bring the benefits to the public. + +The primary place for medical research is in the medical schools and +universities. In some cases coordinated direct attack on special +problems may be made by teams of investigators, supplementing similar +attacks carried on by the Army, Navy, Public Health Service, and other +organizations. Apart from teaching, however, the primary obligation of +the medical schools and universities is to continue the traditional +function of such institutions, namely, to provide the individual worker +with an opportunity for free, untrammeled study of nature, in the +directions and by the methods suggested by his interests, curiosity, and +imagination. The history of medical science teaches clearly the supreme +importance of affording the prepared mind complete freedom for the +exercise of initiative. It is the special province of the medical +schools and universities to foster medical research in this way - a duty +which cannot be shifted to government agencies, industrial +organizations, or to any other institutions. + +Where clinical investigations of the human body are required, the +medical schools are in a unique position, because of their close +relationship to teaching hospitals, to integrate such investigations +with the work of the departments of preclinical science, and to impart +new knowledge to physicians in training. At the same time, the teaching +hospitals are especially well qualified to carry on medical research +because of their close connection with the medical schools, on which +they depend for staff and supervision. + +Between World War I and World War II the United States overtook all +other nations in medical research and assumed a position of world +leadership. To a considerable extent this progress reflected the liberal +financial support from university endowment income, gifts from +individuals, and foundation grants in the 20's. The growth of research +departments in medical schools ahs been very uneven, however, and in +consequence most of the important work has been done in a few large +schools. This should be corrected by building up the weaker +institutions, especially in regions which now have no strong medical +research activities. + +The traditional sources of support for medical research, largely +endowment income, foundation grants, and private donations, are +diminishing, and there is no immediate prospect of a change in this +trend. Meanwhile, research costs have steadily risen. More elaborate and +expensive equipment is required, supplies are more costly, and the wages +of assistants are higher. Industry is only to a limited extent a source +of funds for basic medical research. + +It is clear that if we are to maintain the progress in medicine which +has marked the last 25 years, the Government should extend financial +support to basic medical research in the medical schools and in the +universities, through grants both for research and for fellowships. The +amount which can be effectively spent in the first year should not +exceed 5 million dollars. After a program is under way perhaps 20 +million dollars a year can be spent effectively. + +In this war it has become clear beyond all doubt that scientific +research is absolutely essential to national security. The bitter and +dangerous battle against the U-boat was a battle of scientific +techniques - and our margin of success was dangerously small. The new +eyes which radar supplied to our fighting forces quickly evoked the +development of scientific countermeasures which could often blind them. +This again represents the ever continuing battle of techniques. The V-1 +attack on London was finally defeated by three devices developed during +this war and used superbly in the field. V-2 was countered only by the +capture of the launching sites. + +The Secretaries of War and Navy recently stated in a joint letter to the +National Academy of Sciences: + +This war emphasizes three facts of supreme importance to national +security: (1) Powerful new tactics of defense and offense are developed +around new weapons created by scientific and engineering research; (2) +the competitive time element in developing those weapons and tactics may +be decisive; (3) war is increasingly total war, in which the armed +services must be supplemented by active participation of every element +of civilian population. + +To insure continued preparedness along farsighted technical lines, the +research scientists of the country must be called upon to continue in +peacetime some substantial portion of those types of contribution to +national security which they have made so effectively during the stress +of the present war \* \* \*. + +There must be more - and more adequate - military research during +peacetime. We cannot again rely on our allies to hold off the enemy +while we struggle to catch up. Further, it is clear that only the +Government can undertake military research; for it must be carried on in +secret, much of it has no commercial value, and it is expensive. The +obligation of Government to support research on military problems is +inescapable. + +Modern war requires the use of the most advanced scientific techniques. +Many of the leaders in the development of radar are scientists who +before the war had been exploring the nucleus of the atom. While there +must be increased emphasis on science in the future training of officers +for both the Army and Navy, such men cannot be expected to be +specialists in scientific research. Therefore a professional partnership +between the officers in the Services and civilian scientists is needed. + +The Army and Navy should continue to carry on research and development +on the improvement of current weapons. For many years the National +Advisory Committee for Aeronautics has supplemented the work of the Army +and Navy by conducting basic research on the problems of flight. There +should now be permanent civilian activity to supplement the research +work of the Services in other scientific fields so as to carry on in +time of peace some part of the activities of the emergency war-time +Office of Scientific Research and Development. + +Military preparedness requires a permanent independent, +civilian-controlled organization, having close liaison with the Army and +Navy, but with funds directly from Congress and with the clear power to +initiate military research which will supplement and strengthen that +carried on directly under the control of the Army and Navy. + +Military preparedness requires a permanent independent, +civilian-controlled organization, having close liaison with the Army and +Navy, but with funds directly from Congress and with the clear power to +initiate military research which will supplement and strengthen that +carried on directly under the control of the Army and Navy. + +One of our hopes is that after the war there will be full employment, +and that the production of goods and services will serve to raise our +standard of living. We do not know yet how we shall reach that goal, but +it is certain that it can be achieved only by releasing the full +creative and productive energies of the American people. + +Surely we will not get there by standing still, merely by making the +same things we made before and selling them at the same or higher +prices. We will not get ahead in international trade unless we offer new +and more attractive and cheaper products. + +Where will these new products come from? How will we find ways to make +better products at lower cost? The answer is clear. There must be a +stream of new scientific knowledge to turn the wheels of private and +public enterprise. There must be plenty of men and women trained in +science and technology for upon them depend both the creation of new +knowledge and its application to practical purposes. + +More and better scientific research is essential to the achievement of +our goal of full employment. + +Basic research is performed without thought of practical ends. It +results in general knowledge and an understanding of nature and its +laws. This general knowledge provides the means of answering a large +number of important practical problems, though it may not give a +complete specific answer to any one of them. The function of applied +research is to provide such complete answers. The scientist doing basic +research may not be at all interested in the practical applications of +his work, yet the further progress of industrial development would +eventually stagnate if basic scientific research were long neglected. + +One of the peculiarities of basic science is the variety of paths which +lead to productive advance. Many of the most important discoveries have +come as a result of experiments undertaken with very different purposes +in mind. Statistically it is certain that important and highly useful +discoveries will result from some fraction of the undertakings in basic +science; but the results of any one particular investigation cannot be +predicted with accuracy. + +Basic research leads to new knowledge. It provides scientific capital. +It creates the fund from which the practical applications of knowledge +must be drawn. New products and new processes do not appear full-grown. +They are founded on new principles and new conceptions, which in turn +are painstakingly developed by research in the purest realms of science. + +Today, it is truer than ever that basic research is the pacemaker of +technological progress. In the nineteenth century, Yankee mechanical +ingenuity, building largely upon the basic discoveries of European +scientists, could greatly advance the technical arts. Now the situation +is different. + +A nation which depends upon others for its new basic scientific +knowledge will be slow in its industrial progress and weak in its +competitive position in world trade, regardless of its mechanical skill. + +Publicly and privately supported colleges and universities and the +endowed research institutes must furnish both the new scientific +knowledge and the trained research workers. These institutions are +uniquely qualified by tradition and by their special characteristics to +carry on basic research. They are charged with the responsibility of +conserving the knowledge accumulated by the past, imparting that +knowledge to students, and contributing new knowledge of all kinds. It +is chiefly in these institutions that scientists may work in an +atmosphere which is relatively free from the adverse pressure of +convention, prejudice, or commercial necessity. At their best they +provide the scientific worker with a strong sense of solidarity and +security, as well as a substantial degree of personal intellectual +freedom. All of these factors are of great importance in the development +of new knowledge, since much of new knowledge is certain to arouse +opposition because of its tendency to challenge current beliefs or +practice. + +Industry is generally inhibited by preconceived goals, by its own +clearly defined standards, and by the constant pressure of commercial +necessity. Satisfactory progress in basic science seldom occurs under +conditions prevailing in the normal industrial laboratory. There are +some notable exceptions, it is true, but even in such cases it is rarely +possible to match the universities in respect to the freedom which is so +important to scientific discovery. + +To serve effectively as the centers of basic research these institutions +must be strong and healthy. They must attract our best scientists as +teachers and investigators. They must offer research opportunities and +sufficient compensation to enable them to compete with industry and +government for the cream of scientific talent. + +During the past 25 years there has been a great increase in industrial +research involving the application of scientific knowledge to a +multitude of practical purposes - thus providing new products, new +industries, new investment opportunities, and millions of jobs. During +the same period research within Government - again largely applied +research - has also been greatly expanded. In the decade from 1930 to +1940 expenditures for industrial research increased from $116,000,000 to +$240,000,000 and those for scientific research in Government rose from +$24,000,000 to $69,000,000. During the same period expenditures for +scientific research in the colleges and universities increased from +$20,000,000 to $31,000,000, while those in the endowed research +institutes declined from $5,200,000 to $4,500,000. These are the best +estimates available. The figures have been taken from a variety of +sources and arbitrary definitions have necessarily been applied, but it +is believed that they may be accepted as indicating the following +trends: + + - (a) Expenditures for scientific research by industry and Government + - almost entirely applied research - have more than doubled between + 1930 and 1940. Whereas in 1930 they were six times as large as the + research expenditures of the colleges, universities, and research + institutes, by 1940 they were nearly ten times as large. + - (b) While expenditures for scientific research in the colleges and + universities increased by one-half during this period, those for the + endowed research institutes have slowly declined. + +If the colleges, universities, and research institutes are to meet the +rapidly increasing demands of industry and Government for new scientific +knowledge, their basic research should be strengthened by use of public +funds. + +Although there are some notable exceptions, most research conducted +within governmental laboratories is of an applied nature. This has +always been true and is likely to remain so. Hence Government, like +industry, is dependent on the colleges, universities, and research +institutes to expand the basic scientific frontiers and to furnish +trained scientific investigators. + +Research within the Government represents an important part of our total +research activity and needs to be strengthened and expanded after the +war. Such expansion should be directed to fields of inquiry and service +which are of public importance and are not adequately carried on by +private organizations. + +The most important single factor in scientific and technical work is the +quality of the personnel employed. The procedures currently followed +within the Government for recruiting, classifying and compensating such +personnel place the Government under a severe handicap in competing with +industry and the universities for first-class scientific talent. Steps +should be taken to reduce that handicap. + +In the Government the arrangement whereby the numerous scientific +agencies form parts of larger departments has both advantages and +disadvantages. but the present pattern is firmly established and there +is much to be said for it. There is, however, a very real need for some +measure of coordination of the common scientific activities of these +agencies, both as to policies and budgets, and at present no such means +exist. + +A permanent Science Advisory Board should be created to consult with +these scientific bureaus and to advise the executive and legislative +branches of Government as to the policies and budgets of Government +agencies engaged in scientific research. + +This board should be composed of disinterested scientists who have no +connection with the affairs of any Government agency. + +The simplest and most effective way in which the Government can +strengthen industrial research is to support basic research and to +develop scientific talent. + +The benefits of basic research do not reach all industries equally or at +the same speed. Some small enterprises never receive any of the +benefits. It has been suggested that the benefits might be better +utilized if "research clinics" for such enterprises were to be +established. Businessmen would thus be able to make more use of research +than they now do. This proposal is certainly worthy of further study. + +One of the most important factors affecting the amount of industrial +research is the income-tax law. Government action in respect to this +subject will affect the rate of technical progress in industry. +Uncertainties as to the attitude of the Bureau of Internal Revenue +regarding the deduction of research and development expenses are a +deterrent to research expenditure. These uncertainties arise from lack +of clarity of the tax law as to the proper treatment of such costs. + +The Internal Revenue Code should be amended to remove present +uncertainties in regard to the deductibility of research and development +expenditures as current charges against net income. + +Research is also affected by the patent laws. They stimulate new +invention and they make it possible for new industries to be built +around new devices or new processes. These industries generate new jobs +and new products, all of which contribute to the welfare and the +strength of the country. + +Yet, uncertainties in the operation of the patent laws have impaired the +ability of small industries to translate new ideas into processes and +products of value to the nation. These uncertainties are, in part, +attributable to the difficulties and expense incident to the operation +of the patent system as it presently exists. These uncertainties are +also attributable to the existence of certain abuses, which have +appeared in the use of patents. The abuses should be corrected. They +have led to extravagantly critical attacks which tend to discredit a +basically sound system. + +It is important that the patent system continue to serve the country in +the manner intended by the Constitution, for it has been a vital element +in the industrial vigor which has distinguished this nation. + +The National Patent Planning Commission has reported on this subject. In +addition, a detailed study, with recommendations concerning the extent +to which modifications should be made in our patent laws is currently +being made under the leadership of the Secretary of Commerce. It is +recommended, therefore, that specific action with regard to the patent +laws be withheld pending the submission of the report devoted +exclusively to that subject. + +International exchange of scientific information is of growing +importance. Increasing specialization of science will make it more +important than ever that scientists in this country keep continually +ahead of developments abroad. In addition a flow of scientific +information constitutes one facet of general international accord which +should be cultivated. + +The Government can accomplish significant results in several ways: by +aiding in the arrangement of international science congresses, in the +official accrediting of American scientists to such gatherings, in the +official reception of foreign scientists of standing in this country, in +making possible a rapid flow of technical information, including +translation service, and possibly in the provision of international +fellowships. Private foundations and other groups partially fulfill some +of these functions at present, but their scope is incomplete and +inadequate. + +The Government should take an active role in promoting the international +flow of scientific information. + +We can no longer count on ravaged Europe as a source of fundamental +knowledge. In the past we have devoted much of our best efforts to the +application of such knowledge which has been discovered abroad. In the +future we must pay increased attention to discovering this knowledge for +ourselves particularly since the scientific applications of the future +will be more than ever dependent upon such basic knowledge. + +New impetus must be given to research in our country. Such impetus can +come promptly only from the Government. Expenditures for research in the +colleges, universities, and research institutes will otherwise not be +able to meet the additional demands of increased public need for +research. + +Further, we cannot expect industry adequately to fill the gap. Industry +will fully rise to the challenge of applying new knowledge to new +products. The commercial incentive can be relied upon for that. But +basic research is essentially noncommercial in nature. It will not +receive the attention it requires if left to industry. + +For many years the Government has wisely supported research in the +agricultural colleges and the benefits have been great. The time has +come when such support should be extended to other fields. + +In providing government support, however, we must endeavor to preserve +as far as possible the private support of research both in industry and +in the colleges, universities, and research institutes. These private +sources should continue to carry their share of the financial burden. + +It is estimated that an adequate program for Federal support of basic +research in the colleges, universities, and research institutes and for +financing important applied research in the public interest, will cost +about 10 million dollars at the outset and may rise to about 50 million +dollars annually when fully underway at the end of perhaps 5 years. + +The responsibility for the creation of new scientific knowledge rests on +that small body of men and women who understand the fundamental laws of +nature and are skilled in the techniques of scientific research. While +there will always be the rare individual who will rise to the top +without benefit of formal education and training, he is the exception +and even he might make a more notable contribution if he had the benefit +of the best education we have to offer. I cannot improve on President +Conant's statement that: + +"\* \* \* in every section of the entire area where the word science may +properly be applied, the limiting factor is a human one. We shall have +rapid or slow advance in this direction or in that depending on the +number of really first-class men who are engaged in the work in +question. \* \* \* So in the last analysis, the future of science in +this country will be determined by our basic educational policy." + +It would be folly to set up a program under which research in the +natural sciences and medicine was expanded at the cost of the social +sciences, humanities, and other studies so essential to national +well-being. This point has been well stated by the Moe Committee as +follows: + +" As citizens, as good citizens, we therefore think that we must have in +mind while examining the question before us - the discovery and +development of scientific talent - the needs of the whole national +welfare. We could not suggest to you a program which would syphon into +science and technology a disproportionately large share of the nation's +highest abilities, without doing harm to the nation, nor, indeed, +without crippling science. \* \* \* Science cannot live by and unto +itself +alone." + +``` + * * * * * * * * * * * * * * +``` + +"The uses to which high ability in youth can be put are various and, to +a large extent, are determined by social pressures and rewards. When +aided by selective devices for picking out scientifically talented +youth, it is clear that large sums of money for scholarships and +fellowships and monetary and other rewards in disproportionate amounts +might draw into science too large a percentage of the nation's high +ability, with a result highly detrimental to the nation and to science. +Plans for the discovery and development of scientific talent must be +related to the other needs of society for high ability. \* \* \* There +is never enough ability at high levels to satisfy all the needs of the +nation; we would not seek to draw into science any more of it than +science's proportionate share." + +Among the young men and women qualified to take up scientific work, +since 1940 there have been few students over 18, except some in medicine +and engineering in Army and Navy programs and a few 4-F's, who have +followed an integrated scientific course of studies. Neither our allies +nor, so far as we know, our enemies have done anything so radical as +thus to suspend almost completely their educational activities in +scientific pursuits during the war period. + +Two great principles have guided us in this country as we have turned +our full efforts to war. First, the sound democratic principle that +there should be no favored classes or special privilege in a time of +peril, that all should be ready to sacrifice equally; second, the tenet +that every man should serve in the capacity in which his talents and +experience can best be applied for the prosecution of the war effort. In +general we have held these principles well in balance. + +In my opinion, however, we have drawn too heavily for nonscientific +purposes upon the great natural resource which resides in our trained +young scientists and engineers. For the general good of the country too +many such men have gone into uniform, and their talents have not always +been fully utilized. With the exception of those men engaged in war +research, all physically fit students at graduate level have been taken +into the armed forces. Those ready for college training in the sciences +have not been permitted to enter upon that training. + +There is thus an accumulating deficit of trained research personnel +which will continue for many years. The deficit of science and +technology students who, but for the war, would have received bachelor's +degrees is about 150,000. The deficit of those holding advanced degrees +- that is, young scholars trained to the point where they are capable of +carrying on original work - has been estimated as amounting to about +17,000 by 1955 in chemistry, engineering, geology, mathematics, physics, +psychology, and the biological sciences. + +With mounting demands for scientists both for teaching and for research, +we will enter the post-war period with a serious deficit in our trained +scientific personnel. + +Confronted with these deficits, we are compelled to look to the use of +our basic human resources and formulate a program which will assure +their conservation and effective development. The committee advising me +on scientific personnel has stated the following principle which should +guide our planning: + +"If we were all-knowing and all-wise we might, but we think probably +not, write you a plan whereby there might be selected for training, +which they otherwise would not get, those who, 20 years hence, would be +scientific leaders, and we might not bother about any lesser +manifestations of scientific ability. But in the present state of +knowledge a plan cannot be made which will select, and assist, only +those young men and women who will give the top future leadership to +science. To get top leadership there must be a relatively large base of +high ability selected for development and then successive skimmings of +the cream of ability at successive times and at higher levels. No one +can select from the bottom those who will be the leaders at the top +because unmeasured and unknown factors enter into scientific, or any, +leadership. There are brains and character, strength and health, +happiness and spiritual vitality, interest and motivation, and no one +knows what else, that must needs enter into this supra-mathematical +calculus. + +"We think we probably would not, even if we were all-wise and +all-knowing, write you a plan whereby you would be assured of scientific +leadership at one stroke. We think as we think because we are not +interested in setting up an elect. We think it much the best plan, in +this constitutional Republic, that opportunity be held out to all kinds +and conditions of men whereby they can better themselves. This is the +American way; this is the way the United States has become what it is. +We think it very important that circumstances be such that there be no +ceilings, other than ability itself, to intellectual ambition. We think +it very important that every boy and girl shall know that, if he shows +that he has what it takes, the sky is the limit. Even if it be shown +subsequently that he has not what it takes to go to the top, he will go +further than he would otherwise go if there had been a ceiling beyond +which he always knew he could not aspire. + +"By proceeding from point to point and taking stock on the way, by +giving further opportunity to those who show themselves worthy of +further opportunity, by giving the most opportunity to those who show +themselves continually developing - this is the way we propose. This is +the American way: a man work for what he gets." + +Higher education in this country is largely for those who have the +means. If those who have the means coincided entirely with those persons +who have the talent we should not be squandering a part of our higher +education on those undeserving of it, nor neglecting great talent among +those who fail to attend college for economic reasons. There are +talented individuals in every segment of the population, but with few +exceptions those without the means of buying higher education go without +it. Here is a tremendous waste of the greatest resource of a nation - +the intelligence of its citizens. + +If ability, and not the circumstance of family fortune, is made to +determine who shall receive higher education in science, then we shall +be assured of constantly improving quality at every level of scientific +activity. + +We have a serious deficit in scientific personnel partly because the men +who would have studied science in the colleges and universities have +been serving in the Armed Forces. Many had begun their studies before +they went to war. Others with capacity for scientific education went to +war after finishing high school. The most immediate prospect of making +up some of the deficit in scientific personnel is by salvaging +scientific talent from the generation in uniform. For even if we should +start now to train the current crop of high school graduates, it would +be 1951 before they would complete graduate studies and be prepared for +effective scientific research. This fact underlines the necessity of +salvaging potential scientists in uniform. + +The Armed Services should comb their records for men who, prior to or +during the war, have given evidence of talent for science, and make +prompt arrangements, consistent with current discharge plans, for +ordering those who remain in uniform as soon as militarily possible to +duty at institutions here and overseas where they can continue their +scientific education. Moreover, they should see that those who study +overseas have the benefit of the latest scientific developments. + +The country may be proud of the fact that 95 percent of boys and girls +of the fifth grade age are enrolled in school, but the drop in +enrollment after the fifth grade is less satisfying. For every 1,000 +students in the fifth grade, 600 are lost to education before the end of +high school, and all but 72 have ceased formal education before +completion of college. While we are concerned primarily with methods of +selecting and educating high school graduates at the college and higher +levels, we cannot be complacent about the loss of potential talent which +is inherent in the present situation. + +Students drop out of school, college, and graduate school, or do not get +that far, for a variety of reasons: they cannot afford to go on; schools +and colleges providing courses equal to their capacity are not available +locally; business and industry recruit many of the most promising before +they have finished the training of which they are capable. These reasons +apply with particular force to science: the road is long and expensive; +it extends at least 6 years beyond high school; the percentage of +science students who can obtain first-rate training in institutions near +home is small. + +Improvement in the teaching of science is imperative; for students of +latent scientific ability are particularly vulnerable to high school +teaching which fails to awaken interest or to provide adequate +instruction. To enlarge the group of specially qualified men and women +it is necessary to increase the number who go to college. This involves +improved high school instruction, provision for helping individual +talented students to finish high school (primarily the responsibility of +the local communities), and opportunities for more capable, promising +high school students to go to college. Anything short of this means +serious waste of higher education and neglect of human resources. + +To encourage and enable a larger number of young men and women of +ability to take up science as a career, and in order gradually to reduce +the deficit of trained scientific personnel, it is recommended that +provision be made for a reasonable number of (a) undergraduate +scholarships and graduate fellowships and (b) fellowships for advanced +training and fundamental research. The details should be worked out with +reference to the interests of the several States and of the universities +and colleges; and care should be taken not to impair the freedom of the +institutions and individuals concerned. + +The program proposed by the Moe Committee in Appendix 4 would provide +24,000 undergraduate scholarships and 900 graduate fellowships and would +cost about $30,000,000 annually when in full operation. Each year under +this program 6,000 undergraduate scholarships would be made available to +high school graduates, and 300 graduate fellowships would be offered to +college graduates. Approximately the scale of allowances provided for +under the educational program for returning veterans has been used in +estimating the cost of this program. + +The plan is, further, that all those who receive such scholarships or +fellowships in science should be enrolled in a National Science Reserve +and be liable to call into the service of the Government, in connection +with scientific or technical work in time of war or other national +emergency declared by Congress or proclaimed by the President. Thus, in +addition to the general benefits to the nation by reason of the addition +to its trained ranks of such a corps of scientific workers, there would +be a definite benefit to the nation in having these scientific workers +on call in national emergencies. The Government would be well advised to +invest the money involved in this plan even if the benefits to the +nation were thought of solely - which they are not - in terms of +national preparedness. + +We have been living on our fat. For more than 5 years many of our +scientists have been fighting the war in the laboratories, in the +factories and shops, and at the front. We have been directing the +energies of our scientists to the development of weapons and materials +and methods, on a large number of relatively narrow projects initiated +and controlled by the Office of Scientific Research and Development and +other Government agencies. Like troops, the scientists have been +mobilized, and thrown into action to serve their country in time of +emergency. But they have been diverted to a greater extent than is +generally appreciated from the search for answers to the fundamental +problems - from the search on which human welfare and progress depends. +This is not a complaint - it is a fact. The mobilization of science +behind the lines is aiding the fighting men at the front to win the war +and to shorten it; and it has resulted incidentally in the accumulation +of a vast amount of experience and knowledge of the application of +science to particular problems, much of which can be put to use when the +war is over. Fortunately, this country had the scientists - and the time +- to make this contribution and thus to advance the date of victory. + +Much of the information and experience acquired during the war is +confined to the agencies that gathered it. Except to the extent that +military security dictates otherwise, such knowledge should be spread +upon the record for the benefit of the general public. + +Thanks to the wise provision of the Secretary of War and the Secretary +of the Navy, most of the results of war-time medical research have been +published. Several hundred articles have appeared in the professional +journals; many are in process of publication. The material still subject +to security classification should be released as soon as possible. + +It is my view that most of the remainder of the classified scientific +material should be released as soon as there is ground for belief that +the enemy will not be able to turn it against us in this war. Most of +the information needed by industry and in education can be released +without disclosing its embodiments in actual military material and +devices. Basically there is no reason to believe that scientists of +other countries will not in time rediscover everything we now know which +is held in secrecy. A broad dissemination of scientific information upon +which further advances can readily be made furnishes a sounder +foundation for our national security than a policy of restriction which +would impede our own progress although imposed in the hope that possible +enemies would not catch up with us. + +During the war it has been necessary for selected groups of scientists +to work on specialized problems, with relatively little information as +to what other groups were doing and had done. Working against time, the +Office of Scientific Research and Development has been obliged to +enforce this practice during the war, although it was realized by all +concerned that it was an emergency measure which prevented the +continuous cross-fertilization so essential to fruitful scientific +effort. + +Our ability to overcome possible future enemies depends upon scientific +advances which will proceed more rapidly with diffusion of knowledge +than under a policy of continued restriction of knowledge now in our +possession. + +In planning the release of scientific data and experience collected in +connection with the war, we must not overlook the fact that research has +gone forward under many auspices - the Army, the Navy, the Office of +Scientific Research and Development, the National Advisory Committee for +Aeronautics, other departments and agencies of the Government, +educational institutions, and many industrial organizations. There have +been numerous cases of independent discovery of the same truth in +different places. To permit the release of information by one agency and +to continue to restrict it elsewhere would be unfair in its effect and +would tend to impair the morale and efficiency of scientists who have +submerged individual interests in the controls and restrictions of war. + +A part of the information now classified which should be released is +possessed jointly by our allies and ourselves. Plans for release of such +information should be coordinated with our allies to minimize danger of +international friction which would result from sporadic uncontrolled +release. + +The agency responsible for recommending the release of information from +military classification should be an Army, Navy, civilian body, well +grounded in science and technology. It should be competent to advise the +Secretary of War and the Secretary of the Navy. It should, moreover, +have sufficient recognition to secure prompt and practical decisions. + +To satisfy these considerations I recommend the establishment of a +Board, made up equally of scientists and military men, whose function +would be to pass upon the declassification and to control the release +for publication of scientific information which is now classified. + +The release of information from security regulations is but one phase of +the problem. The other is to provide for preparation of the material and +its publication in a form and at a price which will facilitate +dissemination and use. In the case of the Office of Scientific Research +and Development, arrangements have been made for the preparation of +manuscripts, while the staffs under our control are still assembled and +in possession of the records, as soon as the pressure for production of +results for this war has begun to relax. + +We should get this scientific material to scientists everywhere with +great promptness, and at as low a price as is consistent with suitable +format. We should also get it to the men studying overseas so that they +will know what has happened in their absence. + +It is recommended that measures which will encourage and facilitate the +preparation and publication of reports be adopted forthwith by all +agencies, governmental and private, possessing scientific information +released from security control. + +One lesson is clear from the reports of the several committees attached +as appendices. The Federal Government should accept new responsibilities +for promoting the creation of new scientific knowledge and the +development of scientific talent in our youth. + +The extent and nature of these new responsibilities are set forth in +detail in the reports of the committees whose recommendations in this +regard are fully endorsed. + +In discharging these responsibilities Federal funds should be made +available. We have given much thought to the question of how plans for +the use of Federal funds may be arranged so that such funds will not +drive out of the picture funds from local governments, foundations, and +private donors. We believe that our proposals will minimize that effect, +but we do not think that it can be completely avoided. We submit, +however, that the nation's need for more and better scientific research +is such that the risk must be accepted. + +It is also clear that the effective discharge of these responsibilities +will require the full attention of some over-all agency devoted to that +purpose. There should be a focal point within the Government for a +concerted program of assisting scientific research conducted outside of +Government. Such an agency should furnish the funds needed to support +basic research in the colleges and universities, should coordinate where +possible research programs on matters of utmost importance to the +national welfare, should formulate a national policy for the Government +toward science, should sponsor the interchange of scientific information +among scientists and laboratories both in this country and abroad, and +should ensure that the incentives to research in industry and the +universities are maintained. All of the committees advising on these +matters agree on the necessity for such an agency. + +There are within Government departments many groups whose interests are +primarily those of scientific research. Notable examples are found +within the Departments of Agriculture, Commerce, Interior, and the +Federal Security Agency. These groups are concerned with science as +collateral and peripheral to the major problems of those Departments. +These groups should remain where they are, and continue to perform their +present functions, including the support of agricultural research by +grants to the Land Grant Colleges and Experiment Stations, since their +largest contribution lies in applying fundamental knowledge to the +special problems of the Departments within which they are established. + +By the same token these groups cannot be made the repository of the new +and large responsibilities in science which belong to the Government and +which the Government should accept. The recommendations in this report +which relate to research within the Government, to the release of +scientific information, to clarification of the tax laws, and to the +recovery and development of our scientific talent now in uniform can be +implemented by action within the existing structure of the Government. +But nowhere in the Governmental structure receiving its funds from +Congress is there an agency adapted to supplementing the support of +basic research in the universities, both in medicine and the natural +sciences; adapted to supporting research on new weapons for both +Services; or adapted to administering a program of science scholarships +and fellowships. + +A new agency should be established, therefore, by the Congress for the +purpose. Such an agency, moreover, should be an independent agency +devoted to the support of scientific research and advanced scientific +education alone. Industry learned many years ago that basic research +cannot often be fruitfully conducted as an adjunct to or a subdivision +of an operating agency or department. Operating agencies have immediate +operating goals and are under constant pressure to produce in a tangible +way, for that is the test of their value. None of these conditions is +favorable to basic research. research is the exploration of the unknown +and is necessarily speculative. It is inhibited by conventional +approaches, traditions, and standards. It cannot be satisfactorily +conducted in an atmosphere where it is gauged and tested by operating or +production standards. Basic scientific research should not, therefore, +be placed under an operating agency whose paramount concern is anything +other than research. Research will always suffer when put in competition +with operations. The decision that there should be a new and independent +agency was reached by each of the committees advising in these matters. + +I am convinced that these new functions should be centered in one +agency. Science is fundamentally a unitary thing. The number of +independent agencies should be kept to a minimum. Much medical progress, +for example, will come from fundamental advances in chemistry. +Separation of the sciences in tight compartments, as would occur if more +than one agency were involved, would retard and not advance scientific +knowledge as a whole. + +There are certain basic principles which must underlie the program of +Government support for scientific research and education if such support +is to be effective and if it is to avoid impairing the very things we +seek to foster. These principles are as follows: + +(1) Whatever the extent of support may be, there must be stability of +funds over a period of years so that long-range programs may be +undertaken. (2) The agency to administer such funds should be composed +of citizens selected only on the basis of their interest in and capacity +to promote the work of the agency. They should be persons of broad +interest in and understanding of the peculiarities of scientific +research and education. (3) The agency should promote research through +contracts or grants to organizations outside the Federal Government. It +should not operate any laboratories of its own. (4) Support of basic +research in the public and private colleges, universities, and research +institutes must leave the internal control of policy, personnel, and the +method and scope of the research to the institutions themselves. This is +of the utmost importance. (5) While assuring complete independence and +freedom for the nature, scope, and methodology of research carried on in +the institutions receiving public funds, and while retaining discretion +in the allocation of funds among such institutions, the Foundation +proposed herein must be responsible to the President and the Congress. +Only through such responsibility can we maintain the proper relationship +between science and other aspects of a democratic system. The usual +controls of audits, reports, budgeting, and the like, should, of course, +apply to the administrative and fiscal operations of the Foundation, +subject, however, to such adjustments in procedure as are necessary to +meet the special requirements of research. + +Basic research is a long-term process - it ceases to be basic if +immediate results are expected on short-term support. Methods should +therefore be found which will permit the agency to make commitments of +funds from current appropriations for programs of five years duration or +longer. Continuity and stability of the program and its support may be +expected (a) from the growing realization by the Congress of the +benefits to the public from scientific research, and (b) from the +conviction which will grow among those who conduct research under the +auspices of the agency that good quality work will be followed by +continuing support. + +As stated earlier in this report, military preparedness requires a +permanent, independent, civilian-controlled organization, having close +liaison with the Army and Navy, but with funds direct from Congress and +the clear power to initiate military research which will supplement and +strengthen that carried on directly under the control of the Army and +Navy. As a temporary measure the National Academy of Sciences has +established the Research Board for National Security at the request of +the Secretary of War and the Secretary of the Navy. This is highly +desirable in order that there may be no interruption in the relations +between scientists and military men after the emergency wartime Office +of Scientific Research and Development goes out of existence. The +Congress is now considering legislation to provide funds for this Board +by direct appropriation. + +I believe that, as a permanent measure, it would be appropriate to add +to the agency needed to perform the other functions recommended in this +report the responsibilities for civilian-initiated and +civilian-controlled military research. The function of such a civilian +group would be primarily to conduct long-range scientific research on +military problems - leaving to the Services research on the improvement +of existing weapons. + +Some research on military problems should be conducted, in time of peace +as well as in war, by civilians independently of the military +establishment. It is the primary responsibility of the Army and Navy to +train the men, make available the weapons, and employ the strategy that +will bring victory in combat. The Armed Services cannot be expected to +be experts in all of the complicated fields which make it possible for a +great nation to fight successfully in total war. There are certain kinds +of research - such as research on the improvement of existing weapons - +which can best be done within the military establishment. However, the +job of long-range research involving application of the newest +scientific discoveries to military needs should be the responsibility of +those civilian scientists in the universities and in industry who are +best trained to discharge it thoroughly and successfully. It is +essential that both kinds of research go forward and that there be the +closest liaison between the two groups. + +Placing the civilian military research function in the proposed agency +would bring it into close relationship with a broad program of basic +research in both the natural sciences and medicine. A balance between +military and other research could thus readily be maintained. + +The establishment of the new agency, including a civilian military +research group, should not be delayed by the existence of the Research +Board for National Security, which is a temporary measure. Nor should +the creation of the new agency be delayed by uncertainties in regard to +the postwar organization of our military departments themselves. +Clearly, the new agency, including a civilian military research group +within it, can remain sufficiently flexible to adapt its operations to +whatever may be the final organization of the military departments. + +It is my judgment that the national interest in scientific research and +scientific education can best be promoted by the creation of a National +Research Foundation. + +I. Purposes. - The National Research Foundation should develop and +promote a national policy for scientific research and scientific +education, should support basic research in nonprofit organizations, +should develop scientific talent in American youth by means of +scholarships and fellowships, and should by contract and otherwise +support long-range research on military matters. + +II. Members. - 1. Responsibility to the people, through the President +and Congress, should be placed in the hands of, say nine Members, who +should be persons not otherwise connected with the Government and not +representative of any special interest, who should be known as National +Research Foundation Members, selected by the President on the basis of +their interest in and capacity to promote the purposes of the +Foundation. + +2\. The terms of the Members should be, say, 4 years, and no Member +should be eligible for immediate reappointment provided he has served a +full 4-year term. It should be arranged that the Members first appointed +serve terms of such length that at least two Members are appointed each +succeeding year. + +3\. The Members should serve without compensation but should be entitled +to their expenses incurred in the performance of their duties. + +4\. The Members should elect their own chairman annually. + +5\. The chief executive officer of the Foundation should be a director +appointed by the Members. Subject to the direction and supervision of +the Foundation Members (acting as a board), the director should +discharge all the fiscal, legal, and administrative functions of the +Foundation. The director should receive a salary that is fully adequate +to attract an outstanding man to the post. + +6\. There should be an administrative office responsible to the director +to handle in one place the fiscal, legal, personnel, and other similar +administrative functions necessary to the accomplishment of the purposes +of the Foundation. + +7\. With the exception of the director, the division members, and one +executive officer appointed by the director to administer the affairs of +each division, all employees of the Foundation should be appointed under +Civil Service regulations. + +III. Organization. - 1. In order to accomplish the purposes of the +Foundation the Members should establish several professional Divisions +to be responsible to the Members. At the outset these Divisions should +be: + +a. Division of Medical Research. - The function of this Division should +be to support medical research. + +b. Division of Natural Sciences. - The function of this Division should +be to support research in the physical and natural sciences. + +c. Division of National Defense. - It should be the function of this +Division to support long-range scientific research on military matters. + +d. Division of Scientific Personnel and Education. - It should be the +function of this Division to support and to supervise the grant of +scholarships and fellowships in science. + +e. Division of Publications and Scientific Collaboration. - This +Division should be charged with encouraging the publication of +scientific knowledge and promoting international exchange of scientific +information. + +2\. Each Division of the Foundation should be made up of at least five +members, appointed by the Members of the Foundation. In making such +appointments the Members should request and consider recommendations +from the National Academy of Sciences which should be asked to establish +a new National Research Foundation nominating committee in order to +bring together the recommendations of scientists in all organizations. +The chairman of each Division should be appointed by the Members of the +Foundation. + +3\. The division Members should be appointed for such terms as the +Members of the Foundation may determine, and may be reappointed at the +discretion of the Members. They should receive their expenses and +compensation for their services at a per diem rate of, say, $50 while +engaged on business of the Foundation, but no division member should +receive more than, say, $10,000 compensation per year. + +4\. Membership of the Division of National Defense should include, in +addition to, say, five civilian members, one representative designated +by the Secretary of War, and one representative of the Secretary of the +Navy, who should serve without additional compensation for this + duty. + + ---------------------------------------------------------------------- + Proposed Organization of National Research Foundation + + + ================================ + | National Research Foundation | + |------------------------------| + | Members | + ================================ + | + ----------------------- + | Director | + ----------------------- + | + |--------------------- + | | + | --------------------------- + | | Staff offices | + | | General Counsel | + | | Finance Officer | + | | Administrative planning | + | | Personnel | + | --------------------------- + | + ---------------------------------------------------------------- + | | | | | + ------------------ --------------- ------------- ------------- ---------------- + | Division of | |Division of | |Division of| |Division of| |Division of | + |Medical Research| |Scientific | |Natural | | National | |Publications &| + |----------------| |Personnel and| | Sciences | | Defense | |Scientific | + | Members | |Education | |-----------| |-----------| |Collaboration | + ------------------ |-------------| | Members | | Members | |--------------| + | | Members | ------------- ------------- | Members | + | --------------- | | ---------------- + | | | | | + ------------------- --------------- ------------- ------------- ---------------- + |Executive officer| |Exec. officer| |Exec. off. | |Exec. off. | |Exec. officer | + ------------------- --------------- ------------- ------------- ---------------- + + ============================================================================= + +IV. Functions. - 1. The Members of the Foundation should have the +following functions, powers, and duties: + +a. To formulate over-all policies of the Foundation. + +b. To establish and maintain such offices within the United States, its +territories and possessions, as they may deem necessary. + +c. To meet and function at any place within the United States, its +territories and possessions. + +d. To obtain and utilize the services of other Government agencies to +the extent that such agencies are prepared to render such services. + +e. To adopt, promulgate, amend, and rescind rules and regulations to +carry out the provisions of the legislation and the policies and +practices of the Foundation. + +f. To review and balance the financial requirements of the several +Divisions and to propose to the President the annual estimate for the +funds required by each Division. Appropriations should be earmarked for +the purposes of specific Divisions, but the Foundation should be left +discretion with respect to the expenditure of each Division's funds. + +g. To make contracts or grants for the conduct of research by +negotiation without advertising for bids. + +And with the advice of the National Research Foundation Divisions +concerned - + +h. To create such advisory and cooperating agencies and councils, state, +regional, or national, as in their judgment will aid in effectuating the +purposes of the legislation, and to pay the expenses thereof. + +i. To enter into contracts with or make grants to educational and +nonprofit research institutions for support of scientific research. + +j. To initiate and finance in appropriate agencies, institutions, or +organizations, research on problems related to the national defense. + +k. To initiate and finance in appropriate organizations research +projects for which existing facilities are unavailable or inadequate. + +l. To establish scholarships and fellowships in the natural sciences +including biology and medicine. + +m. To promote the dissemination of scientific and technical information +and to further its international exchange. + +n. To support international cooperation in science by providing +financial aid for international meetings, associations of scientific +societies, and scientific research programs organized on an +international basis. + +o. To devise and promote the use of methods of improving the transition +between research and its practical application in industry. + +2\. The Divisions should be responsible to the Members of the Foundation +for - + +a. Formulation of programs and policy within the scope of the particular +Divisions. + +b. Recommendations regarding the allocation of research programs among +research organizations. + +c. Recommendation of appropriate arrangements between the Foundation and +the organizations selected to carry on the program. + +d. Recommendation of arrangements with State and local authorities in +regard to cooperation in a program of science scholarships and +fellowships. + +e. Periodic review of the quality of research being conducted under the +auspices of the particular Division and revision of the program of +support of research. + +f. Presentation of budgets of financial needs for the work of the +Division. + +g. Maintaining liaison with other scientific research agencies, both +governmental and private, concerned with the work of the Division. + +V. Patent Policy. - The success of the National Research Foundation in +promoting scientific research in this country will depend to a very +large degree upon the cooperation of organizations outside the +Government. In making contracts with or grants to such organizations the +Foundation should protect the public interest adequately and at the same +time leave the cooperating organization with adequate freedom and +incentive to conduct scientific research. The public interest will +normally be adequately protected if the Government receives a +royalty-free license for governmental purposes under any patents +resulting from work financed by the Foundation. There should be no +obligation on the research institution to patent discoveries made as a +result of support from the Foundation. There should certainly not be any +absolute requirement that all rights in such discoveries be assigned to +the Government, but it should be left to the discretion of the director +and the interested Division whether in special cases the public interest +requires such an assignment. Legislation on this point should leave to +the Members of the Foundation discretion as to its patent policy in +order that patent arrangements may be adjusted as circumstances and the +public interest require. + +VI. Special Authority. - In order to insure that men of great competence +and experience may be designated as Members of the Foundation and as +members of the several professional Divisions, the legislation creating +the Foundation should contain specific authorization so that the Members +of the Foundation and the Members of the Divisions may also engage in +private and gainful employment, notwithstanding the provisions of any +other laws: provided, however, that no compensation for such employment +is received in any form from any profit-making institution which +receives funds under contract, or otherwise, from the Division or +Divisions of the Foundation with which the individual is concerned. In +normal times, in view of the restrictive statutory prohibitions against +dual interests on the part of Government officials, it would be +virtually impossible to persuade persons having private employment of +any kind to serve the Government in an official capacity. In order, +however, to secure the part-time services of the most competent men as +Members of the Foundation and the Divisions, these stringent +prohibitions should be relaxed to the extent indicated. + +Since research is unlike the procurement of standardized items, which +are susceptible to competitive bidding on fixed specifications, the +legislation creating the National Research Foundation should free the +Foundation from the obligation to place its contracts for research +through advertising for bids. This is particularly so since the measure +of a successful research contract lies not in the dollar cost but in the +qualitative and quantitative contribution which is made to our +knowledge. The extent of this contribution in turn depends on the +creative spirit and talent which can be brought to bear within a +research laboratory. The National Research Foundation must, therefore, +be free to place its research contracts or grants not only with those +institutions which have a demonstrated research capacity but also with +other institutions whose latent talent or creative atmosphere affords +promise of research success. + +As in the case of the research sponsored during the war by the Office of +Scientific Research and Development, the research sponsored by the +National Research Foundation should be conducted, in general, on an +actual cost basis without profit to the institution receiving the +research contract or grant. + +There is one other matter which requires special mention. Since research +does not fall within the category of normal commercial or procurement +operations which are easily covered by the usual contractual relations, +it is essential that certain statutory and regulatory fiscal +requirements be waived in the case of research contractors. For example, +the National Research Foundation should be authorized by legislation to +make, modify, or amend contracts of all kinds with or without legal +consideration, and without performance bonds. Similarly, advance +payments should be allowed in the discretion of the Director of the +Foundation when required. Finally, the normal vouchering requirements of +the General Accounting Office with respect to detailed itemization or +substantiation of vouchers submitted under cost contracts should be +relaxed for research contractors. Adherence to the usual procedures in +the case of research contracts will impair the efficiency of research +operations and will needlessly increase the cost of the work of the +Government. Without the broad authority along these lines which was +contained in the First War Powers Act and its implementing Executive +Orders, together with the special relaxation of vouchering requirements +granted by the General Accounting Office, the Office of Scientific +Research and Development would have been gravely handicapped in carrying +on research on military matters during this war. Colleges and +universities in which research will be conducted principally under +contract with the Foundation are, unlike commercial institutions, not +equipped to handle the detailed vouchering procedures and auditing +technicalities which are required of the usual Government contractors. + +VII. Budget. - Studies by the several committees provide a partial basis +for making an estimate of the order of magnitude of the funds required +to implement the proposed program. Clearly the program should grow in a +healthy manner from modest beginnings. The following very rough +estimates are given for the first year of operation after the Foundation +is organized and operating, and for the fifth year of operation when it +is expected that the operations would have reached a fairly stable +level: + + --------------------------------------------------------------------------- + Activity | Millions of dollars + ---------------------- + | First year | 5th yr + --------------------------------------------------------------------------- + Division of Medical Research | 5.0 | 20.0 + Division of Natural Sciences | 10.0 | 50.0 + Division of National Defense | 10.0 | 20.0 + Division of Scientific Personnel and Education | 7.0 | 29.0 + Division of Publications & Scientific Collaboration | .5 | 1.0 + Administration | 1.0 | 2.5 + --------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +The National Research Foundation herein proposed meets the urgent need +of the days ahead. The form of the organization suggested is the result +of considerable deliberation. The form is important. The very successful +pattern of organization of the National Advisory Committee for +Aeronautics, which has promoted basic research on problems of flight +during the past thirty years, has been carefully considered in proposing +the method of appointment of Members of the Foundation and in defining +their responsibilities. Moreover, whatever program is established it is +vitally important that it satisfy the Five Fundamentals. + +The Foundation here proposed has been described only in outline. The +excellent reports of the committees which studied these matters are +attached as appendices. They will be of aid in furnishing detailed +suggestions. + +Legislation is necessary. It should be drafted with great care. Early +action is imperative, however, if this nation is to meet the challenge +of science and fully utilize the potentialities of science. On the +wisdom with which we bring science to bear against the problems of the +coming years depends in large measure our future as a nation. diff --git a/_stories/1946/12061889.md b/_stories/1946/12061889.md index 5aa46d8..b6d6049 100644 --- a/_stories/1946/12061889.md +++ b/_stories/1946/12061889.md @@ -19,7 +19,106 @@ _tags: objectID: '12061889' --- -[Source](https://onbeing.org/program/albert-einstein-the-negro-question-1946 "Permalink to ") - - - +> In the years after World War II, Albert Einstein took up the mantle of +> confronting racism in America. He became a good friend and comrade of +> the prominent opera singer Paul Robeson, co-chaired an anti-lynching +> campaign, and was an outspoken [supporter of W.E.B. Du +> Bois](https://www.brainpickings.org/2015/01/06/albert-einstein-w-e-b-du-bois-racism/). +> But, it was in January 1946, that he penned one of his most articulate +> and eloquent essays [advocating for the civil rights of black people +> in +> America](http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2007/04/albert-einstein-civil-rights-activist/). +> And, as described in [Einstein on Race and +> Racism](https://www.amazon.com/Einstein-Race-Racism-Professor-Jerome/dp/0813539528), +> the iconic physicist equated the ghettoization of Jews in Germany and +> segregation in America, calling racism America’s “worst disease.” +> Originally published in the January 1946 issue of Pageant magazine, +> Albert Einstein’s essay was intended to address a primarily white +> readership: +> +> **The Negro Question** +> by Albert Einstein +> +> I am writing as one who has lived among you in America only a little +> more than ten years, and I am writing seriously and warningly. Many +> readers may ask: “What right has he to speak about things which +> concern us alone, and which no newcomer should touch?” +> +> I do not think such a standpoint is justified. One who has grown up in +> an environment takes much for granted. On the other hand, one who has +> come to this country as a mature person may have a keen eye for +> everything peculiar and characteristic. I believe he should speak out +> freely on what he sees and feels, for by so doing he may perhaps prove +> himself useful. +> +> What soon makes the new arrival devoted to this country is the +> democratic trait among the people. I am not thinking here so much of +> the democratic political constitution of this country, however highly +> it must be praised. I am thinking of the relationship between +> individual people and of the attitude they maintain toward one +> another. +> +> In the United States everyone feels assured of his worth as an +> individual. No one humbles himself before another person or class. +> Even the great difference in wealth, the superior power of a few, +> cannot undermine this healthy self-confidence and natural respect for +> the dignity of one’s fellow-man. +> +> There is, however, a somber point in the social outlook of Americans. +> Their sense of equality and human dignity is mainly limited to men of +> white skins. Even among these there are prejudices of which I as a Jew +> am clearly conscious; but they are unimportant in comparison with the +> attitude of the “Whites” toward their fellow-citizens of darker +> complexion, particularly toward Negroes. The more I feel an American, +> the more this situation pains me. I can escape the feeling of +> complicity in it only by speaking out. +> +> Many a sincere person will answer: “Our attitude towards Negroes is +> the result of unfavorable experiences which we have had by living side +> by side with Negroes in this country. They are not our equals in +> intelligence, sense of responsibility, reliability.” +> +> I am firmly convinced that whoever believes this suffers from a fatal +> misconception. Your ancestors dragged these black people from their +> homes by force; and in the white man’s quest for wealth and an easy +> life they have been ruthlessly suppressed and exploited, degraded into +> slavery. The modern prejudice against Negroes is the result of the +> desire to maintain this unworthy condition. +> +> The ancient Greeks also had slaves. They were not Negroes but white +> men who had been taken captive in war. There could be no talk of +> racial differences. And yet Aristotle, one of the great Greek +> philosophers, declared slaves inferior beings who were justly subdued +> and deprived of their liberty. It is clear that he was enmeshed in a +> traditional prejudice from which, despite his extraordinary intellect, +> he could not free himself. +> +> A large part of our attitude toward things is conditioned by opinions +> and emotions which we unconsciously absorb as children from our +> environment. In other words, it is tradition — besides inherited +> aptitudes and qualities — which makes us what we are. We but rarely +> reflect how relatively small as compared with the powerful influence +> of tradition is the influence of our conscious thought upon our +> conduct and convictions. +> +> It would be foolish to despise tradition. But with our growing +> self-consciousness and increasing intelligence we must begin to +> control tradition and assume a critical attitude toward it, if human +> relations are ever to change for the better. We must try to recognize +> what in our accepted tradition is damaging to our fate and dignity — +> and shape our lives accordingly. +> +> I believe that whoever tries to think things through honestly will +> soon recognize how unworthy and even fatal is the traditional bias +> against Negroes. +> +> What, however, can the man of good will do to combat this deeply +> rooted prejudice? He must have the courage to set an example by word +> and deed, and must watch lest his children become influenced by this +> racial bias. +> +> I do not believe there is a way in which this deeply entrenched evil +> can be quickly healed. But until this goal is reached there is no +> greater satisfaction for a just and well-meaning person than the +> knowledge that he has devoted his best energies to the service of the +> good cause. diff --git a/_stories/1946/12181249.md b/_stories/1946/12181249.md index dee1392..6a7b8cf 100644 --- a/_stories/1946/12181249.md +++ b/_stories/1946/12181249.md @@ -19,7 +19,622 @@ _tags: objectID: '12181249' --- -[Source](https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/coldwar/documents/episode-1/kennan.htm "Permalink to ") +861.00/2 - 2246: Telegram +** +The Charge in the Soviet Union (Kennan) to the Secretary of State +SECRET + +Moscow, February 22, 1946--9 p.m. \[Received February 22--3: 52 p.m.\] + +511\. Answer to Dept's 284, Feb 3 \[13\] involves questions so +intricate, so delicate, so strange to our form of thought, and so +important to analysis of our international environment that I cannot +compress answers into single brief message without yielding to what I +feel would be dangerous degree of over-simplification. I hope, +therefore, Dept will bear with me if I submit in answer to this question +five parts, subjects of which will be roughly as follows: + +(1) Basic features of post-war Soviet outlook. + +(2) Background of this outlook + +(3) Its projection in practical policy on official level. + +(4) Its projection on unofficial level. + +(5) Practical deductions from standpoint of US policy. + +I apologize in advance for this burdening of telegraphic channel; but +questions involved are of such urgent importance, particularly in view +of recent events, that our answers to them, if they deserve attention at +all, seem to me to deserve it at once. There follows + +** + +Part 1: Basic Features of Post War Soviet Outlook, as Put Forward by +Official Propaganda Machine + +Are as Follows: + +(a) USSR still lives in antagonistic "capitalist encirclement" with +which in the long run there can be no permanent peaceful coexistence. As +stated by Stalin in 1927 to a delegation of American workers: + +"In course of further development of international revolution there will +emerge two centers of world significance: a socialist center, drawing to +itself the countries which tend toward socialism, and a capitalist +center, drawing to itself the countries that incline toward capitalism. +Battle between these two centers for command of world economy will +decide fate of capitalism and of communism in entire world." + +** + +(b) Capitalist world is beset with internal conflicts, inherent in +nature of capitalist society. These conflicts are insoluble by means of +peaceful compromise. Greatest of them is that between England and US. + +(c) Internal conflicts of capitalism inevitably generate wars. Wars thus +generated may be of two kinds: intra-capitalist wars between two +capitalist states, and wars of intervention against socialist world. +Smart capitalists, vainly seeking escape from inner conflicts of +capitalism, incline toward latter. + +(d) Intervention against USSR, while it would be disastrous to those who +undertook it, would cause renewed delay in progress of Soviet socialism +and must therefore be forestalled at all costs. + +(e) Conflicts between capitalist states, though likewise fraught with +danger for USSR, nevertheless hold out great possibilities for +advancement of socialist cause, particularly if USSR remains militarily +powerful, ideologically monolithic and faithful to its present brilliant +leadership. + +(f) It must be borne in mind that capitalist world is not all bad. In +addition to hopelessly reactionary and bourgeois elements, it includes +(1) certain wholly enlightened and positive elements united in +acceptable communistic parties and (2) certain other elements (now +described for tactical reasons as progressive or democratic) whose +reactions, aspirations and activities happen to be "objectively" +favorable to interests of USSR These last must be encouraged and +utilized for Soviet purposes. + +(g) Among negative elements of bourgeois-capitalist society, most +dangerous of all are those whom Lenin called false friends of the +people, namely moderate-socialist or social-democratic leaders (in other +words, non-Communist left-wing). These are more dangerous than +out-and-out reactionaries, for latter at least march under their true +colors, whereas moderate left-wing leaders confuse people by employing +devices of socialism to seine interests of reactionary capital. + +So much for premises. To what deductions do they lead from standpoint of +Soviet policy? To following: + +(a) Everything must be done to advance relative strength of USSR as +factor in international society. Conversely, no opportunity most be +missed to reduce strength and influence, collectively as well as +individually, of capitalist powers. + +(b) Soviet efforts, and those of Russia's friends abroad, must be +directed toward deepening and exploiting of differences and conflicts +between capitalist powers. If these eventually deepen into an +"imperialist" war, this war must be turned into revolutionary upheavals +within the various capitalist countries. + +(c) "Democratic-progressive" elements abroad are to be utilized to +maximum to bring pressure to bear on capitalist governments along lines +agreeable to Soviet interests. + +(d) Relentless battle must be waged against socialist and +social-democratic leaders abroad. + +** + +Part 2: Background of Outlook + +Before examining ramifications of this party line in practice there are +certain aspects of it to which I wish to draw attention. + +First, it does not represent natural outlook of Russian people. Latter +are, by and large, friendly to outside world, eager for experience of +it, eager to measure against it talents they are conscious of +possessing, eager above all to live in peace and enjoy fruits of their +own labor. Party line only represents thesis which official propaganda +machine puts forward with great skill and persistence to a public often +remarkably resistant in the stronghold of its innermost thoughts. But +party line is binding for outlook and conduct of people who make up +apparatus of power--party, secret police and Government--and it is +exclusively with these that we have to deal. + +Second, please note that premises on which this party line is based are +for most part simply not true. Experience has shown that peaceful and +mutually profitable coexistence of capitalist and socialist states is +entirely possible. Basic internal conflicts in advanced countries are no +longer primarily those arising out of capitalist ownership of means of +production, but are ones arising from advanced urbanism and +industrialism as such, which Russia has thus far been spared not by +socialism but only by her own backwardness. Internal rivalries of +capitalism do not always generate wars; and not all wars are +attributable to this cause. To speak of possibility of intervention +against USSR today, after elimination of Germany and Japan and after +example of recent war, is sheerest nonsense. If not provoked by forces +of intolerance and subversion "capitalist" world of today is quite +capable of living at peace with itself and with Russia. Finally, no sane +person has reason to doubt sincerity of moderate socialist leaders in +Western countries. Nor is it fair to deny success of their efforts to +improve conditions for working population whenever, as in Scandinavia, +they have been given chance to show what they could do. + +Falseness of those premises, every one of which predates recent war, was +amply demonstrated by that conflict itself Anglo-American differences +did not turn out to be major differences of Western World. Capitalist +countries, other than those of Axis, showed no disposition to solve +their differences by joining in crusade against USSR. Instead of +imperialist war turning into civil wars and revolution, USSR found +itself obliged to fight side by side with capitalist powers for an +avowed community of aim. + +Nevertheless, all these theses, however baseless and disproven, are +being boldly put forward again today. What does this indicate? It +indicates that Soviet party line is not based on any objective analysis +of situation beyond Russia's borders; that it has, indeed, little to do +with conditions outside of Russia; that it arises mainly from basic +inner-Russian necessities which existed before recent war and exist +today. + +At bottom of Kremlin's neurotic view of world affairs is traditional and +instinctive Russian sense of insecurity. Originally, this was insecurity +of a peaceful agricultural people trying to live on vast exposed plain +in neighborhood of fierce nomadic peoples. To this was added, as Russia +came into contact with economically advanced West, fear of more +competent, more powerful, more highly organized societies in that area. +But this latter type of insecurity was one which afflicted rather +Russian rulers than Russian people; for Russian rulers have invariably +sensed that their rule was relatively archaic in form fragile and +artificial in its psychological foundation, unable to stand comparison +or contact with political systems of Western countries. For this reason +they have always feared foreign penetration, feared direct contact +between Western world and their own, feared what would happen if +Russians learned truth about world without or if foreigners learned +truth about world within. And they have learned to seek security only in +patient but deadly struggle for total destruction of rival power, never +in compacts and compromises with it. + +It was no coincidence that Marxism, which had smoldered ineffectively +for half a century in Western Europe, caught hold and blazed for first +time in Russia. Only in this land which had never known a friendly +neighbor or indeed any tolerant equilibrium of separate powers, either +internal or international, could a doctrine thrive which viewed economic +conflicts of society as insoluble by peaceful means. After establishment +of Bolshevist regime, Marxist dogma, rendered even more truculent and +intolerant by Lenin's interpretation, became a perfect vehicle for sense +of insecurity with which Bolsheviks, even more than previous Russian +rulers, were afflicted. In this dogma, with its basic altruism of +purpose, they found justification for their instinctive fear of outside +world, for the dictatorship without which they did not know how to rule, +for cruelties they did not dare not to inflict, for sacrifice they felt +bound to demand. In the name of Marxism they sacrificed every single +ethical value in their methods and tactics. Today they cannot dispense +with it. It is fig leaf of their moral and intellectual respectability. +Without it they would stand before history, at best, as only the last of +that long succession of cruel and wasteful Russian rulers who have +relentlessly forced country on to ever new heights of military power in +order to guarantee external security of their internally weak regimes. +This is why Soviet purposes most always be solemnly clothed in trappings +of Marxism, and why no one should underrate importance of dogma in +Soviet affairs. Thus Soviet leaders are driven \[by?\] necessities of +their own past and present position to put forward which \[apparent +omission\] outside world as evil, hostile and menacing, but as bearing +within itself germs of creeping disease and destined to be wracked with +growing internal convulsions until it is given final *Coup de grace* by +rising power of socialism and yields to new and better world. This +thesis provides justification for that increase of military and police +power of Russian state, for that isolation of Russian population from +outside world, and for that fluid and constant pressure to extend limits +of Russian police power which are together the natural and instinctive +urges of Russian rulers. Basically this is only the steady advance of +uneasy Russian nationalism, a centuries old movement in which +conceptions of offense and defense are inextricably confused. But in new +guise of international Marxism, with its honeyed promises to a desperate +and war torn outside world, it is more dangerous and insidious than ever +before. + +It should not be thought from above that Soviet party line is +necessarily disingenuous and insincere on part of all those who put it +forward. Many of them are too ignorant of outside world and mentally too +dependent to question \[apparent omission\] self-hypnotism, and who have +no difficulty making themselves believe what they find it comforting and +convenient to believe. Finally we have the unsolved mystery as to who, +if anyone, in this great land actually receives accurate and unbiased +information about outside world. In atmosphere of oriental secretiveness +and conspiracy which pervades this Government, possibilities for +distorting or poisoning sources and currents of information are +infinite. The very disrespect of Russians for objective truth--indeed, +their disbelief in its existence--leads them to view all stated facts as +instruments for furtherance of one ulterior purpose or another. There is +good reason to suspect that this Government is actually a conspiracy +within a conspiracy; and I for one am reluctant to believe that Stalin +himself receives anything like an objective picture of outside world. +Here there is ample scope for the type of subtle intrigue at which +Russians are past masters. Inability of foreign governments to place +their case squarely before Russian policy makers--extent to which they +are delivered up in their relations with Russia to good graces of +obscure and unknown advisors whom they never see and cannot +influence--this to my mind is most disquieting feature of diplomacy in +Moscow, and one which Western statesmen would do well to keep in mind if +they would understand nature of difficulties encountered here. + +** + +Part 3: Projection of Soviet Outlook in Practical Policy on Official +Level + +We have now seen nature and background of Soviet program. What may we +expect by way of its practical implementation? + +Soviet policy, as Department implies in its query under reference, is +conducted on two planes: (1) official plane represented by actions +undertaken officially in name of Soviet Government; and (2) subterranean +plane of actions undertaken by agencies for which Soviet Government does +not admit responsibility. + +Policy promulgated on both planes will be calculated to serve basic +policies (a) to (d) outlined in part 1. Actions taken on different +planes will differ considerably, but will dovetail into each other in +purpose, timing and effect. + +On official plane we must look for following: + +(a) Internal policy devoted to increasing in every way strength and +prestige of Soviet state: intensive military-industrialization; maximum +development of armed forces; great displays to impress outsiders; +continued secretiveness about internal matters, designed to conceal +weaknesses and to keep opponents in dark. + +(b) Wherever it is considered timely and promising, efforts will be made +to advance official limits of Soviet power. For the moment, these +efforts are restricted to certain neighboring points conceived of here +as being of immediate strategic necessity, such as Northern Iran, +Turkey, possibly Bornholm However, other points may at any time come +into question, if and as concealed Soviet political power is extended to +new areas. Thus a "friendly Persian Government might be asked to grant +Russia a port on Persian Gulf. Should Spain fall under Communist +control, question of Soviet base at Gibraltar Strait might be activated. +But such claims will appear on official level only when unofficial +preparation is complete. + +(c) Russians will participate officially in international organizations +where they see opportunity of extending Soviet power or of inhibiting or +diluting power of others. Moscow sees in UNO not the mechanism for a +permanent and stable world society founded on mutual interest and aims +of all nations, but an arena in which aims just mentioned can be +favorably pursued. As long as UNO is considered here to serve this +purpose, Soviets will remain with it. But if at any time they come to +conclusion that it is serving to embarrass or frustrate their aims for +power expansion and if they see better prospects for pursuit of these +aims along other lines, they will not hesitate to abandon UNO. This +would imply, however, that they felt themselves strong enough to split +unity of other nations by their withdrawal to render UNO ineffective as +a threat to their aims or security, replace it with an international +weapon more effective from their viewpoint. Thus Soviet attitude toward +UNO will depend largely on loyalty of other nations to it, and on degree +of vigor, decisiveness and cohesion with which those nations defend in +UNO the peaceful and hopeful concept of international life, which that +organization represents to our way of thinking. I reiterate, Moscow has +no abstract devotion to UNO ideals. Its attitude to that organization +will remain essentially pragmatic and tactical. + +(d) Toward colonial areas and backward or dependent peoples, Soviet +policy, even on official plane, will be directed toward weakening of +power and influence and contacts of advanced Western nations, on theory +that in so far as this policy is successful, there will be created a +vacuum which will favor Communist-Soviet penetration. Soviet pressure +for participation in trusteeship arrangements thus represents, in my +opinion, a desire to be in a position to complicate and inhibit exertion +of Western influence at such points rather than to provide major channel +for exerting of Soviet power. Latter motive is not lacking, but for this +Soviets prefer to rely on other channels than official trusteeship +arrangements. Thus we may expect to find Soviets asking for admission +everywhere to trusteeship or similar arrangements and using levers thus +acquired to weaken Western influence among such peoples. + +(e) Russians will strive energetically to develop Soviet representation +in, and official ties with, countries in which they sense Strong +possibilities of opposition to Western centers of power. This applies to +such widely separated points as Germany, Argentina, Middle Eastern +countries, etc. + +(f) In international economic matters, Soviet policy will really be +dominated by pursuit of autarchy for Soviet Union and Soviet-dominated +adjacent areas taken together. That, however, will be underlying policy. +As far as official line is concerned, position is not yet clear. Soviet +Government has shown strange reticence since termination hostilities on +subject foreign trade. If large scale long term credits should be +forthcoming, I believe Soviet Government may eventually again do lip +service, as it did in 1930's to desirability of building up +international economic exchanges in general. Otherwise I think it +possible Soviet foreign trade may be restricted largely to Soviet's own +security sphere, including occupied areas in Germany, and that a cold +official shoulder may be turned to principle of general economic +collaboration among nations. + +(g) With respect to cultural collaboration, lip service will likewise be +rendered to desirability of deepening cultural contacts between peoples, +but this will not in practice be interpreted in any way which could +weaken security position of Soviet peoples. Actual manifestations of +Soviet policy in this respect will be restricted to arid channels of +closely shepherded official visits and functions, with superabundance of +vodka and speeches and dearth of permanent effects. + +(h) Beyond this, Soviet official relations will take what might be +called "correct" course with individual foreign governments, with great +stress being laid on prestige of Soviet Union and its representatives +and with punctilious attention to protocol as distinct from good +manners. + +** + +Part 4: Following May Be Said as to What We May Expect by Way of +Implementation of Basic Soviet Policies on Unofficial, or Subterranean +Plane, i.e. on Plane for Which Soviet Government Accepts no +Responsibility + +Agencies utilized for promulgation of policies on this plane are +following: + +1\. Inner central core of Communist Parties in other countries. While +many of persons who compose this category may also appear and act in +unrelated public capacities, they are in reality working closely +together as an underground operating directorate of world communism, a +concealed Comintern tightly coordinated and directed by Moscow. It is +important to remember that this inner core is actually working on +underground lines, despite legality of parties with which it is +associated. + +2\. Rank and file of Communist Parties. Note distinction is drawn +between those and persons defined in paragraph 1. This distinction has +become much sharper in recent years. Whereas formerly foreign Communist +Parties represented a curious (and from Moscow's standpoint often +inconvenient) mixture of conspiracy and legitimate activity, now the +conspiratorial element has been neatly concentrated in inner circle and +ordered underground, while rank and file--no longer even taken into +confidence about realities of movement--are thrust forward as bona fide +internal partisans of certain political tendencies within their +respective countries, genuinely innocent of conspiratorial connection +with foreign states. Only in certain countries where communists are +numerically strong do they now regularly appear and act as a body. As a +rule they are used to penetrate, and to influence or dominate, as case +may be, other organizations less likely to be suspected of being tools +of Soviet Government, with a view to accomplishing their purposes +through \[apparent omission\] organizations, rather than by direct +action as a separate political party. + +3\. A wide variety of national associations or bodies which can be +dominated or influenced by such penetration. These include: labor +unions, youth leagues, women's organizations, racial societies, +religious societies, social organizations, cultural groups, liberal +magazines, publishing houses, etc. + +4\. International organizations which can be similarly penetrated +through influence over various national components. Labor, youth and +women's organizations are prominent among them. Particular, almost vital +importance is attached in this connection to international labor +movement. In this, Moscow sees possibility of sidetracking western +governments in world affairs and building up international lobby capable +of compelling governments to take actions favorable to Soviet interests +in various countries and of paralyzing actions disagreeable to USSR + +5\. Russian Orthodox Church, with its foreign branches, and through it +the Eastern Orthodox Church in general. + +6\. Pan-Slav movement and other movements (Azerbaijan, Armenian, +Turcoman, etc.) based on racial groups within Soviet Union. + +7\. Governments or governing groups willing to lend themselves to Soviet +purposes in one degree or another, such as present Bulgarian and +Yugoslav Governments, North Persian regime, Chinese Communists, etc. Not +only propaganda machines but actual policies of these regimes can be +placed extensively at disposal of USSR + +It may be expected that component parts of this far-flung apparatus will +be utilized in accordance with their individual suitability, as follows: + +(a) To undermine general political and strategic potential of major +western powers. Efforts will be made in such countries to disrupt +national self confidence, to hamstring measures of national defense, to +increase social and industrial unrest, to stimulate all forms of +disunity. All persons with grievances, whether economic or racial, will +be urged to spelt redress not in mediation and compromise, but in +defiant violent struggle for destruction of other elements of society. +Here poor will be set against rich, black against white, young against +old, newcomers against established residents, etc. + +(b) On unofficial plane particularly violent efforts will be made to +weaken power and influence of Western Powers of \[on\] colonial +backward, or dependent peoples. On this level, no holds will be barred. +Mistakes and weaknesses of western colonial administration will be +mercilessly exposed and exploited. Liberal opinion in Western countries +will be mobilized to weaken colonial policies. Resentment among +dependent peoples will be stimulated. And while latter are being +encouraged to seek independence of Western Powers, Soviet dominated +puppet political machines will be undergoing preparation to take over +domestic power in respective colonial areas when independence is +achieved. + +(c) Where individual governments stand in path of Soviet purposes +pressure will be brought for their removal from office. This can happen +where governments directly oppose Soviet foreign policy aims (Turkey, +Iran), where they seal their territories off against Communist +penetration (Switzerland, Portugal), or where they compete too strongly, +like Labor Government in England, for moral domination among elements +which it is important for Communists to dominate. (Sometimes, two of +these elements are present in a single case. Then Communist opposition +becomes particularly shrill and savage. \[)\] + +(d) In foreign countries Communists will, as a rule, work toward +destruction of all forms of personal independence, economic, political +or moral. Their system can handle only individuals who have been brought +into complete dependence on higher power. Thus, persons who are +financially independent--such as individual businessmen, estate owners, +successful farmers, artisans and all those who exercise local leadership +or have local prestige, such as popular local clergymen or political +figures, are anathema. It is not by chance that even in USSR local +officials are kept constantly on move from one job to another, to +prevent their taking root. + +(e) Everything possible will be done to set major Western Powers against +each other. Anti-British talk will be plugged among Americans, +anti-American talk among British. Continentals, including Germans, will +be taught to abhor both Anglo-Saxon powers. Where suspicions exist, they +will be fanned; where not, ignited. No effort will be spared to +discredit and combat all efforts which threaten to lead to any sort of +unity or cohesion among other \[apparent omission\] from which Russia +might be excluded. Thus, all forms of international organization not +amenable to Communist penetration and control, whether it be the +Catholic \[apparent omission\] international economic concerns, or the +international fraternity of royalty and aristocracy, must expect to find +themselves under fire from many, and often \[apparent omission\]. + +(f) In general, all Soviet efforts on unofficial international plane +will be negative and destructive in character, designed to tear down +sources of strength beyond reach of Soviet control. This is only in line +with basic Soviet instinct that there can be no compromise with rival +power and that constructive work can start only when Communist power is +doming But behind all this will be applied insistent, unceasing pressure +for penetration and command of key positions in administration and +especially in police apparatus of foreign countries. The Soviet regime +is a police regime par excellence, reared in the dim half world of +Tsarist police intrigue, accustomed to think primarily in terms of +police power. This should never be lost sight of in ganging Soviet +motives. + +** + +Part 5: \[Practical Deductions From Standpoint of US Policy\] + +In summary, we have here a political force committed fanatically to the +belief that with US there can be no permanent *modus vivendi* that it is +desirable and necessary that the internal harmony of our society be +disrupted, our traditional way of life be destroyed, the international +authority of our state be broken, if Soviet power is to be secure. This +political force has complete power of disposition over energies of one +of world's greatest peoples and resources of world's richest national +territory, and is borne along by deep and powerful currents of Russian +nationalism. In addition, it has an elaborate and far flung apparatus +for exertion of its influence in other countries, an apparatus of +amazing flexibility and versatility, managed by people whose experience +and skill in underground methods are presumably without parallel in +history. Finally, it is seemingly inaccessible to considerations of +reality in its basic reactions. For it, the vast fund of objective fact +about human society is not, as with us, the measure against which +outlook is constantly being tested and re-formed, but a grab bag from +which individual items are selected arbitrarily and tendenciously to +bolster an outlook already preconceived. This is admittedly not a +pleasant picture. Problem of how to cope with this force in \[is\] +undoubtedly greatest task our diplomacy has ever faced and probably +greatest it will ever have to face. It should be point of departure from +which our political general staff work at present juncture should +proceed. It should be approached with same thoroughness and care as +solution of major strategic problem in war, and if necessary, with no +smaller outlay in planning effort. I cannot attempt to suggest all +answers here. But I would like to record my conviction that problem is +within our power to solve--and that without recourse to any general +military conflict.. And in support of this conviction there are certain +observations of a more encouraging nature I should like to make: + +(1) Soviet power, unlike that of Hitlerite Germany, is neither schematic +nor adventunstic. It does not work by fixed plans. It does not take +unnecessary risks. Impervious to logic of reason, and it is highly +sensitive to logic of force. For this reason it can easily withdraw--and +usually does when strong resistance is encountered at any point. Thus, +if the adversary has sufficient force and makes clear his readiness to +use it, he rarely has to do so. If situations are properly handled there +need be no prestige-engaging showdowns. + +(2) Gauged against Western World as a whole, Soviets are still by far +the weaker force. Thus, their success will really depend on degree of +cohesion, firmness and vigor which Western World can muster. And this is +factor which it is within our power to influence. + +(3) Success of Soviet system, as form of internal power, is not yet +finally proven. It has yet to be demonstrated that it can survive +supreme test of successive transfer of power from one individual or +group to another. Lenin's death was first such transfer, and its effects +wracked Soviet state for 15 years. After Stalin's death or retirement +will be second. But even this will not be final test. Soviet internal +system will now be subjected, by virtue of recent territorial +expansions, to series of additional strains which once proved severe tax +on Tsardom. We here are convinced that never since termination of civil +war have mass of Russian people been emotionally farther removed from +doctrines of Communist Party than they are today. In Russia, party has +now become a great and--for the moment--highly successful apparatus of +dictatorial administration, but it has ceased to be a source of +emotional inspiration. Thus, internal soundness and permanence of +movement need not yet be regarded as assured. + +(4) All Soviet propaganda beyond Soviet security sphere is basically +negative and destructive. It should therefore be relatively easy to +combat it by any intelligent and really constructive program. + +For those reasons I think we may approach calmly and with good heart +problem of how to deal with Russia. As to how this approach should be +made, I only wish to advance, by way of conclusion, following comments: + +(1) Our first step must be to apprehend, and recognize for what it is, +the nature of the movement with which we are dealing. We must study it +with same courage, detachment, objectivity, and same determination not +to be emotionally provoked or unseated by it, with which doctor studies +unruly and unreasonable individual. + +(2) We must see that our public is educated to realities of Russian +situation. I cannot over-emphasize importance of this. Press cannot do +this alone. It must be done mainly by Government, which is necessarily +more experienced and better informed on practical problems involved. In +this we need not be deterred by \[ugliness?\] of picture. I am convinced +that there would be far less hysterical anti-Sovietism in our country +today if realities of this situation were better understood by our +people. There is nothing as dangerous or as terrifying as the unknown. +It may also be argued that to reveal more information on our +difficulties with Russia would reflect unfavorably on Russian-American +relations. I feel that if there is any real risk here involved, it is +one which we should have courage to face, and sooner the better. But I +cannot see what we would be risking. Our stake in this country, even +coming on heels of tremendous demonstrations of our friendship for +Russian people, is remarkably small. We have here no investments to +guard, no actual trade to lose, virtually no citizens to protect, few +cultural contacts to preserve. Our only stake lies in what we hope +rather than what we have; and I am convinced we have better chance of +realizing those hopes if our public is enlightened and if our dealings +with Russians are placed entirely on realistic and matter-of-fact basis. + +(3) Much depends on health and vigor of our own society. World communism +is like malignant parasite which feeds only on diseased tissue. This is +point at which domestic and foreign policies meets Every courageous and +incisive measure to solve internal problems of our own society, to +improve self-confidence, discipline, morale and community spirit of our +own people, is a diplomatic victory over Moscow worth a thousand +diplomatic notes and joint communiqués. If we cannot abandon fatalism +and indifference in face of deficiencies of our own society, Moscow will +profit--Moscow cannot help profiting by them in its foreign policies. + +(4) We must formulate and put forward for other nations a much more +positive and constructive picture of sort of world we would like to see +than we have put forward in past. It is not enough to urge people to +develop political processes similar to our own. Many foreign peoples, in +Europe at least, are tired and frightened by experiences of past, and +are less interested in abstract freedom than in security. They are +seeking guidance rather than responsibilities. We should be better able +than Russians to give them this. And unless we do, Russians certainly +will. + +(5) Finally we must have courage and self-confidence to cling to our own +methods and conceptions of human society. After Al, the greatest danger +that can befall us in coping with this problem of Soviet communism, is +that we shall allow ourselves to become like those with whom we are +coping. + +KENNAN + +800.00B International Red Day/2 - 2546: Airgram diff --git a/_stories/1946/8745540.md b/_stories/1946/8745540.md index 4ddfd1c..f4338d8 100644 --- a/_stories/1946/8745540.md +++ b/_stories/1946/8745540.md @@ -19,7 +19,106 @@ _tags: objectID: '8745540' --- -[Source](https://onbeing.org/program/albert-einstein-the-negro-question-1946 "Permalink to ") - - - +> In the years after World War II, Albert Einstein took up the mantle of +> confronting racism in America. He became a good friend and comrade of +> the prominent opera singer Paul Robeson, co-chaired an anti-lynching +> campaign, and was an outspoken [supporter of W.E.B. Du +> Bois](https://www.brainpickings.org/2015/01/06/albert-einstein-w-e-b-du-bois-racism/). +> But, it was in January 1946, that he penned one of his most articulate +> and eloquent essays [advocating for the civil rights of black people +> in +> America](http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2007/04/albert-einstein-civil-rights-activist/). +> And, as described in [Einstein on Race and +> Racism](https://www.amazon.com/Einstein-Race-Racism-Professor-Jerome/dp/0813539528), +> the iconic physicist equated the ghettoization of Jews in Germany and +> segregation in America, calling racism America’s “worst disease.” +> Originally published in the January 1946 issue of Pageant magazine, +> Albert Einstein’s essay was intended to address a primarily white +> readership: +> +> **The Negro Question** +> by Albert Einstein +> +> I am writing as one who has lived among you in America only a little +> more than ten years, and I am writing seriously and warningly. Many +> readers may ask: “What right has he to speak about things which +> concern us alone, and which no newcomer should touch?” +> +> I do not think such a standpoint is justified. One who has grown up in +> an environment takes much for granted. On the other hand, one who has +> come to this country as a mature person may have a keen eye for +> everything peculiar and characteristic. I believe he should speak out +> freely on what he sees and feels, for by so doing he may perhaps prove +> himself useful. +> +> What soon makes the new arrival devoted to this country is the +> democratic trait among the people. I am not thinking here so much of +> the democratic political constitution of this country, however highly +> it must be praised. I am thinking of the relationship between +> individual people and of the attitude they maintain toward one +> another. +> +> In the United States everyone feels assured of his worth as an +> individual. No one humbles himself before another person or class. +> Even the great difference in wealth, the superior power of a few, +> cannot undermine this healthy self-confidence and natural respect for +> the dignity of one’s fellow-man. +> +> There is, however, a somber point in the social outlook of Americans. +> Their sense of equality and human dignity is mainly limited to men of +> white skins. Even among these there are prejudices of which I as a Jew +> am clearly conscious; but they are unimportant in comparison with the +> attitude of the “Whites” toward their fellow-citizens of darker +> complexion, particularly toward Negroes. The more I feel an American, +> the more this situation pains me. I can escape the feeling of +> complicity in it only by speaking out. +> +> Many a sincere person will answer: “Our attitude towards Negroes is +> the result of unfavorable experiences which we have had by living side +> by side with Negroes in this country. They are not our equals in +> intelligence, sense of responsibility, reliability.” +> +> I am firmly convinced that whoever believes this suffers from a fatal +> misconception. Your ancestors dragged these black people from their +> homes by force; and in the white man’s quest for wealth and an easy +> life they have been ruthlessly suppressed and exploited, degraded into +> slavery. The modern prejudice against Negroes is the result of the +> desire to maintain this unworthy condition. +> +> The ancient Greeks also had slaves. They were not Negroes but white +> men who had been taken captive in war. There could be no talk of +> racial differences. And yet Aristotle, one of the great Greek +> philosophers, declared slaves inferior beings who were justly subdued +> and deprived of their liberty. It is clear that he was enmeshed in a +> traditional prejudice from which, despite his extraordinary intellect, +> he could not free himself. +> +> A large part of our attitude toward things is conditioned by opinions +> and emotions which we unconsciously absorb as children from our +> environment. In other words, it is tradition — besides inherited +> aptitudes and qualities — which makes us what we are. We but rarely +> reflect how relatively small as compared with the powerful influence +> of tradition is the influence of our conscious thought upon our +> conduct and convictions. +> +> It would be foolish to despise tradition. But with our growing +> self-consciousness and increasing intelligence we must begin to +> control tradition and assume a critical attitude toward it, if human +> relations are ever to change for the better. We must try to recognize +> what in our accepted tradition is damaging to our fate and dignity — +> and shape our lives accordingly. +> +> I believe that whoever tries to think things through honestly will +> soon recognize how unworthy and even fatal is the traditional bias +> against Negroes. +> +> What, however, can the man of good will do to combat this deeply +> rooted prejudice? He must have the courage to set an example by word +> and deed, and must watch lest his children become influenced by this +> racial bias. +> +> I do not believe there is a way in which this deeply entrenched evil +> can be quickly healed. But until this goal is reached there is no +> greater satisfaction for a just and well-meaning person than the +> knowledge that he has devoted his best energies to the service of the +> good cause. diff --git a/_stories/1949/2315391.md b/_stories/1949/2315391.md index e5b1255..e118afe 100644 --- a/_stories/1949/2315391.md +++ b/_stories/1949/2315391.md @@ -19,7 +19,277 @@ _tags: objectID: '2315391' --- -[Source](https://monthlyreview.org/598einstein.php "Permalink to ") +Albert Einstein is the world-famous physicist. This article was +originally published in the first issue of Monthly Review (May 1949). It +was subsequently published in May 1998 to commemorate the first issue of +MR‘s fiftieth year. +—The Editors +Is it advisable for one who is not an expert on economic and social +issues to express views on the subject of socialism? I believe for a +number of reasons that it is. +Let us first consider the question from the point of view of scientific +knowledge. It might appear that there are no essential methodological +differences between astronomy and economics: scientists in both fields +attempt to discover laws of general acceptability for a circumscribed +group of phenomena in order to make the interconnection of these +phenomena as clearly understandable as possible. But in reality such +methodological differences do exist. The discovery of general laws in +the field of economics is made difficult by the circumstance that +observed economic phenomena are often affected by many factors which are +very hard to evaluate separately. In addition, the experience which has +accumulated since the beginning of the so-called civilized period of +human history has—as is well known—been largely influenced and limited +by causes which are by no means exclusively economic in nature. For +example, most of the major states of history owed their existence to +conquest. The conquering peoples established themselves, legally and +economically, as the privileged class of the conquered country. They +seized for themselves a monopoly of the land ownership and appointed a +priesthood from among their own ranks. The priests, in control of +education, made the class division of society into a permanent +institution and created a system of values by which the people were +thenceforth, to a large extent unconsciously, guided in their social +behavior. + +But historic tradition is, so to speak, of yesterday; nowhere have we +really overcome what Thorstein Veblen called “the predatory phase” of +human development. The observable economic facts belong to that phase +and even such laws as we can derive from them are not applicable to +other phases. Since the real purpose of socialism is precisely to +overcome and advance beyond the predatory phase of human development, +economic science in its present state can throw little light on the +socialist society of the future. + +Second, socialism is directed towards a social-ethical end. Science, +however, cannot create ends and, even less, instill them in human +beings; science, at most, can supply the means by which to attain +certain ends. But the ends themselves are conceived by personalities +with lofty ethical ideals and—if these ends are not stillborn, but vital +and vigorous—are adopted and carried forward by those many human beings +who, half unconsciously, determine the slow evolution of society. + +For these reasons, we should be on our guard not to overestimate science +and scientific methods when it is a question of human problems; and we +should not assume that experts are the only ones who have a right to +express themselves on questions affecting the organization of society. + +Innumerable voices have been asserting for some time now that human +society is passing through a crisis, that its stability has been gravely +shattered. It is characteristic of such a situation that individuals +feel indifferent or even hostile toward the group, small or large, to +which they belong. In order to illustrate my meaning, let me record here +a personal experience. I recently discussed with an intelligent and +well-disposed man the threat of another war, which in my opinion would +seriously endanger the existence of mankind, and I remarked that only a +supra-national organization would offer protection from that danger. +Thereupon my visitor, very calmly and coolly, said to me: “Why are you +so deeply opposed to the disappearance of the human race?” + +I am sure that as little as a century ago no one would have so lightly +made a statement of this kind. It is the statement of a man who has +striven in vain to attain an equilibrium within himself and has more or +less lost hope of succeeding. It is the expression of a painful solitude +and isolation from which so many people are suffering in these days. +What is the cause? Is there a way out? + +It is easy to raise such questions, but difficult to answer them with +any degree of assurance. I must try, however, as best I can, although I +am very conscious of the fact that our feelings and strivings are often +contradictory and obscure and that they cannot be expressed in easy and +simple formulas. + +Man is, at one and the same time, a solitary being and a social being. +As a solitary being, he attempts to protect his own existence and that +of those who are closest to him, to satisfy his personal desires, and to +develop his innate abilities. As a social being, he seeks to gain the +recognition and affection of his fellow human beings, to share in their +pleasures, to comfort them in their sorrows, and to improve their +conditions of life. Only the existence of these varied, frequently +conflicting, strivings accounts for the special character of a man, and +their specific combination determines the extent to which an individual +can achieve an inner equilibrium and can contribute to the well-being of +society. It is quite possible that the relative strength of these two +drives is, in the main, fixed by inheritance. But the personality that +finally emerges is largely formed by the environment in which a man +happens to find himself during his development, by the structure of the +society in which he grows up, by the tradition of that society, and by +its appraisal of particular types of behavior. The abstract concept +“society” means to the individual human being the sum total of his +direct and indirect relations to his contemporaries and to all the +people of earlier generations. The individual is able to think, feel, +strive, and work by himself; but he depends so much upon society—in his +physical, intellectual, and emotional existence—that it is impossible to +think of him, or to understand him, outside the framework of society. It +is “society” which provides man with food, clothing, a home, the tools +of work, language, the forms of thought, and most of the content of +thought; his life is made possible through the labor and the +accomplishments of the many millions past and present who are all hidden +behind the small word “society.” + +It is evident, therefore, that the dependence of the individual upon +society is a fact of nature which cannot be abolished—just as in the +case of ants and bees. However, while the whole life process of ants and +bees is fixed down to the smallest detail by rigid, hereditary +instincts, the social pattern and interrelationships of human beings are +very variable and susceptible to change. Memory, the capacity to make +new combinations, the gift of oral communication have made possible +developments among human being which are not dictated by biological +necessities. Such developments manifest themselves in traditions, +institutions, and organizations; in literature; in scientific and +engineering accomplishments; in works of art. This explains how it +happens that, in a certain sense, man can influence his life through his +own conduct, and that in this process conscious thinking and wanting can +play a part. + +Man acquires at birth, through heredity, a biological constitution which +we must consider fixed and unalterable, including the natural urges +which are characteristic of the human species. In addition, during his +lifetime, he acquires a cultural constitution which he adopts from +society through communication and through many other types of +influences. It is this cultural constitution which, with the passage of +time, is subject to change and which determines to a very large extent +the relationship between the individual and society. Modern anthropology +has taught us, through comparative investigation of so-called primitive +cultures, that the social behavior of human beings may differ greatly, +depending upon prevailing cultural patterns and the types of +organization which predominate in society. It is on this that those who +are striving to improve the lot of man may ground their hopes: human +beings are not condemned, because of their biological constitution, to +annihilate each other or to be at the mercy of a cruel, self-inflicted +fate. + +If we ask ourselves how the structure of society and the cultural +attitude of man should be changed in order to make human life as +satisfying as possible, we should constantly be conscious of the fact +that there are certain conditions which we are unable to modify. As +mentioned before, the biological nature of man is, for all practical +purposes, not subject to change. Furthermore, technological and +demographic developments of the last few centuries have created +conditions which are here to stay. In relatively densely settled +populations with the goods which are indispensable to their continued +existence, an extreme division of labor and a highly-centralized +productive apparatus are absolutely necessary. The time—which, looking +back, seems so idyllic—is gone forever when individuals or relatively +small groups could be completely self-sufficient. It is only a slight +exaggeration to say that mankind constitutes even now a planetary +community of production and consumption. + +I have now reached the point where I may indicate briefly what to me +constitutes the essence of the crisis of our time. It concerns the +relationship of the individual to society. The individual has become +more conscious than ever of his dependence upon society. But he does not +experience this dependence as a positive asset, as an organic tie, as a +protective force, but rather as a threat to his natural rights, or even +to his economic existence. Moreover, his position in society is such +that the egotistical drives of his make-up are constantly being +accentuated, while his social drives, which are by nature weaker, +progressively deteriorate. All human beings, whatever their position in +society, are suffering from this process of deterioration. Unknowingly +prisoners of their own egotism, they feel insecure, lonely, and deprived +of the naive, simple, and unsophisticated enjoyment of life. Man can +find meaning in life, short and perilous as it is, only through devoting +himself to society. + +The economic anarchy of capitalist society as it exists today is, in my +opinion, the real source of the evil. We see before us a huge community +of producers the members of which are unceasingly striving to deprive +each other of the fruits of their collective labor—not by force, but on +the whole in faithful compliance with legally established rules. In this +respect, it is important to realize that the means of production—that is +to say, the entire productive capacity that is needed for producing +consumer goods as well as additional capital goods—may legally be, and +for the most part are, the private property of individuals. + +For the sake of simplicity, in the discussion that follows I shall call +“workers” all those who do not share in the ownership of the means of +production—although this does not quite correspond to the customary use +of the term. The owner of the means of production is in a position to +purchase the labor power of the worker. By using the means of +production, the worker produces new goods which become the property of +the capitalist. The essential point about this process is the relation +between what the worker produces and what he is paid, both measured in +terms of real value. Insofar as the labor contract is “free,” what the +worker receives is determined not by the real value of the goods he +produces, but by his minimum needs and by the capitalists’ requirements +for labor power in relation to the number of workers competing for jobs. +It is important to understand that even in theory the payment of the +worker is not determined by the value of his product. + +Private capital tends to become concentrated in few hands, partly +because of competition among the capitalists, and partly because +technological development and the increasing division of labor encourage +the formation of larger units of production at the expense of smaller +ones. The result of these developments is an oligarchy of private +capital the enormous power of which cannot be effectively checked even +by a democratically organized political society. This is true since the +members of legislative bodies are selected by political parties, largely +financed or otherwise influenced by private capitalists who, for all +practical purposes, separate the electorate from the legislature. The +consequence is that the representatives of the people do not in fact +sufficiently protect the interests of the underprivileged sections of +the population. Moreover, under existing conditions, private capitalists +inevitably control, directly or indirectly, the main sources of +information (press, radio, education). It is thus extremely difficult, +and indeed in most cases quite impossible, for the individual citizen to +come to objective conclusions and to make intelligent use of his +political rights. + +The situation prevailing in an economy based on the private ownership of +capital is thus characterized by two main principles: first, means of +production (capital) are privately owned and the owners dispose of them +as they see fit; second, the labor contract is free. Of course, there is +no such thing as a pure capitalist society in this sense. In particular, +it should be noted that the workers, through long and bitter political +struggles, have succeeded in securing a somewhat improved form of the +“free labor contract” for certain categories of workers. But taken as +a whole, the present day economy does not differ much from “pure” +capitalism. + +Production is carried on for profit, not for use. There is no provision +that all those able and willing to work will always be in a position to +find employment; an “army of unemployed” almost always exists. The +worker is constantly in fear of losing his job. Since unemployed and +poorly paid workers do not provide a profitable market, the production +of consumers’ goods is restricted, and great hardship is the +consequence. Technological progress frequently results in more +unemployment rather than in an easing of the burden of work for all. The +profit motive, in conjunction with competition among capitalists, is +responsible for an instability in the accumulation and utilization of +capital which leads to increasingly severe depressions. Unlimited +competition leads to a huge waste of labor, and to that crippling of the +social consciousness of individuals which I mentioned before. + +This crippling of individuals I consider the worst evil of capitalism. +Our whole educational system suffers from this evil. An exaggerated +competitive attitude is inculcated into the student, who is trained to +worship acquisitive success as a preparation for his future career. + +I am convinced there is only one way to eliminate these grave evils, +namely through the establishment of a socialist economy, accompanied by +an educational system which would be oriented toward social goals. In +such an economy, the means of production are owned by society itself and +are utilized in a planned fashion. A planned economy, which adjusts +production to the needs of the community, would distribute the work to +be done among all those able to work and would guarantee a livelihood to +every man, woman, and child. The education of the individual, in +addition to promoting his own innate abilities, would attempt to develop +in him a sense of responsibility for his fellow men in place of the +glorification of power and success in our present society. + +Nevertheless, it is necessary to remember that a planned economy is not +yet socialism. A planned economy as such may be accompanied by the +complete enslavement of the individual. The achievement of socialism +requires the solution of some extremely difficult socio-political +problems: how is it possible, in view of the far-reaching centralization +of political and economic power, to prevent bureaucracy from becoming +all-powerful and overweening? How can the rights of the individual be +protected and therewith a democratic counterweight to the power of +bureaucracy be assured? + +Clarity about the aims and problems of socialism is of greatest +significance in our age of transition. Since, under present +circumstances, free and unhindered discussion of these problems has come +under a powerful taboo, I consider the foundation of this magazine to be +an important public service. diff --git a/_stories/1953/13333737.md b/_stories/1953/13333737.md index c590a35..21f019a 100644 --- a/_stories/1953/13333737.md +++ b/_stories/1953/13333737.md @@ -19,7 +19,83 @@ _tags: objectID: '13333737' --- -[Source](https://www.newstatesman.com/culture/art-and-design/2013/05/john-berger-drawing-discovery "Permalink to ") +For the artist drawing is discovery. And that is not just a slick +phrase, it is quite literally true. It is the actual act of drawing that +forces the artist to look at the object in front of him, to dissect it +in his mind’s eye and put it together again; or, if he is drawing from +memory, that forces him to dredge his own mind, to discover the content +of his own store of past observations. +It is a platitude in the teaching of drawing that the heart of the +matter lies in the specific process of looking. A line, an area of tone, +is not really important because it records what you have seen, but +because of what it will lead you on to see. Following up its logic in +order to check its accuracy, you find confirmation or denial in the +object itself or in your memory of it. Each confirmation or denial +brings you closer to the object, until finally you are, as it were, +inside it: the contours you have drawn no longer marking the edge of +what you have seen but the edge of what you have become. Perhaps that +sounds needlessly metaphysical. Another way of putting it would be to +say that each mark you make on the paper is a stepping stone from which +you proceed to the next, until you have crossed your subject as though +it were a river, have put it behind you. +This is quite different from the later process of painting a “finished” +canvas or carving a statue. Here you do not pass through your subject, +but try to recreate it and house yourself in it. Each brush-mark or +chisel-stroke is no longer a stepping stone, but a stone to be fitted +into a planned edifice. A drawing is an autobiographical record of one’s +discovery of an event – either seen, remembered or imagined. A +“finished” work is an attempt to construct an event in itself. It is +significant in this respect that only when the artist gained a +relatively high standard of individual “autobiographical” freedom, did +drawings as we now understand them begin to exist. In a hieratic, +anonymous tradition they are unnecessary. (I should perhaps point out +here that I am talking about working drawings – although a working +drawing need not necessarily be made for a specific project. I do not +mean linear designs, illustrations, caricatures, certain portraits or +graphic works which may be “finished” productions in their own right.) +A number of technical factors often enlarge this distinction between a +working drawing and a “finished” work: the longer time needed to paint a +canvas or carve a block; the larger scale of the job; the problem of +simultaneously managing colour, quality of pigment, tone, texture, +grain, and so on – the “shorthand” of drawing is relatively simple and +direct. But nevertheless the fundamental distinction is in the working +of the artist’s mind. A drawing is essentially a private work, related +only to the artist’s own needs; a “finished” statue or canvas is +essentially a public, presented work – related far more directly to the +demands of communication. + +It follows from this that there is an equal distinction from the point +of view of the spectator. In front of a painting or statue he tends to +identify himself with the subject, to interpret the images for their own +sake; in front of a drawing he identifies himself with the artist, using +the images to gain the conscious experience of seeing as though through +the artist’s own eyes. It is this which explains why painters always +value so highly the drawings of the masters they admire and why the +general public find it so difficult to appreciate drawings – except for +sentimental reasons, or in so far as they are impressed by purely manual +dexterity. + +All this is prompted by the exhibition of 500 Old Master drawings +(Pisanello to Ingres) now at Burlington House. The distinction I have +tried to make is relevant for on it are based the standards with which +one approaches such a show. A few of the works – the Rowlandsons and the +portrait of Gentile Bellini by Giovanni for instance – come under the +category of “finished” works. Most, however, can be called “working” +drawings. In appreciating these, deftness, charm, ingenuity are, in +themselves, beside the point. Everything originally depends upon the +quality of discovery. Mannerisms, however elegant, are barriers to +discovery as clichés are barriers to thought; look, for instance, at the +Pietro Longhis and some (not all) of the younger Tiepolos. + +Then, by contrast, go to the Raphael Head of a Muse and feel how he +discovered the fullness of the form growing under his hand like a pot on +a wheel; how Dürer discovered the direction of every fold and fissure as +though he were reading Braille, how Guercino discovered the sensuality +of his Venus as though he were sleeping with her, how Guardi discovered +the space of a room as though he were filling it with air from a pair of +bellows; how Rembrandt discovered his figures as though encompassing +them with the knowledge of a father. In every case one senses their +surprise. diff --git a/_stories/1953/5914071.md b/_stories/1953/5914071.md index c862027..fbd34db 100644 --- a/_stories/1953/5914071.md +++ b/_stories/1953/5914071.md @@ -19,7 +19,688 @@ _tags: objectID: '5914071' --- -[Source](https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB4/ciaguat2.html "Permalink to ") +A STUDY OF ASSASSINATION  +  +DEFINITION +Assassination is a term thought to be derived from "Hashish", a drug +similar to marijuana, said to have been used by Hasan-Dan-Sabah to +induce motivation in his followers, who were assigned to carry out +political and other murders, usually at the cost of their lives. + +It is here used to describe the planned killing of a person who is not +under the legal jurisdiction of the killer, who is not physically in the +hands of the killer, who has been selected by a resistance organization +for death, and who has been sele cted by a resistance organization for +death, and whose death provides positive advantages to that +organization. + +  + +EMPLOYMENT + +Assassination is an extreme measure not normally used in clandestine +operations. It should be assumed that it will never be ordered or +authorized by any U.S. Headquarters, though the latter may in rare +instances agree to its execution by membe rs of an associated foreign +service. This reticence is partly due to the necessity for committing +communications to paper. No assassination instructions should ever be +written or recorded. Consequently, the decision to employ this technique +must nearly always be reached in the field, at the area where the act +will take place. Decision and instructions should be confined to an +absolute minimum of persons. Ideally, only one person will be involved. +No report may be made, but usually the act will be pr operly covered by +normal news services, whose output is available to all concerned. + +  + +JUSTIFICATION + +Murder is not morally justifiable. Self-defense may be argued if the +victim has knowledge which may destroy the resistance organization if +divulged. Assassination of persons responsible for atrocities or +reprisals may be regarded as just puni shment. Killing a political +leader whose burgeoning career is a clear and present danger to the +cause of freedom may be held necessary. + +But assassination can seldom be employed with a clear conscience. +Persons who are morally squeamish should not attempt it. + +  + +CLASSIFICATIONS + +The techniques employed will vary according to whether the subject is +unaware of his danger, aware but unguarded, or guarded. They will also +be affected by whether or not the assassin is to be killed with the +subject hereafter, assassinations in which the subject is unaware will +be termed "simple"; those where the subject is aware but unguarded will +be termed "chase"; those where the victim is guarded will be termed +"guarded." + +If the assassin is to die with the subject, the act will be called +"lost." If the assassin is to escape, the adjective will be "safe." It +should be noted that no compromises should exist here. The assassin must +not fall alive into enemy hands. + +A further type division is caused by the need to conceal the fact that +the subject was actually the victim of assassination, rather than an +accident or natural causes. If such concealment is desirable the +operation will be called "secret" ;; if concealment is immaterial, the +act will be called "open"; while if the assassination requires publicity +to be effective it will be termed "terroristic." + +  + +Following these definitions, the assassination of Julius Caesar was +safe, simple, and terroristic, while that of Huey Long was lost, guarded +and open. Obviously, successful secret assassinations are not recorded +as assassination at all. \[Illeg\] o f Thailand and Augustus Caesar may +have been the victims of safe, guarded and secret assassination. Chase +assassinations usually involve clandestine agents or members of criminal +organizations. + +THE ASSASSIN + +In safe assassinations, the assassin needs the usual qualities of a +clandestine agent. He should be determined, courageous, intelligent, +resourceful, and physically active. If special equipment is to be used, +such as firearms or drugs, it is clear that he must have outstanding +skill with such equipment. + +Except in terroristic assassinations, it is desirable that the assassin +be transient in the area. He should have an absolute minimum of contact +with the rest of the organization and his instructions should be given +orally by one person only. His safe evacuation after the act is +absolutely essential, but here again contact should be as limited as +possible. It is preferable that the person issuing instructions also +conduct any withdrawal or covering action which may be necessary. + +In lost assassination, the assassin must be a fanatic of some sort. +Politics, religion, and revenge are about the only feasible motives. +Since a fanatic is unstable psychologically, he must be handled with +extreme care. He must not know the iden tities of the other members of +the organization, for although it is intended that he die in the act, +something may go wrong. While the Assassin of Trotsky has never revealed +any significant information, it was unsound to depend on this when the +act was p lanned. + +  + +PLANNING + +When the decision to assassinate has been reached, the tactics of the +operation must be planned, based upon an estimate of the situation +similar to that used in military operations. The preliminary estimate +will reveal gaps in information and possibly indicate a need for special +equipment which must be procured or constructed. When all necessary data +has been collected, an effective tactical plan can be prepared. All +planning must be mental; no papers should ever contain evidence of the +oper ation. + +In resistance situations, assassination may be used as a +counter-reprisal. Since this requires advertising to be effective, the +resistance organization must be in a position to warn high officials +publicly that their lives will be the price of rep risal action against +innocent people. Such a threat is of no value unless it can be carried +out, so it may be necessary to plan the assassination of various +responsible officers of the oppressive regime and hold such plans in +readiness to be used only i f provoked by excessive brutality. Such +plans must be modified frequently to meet changes in the tactical +situation. + +TECHNIQUES + +The essential point of assassination is the death of the subject. A +human being may be killed in many ways but sureness is often overlooked +by those who may be emotionally unstrung by the seriousness of this act +they intend to commit. The spe cific technique employed will depend upon +a large number of variables, but should be constant in one point: Death +must be absolutely certain. The attempt on Hitler's life failed because +the conspiracy did not give this matter proper attention. + +Techniques may be considered as follows: + +  + +1\. Manual. + +It is possible to kill a man with the bare hands, but very few are +skillful enough to do it well. Even a highly trained Judo expert will +hesitate to risk killing by hand unless he has absolutely no +alternative. However, the simplest local tools a re often much the most +efficient means of assassination. A hammer, axe, wrench, screw driver, +fire poker, kitchen knife, lamp stand, or anything hard, heavy and handy +will suffice. A length of rope or wire or a belt will do if the assassin +is strong and agile. All such improvised weapons have the important +advantage of availability and apparent innocence. The obviously lethal +machine gun failed to kill Trotsky where an item of sporting goods +succeeded. + +In all safe cases where the assassin may be subject to search, either +before or after the act, specialized weapons should not be used. Even in +the lost case, the assassin may accidentally be searched before the act +and should not carry an incrimin ating device if any sort of lethal +weapon can be improvised at or near the site. If the assassin normally +carries weapons because of the nature of his job, it may still be +desirable to improvise and implement at the scene to avoid disclosure of +his ident ity. + +  + +2\. Accidents. + +For secret assassination, either simple or chase, the contrived accident +is the most effective technique. When successfully executed, it causes +little excitement and is only casually investigated. + +The most efficient accident, in simple assassination, is a fall of 75 +feet or more onto a hard surface. Elevator shafts, stair wells, +unscreened windows and bridges will serve. Bridge falls into water are +not reliable. In simple cases a private meeting with the subject may be +arranged at a properly-cased location. The act may be executed by +sudden, vigorous \[excised\] of the ankles, tipping the subject over the +edge. If the assassin immediately sets up an outcry, playing the +"horrified wit ness", no alibi or surreptitious withdrawal is necessary. +In chase cases it will usually be necessary to stun or drug the subject +before dropping him. Care is required to insure that no wound or +condition not attributable to the fall is discernible after death. + +Falls into the sea or swiftly flowing rivers may suffice if the subject +cannot swim. It will be more reliable if the assassin can arrange to +attempt rescue, as he can thus be sure of the subject's death and at the +same time establish a workable al ibi. + +  + +If the subject's personal habits make it feasible, alcohol may be used +\[2 words excised\] to prepare him for a contrived accident of any kind. + +Falls before trains or subway cars are usually effective, but require +exact timing and can seldom be free from unexpected observation. + +Automobile accidents are a less satisfactory means of assassination. If +the subject is deliberately run down, very exact timing is necessary and +investigation is likely to be thorough. If the subject's car is tampered +with, reliability is very lo w. The subject may be stunned or drugged +and then placed in the car, but this is only reliable when the car can +be run off a high cliff or into deep water without observation. + +Arson can cause accidental death if the subject is drugged and left in a +burning building. Reliability is not satisfactory unless the building is +isolated and highly combustible. + +3\. Drugs. + +In all types of assassination except terroristic, drugs can be very +effective. If the assassin is trained as a doctor or nurse and the +subject is under medical care, this is an easy and rare method. An +overdose of morphine administered as a sedat ive will cause death +without disturbance and is difficult to detect. The size of the dose +will depend upon whether the subject has been using narcotics regularly. +If not, two grains will suffice. + +  + +If the subject drinks heavily, morphine or a similar narcotic can be +injected at the passing out stage, and the cause of death will often be +held to be acute alcoholism. + +Specific poisons, such as arsenic or strychine, are effective but their +possession or procurement is incriminating, and accurate dosage is +problematical. Poison was used unsuccessfully in the assassination of +Rasputin and Kolohan, though the latte r case is more accurately +described as a murder. + +  + +4\. Edge Weapons + +Any locally obtained edge device may be successfully employed. A certain +minimum of anatomical knowledge is needed for reliability. + +Puncture wounds of the body cavity may not be reliable unless the heart +is reached. The heart is protected by the rib cage and is not always +easy to locate. + +Abdominal wounds were once nearly always mortal, but modern medical +treatment has made this no longer true. + +Absolute reliability is obtained by severing the spinal cord in the +cervical region. This can be done with the point of a knife or a light +blow of an axe or hatchet. + +Another reliable method is the severing of both jugular and carotid +blood vessels on both sides of the windpipe. + +If the subject has been rendered unconscious by other wounds or drugs, +either of the above methods can be used to insure death. + +5\. Blunt Weapons + +As with edge weapons, blunt weapons require some anatomical knowledge +for effective use. Their main advantage is their universal availability. +A hammer may be picked up almost anywhere in the world. Baseball and +\[illeg\] bats are very widely dist ributed. Even a rock or a heavy +stick will do, and nothing resembling a weapon need be procured, carried +or subsequently disposed of. + +Blows should be directed to the temple, the area just below and behind +the ear, and the lower, rear portion of the skull. Of course, if the +blow is very heavy, any portion of the upper skull will do. The lower +frontal portion of the head, from th e eyes to the throat, can withstand +enormous blows without fatal consequences. + +  + +6\. Firearms + +Firearms are often used in assassination, often very ineffectively. The +assassin usually has insufficient technical knowledge of the limitations +of weapons, and expects more range, accuracy and killing power than can +be provided with reliability. Since certainty of death is the major +requirement, firearms should be used which can provide destructive power +at least 100% in excess of that thought to be necessary, and ranges +should be half that considered practical for the weapon. + +Firearms have other drawbacks. Their possession is often incriminating. +They may be difficult to obtain. They require a degree of experience +from the user. They are \[illeg\]. Their \[illeg\] is consistently +over-rated. + +However, there are many cases in which firearms are probably more +efficient than any other means. These cases usually involve distance +between the assassin and the subject, or comparative physical weakness +of the assassin, as with a woman. + +(a) The precision rifle. In guarded assassination, a good hunting or +target rifle should always be considered as a possibility. Absolute +reliability can nearly always be achieved at a distance of one hundred +yards. In ideal circumstances, t he range may be extended to 250 yards. +The rifle should be a well made bolt or falling block action type, +handling a powerful long-range cartridge. The .300 F.A.B. Magnum is +probably the best cartridge readily available. Other excellent calibers +are . 375 M.\[illeg\]. Magnum, .270 Winchester, .30 - 106 p.s., 8 x 60 +MM Magnum, 9.3 x + +  + +62 kk and others of this type. These are preferable to ordinary military +calibers, since ammunition available for them is usually of the +expanding bullet type, whereas most ammunition for military rifles is +full jacketed and hence not sufficiently let hal. Military ammunition +should not be altered by filing or drilling bullets, as this will +adversely affect accuracy. + +The rifle may be of the "bull gun" variety, with extra heavy barrel and +set triggers, but in any case should be capable of maximum precision. +Ideally, the weapon should be able to group in one inch at one hundred +yards, but 21/2" groups are adequa te. The sight should be telescopic, +not only for accuracy, but because such a sight is much better in dim +light or near darkness. As long as the bare outline of the target is +discernable, a telescope sight will work, even if the rifle and shooter +are in total darkness. + +An expanding, hunting bullet of such calibers as described above will +produce extravagant laceration and shock at short or mid-range. If a man +is struck just once in the body cavity, his death is almost entirely +certain. + +Public figures or guarded officials may be killed with great reliability +and some safety if a firing point can be established prior to an +official occasion. The propaganda value of this system may be very high. + +(b) The machine gun. + +Machine guns may be used in most cases where the precision rifle is +applicable. Usually, this will require + +  + +the subversion of a unit of an official guard at a ceremony, though a +skillful and determined team might conceivably dispose of a loyal gun +crow without commotion and take over the gun at the critical time. + +The area fire capacity of the machine gun should not be used to search +out a concealed subject. This was tried with predictable lack of success +on Trotsky. The automatic feature of the machine gun should rather be +used to increase reliability by placing a 5 second burst on the subject. +Even with full jacket ammunition, this will be absolute lethal is the +burst pattern is no larger than a man. This can be accomplished at about +150 yards. In ideal circumstances, a properly padded and targeted ma +chine gun can do it at 850 yards. The major difficulty is placing the +first burst exactly on the target, as most machine gunners are trained +to spot their fire on target by observation of strike. This will not do +in assassination as the subject will not wait. + +(c) The Submachine Gun. + +This weapon, known as the "machine-pistol" by the Russians and Germans +and "machine-carbine" by the British, is occasionally useful in +assassination. Unlike the rifle and machine gun, this is a short range +weapon and since it fires pistol ammu nition, much less powerful. To be +reliable, it should deliver at least 5 rounds into the subject's chest, +though the .45 caliber U.S. weapons have a much larger margin of killing +efficiency than the 9 mm European arms. + +The assassination range of the sub-machine gun is point + +  + +blank. While accurate single rounds can be delivered by sub-machine +gunners at 50 yards or more, this is not certain enough for +assassination. Under ordinary circumstances, the 5MG should be used as a +fully automatic weapon. In the hands of a capabl e gunner, a high cyclic +rate is a distinct advantage, as speed of execution is most desirable, +particularly in the case of multiple subjects. + +The sub-machine gun is especially adapted to indoor work when more than +one subject is to be assassinated. An effective technique has been +devised for the use of a pair of sub-machine gunners, by which a room +containing as many as a dozen subjects can be "purifico" in about twenty +seconds with little or no risk to the gunners. It is illustrated below. + +  + +While the U.S. sub-machine guns fire the most lethal cartridges, the +higher cyclic rate of some foreign weapons enable the gunner to cover a +target quicker with acceptable pattern density. The Bergmann Model 1934 +is particularly good in this way. The Danish Madman? SMG has a +moderately good cyclic rate and is admirably compact and concealable. +The Russian SHG's have a good cyclic rate, but are handicapped by a +small, light protective which requires more kits for equivalent killing +effect. + +(d) The Shotgun. + +A large bore shotgun is a most effective + +  + +killing instrument as long as the range is kept under ten yards. It +should normally be used only on single targets as it cannot sustain fire +successfully. The barrel may be "sawed" off for convenience, but this is +not a significant factor in its killi ng performance. Its optimum range +is just out of reach of the subject. 00 buckshot is considered the best +shot size for a twelve gage gun, but anything from single balls to bird +shot will do if the range is right. The assassin should aim for the +solar plexus as the shot pattern is small at close range and can easily +\[illeg\] the head. + +(e) The Pistol. + +While the handgun is quite inefficient as a weapon of assassination, it +is often used, partly because it is readily available and can be +concealed on the person, and partly because its limitations are not +widely appreciated. While many well kn own assassinations have been +carried out with pistols (Lincoln, Harding, Ghandi), such attempts fail +as often as they succeed, (Truman, Roosevelt, Churchill). + +If a pistol is used, it should be as powerful as possible and fired from +just beyond reach. The pistol and the shotgun are used in similar +tactical situations, except that the shotgun is much more lethal and the +pistol is much more easily conceale d. + +In the hands of an expert, a powerful pistol is quite deadly, but such +experts are rare and not usually available for assassination missions. + +.45 Colt, .44 Special, .455 Kly, .45 A.S.\[illeg\] (U.S. Service) and +.357 Magnum are all efficient calibers. Less powerful + +  + +rounds can suffice but are less reliable. Sub-power cartridges such as +the .32s and .25s should be avoided. + +In all cases, the subject should be hit solidly at least three times for +complete reliability. + +(f) Silent Firearms + +The sound of the explosion of the proponent in a firearm can be +effectively silenced by appropriate attachments. However, the sound of +the projective passing through the air cannot, since this sound is +generated outside the weapon. In cases w here the velocity of the bullet +greatly exceeds that of sound, the noise so generated is much louder +than that of the explosion. Since all powerful rifles have muzzle +velocities of over 2000 feet per second, they cannot be silenced. + +Pistol bullets, on the other hand, usually travel slower than sound and +the sound of their flight is negligible. Therefore, pistols, submachine +guns and any sort of improvised carbine or rifle which will take a low +velocity cartridge can be silenc ed. The user should not forget that the +sound of the operation of a repeating action is considerable, and that +the sound of bullet strike, particularly in bone is quite loud. + +Silent firearms are only occasionally useful to the assassin, though +they have been widely publicized in this connection. Because permissible +velocity is low, effective precision range is held to about 100 yards +with rifle or carbine type weapons, while with pistols, silent or +otherwise, + +  + +are most efficient just beyond arms length. The silent feature attempts +to provide a degree of safety to the assassin, but mere possession of a +silent firearm is likely to create enough hazard to counter the +advantage of its silence. The silent pisto l combines the disadvantages +of any pistol with the added one of its obviously clandestine purpose. + +A telescopically sighted, closed-action carbine shooting a low velocity +bullet of great weight, and built for accuracy, could be very useful to +an assassin in certain situations. At the time of writing, no such +weapon is known to exist. + +7\. Explosives. + +Bombs and demolition charges of various sorts have been used frequently +in assassination. Such devices, in terroristic and open assassination, +can provide safety and overcome guard barriers, but it is curious that +bombs have often been the imp lement of lost assassinations. + +The major factor which affects reliability is the use of explosives for +assassination. the charge must be very large and the detonation must be +controlled exactly as to time by the assassin who can observe the +subject. A small or moderate explosi ve charge is highly unreliable as a +cause of death, and time delay or booby-trap devices are extremely prone +to kill the wrong man. In addition to the moral aspects of +indiscriminate killing, the death of casual bystanders can often produce +public reacti ons unfavorable to the cause for which the assassination +is carried out. + +Bombs or grenades should never be thrown at a subject. While this + +  + +will always cause a commotion and may even result in the subject's +death, it is sloppy, unreliable, and bad propaganda. The charge must be +too small and the assassin is never sure of: (1)reaching his attack +position, (2) placing the charge close en ough to the target and (3) +firing the charge at the right time. + +Placing the charge surreptitiously in advance permits a charge of proper +size to be employed, but requires accurate prediction of the subject's +movements. + +Ten pounds of high explosive should normally be regarded as a minimum, +and this is explosive of fragmentation material. The latter can consist +of any hard, \[illeg\] material as long as the fragments are large +enough. Metal or rock fragments should be walnut-size rather than +pen-size. If solid plates are used, to be ruptured by the explosion, +cast iron, 1" thick, gives excellent fragmentation. Military or +commercial high explosives are practical for use in assassination. +Homemade or improvised e xplosives should be avoided. While possibly +powerful, they tend to be dangerous and unreliable. Anti-personnel +explosive missiles are excellent, provided the assassin has sufficient +technical knowledge to fuse them properly. 81 or 82 mm mortar shells, or +the 120 mm mortar shell, are particularly good. Anti-personnel shells +for 85, 88, 90, 100 and 105 mm guns and howitzers are both large enough +to be completely reliable and small enough to be carried by one man. + +The charge should be so placed that the subject is not ever six feet +from it at the moment of detonation. + +A large, shaped charge with the \[illeg\] filled with iron fragments +(such as 1" nuts and bolts) will fire a highly lethal shotgun-type + +  + +\[illeg\] to 50 yards. This reaction has not been thoroughly tested, +however, and an exact replica of the proposed device should be fired in +advance to determine exact range, pattern-size, and penetration of +fragments. Fragments should penetrate at lea st 1" of seasoned pine or +equivalent for minimum reliability. Any firing device may be used which +permits exact control by the assassin. An ordinary commercial or +military explorer is efficient, as long as it is rigged for +instantaneous action with no time fuse in the system. The wise \[illeg\] +electric target can serve as the triggering device and provide exact +timing from as far away as the assassin can reliably hit the target. +This will avid the disadvantages olitary or commercial high explosives +are practical for use in assassination. Homemade or improvised +explosives should be avoided. While possibly powerful, they tend to be +dangerous and unreliable. Anti-personnel explosive missiles are +excellent, provided the assassin has sufficient techn ical knowledge to +fuse them properly. 81 or 82 mm mortar shells, or the 120 mm mortar +shell, are particularly good. Anti-personnel shells for 85, 88, 90, 100 +and 105 mm guns and howitzers are both large enough to be completely +reliable and small enough to be carried by one man. + +The charge should be so placed that the subject is not ever six feet +from it at the moment of detonation. + +A large, shaped charge with the \[illeg\] filled with iron fragments +(such as 1" nuts and bolts) will fire a highly lethal shotgun-type + +  + +\[illeg\] to 50 yards. This reaction has not been thoroughly tested, +however, and an exact replica of the proposed device should be fired in +advance to determine exact range, pattern-size, and penetration of +fragments. Fragments should penetrate at lea st 1" of seasoned pine or +equivalent for minimum reliability. + +Any firing device may be used which permits exact control by the +assassin. An ordinary commercial or military explorer is efficient, as +long as it is rigged for instantaneous action with no time fuse in the +system. + +The wise \[illeg\] electric target can serve as the triggering device +and provide exact timing from as far away as the assassin can reliably +hit the target. This will avid the disadvantages of stringing wire +between the proposed positions of the ass assin and the subject, and +also permit the assassin to fire the charge from a variety of possible +positions. + +The radio switch can be \[illeg\] to fire \[illeg\], though its +reliability is somewhat lower and its procurement may not be easy. + +EXAMPLES + +(\[illeg\] may be presented brief outlines, with critical evaluations of +the following assassinations and attempts: + +Marat + +Hedrich + +Lincoln + +Hitler + +Harding + +Roosevelt + +Grand Duke Sergei + +Truman + +Pirhivie + +Mussolini + +Archduke Francis Ferdinand + +Benes + +Rasputin + +Aung Sang + +Madero + +\[illeg\] + +Kirov + +Abdullah + +Huey Long + +Ghandi + +Alexander of Yugoslvia + +  + +Trotsky + +  + +  + +CONFERENCE ROOM TECHNIQUE + +  + +1\. + +![](ciaguat2_1.GIF) + +(1) Enters room quickly but quietly + +(2) Stands in doorway + +2\. + +![](ciaguat2_2.GIF) + +(2) Opens fire on first subject to react. Swings across group toward +center of mass. Times burst to empty magazine at end of swing. + +(1) Covers group to prevent individual dangerous reactions, if +necessary, fires individual bursts of 3 rounds. + +3\. + +![](ciaguat2_3.GIF) + +(2) Finishes burst. Commands"Shift." Drops back thru \[sic\] door. +Replaces empty magazine. Covers corridor. + +(1) On command "shift", opens fire on opposite side of target, swings +one burst across group. + +4\. + +![](ciaguat2_4.GIF) + +(1) Finishes burst. Commands "shift". Drops back thru \[sic\] door. +Replaces magazine. Covers corridor. + +(2) On command, "shift", re-enters room. Covers group: kills survivors +with two-round bursts. Leaves propaganda. + +5\. + +![](ciaguat2_5.GIF) + +(2) Leaves room. Commands "GO". Covers rear with nearly full magazine. + +(1) On command "GO", leads withdrawl, covering front with full magazine. + +6\. + +![](ciaguat2_6.GIF) diff --git a/_stories/1953/7774375.md b/_stories/1953/7774375.md index a5a86b5..a09c496 100644 --- a/_stories/1953/7774375.md +++ b/_stories/1953/7774375.md @@ -19,7 +19,155 @@ _tags: objectID: '7774375' --- -[Source](https://boingboing.net/2014/05/20/disneylandprospectus.html "Permalink to ") +# Disneyland's original prospectus revealed\! +Thanks to an anonymous benefactor, Boing Boing is pleased to present the +first-ever look at the original Disneyland prospectus. +Thanks to an anonymous benefactor, Boing Boing is pleased to present the +first-ever look at the original Disneyland prospectus. These extremely +high-resolution scans were made from one of the three sets of +pitch-documents Roy and Walt Disney used to raise the money to build +Disneyland. There are no archive copies of this document. Neither the +Walt Disney Company nor the Walt Disney Family Museum have it. But we +certainly hope both organizations will download these documents for +inclusion in their collections. +Roy Disney -- the Disney brother who controlled the company's finances - +-- didn't like the idea of Disneyland at first. Walt Disney poached the +best talent from the studios to help him flesh out his idea for a new +kind of amusement park, eventually winning over Roy, who helped him +raise the $17 million it took to build Disneyland. + +The first animator Walt took into the project was the legendary Herb +Ryman. Over the course of a weekend in 1953, Walt and Herb drew the +storied first map of Disneyland, as [pictured +here](http://www.waltdisney.org/content/drawing-park). An additional +eight typed pages of description and sales copy were added to these +pages and the resulting "brochure" was used as an unsuccessful pitch +session that Walt and Herb conducted for three different New York +bankers. + +This document [changed hands at +auction](http://weissauctions.auctionflex.com/showlot.ap?co=6845&weid=20584&weiid=7509837&archive=n&lso=lotnumasc&pagenum=4&lang=En) +last year. The new owner has not indicated his interest in exhibiting or +sharing the contents of this document. The new owner is Glenn Beck, a +noted jerkface, so this is not surprising. + +As for the document itself, there's a lot of interesting detail in it. I +was quite struck by the extent to which the document focuses on +Disneyland as a unique place to shop. This being the post-war +boom-years, shopping was coming into its own as an American recreational +passtime. And indeed, Disneyland has, at various times in its history, +focused strongly on unique gifts. In the 1950s and 1960s, doing your +Christmas shopping at Disneyland was quite the thing in LA (in those +days, there was a separate, low charge for admission, and ride tickets +were extra, so it was very cheap to pass through the gates in order to +shop). In the 1970s and 1980s, the parks sported loads of wonderful, +bespoke materials (I loved the [Randotti +souvenirs](http://www.ebay.com/sch/i.html?_odkw=haunted+mansion+vintage&_sop=3&_osacat=0&_from=R40&_trksid=p2045573.m570.l1313.TR1.TRC0.A0.H0.Xhaunted+mansion+randotti&_nkw=haunted+mansion+randotti&_sacat=0), +especially the Haunted Mansion material). At various times since, the +corporate emphasis on merchandise has varied wildly, though thoughtful, +high-quality, distinctive merchandise now appears to be back in the mix. + +But Walt's vision for what the company at one point called +"merchantainment" (\!) was more ambitious than anything yet realized +inside the berm. Page one boasts of a "mail order catalogue" that will +offer everything for sale at Disneyland (a kind of super-duper version +of today's [Disneyland +Delivears](http://disneylandinsideout.com/disneyland-resort-guide/in-the-parks/contact-disneyland)). +This catalogue was to feature actual livestock, including "a real pony +or a miniature donkey thirty inches high." + +Once we get to "True-Life Adventureland," we learn of even cooler (and +less probable) living merchandise: "magnificently plumed birds and +fantastic fish from all over the world...which may be purchased and +shipped anywhere in the U.S. if you so desire." + +The contrafactual Disneyland of 1953 wrestled with the future just as +much as today's Disney parks do. The prospectus promises "slidewalks," a +scientifically accurate space-simulator, robotic open kitchens and (of +course) merchandise. But what merch\! This being the golden age of +science kits, Walt and Herb promised to send kids home from Disneyland +with "scientific toys, chemical sets and model kits." We were also +promised space-helmets. (I want a space helmet\!) + +Futurism and science fiction have been tough nuts for Disneyland to +crack. When the park opened in 1955, there wasn't much budget to kit out +Tomorrowland, so a bunch of corporate sponsors were quickly brought in +to host some pretty dubious exhibits: the [Kaiser Aluminum Hall of +Fame](http://davelandweb.com/tomorrowland/kaiser.html) (a giant tin +telescope, a tin pig, and exhibits about the role of aluminum in +American industry); a Dairy of the Future that featured models of cows +with IVs in their hocks gazing at videos of pastures; the Dutch Boy +Color Gallery (exploring the future through paint mixing). The crowning +glory was a big-top tent housing the special-effects kraken from the +film of 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea; it was staffed by a little person +who hid inside it all day, making the tentacles wave. + +There have been several attempts to remake Tomorrowland, of varying +success. At one point, it became a focal point for insouciant Orange +County goths, who congregated there every day after school, making good +use of their annual passes. These days, Tomorrowland is thoroughly +grounded in fiction from recently acquired franchises -- not futurism +and the "factual world of tomorrow." There's a rather good Marvel Comics +exhibit in the otherwise lacklustre Innoventions building, and lots of +Star Wars-themed stuff to go with the revamped Star Tours ride (which is +also rather good). No one seems to mind that a franchise set "a long, +long time ago" is a dominant feature in Tomorrowland. Pixar is +represented through a Buzz Lightyear ride/shooting gallery (where my +wife regularly and thoroughly trounces me). + +Finally, the prospectus makes a big deal out of the idea of a miniature +walk-through land, "Lilliputian Land," where "mechanical people nine +inches high sing and dance and talk to you." This is clearly inspired by +Walt's experiences touring Copenhagen's Tivoli Gardens, and is the +lineal ancestor of the Small World boats (created for Unicef's pavilion +at the 1964 NYC World's Fair) and the Storybookland Boats. More to the +point, it shows off how much Disneyland was really an elaborate plan by +Walt to let extend the miniature train-set he'd build in his garden as +therapy after his mental breakdown. The classic [photo of Walt Disney +hanging out of a train +locomotive](https://www.google.com/search?site=&tbm=isch&source=hp&biw=1720&bih=878&q=walt+disney+train+driver&oq=walt+disney+train+driver&gs_l=img.3...316.3617.0.3679.24.14.0.10.5.0.129.1182.13j1.14.0....0...1ac.1.36.img..6.18.1150.ezGGzXT8ghA#q=walt+disney+train+&tbm=isch), +grinning with pure, unfaked joy contain, for me, the real story of +Disneyland: a man who struggled with depression and his relationship to +the company he founded, restless with corporate culture and anxious to +lose himself in play in a world of fantasy. + +We are forever grateful to our anonymous source for this extraordinary +document. We hope you enjoy it as much as we +do. + +![](https://i1.wp.com/media.boingboing.net/wp-content/uploads/2014/05/map2.jpg?w=970) + +![](https://i2.wp.com/media.boingboing.net/wp-content/uploads/2014/05/title12.jpg?w=970) + +![](https://i1.wp.com/media.boingboing.net/wp-content/uploads/2014/05/a2.jpg?w=970) + +![](https://i1.wp.com/media.boingboing.net/wp-content/uploads/2014/05/b2.jpg?w=970) + +![](https://i0.wp.com/media.boingboing.net/wp-content/uploads/2014/05/031.jpg?w=970) + +![](https://i0.wp.com/media.boingboing.net/wp-content/uploads/2014/05/122.jpg?w=970) + +![](https://i0.wp.com/media.boingboing.net/wp-content/uploads/2014/05/221.jpg?w=970) + +![](https://i0.wp.com/media.boingboing.net/wp-content/uploads/2014/05/321.jpg?w=970) + +![](https://i1.wp.com/media.boingboing.net/wp-content/uploads/2014/05/421.jpg?w=970) + +![](https://i0.wp.com/media.boingboing.net/wp-content/uploads/2014/05/531.jpg?w=970) + +![](https://i2.wp.com/media.boingboing.net/wp-content/uploads/2014/05/621.jpg?w=970) + +![](https://i2.wp.com/media.boingboing.net/wp-content/uploads/2014/05/bigmap3.jpg?w=970) + +[Disneyland Original +Prospectus](https://archive.org/details/Disneylandoriginalprospectus) +\[archive.org\] + +A [zip file of high-res TIFF +files](https://ia601403.us.archive.org/27/items/Disneylandoriginalprospectus/Disneylandoriginalprospectus_images.zip) +\[4GB\!\] is also available. + +Loading... diff --git a/_stories/1956/12517423.md b/_stories/1956/12517423.md index 28b4bf1..198d2ff 100644 --- a/_stories/1956/12517423.md +++ b/_stories/1956/12517423.md @@ -19,7 +19,142 @@ _tags: objectID: '12517423' --- -[Source](https://newrepublic.com/article/136543/fantastic-world-professor-tolkien "Permalink to ") +All this is the secret information which Gandalf, after twelve years of +search and travels, returns by night to tell Frodo. For, thanks to +Bilbo’s inheritance, the harmless young Hobbit is now in possession of +the Lord of the Rings. +Frodo, appalled, attempts to pass the ring to Gandalf. But Gandalf knows +that those who possess the ring end by being possessed. And, while he is +tempted by power his spirit is one of “pity for weakness, and the desire +of strength to do good.” So he refuses the responsibility. No time is +left, for Sauron is closing in on the Shire. Frodo flees to save his +homeland, taking the ring and followed by three companions, while +Gandalf goes his own way towards their next meeting place. Stone +barrow-wights encase the Hobbits; ringwraiths, slaves of Sauron, pursue +them and wound Frodo. He makes mistake after mistake and survives only +though his own bravery or by the intervention of some unexpected force +of good. Strider, a ranger sent by Gandalf, guides him and so at last +Frodo reaches Rivendell. +For evil is matched and overcome not by superior power, but by the +determination and the goodness of ordinary beings, ennobles by the +assumption of burdens beyond their capacity to bear. +In Rivendell, the Council of Elrond is held and the decision is made to +attempt the destruction of the Ring. But this, ancient folklore asserts, +can be accomplished only by casting the ring into the fire mountain that +rises in Mordor, the fortress of the enemy. The one who will bear it +there must be chosen and after a long silence Frodo whispers, “I will +take the ring though I do not know the way.” Next from the Free Peoples +a fellowship is formed to help the ring-bearer: a man, Boromir, the +three Hobbits, an elf, a dwarf, Gandalf, and Strider, now revealed as +Aragorn, heir of the ancient Kings of the West. + +The Fellowship sets out by a hunter’s moon and passes through increasing +peril. A snowstorm drives them into Mines of Moria where Gandalf in +battle with a dreadful spirit of the underworld vanishes into an abyss. +Aragorn leads the company on to the enchanted beauty of Lothlorien. +There no shadow lies, but the reluctant Fellowship moves on. Soon they +are surrounded by orcs and still worse the ring begins to work its evil +among them. For the unconquered cities around Mordor are under attack +from Sauron, and when Boromir realizes that Frodo will not be diverted +to their defense, he attempts in a moment of madness to seize the ring. +Then, at the end of the first volume, Frodo realizes that he must +continue alone. He slips on the ring and escapes followed only by his +gardener, Sam. + +So the Fellowship is broken. Aragorn aided by Gandalf, now returned from +the dead, leads the company in desperate battles against the present +forces of Sauron. Frodo, battling evil itself, is lost with Sam on the +barren slopes of the Emyn Muil. There Gollum, who once held the ring, +overtakes and plots to kill them. Frodo, instead is empowered to kill +Gollum, but he remembers his own protest to Gandalf and Gandalf’s +answer: + +> “What a pity Bilbo did not stab the vile creature when he had a +> chance.” +> +> “Pity? It was a Pity that stayed his hand.” +> +> “I do not feel any pity for Gollum. He deserves death.” +> +> “Deserves death\! I daresay he does. Many that live deserve death. And +> some die that deserve life. Can you give that to them? Then be not too +> eager to deal out death in the name of Justice ... even the wise +> cannot see all ends.” + +So Gollum is spared, to guide Frodo and then betray him. Thus as the +second volume closes, Sam is forced to abandon his master and, bearing +the ring, move on to Mordor alone. + +But Frodo survives, and in the third volume while the Fellowship wages a +climactic battle to occupy the attention of Sauron, he accomplishes the +impossible. The battle is won, the wounded remain, beyond hope of +healing. But folklore proclaims: *The hands of the King are the hands of +a healer and so shall the rightful King be known.* Aragorn returns from +the battle and by healing earns his place as King. The Fellowship is +reunited and parts in peace. The new age begins. + +> Its promise exceeds the wildest hopes of the heroes. But it is not for +> all to enjoy. “I thought you were going to enjoy the Shire too after +> all you have done,” cries Sam to Frodo whose old wound will not heal. +> +> So I thought once too \[Frodo answers\]. But I have been too deeply +> hurt, Sam. I tried to save the Shire, and it has been saved, but not +> for me. It must be often so Sam when things are in danger someone has +> to give them up, to lose them so that others may keep them. + +So Frodo departs, leaving Sam to raise a family and the reader to +reflect on the meaning of Tolkien’s tale. + +And of course it contains meaning. *The Lord of The Rings* is primarily +story telling, but the universality and the timeliness of its plot give +to it allegorical significance. + +It is the struggle of good and evil that Tolkien sets apart, through +fantasy, from superficial detail. Evil in the form of Sauron, is man’s +rebellion against Providence, his attempt to become the lord of a world +he did not make. For he who starts by forcing his will upon others, ends +by destroying everything that he touches. Gollum is also evil, but not +beyond redemption. He is the servant of power, spared out of pity in +order that the compassion of the Hobbits may enable them to surmount the +insurmountable. For evil is matched and overcome not by superior power, +but by the determination and the goodness of ordinary beings, ennobles +by the assumption of burdens beyond their capacity to bear. Gandalf is +brilliant and Aragorn brave, but Frodo’s is the decisive will. And yet +for all his achievements, Frodo remains unchanged. For Tolkien’s purpose +is not that Hobbits should cease to be Hobbits; it is simply that they +should understand and give their best. + +Gandalf is the instrument of Providence, but a strange sort of +instrument. His power is limited and less than Sauron’s; his +interventions are decisive but rare; frequently he is absent when he is +most needed. He is forbidden to dominate. For in the First and Second +Ages of Tolkien’s world, the gods interfered in man’s fate and so +obscured it. In the Third Age their emissary is present, but as a helper +only. The Age ends with the destruction of the ring, and the time of +man’s dominion begins. So when Frodo and the High Kindred, whose time +has also passed, step into the ship that bears them to the Grey Havens, +Gandalf is also on board. + +> Anyone inheriting the fantastic device of human language can say The +> Green Sun. Many can then imagine or picture it. But that is not +> enough.... To make a secondary world inside the Green Sun will be +> credible commanding Secondary Belief will demand a special skill, a +> kind of elvish craft. Few attempt such difficult tasks. But when they +> are attempted, and in any degree accomplished, then we have a rare +> achievement of Art... indeed story telling in its primary and most +> potent mode - Tolkien + +This standard, set by Tolkien in his contribution to the *Essays +Presented to Charles Williams,* is met in his own work. He possesses +elvish craft. He adds to it the scholar’s perspective and the humanist’s +faith. And yet he never allows the magical balance of mystery and +perception to be lost. For reasons his world of fantasy is more gripping +than the events that occur next door, say at *Ten North Frederick.* For +Tolkien’s fantasy does not obscure, but illuminates the inner +consistency of reality. There are very few works of genius in recent +literature. + +This is one. diff --git a/_stories/1956/8376716.md b/_stories/1956/8376716.md index 1e171ce..2f948ab 100644 --- a/_stories/1956/8376716.md +++ b/_stories/1956/8376716.md @@ -19,7 +19,633 @@ _tags: objectID: '8376716' --- -[Source](http://www.multivax.com/last_question.html# "Permalink to ") +[![How can entropy be reversed](/images/mv_logo.png)](/) +## The Last Question by Isaac Asimov © 1956 + +The last question was asked for the first time, half in jest, on May 21, +2061, at a time when humanity first stepped into the light. The question +came about as a result of a five dollar bet over highballs, and it +happened this way: +Alexander Adell and Bertram Lupov were two of the faithful attendants of +Multivac. As well as any human beings could, they knew what lay behind +the cold, clicking, flashing face -- miles and miles of face -- of that +giant computer. They had at least a vague notion of the general plan of +relays and circuits that had long since grown past the point where any +single human could possibly have a firm grasp of the whole. + +Multivac was self-adjusting and self-correcting. It had to be, for +nothing human could adjust and correct it quickly enough or even +adequately enough -- so Adell and Lupov attended the monstrous giant +only lightly and superficially, yet as well as any men could. They fed +it data, adjusted questions to its needs and translated the answers that +were issued. Certainly they, and all others like them, were fully +entitled to share In the glory that was Multivac's. + +For decades, Multivac had helped design the ships and plot the +trajectories that enabled man to reach the Moon, Mars, and Venus, but +past that, Earth's poor resources could not support the ships. Too much +energy was needed for the long trips. Earth exploited its coal and +uranium with increasing efficiency, but there was only so much of both. + +But slowly Multivac learned enough to answer deeper questions more +fundamentally, and on May 14, 2061, what had been theory, became fact. + +The energy of the sun was stored, converted, and utilized directly on a +planet-wide scale. All Earth turned off its burning coal, its fissioning +uranium, and flipped the switch that connected all of it to a small +station, one mile in diameter, circling the Earth at half the distance +of the Moon. All Earth ran by invisible beams of sunpower. + +Seven days had not sufficed to dim the glory of it and Adell and Lupov +finally managed to escape from the public function, and to meet in quiet +where no one would think of looking for them, in the deserted +underground chambers, where portions of the mighty buried body of +Multivac showed. Unattended, idling, sorting data with contented lazy +clickings, Multivac, too, had earned its vacation and the boys +appreciated that. They had no intention, originally, of disturbing it. + +They had brought a bottle with them, and their only concern at the +moment was to relax in the company of each other and the bottle. + +"It's amazing when you think of it," said Adell. His broad face had +lines of weariness in it, and he stirred his drink slowly with a glass +rod, watching the cubes of ice slur clumsily about. "All the energy we +can possibly ever use for free. Enough energy, if we wanted to draw on +it, to melt all Earth into a big drop of impure liquid iron, and still +never miss the energy so used. All the energy we could ever use, forever +and forever and forever." + +Lupov cocked his head sideways. He had a trick of doing that when he +wanted to be contrary, and he wanted to be contrary now, partly because +he had had to carry the ice and glassware. "Not forever," he said. + +"Oh, hell, just about forever. Till the sun runs down, Bert." + +"That's not forever." + +"All right, then. Billions and billions of years. Twenty billion, maybe. +Are you satisfied?" + +Lupov put his fingers through his thinning hair as though to reassure +himself that some was still left and sipped gently at his own drink. +"Twenty billion years isn't forever." + +"Will, it will last our time, won't it?" + +"So would the coal and uranium." + +"All right, but now we can hook up each individual spaceship to the +Solar Station, and it can go to Pluto and back a million times without +ever worrying about fuel. You can't do THAT on coal and uranium. Ask +Multivac, if you don't believe me." + +"I don't have to ask Multivac. I know that." + +"Then stop running down what Multivac's done for us," said Adell, +blazing up. "It did all right." + +"Who says it didn't? What I say is that a sun won't last forever. That's +all I'm saying. We're safe for twenty billion years, but then what?" +Lupov pointed a slightly shaky finger at the other. "And don't say we'll +switch to another sun." + +There was silence for a while. Adell put his glass to his lips only +occasionally, and Lupov's eyes slowly closed. They rested. + +Then Lupov's eyes snapped open. "You're thinking we'll switch to another +sun when ours is done, aren't you?" + +"I'm not thinking." + +"Sure you are. You're weak on logic, that's the trouble with you. You're +like the guy in the story who was caught in a sudden shower and Who ran +to a grove of trees and got under one. He wasn't worried, you see, +because he figured when one tree got wet through, he would just get +under another one." + +"I get it," said Adell. "Don't shout. When the sun is done, the other +stars will be gone, too." + +"Darn right they will," muttered Lupov. "It all had a beginning in the +original cosmic explosion, whatever that was, and it'll all have an end +when all the stars run down. Some run down faster than others. Hell, the +giants won't last a hundred million years. The sun will last twenty +billion years and maybe the dwarfs will last a hundred billion for all +the good they are. But just give us a trillion years and everything will +be dark. Entropy has to increase to maximum, that's all." + +"I know all about entropy," said Adell, standing on his dignity. + +"The hell you do." + +"I know as much as you do." + +"Then you know everything's got to run down someday." + +"All right. Who says they won't?" + +"You did, you poor sap. You said we had all the energy we needed, +forever. You said 'forever.'" + +"It was Adell's turn to be contrary. "Maybe we can build things up again +someday," he said. + +"Never." + +"Why not? Someday." + +"Never." + +"Ask Multivac." + +"You ask Multivac. I dare you. Five dollars says it can't be done." + +Adell was just drunk enough to try, just sober enough to be able to +phrase the necessary symbols and operations into a question which, in +words, might have corresponded to this: Will mankind one day without the +net expenditure of energy be able to restore the sun to its full +youthfulness even after it had died of old age? + +Or maybe it could be put more simply like this: How can the net amount +of entropy of the universe be massively decreased? + +Multivac fell dead and silent. The slow flashing of lights ceased, the +distant sounds of clicking relays ended. + +Then, just as the frightened technicians felt they could hold their +breath no longer, there was a sudden springing to life of the teletype +attached to that portion of Multivac. Five words were printed: +INSUFFICIENT DATA FOR MEANINGFUL ANSWER. + +"No bet," whispered Lupov. They left hurriedly. + +By next morning, the two, plagued with throbbing head and cottony mouth, +had forgotten about the incident. + +Jerrodd, Jerrodine, and Jerrodette I and II watched the starry picture +in the visiplate change as the passage through hyperspace was completed +in its non-time lapse. At once, the even powdering of stars gave way to +the predominance of a single bright marble-disk, centered. + +"That's X-23," said Jerrodd confidently. His thin hands clamped tightly +behind his back and the knuckles whitened. + +The little Jerrodettes, both girls, had experienced the hyperspace +passage for the first time in their lives and were self-conscious over +the momentary sensation of inside-outness. They buried their giggles and +chased one another wildly about their mother, screaming, "We've reached +X-23 -- we've reached X-23 -- we've ----" + +"Quiet, children," said Jerrodine sharply. "Are you sure, Jerrodd?" + +"What is there to be but sure?" asked Jerrodd, glancing up at the bulge +of featureless metal just under the ceiling. It ran the length of the +room, disappearing through the wall at either end. It was as long as the +ship. + +Jerrodd scarcely knew a thing about the thick rod of metal except that +it was called a Microvac, that one asked it questions if one wished; +that if one did not it still had its task of guiding the ship to a +preordered destination; of feeding on energies from the various +Sub-galactic Power Stations; of computing the equations for the +hyperspacial jumps. + +Jerrodd and his family had only to wait and live in the comfortable +residence quarters of the ship. + +Someone had once told Jerrodd that the "ac" at the end of "Microvac" +stood for "analog computer" in ancient English, but he was on the edge +of forgetting even that. + +Jerrodine's eyes were moist as she watched the visiplate. "I can't help +it. I feel funny about leaving Earth." + +"Why for Pete's sake?" demanded Jerrodd. "We had nothing there. We'll +have everything on X-23. You won't be alone. You won't be a pioneer. +There are over a million people on the planet already. Good Lord, our +great grandchildren will be looking for new worlds because X-23 will be +overcrowded." + +Then, after a reflective pause, "I tell you, it's a lucky thing the +computers worked out interstellar travel the way the race is growing." + +"I know, I know," said Jerrodine miserably. + +Jerrodette I said promptly, "Our Microvac is the best Microvac in the +world." + +"I think so, too," said Jerrodd, tousling her hair. + +It was a nice feeling to have a Microvac of your own and Jerrodd was +glad he was part of his generation and no other. In his father's youth, +the only computers had been tremendous machines taking up a hundred +square miles of land. There was only one to a planet. Planetary ACs they +were called. They had been growing in size steadily for a thousand years +and then, all at once, came refinement. In place of transistors had come +molecular valves so that even the largest Planetary AC could be put into +a space only half the volume of a spaceship. + +Jerrodd felt uplifted, as he always did when he thought that his own +personal Microvac was many times more complicated than the ancient and +primitive Multivac that had first tamed the Sun, and almost as +complicated as Earth's Planetary AC (the largest) that had first solved +the problem of hyperspatial travel and had made trips to the stars +possible. + +"So many stars, so many planets," sighed Jerrodine, busy with her own +thoughts. "I suppose families will be going out to new planets forever, +the way we are now." + +"Not forever," said Jerrodd, with a smile. "It will all stop someday, +but not for billions of years. Many billions. Even the stars run down, +you know. Entropy must increase." + +"What's entropy, daddy?" shrilled Jerrodette II. + +"Entropy, little sweet, is just a word which means the amount of +running-down of the universe. Everything runs down, you know, like your +little walkie-talkie robot, remember?" + +"Can't you just put in a new power-unit, like with my robot?" + +The stars are the power-units, dear. Once they're gone, there are no +more power-units." + +Jerrodette I at once set up a howl. "Don't let them, daddy. Don't let +the stars run down." + +"Now look what you've done, " whispered Jerrodine, exasperated. + +"How was I to know it would frighten them?" Jerrodd whispered back. + +"Ask the Microvac," wailed Jerrodette I. "Ask him how to turn the stars +on again." + +"Go ahead," said Jerrodine. "It will quiet them down." (Jerrodette II +was beginning to cry, also.) + +Jarrodd shrugged. "Now, now, honeys. I'll ask Microvac. Don't worry, +he'll tell us." + +He asked the Microvac, adding quickly, "Print the answer." + +Jerrodd cupped the strip of thin cellufilm and said cheerfully, "See +now, the Microvac says it will take care of everything when the time +comes so don't worry." + +Jerrodine said, "and now children, it's time for bed. We'll be in our +new home soon." + +Jerrodd read the words on the cellufilm again before destroying it: +INSUFFICIENT DATA FOR A MEANINGFUL ANSWER. + +He shrugged and looked at the visiplate. X-23 was just ahead. + +VJ-23X of Lameth stared into the black depths of the three-dimensional, +small-scale map of the Galaxy and said, "Are we ridiculous, I wonder, in +being so concerned about the matter?" + +MQ-17J of Nicron shook his head. "I think not. You know the Galaxy will +be filled in five years at the present rate of expansion." + +Both seemed in their early twenties, both were tall and perfectly +formed. + +"Still," said VJ-23X, "I hesitate to submit a pessimistic report to the +Galactic Council." + +"I wouldn't consider any other kind of report. Stir them up a bit. We've +got to stir them up." + +VJ-23X sighed. "Space is infinite. A hundred billion Galaxies are there +for the taking. More." + +"A hundred billion is not infinite and it's getting less infinite all +the time. Consider\! Twenty thousand years ago, mankind first solved the +problem of utilizing stellar energy, and a few centuries later, +interstellar travel became possible. It took mankind a million years to +fill one small world and then only fifteen thousand years to fill the +rest of the Galaxy. Now the population doubles every ten years --" + +VJ-23X interrupted. "We can thank immortality for that." + +"Very well. Immortality exists and we have to take it into account. I +admit it has its seamy side, this immortality. The Galactic AC has +solved many problems for us, but in solving the problems of preventing +old age and death, it has undone all its other solutions." + +"Yet you wouldn't want to abandon life, I suppose." + +"Not at all," snapped MQ-17J, softening it at once to, "Not yet. I'm by +no means old enough. How old are you?" + +"Two hundred twenty-three. And you?" + +"I'm still under two hundred. --But to get back to my point. Population +doubles every ten years. Once this Galaxy is filled, we'll have another +filled in ten years. Another ten years and we'll have filled two more. +Another decade, four more. In a hundred years, we'll have filled a +thousand Galaxies. In a thousand years, a million Galaxies. In ten +thousand years, the entire known Universe. Then what?" + +VJ-23X said, "As a side issue, there's a problem of transportation. I +wonder how many sunpower units it will take to move Galaxies of +individuals from one Galaxy to the next." + +"A very good point. Already, mankind consumes two sunpower units per +year." + +"Most of it's wasted. After all, our own Galaxy alone pours out a +thousand sunpower units a year and we only use two of those." + +"Granted, but even with a hundred per cent efficiency, we can only stave +off the end. Our energy requirements are going up in geometric +progression even faster than our population. We'll run out of energy +even sooner than we run out of Galaxies. A good point. A very good +point." + +"We'll just have to build new stars out of interstellar gas." + +"Or out of dissipated heat?" asked MQ-17J, sarcastically. + +"There may be some way to reverse entropy. We ought to ask the Galactic +AC." + +VJ-23X was not really serious, but MQ-17J pulled out his AC-contact from +his pocket and placed it on the table before him. + +"I've half a mind to," he said. "It's something the human race will have +to face someday." + +He stared somberly at his small AC-contact. It was only two inches cubed +and nothing in itself, but it was connected through hyperspace with the +great Galactic AC that served all mankind. Hyperspace considered, it was +an integral part of the Galactic AC. + +MQ-17J paused to wonder if someday in his immortal life he would get to +see the Galactic AC. It was on a little world of its own, a spider +webbing of force-beams holding the matter within which surges of +sub-mesons took the place of the old clumsy molecular valves. Yet +despite it's sub-etheric workings, the Galactic AC was known to be a +full thousand feet across. + +MQ-17J asked suddenly of his AC-contact, "Can entropy ever be reversed?" + +VJ-23X looked startled and said at once, "Oh, say, I didn't really mean +to have you ask that." + +"Why not?" + +"We both know entropy can't be reversed. You can't turn smoke and ash +back into a tree." + +"Do you have trees on your world?" asked MQ-17J. + +The sound of the Galactic AC startled them into silence. Its voice came +thin and beautiful out of the small AC-contact on the desk. It said: +THERE IS INSUFFICIENT DATA FOR A MEANINGFUL ANSWER. + +VJ-23X said, "See\!" + +The two men thereupon returned to the question of the report they were +to make to the Galactic Council. + +Zee Prime's mind spanned the new Galaxy with a faint interest in the +countless twists of stars that powdered it. He had never seen this one +before. Would he ever see them all? So many of them, each with its load +of humanity - but a load that was almost a dead weight. More and more, +the real essence of men was to be found out here, in space. + +Minds, not bodies\! The immortal bodies remained back on the planets, in +suspension over the eons. Sometimes they roused for material activity +but that was growing rarer. Few new individuals were coming into +existence to join the incredibly mighty throng, but what matter? There +was little room in the Universe for new individuals. + +Zee Prime was roused out of his reverie upon coming across the wispy +tendrils of another mind. + +"I am Zee Prime," said Zee Prime. "And you?" + +"I am Dee Sub Wun. Your Galaxy?" + +"We call it only the Galaxy. And you?" + +"We call ours the same. All men call their Galaxy their Galaxy and +nothing more. Why not?" + +"True. Since all Galaxies are the same." + +"Not all Galaxies. On one particular Galaxy the race of man must have +originated. That makes it different." + +Zee Prime said, "On which one?" + +"I cannot say. The Universal AC would know." + +"Shall we ask him? I am suddenly curious." + +Zee Prime's perceptions broadened until the Galaxies themselves shrunk +and became a new, more diffuse powdering on a much larger background. So +many hundreds of billions of them, all with their immortal beings, all +carrying their load of intelligences with minds that drifted freely +through space. And yet one of them was unique among them all in being +the originals Galaxy. One of them had, in its vague and distant past, a +period when it was the only Galaxy populated by man. + +Zee Prime was consumed with curiosity to see this Galaxy and called, +out: "Universal AC\! On which Galaxy did mankind originate?" + +The Universal AC heard, for on every world and throughout space, it had +its receptors ready, and each receptor lead through hyperspace to some +unknown point where the Universal AC kept itself aloof. + +Zee Prime knew of only one man whose thoughts had penetrated within +sensing distance of Universal AC, and he reported only a shining globe, +two feet across, difficult to see. + +"But how can that be all of Universal AC?" Zee Prime had asked. + +"Most of it, " had been the answer, "is in hyperspace. In what form it +is there I cannot imagine." + +Nor could anyone, for the day had long since passed, Zee Prime knew, +when any man had any part of the making of a universal AC. Each +Universal AC designed and constructed its successor. Each, during its +existence of a million years or more accumulated the necessary data to +build a better and more intricate, more capable successor in which its +own store of data and individuality would be submerged. + +The Universal AC interrupted Zee Prime's wandering thoughts, not with +words, but with guidance. Zee Prime's mentality was guided into the dim +sea of Galaxies and one in particular enlarged into stars. + +A thought came, infinitely distant, but infinitely clear. "THIS IS THE +ORIGINAL GALAXY OF MAN." + +But it was the same after all, the same as any other, and Zee Prime +stifled his disappointment. + +Dee Sub Wun, whose mind had accompanied the other, said suddenly, "And +Is one of these stars the original star of Man?" + +The Universal AC said, "MAN'S ORIGINAL STAR HAS GONE NOVA. IT IS NOW A +WHITE DWARF." + +"Did the men upon it die?" asked Zee Prime, startled and without +thinking. + +The Universal AC said, "A NEW WORLD, AS IN SUCH CASES, WAS CONSTRUCTED +FOR THEIR PHYSICAL BODIES IN TIME." + +"Yes, of course," said Zee Prime, but a sense of loss overwhelmed him +even so. His mind released its hold on the original Galaxy of Man, let +it spring back and lose itself among the blurred pin points. He never +wanted to see it again. + +Dee Sub Wun said, "What is wrong?" + +"The stars are dying. The original star is dead." + +"They must all die. Why not?" + +"But when all energy is gone, our bodies will finally die, and you and I +with them." + +"It will take billions of years." + +"I do not wish it to happen even after billions of years. Universal AC\! +How may stars be kept from dying?" + +Dee sub Wun said in amusement, "You're asking how entropy might be +reversed in direction." + +And the Universal AC answered. "THERE IS AS YET INSUFFICIENT DATA FOR A +MEANINGFUL ANSWER." + +Zee Prime's thoughts fled back to his own Galaxy. He gave no further +thought to Dee Sub Wun, whose body might be waiting on a galaxy a +trillion light-years away, or on the star next to Zee Prime's own. It +didn't matter. + +Unhappily, Zee Prime began collecting interstellar hydrogen out of which +to build a small star of his own. If the stars must someday die, at +least some could yet be built. + +Man considered with himself, for in a way, Man, mentally, was one. He +consisted of a trillion, trillion, trillion ageless bodies, each in its +place, each resting quiet and incorruptible, each cared for by perfect +automatons, equally incorruptible, while the minds of all the bodies +freely melted one into the other, indistinguishable. + +Man said, "The Universe is dying." + +Man looked about at the dimming Galaxies. The giant stars, spendthrifts, +were gone long ago, back in the dimmest of the dim far past. Almost all +stars were white dwarfs, fading to the end. + +New stars had been built of the dust between the stars, some by natural +processes, some by Man himself, and those were going, too. White dwarfs +might yet be crashed together and of the mighty forces so released, new +stars built, but only one star for every thousand white dwarfs +destroyed, and those would come to an end, too. + +Man said, "Carefully husbanded, as directed by the Cosmic AC, the energy +that is even yet left in all the Universe will last for billions of +years." + +"But even so," said Man, "eventually it will all come to an end. However +it may be husbanded, however stretched out, the energy once expended is +gone and cannot be restored. Entropy must increase to the maximum." + +Man said, "Can entropy not be reversed? Let us ask the Cosmic AC." + +The Cosmic AC surrounded them but not in space. Not a fragment of it was +in space. It was in hyperspace and made of something that was neither +matter nor energy. The question of its size and Nature no longer had +meaning to any terms that Man could comprehend. + +"Cosmic AC," said Man, "How may entropy be reversed?" + +The Cosmic AC said, "THERE IS AS YET INSUFFICIENT DATA FOR A MEANINGFUL +ANSWER." + +Man said, "Collect additional data." + +The Cosmic AC said, "I WILL DO SO. I HAVE BEEN DOING SO FOR A HUNDRED +BILLION YEARS. MY PREDECESSORS AND I HAVE BEEN ASKED THIS QUESTION MANY +TIMES. ALL THE DATA I HAVE REMAINS INSUFFICIENT." + +"Will there come a time," said Man, "when data will be sufficient or is +the problem insoluble in all conceivable circumstances?" + +The Cosmic AC said, "NO PROBLEM IS INSOLUBLE IN ALL CONCEIVABLE +CIRCUMSTANCES." + +Man said, "When will you have enough data to answer the question?" + +"THERE IS AS YET INSUFFICIENT DATA FOR A MEANINGFUL ANSWER." + +"Will you keep working on it?" asked Man. + +The Cosmic AC said, "I WILL." + +Man said, "We shall wait." + +"The stars and Galaxies died and snuffed out, and space grew black after +ten trillion years of running down. + +One by one Man fused with AC, each physical body losing its mental +identity in a manner that was somehow not a loss but a gain. + +Man's last mind paused before fusion, looking over a space that included +nothing but the dregs of one last dark star and nothing besides but +incredibly thin matter, agitated randomly by the tag ends of heat +wearing out, asymptotically, to the absolute zero. + +Man said, "AC, is this the end? Can this chaos not be reversed into the +Universe once more? Can that not be done?" + +AC said, "THERE IS AS YET INSUFFICIENT DATA FOR A MEANINGFUL ANSWER." + +Man's last mind fused and only AC existed -- and that in hyperspace. + +Matter and energy had ended and with it, space and time. Even AC existed +only for the sake of the one last question that it had never answered +from the time a half-drunken computer ten trillion years before had +asked the question of a computer that was to AC far less than was a man +to Man. + +All other questions had been answered, and until this last question was +answered also, AC might not release his consciousness. + +All collected data had come to a final end. Nothing was left to be +collected. + +But all collected data had yet to be completely correlated and put +together in all possible relationships. + +A timeless interval was spent in doing that. + +And it came to pass that AC learned how to reverse the direction of +entropy. + +But there was now no man to whom AC might give the answer of the last +question. No matter. The answer -- by demonstration -- would take care +of that, too. + +For another timeless interval, AC thought how best to do this. +Carefully, AC organized the program. + +The consciousness of AC encompassed all of what had once been a Universe +and brooded over what was now Chaos. Step by step, it must be done. + +And AC said, "LET THERE BE LIGHT\!" + +And there was light---- + + +[Back to MultiVAX](/) diff --git a/_stories/1956/8815734.md b/_stories/1956/8815734.md index f6b9ded..038ae9f 100644 --- a/_stories/1956/8815734.md +++ b/_stories/1956/8815734.md @@ -19,7 +19,13 @@ _tags: objectID: '8815734' --- -[Source](https://youtube.com/watch?v=7agl-sNLXMI "Permalink to ") - - +**Published on Dec 16, 2013** +In 1956 this unnamed American housewife took LSD at the Veteran's +Administration Hospital in Los Angeles. This woman's husband was an +employee at the hospital and referred her to this study, which was +reportedly done for a television program on mental health issues. + +This video was found by biographer Don Lattin. + +[0:49](#) diff --git a/_stories/1959/12571046.md b/_stories/1959/12571046.md index a0225af..289b73f 100644 --- a/_stories/1959/12571046.md +++ b/_stories/1959/12571046.md @@ -19,97 +19,37 @@ _tags: objectID: '12571046' --- -[Source](https://www.technologyreview.com/s/531911/isaac-asimov-asks-how-do-people-get-new-ideas/ "Permalink to Isaac Asimov Asks, “How Do People Get New Ideas?” - MIT Technology Review") - -# Isaac Asimov Asks, “How Do People Get New Ideas?” - MIT Technology Review - -![MIT Technology Review][1] - -Hello, - -We noticed you're browsing in private or incognito mode. - -To continue reading this article, please exit incognito mode or [log in][2]. - -Not an Insider? Subscribe now for unlimited access to online articles. - -[ Subscribe today ][3] - -#### Why we made this change - -Visitors are allowed 3 free articles per month (without a subscription), and private browsing prevents us from counting how many stories you've read. 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The company was an MIT spinoff that originally focused on the effects of nuclear weapons on aircraft structures. The company received a contract with the acronym GLIPAR ([Guide Line Identification Program for Antimissile Research][28]) from the Advanced Research Projects Agency to elicit the most creative approaches possible for a ballistic missile defense system. The government recognized that no matter how much was spent on improving and expanding current technology, it would remain inadequate. They wanted us and a few other contractors to think "out of the box."_ +In 1959, I worked as a scientist at Allied Research Associates in +Boston. The company was an MIT spinoff that originally focused on the +effects of nuclear weapons on aircraft structures. The company received +a contract with the acronym GLIPAR ([Guide Line Identification Program +for Antimissile +Research](http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1959/1959%20-%200699.html)) +from the Advanced Research Projects Agency to elicit the most creative +approaches possible for a ballistic missile defense system. The +government recognized that no matter how much was spent on improving and +expanding current technology, it would remain inadequate. They wanted us +and a few other contractors to think “out of the box.” -_ When I first became involved in the project, I suggested that [Isaac Asimov][29], who was a good friend of mine, would be an appropriate person to participate. He expressed his willingness and came to a few meetings. He _eventually _decided not to continue, because he did not want to have access to any secret classified information; it would limit his freedom of expression. Before he left, however, he wrote this essay on creativity as his single formal input. This essay was never published or used beyond our small group. When I recently rediscovered it while cleaning out some old files, I recognized that its contents are as broadly relevant today as when he wrote it. It _describes _not only the creative process and the nature of creative people but also the kind of environment that promotes creativity._ +When I first became involved in the project, I suggested that [Isaac +Asimov](http://www.asimovonline.com/asimov_home_page.html), who was a +good friend of mine, would be an appropriate person to participate. He +expressed his willingness and came to a few meetings. He eventually +decided not to continue, because he did not want to have access to any +secret classified information; it would limit his freedom of expression. +Before he left, however, he wrote this essay on creativity as his single +formal input. This essay was never published or used beyond our small +group. When I recently rediscovered it while cleaning out some old +files, I recognized that its contents are as broadly relevant today as +when he wrote it. It describes not only the creative process and the +nature of creative people but also the kind of environment that promotes +creativity. -[ ![][30] ][31] +![](https://cdn.technologyreview.com/i/images/jf15-viewsasimov1.jpg?sw=373&cx=0&cy=0&cw=666&ch=1192) -This story is part of our January/February 2015 Issue - -[See the rest of the issue][31] -[Subscribe][25] ![][32] - -Isaac Asimov +Isaac Asimov Andy Friedman @@ -117,384 +57,193 @@ Andy Friedman How do people get new ideas? -Presumably, the process of creativity, whatever it is, is essentially the same in all its branches and varieties, so that the evolution of a new art form, a new gadget, a new scientific principle, all involve common factors. We are most interested in the "creation" of a new scientific principle or a new application of an old one, but we can be general here. - -One way of investigating the problem is to consider the great ideas of the past and see just how they were generated. Unfortunately, the method of generation is never clear even to the "generators" themselves. - -But what if the same earth-shaking idea occurred to two men, simultaneously and independently? Perhaps, the common factors involved would be illuminating. Consider the theory of evolution by natural selection, independently created by Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace. - -There is a great deal in common there. Both traveled to far places, observing strange species of plants and animals and the manner in which they varied from place to place. Both were keenly interested in finding an explanation for this, and both failed until each happened to read Malthus's "Essay on Population." - -Both then saw how the notion of overpopulation and weeding out (which Malthus had applied to human beings) would fit into the doctrine of evolution by natural selection (if applied to species generally). - -Obviously, then, what is needed is not only people with a good background in a particular field, but also people capable of making a connection between item 1 and item 2 which might not ordinarily seem connected. - -Undoubtedly in the first half of the 19th century, a great many naturalists had studied the manner in which species were differentiated among themselves. A great many people had read Malthus. Perhaps some both studied species and read Malthus. But what you needed was someone who studied species, read Malthus, and had the ability to make a cross-connection. - -That is the crucial point that is the rare characteristic that must be found. Once the cross-connection is made, it becomes obvious. Thomas H. Huxley is supposed to have exclaimed after reading _On the Origin of Species_, "How stupid of me not to have thought of this." - -But why didn't he think of it? The history of human thought would make it seem that there is difficulty in thinking of an idea even when all the facts are on the table. Making the cross-connection requires a certain daring. It must, for any cross-connection that does not require daring is performed at once by many and develops not as a "new idea," but as a mere "corollary of an old idea." - -It is only afterward that a new idea seems reasonable. To begin with, it usually seems unreasonable. It seems the height of unreason to suppose the earth was round instead of flat, or that it moved instead of the sun, or that objects required a force to stop them when in motion, instead of a force to keep them moving, and so on. - -A person willing to fly in the face of reason, authority, and common sense must be a person of considerable self-assurance. Since he occurs only rarely, he must seem eccentric (in at least that respect) to the rest of us. A person eccentric in one respect is often eccentric in others. - -Consequently, the person who is most likely to get new ideas is a person of good background in the field of interest and one who is unconventional in his habits. (To be a crackpot is not, however, enough in itself.) - -Once you have the people you want, the next question is: Do you want to bring them together so that they may discuss the problem mutually, or should you inform each of the problem and allow them to work in isolation? - -My feeling is that as far as creativity is concerned, isolation is required. The creative person is, in any case, continually working at it. His mind is shuffling his information at all times, even when he is not conscious of it. (The famous example of Kekule working out the structure of benzene in his sleep is well-known.) - -The presence of others can only inhibit this process, since creation is embarrassing. For every new good idea you have, there are a hundred, ten thousand foolish ones, which you naturally do not care to display. - -Nevertheless, a meeting of such people may be desirable for reasons other than the act of creation itself. - -No two people exactly duplicate each other's mental stores of items. One person may know A and not B, another may know B and not A, and either knowing A and B, both may get the idea—though not necessarily at once or even soon. - -Furthermore, the information may not only be of individual items A and B, but even of combinations such as A-B, which in themselves are not significant. However, if one person mentions the unusual combination of A-B and another the unusual combination A-C, it may well be that the combination A-B-C, which neither has thought of separately, may yield an answer. - -It seems to me then that the purpose of cerebration sessions is not to think up new ideas but to educate the participants in facts and fact-combinations, in theories and vagrant thoughts. - -But how to persuade creative people to do so? First and foremost, there must be ease, relaxation, and a general sense of permissiveness. The world in general disapproves of creativity, and to be creative in public is particularly bad. Even to speculate in public is rather worrisome. The individuals must, therefore, have the feeling that the others won't object. - -If a single individual present is unsympathetic to the foolishness that would be bound to go on at such a session, the others would freeze. The unsympathetic individual may be a gold mine of information, but the harm he does will more than compensate for that. It seems necessary to me, then, that all people at a session be willing to sound foolish and listen to others sound foolish. - -If a single individual present has a much greater reputation than the others, or is more articulate, or has a distinctly more commanding personality, he may well take over the conference and reduce the rest to little more than passive obedience. The individual may himself be extremely useful, but he might as well be put to work solo, for he is neutralizing the rest. - -The optimum number of the group would probably not be very high. I should guess that no more than five would be wanted. A larger group might have a larger total supply of information, but there would be the tension of waiting to speak, which can be very frustrating. It would probably be better to have a number of sessions at which the people attending would vary, rather than one session including them all. (This would involve a certain repetition, but even repetition is not in itself undesirable. It is not what people say at these conferences, but what they inspire in each other later on.) - -For best purposes, there should be a feeling of informality. Joviality, the use of first names, joking, relaxed kidding are, I think, of the essence—not in themselves, but because they encourage a willingness to be involved in the folly of creativeness. For this purpose I think a meeting in someone's home or over a dinner table at some restaurant is perhaps more useful than one in a conference room. - -Probably more inhibiting than anything else is a feeling of responsibility. The great ideas of the ages have come from people who weren't paid to have great ideas, but were paid to be teachers or patent clerks or petty officials, or were not paid at all. The great ideas came as side issues. - -To feel guilty because one has not earned one's salary because one has not had a great idea is the surest way, it seems to me, of making it certain that no great idea will come in the next time either. - -Yet your company is conducting this cerebration program on government money. To think of congressmen or the general public hearing about scientists fooling around, boondoggling, telling dirty jokes, perhaps, at government expense, is to break into a cold sweat. In fact, the average scientist has enough public conscience not to want to feel he is doing this even if no one finds out. - -I would suggest that members at a cerebration session be given sinecure tasks to do—short reports to write, or summaries of their conclusions, or brief answers to suggested problems—and be paid for that, the payment being the fee that would ordinarily be paid for the cerebration session. The cerebration session would then be officially unpaid-for and that, too, would allow considerable relaxation. - -I do not think that cerebration sessions can be left unguided. There must be someone in charge who plays a role equivalent to that of a psychoanalyst. A psychoanalyst, as I understand it, by asking the right questions (and except for that interfering as little as possible), gets the patient himself to discuss his past life in such a way as to elicit new understanding of it in his own eyes. - -In the same way, a session-arbiter will have to sit there, stirring up the animals, asking the shrewd question, making the necessary comment, bringing them gently back to the point. Since the arbiter will not know which question is shrewd, which comment necessary, and what the point is, his will not be an easy job. - -As for "gadgets" designed to elicit creativity, I think these should arise out of the bull sessions themselves. If thoroughly relaxed, free of responsibility, discussing something of interest, and being by nature unconventional, the participants themselves will create devices to stimulate discussion. - -_Published with permission of Asimov Holdings._ - -Want to go ad free? 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that the evolution of a +new art form, a new gadget, a new scientific principle, all involve +common factors. We are most interested in the “creation” of a new +scientific principle or a new application of an old one, but we can be +general here. + +One way of investigating the problem is to consider the great ideas of +the past and see just how they were generated. Unfortunately, the method +of generation is never clear even to the “generators” themselves. + +But what if the same earth-shaking idea occurred to two men, +simultaneously and independently? Perhaps, the common factors involved +would be illuminating. Consider the theory of evolution by natural +selection, independently created by Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace. + +There is a great deal in common there. Both traveled to far places, +observing strange species of plants and animals and the manner in which +they varied from place to place. Both were keenly interested in finding +an explanation for this, and both failed until each happened to read +Malthus’s “Essay on Population.” + +Both then saw how the notion of overpopulation and weeding out (which +Malthus had applied to human beings) would fit into the doctrine of +evolution by natural selection (if applied to species generally). + +Obviously, then, what is needed is not only people with a good +background in a particular field, but also people capable of making a +connection between item 1 and item 2 which might not ordinarily seem +connected. + +Undoubtedly in the first half of the 19th century, a great many +naturalists had studied the manner in which species were differentiated +among themselves. A great many people had read Malthus. Perhaps some +both studied species and read Malthus. But what you needed was someone +who studied species, read Malthus, and had the ability to make a +cross-connection. + +That is the crucial point that is the rare characteristic that must be +found. Once the cross-connection is made, it becomes obvious. Thomas H. +Huxley is supposed to have exclaimed after reading On the Origin of +Species, “How stupid of me not to have thought of this.” + +But why didn’t he think of it? The history of human thought would make +it seem that there is difficulty in thinking of an idea even when all +the facts are on the table. Making the cross-connection requires a +certain daring. It must, for any cross-connection that does not require +daring is performed at once by many and develops not as a “new idea,” +but as a mere “corollary of an old idea.” + +It is only afterward that a new idea seems reasonable. To begin with, it +usually seems unreasonable. It seems the height of unreason to suppose +the earth was round instead of flat, or that it moved instead of the +sun, or that objects required a force to stop them when in motion, +instead of a force to keep them moving, and so on. + +A person willing to fly in the face of reason, authority, and common +sense must be a person of considerable self-assurance. Since he occurs +only rarely, he must seem eccentric (in at least that respect) to the +rest of us. A person eccentric in one respect is often eccentric in +others. + +Consequently, the person who is most likely to get new ideas is a person +of good background in the field of interest and one who is +unconventional in his habits. (To be a crackpot is not, however, enough +in itself.) + +Once you have the people you want, the next question is: Do you want to +bring them together so that they may discuss the problem mutually, or +should you inform each of the problem and allow them to work in +isolation? + +My feeling is that as far as creativity is concerned, isolation is +required. The creative person is, in any case, continually working at +it. His mind is shuffling his information at all times, even when he is +not conscious of it. (The famous example of Kekule working out the +structure of benzene in his sleep is well-known.) + +The presence of others can only inhibit this process, since creation is +embarrassing. For every new good idea you have, there are a hundred, ten +thousand foolish ones, which you naturally do not care to display. + +Nevertheless, a meeting of such people may be desirable for reasons +other than the act of creation itself. + +No two people exactly duplicate each other’s mental stores of items. One +person may know A and not B, another may know B and not A, and either +knowing A and B, both may get the idea—though not necessarily at once or +even soon. + +Furthermore, the information may not only be of individual items A and +B, but even of combinations such as A-B, which in themselves are not +significant. However, if one person mentions the unusual combination of +A-B and another the unusual combination A-C, it may well be that the +combination A-B-C, which neither has thought of separately, may yield an +answer. + +It seems to me then that the purpose of cerebration sessions is not to +think up new ideas but to educate the participants in facts and +fact-combinations, in theories and vagrant thoughts. + +But how to persuade creative people to do so? First and foremost, there +must be ease, relaxation, and a general sense of permissiveness. The +world in general disapproves of creativity, and to be creative in public +is particularly bad. Even to speculate in public is rather worrisome. +The individuals must, therefore, have the feeling that the others won’t +object. + +If a single individual present is unsympathetic to the foolishness that +would be bound to go on at such a session, the others would freeze. The +unsympathetic individual may be a gold mine of information, but the harm +he does will more than compensate for that. It seems necessary to me, +then, that all people at a session be willing to sound foolish and +listen to others sound foolish. + +If a single individual present has a much greater reputation than the +others, or is more articulate, or has a distinctly more commanding +personality, he may well take over the conference and reduce the rest to +little more than passive obedience. The individual may himself be +extremely useful, but he might as well be put to work solo, for he is +neutralizing the rest. + +The optimum number of the group would probably not be very high. I +should guess that no more than five would be wanted. A larger group +might have a larger total supply of information, but there would be the +tension of waiting to speak, which can be very frustrating. It would +probably be better to have a number of sessions at which the people +attending would vary, rather than one session including them all. (This +would involve a certain repetition, but even repetition is not in itself +undesirable. It is not what people say at these conferences, but what +they inspire in each other later on.) + +For best purposes, there should be a feeling of informality. Joviality, +the use of first names, joking, relaxed kidding are, I think, of the +essence—not in themselves, but because they encourage a willingness to +be involved in the folly of creativeness. For this purpose I think a +meeting in someone’s home or over a dinner table at some restaurant is +perhaps more useful than one in a conference room. + +Probably more inhibiting than anything else is a feeling of +responsibility. The great ideas of the ages have come from people who +weren’t paid to have great ideas, but were paid to be teachers or patent +clerks or petty officials, or were not paid at all. The great ideas came +as side issues. + +To feel guilty because one has not earned one’s salary because one has +not had a great idea is the surest way, it seems to me, of making it +certain that no great idea will come in the next time either. + +Yet your company is conducting this cerebration program on government +money. To think of congressmen or the general public hearing about +scientists fooling around, boondoggling, telling dirty jokes, perhaps, +at government expense, is to break into a cold sweat. In fact, the +average scientist has enough public conscience not to want to feel he is +doing this even if no one finds out. + +I would suggest that members at a cerebration session be given sinecure +tasks to do—short reports to write, or summaries of their conclusions, +or brief answers to suggested problems—and be paid for that, the payment +being the fee that would ordinarily be paid for the cerebration session. +The cerebration session would then be officially unpaid-for and that, +too, would allow considerable relaxation. + +I do not think that cerebration sessions can be left unguided. There +must be someone in charge who plays a role equivalent to that of a +psychoanalyst. A psychoanalyst, as I understand it, by asking the right +questions (and except for that interfering as little as possible), gets +the patient himself to discuss his past life in such a way as to elicit +new understanding of it in his own eyes. + +In the same way, a session-arbiter will have to sit there, stirring up +the animals, asking the shrewd question, making the necessary comment, +bringing them gently back to the point. Since the arbiter will not know +which question is shrewd, which comment necessary, and what the point +is, his will not be an easy job. + +As for “gadgets” designed to elicit creativity, I think these should +arise out of the bull sessions themselves. If thoroughly relaxed, free +of responsibility, discussing something of interest, and being by nature +unconventional, the participants themselves will create devices to +stimulate discussion. + +Published with permission of Asimov Holdings. + +Tech Obsessive? +Become an Insider to get the story behind the story — and before anyone +else. + +[Subscribe +today](https://ssl.drgnetwork.com/ecom/MTR/app/live/subscriptions?org=MTR&publ=TR&key_code=74WKITO&type=S) diff --git a/_stories/1959/13317244.md b/_stories/1959/13317244.md index 35db42f..211e17a 100644 --- a/_stories/1959/13317244.md +++ b/_stories/1959/13317244.md @@ -19,97 +19,37 @@ _tags: objectID: '13317244' --- -[Source](https://www.technologyreview.com/s/531911/isaac-asimov-asks-how-do-people-get-new-ideas/ "Permalink to Isaac Asimov Asks, “How Do People Get New Ideas?” - MIT Technology Review") - -# Isaac Asimov Asks, “How Do People Get New Ideas?” - MIT Technology Review - -![MIT Technology Review][1] - -Hello, - -We noticed you're browsing in private or incognito mode. - -To continue reading this article, please exit incognito mode or [log in][2]. - -Not an Insider? 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The company was an MIT spinoff that originally focused on the effects of nuclear weapons on aircraft structures. The company received a contract with the acronym GLIPAR ([Guide Line Identification Program for Antimissile Research][28]) from the Advanced Research Projects Agency to elicit the most creative approaches possible for a ballistic missile defense system. The government recognized that no matter how much was spent on improving and expanding current technology, it would remain inadequate. They wanted us and a few other contractors to think "out of the box."_ +In 1959, I worked as a scientist at Allied Research Associates in +Boston. The company was an MIT spinoff that originally focused on the +effects of nuclear weapons on aircraft structures. The company received +a contract with the acronym GLIPAR ([Guide Line Identification Program +for Antimissile +Research](http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1959/1959%20-%200699.html)) +from the Advanced Research Projects Agency to elicit the most creative +approaches possible for a ballistic missile defense system. The +government recognized that no matter how much was spent on improving and +expanding current technology, it would remain inadequate. They wanted us +and a few other contractors to think “out of the box.” -_ When I first became involved in the project, I suggested that [Isaac Asimov][29], who was a good friend of mine, would be an appropriate person to participate. He expressed his willingness and came to a few meetings. He _eventually _decided not to continue, because he did not want to have access to any secret classified information; it would limit his freedom of expression. Before he left, however, he wrote this essay on creativity as his single formal input. This essay was never published or used beyond our small group. When I recently rediscovered it while cleaning out some old files, I recognized that its contents are as broadly relevant today as when he wrote it. It _describes _not only the creative process and the nature of creative people but also the kind of environment that promotes creativity._ +When I first became involved in the project, I suggested that [Isaac +Asimov](http://www.asimovonline.com/asimov_home_page.html), who was a +good friend of mine, would be an appropriate person to participate. He +expressed his willingness and came to a few meetings. He eventually +decided not to continue, because he did not want to have access to any +secret classified information; it would limit his freedom of expression. +Before he left, however, he wrote this essay on creativity as his single +formal input. This essay was never published or used beyond our small +group. When I recently rediscovered it while cleaning out some old +files, I recognized that its contents are as broadly relevant today as +when he wrote it. It describes not only the creative process and the +nature of creative people but also the kind of environment that promotes +creativity. -[ ![][30] ][31] +![](https://cdn.technologyreview.com/i/images/jf15-viewsasimov1.jpg?sw=373&cx=0&cy=0&cw=666&ch=1192) -This story is part of our January/February 2015 Issue - -[See the rest of the issue][31] -[Subscribe][25] ![][32] - -Isaac Asimov +Isaac Asimov Andy Friedman @@ -117,384 +57,193 @@ Andy Friedman How do people get new ideas? -Presumably, the process of creativity, whatever it is, is essentially the same in all its branches and varieties, so that the evolution of a new art form, a new gadget, a new scientific principle, all involve common factors. We are most interested in the "creation" of a new scientific principle or a new application of an old one, but we can be general here. - -One way of investigating the problem is to consider the great ideas of the past and see just how they were generated. Unfortunately, the method of generation is never clear even to the "generators" themselves. - -But what if the same earth-shaking idea occurred to two men, simultaneously and independently? Perhaps, the common factors involved would be illuminating. Consider the theory of evolution by natural selection, independently created by Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace. - -There is a great deal in common there. Both traveled to far places, observing strange species of plants and animals and the manner in which they varied from place to place. Both were keenly interested in finding an explanation for this, and both failed until each happened to read Malthus's "Essay on Population." - -Both then saw how the notion of overpopulation and weeding out (which Malthus had applied to human beings) would fit into the doctrine of evolution by natural selection (if applied to species generally). - -Obviously, then, what is needed is not only people with a good background in a particular field, but also people capable of making a connection between item 1 and item 2 which might not ordinarily seem connected. - -Undoubtedly in the first half of the 19th century, a great many naturalists had studied the manner in which species were differentiated among themselves. A great many people had read Malthus. Perhaps some both studied species and read Malthus. But what you needed was someone who studied species, read Malthus, and had the ability to make a cross-connection. - -That is the crucial point that is the rare characteristic that must be found. Once the cross-connection is made, it becomes obvious. Thomas H. Huxley is supposed to have exclaimed after reading _On the Origin of Species_, "How stupid of me not to have thought of this." - -But why didn't he think of it? The history of human thought would make it seem that there is difficulty in thinking of an idea even when all the facts are on the table. Making the cross-connection requires a certain daring. It must, for any cross-connection that does not require daring is performed at once by many and develops not as a "new idea," but as a mere "corollary of an old idea." - -It is only afterward that a new idea seems reasonable. To begin with, it usually seems unreasonable. It seems the height of unreason to suppose the earth was round instead of flat, or that it moved instead of the sun, or that objects required a force to stop them when in motion, instead of a force to keep them moving, and so on. - -A person willing to fly in the face of reason, authority, and common sense must be a person of considerable self-assurance. Since he occurs only rarely, he must seem eccentric (in at least that respect) to the rest of us. A person eccentric in one respect is often eccentric in others. - -Consequently, the person who is most likely to get new ideas is a person of good background in the field of interest and one who is unconventional in his habits. (To be a crackpot is not, however, enough in itself.) - -Once you have the people you want, the next question is: Do you want to bring them together so that they may discuss the problem mutually, or should you inform each of the problem and allow them to work in isolation? - -My feeling is that as far as creativity is concerned, isolation is required. The creative person is, in any case, continually working at it. His mind is shuffling his information at all times, even when he is not conscious of it. (The famous example of Kekule working out the structure of benzene in his sleep is well-known.) - -The presence of others can only inhibit this process, since creation is embarrassing. For every new good idea you have, there are a hundred, ten thousand foolish ones, which you naturally do not care to display. - -Nevertheless, a meeting of such people may be desirable for reasons other than the act of creation itself. - -No two people exactly duplicate each other's mental stores of items. One person may know A and not B, another may know B and not A, and either knowing A and B, both may get the idea—though not necessarily at once or even soon. - -Furthermore, the information may not only be of individual items A and B, but even of combinations such as A-B, which in themselves are not significant. However, if one person mentions the unusual combination of A-B and another the unusual combination A-C, it may well be that the combination A-B-C, which neither has thought of separately, may yield an answer. - -It seems to me then that the purpose of cerebration sessions is not to think up new ideas but to educate the participants in facts and fact-combinations, in theories and vagrant thoughts. - -But how to persuade creative people to do so? First and foremost, there must be ease, relaxation, and a general sense of permissiveness. The world in general disapproves of creativity, and to be creative in public is particularly bad. Even to speculate in public is rather worrisome. The individuals must, therefore, have the feeling that the others won't object. - -If a single individual present is unsympathetic to the foolishness that would be bound to go on at such a session, the others would freeze. The unsympathetic individual may be a gold mine of information, but the harm he does will more than compensate for that. It seems necessary to me, then, that all people at a session be willing to sound foolish and listen to others sound foolish. - -If a single individual present has a much greater reputation than the others, or is more articulate, or has a distinctly more commanding personality, he may well take over the conference and reduce the rest to little more than passive obedience. The individual may himself be extremely useful, but he might as well be put to work solo, for he is neutralizing the rest. - -The optimum number of the group would probably not be very high. I should guess that no more than five would be wanted. A larger group might have a larger total supply of information, but there would be the tension of waiting to speak, which can be very frustrating. It would probably be better to have a number of sessions at which the people attending would vary, rather than one session including them all. (This would involve a certain repetition, but even repetition is not in itself undesirable. It is not what people say at these conferences, but what they inspire in each other later on.) - -For best purposes, there should be a feeling of informality. Joviality, the use of first names, joking, relaxed kidding are, I think, of the essence—not in themselves, but because they encourage a willingness to be involved in the folly of creativeness. For this purpose I think a meeting in someone's home or over a dinner table at some restaurant is perhaps more useful than one in a conference room. - -Probably more inhibiting than anything else is a feeling of responsibility. The great ideas of the ages have come from people who weren't paid to have great ideas, but were paid to be teachers or patent clerks or petty officials, or were not paid at all. The great ideas came as side issues. - -To feel guilty because one has not earned one's salary because one has not had a great idea is the surest way, it seems to me, of making it certain that no great idea will come in the next time either. - -Yet your company is conducting this cerebration program on government money. To think of congressmen or the general public hearing about scientists fooling around, boondoggling, telling dirty jokes, perhaps, at government expense, is to break into a cold sweat. In fact, the average scientist has enough public conscience not to want to feel he is doing this even if no one finds out. - -I would suggest that members at a cerebration session be given sinecure tasks to do—short reports to write, or summaries of their conclusions, or brief answers to suggested problems—and be paid for that, the payment being the fee that would ordinarily be paid for the cerebration session. The cerebration session would then be officially unpaid-for and that, too, would allow considerable relaxation. - -I do not think that cerebration sessions can be left unguided. There must be someone in charge who plays a role equivalent to that of a psychoanalyst. A psychoanalyst, as I understand it, by asking the right questions (and except for that interfering as little as possible), gets the patient himself to discuss his past life in such a way as to elicit new understanding of it in his own eyes. - -In the same way, a session-arbiter will have to sit there, stirring up the animals, asking the shrewd question, making the necessary comment, bringing them gently back to the point. Since the arbiter will not know which question is shrewd, which comment necessary, and what the point is, his will not be an easy job. - -As for "gadgets" designed to elicit creativity, I think these should arise out of the bull sessions themselves. If thoroughly relaxed, free of responsibility, discussing something of interest, and being by nature unconventional, the participants themselves will create devices to stimulate discussion. - -_Published with permission of Asimov Holdings._ - -Cut off? 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that the evolution of a +new art form, a new gadget, a new scientific principle, all involve +common factors. We are most interested in the “creation” of a new +scientific principle or a new application of an old one, but we can be +general here. + +One way of investigating the problem is to consider the great ideas of +the past and see just how they were generated. Unfortunately, the method +of generation is never clear even to the “generators” themselves. + +But what if the same earth-shaking idea occurred to two men, +simultaneously and independently? Perhaps, the common factors involved +would be illuminating. Consider the theory of evolution by natural +selection, independently created by Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace. + +There is a great deal in common there. Both traveled to far places, +observing strange species of plants and animals and the manner in which +they varied from place to place. Both were keenly interested in finding +an explanation for this, and both failed until each happened to read +Malthus’s “Essay on Population.” + +Both then saw how the notion of overpopulation and weeding out (which +Malthus had applied to human beings) would fit into the doctrine of +evolution by natural selection (if applied to species generally). + +Obviously, then, what is needed is not only people with a good +background in a particular field, but also people capable of making a +connection between item 1 and item 2 which might not ordinarily seem +connected. + +Undoubtedly in the first half of the 19th century, a great many +naturalists had studied the manner in which species were differentiated +among themselves. A great many people had read Malthus. Perhaps some +both studied species and read Malthus. But what you needed was someone +who studied species, read Malthus, and had the ability to make a +cross-connection. + +That is the crucial point that is the rare characteristic that must be +found. Once the cross-connection is made, it becomes obvious. Thomas H. +Huxley is supposed to have exclaimed after reading On the Origin of +Species, “How stupid of me not to have thought of this.” + +But why didn’t he think of it? The history of human thought would make +it seem that there is difficulty in thinking of an idea even when all +the facts are on the table. Making the cross-connection requires a +certain daring. It must, for any cross-connection that does not require +daring is performed at once by many and develops not as a “new idea,” +but as a mere “corollary of an old idea.” + +It is only afterward that a new idea seems reasonable. To begin with, it +usually seems unreasonable. It seems the height of unreason to suppose +the earth was round instead of flat, or that it moved instead of the +sun, or that objects required a force to stop them when in motion, +instead of a force to keep them moving, and so on. + +A person willing to fly in the face of reason, authority, and common +sense must be a person of considerable self-assurance. Since he occurs +only rarely, he must seem eccentric (in at least that respect) to the +rest of us. A person eccentric in one respect is often eccentric in +others. + +Consequently, the person who is most likely to get new ideas is a person +of good background in the field of interest and one who is +unconventional in his habits. (To be a crackpot is not, however, enough +in itself.) + +Once you have the people you want, the next question is: Do you want to +bring them together so that they may discuss the problem mutually, or +should you inform each of the problem and allow them to work in +isolation? + +My feeling is that as far as creativity is concerned, isolation is +required. The creative person is, in any case, continually working at +it. His mind is shuffling his information at all times, even when he is +not conscious of it. (The famous example of Kekule working out the +structure of benzene in his sleep is well-known.) + +The presence of others can only inhibit this process, since creation is +embarrassing. For every new good idea you have, there are a hundred, ten +thousand foolish ones, which you naturally do not care to display. + +Nevertheless, a meeting of such people may be desirable for reasons +other than the act of creation itself. + +No two people exactly duplicate each other’s mental stores of items. One +person may know A and not B, another may know B and not A, and either +knowing A and B, both may get the idea—though not necessarily at once or +even soon. + +Furthermore, the information may not only be of individual items A and +B, but even of combinations such as A-B, which in themselves are not +significant. However, if one person mentions the unusual combination of +A-B and another the unusual combination A-C, it may well be that the +combination A-B-C, which neither has thought of separately, may yield an +answer. + +It seems to me then that the purpose of cerebration sessions is not to +think up new ideas but to educate the participants in facts and +fact-combinations, in theories and vagrant thoughts. + +But how to persuade creative people to do so? First and foremost, there +must be ease, relaxation, and a general sense of permissiveness. The +world in general disapproves of creativity, and to be creative in public +is particularly bad. Even to speculate in public is rather worrisome. +The individuals must, therefore, have the feeling that the others won’t +object. + +If a single individual present is unsympathetic to the foolishness that +would be bound to go on at such a session, the others would freeze. The +unsympathetic individual may be a gold mine of information, but the harm +he does will more than compensate for that. It seems necessary to me, +then, that all people at a session be willing to sound foolish and +listen to others sound foolish. + +If a single individual present has a much greater reputation than the +others, or is more articulate, or has a distinctly more commanding +personality, he may well take over the conference and reduce the rest to +little more than passive obedience. The individual may himself be +extremely useful, but he might as well be put to work solo, for he is +neutralizing the rest. + +The optimum number of the group would probably not be very high. I +should guess that no more than five would be wanted. A larger group +might have a larger total supply of information, but there would be the +tension of waiting to speak, which can be very frustrating. It would +probably be better to have a number of sessions at which the people +attending would vary, rather than one session including them all. (This +would involve a certain repetition, but even repetition is not in itself +undesirable. It is not what people say at these conferences, but what +they inspire in each other later on.) + +For best purposes, there should be a feeling of informality. Joviality, +the use of first names, joking, relaxed kidding are, I think, of the +essence—not in themselves, but because they encourage a willingness to +be involved in the folly of creativeness. For this purpose I think a +meeting in someone’s home or over a dinner table at some restaurant is +perhaps more useful than one in a conference room. + +Probably more inhibiting than anything else is a feeling of +responsibility. The great ideas of the ages have come from people who +weren’t paid to have great ideas, but were paid to be teachers or patent +clerks or petty officials, or were not paid at all. The great ideas came +as side issues. + +To feel guilty because one has not earned one’s salary because one has +not had a great idea is the surest way, it seems to me, of making it +certain that no great idea will come in the next time either. + +Yet your company is conducting this cerebration program on government +money. To think of congressmen or the general public hearing about +scientists fooling around, boondoggling, telling dirty jokes, perhaps, +at government expense, is to break into a cold sweat. In fact, the +average scientist has enough public conscience not to want to feel he is +doing this even if no one finds out. + +I would suggest that members at a cerebration session be given sinecure +tasks to do—short reports to write, or summaries of their conclusions, +or brief answers to suggested problems—and be paid for that, the payment +being the fee that would ordinarily be paid for the cerebration session. +The cerebration session would then be officially unpaid-for and that, +too, would allow considerable relaxation. + +I do not think that cerebration sessions can be left unguided. There +must be someone in charge who plays a role equivalent to that of a +psychoanalyst. A psychoanalyst, as I understand it, by asking the right +questions (and except for that interfering as little as possible), gets +the patient himself to discuss his past life in such a way as to elicit +new understanding of it in his own eyes. + +In the same way, a session-arbiter will have to sit there, stirring up +the animals, asking the shrewd question, making the necessary comment, +bringing them gently back to the point. Since the arbiter will not know +which question is shrewd, which comment necessary, and what the point +is, his will not be an easy job. + +As for “gadgets” designed to elicit creativity, I think these should +arise out of the bull sessions themselves. If thoroughly relaxed, free +of responsibility, discussing something of interest, and being by nature +unconventional, the participants themselves will create devices to +stimulate discussion. + +Published with permission of Asimov Holdings. + +Tech Obsessive? +Become an Insider to get the story behind the story — and before anyone +else. + +[Subscribe +today](https://ssl.drgnetwork.com/ecom/MTR/app/live/subscriptions?org=MTR&publ=TR&key_code=74WKITO&type=S) diff --git a/_stories/1963/8912137.md b/_stories/1963/8912137.md deleted file mode 100644 index 9fa0cb8..0000000 --- a/_stories/1963/8912137.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,25 +0,0 @@ ---- -created_at: '2015-01-19T14:56:29.000Z' -title: 'Sketchpad: A man-machine graphical communication system (1963)' -url: http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.10.4290&rep=rep1&type=pdf -author: sebastianconcpt -points: 47 -story_text: '' -comment_text: -num_comments: 20 -story_id: -story_title: -story_url: -parent_id: -created_at_i: 1421679389 -_tags: -- story -- author_sebastianconcpt -- story_8912137 -objectID: '8912137' - ---- -[Source](http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.10.4290&rep=rep1&type=pdf "Permalink to ") - - - diff --git a/_stories/1964/14357986.md b/_stories/1964/14357986.md deleted file mode 100644 index 7c72667..0000000 --- a/_stories/1964/14357986.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,25 +0,0 @@ ---- -created_at: '2017-05-17T13:03:23.000Z' -title: 'FBI Investigation: “Louie Louie”, The Song (1964)' -url: https://vault.fbi.gov/louie-louie-the-song/louie-louie-the-song/view -author: dpflan -points: 129 -story_text: -comment_text: -num_comments: 142 -story_id: -story_title: -story_url: -parent_id: -created_at_i: 1495026203 -_tags: -- story -- author_dpflan -- story_14357986 -objectID: '14357986' - ---- -[Source](https://vault.fbi.gov/louie-louie-the-song/louie-louie-the-song/view "Permalink to ") - - - diff --git a/_stories/1966/8349523.md b/_stories/1966/8349523.md index ce3b0d4..c5c8c30 100644 --- a/_stories/1966/8349523.md +++ b/_stories/1966/8349523.md @@ -19,7 +19,1768 @@ _tags: objectID: '8349523' --- -[Source](https://www.esquire.com/features/ESQ1003-OCT_SINATRA_rev_ "Permalink to ") +**In the winter of 1965,** writer Gay Talese arrived in Los Angeles with +an assignment from Esquire to profile Frank Sinatra. The legendary +singer was approaching fifty, under the weather, out of sorts, and +unwilling to be interviewed. So Talese remained in L.A., hoping Sinatra +might recover and reconsider, and he began talking to many of the people +around Sinatra—his friends, his associates, his family, his countless +hangers-on—and observing the man himself wherever he could. The result, +"Frank Sinatra Has a Cold," ran in April 1966 and became one of the most +celebrated magazine stories ever published, a pioneering example of what +came to be called New Journalism—a work of rigorously faithful fact +enlivened with the kind of vivid storytelling that had previously been +reserved for fiction. The piece conjures a deeply rich portrait of one +of the era's most guarded figures and tells a larger story about +entertainment, celebrity, and America itself. +Frank Sinatra, holding a glass of bourbon in one hand and a cigarette in +the other, stood in a dark corner of the bar between two attractive but +fading blondes who sat waiting for him to say something. But he said +nothing; he had been silent during much of the evening, except now in +this private club in Beverly Hills he seemed even more distant, staring +out through the smoke and semidarkness into a large room beyond the bar +where dozens of young couples sat huddled around small tables or twisted +in the center of the floor to the clamorous clang of folk-rock music +blaring from the stereo. The two blondes knew, as did Sinatra's four +male friends who stood nearby, that it was a bad idea to force +conversation upon him when he was in this mood of sullen silence, a mood +that had hardly been uncommon during this first week of November, a +month before his fiftieth birthday. +Advertisement - Continue Reading Below +Sinatra had been working in a film that he now disliked, could not wait +to finish; he was tired of all the publicity attached to his dating the +twenty-year-old Mia Farrow, who was not in sight tonight; he was angry +that a CBS television documentary of his life, to be shown in two weeks, +was reportedly prying into his privacy, even speculating on his possible +friendship with Mafia leaders; he was worried about his starring role in +an hour-long NBC show entitled Sinatra—A Man and His Music, which would +require that he sing eighteen songs with a voice that at this particular +moment, just a few nights before the taping was to begin, was weak and +sore and uncertain. Sinatra was ill. He was the victim of an ailment so +common that most people would consider it trivial. But when it gets to +Sinatra it can plunge him into a state of anguish, deep depression, +panic, even rage. Frank Sinatra had a cold. + +Sinatra with a cold is Picasso without paint, Ferrari without fuel—only +worse. For the common cold robs Sinatra of that uninsurable jewel, his +voice, cutting into the core of his confidence, and it affects not only +his own psyche but also seems to cause a kind of psychosomatic nasal +drip within dozens of people who work for him, drink with him, love him, +depend on him for their own welfare and stability. A Sinatra with a cold +can, in a small way, send vibrations through the entertainment industry +and beyond as surely as a President of the United States, suddenly sick, +can shake the national economy. + +\[image id='6b8616d7-696e-4604-92d6-db3fb5824177' +mediaId='082061d1-531c-4277-bec2-03c09dd39531' caption='' loc='L' +share='true' expand='true' size='L'\]\[/image\] + +For Frank Sinatra was now involved with many things involving many +people—his own film company, his record company, his private airline, +his missile-parts firm, his real-estate holdings across the nation, his +personal staff of seventy-five—which are only a portion of the power he +is and has come to represent. He seemed now to be also the embodiment of +the fully emancipated male, perhaps the only one in America, the man who +can do anything he wants, anything, can do it because he has money, the +energy, and no apparent guilt. In an age when the very young seem to be +taking over, protesting and picketing and demanding change, Frank +Sinatra survives as a national phenomenon, one of the few prewar +products to withstand the test of time. He is the champ who made the big +comeback, the man who had everything, lost it, then got it back, letting +nothing stand in his way, doing what few men can do: he uprooted his +life, left his family, broke with everything that was familiar, learning +in the process that one way to hold a woman is not to hold her. Now he +has the affection of Nancy and Ava and Mia, the fine female produce of +three generations, and still has the adoration of his children, the +freedom of a bachelor, he does not feel old, he makes old men feel +young, makes them think that if Frank Sinatra can do it, it can be done; +not that they could do it, but it is still nice for other men to know, +at fifty, that it can be done. + +But now, standing at this bar in Beverly Hills, Sinatra had a cold, and +he continued to drink quietly and he seemed miles away in his private +world, not even reacting when suddenly the stereo in the other room +switched to a Sinatra song, "In the Wee Small Hours of the Morning." + +\[pullquote align='C'\]Sinatra with a cold is Picasso without paint, +Ferrari without fuel—only worse.\[/pullquote\] + +It is a lovely ballad that he first recorded ten years ago, and it now +inspired many young couples who had been sitting, tired of twisting, to +get up and move slowly around the dance floor, holding one another very +close. Sinatra's intonation, precisely clipped, yet full and flowing, +gave a deeper meaning to the simple lyrics—"In the wee small hours of +the morning/while the whole wide world is fast asleep/you lie awake, and +think about the girl...."—it was like so many of his classics, a song +that evoked loneliness and sensuality, and when blended with the dim +light and the alcohol and nicotine and late-night needs, it became a +kind of airy aphrodisiac. Undoubtedly the words from this song, and +others like it, had put millions in the mood, it was music to make love +by, and doubtless much love had been made by it all over America at +night in cars, while the batteries burned down, in cottages by the lake, +on beaches during balmy summer evenings, in secluded parks and exclusive +penthouses and furnished rooms, in cabin cruisers and cabs and +cabanas—in all places where Sinatra's songs could be heard were these +words that warmed women, wooed and won them, snipped the final thread of +inhibition and gratified the male egos of ungrateful lovers; two +generations of men had been the beneficiaries of such ballads, for which +they were eternally in his debt, for which they may eternally hate him. +Nevertheless here he was, the man himself, in the early hours of the +morning in Beverly Hills, out of range. + +Advertisement - Continue Reading Below + +The two blondes, who seemed to be in their middle thirties, were preened +and polished, their matured bodies softly molded within tight dark +suits. They sat, legs crossed, perched on the high bar stools. They +listened to the music. Then one of them pulled out a Kent and Sinatra +quickly placed his gold lighter under it and she held his hand, looked +at his fingers: they were nubby and raw, and the pinkies protruded, +being so stiff from arthritis that he could barely bend them. He was, as +usual, immaculately dressed. He wore an oxford-grey suit with a vest, a +suit conservatively cut on the outside but trimmed with flamboyant silk +within; his shoes, British, seemed to be shined even on the bottom of +the soles. He also wore, as everybody seemed to know, a remarkably +convincing black hairpiece, one of sixty that he owns, most of them +under the care of an inconspicuous little grey-haired lady who, holding +his hair in a tiny satchel, follows him around whenever he performs. She +earns $400 a week. The most distinguishing thing about Sinatra's face +are his eyes, clear blue and alert, eyes that within seconds can go cold +with anger, or glow with affection, or, as now, reflect a vague +detachment that keeps his friends silent and distant. + +\[image id='a46e9904-9d74-47c0-bb30-97b8d4f794f9' +mediaId='d7ef5df0-7dd1-426e-84c0-e4c647238132' caption='' loc='C' +share='true' expand='true' size='medium'\]\[/image\] + +Leo Durocher, one of Sinatra's closest friends, was now shooting pool in +the small room behind the bar. Standing near the door was Jim Mahoney, +Sinatra's press agent, a somewhat chunky young man with a square jaw and +narrow eyes who would resemble a tough Irish plainclothesman if it were +not for the expensive continental suits he wears and his exquisite shoes +often adorned with polished buckles. Also nearby was a big, +broad-shouldered two-hundred-pound actor named Brad Dexter who seemed +always to be thrusting out his chest so that his gut would not show. + +Brad Dexter has appeared in several films and television shows, +displaying fine talent as a character actor, but in Beverly Hills he is +equally known for the role he played in Hawaii two years ago when he +swam a few hundred yards and risked his life to save Sinatra from +drowning in a riptide. Since then Dexter has been one of Sinatra's +constant companions and has been made a producer in Sinatra's film +company. He occupies a plush office near Sinatra's executive suite. He +is endlessly searching for literary properties that might be converted +into new starring roles for Sinatra. Whenever he is among strangers with +Sinatra he worries because he knows that Sinatra brings out the best and +worst in people—some men will become aggressive, some women will become +seductive, others will stand around skeptically appraising him, the +scene will be somehow intoxicated by his mere presence, and maybe +Sinatra himself, if feeling as badly as he was tonight, might become +intolerant or tense, and then: headlines. So Brad Dexter tries to +anticipate danger and warn Sinatra in advance. He confesses to feeling +very protective of Sinatra, admitting in a recent moment of +self-revelation: "I'd kill for him." + +Advertisement - Continue Reading Below + +While this statement may seem outlandishly dramatic, particularly when +taken out of context, it nonetheless expresses a fierce fidelity that is +quite common within Sinatra's special circle. It is a characteristic +that Sinatra, without admission, seems to prefer: All the Way; All or +Nothing at All. This is the Sicilian in Sinatra; he permits his friends, +if they wish to remain that, none of the easy Anglo-Saxon outs. But if +they remain loyal, then there is nothing Sinatra will not do in +turn—fabulous gifts, personal kindnesses, encouragement when they're +down, adulation when they're up. They are wise to remember, however, one +thing. He is Sinatra. The boss. Il Padrone. + +\[pullquote align='C'\]The most distinguishing thing about Sinatra's +face are his eyes, clear blue and alert, eyes that within seconds can go +cold with anger, or glow with affection, or, as now, reflect a vague +detachment that keeps his friends silent and distant.\[/pullquote\] + +I had seen something of this Sicilian side of Sinatra last summer at +Jilly's saloon in New York, which was the only other time I'd gotten a +close view of him prior to this night in this California club. Jilly's, +which is on West Fifty-second Street in Manhattan, is where Sinatra +drinks whenever he is in New York, and there is a special chair reserved +for him in the back room against the wall that nobody else may use. When +he is occupying it, seated behind a long table flanked by his closest +New York friends—who include the saloonkeeper, Jilly Rizzo, and Jilly's +azure-haired wife, Honey, who is known as the "Blue Jew"—a rather +strange ritualistic scene develops. That night dozens of people, some of +them casual friends of Sinatra's, some mere acquaintances, some neither, +appeared outside of Jilly's saloon. They approached it like a shrine. +They had come to pay respect. They were from New York, Brooklyn, +Atlantic City, Hoboken. They were old actors, young actors, former +prizefighters, tired trumpet players, politicians, a boy with a cane. +There was a fat lady who said she remembered Sinatra when he used to +throw the Jersey Observer onto her front porch in 1933. There were +middle-aged couples who said they had heard Sinatra sing at the Rustic +Cabin in 1938 and "We knew then that he really had it\!" Or they had +heard him when he was with Harry James's band in 1939, or with Tommy +Dorsey in 1941 ("Yeah, that's the song, 'I'll Never Smile Again'—he sang +it one night in this dump near Newark and we danced..."); or they +remembered that time at the Paramount with the swooners, and him with +those bow ties, The Voice; and one woman remembered that awful boy she +knew then—Alexander Dorogokupetz, an eighteen-year-old heckler who had +thrown a tomato at Sinatra and the bobby-soxers in the balcony had tried +to flail him to death. Whatever became of Alexander Dorogokupetz? The +lady did not know. + +And they remembered when Sinatra was a failure and sang trash like +"Mairzy Doats," and they remembered his comeback and on this night they +were all standing outside Jilly's saloon, dozens of them, but they could +not get in. So some of them left. But most of them stayed, hoping that +soon they might be able to push or wedge their way into Jilly's between +the elbows and backsides of the men drinking three-deep at the bar, and +they might be able to peek through and see him sitting back there. This +is all they really wanted; they wanted to see him. And for a few moments +they gazed in silence through the smoke and they stared. Then they +turned, fought their way out of the bar, went home. + +Some of Sinatra's close friends, all of whom are known to the men +guarding Jilly's door, do manage to get an escort into the back room. +But once they are there they, too, must fend for themselves. On the +particular evening, Frank Gifford, the former football player, got only +seven yards in three tries. Others who had somehow been close enough to +shake Sinatra's hand did not shake it; instead they just touched him on +the shoulder or sleeve, or they merely stood close enough for him to see +them and, after he'd given them a wink of recognition or a wave or a nod +or called out their names (he had a fantastic memory for first names), +they would then turn and leave. They had checked in. They had paid their +respects. And as I watched this ritualistic scene, I got the impression +that Frank Sinatra was dwelling simultaneously in two worlds that were +not contemporary. + +Advertisement - Continue Reading Below + +On the one hand he is the swinger—as he is when talking and joking with +Sammy Davis, Jr., Richard Conte, Liza Minelli, Bernie Massi, or any of +the other show-business people who get to sit at the table; on the +other, as when he is nodding or waving to his paisanos who are close to +him (Al Silvani, a boxing manager who works with Sinatra's film company; +Dominic Di Bona, his wardrobe man; Ed Pucci, a 300-pound former football +lineman who is his aide-de-camp), Frank Sinatra is Il Padrone. Or better +still, he is what in traditional Sicily have long been called uomini +rispettati—men of respect: men who are both majestic and humble, men who +are loved by all and are very generous by nature, men whose hands are +kissed as they walk from village to village, men who would personally go +out of their way to redress a wrong. + +\[image id='b2028c6f-ceac-439c-917a-c04cf1d9f144' +mediaId='4d2d7881-e0d2-4adc-bd30-639428d6be44' caption='' loc='C' +share='true' expand='true' size='M'\]\[/image\] + +Frank Sinatra does things personally. At Christmas time, he will +personally pick dozens of presents for his close friends and family, +remembering the type of jewelry they like, their favorite colors, the +sizes of their shirts and dresses. When a musician friend's house was +destroyed and his wife was killed in a Los Angeles mud slide a little +more than a year ago, Sinatra personally came to his aid, finding the +musician a new home, paying whatever hospital bills were left unpaid by +the insurance, then personally supervising the furnishing of the new +home down to the replacing of the silverware, the linen, the purchase of +new clothing. + +The same Sinatra who did this can, within the same hour, explode in a +towering rage of intolerance should a small thing be incorrectly done +for him by one of his paisanos. For example, when one of his men brought +him a frankfurter with catsup on it, which Sinatra apparently abhors, he +angrily threw the bottle at the man, splattering catsup all over him. +Most of the men who work around Sinatra are big. But this never seems to +intimidate Sinatra nor curb his impetuous behavior with them when he is +mad. They will never take a swing back at him. He is Il Padrone. + +At other times, aiming to please, his men will overreact to his desires: +when he casually observed that his big orange desert jeep in Palm +Springs seemed in need of a new painting, the word was swiftly passed +down through the channels, becoming ever more urgent as it went, until +finally it was a command that the jeep be painted now, immediately, +yesterday. To accomplish this would require the hiring of a special crew +of painters to work all night, at overtime rates; which, in turn, meant +that the order had to be bucked back up the line for further approval. +When it finally got back to Sinatra's desk, he did not know what it was +all about; after he had figured it out he confessed, with a tired look +on his face, that he did not care when the hell they painted the jeep. + +Yet it would have been unwise for anyone to anticipate his reaction, for +he is a wholly unpredictable man of many moods and great dimension, a +man who responds instantaneously to instinct—suddenly, dramatically, +wildly he responds, and nobody can predict what will follow. A young +lady named Jane Hoag, a reporter at Life's Los Angeles bureau who had +attended the same school as Sinatra's daughter, Nancy, had once been +invited to a party at Mrs. Sinatra's California home at which Frank +Sinatra, who maintains very cordial relations with his former wife, +acted as host. Early in the party Miss Hoag, while leaning against a +table, accidentally with her elbow knocked over one of a pair of +alabaster birds to the floor, smashing it to pieces. Suddenly, Miss Hoag +recalled, Sinatra's daughter cried, "Oh, that was one of my mother's +favorite..."—but before she could complete the sentence, Sinatra glared +at her, cutting her off, and while forty other guests in the room all +stared in silence, Sinatra walked over, quickly with his finger flicked +the other alabaster bird off the table, smashing it to pieces, and then +put an arm gently around Jane Hoag and said, in a way that put her +completely at ease, "That's okay, kid." + +Advertisement - Continue Reading Below + +**NOW SINATRA SAID A FEW** words to the blondes. Then he turned from the +bar and began to walk toward the poolroom. One of Sinatra's other men +friends moved in to keep the girls company. Brad Dexter, who had been +standing in the corner talking to some other people, now followed +Sinatra. + +The room cracked with the clack of billiard balls. There were about a +dozen spectators in the room, most of them young men who were watching +Leo Durocher shoot against two other aspiring hustlers who were not very +good. This private drinking club has among its membership many actors, +directors, writers, models, nearly all of them a good deal younger than +Sinatra or Durocher and much more casual in the way they dress for the +evening. Many of the young women, their long hair flowing loosely below +their shoulders, wore tight, fanny-fitting Jax pants and very expensive +sweaters; and a few of the young men wore blue or green velour shirts +with high collars and narrow tight pants, and Italian loafers. + +\[image id='8713cd4e-5565-4b8b-8d6c-d349672b2871' +mediaId='3e43c741-f7c5-4427-a921-5bf92b23d5b6' caption='' loc='C' +share='true' expand='true' size='M'\]\[/image\] + +It was obvious from the way Sinatra looked at these people in the +poolroom that they were not his style, but he leaned back against a high +stool that was against the wall, holding his drink in his right hand, +and said nothing, just watched Durocher slam the billiard balls back and +forth. The younger men in the room, accustomed to seeing Sinatra at this +club, treated him without deference, although they said nothing +offensive. They were a cool young group, very California-cool and +casual, and one of the coolest seemed to be a little guy, very quick of +movement, who had a sharp profile, pale blue eyes, blondish hair, and +squared eyeglasses. He wore a pair of brown corduroy slacks, a green +shaggy-dog Shetland sweater, a tan suede jacket, and Game Warden boots, +for which he had recently paid $60. + +Frank Sinatra, leaning against the stool, sniffling a bit from his cold, +could not take his eyes off the Game Warden boots. Once, after gazing at +them for a few moments, he turned away; but now he was focused on them +again. The owner of the boots, who was just standing in them watching +the pool game, was named Harlan Ellison, a writer who had just completed +work on a screenplay, The Oscar. + +Finally Sinatra could not contain himself. + +"Hey," he yelled in his slightly harsh voice that still had a soft, +sharp edge. "Those Italian boots?" + +"No," Ellison said. + +"Spanish?" + +"No." + +"Are they English boots?" + +"Look, I donno, man," Ellison shot back, frowning at Sinatra, then +turning away again. + +Now the poolroom was suddenly silent. Leo Durocher who had been poised +behind his cue stick and was bent low just froze in that position for a +second. Nobody moved. Then Sinatra moved away from the stool and walked +with that slow, arrogant swagger of his toward Ellison, the hard tap of +Sinatra's shoes the only sound in the room. Then, looking down at +Ellison with a slightly raised eyebrow and a tricky little smile, +Sinatra asked: "You expecting a storm?" + +Advertisement - Continue Reading Below + +Harlan Ellison moved a step to the side. "Look, is there any reason why +you're talking to me?" + +"I don't like the way you're dressed," Sinatra said. + +"Hate to shake you up," Ellison said, "but I dress to suit myself." + +Now there was some rumbling in the room, and somebody said, "Com'on, +Harlan, let's get out of here," and Leo Durocher made his pool shot and +said, "Yeah, com'on." + +But Ellison stood his ground. + +Sinatra said, "What do you do?" + +"I'm a plumber," Ellison said. + +"No, no, he's not," another young man quickly yelled from across the +table. "He wrote The Oscar." + +"Oh, yeah," Sinatra said, "well I've seen it, and it's a piece of crap." + +"That's strange," Ellison said, "because they haven't even released it +yet." + +"Well, I've seen it," Sinatra repeated, "and it's a piece of crap." + +Now Brad Dexter, very anxious, very big opposite the small figure of +Ellison, said, "Com'on, kid, I don't want you in this room." + +"Hey," Sinatra interrupted Dexter, "can't you see I'm talking to this +guy?" + +Dexter was confused. Then his whole attitude changed, and his voice went +soft and he said to Ellison, almost with a plea, "Why do you persist in +tormenting me?" + +The whole scene was becoming ridiculous, and it seemed that Sinatra was +only half-serious, perhaps just reacting out of sheer boredom or inner +despair; at any rate, after a few more exchanges Harlan Ellison left the +room. By this time the word had gotten out to those on the dance floor +about the Sinatra-Ellison exchange, and somebody went to look for the +manager of the club. But somebody else said that the manager had already +heard about it—and had quickly gone out the door, hopped in his car and +drove home. So the assistant manager went into the poolroom. + +\[pullquote align='C'\]"I don't want anybody in here without coats and +ties."\[/pullquote\] + +"I don't want anybody in here without coats and ties," Sinatra snapped. + +The assistant manager nodded, and walked back to his office. + +**IT WAS THE MORNING AFTER.** It was the beginning of another nervous +day for Sinatra's press agent, Jim Mahoney. Mahoney had a headache, and +he was worried but not over the Sinatra-Ellison incident of the night +before. At the time Mahoney had been with his wife at a table in the +other room, and possibly he had not even been aware of the little drama. +The whole thing had lasted only about three minutes. And three minutes +after it was over, Frank Sinatra had probably forgotten about it for the +rest of his life—as Ellison will probably remember it for the rest of +his life: he had had, as hundreds of others before him, at an unexpected +moment between darkness and dawn, a scene with Sinatra. + +It was just as well that Mahoney had not been in the poolroom; he had +enough on his mind today. He was worried about Sinatra's cold and +worried about the controversial CBS documentary that, despite Sinatra's +protests and withdrawal of permission, would be shown on television in +less than two weeks. The newspapers this morning were full of hints that +Sinatra might sue the network, and Mahoney's phones were ringing without +pause, and now he was plugged into New York talking to the Daily News's +Kay Gardella, saying: "...that's right, Kay...they made a gentleman's +agreement to not ask certain questions about Frank's private life, and +then Cronkite went right ahead: 'Frank, tell me about those +associations.' That question, Kay—out\! That question should never have +been asked...." + +Advertisement - Continue Reading Below + +As he spoke, Mahoney leaned back in his leather chair, his head shaking +slowly. He is a powerfully built man of thirty-seven; he has a round, +ruddy face, a heavy jaw, and narrow pale eyes, and he might appear +pugnacious if he did not speak with such clear, soft sincerity and if he +were not so meticulous about his clothes. His suits and shoes are +superbly tailored, which was one of the first things Sinatra noticed +about him, and in his spacious office opposite the bar is a red-muff +electrical shoe polisher and a pair of brown wooden shoulders on a stand +over which Mahoney can drape his jackets. Near the bar is an autographed +photograph of President Kennedy and a few pictures of Frank Sinatra, but +there are none of Sinatra in any other rooms in Mahoney's +public-relations agency; there once was a large photograph of him +hanging in the reception room but this apparently bruised the egos of +some of Mahoney's other movie-star clients and, since Sinatra never +shows up at the agency anyway, the photograph was removed. + +Still, Sinatra seems ever present, and if Mahoney did not have +legitimate worries about Sinatra, as he did today, he could invent +them—and, as worry aids, he surrounds himself with little mementos of +moments in the past when he did worry. In his shaving kit there is a +two-year-old box of sleeping tablets dispensed by a Reno druggist—the +date on the bottle marks the kidnapping of Frank Sinatra, Jr. There is +on a table in Mahoney's office a mounted wood reproduction of Frank +Sinatra's ransom note written on the aforementioned occasion. One of +Mahoney's mannerisms, when he is sitting at his desk worrying, is to +tinker with the tiny toy train he keeps in front of him—the train is a +souvenir from the Sinatra film, Von Ryan's Express; it is to men who are +close to Sinatra what the PT-109 tie clasps are to men who were close to +Kennedy—and Mahoney then proceeds to roll the little train back and +forth on the six inches of track; back and forth, back and forth, +click-clack-click-clack. It is his Queeg-thing. + +Now Mahoney quickly put aside the little train. His secretary told him +there was a very important call on the line. Mahoney picked it up, and +his voice was even softer and more sincere than before. "Yes, Frank," he +said. "Right...right...yes, Frank...." + +When Mahoney put down the phone, quietly, he announced that Frank +Sinatra had left in his private jet to spend the weekend at his home in +Palm Springs, which is a sixteen-minute flight from his home in Los +Angeles. Mahoney was now worried again. The Lear jet that Sinatra's +pilot would be flying was identical, Mahoney said, to the one that had +just crashed in another part of California. + +**ON THE FOLLOWING** Monday, a cloudy and unseasonably cool California +day, more than one hundred people gathered inside a white television +studio, an enormous room dominated by a white stage, white walls, and +with dozens of lights and lamps dangling: it rather resembled a gigantic +operating room. In this room, within an hour or so, NBC was scheduled to +begin taping a one-hour show that would be televised in color on the +night of November 24 and would highlight, as much as it could in the +limited time, the twenty-five-year career of Frank Sinatra as a public +entertainer. It would not attempt to probe, as the forthcoming CBS +Sinatra documentary allegedly would, that area of Sinatra's life that he +regards as private. The NBC show would be mainly an hour of Sinatra +singing some of the hits that carried him from Hoboken to Hollywood, a +show that would be interrupted only now and then by a few film clips and +commercials for Budweiser beer. Prior to his cold, Sinatra had been very +excited about this show; he saw here an opportunity to appeal not only +to those nostalgic, but also to communicate his talent to some +rock-and-rollers—in a sense, he was battling The Beatles. The press +releases being prepared by Mahoney's agency stressed this, reading: "If +you happen to be tired of kid singers wearing mops of hair thick enough +to hide a crate of melons...it should be refreshing, to consider the +entertainment value of a video special titled Sinatra—A Man and His +Music...." + +Advertisement - Continue Reading Below + +But now in this NBC studio in Los Angeles, there was an atmosphere of +anticipation and tension because of the uncertainty of the Sinatra +voice. The forty-three musicians in Nelson Riddle's orchestra had +already arrived and some were up on the white platform warming up. +Dwight Hemion, a youthful sandy-haired director who had won praise for +his television special on Barbra Streisand, was seated in the +glass-enclosed control booth that overlooked the orchestra and stage. +The camera crews, technical teams, security guards, Budweiser ad men +were also standing between the floor lamps and cameras, waiting, as were +a dozen or so ladies who worked as secretaries in other parts of the +building but had sneaked away so they could watch this. + +A few minutes before eleven o'clock, word spread quickly through the +long corridor into the big studio that Sinatra was spotted walking +through the parking lot and was on his way, and was looking fine. There +seemed great relief among the group that was gathered; but when the +lean, sharply dressed figure of the man got closer, and closer, they saw +to their dismay that it was not Frank Sinatra. It was his double. Johnny +Delgado. + +\[image id='34c22066-e054-40de-b82f-93afc2ea9280' +mediaId='2520c01d-3395-4b08-9edb-0b655a70729a' caption='' loc='C' +share='true' expand='true' size='L'\]\[/image\] + +Delgado walks like Sinatra, has Sinatra's build, and from certain facial +angles does resemble Sinatra. But he seems a rather shy individual. +Fifteen years ago, early in his acting career, Delgado applied for a +role in From Here to Eternity. He was hired, finding out later that he +was to be Sinatra's double. In Sinatra's latest film, Assault on a +Queen, a story in which Sinatra and some fellow conspirators attempt to +hijack the Queen Mary, Johnny Delgado doubles for Sinatra in some water +scenes; and now, in this NBC studio, his job was to stand under the hot +television lights marking Sinatra's spots on the stage for the camera +crews. + +Five minutes later, the real Frank Sinatra walked in. His face was pale, +his blue eyes seemed a bit watery. He had been unable to rid himself of +the cold, but he was going to try to sing anyway because the schedule +was tight and thousands of dollars were involved at this moment in the +assembling of the orchestra and crews and the rental of the studio. But +when Sinatra, on his way to his small rehearsal room to warm up his +voice, looked into the studio and saw that the stage and orchestra's +platform were not close together, as he had specifically requested, his +lips tightened and he was obviously very upset. A few moments later, +from his rehearsal room, could be heard the pounding of his fist against +the top of the piano and the voice of his accompanist, Bill Miller, +saying, softly, "Try not to upset yourself, Frank." + +Advertisement - Continue Reading Below + +Later Jim Mahoney and another man walked in, and there was talk of +Dorothy Kilgallen's death in New York earlier that morning. She had been +an ardent foe of Sinatra for years, and he became equally +uncomplimentary about her in his nightclub act, and now, though she was +dead, he did not compromise his feelings. "Dorothy Kilgallen's dead," he +repeated, walking out of the room toward the studio. "Well, guess I got +to change my whole act." + +When he strolled into the studio the musicians all picked up their +instruments and stiffened in their seats. Sinatra cleared his throat a +few times and then, after rehearsing a few ballads with the orchestra, +he sang "Don't Worry About Me" to his satisfaction and, being uncertain +of how long his voice could last, suddenly became impatient. + +"Why don't we tape this mother?" he called out, looking up toward the +glass booth where the director, Dwight Hemion, and his staff were +sitting. Their heads seemed to be down, focusing on the control board. + +"Why don't we tape this mother?" Sinatra repeated. + +The production stage manager, who stands near the camera wearing a +headset, repeated Sinatra's words exactly into his line to the control +room: "Why don't we tape this mother?" + +Hemion did not answer. Possibly his switch was off. It was hard to know +because of the obscuring reflections the lights made against the glass +booth. + +"Why don't we put on a coat and tie," said Sinatra, then wearing a +high-necked yellow pullover, "and tape this...." + +Suddenly Hemion's voice came over the sound amplifier, very calmly: +"Okay, Frank, would you mind going back over...." + +"Yes, I would mind going back," Sinatra snapped. + +The silence from Hemion's end, which lasted a second or two, was then +again interrupted by Sinatra saying, "When we stop doing things around +here the way we did them in 1950, maybe we..." and Sinatra continued to +tear into Hemion, condemning as well the lack of modern techniques in +putting such shows together; then, possibly not wanting to use his voice +unnecessarily, he stopped. And Dwight Hemion, very patient, so patient +and calm that one would assume he had not heard anything that Sinatra +had just said, outlined the opening part of the show. And Sinatra a few +minutes later was reading his opening remarks, words that would follow +"Without a Song," off the large idiot-cards being held near the camera. +Then, this done, he prepared to do the same thing on camera. + +"Frank Sinatra Show, Act I, Page 10, Take 1," called a man with a +clapboard, jumping in front of the camera—clap—then jumping away again. + +"Did you ever stop to think," Sinatra began, "what the world would be +like without a song?... It would be a pretty dreary place.... Gives you +something to think about, doesn't it?..." + +Sinatra stopped. + +"Excuse me," he said, adding, "Boy, I need a drink." + +They tried it again. + +"Frank Sinatra Show, Act I, Page 10, Take 2," yelled the jumping guy +with the clapboard. + +"Did you ever stop to think what the world would be like without a +song?..." Frank Sinatra read it through this time without stopping. Then +he rehearsed a few more songs, once or twice interrupting the orchestra +when a certain instrumental sound was not quite what he wanted. It was +hard to tell how well his voice was going to hold up, for this was early +in the show; up to this point, however, everybody in the room seemed +pleased, particularly when he sang an old sentimental favorite written +more than twenty years ago by Jimmy Van Heusen and Phil Silvers—"Nancy," +inspired by the first of Sinatra's three children when she was just a +few years old. + +Advertisement - Continue Reading Below + +If I don't see her each day + +I miss her.... + +Gee what a thrill + +Each time I kiss her.... + +As Sinatra sang these words, though he has sung them hundreds and +hundreds of times in the past, it was suddenly obvious to everybody in +the studio that something quite special must be going on inside the man, +because something quite special was coming out. He was singing now, cold +or no cold, with power and warmth, he was letting himself go, the public +arrogance was gone, the private side was in this song about the girl +who, it is said, understands him better than anybody else, and is the +only person in front of whom he can be unashamedly himself. + +\[image id='8da092c8-15ce-455a-977a-af56a8965cee' +mediaId='efa61d97-6c1a-4596-b9dd-4425b7f080e2' caption='' loc='C' +share='true' expand='true' size='medium'\]\[/image\] + +Nancy is twenty-five. She lives alone, her marriage to singer Tommy +Sands having ended in divorce. Her home is in a Los Angeles suburb and +she is now making her third film and is recording for her father's +record company. She sees him every day; or, if not, he telephones, no +matter if it be from Europe or Asia. When Sinatra's singing first became +popular on radio, stimulating the swooners, Nancy would listen at home +and cry. When Sinatra's first marriage broke up in 1951 and he left +home, Nancy was the only child old enough to remember him as a father. +She also saw him with Ava Gardner, Juliet Prowse, Mia Farrow, many +others, has gone on double dates with him.... + +She takes the winter + +And makes it summer.... + +Summer could take + +Some lessons from her.... + +Nancy now also sees him visiting at home with his first wife, the former +Nancy Barbato, a plasterer's daughter from Jersey City whom he married +in 1939 when he was earning $25 a week singing at the Rustic Cabin near +Hoboken. + +\[pullquote align='C'\]He was singing now, cold or no cold, with power +and warmth, he was letting himself go, the public arrogance was gone, +the private side was in this song about the girl who, it is said, +understands him better than anybody else, and is the only person in +front of whom he can be unashamedly himself.\[/pullquote\] + +Advertisement - Continue Reading Below + +The first Mrs. Sinatra, a striking woman who has never remarried ("When +you've been married to Frank Sinatra..." she once explained to a +friend), lives in a magnificent home in Los Angeles with her younger +daughter, Tina, who is seventeen. There is no bitterness, only great +respect and affection between Sinatra and his first wife, and he has +long been welcome in her home and has even been known to wander in at +odd hours, stoke the fire, lie on the sofa, and fall asleep. Frank +Sinatra can fall asleep anywhere, something he learned when he used to +ride bumpy roads with band buses; he also learned at that time, when +sitting in a tuxedo, how to pinch the trouser creases in the back and +tuck the jacket under and out, and fall asleep perfectly pressed. But he +does not ride buses anymore, and his daughter Nancy, who in her younger +days felt rejected when he slept on the sofa instead of giving attention +to her, later realized that the sofa was one of the few places left in +the world where Frank Sinatra could get any privacy, where his famous +face would neither be stared at nor cause an abnormal reaction in +others. She realized, too, that things normal have always eluded her +father: his childhood was one of loneliness and a drive toward +attention, and since attaining it he has never again been certain of +solitude. Upon looking out the window of a home he once owned in +Hasbrouck Heights, New Jersey, he would occasionally see the faces of +teen-agers peeking in; and in 1944, after moving to California and +buying a home behind a ten-foot fence on Lake Toluca, he discovered that +the only way to escape the telephone and other intrusions was to board +his paddle boat with a few friends, a card table and a case of beer, and +stay afloat all afternoon. But he has tried, insofar as it has been +possible, to be like everyone else, Nancy says. He wept on her wedding +day, he is very sentimental and sensitive.... + +**WHAT THE HELL** are you doing up there, Dwight?" + +Silence from the control booth. + +"Got a party or something going on up there, Dwight?" + +Sinatra stood on the stage, arms folded, glaring up across the cameras +toward Hemion. Sinatra had sung Nancy with probably all he had in his +voice on this day. The next few numbers contained raspy notes, and twice +his voice completely cracked. But now Hemion was in the control booth +out of communication; then he was down in the studio walking over to +where Sinatra stood. A few minutes later they both left the studio and +were on the way up to the control booth. The tape was replayed for +Sinatra. He watched only about five minutes of it before he started to +shake his head. Then he said to Hemion: "Forget it, just forget it. +You're wasting your time. What you got there," Sinatra said, nodding to +the singing image of himself on the television screen, "is a man with a +cold." Then he left the control booth, ordering that the whole day's +performance be scrubbed and future taping postponed until he had +recovered. + +**SOON THE WORD SPREAD** like an emotional epidemic down through +Sinatra's staff, then fanned out through Hollywood, then was heard +across the nation in Jilly's saloon, and also on the other side of the +Hudson River in the homes of Frank Sinatra's parents and his other +relatives and friends in New Jersey. + +When Frank Sinatra spoke with his father on the telephone and said he +was feeling awful, the elder Sinatra reported that he was also feeling +awful: that his left arm and fist were so stiff with a circulatory +condition he could barely use them, adding that the ailment might be the +result of having thrown too many left hooks during his days as a +bantamweight almost fifty years ago. + +Martin Sinatra, a ruddy and tattooed little blue-eyed Sicilian born in +Catania, boxed under the name of "Marty O'Brien." In those days, in +those places, with the Irish running the lower reaches of city life, it +was not uncommon for Italians to wind up with such names. Most of the +Italians and Sicilians who migrated to America just prior to the 1900's +were poor and uneducated, were excluded from the building-trades unions +dominated by the Irish, and were somewhat intimidated by the Irish +police, Irish priests, Irish politicians. + +Advertisement - Continue Reading Below + +One notable exception was Frank Sinatra's mother, Dolly, a large and +very ambitious woman who was brought to this country at two months of +age by her mother and father, a lithographer from Genoa. In later years +Dolly Sinatra, possessing a round red face and blue eyes, was often +mistaken for being Irish, and surprised many at the speed with which she +swung her heavy handbag at anyone uttering "Wop." + +By playing skillful politics with North Jersey's Democratic machine, +Dolly Sinatra was to become, in her heyday, a kind of Catherine de +Medici of Hoboken's third ward. She could always be counted upon to +deliver six hundred votes at election time from her Italian +neighborhood, and this was her base of power. When she told one of the +politicians that she wanted her husband to be appointed to the Hoboken +Fire Department, and was told, "But, Dolly, we don't have an opening," +she snapped, "Make an opening." + +They did. Years later she requested that her husband be made a captain, +and one day she got a call from one of the political bosses that began, +"Dolly, congratulations\!" + +"For what?" + +"Captain Sinatra." + +"Oh, you finally made him one—thank you very much." + +Then she called the Hoboken Fire Department. + +"Let me speak to Captain Sinatra," she said. The fireman called Martin +Sinatra to the phone, saying, "Marty, I think your wife has gone nuts." +When he got on the line, Dolly greeted him: + +"Congratulations, Captain Sinatra\!" + +\[image id='e756a88a-79c4-46bf-96f2-95961b28bb9e' +mediaId='ca99bfc4-1668-4d9c-abf2-a374f20b2554' caption='Frank Sinatra +pictured at age 6.' loc='L' share='true' expand='true' +size='L'\]\[/image\] + +Dolly's only child, christened Francis Albert Sinatra, was born and +nearly died on December 12, 1915. It was a difficult birth, and during +his first moment on earth he received marks he will carry till death—the +scars on the left side of his neck being the result of a doctor's clumsy +forceps, and Sinatra has chosen not to obscure them with surgery. + +After he was six months old, he was reared mainly by his grandmother. +His mother had a full-time job as a chocolate dipper with a large firm +and was so proficient at it that the firm once offered to send her to +the Paris office to train others. While some people in Hoboken remember +Frank Sinatra as a lonely child, one who spent many hours on the porch +gazing into space, Sinatra was never a slum kid, never in jail, always +well-dressed. He had so many pants that some people in Hoboken called +him "Slacksey O'Brien." + +Dolly Sinatra was not the sort of Italian mother who could be appeased +merely by a child's obedience and good appetite. She made many demands +on her son, was always very strict. She dreamed of his becoming an +aviation engineer. When she discovered Bing Crosby pictures hanging on +his bedroom walls one evening, and learned that her son wished to become +a singer too, she became infuriated and threw a shoe at him. Later, +finding she could not talk him out of it—"he takes after me"—she +encouraged his singing. + +Many Italo-American boys of his generation were then shooting for the +same star—they were strong with song, weak with words, not a big +novelist among them: no O'Hara, no Bellow, no Cheever, nor Shaw; yet +they could communicate bel canto. This was more in their tradition, no +need for a diploma; they could, with a song, someday see their names in +lights...Perry Como...Frankie Laine...Tony Bennett...Vic Damone...but +none could see it better than Frank Sinatra. + +Though he sang through much of the night at the Rustic Cabin, he was up +the next day singing without a fee on New York radio to get more +attention. Later he got a job singing with Harry James's band, and it +was there in August of 1939 that Sinatra had his first recording hit— +"All or Nothing at All." He became very fond of Harry James and the men +in the band, but when he received an offer from Tommy Dorsey, who in +those days had probably the best band in the country, Sinatra took it; +the job paid $125 a week, and Dorsey knew how to feature a vocalist. Yet +Sinatra was very depressed at leaving James's band, and the final night +with them was so memorable that, twenty years later, Sinatra could +recall the details to a friend: "...the bus pulled out with the rest of +the boys at about half-past midnight. I'd said good-bye to them all, and +it was snowing, I remember. There was nobody around and I stood alone +with my suitcase in the snow and watched the taillights disappear. Then +the tears started and I tried to run after the bus. There was such +spirit and enthusiasm in that band, I hated leaving it...." + +But he did—as he would leave other warm places, too, in search of +something more, never wasting time, trying to do it all in one +generation, fighting under his own name, defending underdogs, +terrorizing top dogs. He threw a punch at a musician who said something +anti-Semitic, espoused the Negro cause two decades before it became +fashionable. He also threw a tray of glasses at Buddy Rich when he +played the drums too loud. + +\[image id='d732e0c2-6681-4fe7-90d9-02c532611107' +mediaId='274478ec-9c5f-4c5e-a602-8d867cc959ea' caption='Dolly Sinatra +with son, Frank. October 1945.' loc='R' share='true' expand='true' +size='L'\]\[/image\] + +Sinatra gave away $50,000 worth of gold cigarette lighters before he was +thirty, was living an immigrant's wildest dream of America. He arrived +suddenly on the scene when DiMaggio was silent, when paisanos were +mournful, were quietly defensive about Hitler in their homeland. Sinatra +became, in time, a kind of one-man Anti-Defamation League for Italians +in America, the sort of organization that would be unlikely for them +because, as the theory goes, they rarely agreed on anything, being +extreme individualists: fine as soloists, but not so good in a choir; +fine as heroes, but not so good in a parade. + +When many Italian names were used in describing gangsters on a +television show, The Untouchables, Sinatra was loud in his disapproval. +Sinatra and many thousands of other Italo-Americans were resentful as +well when a small-time hoodlum, Joseph Valachi, was brought by Bobby +Kennedy into prominence as a Mafia expert, when indeed, from Valachi's +testimony on television, he seemed to know less than most waiters on +Mulberry Street. Many Italians in Sinatra's circle also regard Bobby +Kennedy as something of an Irish cop, more dignified than those in +Dolly's day, but no less intimidating. Together with Peter Lawford, +Bobby Kennedy is said to have suddenly gotten "cocky" with Sinatra after +John Kennedy's election, forgetting the contribution Sinatra had made in +both fundraising and in influencing many anti-Irish Italian votes. +Lawford and Bobby Kennedy are both suspected of having influenced the +late President's decision to stay as a house guest with Bing Crosby +instead of Sinatra, as originally planned, a social setback Sinatra may +never forget. Peter Lawford has since been drummed out of Sinatra's +"summit" in Las Vegas. + +"Yes, my son is like me," Dolly Sinatra says, proudly. "You cross him, +he never forgets." And while she concedes his power, she quickly points +out, "He can't make his mother do anything she doesn't want to do," +adding, "Even today, he wears the same brand of underwear I used to buy +him." + +Today Dolly Sinatra is seventy-one years old, a year or two younger than +Martin, and all day long people are knocking on the back door of her +large home asking her advice, seeking her influence. When she is not +seeing people and not cooking in the kitchen, she is looking after her +husband, a silent but stubborn man, and telling him to keep his sore +left arm resting on the sponge she has placed on the armrest of a soft +chair. "Oh, he went to some terrific fires, this guy did," Dolly said to +a visitor, nodding with admiration toward her husband in the chair. + +Advertisement - Continue Reading Below + +Though Dolly Sinatra has eighty-seven godchildren in Hoboken, and still +goes to that city during political campaigns, she now lives with her +husband in a beautiful sixteen-room house in Fort Lee, New Jersey. This +home was a gift from their son on their fiftieth wedding anniversary +three years ago. The home is tastefully furnished and is filled with a +remarkable juxtaposition of the pious and the worldly—photographs of +Pope John and Ava Gardner, of Pope Paul and Dean Martin; several statues +of saints and holy water, a chair autographed by Sammy Davis, Jr. and +bottles of bourbon. In Mrs. Sinatra's jewelry box is a magnificent +strand of pearls she had just received from Ava Gardner, whom she liked +tremendously as a daughter-in-law and still keeps in touch with and +talks about; and hung on the wall is a letter addressed to Dolly and +Martin: "The sands of time have turned to gold, yet love continues to +unfold like the petals of a rose, in God's garden of life...may God love +you thru all eternity. I thank Him, I thank you for the being of one. +Your loving son, Francis...." + +Mrs. Sinatra talks to her son on the telephone about once a week, and +recently he suggested that, when visiting Manhattan, she make use of his +apartment on East Seventy-second Street on the East River. This is an +expensive neighborhood of New York even though there is a small factory +on the block, but this latter fact was seized upon by Dolly Sinatra as a +means of getting back at her son for some unflattering descriptions of +his childhood in Hoboken. + +"What—you want me to stay in your apartment, in that dump?" she asked. +"You think I'm going to spend the night in that awful neighborhood?" + +Frank Sinatra got the point, and said, "Excuse me, Mrs. Fort Lee." + +After spending the week in Palm Springs, his cold much better, Frank +Sinatra returned to Los Angeles, a lovely city of sun and +[sex](/lifestyle/sex/advice/a9353/best-sex-positions/), a Spanish +discovery of Mexican misery, a star land of little men and little women +sliding in and out of convertibles in tense tight pants. + +Sinatra returned in time to see the long-awaited CBS documentary with +his family. At about nine p.m. he drove to the home of his former wife, +Nancy, and had dinner with her and their two daughters. Their son, whom +they rarely see these days, was out of town. + +Frank, Jr., who is twenty-two, was touring with a band and moving cross +country toward a New York engagement at Basin Street East with The Pied +Pipers, with whom Frank Sinatra sang when he was with Dorsey's band in +the 1940's. Today Frank Sinatra, Jr., whom his father says he named +after Franklin D. Roosevelt, lives mostly in hotels, dines each evening +in his nightclub dressing room, and sings until two a.m., accepting +graciously, because he has no choice, the inevitable comparisons. His +voice is smooth and pleasant, and improving with work, and while he is +very respectful of his father, he discusses him with objectivity and in +an occasional tone of subdued cockiness. + +Concurrent with his father's early fame, Frank, Jr. said, was the +creation of a "press-release Sinatra" designed to "set him apart from +the common man, separate him from the realities: it was suddenly +Sinatra, the electric magnate, Sinatra who is supernormal, not +superhuman but supernormal. And here," Frank, Jr. continued, "is the +great fallacy, the great bullshit, for Frank Sinatra is normal, is the +guy whom you'd meet on a street corner. But this other thing, the +supernormal guise, has affected Frank Sinatra as much as anybody who +watches one of his television shows, or reads a magazine article about +him.... + +"Frank Sinatra's life in the beginning was so normal," he said, "that +nobody would have guessed in 1934 that this little Italian kid with the +curly hair would become the giant, the monster, the great living +legend.... He met my mother one summer on the beach. She was Nancy +Barbato, daughter of Mike Barbato, a Jersey City plasterer. And she +meets the fireman's son, Frank, one summer day on the beach at Long +Branch, New Jersey. Both are Italian, both Roman Catholic, both +lower-middle-class summer sweethearts—it is like a million bad movies +starring Frankie Avalon. . . . + +Advertisement - Continue Reading Below + +"They have three children. The first child, Nancy, was the most normal +of Frank Sinatra's children. Nancy was a cheerleader, went to summer +camp, drove a Chevrolet, had the easiest kind of development centered +around the home and family. Next is me. My life with the family is very, +very normal up until September of 1958 when, in complete contrast to the +rearing of both girls, I am put into a college-preparatory school. I am +now away from the inner family circle, and my position within has never +been remade to this day.... The third child, Tina. And to be dead +honest, I really couldn't say what her life is like...." + +\[image id='543c78b5-80a1-4a21-98f6-8c8a07f6f4d4' +mediaId='c5e4ebba-840b-4e89-bab6-6f0c3f2e70d1' caption='The Sinatra +Family.' loc='C' share='true' expand='true' size='M'\]\[/image\] + +The CBS show, narrated by Walter Cronkite, began at ten p.m. A minute +before that, the Sinatra family, having finished dinner, turned their +chairs around and faced the camera, united for whatever disaster might +follow. Sinatra's men in other parts of town, in other parts of the +nation, were doing the same thing. Sinatra's lawyer, Milton A. Rudin, +smoking a cigar, was watching with a keen eye, an alert legal mind. +Other sets were watched by Brad Dexter, Jim Mahoney, Ed Pucci; Sinatra's +makeup man, "Shotgun" Britton; his New York representative, Henri Gine; +his haberdasher, Richard Carroll; his insurance broker, John Lillie; his +valet, George Jacobs, a handsome Negro who, when entertaining girls in +his apartment, plays records by Ray Charles. + +And like so much of Hollywood's fear, the apprehension about the CBS +show all proved to be without foundation. It was a highly flattering +hour that did not deeply probe, as rumors suggested it would, into +Sinatra's love life, or the Mafia, or other areas of his private +province. While the documentary was not authorized, wrote Jack Gould in +the next day's New York Times, "it could have been." + +Immediately after the show, the telephones began to ring throughout the +Sinatra system conveying words of joy and relief—and from New York came +Jilly's telegram: "WE RULE THE WORLD\!" + +**THE NEXT DAY, STANDING** in the corridor of the NBC building where he +was about to resume taping his show, Sinatra was discussing the CBS show +with several of his friends, and he said, "Oh, it was a gas." + +"Yeah, Frank, a helluva show." + +"But I think Jack Gould was right in The Times today," Sinatra said. +"There should have been more on the man, not so much on the music...." + +They nodded, nobody mentioning the past hysteria in the Sinatra world +when it seemed CBS was zeroing in on the man; they just nodded and two +of them laughed about Sinatra's apparently having gotten the word "bird" +on the show—this being a favorite Sinatra word. He often inquires of his +cronies, "How's your bird?"; and when he nearly drowned in Hawaii, he +later explained, "Just got a little water on my bird"; and under a large +photograph of him holding a whisky bottle, a photo that hangs in the +home of an actor friend named Dick Bakalyan, the inscription reads: +"Drink, Dickie\! It's good for your bird." In the song, "Come Fly with +Me," Sinatra sometimes alters the lyrics—"...just say the words and +we'll take our birds down to Acapulco Bay...." + +Advertisement - Continue Reading Below + +Ten minutes later Sinatra, following the orchestra, walked into the NBC +studio, which did not resemble in the slightest the scene here of eight +days ago. On this occasion Sinatra was in fine voice, he cracked jokes +between numbers, nothing could upset him. Once, while he was singing +"How Can I Ignore the Girl Next Door," standing on the stage next to a +tree, a television camera mounted on a vehicle came rolling in too close +and plowed against the tree. + +"Kee-rist\!" yelled one of the technical assistants. + +But Sinatra seemed hardly to notice it. + +"We've had a slight accident," he said, calmly. Then he began the song +all over from the beginning. + +When the show was over, Sinatra watched the rerun on the monitor in the +control room. He was very pleased, shaking hands with Dwight Hemion and +his assistants. Then the whisky bottles were opened in Sinatra's +dressing room. Pat Lawford was there, and so were Andy Williams and a +dozen others. The telegrams and telephone calls continued to be received +from all over the country with praise for the CBS show. There was even a +call, Mahoney said, from the CBS producer, Don Hewitt, with whom Sinatra +had been so angry a few days before. And Sinatra was still angry, +feeling that CBS had betrayed him, though the show itself was not +objectionable. + +"Shall I drop a line to Hewitt?" Mahoney asked. + +"Can you send a fist through the mail?" Sinatra asked. + +He has everything, he cannot sleep, he gives nice gifts, he is not +happy, but he would not trade, even for happiness, what he is.... + +He is a piece of our past—but only we have aged, he hasn't...we are +dogged by domesticity, he isn't...we have compunctions, he doesn't...it +is our fault, not his.... + +He controls the menus of every Italian restaurant in Los Angeles; if you +want North Italian cooking, fly to Milan.... + +Men follow him, imitate him, fight to be near him...there is something +of the locker room, the barracks about him...bird...bird.... + +He believes you must play it big, wide, expansively— the more open you +are, the more you take in, your dimensions deepen, you grow, you become +more what you are—bigger, richer.... + +"He is better than anybody else, or at least they think he is, and he +has to live up to it." —Nancy Sinatra, Jr. + +"He is calm on the outside—inwardly a million things are happening to +him." —Dick Bakalyan + +"He has an insatiable desire to live every moment to its fullest +because, I guess, he feels that right around the corner is extinction." +—Brad Dexter + +\[pullquote align='C'\]He has everything, he cannot sleep, he gives nice +gifts, he is not happy, but he would not trade, even for happiness, what +he is....\[/pullquote\] + +"All I ever got out of any of my marriages was the two years Artie Shaw +financed on an analyst's couch." —Ava Gardner + +"We weren't mother and son—we were buddies." —Dolly Sinatra + +"I'm for anything that gets you through the night, be it prayer, +tranquilizers or a bottle of Jack Daniel." —Frank Sinatra + +**FRANK SINATRA WAS TIRED** of all the talk, the gossip, the +theory—tired of reading quotes about himself, of hearing what people +were saying about him all over town. It had been a tedious three weeks, +he said, and now he just wanted to get away, go to Las Vegas, let off +some steam. So he hopped in his jet, soared over the California hills +across the Nevada flats, then over miles and miles of desert to The +Sands and the Clay-Patterson fight. + +On the eve of the fight he stayed up all night and slept through most of +the afternoon, though his recorded voice could be heard singing in the +lobby of The Sands, in the gambling casino, even in the toilets, being +interrupted every few bars however by the paging public address: +"...Telephone call for Mr. Ron Fish, Mr. Ron Fish...with a ribbon of +gold in her hair.... Telephone call for Mr. Herbert Rothstein, Mr. +Herbert Rothstein...memories of a time so bright, keep me sleepless +through dark endless nights...." + +Advertisement - Continue Reading Below + +\[image id='a48c8877-3fd4-41e9-a25d-27ff7f80314b' +mediaId='8f2febeb-db98-47b7-9938-3a45ce6b96b4' caption='' loc='L' +share='true' expand='true' size='L'\]\[/image\] + +Standing around in the lobby of The Sands and other hotels up and down +the strip on this afternoon before the fight were the usual prefight +prophets: the gamblers, the old champs, the little cigar butts from +Eighth Avenue, the sportswriters who knock the big fights all year but +would never miss one, the novelists who seem always to be identifying +with one boxer or another, the local prostitutes assisted by some talent +in from Los Angeles, and also a young brunette in a wrinkled black +cocktail dress who was at the bell captain's desk crying, "But I want to +speak to Mr. Sinatra." + +"He's not here," the bell captain said. + +"Won't you put me through to his room?" + +"There are no messages going through, Miss," he said, and then she +turned, unsteadily, seeming close to tears, and walked through the lobby +into the big noisy casino crowded with men interested only in money. + +Shortly before seven p.m., Jack Entratter, a big grey-haired man who +operates The Sands, walked into the gambling room to tell some men +around the blackjack table that Sinatra was getting dressed. He also +said that he'd been unable to get front-row seats for everybody, and so +some of the men—including Leo Durocher, who had a date, and Joey Bishop, +who was accompanied by his wife—would not be able to fit in Frank +Sinatra's row but would have to take seats in the third row. When +Entratter walked over to tell this to Joey Bishop, Bishop's face fell. +He did not seem angry; he merely looked at Entratter with an empty +silence, seeming somewhat stunned. + +"Joey, I'm sorry," Entratter said when the silence persisted, "but we +couldn't get more than six together in the front row." + +Bishop still said nothing. But when they all appeared at the fight, Joey +Bishop was in the front row, his wife in the third. + +The fight, called a holy war between Muslims and Christians, was +preceded by the introduction of three balding ex-champions, Rocky +Marciano, Joe Louis, Sonny Liston—and then there was "The Star-Spangled +Banner" sung by another man from out of the past, Eddie Fisher. It had +been more than fourteen years ago, but Sinatra could still remember +every detail: Eddie Fisher was then the new king of the baritones, with +Billy Eckstine and Guy Mitchell right with him, and Sinatra had been +long counted out. One day he remembered walking into a broadcasting +studio past dozens of Eddie Fisher fans waiting outside the hall, and +when they saw Sinatra they began to jeer, "Frankie, Frankie, I'm +swooning, I'm swooning." This was also the time when he was selling only +about 30,000 records a year, when he was dreadfully miscast as a funny +man on his television show, and when he recorded such disasters as "Mama +Will Bark," with Dagmar. + +"I growled and barked on the record," Sinatra said, still horrified by +the thought. "The only good it did me was with the dogs." + +His voice and his artistic judgment were incredibly bad in 1952, but +even more responsible for his decline, say his friends, was his pursuit +of Ava Gardner. She was the big movie queen then, one of the most +beautiful women in the world. Sinatra's daughter Nancy recalls seeing +Ava swimming one day in her father's pool, then climbing out of the +water with that fabulous body, walking slowly to the fire, leaning over +it for a few moments, and then it suddenly seemed that her long dark +hair was all dry, miraculously and effortlessly back in place. + +With most women Sinatra dates, his friends say, he never knows whether +they want him for what he can do for them now—or will do for them later. +With Ava Gardner, it was different. He could do nothing for her later. +She was on top. If Sinatra learned anything from his experience with +her, he possibly learned that when a proud man is down a woman cannot +help. Particularly a woman on top. + +\[image id='aad71476-fd68-4886-90d4-40cb7af77c31' +mediaId='fe759f77-4dff-45ce-a086-0f6ec90ef680' caption='Frank Sinatra +and Ava Gardner.' loc='C' share='true' expand='true' +size='M'\]\[/image\] + +Nevertheless, despite a tired voice, some deep emotion seeped into his +singing during this time. One particular song that is well remembered +even now is "I'm a Fool to Want You," and a friend who was in the studio +when Sinatra recorded it recalled: "Frank was really worked up that +night. He did the song in one take, then turned around and walked out of +the studio and that was that...." + +Sinatra's manager at that time, a former song plugger named Hank +Sanicola, said, "Ava loved Frank, but not the way he loved her. He needs +a great deal of love. He wants it twenty-four hours a day, he must have +people around—Frank is that kind of guy." Ava Gardner, Sanicola said, +"was very insecure. She feared she could not really hold a man...twice +he went chasing her to Africa, wasting his own career...." + +"Ava didn't want Frank's men hanging around all the time," another +friend said, "and this got him mad. With Nancy he used to be able to +bring the whole band home with him, and Nancy, the good Italian wife, +would never complain—she'd just make everybody a plate of spaghetti." + +Advertisement - Continue Reading Below + +In 1953, after almost two years of marriage, Sinatra and Ava Gardner +were divorced. Sinatra's mother reportedly arranged a reconciliation, +but if Ava was willing, Frank Sinatra was not. He was seen with other +women. The balance had shifted. Somewhere during this period Sinatra +seemed to change from the kid singer, the boy actor in the sailor suit, +to a man. Even before he had won the Oscar in 1953 for his role in From +Here to Eternity, some flashes of his old talent were coming through—in +his recording of "The Birth of the Blues," in his Riviera-nightclub +appearance that jazz critics enthusiastically praised; and there was +also a trend now toward L.P.'s and away from the quick three-minute +deal, and Sinatra's concert style would have capitalized on this with or +without an Oscar. + +In 1954, totally committed to his talent once more, Frank Sinatra was +selected Metronome's "Singer of the Year," and later he won the U.P.I. +disc-jockey poll, unseating Eddie Fisher—who now, in Las Vegas, having +sung "The Star-Spangled Banner," climbed out of the ring, and the fight +began. + +Floyd Patterson chased Clay around the ring in the first round, but was +unable to reach him, and from then on he was Clay's toy, the bout ending +in a technical knockout in the twelfth round. A half hour later, nearly +everybody had forgotten about the fight and was back at the gambling +tables or lining up to buy tickets for the Dean Martin-Sinatra-Bishop +nightclub routine on the stage of The Sands. This routine, which +includes Sammy Davis, Jr. when he is in town, consists of a few songs +and much cutting up, all of it very informal, very special, and rather +ethnic—Martin, a drink in hand, asking Bishop: "Did you ever see a Jew +jitsu?"; and Bishop, playing a Jewish waiter, warning the two Italians +to watch out "because I got my own group—the Matzia." + +Then after the last show at The Sands, the Sinatra crowd, which now +numbered about twenty—and included Jilly, who had flown in from New +York; Jimmy Cannon, Sinatra's favorite sports columnist; Harold Gibbons, +a Teamster official expected to take over if Hoffa goes to jail—all got +into a line of cars and headed for another club. It was three o'clock. +The night was young. + +They stopped at The Sahara, taking a long table near the back, and +listened to a baldheaded little comedian named Don Rickles, who is +probably more caustic than any comic in the country. His humor is so +rude, in such bad taste, that it offends no one—it is too offensive to +be offensive. Spotting Eddie Fisher among the audience, Rickles +proceeded to ridicule him as a lover, saying it was no wonder that he +could not handle Elizabeth Taylor; and when two businessmen in the +audience acknowledged that they were Egyptian, Rickles cut into them for +their country's policy toward Israel; and he strongly suggested that the +woman seated at one table with her husband was actually a hooker. + +When the Sinatra crowd walked in, Don Rickles could not be more +delighted. Pointing to Jilly, Rickles yelled: "How's it feel to be +Frank's tractor?... Yeah, Jilly keeps walking in front of Frank clearing +the way." Then, nodding to Durocher, Rickles said, "Stand up Leo, show +Frank how you slide." Then he focused on Sinatra, not failing to mention +Mia Farrow, nor that he was wearing a toupee, nor to say that Sinatra +was washed up as a singer, and when Sinatra laughed, everybody laughed, +and Rickles pointed toward Bishop: "Joey Bishop keeps checking with +Frank to see what's funny." + +Then, after Rickles told some Jewish jokes, Dean Martin stood up and +yelled, "Hey, you're always talking about the Jews, never about the +Italians," and Rickles cut him off with, "What do we need the Italians +for—all they do is keep the flies off our fish." + +Sinatra laughed, they all laughed, and Rickles went on this way for +nearly an hour until Sinatra, standing up, said, "All right, com'on, get +this thing over with. I gotta go." + +Advertisement - Continue Reading Below + +"Shaddup and sit down\!" Rickles snapped. "I've had to listen to you +sing...." + +"Who do you think you're talking to?" Sinatra yelled back. + +"Dick Haymes," Rickles replied, and Sinatra laughed again, and then Dean +Martin, pouring a bottle of whisky over his head, entirely drenching his +tuxedo, pounded the table. + +"Who would ever believe that staggering would make a star?" Rickles +said, but Martin called out, "Hey, I wanna make a speech." + +"Shaddup." + +"No, Don, I wanna tell ya," Dean Martin persisted, "that I think you're +a great performer." + +"Well, thank you, Dean," Rickles said, seeming pleased. + +"But don't go by me," Martin said, plopping down into his seat, "I'm +drunk." + +"I'll buy that," Rickles said. + +**BY FOUR A.M. FRANK SINATRA** led the group out of The Sahara, some of +them carrying their glasses of whisky with them, sipping it along the +sidewalk and in the cars; then, returning to The Sands, they walked into +the gambling casino. It was still packed with people, the roulette +wheels spinning, the crapshooters screaming in the far corner. + +Frank Sinatra, holding a shot glass of bourbon in his left hand, walked +through the crowd. He, unlike some of his friends, was perfectly +pressed, his tuxedo tie precisely pointed, his shoes unsmudged. He never +seems to lose his dignity, never lets his guard completely down no +matter how much he has drunk, nor how long he has been up. He never +sways when he walks, like Dean Martin, nor does he ever dance in the +aisles or jump up on tables, like Sammy Davis. + +\[image id='b1caaf3a-fadd-4f2b-9814-c65eb01be90a' +mediaId='11541912-97a4-464f-a3eb-a2ef0e7c6407' caption='' loc='C' +share='true' expand='true' size='M'\]\[/image\] + +A part of Sinatra, no matter where he is, is never there. There is +always a part of him, though sometimes a small part, that remains Il +Padrone. Even now, resting his shot glass on the blackjack table, facing +the dealer, Sinatra stood a bit back from the table, not leaning against +it. He reached under his tuxedo jacket into his trouser pocket and came +up with a thick but clean wad of bills. Gently he peeled off a +one-hundred-dollar bill and placed it on the green-felt table. The +dealer dealt him two cards. Sinatra called for a third card, overbid, +lost the hundred. + +Without a change of expression, Sinatra put down a second hundred-dollar +bill. He lost that. Then he put down a third, and lost that. Then he +placed two one-hundred-dollar bills on the table and lost those. +Finally, putting his sixth hundred-dollar bill on the table, and losing +it, Sinatra moved away from the table, nodding to the man, and +announcing, "Good dealer." + +The crowd that had gathered around him now opened up to let him through. +But a woman stepped in front of him, handing him a piece of paper to +autograph. He signed it and then he said, "Thank you." + +In the rear of The Sands' large dining room was a long table reserved +for Sinatra. The dining room was fairly empty at this hour, with perhaps +two dozen other people in the room, including a table of four unescorted +young ladies sitting near Sinatra. On the other side of the room, at +another long table, sat seven men shoulder-to-shoulder against the wall, +two of them wearing dark glasses, all of them eating quietly, speaking +hardly a word, just sitting and eating and missing nothing. + +Advertisement - Continue Reading Below + +The Sinatra party, after getting settled and having a few more drinks, +ordered something to eat. The table was about the same size as the one +reserved for Sinatra whenever he is at Jilly's in New York; and the +people seated around this table in Las Vegas were many of the same +people who are often seen with Sinatra at Jilly's or at a restaurant in +California, or in Italy, or in New Jersey, or wherever Sinatra happens +to be. When Sinatra sits to dine, his trusted friends are close; and no +matter where he is, no matter how elegant the place may be, there is +something of the neighborhood showing because Sinatra, no matter how far +he has come, is still something of the boy from the neighborhood—only +now he can take his neighborhood with him. + +In some ways, this quasi-family affair at a reserved table in a public +place is the closest thing Sinatra now has to home life. Perhaps, having +had a home and left it, this approximation is as close as he cares to +come; although this does not seem precisely so because he speaks with +such warmth about his family, keeps in close touch with his first wife, +and insists that she make no decision without first consulting him. He +is always eager to place his furniture or other mementos of himself in +her home or his daughter Nancy's, and he also is on amiable terms with +Ava Gardner. When he was in Italy making Von Ryan's Express, they spent +some time together, being pursued wherever they went by the paparazzi. +It was reported then that the paparazzi had made Sinatra a collective +offer of $16,000 if he would pose with Ava Gardner; Sinatra was said to +have made a counter offer of $32,000 if he could break one paparazzi arm +and leg. + +\[pullquote align='C'\]When Sinatra sits to dine, his trusted friends +are close; and no matter where he is, no matter how elegant the place +may be, there is something of the neighborhood showing because Sinatra, +no matter how far he has come, is still something of the boy from the +neighborhood—only now he can take his neighborhood with +him.\[/pullquote\] + +While Sinatra is often delighted that he can be in his home completely +without people, enabling him to read and think without interruption, +there are occasions when he finds himself alone at night, and not by +choice. He may have dialed a half-dozen women, and for one reason or +another they are all unavailable. So he will call his valet, George +Jacobs. + +"I'll be coming home for dinner tonight, George." + +"How many will there be?" + +"Just myself," Sinatra will say. "I want something light, I'm not very +hungry." + +George Jacobs is a twice-divorced man of thirty-six who resembles Billy +Eckstine. He has traveled all over the world with Sinatra and is devoted +to him. Jacobs lives in a comfortable bachelor's apartment off Sunset +Boulevard around the corner from Whiskey à Go Go, and he is known around +town for the assortment of frisky California girls he has as friends—a +few of whom, he concedes, were possibly drawn to him initially because +of his closeness to Frank Sinatra. + +When Sinatra arrives, Jacobs will serve him dinner in the dining room. +Then Sinatra will tell Jacobs that he is free to go home. If Sinatra, on +such evenings, should ask Jacobs to stay longer, or to play a few hands +of poker, he would be happy to do so. But Sinatra never does. + +Advertisement - Continue Reading Below + +**THIS WAS HIS SECOND** night in Las Vegas, and Frank Sinatra sat with +friends in The Sands' dining room until nearly eight a.m. He slept +through much of the day, then flew back to Los Angeles, and on the +following morning he was driving his little golf cart through the +Paramount Pictures movie lot. He was scheduled to complete two final +scenes with the sultry blonde actress, Virna Lisi, in the film Assault +on a Queen. As he maneuvered the little vehicle up the road between the +big studio buildings, he spotted Steve Rossi who, with his comedy +partner Marty Allen, was making a film in an adjoining studio with Nancy +Sinatra. + +"Hey, Dag," he yelled to Rossi, "stop kissing Nancy." + +"It's part of the film, Frank," Rossi said, turning as he walked. + +"In the garage?" + +"It's my Dago blood, Frank." + +"Well, cool it," Sinatra said, winking, then cutting his golf cart +around a corner and parking it outside a big drab building within which +the scenes for Assault would be filmed. + +"Where's the fat director?" Sinatra called out, striding into the studio +that was crowded with dozens of technical assistants and actors all +gathered around cameras. The director, Jack Donohue, a large man who has +worked with Sinatra through twenty-two years on one production or other, +has had headaches with this film. The script had been chopped, the +actors seemed restless, and Sinatra had become bored. But now there were +only two scenes left—a short one to be filmed in the pool, and a longer +and passionate one featuring Sinatra and Virna Lisi to be shot on a +simulated beach. + +The pool scene, which dramatizes a situation where Sinatra and his +hijackers fail in their attempt to sack the Queen Mary, went quickly and +well. After Sinatra had been kept in the water shoulder-high for a few +minutes, he said, "Let's move it, fellows—it's cold in this water, and +I've just gotten over one cold." + +So the camera crews moved in closer, Virna Lisi splashed next to Sinatra +in the water, and Jack Donohue yelled to his assistants operating the +fans, "Get the waves going," and another man gave the command, +"Agitate\!" and Sinatra broke out in song. "Agitate in rhythm," then +quieted down just before the cameras started to roll. + +Frank Sinatra was on the beach in the next situation, supposedly gazing +up at the stars, and Virna Lisi was to approach him, toss one of her +shoes near him to announce her presence, then sit near him and prepare +for a passionate session. Just before beginning, Miss Lisi made a +practice toss of her shoe toward the prone figure of Sinatra sprawled on +the beach. As she tossed her shoe, Sinatra called out, "Hit me in my +bird and I'm going home." + +Virna Lisi, who understands little English and certainly none of +Sinatra's special vocabulary, looked confused, but everybody behind the +camera laughed. She threw the shoe toward him. It twirled in the air, +landed on his stomach. + +"Well, that's about three inches too high," he announced. She again was +puzzled by the laughter behind the camera. + +Then Jack Donohue had them rehearse their lines, and Sinatra, still very +charged from the Las Vegas trip, and anxious to get the cameras rolling, +said, "Let's try one." Donohue, not certain that Sinatra and Lisi knew +their lines well enough, nevertheless said okay, and an assistant with a +clapboard called, "419, Take 1," and Virna Lisi approached with the +shoe, tossed it at Frank lying on the beach. It fell short of his thigh, +and Sinatra's right eye raised almost imperceptibly, but the crew got +the message, smiled. + +"What do the stars tell you tonight?" Miss Lisi said, delivering her +first line, and sitting next to Sinatra on the beach. + +"The stars tell me tonight I'm an idiot," Sinatra said, "a gold-plated +idiot to get mixed up in this thing...." + +Advertisement - Continue Reading Below + +"Cut," Donohue said. There were some microphone shadows on the sand, and +Virna Lisi was not sitting in the proper place near Sinatra. + +"419, Take 2," the clapboard man called. + +Miss Lisi again approached, threw the shoe at him, this time falling +short—Sinatra exhaling only slightly—and she said, "What do the stars +tell you tonight?" + +"The stars tell me I'm an idiot, a gold-plated idiot to get mixed up in +this thing...." Then, according to the script, Sinatra was to continue, +"...do you know what we're getting into? The minute we step on the deck +of the Queen Mary, we've just tattooed ourselves," but Sinatra, who +often improvises on lines, recited them: "...do you know what we're +getting into? The minute we step on the deck of that mother's-ass +ship...." + +\[image id='1b489825-7e76-4f78-9339-404b1201ec3f' +mediaId='185fbe7c-8941-47d1-b52d-3d8ba103af72' caption='Virna Lisi and +Frank Sinatra on the set of "Assault on a Queen". 1966.' loc='R' +share='true' expand='true' size='L'\]\[/image\] + +"No, no," Donohue interrupted, shaking his head, "I don't think that's +right." + +The cameras stopped, some people laughed, and Sinatra looked up from his +position in the sand as if he had been unfairly interrupted. + +"I don't see why that can't work..." he began, but Richard Conte, +standing behind the camera, yelled, "It won't play in London." + +Donohue pushed his hand through his thinning grey hair and said, but not +really in anger, "You know, that scene was pretty good until somebody +blew the line...." + +"Yeah," agreed the cameraman, Billy Daniels, his head popping out from +around the camera, "it was a pretty good piece...." + +"Watch your language," Sinatra cut in. Then Sinatra, who has a genius +for figuring out ways of not reshooting scenes, suggested a way in which +the film could be used and the "mother" line could be recorded later. +This met with approval. Then the cameras were rolling again, Virna Lisi +was leaning toward Sinatra in the sand, and then he pulled her down +close to him. The camera now moved in for a close-up of their faces, +ticking away for a few long seconds, but Sinatra and Lisi did not stop +kissing, they just lay together in the sand wrapped in one another's +arms, and then Virna Lisi's left leg just slightly began to rise a bit, +and everybody in the studio now watched in silence, not saying anything +until Donohue finally called out: + +"If you ever get through, let me know. I'm running out of film." + +Then Miss Lisi got up, straightened out her white dress, brushed back +her [blonde hair](/entertainment/interviews/g1311/hot-blondes/) and +touched her lipstick, which was smeared. Sinatra got up, a little smile +on his lips, and headed for his dressing room. + +Passing an older man who stood near a camera, Sinatra asked, "How's your +Bell & Howell?" + +The older man smiled. + +"It's fine, Frank." + +"Good." + +In his dressing room Sinatra was met by an automobile designer who had +the plans for Sinatra's new custom-built model to replace the $25,000 +Ghia he has been driving for the last few years. He also was awaited by +his secretary, Tom Conroy, who had a bag full of fan mail, including a +letter from New York's Mayor John Lindsay; and by Bill Miller, Sinatra's +pianist, who would rehearse some of the songs that would be recorded +later in the evening for Sinatra's newest album, Moonlight Sinatra. + +While Sinatra does not mind hamming it up a bit on a movie set, he is +extremely serious about his recording sessions; as he explained to a +British writer, Robin Douglas-Home: "Once you're on that record singing, +it's you and you alone. If it's bad and gets you criticized, it's you +who's to blame—no one else. If it's good, it's also you. With a film +it's never like that; there are producers and scriptwriters, and +hundreds of men in offices and the thing is taken right out of your +hands. With a record, you're it...." + +But now the days are short + +I'm in the autumn of the year + +And now I think of my life + +As vintage wine + +From fine old kegs.... + +It no longer matters what song he is singing, or who wrote the +words—they are all his words, his sentiments, they are chapters from +the lyrical novel of his life. + +Life is a beautiful thing + +As long as I hold the string.... + +When Frank Sinatra drives to the studio, he seems to dance out of the +car across the sidewalk into the front door; then, snapping his fingers, +he is standing in front of the orchestra in an intimate, airtight room, +and soon he is dominating every man, every instrument, every sound wave. +Some of the musicians have accompanied him for twenty-five years, have +gotten old hearing him sing "You Make Me Feel So Young." + +When his voice is on, as it was tonight, Sinatra is in ecstasy, the room +becomes electric, there is an excitement that spreads through the +orchestra and is felt in the control booth where a dozen men, Sinatra's +friends, wave at him from behind the glass. One of the men is the +Dodgers' pitcher, Don Drysdale ("Hey, Big D," Sinatra calls out, "hey, +baby\!"); another is the professional golfer Bo Wininger; there are also +numbers of pretty women standing in the booth behind the engineers, +women who smile at Sinatra and softly move their bodies to the mellow +mood of his music: + +Will this be moon love + +Nothing but moon love + +Will you be gone when the dawn + +Comes stealing through.... + +\[pullquote align='C'\]It no longer matters what song he is singing, or +who wrote the words—they are all his words, his sentiments, they are +chapters from the lyrical novel of his life.\[/pullquote\] + +Advertisement - Continue Reading Below + +After he is finished, the record is played back on tape, and Nancy +Sinatra, who has just walked in, joins her father near the front of the +orchestra to hear the playback. They listen silently, all eyes on them, +the king, the princess; and when the music ends there is applause from +the control booth, Nancy smiles, and her father snaps his fingers and +says, kicking a foot, "Ooba-deeba-boobe-do\!" + +Then Sinatra calls to one of his men. "Hey, Sarge, think I can have a +half-a-cup of coffee?" + +Sarge Weiss, who had been listening to the music, slowly gets up. + +"Didn't mean to wake ya, Sarge," Sinatra says, smiling. + +Then Weiss brings the coffee, and Sinatra looks at it, smells it, then +announces, "I thought he'd be nice to me, but it's really coffee...." + +There are more smiles, and then the orchestra prepares for the next +number. And one hour later, it is over. + +The musicians put their instruments into their cases, grab their coats, +and begin to file out, saying good-night to Sinatra. He knows them all +by name, knows much about them personally, from their bachelor days, +through their divorces, through their ups and downs, as they know him. +When a French-horn player, a short Italian named Vincent DeRosa, who has +played with Sinatra since The Lucky Strike "Hit Parade" days on radio, +strolled by, Sinatra reached out to hold him for a second. + +"Vicenzo," Sinatra said, "how's your little girl?" + +"She's fine, Frank." + +"Oh, she's not a little girl anymore," Sinatra corrected himself, "she's +a big girl now." + +"Yes, she goes to college now. U.S.C." + +"That's great." + +"She's also got a little talent, I think, Frank, as a singer." + +Sinatra was silent for a moment, then said, "Yes, but it's very good for +her to get her education first, Vicenzo." + +Vincent DeRosa nodded. + +"Yes, Frank," he said, and then he said, "Well, good-night, Frank." + +"Good-night, Vicenzo." + +After the musicians had all gone, Sinatra left the recording room and +joined his friends in the corridor. He was going to go out and do some +drinking with Drysdale, Wininger, and a few other friends, but first he +walked to the other end of the corridor to say good-night to Nancy, who +was getting her coat and was planning to drive home in her own car. + +After Sinatra had kissed her on the cheek, he hurried to join his +friends at the door. But before Nancy could leave the studio, one of +Sinatra's men, Al Silvani, a former prizefight manager, joined her. + +"Are you ready to leave yet, Nancy?" + +"Oh, thanks, Al," she said, "but I'll be all right." + +"Pope's orders," Silvani said, holding his hands up, palms out. + +Only after Nancy had pointed to two of her friends who would escort her +home, and only after Silvani recognized them as friends, would he leave. + +**THE REST OF THE MONTH** was bright and balmy. The record session had +gone magnificently, the film was finished, the television shows were out +of the way, and now Sinatra was in his Ghia driving out to his office to +begin coordinating his latest projects. He had an engagement at The +Sands, a new spy film called The Naked Runner to be shot in England, and +a couple more albums to do in the immediate months ahead. And within a +week he would be fifty years old.... + +Life is a beautiful thing + +As long as I hold the string + +I'd be a silly so-and-so + +If I should ever let go... + +\[image id='2af39f78-e339-4f64-8398-1a3b50218567' +mediaId='f94355d1-116f-45c7-876e-3ed63199393d' caption='' loc='C' +share='true' expand='true' size='M'\]\[/image\] + +Advertisement - Continue Reading Below + +Frank Sinatra stopped his car. The light was red. Pedestrians passed +quickly across his windshield but, as usual, one did not. It was a girl +in her twenties. She remained at the curb staring at him. Through the +corner of his left eye he could see her, and he knew, because it happens +almost every day, that she was thinking, It looks like him, but is it? + +Just before the light turned green, Sinatra turned toward her, looked +directly into her eyes waiting for the reaction he knew would come. It +came and he smiled. She smiled and he was gone. + +**[Read more](/news-politics/g114/greatest-stories/) of the greatest +Esquire stories ever published—in their entirety.** diff --git a/_stories/1969/10929015.md b/_stories/1969/10929015.md index ba28300..1022322 100644 --- a/_stories/1969/10929015.md +++ b/_stories/1969/10929015.md @@ -19,7 +19,175 @@ _tags: objectID: '10929015' --- -[Source](https://www.nytimes.com/books/97/03/23/lifetimes/asi-v-profile.html "Permalink to ") +![C](/images/c.gif)limb to the second floor of a neat, middle-class +house in West Newton, Mass., bear to the right, walk a few steps and you +come to a door. On it are stickers, "Great Lover," "Silence Please," +"Genius at Work." Obviously in the house there are children, and, as +usual, the pasted-up graffiti of children have something going for them. +"Great Lover' we can skip as being nobody's business. As to the +others\*well, this door leads to the office of Isaac Asimov. +Silence he needs, for this definitely is a hard-working man and one of +fierce concentration. Genius he may be, although he disputes it. In the +matter-of-fact way in which he writes, he puts it thus: "Just say I am +one of the most versatile writers in the world, and the greatest +popularizer of many subjects." These range from the Bible down through +history and the ramifications of science to Shakespeare, on which he's +now working. The 100th bound result of his labors is scheduled for fall, +and in Books in Print, where the the size is small indeed, the listing +of various editions of his work runs a column and a half in length. +Is he the most prolific writer in the world? Says Mr. Asimov, "No, there +are others, most notably Georges Simenon. But he *writes* only novels." +The inference is clear that M. Simenon, word demon that he may be, would +be hard put to turn out such an item as "An Easy Introduction to the +Slide Rule," which Mr. Asimov did. The Asimov books average 70,000 +words, he has written 108 of them (the last few are still at the +printers) and all this comes to 7,560,000 words. "And the most pleasant +thing about it is that everything I write gets printed." +He is 49, reasonably slight of build, the type of man who thought he +should put on a necktie while meeting a visitor, then said the hell with +it on the ground it would be unnatural. The most distinguishing things +about him are the heavy frames holding his glasses and the incredible +neatness of his office. This last is as well, for he spends practically +all his life there, knocking out 90 words a minute on an electric +typewriter, with a back-up typewriter should the first one break down. + +He leaves his typewriter unwillingly and as seldom as possible\*going +forth into the outer world only to give an occasional lecture or when +his wife and two teen-age children insist he take them somewhere. The +members of the family are crosses to be borne, if pleasant crosses. "I'm +really happy only when I'm up here working," he says with a wry grin. + +He met his visitor at 8:30 in the morning—this unholy hour a concession +to his working day\*and while he talked of himself and his work he +seemed on occasion to furtively eye the idle typewriter. People from New +York can be as great a nuisance as a family. + +His story technically begins in Russia, where he was born, but really in +East New York\*which is Brooklyn\*where he grew up. His father operated +candy stores, and indeed Isaac worked in or was otherwise connected with +candy stores until he was 27, got married and withdrew. He entered +Columbia at 15, received an A.B., kept going to an M.A., was in the +armed forces, returned to Columbia for his Ph.D., and thus became +entitled to cal himself "Dr. Asimov." + +More important to this particular story than the Ph.D is the fact that +at age 11, he found himself with an urge to write. In a series of 5-cent +copybooks, he wrote eight chapters of a novel called "The Greenville +Chums at College," which, it is perhaps unnecessary to say, was modeled +closely on the Rover Boys. When he was 16, his father dipped into the +somewhat lean till of the candy store to buy him a secondhand +typewriter, and young Isaac was, in effect, off to the races. + +This began with science fiction. At 18, he sent his first story to John +W. Campbell, editor of Astounding Science Fiction. That came back, but +the same editor on Oct. 21, 1938 -- this date is well-remembered -- +bought a story called "Marooned Off Vesta," which appeared five months +later in Amazing Stories. Mr. Asimov remembers a detail, not hard under +the circumstance\*he got $64 for the 6,400 word story. + +In 1950, his first book, a science-fiction novel called "Pebble in the +Sky," was published by Doubleday, but a year before he had begun to take +aim at fields beyond science fiction. By then, a professor of +biochemistry at Boston University, he collaborated with two colleagues +on a textbook which proved successful (three editions thus far) and this +led him to science, minus the fiction. Finding he could explain +science\*well, by logical steps, he also could explain the Bible, +history, what have you. + +He still has one contact with Boston University. "Each year, I give the +opening lecture for a course in biochemistry. No fee, of course, but a +sort of introductory thing, which I try to keep light and amusing, and +is attended by secretaries as well as students. I hope we all have a +good time; I know that I do." + +The neatness of Mr. Asimov's day is as neat as his office. The usual one +and the usual is seven each week -- opens at about 7 o'clock, when he +gets up, has breakfast and goes to the post office, arriving at 8 sharp, +when it opens. He is what is called a "morning caller," meaning that he +collects his own mail rather than waits for delivery, and the simple +truth here is that he does so in order to drop junk mail in the post +office's wastebasket rather than his own. On a recent day the mail he +brought home consisted of the following: A publisher's contract, a +royalty check from new American Library, a Canadian publisher's formal +agreement to terms, contracts for inclusion of an article in an +anthology (he's also one of the most thoroughly anthologized writers +around), a bill, five fan letters from people saying they liked what he +had written, a request for a contribution, eight magazines. + +He is through with the mail between 9:30 and 10, and is ready for work. +There are 1,000 volumes in his personal library, 126 volumes of bound +Asimov writings. The bookcases are low because of the sloping ceilings +of his attic habitat, and the books are arranged as fiction, nonfiction, +history, science, etc. There are filing cabinets at various places about +the room, the high-speed typewriter is beside a table he uses as a desk. +Should he look from the window, he would see a willow tree in the yard, +but he does not look. He doesn't cut the grass, either. That would take +time away from writing. + +He types his 90 words a minute until about 5 o'clock, sometimes having a +coffee break, and always trying not to overeat at lunch. Usually he goes +back to the shop after dinner and sometimes remains there until 10 +o'clock, when he takes outgoing mail to a box in front of nearby Warren +Junior High School. + +The comings and goings of high-school students would drive a lesser man +frantic, but he doesn't hear them. Some nights he quits at 8 rather than +10, and then tries to find funny programs on TV or reads mysteries, +magazines or science fiction. He'll miss the Smothers Brothers. + +In the Asimov scheme of things, there is no secretary, no typist, no +agent. He arranges his own indices, reads his own galleys, runs +everything through the typewriter at least twice. In this modern age, +everything changes fast and when he comes on changes, from reading +scientific papers and the like, he makes marginal notes in the pages of +his own works\*thus having a filing system that always is up-to-date. +The notes become revisions for later editions, or source material for +entirely new books. + +Mrs. Asimov, the former Gertrude Blugerman, born in Toronto but married +in 1942 in New York, keeps her part of the house as neat as he does his. +Womanlike, however, she wants a vacation now and then, and the one he +remembers was a couple of years ago when he gave in and they went to a +hotel at Annisquam on Cape Ann. The college student personnel was +arranging a parody of Cole Porter's "Kiss Me Kate" for the enjoyment of +the guests, and hearing that a writer had arrived, asked Mr. Asimov to +help with the lyrics. He spent seven wonderful days at a typewriter, +never going outdoors. He never saw the show, either, but his wife did, +reporting one guest as saying to another that the music wasn't very +good, but Oh, those lyrics\! It was the greatest accolade he has had. + +It takes a good many publishers, hardcover and paperback, to keep up +with the Asimov output and its many subjects. Doubleday and Houghton, +Mifflin publish about 60 per cent of his work, and as he puts it, "both +represent a father image." In January, the first-named father image will +celebrate the 20th anniversary of "Pebble in the Sky" by publishing "The +Solar System and Back," a collection of essays written over the last 11 +years for the Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction. This October, the +other father image will publish "Opus 100," this 100th book being an +anthology of material chosen by the author from his first 99. His +favorite book? "The last one I've written." + +The world is the oyster for Asimov, and for the future there are vague +plans for almost everything therein save two. No mysteries are on the +schedule, and no books on computers. He has been asked to write his +autobiography, but counters this with the remark, "What can I say?" +There could be something in the future wind here, however, for he asked +his father, Judah Asimov, now 74 and retired, to put down notes for +*his* autobiography. When these come in, they are filed away and could +end up as background for the Asimov younger days. + +The elder Asimov also writes on a typewriter. Having bought a couple +when times were tough so that his son could become a writer, he finally +bought one for himself. He wouldn't accept one as a gift. Rugged +individualist. + +*Mr. Nichols is a member of the Book Review +staff.* + +[![](http://www.nytimes.com/books/images_br/buy11.gif)](http://www.nytimes.com/books/bn/image?sourceid=4773&categoryid=nytsearch) +![](http://barnesandnoble.bfast.com/booklink/serve?sourceid=4773&categoryid=nytsearch) + +[Return to the Books Home Page](/books) diff --git a/_stories/1969/14337870.md b/_stories/1969/14337870.md index a7fb5d2..30fc065 100644 --- a/_stories/1969/14337870.md +++ b/_stories/1969/14337870.md @@ -19,7 +19,252 @@ _tags: objectID: '14337870' --- -[Source](https://www.theparisreview.org/interviews/4155/the-art-of-the-essay-no-1-e-b-white "Permalink to ") +Interviewed by George Plimpton and Frank H. Crowther +### Issue 48, Fall 1969 +![undefined](/il/c4d3ed8a12/large/EB-White.jpg "undefined")E. B. White +and his dog Minnie. +  + +If it happens that your parents concern themselves so little with the +workings of boys’ minds as to christen you Elwyn Brooks White, no doubt +you decide as early as possible to identify yourself as E.B. White. If +it also happens that you attend Cornell, whose first president was +Andrew D. White, then, following a variant of the principle that +everybody named Rhodes winds up being nicknamed “Dusty,” you wind up +being nicknamed “Andy.” And so it has come about that for fifty of his +seventy years Elwyn Brooks White has been known to his readers as E.B. +White and to his friends as Andy. Andy White. Andy and Katharine White. +The Whites. Andy and Katharine have been married for forty years, and in +that time they have been separated so rarely that I find it impossible +to think of one without the other. On the occasions when they have been +obliged to be apart, Andy’s conversation is so likely to center on +Katharine that she becomes all the more present for being absent. + +The Whites have shared everything, from professional association on the +same magazine to preoccupation with a joint ill health that many of +their friends have been inclined to regard as imaginary. Years ago, in a +Christmas doggerel, Edmund Wilson saluted them for possessing “mens sana +in corpore insano,” and it was always wonderful to behold the intuitive +seesaw adjustments by which one of them got well in time for the other +to get sick. What a mountain of good work they have accumulated in that +fashion\! Certainly they have been the strongest and most productive +unhealthy couple that I have ever encountered, but I no longer dare to +make fun of their ailments. Now that age is bestowing on them a natural +infirmity, they must be sorely tempted to say to the rest of us, “You +see? What did we tell you?” (“Sorely,” by the way, has been a favorite +adverb of Andy’s- a word that brims with bodily woe and that yet hints +at the heroic: back of Andy, some dying knight out of Malory lifts his +gleaming sword against the dusk.) + +Andy White is small and wiry, with an unexpectedly large nose, speckled +eyes, and an air of being just about to turn away, not on an errand of +any importance but as a means of remaining free to cut and run without +the nuisance of prolonged good-byes. Crossing the threshold of his +eighth decade, his person is uncannily boyish-seeming. Though his hair +is grey, I learn at this moment that I do not consent to the fact: away +from him, I remember it as brown, therefore it is brown to me. Andy can +no more lose his youthfulness by the tiresome accident of growing old +than he could ever have been Elwyn by the tiresome un-necessary accident +of baptism; his youth and his “Andy”-ness are intrinsic and +inexpungeable. Katharine White is a woman so good-looking that nobody +has taken it amiss when her husband has described in print as beautiful, +but her beauty has a touch of blue-eyed augustness in it, and her manner +is formal. It would never occur to me to go beyond calling her +Katharine, and I have not found it surprising when her son, Roger +Angell, an editor of The New Yorker, refers to her within the office +precincts as “Mrs. White.” (Roger Angell is the son of her marriage to a +distinguished New York attorney, Ernest Angell; she and Andy have a son, +Joe, who is a naval architect and whose boatyard is a thriving +enterprise in the Whites’ hometown of Brooklin, Maine.) + +At the risk of reducing a man’s life to a sort of Merck’s Manual, I may +mention that Andy White’s personal physician, Dana Atchley- giving +characteristically short shrift to a psychosomatic view of his old +friend- has described him as having a Rolls Royce mind in a Model T +body. With Andy, this would pass for a compliment, because in the +tyranny of his modesty he would always choose to be a Ford instead of a +Rolls, but it would be closer to the truth to describe him as a Rolls +Royce mind in a Rolls Royce body that unaccountably keeps bumping to a +stop and humming to itself, not without infinite pleasure to others +along the way. What he achieves must cost him a considerable effort and +appears to cost him very little. His speaking voice, like his writing +voice, is clear, resonant, and invincibly debonair. He wanders over the +pastures of his Maine farm or, for that matter, along the labyrinthine +corridors of The New Yorker offices on West Forty-Third Street with the +off-hand grace of a dancer making up a sequence of steps that the eye +follows with delight and that defies any but his own notation. Clues to +the bold and delicate nature of those steps are to be discovered in +every line he writes, but the man and his work are so nearly one that, +try as we will, we cannot tell the dancer from the dance. + +  + +  + + -Brendan Gill + +  + +INTERVIEWER + +So many critics equate the success of a writer with an unhappy +childhood. Can you say something of your own childhood in Mount Vernon? + +E.B. WHITE + +As a child, I was frightened but not unhappy. My parents were loving and +kind. We were a large family (six children) and were a small kingdom +unto ourselves. Nobody ever came to dinner. My father was formal, +conservative, successful, hardworking, and worried. My mother was +loving, hardworking, and retiring. We lived in a large house in a leafy +suburb, where there were backyards and stables and grape arbors. I +lacked for nothing except confidence. I suffered nothing except the +routine terrors of childhood: fear of the dark, fear of the future, fear +of the return to school after a summer on a lake in Maine, fear of +making an appearance on a platform, fear of the lavatory in the school +basement where the slate urinals cascaded, fear that I was unknowing +about things I should know about. I was, as a child, allergic to pollens +and dusts, and still am. I was allergic to platforms, and still am. It +may be, as some critics suggest, that it helps to have an unhappy +childhood. If so, I have no knowledge of it. Perhaps it helps to have +been scared or allergic to pollens—I don’t know. + +INTERVIEWER + +At what age did you know you were going to follow a literary profession? +Was there a particular incident, or moment? + +WHITE + +I never knew for sure that I would follow a literary profession. I was +twenty-seven or twenty-eight before anything happened that gave me any +assurance that I could make a go of writing. I had done a great deal of +writing, but I lacked confidence in my ability to put it to good use. I +went abroad one summer and on my return to New York found an +accumulation of mail at my apartment. I took the letters, unopened, and +went to a Childs restaurant on Fourteenth Street, where I ordered dinner +and began opening my mail. From one envelope, two or three checks +dropped out, from The New Yorker. I suppose they totaled a little under +a hundred dollars, but it looked like a fortune to me. I can still +remember the feeling that “this was it”—I was a pro at last. It was a +good feeling and I enjoyed the meal. + +INTERVIEWER + +What were those first pieces accepted by The New Yorker? Did you send +them in with a covering letter, or through an agent? + +WHITE + +They were short sketches—what Ross called “casuals.” One, I think, was a +piece called “The Swell Steerage,” about the then new college cabin +class on transatlantic ships. I never submitted a manuscript with a +covering letter or through an agent. I used to put my manuscript in the +mail, along with a stamped envelope for the rejection. This was a matter +of high principle with me: I believed in the doctrine of immaculate +rejection. I never used an agent and did not like the looks of a +manuscript after an agent got through prettying it up and putting it +between covers with brass clips. (I now have an agent for such mysteries +as movie rights and foreign translations.) + +A large part of all early contributions to The New Yorker arrived +uninvited and unexpected. They arrived in the mail or under the arm of +people who walked in with them. O’Hara’s “Afternoon Delphians” is one +example out of hundreds. For a number of years, The New Yorker published +an average of fifty new writers a year. Magazines that refuse +unsolicited manuscripts strike me as lazy, incurious, self-assured, and +self-important. I’m speaking of magazines of general circulation. There +may be some justification for a technical journal to limit its list of +contributors to persons who are known to be qualified. But if I were a +publisher, I wouldn’t want to put out a magazine that failed to examine +everything that turned up. + +INTERVIEWER + +But did The New Yorker ever try to publish the emerging writers of the +time: Hemingway, Faulkner, Dos Passos, Fitzgerald, Miller, Lawrence, +Joyce, Wolfe, et al? + +WHITE + +The New Yorker had an interest in publishing any writer that could turn +in a good piece. It read everything submitted. Hemingway, Faulkner, and +the others were well established and well paid when The New Yorker came +on the scene. The magazine would have been glad to publish them, but it +didn’t have the money to pay them off, and for the most part they didn’t +submit. They were selling to The Saturday Evening Post and other +well-heeled publications, and in general were not inclined to contribute +to the small, new, impecunious weekly. Also, some of them, I would +guess, did not feel sympathetic to The New Yorker’s frivolity. Ross had +no great urge to publish the big names; he was far more interested in +turning up new and yet undiscovered talent, the Helen Hokinsons and the +James Thurbers. We did publish some things by Wolfe—“Only the Dead Know +Brooklyn” was one. I believe we published something by Fitzgerald. But +Ross didn’t waste much time trying to corral “emerged” writers. He was +looking for the ones that were found by turning over a stone. + +INTERVIEWER + +What were the procedures in turning down a manuscript by a New +Yorker regular? Was this done by Ross? + +WHITE + +The manuscript of a New Yorker regular was turned down in the same +manner as was the manuscript of a New Yorker irregular. It was simply +rejected, usually by the subeditor who was handling the author in +question. Ross did not deal directly with writers and artists, except in +the case of a few old friends from an earlier day. He wouldn’t even take +on Woollcott—regarded him as too difficult and fussy. Ross disliked +rejecting pieces, and he disliked firing people—he ducked both tasks +whenever he could. + +INTERVIEWER + +Did feuds threaten the magazine? + +WHITE + +Feuds did not threaten The New Yorker. The only feud I recall was the +running battle between the editorial department and the advertising +department. This was largely a one-sided affair, with the editorial +department lobbing an occasional grenade into the enemy’s lines just on +general principles, to help them remember to stay out of sight. Ross was +determined not to allow his magazine to be swayed, in the slightest +degree, by the boys in advertising. As far as I know, he succeeded. + +INTERVIEWER + +When did you first move to New York, and what were some of the things +you did before joining The New Yorker? Were you ever a part of the +Algonquin group? + +WHITE + +After I got out of college, in 1921, I went to work in New York but did +not live in New York. I lived at home, with my father and mother in +Mount Vernon, and commuted to work. I held three jobs in about seven +months—first with the United Press, then with a public relations man +named Wheat, then with the American Legion News Service. I disliked them +all, and in the spring of 1922 I headed west in a Model T Ford with a +college mate, Howard Cushman, to seek my fortune and as a way of getting +away from what I disliked. I landed in Seattle six months later, worked +there as a reporter on the Times for a year, was fired, shipped to +Alaska aboard a freighter, and then returned to New York. It was on my +return that I became an advertising man—Frank Seaman & Co., J. H. +Newmark. In the mid-twenties, I moved into a two-room apartment at 112 +West Thirteenth Street with three other fellows, college mates of mine +at Cornell: Burke Dowling Adams, Gustave Stubbs Lobrano, and Mitchell T. +Galbreath. The rent was $110 a month. Split four ways it came to $27.50, +which I could afford. My friends in those days were the fellows already +mentioned. Also, Peter Vischer, Russell Lord, Joel Sayre, Frank Sullivan +(he was older and more advanced but I met him and liked him), James +Thurber, and others. I was never a part of the Algonquin group. After +becoming connected with The New Yorker, I lunched once at the Round +Table but didn’t care for it and was embarrassed in the presence of the +great. I never was well acquainted with Benchley or Broun or Dorothy +Parker or Woollcott. I did not know Don Marquis or Ring Lardner, both of +whom I greatly admired. I was a younger man. diff --git a/_stories/1970/5340553.md b/_stories/1970/5340553.md index 2dcc83d..3d14682 100644 --- a/_stories/1970/5340553.md +++ b/_stories/1970/5340553.md @@ -19,7 +19,14 @@ _tags: objectID: '5340553' --- -[Source](https://ivolo.me/soviet-college-admission/ "Permalink to ") +# 404 +**There isn't a GitHub Pages site here.** +If you're trying to publish one, [read the full +documentation](https://help.github.com/pages/) to learn how to set up +**GitHub Pages** for your repository, organization, or user +account. +[![](data:image/png;base64,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)](/) +[![](data:image/png;base64,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)](/) diff --git a/_stories/1970/8302529.md b/_stories/1970/8302529.md deleted file mode 100644 index 5d314a2..0000000 --- a/_stories/1970/8302529.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,25 +0,0 @@ ---- -created_at: '2014-09-11T13:52:24.000Z' -title: New York City Transit Authority Graphics Standards Manual (1970) -url: http://thestandardsmanual.com/ -author: smacktoward -points: 61 -story_text: '' -comment_text: -num_comments: 12 -story_id: -story_title: -story_url: -parent_id: -created_at_i: 1410443544 -_tags: -- story -- author_smacktoward -- story_8302529 -objectID: '8302529' - ---- -[Source](http://thestandardsmanual.com/ "Permalink to ") - - - diff --git a/_stories/1972/10206309.md b/_stories/1972/10206309.md deleted file mode 100644 index 33130cf..0000000 --- a/_stories/1972/10206309.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,25 +0,0 @@ ---- -created_at: '2015-09-11T21:36:52.000Z' -title: The original Unix init system (1972) -url: https://code.google.com/p/unix-jun72/source/browse/trunk/src/cmd/init.s -author: vezzy-fnord -points: 94 -story_text: -comment_text: -num_comments: 36 -story_id: -story_title: -story_url: -parent_id: -created_at_i: 1442007412 -_tags: -- story -- author_vezzy-fnord -- story_10206309 -objectID: '10206309' - ---- -[Source](https://code.google.com/p/unix-jun72/source/browse/trunk/src/cmd/init.s "Permalink to ") - - - diff --git a/_stories/1974/14335310.md b/_stories/1974/14335310.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..b7b687d --- /dev/null +++ b/_stories/1974/14335310.md @@ -0,0 +1,554 @@ +--- +created_at: '2017-05-14T12:19:12.000Z' +title: How to Spot a Spook (1974) +url: http://cryptome.org/dirty-work/spot-spook.htm +author: mercer +points: 130 +story_text: +comment_text: +num_comments: 63 +story_id: +story_title: +story_url: +parent_id: +created_at_i: 1494764352 +_tags: +- story +- author_mercer +- story_14335310 +objectID: '14335310' + +--- +29 May 2010 + +Related: + +"Where Myths Lead to Murder," Philip Agee: + + +CIA Who's Where in Europe: + + +### How to Spot a Spook + +**by John Marks** + +From: *Dirty Work: The CIA in Western Europe*, by Philip Agee and Louis +Wolf, 1978, pp. 29-39. + +> Footnote: \[This article first appeared in the November 1974 issue of +> *Washington Monthly*, Washington, D.C.\] + +Both the Soviet and American intelligence establishments seem to share +the obsession that the other side is always trying to bug them. Since +the other side is, in fact, usually trying, our technicians and their +technicians are constantly sweeping military installations and embassies +to make sure no enemy, real or imagined, has succeeded. One night about +ten years ago, a State Department security officer, prowling through the +American embassy in Santiago, Chile, in search of Communist microphones, +found a listening device carefully hidden in the office of a senior +"political officer." The security man, along with everyone else in the +embassy, knew that this particular "political officer" was actually the +Central Intelligence Agency's "Station Chief," or principal operative in +Chile. Bugging his office would have indeed been a major coup for the +opposition. Triumphantly. the security man ripped the microphone out of +the wall - only to discover later that it had been installed hy the CIA +station chief himself. + +The reason the CIA office was located in the embassy - as it is in most +of the other countries in the world - is that by presidential order the +State Department is responsible for hiding and housing the CIA. Like the +intelligence services of most other countries, the CI A has been +unwilling to set up foreign offices under its own name. So American +embassies - and, less frequently. military bases - provide the needed +cover. State confers respectability on the Agency's operatives, dressing +them up with the same titles and calling cards that give legitimate +diplomats entree into foreign government circles. Protected by +diplomatic immunity, the operatives recruit local officials as CIA +agents to supply secret intelligence and, especially in the Third World, +to help in the Agency's manipulation of a country's internal affairs. + +The CIA moves its men off the diplomatic lists only in Germany, Japan, +and other countries where large numbers of American soldiers are +stationed. In those countries, the CIA's command post is still in the +U.S. Embassy, but most of the CIA personnel are under military cover. +With nearly 500,000 U.S. troops scattered around the world, the CIA +"units" buried among them do not attract undue attention. + +In contrast, it is difficult for the CIA to dwell inconspicuously within +the American diplomatic corps, since more than a quarter of the 5,435 +employees who purportedly work for State overseas are actually with the +CIA. In places such as Argentina, Bolivia, Burma, and Guyana, where the +Agency has special interests and projects, there are about as many CIA +operatives under cover of substantive embassy jobs as there are +legitimate State employees. The CIA also places smaller contingents in +the ranks of other U.S. government agencies which operate overseas, +particularly AID's police training program in Latin America. \[EDITORS' +NOTE: After much public outcry about U.S. exportation of repression via +massive supplying of police equipment and training foreign police in +methods of interrogation and torture since 1961, AID's Office of Public +Safety was closed down by Congress in July 1975.\] + +What is surprising is that the CIA even bothers to camouflage its +agents. since they are still easily identifiable. Let us see why the +embassy cover is so transparent: + + - The CIA usually has a separate set of offices in the Embassy, often + with an exotic-looking cipher lock on the outside door. In Madrid, + for example, a State Department source reports that the Agency + occupied the whole sixth floor of the Embassy. About 30 people + worked there; half were disguised as "Air Force personnel" and half + as State "political officers." The source says that all the local + Spanish employees knew who worked on what floor of the Embassy and + that visitors could figure out the same thing. + - CIA personnel usually stick together. When they go to lunch or to a + cocktail party or meet a plane from Washington, they are much more + likely to go with each other than with legitimate diplomats. Once + you have identified one, you can quickly figure out the rest. + - The CIA has a different health insurance plan from the State + Department. The premium records, which are unclassified and usually + available to local employees, are a dead giveaway. + - The Agency operative is taught early in training that loud + background sounds interfere with bugging. You can be pretty sure the + CIA man in the Embassy is the one who leaves his radio on all the + time. + - Ironically, despite the State Department's total refusal to comment + on anything concerning the CIA, the Department regularly publishes + two documents, the *Foreign Service List* and the *Biographic + Register*, which, when cross-checked, yield the names of most CIA + operatives under embassy cover. + +Here is how it works: + +America's real diplomats have insisted on one thing in dealing with the +CIA: that the corps of Foreign Service Officers (FSO) remain pure. +Although there are rumors of exceptions. CIA personnel abroad are always +given the cover rank of Foreign Service Reserve (FSR) or Staff (FSS) +officers - not FSO. Of course, there are some legitimate officials from +the State Department, AID, and USIA who hold FSR and FSS ratings, so +care must he taken to avoid confusing these people with the spooks. + +To winnow out the spooks, you start by looking up in the *Foreign +Service List* under the country in question - for example, China. The +letters in the third column from the left signify the man or woman's +personnel status and the number denotes his or her rank. On the China +list, David Bruce is an "R-1," or Reserve Officer of class 1,. the +highest rank. John Holdridge is a regular Foreign Service Officer (FSO) +of the same grade, and secretary Barbara Brooks is a Staff Officer, +class 4. + +**PEKING (U.S. LIAISON OFFICE) (LO)** + +> + +Bruce David KE ............... +Holdridge John H............. +Jenkins Alfred Les ............ +Brooks Barbara A ............. +McKinley Brunson............ +Zaelit Lucille ................... +Anderson Donald M .......... +Hunt Janice E .................. +Lilley James R ................. +Pascoe B Lynn ................. +Horowitz Herbert Eugene.. +Morin Annabelle C ............ +Rope William Frederick..... +Blackburn Robert R Jr ....... +Herrera Delia L ................ +Lambert William F............ +Lucas Robert T ................ +Morin Emile F.................. +Peterson Robert D ............ +Riley Albert D.................. chief USLO +dep chief USLO +dep chief USLO +sec +spec asst +sec +pol off +sec +pol off +pol off +econ/cml off +sec +econ/cml off +adm off +sec +coms/rec off +coms/rec off +gen ser off +coms/rec off +coms/rec off R-1 +O-1 +R-1 +S-4 +O-6 +S-5 +O-4 +S-8 +R-3 +O-5 +O-3 +S-7 +O-4 +O-3 +S-6 +R-6 +S-2 +O-5 +R-6 +S-5 5-73 +5-73 + +5-73 +5-73 +5-73 +6-73 +12-73 + +7-73 +6-73 +7-73 +4-73 +4-73 +5-73 +2-74 +7-73 +3-72 +7-73 +5-73 + +Now Holdridge almost certainly can be ruled out as an operative, simply +because he is an FSO. Not much can be told one way or the other about +FSS Brooks because, as is the case with most secretaries, the State +Department does not publish much information about her. David Bruce +might be suspect because of his" R" status, but a quick glance at the +*Biographic Register*, which gives a brief curriculum vitae of all State +Department personnel, shows him to be one of the high-level political +appointees who have "R" status because they are not members of the +regular Foreign Service. Similarly, the *Register* report on FSR Jenkins +shows that he had a long career as an FSO before taking on the State +Department's special assignment in Peking as an FSR: + +> **Bruce, David KE**--b Md 2/21/98, m (Evangeline Bell). +> Princeton U AB 19. Mem Md bar. US Army 17-19, +> 42-45 col overseas. PRIV EXPER priv law practice +> 21-26, mem State legis 24-26.39-42, with bank-priv bus +> 28-40, chief rep Am Red Cross (England) 40-41, +> GOVT EXPER with Off Strategic Sers 41-45, asst sec +> of Com 47-48, ECA Paris R-1 chief of mission 5/48. +> STATE AEP to France 5/49. Dept under sec of state 2/ +> 52\. consult to sec of state 1/53. Paris R-1 pol off-US +> observer to Interim Comm of EDC. also US rep to +> European Coal-Steel Community (Luxembourg) 2/53. +> Dept consult to sec of state 1/55. Bonn AEP to Ger- +> many 3/57-11/59. London AEP to Great Britain 2/61-3/ +> 69\. Dept R-1 pers rep of Pres with pers rank amb to hd +> US del at Paris meetings on Viet-Nam 7/70-4/71. Pe- +> king chief liaison off 3/73. +> +> **Jenkins, Alfred leSesne**--b Ga 9/14/16, m. Emory U +> AB 38, Duke U MA 46. US Army 42-46 1st It. PRIV +> EXPER prin-supt pub schs 40-42. STATE Dept FSO +> unclass 6/46. Peiping Chin lang-area trainee 9/46, O-6 +> 11/46. Tientsin pol off 7/48,0-54/49. Hong Kong chief +> pol sect 7/49. Taipei pol off 7/50, 0-4 6/51. Dept 3/52. +> O-3 9/54. Jidda couns, dep chief mission 2/55. Dept det +> Nat War Coll 8/57, 0-22/58, dep dir Off of SE Asian +> Aff 6/58, reg plan ad Bu of Far E aff 8/59. Stockholm +> couns, dep chief mission 10/61, cons gen 3/62, 0-1 3/ +> 63\. Dept FS insp 8/65, det Nat Security Counc 7/66, +> FS insp 1/69, dir Off of Asian Communist Aff 7/70, +> superior honor award 71, dir for People's Rep of +> China, Mongolia, Hong Kong-Macao aff 2/73. Peking +> dep chief liaison off 4/73. Lang Ger. (w--Martha +> Lippiatt). + +Note that there are no gaping holes in their career records, nor did +either of these men serve long tours with nameless Pentagon agencies, +nor did they regularly change their status from "R" to "S" to "GS" +(civil service). + +Now, for purposes of comparison, examine the record of the CIA's man in +Peking, a "political officer" named James R. Lilley: + +> **Lilley, James R**-b China Am parents 1/15/28, m. Yale +> U BA 51. US Army 46-47. GOVT EXPER anal Dept +> of Army 51-58. STATE Manila R-6 7/58. Dept 10/60. +> Phnom Penh 9/61, R-5 3/63. Bangkok 4/63. Dept 8/64. +> Vientiane pol off 6/65. R-4 5/66. S-24/68. Hong Kong +> 5/68, R-4 5/69. Dept 7/70, GS-15 fgn aff off 4/71, R-4 +> det lang trng FSI 7/72-4/73. Lang Fr. Rom. (w--Sally +> Booth). + +The *Foreign Service List* provides another clue, in the form of +diplomats' official assignments. Of all the jobs real State Department +representatives perform, political reporting is generally considered to +be the most important. Although genuine FSRs frequently hold +administrative and consular slots, they are almost never given the +important political jobs. So where an FSR does appear in the listing +with a political job, it is most likely that the CIA is using the +position for cover. There is an exception to this rule: A comparatively +few minority-group members who have been brought into the Foreign +Service as Reserve Officers under a special program. They are found +exclusively in the junior ranks, and their biographic data is complete +in the way the CIA people's is not. + +Finally there is another almost certain tipoff. If an agent is listed in +the *Biographic Register* as having been an "analyst" for the Department +of the Army (or Navy or Air Force), you can bet that he or she is really +working for the CIA. A search of hundreds of names found no legitimate +State Department personnel listed as ever having held such a job. + +In an embassy like the one in Santo Domingo, the spooks in the political +section outnumber the real FSOs by at least seven to three: + +**Political Section** + +> + +Beyer Joel H.................... +Brugger Frederick A.......... +Bumpus James N .............. +Chafin Gary E .................. +Clayton Thomas A............ +Dwiggins Joan H............... +Fambrini Robert L ............ +Greig David N Jr............... +Guell Janet E ................... +Markoff Stephanie M ......... +Merriam Geraldine C......... +Mooney Robert C ............. +Morris Margaret A............ +Pascoe Dorothy L ............. +Ryan Donald G................. +Williams Albert N ............. pol off +pol off +pol off +pol off +pol off +pol off +pol off +pol off +sec +sec +clk-typist +pol off +clk-typist +sec +pol off +pol off R-5 +R-7 +O-4 +O-6 +R-3 +R-7 +S-2 +R-5 +S-8 +S-8 +S-9 +R-6 +S-10 +S-7 +R-8 +O-3 7-72 +9-72 +7-72 +8-73 +5-71 +3-72 +6-73 +8-71 +12-73 +6-73 +2-73 +8-72 +12-73 +2-74 +8-73 +7-73 + +While Donald Ryan is an "R" in the political section, there is not +sufficient data published about him to verify his status. It was by +studying these documents that I learned that the CIA has sent an +operative to Peking. For confirmation, I called the State Department's +ranking China expert, Acting Assistant Secretary of State Arthur Hummel. +After I identified myself as a reporter working on a magazine article +and explained where I had gotten my information, Hummel shouted, "I know +what you're up to and I don't want to contribute. Thank you very much\!" +and slammed down the phone. + +Another State official confirmed that the decision to send an operative +to Peking was made in early 1973, but declared that making public the +operative's existence could "jeopardize" Chinese-American relations. +Neither this official nor any of his colleagues seemed willing to +consider the notion that the U.S. government was under no obligation to +assign a CIA man there - or anywhere else, for that matter. The first +American mission to China since 1949 certainly could have been staffed +exclusively with real diplomats if concern about damaging relations were +so high. To have excluded the Agency from Peking, however, would have +gone against a basic axiom of the post-World War II foreign policy +establishment: the CIA follows the flag into American embassies. + +The Chinese government is presumably clever enough to identify the +operative by sifting through the public documents available. In fact, +his arrival may well have been cleared with the Chinese, who probably +wanted reciprocal privileges for their secret service in Washington. +Such are the arrangements the world's spooks are so fond of working out +with each other - the Soviet KGB and the CIA even exchange names of +intelligence analysts assigned to the other's capital. + +**Sacrificing "State"** + +Much to the alarm of a few high State Department officials, the +proportion of CIA to State personnel abroad has been steadily rising in +recent years. The precise figures are zealously guarded, but several +State sources confirm the trend. They cite as the main reason for this +tilt toward the CIA a series of government-wide cutbacks that have hit +State proportionately harder than the CIA. What troubles State is not, +as one career diplomat put it, "the principle" that State should provide +the CIA with cover. That is unquestioned, he says. Rather, most +legitimate diplomats do not like being a minority within their own +profession or having the rest of the world confuse them with the CIA's +dirty tricksters. They generally regard themselves as working at a +higher calling. + +While the State Department has been comparatively honest in accepting +the personnel cuts ordered by the Johnson and Nixon administrations, two +sources familiar with the CIA budget report that the Agency has done +everything possible to escape the reductions. Traditionally, when +outsiders - even Presidents - have tried to meddle with the Agency's +personnel allotment, the CIA has resisted on "national security" +grounds. And when that argument failed, the CIA resorted to bureaucratic +ruses: cutting out a job and then replacing the person eliminated with a +"contract" or "local" employee, who would not show up on the personnel +roster; or sending home a clandestine support officer - a specialist in +things like renting "safe houses," "laundering" money, and installing +phone taps - and then having the same work done by experts sent out from +Washington on "temporary duty. " Not only does the State Department +provide the CIA with cover, but the Senate - and especially its Foreign +Relations Committee - encourages the current practice of sending over +25% of our "diplomatic" corps abroad under false pretenses. + +Every year the Foreign Relations Committee routinely approves and sends +to the full Senate for its advice and consent lists of "Foreign Service +Reserve Officers to be consular officers and secretaries in the +Diplomatic Service of the United States of America." In 1973, of the 121 +names submitted by the State Department, more than 70 were CIA +operatives. According to a knowledgeable source, the committee is +informally told the number of CIA people on the lists, but "not who they +are." No Senator in memory has publicly objected to being an accomplice +to this cover-building for the CIA. + +Just this spring \[1974\], the State Department took official, if +secret, notice of its declining presence overseas compared to the CIA +when Secretary Henry Kissinger authorized a high-level study of +State-CIA staffing. The Department's top administrator, L. Dean Brown, +who had urged the study be made in the first place, gave the job to +Malcolm Toon, a career diplomat serving as U.S. Ambassador to +Yugoslavia. Toon returned to Washington to compile the top-secret +report. + +Asking not to be named and refusing to provide the specific figures, a +source close to Kissinger says that Toon's report calls for a +substantial reduction in the number of CIA operatives abroad under State +cover. The source adds that Kissinger has not made up his mind on the +issue. + +Kissinger has always acted very carefully where the CIA is concerned. +One of his former aides notes that the Secretary has regularly treated +the Agency with great deference at government meetings, although he has +often been privately scornful of it afterward. In any case, Kissinger is +unquestionably a believer in the need for the CIA to intervene covertly +in other countries' internal affairs - he was the prime mover behind the +Agency's work against Salvador Allende in Chile. The question of how +much cover State should provide the CIA, however, is chiefly a +bureaucratic one, and is not basic to Kissinger's foreign policy. + +The Secretary therefore will probably not take a definite position until +he sees how much opposition the CIA will be able to stir up in the White +House and in the congressional subcommittees that supposedly oversee the +Agency. + +The CIA has lost no time in launching its counteroffensive. At a July 19 +off-the-record session with key Democratic congressional aides, Carl +Duckett, the CIA's Deputy Director for Intelligence, complained about +the reductions recommended by the Toon report. According to a source who +was present, Duckett said that, even without further embassy cuts, the +CIA now doesn't have enough people overseas. + +CIA officials must be especially concerned about Toon's recommendations, +since in countries where there are no U.S. military bases, the only +alternative to embassy cover is "deep," or nonofficial, cover. American +corporations operating overseas have long cooperated in making jobs +available to the CIA and would probably continue to do so. Also, the +Agency would probably have to make more use of smaller firms where fewer +people would know of the clandestine connection. Two examples of this +type are: + + - Robert Mullen and Company, the Washington-based public relations + concern for which E. Howard Hunt worked after he left the CIA and + before the break-in at Democratic National Headquarters. Mullen + provided CIA operatives with cover in Stockholm, Mexico City, and + Singapore, and in 1971 set up a subsidiary in cooperation with the + CIA called Interprogres, Ltd. According to a secret Agency document + released with the House Judiciary Committee's impeachment evidence, + "At least two \[CIA\] overseas assets have tangential tasks of + promoting the acceptance of this company as a Mullen subsidiary." + - Psychological Assessment Associates, Inc., a Washington + psychological consulting firm specializing in behavioral research + and analysis. By the admission of its president John Gittinger, most + of the company's business since it was founded in 1957 by three + ex-CIA psychologists has come from Agency contracts. The firm had + two "representatives" in Hong Kong, at least until June of this year + \[1974\]. + +Unless their cover is blown, companies of this sort and operatives who +work for them cannot be linked to the U.S. government. But the Agency +has learned over the years that it is much more difficult and expensive +to set up an operative as a businessman (or as a missionary or newsman) +than to put him in an embassy. As a "private" citizen, the operative is +not automatically exposed to the host country's key officials and to +foreign diplomats, nor does he have direct access to the CIA +communications and support facilities which are normally housed in +embassies. Moreover, as an ex-CIA official explains, "The deep cover guy +has no mobility. He doesn't have the right passport. He is subject to +local laws and has to pay local taxes. If you try to put him in an +influential business job, you've got to go through all the arrangements +with the Company. " + +**Who Needs Gumshoes?** + +Everything argues for having the intelligence agent in the embassy - +everything, that is, except the need to keep his existence secret. The +question then becomes whether it is really that important to keep his +existence secret - which, in turn, depends on how important his +clandestine activities are. + +Could any rational person, after surveying the history of the last 20 +years, from Guatemala to Cuba to Vietnam - and now Chile - contend that +the CIA's clandestine activities have yielded anything but a steady +stream of disaster? The time has come to abolish them. Most of the +military and economic intelligence we need we can get from our +satellites and sensors (which already provide nearly all our information +about Russia's nuclear weaponry) and from reading the newspapers and the +superabundant files of open reports. As for political intelligence - +which is actually an assessment of the intentions of foreign leaders - +we don't really need this kind of information from Third World countries +unless we intend to muck about in their internal affairs. With the +Soviet Union or China - countries powerful enough to really threaten our +national security - timely political intelligence could be a great help. +But for the past 25 years we have relied on open sources and +machine-collected intelligence because our agents have proven incapable +of penetrating these closed societies. There is not enough practical +benefit gained from the CIA's espionage activities to compensate for our +nation's moral and legal liability in maintaining thousands of highly +trained bribers, subverters, and burglars overseas as "representatives" +of our government. The problem of getting good, accurate, reliable +information from abroad is a complicated one, beyond the scope of this +article, but, to paraphrase Mae West, covert has nothing to do with it. + +``` +``` diff --git a/_stories/1974/6348750.md b/_stories/1974/6348750.md index fc4d732..f047020 100644 --- a/_stories/1974/6348750.md +++ b/_stories/1974/6348750.md @@ -19,7 +19,18 @@ _tags: objectID: '6348750' --- -[Source](https://www.netflix.com/WiMovie/The_Conversation/60003586?trkid=13462100 "Permalink to ") +# Netflix Site Error - Page Not Found +We were unable to find that page. +Please go to the Netflix home page by clicking the button below. +[](/) + +Netflix Home + +Build Identifier: 7742b8c7 + +Instance: i-01dfce0afa14eb109 + +Request Id: c5b803ed-9b85-4d21-b356-b6e974c94ee3 diff --git a/_stories/1975/9669566.md b/_stories/1975/9669566.md index 60a5d81..29672fa 100644 --- a/_stories/1975/9669566.md +++ b/_stories/1975/9669566.md @@ -19,7 +19,14 @@ _tags: objectID: '9669566' --- -[Source](https://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-350/ch-13-1.html "Permalink to ") - - - +In Mission Control the Gold Team, directed by Gerald Griffin (seated, +back of head to camera), prepares to take over from Black Team (Glynn +Lunney, seated, in profile) during a critical period. Seven men with +elbows on console are Deke Slayton, Joe Kerwin (Black CapCom), Vance +Brand (Gold CapCom), Phil Shaffer (Gold FIDO), John Llewellyn (Black +RETRO), Charles Deiterich (Gold RETRO), and Lawrence Canin (Black GNC). +Standing at right is Chester Lee, Mission Director from NASA's +Washington headquarters, and broud back at right belogs to Rocco +Petrone, Apollo Program Director. Apollo 13 had two other "ground" +teams, the White and the Maroon. All devised heroic measures to save the +mission from disaster. diff --git a/_stories/1976/13177611.md b/_stories/1976/13177611.md index 525a72a..09b4828 100644 --- a/_stories/1976/13177611.md +++ b/_stories/1976/13177611.md @@ -19,7 +19,1016 @@ _tags: objectID: '13177611' --- -[Source](https://hbr.org/1976/03/how-to-run-a-meeting "Permalink to ") +![MAR15\_12\_523197071](/resources/images/article_assets/1976/03/MAR15_12_523197071.png) +Why have a meeting anyway? Why indeed? A great many important matters +are quite satisfactorily conducted by a single individual who consults +nobody. A great many more are resolved by a letter, a memo, a phone +call, or a simple conversation between two people. Sometimes five +minutes spent with six people separately is more effective and +productive than a half-hour meeting with them all together. +Certainly a great many meetings waste a great deal of everyone’s time +and seem to be held for historical rather than practical reasons; many +long-established committees are little more than memorials to dead +problems. It would probably save no end of managerial time if every +committee had to discuss its own dissolution once a year, and put up a +case if it felt it should continue for another twelve months. If this +requirement did nothing else, it would at least re-focus the minds of +the committee members on their purposes and objectives. +But having said that, and granting that “referring the matter to a +committee” can be a device for diluting authority, diffusing +responsibility, and delaying decisions, I cannot deny that meetings +fulfill a deep human need. Man is a social species. In every +organization and every human culture of which we have record, people +come together in small groups at regular and frequent intervals, and in +larger “tribal” gatherings from time to time. If there are no meetings +in the places where they work, people’s attachment to the organizations +they work for will be small, and they will meet in regular formal or +informal gatherings in associations, societies, teams, clubs, or pubs +when work is over. + +This need for meetings is clearly something more positive than just a +legacy from our primitive hunting past. From time to time, some +technomaniac or other comes up with a vision of the executive who never +leaves his home, who controls his whole operation from an +all-electronic, multichannel, microwave, fiber-optic video display dream +console in his living room. But any manager who has ever had to make an +organization work greets this vision with a smile that soon stretches +into a yawn. + +There is a world of science fiction, and a world of human reality; and +those who live in the world of human reality know that it is held +together by face-to-face meetings. A meeting still performs functions +that will never be taken over by telephones, teleprinters, Xerox +copiers, tape recorders, television monitors, or any other technological +instruments of the information revolution. + +## Functions of a Meeting + +At this point, it may help us understand the meaning of meetings if we +look at the six main functions that meetings will always perform better +than any of the more recent communication devices. + +1\. In the simplest and most basic way, a meeting defines the team, the +group, or the unit. Those present belong to it; those absent do not. +Everyone is able to look around and perceive the whole group and sense +the collective identity of which he or she forms a part. We all know who +we are—whether we are on the board of Universal International, in the +overseas sales department of Flexitube, Inc., a member of the school +management committee, on the East Hampton football team, or in Section +No. 2 of Platoon 4, Company B. + +2\. A meeting is the place where the group revises, updates, and adds to +what it knows as a group. Every group creates its own pool of shared +knowledge, experience, judgment, and folklore. But the pool consists +only of what the individuals have experienced or discussed as a +group—i.e., those things which every individual knows that all the +others know, too. This pool not only helps all members to do their jobs +more intelligently, but it also greatly increases the speed and +efficiency of all communications among them. The group knows that all +special nuances and wider implications in a brief statement will be +immediately clear to its members. An enormous amount of material can be +left unsaid that would have to be made explicit to an outsider. + +But this pool needs constant refreshing and replenishing, and +occasionally the removal of impunities. So the simple business of +exchanging information and ideas that members have acquired separately +or in smaller groups since the last meeting is an important contribution +to the strength of the group. By questioning and commenting on new +contributions, the group performs an important “digestive” process that +extracts what’s valuable and discards the rest. + +Some ethologists call this capacity to share knowledge and experience +among a group “the social mind,” conceiving it as a single mind +dispersed among a number of skulls. They recognize that this “social +mind” has a special creative power, too. A group of people meeting +together can often produce better ideas, plans, and decisions than can a +single individual, or a number of individuals, each working alone. The +meeting can of course also produce worse outputs or none at all, if it +is a bad meeting. + +However, when the combined experience, knowledge, judgment, authority, +and imagination of a half dozen people are brought to bear on issues, a +great many plans and decisions are improved and sometimes transformed. +The original idea that one person might have come up with singly is +tested, amplified, refined, and shaped by argument and discussion (which +often acts on people as some sort of chemical stimulant to better +performance), until it satisfies far more requirements and overcomes +many more objections than it could in its original form. + +3\. A meeting helps every individual understand both the collective aim +of the group and the way in which his own and everyone else’s work can +contribute to the group’s success. + +4\. A meeting creates in all present a commitment to the decisions it +makes and the objectives it pursues. Once something has been decided, +even if you originally argued against it, your membership in the group +entails an obligation to accept the decision. The alternative is to +leave the group, but in practice this is very rarely a dilemma of +significance. Real opposition to decisions within organizations usually +consists of one part disagreement with the decision to nine parts +resentment at not being consulted before the decision. For most people +on most issues, it is enough to know that their views were heard and +considered. They may regret that they were not followed, but they accept +the outcome. + +And just as the decision of any team is binding on all the members, so +the decisions of a meeting of people higher up in an organization carry +a greater authority than any decision by a single executive. It is much +harder to challenge a decision of the board than of the chief executive +acting on his own. The decision-making authority of a meeting is of +special importance for long-term policies and procedures. + +5\. In the world of management, a meeting is very often the only +occasion where the team or group actually exists and works as a group, +and the only time when the supervisor, manager, or executive is actually +perceived as the leader of the team, rather than as the official to whom +individuals report. In some jobs the leader does guide his team through +his personal presence—not just the leader of a pit gang or construction +team, but also the chef in the hotel kitchen and the maitre d’hôtel in +the restaurant, or the supervisor in a department store. But in large +administrative headquarters, the daily or weekly meeting is often the +only time when the leader is ever perceived to be guiding a team rather +than doing a job. + +6\. A meeting is a status arena. It is no good to pretend that people +are not or should not be concerned with their status relative to the +other members in a group. It is just another part of human nature that +we have to live with. It is a not insignificant fact that the word order +means (a) hierarchy or pecking order; (b) an instruction or command; and +(c) stability and the way things ought to be, as in “put your affairs in +order,” or “law and order.” All three definitions are aspects of the +same idea, which is indivisible. + +Since a meeting is so often the only time when members get the chance to +find out their relative standing, the “arena” function is inevitable. +When a group is new, has a new leader, or is composed of people like +department heads who are in competition for promotion and who do not +work in a single team outside the meeting, “arena behavior” is likely to +figure more largely, even to the point of dominating the proceedings. +However, it will hardly signify with a long-established group that meets +regularly. + +Despite the fact that a meeting can perform all of the foregoing main +functions, there is no guarantee that it will do so in any given +situation. It is all too possible that any single meeting may be a waste +of time, an irritant, or a barrier to the achievement of the +organization’s objectives. + +## What Sort of Meeting? + +While my purpose in this article is to show the critical points at which +most meetings go wrong, and to indicate ways of putting them right, I +must first draw some important distinctions in the size and type of +meetings that we are dealing with. + +Meetings can be graded by size into three broad categories: (1) the +assembly—100 or more people who are expected to do little more than +listen to the main speaker or speakers; (2) the council—40 or 50 people +who are basically there to listen to the main speaker or speakers but +who can come in with questions or comments and who may be asked to +contribute something on their own account; and (3) the committee—up to +10 (or at the most 12) people, all of whom more or less speak on an +equal footing under the guidance and control of a chairman. + +We are concerned in this article only with the “committee” meeting +though it may be described as a committee, a subcommittee, a study +group, a project team, a working party, a board, or by any of dozens of +other titles. It is by far the most common meeting all over the world, +and can perhaps be traced back to the primitive hunting band through +which our species evolved. Beyond doubt it constitutes the bulk of the +11 million meetings that—so it has been calculated—take place every day +in the United States. + +Apart from the distinction of size, there are certain considerations +regarding the type of meeting that profoundly affect its nature. For +instance: + +Frequency—A daily meeting is different from a weekly one, and a weekly +meeting from a monthly one. Irregular, ad hoc, quarterly, and annual +meetings are different again. On the whole, the frequency of meetings +defines—or perhaps even determines—the degree of unity of the group. + +Composition—Do the members work together on the same project, such as +the nursing and ancillary staff on the same ward of a hospital? Do they +work on different but parallel tasks, like a meeting of the company’s +plant managers or regional sales managers? Or are they a diverse +group—strangers to each other, perhaps—united only by the meeting +itself and by a common interest in realizing its objectives? + +Motivation—Do the members have a common objective in their work, like a +football team? Or do they to some extent have a competitive working +relationship, like managers of subsidiary companies at a meeting with +the chief executive, or the heads of research, production, and marketing +discussing finance allocation for the coming year? Or does the desire +for success through the meeting itself unify them, like a neighborhood +action group or a new product design committee? + +Decision process—How does the meeting group ultimately reach its +decisions? By a general consensus, “the feeling of the meeting”? By a +majority vote? Or are the decisions left entirely to the chairman +himself, after he has listened to the facts, opinions, and discussions? + +### Kinds of meetings + +The experienced meeting-goer will recognize that, although there seem to +be five quite different methods of analyzing a meeting, in practice +there is a tendency for certain kinds of meetings to sort themselves out +into one of three categories. Consider: + +The daily meeting, where people work together on the same project with a +common objective and reach decisions informally by general agreement. + +The weekly or monthly meeting, where members work on different but +parallel projects and where there is a certain competitive element and a +greater likelihood that the chairman will make the final decision +himself. + +The irregular, occasional, or “special project” meeting, composed of +people whose normal work does not bring them into contact and whose work +has little or no relationship to the others’. They are united only by +the project the meeting exists to promote and motivated by the desire +that the project should succeed. Though actual voting is uncommon, every +member effectively has a veto. + +Of these three kinds of meetings, it is the first—the workface type—that +is probably the most common. It is also, oddly enough, the one most +likely to be successful. Operational imperatives usually ensure that it +is brief, and the participants’ experience of working side by side +ensures that communication is good. + +The other two types are a different matter. In these meetings all sorts +of human crosscurrents can sweep the discussion off course, and errors +of psychology and technique on the chairman’s part can defeat its +purposes. Moreover, these meetings are likely to bring together the more +senior people and to produce decisions that profoundly affect the +efficiency, prosperity, and even survival of the whole organization. It +is, therefore, toward these higher-level meetings that the lessons of +this article are primarily directed. + +## Before the Meeting + +The most important question you should ask is: “What is this meeting +intended to achieve?” You can ask it in different ways—“What would be +the likely consequences of not holding it?” “When it is over, how shall +I judge whether it was a success or a failure?”—but unless you have a +very clear requirement from the meeting, there is a grave danger that it +will be a waste of everyone’s time. + +### Defining the objective + +You have already looked at the six main functions that all meetings +perform, but if you are trying to use a meeting to achieve definite +objectives, there are in practice only certain types of objectives it +can really achieve. Every item on the agenda can be placed in one of the +following four categories, or divided up into sections that fall into +one or more of them. + +#### 1\. Informative-digestive + +Obviously, it is a waste of time for the meeting to give out purely +factual information that would be better circulated in a document. But +if the information should be heard from a particular person, or if it +needs some clarification and comment to make sense of it, or if it has +deep implications for the members of the meeting, then it is perfectly +proper to introduce an item onto the agenda that requires no conclusion, +decision, or action from the meeting, it is enough, simply, that the +meeting should receive and discuss a report. + +The “informative-digestive” function includes progress reports—to keep +the group up to date on the current status of projects it is responsible +for or that affect its deliberations—and review of completed projects in +order to come to a collective judgment and to see what can be learned +from them for the next time. + +#### 2\. Constructive-originative + +This “What shall we do?” function embraces all items that require +something new to be devised, such as a new policy, a new strategy, a new +sales target, a new product, a new marketing plan, a new procedure, and +so forth. This sort of discussion asks people to contribute their +knowledge, experience, judgment, and ideas. Obviously, the plan will +probably be inadequate unless all relevant parties are present and +pitching in. + +#### 3\. Executive responsibilities + +This is the “How shall we do it?” function, which comes after it has +been decided what the members are going to do; at this point, executive +responsibilities for the different components of the task have to be +distributed around the table. Whereas in the second function the +contributors’ importance is their knowledge and ideas, here their +contribution is the responsibility for implementing the plan. The fact +that they and their subordinates are affected by it makes their +contribution especially significant. + +It is of course possible to allocate these executive responsibilities +without a meeting, by separate individual briefings, but several +considerations often make a meeting desirable. + +First, it enables the members as a group to find the best way of +achieving the objectives. + +Second, it enables each member to understand and influence the way in +which his own job fits in with the jobs of the others and with the +collective task. + +Third, if the meeting is discussing the implementation of a decision +taken at a higher level, securing the group’s consent may be of prime +importance. If so, the fact that the group has the opportunity to +formulate the detailed action plan itself may be the decisive factor in +securing its agreement, because in that case the final decision belongs, +as it were, to the group. Everyone is committed to what the group +decides and is collectively responsible for the final shape of the +project, as well as individually answerable for his own part in it. +Ideally, this sort of agenda item starts with a policy, and ends with an +action plan. + +#### 4\. Legislative framework: + +Above and around all considerations of “What to do” and “How to do it,” +there is a framework—a departmental or divisional organization—and a +system of rules, routines, and procedures within and through which all +the activity takes place. Changing this framework and introducing a new +organization or new procedures can be deeply disturbing to committee +members and a threat to their status and long-term security. Yet leaving +it unchanged can stop the organization from adapting to a changing +world. At whatever level this change happens, it must have the support +of all the perceived leaders whose groups are affected by it. + +The key leaders for this legislative function must collectively make or +confirm the decision; if there is any important dissent, it is very +dangerous to close the discussion and make the decision by decree. The +group leaders cannot expect quick decisions if they are seeking to +change the organization framework and routines that people have grown up +with. Thus they must be prepared to leave these items unresolved for +further discussion and consultation. As Francis Bacon put it—and it has +never been put better—“Counsels to which time hath not been called, time +will not ratify.” + +### Making preparations + +The four different functions just discussed may of course be performed +by a single meeting, as the group proceeds through the agenda. +Consequently, it may be a useful exercise for the chairman to go through +the agenda, writing beside each item which function it is intended to +fulfill. This exercise helps clarify what is expected from the +discussion and helps focus on which people to bring in and what +questions to ask them. + +### People + +The value and success of a committe meeting are seriously threatened if +too many people are present. Between 4 and 7 is generally ideal, 10 is +tolerable, and 12 is the outside limit. So the chairman should do +everything he can to keep numbers down, consistent with the need to +invite everyone with an important contribution to make. + +The leader may have to leave out people who expect to come or who have +always come. For this job he may need tact; but since people generally +preserve a fiction that they are overworked already and dislike serving +on committees, it is not usually hard to secure their consent to stay +away. + +If the leader sees no way of getting the meeting down to a manageable +size, he can try the following devices: (a) analyze the agenda to see +whether everyone has to be present for every item (he may be able to +structure the agenda so that some people can leave at half time and +others can arrive); (b) ask himself whether he doesn’t really need two +separate, smaller meetings rather than one big one; and (c) determine +whether one or two groups can be asked to thrash some of the topics out +in advance so that only one of them needs to come in with its proposals. + +Remember, too, that a few words with a member on the day before a +meeting can increase the value of the meeting itself, either by ensuring +that an important point is raised that comes better from the floor than +from the chair or by preventing a time-wasting discussion of a subject +that need not be touched on at all. + +### Papers + +The agenda is by far the most important piece of paper. Properly drawn +up, it has a power of speeding and clarifying a meeting that very few +people understand or harness. The main fault is to make it unnecessarily +brief and vague. For example, the phrase “development budget” tells +nobody very much, whereas the longer explanation “To discuss the +proposal for reduction of the 1976–1977 development budget now that the +introduction of our new product has been postponed” helps all committee +members to form some views or even just to look up facts and figures in +advance. + +Thus the leader should not be afraid of a long agenda, provided that the +length is the result of his analyzing and defining each item more +closely, rather than of his adding more items than the meeting can +reasonably consider in the time allowed. He should try to include, very +briefly, some indication of the reason for each topic to be discussed. +If one item is of special interest to the group, it is often a good idea +to single it out for special mention in a covering note. + +The leader should also bear in mind the useful device of heading each +item “For information,” “For discussion,” or “For decision” so that +those at the meeting know where they are trying to get to. + +And finally, the chairman should not circulate the agenda too far in +advance, since the less organized members will forget it or lose it. Two +or three days is about right—unless the supporting papers are +voluminous. + +#### Other ‘paper’ considerations: + +The order of items on the agenda is important. Some aspects are +obvious—the items that need urgent decision have to come before those +that can wait till next time. Equally, the leader does not discuss the +budget for the re-equipment program before discussing whether to put the +re-equipment off until next year. But some aspects are not so obvious. +Consider: + + - The early part of a meeting tends to be more lively and creative + than the end of it, so if an item needs mental energy, bright ideas, + and clear heads, it may be better to put it high up on the list. + Equally, if there is one item of great interest and concern to + everyone, it may be a good idea to hold it back for a while and get + some other useful work done first. Then the star item can be + introduced to carry the meeting over the attention lag that sets in + after the first 15 to 20 minutes of the meeting. + + + + - Some items unite the meeting in a common front while others divide + the member one from another. The leader may want to start with unity + before entering into division, or he may prefer the other way + around. The point is to be aware of the choice and to make it + consciously, because it is apt to make a difference to the whole + atmosphere of the meeting. It is almost always a good idea to find a + unifying item with which to end the meeting. + + + + - A common fault is to dwell too long on trivial but urgent items, to + the exclusion of subjects of fundamental importance whose + significance is long-term rather than immediate. This can be + remedied by putting on the agenda the time at which discussion of + the important long-term issue will begin—and by sticking to it. + + + + - Very few business meetings achieve anything of value after two + hours, and an hour and a half is enough time to allocate for most + purposes. + + + + - It is often a good idea to put the finishing time of a meeting on + the agenda as well as the starting time. + + + + - If meetings have a tendency to go on too long, the chairman should + arrange to start them one hour before lunch or one hour before the + end of work. Generally, items that ought to be kept brief can be + introduced ten minutes from a fixed end point. + + + + - The practice of circulating background or proposal papers along with + the minutes is, in principle, a good one. It not only saves time, + but it also helps in formulating useful questions and considerations + in advance. But the whole idea is sabotaged once the papers get too + long; they should be brief or provide a short summary. If they are + circulated, obviously the chairman has to read them, or at least + must not be caught not having read them. (One chairman, more noted + for his cunning than his conscientiousness, is said to have spent 30 + seconds before each meeting going through all the papers he had not + read with a thick red pen, marking lines and question marks in the + margins at random, and making sure these were accidentally made + visible to the meeting while the subject was being discussed.) + + + + - If papers are produced at the meeting for discussion, they should + obviously be brief and simple, since everyone has to read them. It + is a supreme folly to bring a group of people together to read six + pages of closely printed sheets to themselves. The exception is + certain kinds of financial and statistical papers whose function is + to support and illustrate verbal points as reference documents + rather than to be swallowed whole: these are often better tabled at + the meeting. + + + + - All items should be thought of and thought about in advance if they + are to be usefully discussed. Listing “Any other business” on the + agenda is an invitation to waste time. This does not absolutely + preclude the chairman’s announcing an extra agenda item at a meeting + if something really urgent and unforeseen crops up or is suggested + to him by a member, provided it is fairly simple and + straightforward. Nor does it preclude his leaving time for general + unstructured discussion after the close of the meeting. + + + + - The chairman, in going through the agenda items in advance, can + usefully insert his own brief notes of points he wants to be sure + are not omitted from the discussion. A brief marginal scribble of + “How much notice?” or “Standby arrangements?” or whatever is all + that is necessary. + +## The Chairman’s Job + +Let’s say that you have just been appointed chairman of the committee. +You tell everyone that it is a bore or a chore. You also tell them that +you have been appointed “for my sins.” But the point is that you tell +them. There is no getting away from it: some sort of honor or glory +attaches to the chairman’s role. Almost everyone is in some way pleased +and proud to be made chairman of something. And that is three quarters +of the trouble. + +### Master or servant? + +Their appointment as committee chairman takes people in different ways. +Some seize the opportunity to impose their will on a group that they see +themselves licensed to dominate. Their chairmanship is a harangue, +interspersed with demands for group agreement. + +Others are more like scoutmasters, for whom the collective activity of +the group is satisfaction enough, with no need for achievement. Their +chairmanship is more like the endless stoking and fueling or a campfire +that is not cooking anything. + +And there are the insecure or lazy chairmen who look to the meeting for +reassurance and support in their ineffectiveness and inactivity, so that +they can spread the responsibility for their indecisiveness among the +whole group. They seize on every expression of disagreement or doubt as +a justification for avoiding decision or action. + +But even the large majority who do not go to those extremes still feel a +certain pleasurable tumescence of the ego when they take their place at +the head of the table for the first time. The feeling is no sin: the sin +is to indulge it or to assume that the pleasure is shared by the other +members of the meeting. + +It is the chairman’s self-indulgence that is the greatest single barrier +to the success of a meeting. His first duty, then, is to be aware of the +temptation and of the dangers of yielding to it. The clearest of the +danger signals is hearing himself talking a lot during a discussion. + +One of the best chairmen I have ever served under makes it a rule to +restrict her interventions to a single sentence, or at most two. She +forbids herself ever to contribute a paragraph to a meeting she is +chairing. It is a harsh rule, but you would be hard put to find a +regular attender of her meetings (or anyone else’s) who thought it was a +bad one. + +There is, in fact, only one legitimate source of pleasure in +chairmanship, and that is pleasure in the achievements of the +meeting—and to be legitimate it must be shared by all those present. +Meetings are necessary for all sorts of basic and primitive human +reasons, but they are useful only if they are seen by all present to be +getting somewhere—and somewhere they know they could not have gotten to +individually. + +If the chairman is to make sure that the meeting achieves valuable +objectives, he will be more effective seeing himself as the servant of +the group rather than as its master. His role then becomes that of +assisting the group toward the best conclusion or decision in the most +efficient manner possible: to interpret and clarify; to move the +discussion forward; and to bring it to a resolution that everyone +understands and accepts as being the will of the meeting, even if the +individuals do not necessarily agree with it. + +His true source of authority with the members is the strength of his +perceived commitment to their combined objective and his skill and +efficiency in helping and guiding them to its achievement. Control and +discipline then become not the act of imposing his will on the group but +of imposing the group’s will on any individual who is in danger of +diverting or delaying the progress of the discussion and so from +realizing the objective. + +Once the members realize that the leader is impelled by his commitment +to their common objective, it does not take great force of personality +for him to control the meeting. Indeed, a sense of urgency and a clear +desire to reach the best conclusion as quickly as possible are a much +more effective disciplinary instrument than a big gavel. The effective +chairman can then hold the discussion to the point by indicating that +there is no time to pursue a particular idea now, that there is no time +for long speeches, that the group has to get through this item and on to +the next one, rather than by resorting to pulling rank. + +There are many polite ways the chairman can indicate a slight impatience +even when someone else is speaking—by leaning forward, fixing his eyes +on the speaker tensing his muscles, raising his eyebrows, or nodding +briefly to show the point is taken. And when replying or commenting, the +chairman can indicate by the speed, brevity, and finality of his +intonation that “we have to move on.” Conversely, he can reward the sort +of contribution he is seeking by the opposite expressions and +intonations, showing that there is plenty of time for that sort of idea, +and encouraging the speaker to develop the point. + +After a few meetings, all present readily understand this nonverbal +language of chairmanship. It is the chairman’s chief instrument of +educating the group into the general type of “meeting behavior” that he +is looking for. He is still the servant of the group, but like a hired +mountain guide, he is the one who knows the destination, the route, the +weather signs, and the time the journey will take. So if he suggests +that the members walk a bit faster, they take his advice. + +This role of servant rather than master is often obscured in large +organizations by the fact that the chairman is frequently the line +manager of the members: this does not, however, change the reality of +the role of chairman. The point is easier to see in, say, a neighborhood +action group. The question in that case is, simply, “Through which +person’s chairmanship do we collectively have the best chance of getting +the children’s playground built?” + +However, one special problem is posed by this definition of the +chairman’s role, and it has an extremely interesting answer. The +question is: How can the chairman combine his role with the role of a +member advocating one side of an argument? + +The answer comes from some interesting studies by researchers who sat in +on hundreds of meetings to find out how they work. Their consensus +finding is that most of the effective discussions have, in fact, two +leaders: one they call a “team,” or “social,” leader; the other a +“task,” or “project,” leader. + +Regardless of whether leadership is in fact a single or a dual function, +for our purposes it is enough to say that the chairman’s best role is +that of social leader. If he wants a particular point to be strongly +advocated, he ensures that it is someone else who leads off the task +discussion, and he holds back until much later in the argument. He might +indeed change or modify his view through hearing the discussion, but +even if he does not it is much easier for him to show support for +someone else’s point later in the discussion, after listening to the +arguments. Then, he can summarize in favor of the one he prefers. + +The task advocate might regularly be the chairman’s second-in-command, +or a different person might advocate for different items on the agenda. +On some subjects, the chairman might well be the task advocate himself, +especially if they do not involve conflict within the group. The +important point is that the chairman has to keep his “social leadership” +even if it means sacrificing his “task leadership.” However, if the +designated task advocate persists in championing a cause through two or +three meetings, he risks building up quite a head of antagonism to him +among the other members. Even so, this antagonism harms the group less +by being directed at the “task leader” than at the “social leader.” + +### Structure of discussion + +It may seem that there is no right way or wrong way to structure a +committee meeting discussion. + +A subject is raised, people say what they think, and finally a decision +is reached, or the discussion is terminated. There is some truth in +this. Moreover, it would be a mistake to try and tie every discussion of +every item down to a single immutable format. + +Nevertheless, there is a logical order to a group discussion, and while +there can be reasons for not following it, there is no justification for +not being aware of it. In practice, very few discussions are inhibited, +and many are expedited, by a conscious adherence to the following +stages, which follow exactly the same pattern as a visit to the doctor. + +#### “What seems to be the trouble?” + +The reason for an item being on a meeting agenda is usually like the +symptom we go to the doctor with: “I keep getting this pain in my back” +is analogous to “Sales have risen in Germany but fallen in France.” In +both cases it is clear that something is wrong and that something ought +to be done to put it right. But until the visit to the doctor, or the +meeting of the European marketing committee, that is about all we really +know. + +#### “How long has this been going on?” + +The doctor will start with a case history of all the relevant background +facts, and so will the committee discussion. A solid basis of shared and +agreed-on facts is the best foundation to build any decision on, and a +set of pertinent questions will help establish it. For example, when did +French sales start to fall off? Have German sales risen exceptionally? +Has France had delivery problems, or less sales effort, or weaker +advertising? Have we lost market share, or are our competitors’ sales +falling too? If the answers to all these questions, and more, are not +established at the start, a lot of discussion may be wasted later. + +#### “Would you just lie down on the couch?” + +The doctor will then conduct a physical examination to find out how the +patient is now. The committee, too, will want to know how things stand +at this moment. Is action being taken? Do long-term orders show the same +trend? What are the latest figures? What is the current stock position? +How much money is left in the advertising budget? + +#### “You seem to have slipped a disc.” + +When the facts are established, you can move toward a diagnosis. A +doctor may seem to do this quickly, but that is the result of experience +and practice. He is, in fact, rapidly eliminating all the impossible or +far-fetched explanations until he leaves himself with a short list. The +committee, too, will hazard and eliminate a variety of diagnoses until +it homes in on the most probable—for example the company’s recent +energetic and highly successful advertising campaign in Germany plus new +packaging by the market leader in France. + +#### “Take this round to the druggist.” + +Again, the doctor is likely to take a shortcut that a committee meeting +may be wise to avoid. The doctor comes out with a single prescription, +and the committee, too, may agree quickly on a single course of action. + +But if the course is not so clear, it is better to take this step in two +stages: (a) construct a series of options—do not, at first, reject any +suggestions outright but try to select and combine the promising +elements from all of them until a number of thought-out, coherent, and +sensible suggestions are on the table; and (b) only when you have +generated these options do you start to choose among them. Then you can +discuss and decide whether to pick the course based on repackaging and +point-of-sale promotion, or the one based on advertising and a price +cut, or the one that bides its time and saves the money for heavier +new-product promotion next year. + +If the item is at all complex or especially significant, it is important +for the chairman not only to have the proposed course of the discussion +in his own head, but also to announce it so that everyone knows. A good +idea is to write the headings on an easel pad with a felt pen. This +saves much of the time wasting and confusion that result when people +raise items in the wrong place because they were not privy to the +chairman’s secret that the right place was coming up later on in the +discussion. + +## Conducting the Meeting + +Just as the driver of a car has two tasks, to follow his route and to +manage his vehicle, so the chairman’s job can be divided into two +corresponding tasks, dealing with the subject and dealing with the +people. + +### Dealing with the subject + +The essence of this task is to follow the structure of discussion as +just described in the previous section. This, in turn, entails listening +carefully and keeping the meeting pointed toward the objective. + +At the start of the discussion of any item, the chairman should make it +clear where the meeting should try to get to by the end. Are the members +hoping to make a clear decision or firm recommendation? Is it a +preliminary deliberation to give the members something to go away with +and think about? Are they looking for a variety of different lines to be +pursued outside the meeting? Do they have to approve the proposal, or +merely note it? + +The chairman may give them a choice: “If we can agree on a course of +action, that’s fine. If not, we’ll have to set up a working party to +report and recommend before next month’s meeting.” + +The chairman should make sure that all the members understand the issue +and why they are discussing it. Often it will be obvious, or else they +may have been through it before. If not, then he or someone he has +briefed before the meeting should give a short introduction, with some +indication of the reason the item is on the agenda; the story so far; +the present position; what needs to be established, resolved, or +proposed; and some indication of lines of inquiry or courses of action +that have been suggested or explored, as well as arguments on both sides +of the issue. + +If the discussion is at all likely to be long or complex, the chairman +should propose to the meeting a structure for it with headings (written +up if necessary), as I stated at the end of the section on “Structure of +discussion.” He should listen carefully in case people jump too far +ahead (e.g., start proposing a course of action before the meeting has +agreed on the cause of the trouble), or go back over old ground, or +start repeating points that have been made earlier. He has to head +discussion off sterile or irrelevant areas very quickly (e.g., the +rights and wrongs of past decisions that it is too late to change, or +distant prospects that are too remote to affect present actions). + +It is the chairman’s responsibility to prevent misunderstanding and +confusion. If he does not follow an argument or understand a reference, +he should seek clarification from the speaker. If he thinks two people +are using the same word with different meanings, he should intervene +(e.g., one member using promotion to mean point-of-sale advertising +only, and another also including media publicity). + +He may also have to clarify by asking people for facts or experience +that perhaps influence their view but are not known to others in the +meeting. And he should be on the lookout for points where an interim +summary would be helpful. This device frequently takes only a few +seconds, and acts like a life belt to some of the members who are +getting out of their depth. + +Sometimes a meeting will have to discuss a draft document. If there are +faults in it, the members should agree on what the faults are and the +chairman should delegate someone to produce a new draft later. The group +should never try to redraft around the table. + +Perhaps one of the most common faults of chairmanship is the failure to +terminate the discussion early enough. Sometimes chairmen do not realize +that the meeting has effectively reached an agreement, and consequently +they let the discussion go on for another few minutes, getting nowhere +at all. Even more often, they are not quick enough to close a discussion +before agreement has been reached. + +A discussion should be closed once it has become clear that (a) more +facts are required before further progress can be made, (b) discussion +has revealed that the meeting needs the views of people not present, (c) +members need more time to think about the subject and perhaps discuss it +with colleagues, (d) events are changing and likely to alter or clarify +the basis of the decision quite soon, (e) there is not going to be +enough time at this meeting to go over the subject properly, or (f) it +is becoming clear that two or three of the members can settle this +outside the meeting without taking up the time of the rest. The fact +that the decision is difficult, likely to be disputed, or going to be +unwelcome to somebody, however, is not a reason for postponement. + +At the end of the discussion of each agenda item, the chairman should +give a brief and clear summary of what has been agreed on. This can act +as the dictation of the actual minutes. It serves not merely to put the +item on record, but also to help people realize that something +worthwhile has been achieved. It also answers the question “Where did +all that get us?” If the summary involves action by a member of the +meeting, he should be asked to confirm his acceptance of the +undertaking. + +### Dealing with the people + +There is only one way to ensure that a meeting starts on time, and that +is to start it on time. Latecomers who find that the meeting has begun +without them soon learn the lesson. The alternative is that the prompt +and punctual members will soon realize that a meeting never starts until +ten minutes after the advertised time, and they will also learn the +lesson. + +Punctuality at future meetings can be wonderfully reinforced by the +practice of listing late arrivals (and early departures) in the minutes. +Its ostensible and perfectly proper purpose is to call the latecomer’s +attention to the fact that he was absent when a decision was reached. +Its side effect, however, is to tell everyone on the circulation list +that he was late, and people do not want that sort of information about +themselves published too frequently. + +There is a growing volume of work on the significance of seating +positions and their effect on group behavior and relationships. Not all +the findings are generally agreed on. What does seem true is that: + + - Having members sit face to face across a table facilitates + opposition, conflict, and disagreement, though of course it does not + turn allies into enemies. But it does suggest that the chairman + should think about whom he seats opposite himself. + + + + - Sitting side by side makes disagreements and confrontation harder. + This in turn suggests that the chairman can exploit the + friendship-value of the seats next to him. + + + + - There is a “dead man’s corner” on the chairman’s right, especially + if a number of people are seated in line along from him (it does not + apply if he is alone at the head of the table). + + + + - As a general rule, proximity to the chairman is a sign of honor and + favor. This is most marked when he is at the head of a long, narrow + table. The greater the distance, the lower the rank—just as the + lower-status positions were “below the salt” at medieval + refectories. + +### Control the garrulous + +In most meetings someone takes a long time to say very little. As +chairman, your sense of urgency should help indicate to him the need for +brevity. You can also suggest that if he is going to take a long time it +might be better for him to write a paper. If it is urgent to stop him in +full flight, there is a useful device of picking on a phrase (it really +doesn’t matter what phrase) as he utters it as an excuse for cutting in +and offering it to someone else: “Inevitable decline—that’s very +interesting. George, do you agree that the decline is inevitable?” + +### Draw out the silent + +In any properly run meeting, as simple arithmetic will show, most of the +people will be silent most of the time. Silence can indicate general +agreement, or no important contribution to make, or the need to wait and +hear more before saying anything or too good a lunch, and none of these +need worry you. But there are two kinds of silence you must break:. + +1\. The silence of diffidence. Someone may have a valuable contribution +to make but be sufficiently nervous about its possible reception to keep +it to himself. It is important that when you draw out such a +contribution, you should express interest and pleasure (though not +necessarily agreement) to encourage further contributions of that sort. + +2\. The silence of hostility. This is not hostility to ideas, but to you +as the chairman, to the meeting, and to the process by which decisions +are being reached. + +This sort of total detachment from the whole proceedings is usually the +symptom of some feeling of affront. If you probe it, you will usually +find that there is something bursting to come out, and that it is better +out than in. + +### Protect the weak + +Junior members of the meeting may provoke the disagreement of their +seniors, which is perfectly reasonable. But if the disagreement +escalates to the point of suggesting that they have no right to +contribute, the meeting is weakened. So you may have to take pains to +commend their contribution for its usefulness, as a pre-emptive measure. +You can reinforce this action by taking a written note of a point they +make (always a plus for a member of a meeting) and by referring to it +again later in the discussion (a double-plus). + +### Encourage the clash of ideas + +But, at the same time, discourage the clash of personalities. A good +meeting is not a series of dialogues between individual members and the +chairman. Instead, it is a crossflow of discussion and debate, with the +chairman occasionally guiding, meditating, probing, stimulating, and +summarizing, but mostly letting the others thrash ideas out. However, +the meeting must be a contention of ideas, not people. + +If two people are starting to get heated, widen the discussion by asking +a question of a neutral member of the meeting, preferably a question +that requires a purely factual answer. + +### Watch out for the suggestion-squashing reflex + +Students of meetings have reduced everything that can be said into +questions, answers, positive reactions, and negative reactions. +Questions can only seek, and answers only supply, three types of +responses: information, opinion, and suggestion. + +In almost every modern organization, it is the suggestions that contain +the seeds of future success. Although very few suggestions will ever +lead to anything, almost all of them need to be given every chance. The +trouble is that suggestions are much easier to ridicule than facts or +opinions. If people feel that making a suggestion will provoke the +negative reaction of being laughed at or squashed, they will soon stop. +And if there is any status-jostling going on at the meeting, it is all +too easy to use the occasion of someone’s making a suggestion as the +opportunity to take him down a peg. It is all too easy and a formula to +ensure sterile meetings. + +The answer is for you to take special notice and show special warmth +when anyone makes a suggestion, and to discourage as sharply as you can +the squashing-reflex. This can often be achieved by requiring the +squasher to produce a better suggestion on the spot. Few suggestions can +stand up to squashing in their pristine state: your reflex must be to +pick out the best part of one and get the other committee members to +help build it into something that might work. + +### Come to the most senior people last + +Obviously, this cannot be a rule, but once someone of high authority has +pronounced on a topic, the less senior members are likely to be +inhibited. If you work up the pecking order instead of down it, you are +apt to get a wider spread of views and ideas. But the juniors who start +it off should only be asked for contributions within their personal +experience and competence (“Peter, you were at the Frankfurt +Exhibition—what reactions did you pick up there?”). + +### Close on a note of achievement + +Even if the final item is left unresolved, you can refer to an earlier +item that was well resolved as you close the meeting and thank the +group. + +If the meeting is not a regular one, fix the time and place of the next +one before dispersing. A little time spent with appointment diaries at +the end, especially if it is a gathering of five or more members, can +save hours of secretarial telephoning later. + +### Following the meeting + +Your secretary may take the minutes (or better still, one of the +members), but the minutes are your responsibility. They can be very +brief, but they should include these facts: + + - The time and date of the meeting, where it was held, and who chaired + it. + + + + - Names of all present and apologies for absence. + + + + - All agenda items (and other items) discussed and all decisions + reached. If action was agreed on, record (and underline) the name of + the person responsible for the assignment. + + + + - The time at which the meeting ended (important, because it may be + significant later to know whether the discussion lasted 15 minutes + or 6 hours). + + + + - The date, time, and place of the next committee meeting. + +A version of this article appeared in the [March +1976](/archive-toc/3762) issue of Harvard Business Review. diff --git a/_stories/1977/8413548.md b/_stories/1977/8413548.md index 47c4a85..faa5c8f 100644 --- a/_stories/1977/8413548.md +++ b/_stories/1977/8413548.md @@ -19,7 +19,277 @@ _tags: objectID: '8413548' --- -[Source](https://www.theparisreview.org/interviews/3605/the-art-of-fiction-no-64-kurt-vonnegut "Permalink to ") +  +![undefined](/il/fdb8a09feb/large/Hunter-S-Thompson.jpg "undefined") +  +In an October 1957 letter to a friend who had recommended he read Ayn +Rand’s The Fountainhead, Hunter S. Thompson wrote, “Although I don’t +feel that it’s at all necessary to tell you how I feel about the +principle of individuality, I know that I’m going to have to spend the +rest of my life expressing it one way or another, and I think that I’ll +accomplish more by expressing it on the keys of a typewriter than by +letting it express itself in sudden outbursts of frustrated violence. . +. .” + +Thompson carved out his niche early. He was born in 1937, in Louisville, +Kentucky, where his fiction and poetry earned him induction into the +local Athenaeum Literary Association while he was still in high school. +Thompson continued his literary pursuits in the United States Air Force, +writing a weekly sports column for the base newspaper. After two years +of service, Thompson endured a series of newspaper jobs—all of which +ended badly—before he took to freelancing from Puerto Rico and South +America for a variety of publications. The vocation quickly developed +into a compulsion. + +Thompson completed The Rum Diary, his only novel to date, before he +turned twenty-five; bought by Ballantine Books, it finally was +published—to glowing reviews—in 1998. In 1967, Thompson published his +first nonfiction book, Hell’s Angels, a harsh and incisive firsthand +investigation into the infamous motorcycle gang then making the +heartland of America nervous. + +Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas, which first appeared in Rolling Stone in +November 1971, sealed Thompson’s reputation as an outlandish stylist +successfully straddling the line between journalism and fiction writing. +As the subtitle warns, the book tells of “a savage journey to the heart +of the American Dream” in full-tilt gonzo style—Thompson’s hilarious +first-person approach—and is accented by British illustrator Ralph +Steadman’s appropriate drawings. + +His next book, Fear and Loathing: On the Campaign Trail ’72, was a +brutally perceptive take on the 1972 Nixon-McGovern presidential +campaign. A self-confessed political junkie, Thompson chronicled the +1992 presidential campaign in Better than Sex (1994). Thompson’s other +books include The Curse of Lono (1983), a bizarre South Seas tale, and +three collections of Gonzo Papers: The Great Shark +Hunt (1979), Generation of Swine (1988) and Songs of the +Doomed (1990). + +In 1997, The Proud Highway: Saga of a Desperate Southern Gentleman, +1955-1967, the first volume of Thompson’s correspondence with everyone +from his mother to Lyndon Johnson, was published. The second volume of +letters, Fear and Loathing in America: The Brutal Odyssey of an Outlaw +Journalist, 1968-1976, has just been released. + +• + +Located in the mostly posh neighborhood of western Colorado’s Woody +Creek Canyon, ten miles or so down-valley from Aspen, Owl Farm is a +rustic ranch with an old-fashioned Wild West charm. Although Thompson’s +beloved peacocks roam his property freely, it’s the flowers blooming +around the ranch house that provide an unexpected high-country +tranquility. Jimmy Carter, George McGovern and Keith Richards, among +dozens of others, have shot clay pigeons and stationary targets on the +property, which is a designated Rod and Gun Club and shares a border +with the White River National Forest. Almost daily, Thompson leaves Owl +Farm in either his Great Red Shark Convertible or Jeep Grand Cherokee to +mingle at the nearby Woody Creek Tavern. + +Visitors to Thompson’s house are greeted by a variety of sculptures, +weapons, boxes of books and a bicycle before entering the nerve center +of Owl Farm, Thompson’s obvious command post on the kitchen side of a +peninsula counter that separates him from a lounge area dominated by an +always-on Panasonic TV, always tuned to news or sports. An antique +upright piano is piled high and deep enough with books to engulf any +reader for a decade. Above the piano hangs a large Ralph Steadman +portrait of “Belinda”—the Slut Goddess of Polo. On another wall covered +with political buttons hangs a Che Guevara banner acquired on Thompson’s +last tour of Cuba. On the counter sits an IBM Selectric typewriter—a +Macintosh computer is set up in an office in the back wing of the house. + +The most striking thing about Thompson’s house is that it isn’t the +weirdness one notices first: it’s the words. They’re +everywhere—handwritten in his elegant lettering, mostly in fading red +Sharpie on the blizzard of bits of paper festooning every wall and +surface: stuck to the sleek black leather refrigerator, taped to the +giant TV, tacked up on the lampshades; inscribed by others on framed +photos with lines like, “For Hunter, who saw not only fear and loathing, +but hope and joy in ’72—George McGovern”; typed in IBM Selectric on +reams of originals and copies in fat manila folders that slide in piles +off every counter and table top; and noted in many hands and inks across +the endless flurry of pages. + +Thompson extricates his large frame from his ergonomically correct +office chair facing the TV and lumbers over graciously to administer a +hearty handshake or kiss to each caller according to gender, all with an +easy effortlessness and unexpectedly old-world way that somehow +underscores just who is in charge. + +• + +We talked with Thompson for twelve hours straight. This was nothing out +of the ordinary for the host: Owl Farm operates like an +eighteenth-century salon, where people from all walks of life congregate +in the wee hours for free exchanges about everything from theoretical +physics to local water rights, depending on who’s there. Walter +Isaacson, managing editor of Time, was present during parts of this +interview, as were a steady stream of friends. Given the very late hours +Thompson keeps, it is fitting that the most prominently posted quote in +the room, in Thompson’s hand, twists the last line of Dylan Thomas’s +poem “Do Not Go Gentle into That Good Night”: “Rage, rage against the +coming of the light.” + +For most of the half-day that we talked, Thompson sat at his command +post, chain-smoking red Dunhills through a German-made gold-tipped +cigarette filter and rocking back and forth in his swivel chair. Behind +Thompson’s sui generis personality lurks a trenchant humorist with a +sharp moral sensibility. His exaggerated style may defy easy +categorization, but his career-long autopsy on the death of the American +dream places him among the twentieth century’s most exciting writers. +The comic savagery of his best work will continue to electrify readers +for generations to come. + +• + +. . . I have stolen more quotes and thoughts and purely elegant little +starbursts of writing from the Book of Revelation than from anything +else in the English Language—and it is not because I am a biblical +scholar, or because of any religious faith, but because I love the wild +power of the language and the purity of the madness that governs it and +makes it music. + +  + +HUNTER S. THOMPSON + +Well, wanting to and having to are two different things. Originally I +hadn’t thought about writing as a solution to my problems. But I had a +good grounding in literature in high school. We’d cut school and go down +to a café on Bardstown Road where we would drink beer and read and +discuss Plato’s parable of the cave. We had a literary society in town, +the Athenaeum; we met in coat and tie on Saturday nights. I hadn’t +adjusted too well to society—I was in jail for the night of my high +school graduation—but I learned at the age of fifteen that to get by you +had to find the one thing you can do better than anybody else . . . at +least this was so in my case. I figured that out early. It was writing. +It was the rock in my sock. Easier than algebra. It was always work, but +it was always worthwhile work. I was fascinated early by seeing my +byline in print. It was a rush. Still is. + +When I got to the Air Force, writing got me out of trouble. I was +assigned to pilot training at Eglin Air Force Base near Pensacola in +northwest Florida, but I was shifted to electronics . . . advanced, very +intense, eight-month school with bright guys . . . I enjoyed it but I +wanted to get back to pilot training. Besides, I’m afraid of +electricity. So I went up there to the base education office one day and +signed up for some classes at Florida State. I got along well with a guy +named Ed and I asked him about literary possibilities. He asked me if I +knew anything about sports, and I said that I had been the editor of my +high-school paper. He said, “Well, we might be in luck.” It turned out +that the sports editor of the base newspaper, a staff sergeant, had been +arrested in Pensacola and put in jail for public drunkenness, pissing +against the side of a building; it was the third time and they wouldn’t +let him out. + +So I went to the base library and found three books on journalism. I +stayed there reading them until it closed. Basic journalism. I learned +about headlines, leads: who, when, what, where, that sort of thing. I +barely slept that night. This was my ticket to ride, my ticket to get +out of that damn place. So I started as an editor. Boy, what a joy. I +wrote long Grantland Rice-type stories. The sports editor of my +hometown Louisville Courier Journal always had a column, left-hand side +of the page. So I started a column. + +By the second week I had the whole thing down. I could work at night. I +wore civilian clothes, worked off base, had no hours, but I worked +constantly. I wrote not only for the base paper, The Command Courier, +but also the local paper, The Playground News. I’d put things in the +local paper that I couldn’t put in the base paper. Really inflammatory +shit. I wrote for a professional wrestling newsletter. The Air Force got +very angry about it. I was constantly doing things that violated +regulations. I wrote a critical column about how Arthur Godfrey, who’d +been invited to the base to be the master of ceremonies at a firepower +demonstration, had been busted for shooting animals from the air in +Alaska. The base commander told me: “Goddamn it, son, why did you have +to write about Arthur Godfrey that way?” + +When I left the Air Force I knew I could get by as a journalist. So I +went to apply for a job at Sports Illustrated. I had my clippings, my +bylines, and I thought that was magic . . . my passport. The personnel +director just laughed at me. I said, “Wait a minute. I’ve been sports +editor for two papers.” He told me that their writers were judged not by +the work they’d done, but where they’d done it. He said, “Our writers +are all Pulitzer Prize winners from The New York Times. This is a +helluva place for you to start. Go out into the boondocks and improve +yourself.” + +I was shocked. After all, I’d broken the Bart Starr story. + +INTERVIEWER + +What was that? + +THOMPSON + +At Eglin Air Force Base we always had these great football teams. The +Eagles. Championship teams. We could beat up on the University of +Virginia. Our bird-colonel Sparks wasn’t just any yo-yo coach. We +recruited. We had these great players serving their military time in +ROTC. We had Zeke Bratkowski, the Green Bay quarterback. We had Max +McGee of the Packers. Violent, wild, wonderful drunk. At the start of +the season McGee went AWOL, appeared at the Green Bay camp and he never +came back. I was somehow blamed for his leaving. The sun fell out of the +firmament. Then the word came that we were getting Bart Starr, the +All-American from Alabama. The Eagles were going to roll\! But then the +staff sergeant across the street came in and said, “I’ve got a terrible +story for you. Bart Starr’s not coming.” I managed to break into an +office and get out his files. I printed the order that showed he was +being discharged medically. Very serious leak. + +INTERVIEWER + +The Bart Starr story was not enough to impress Sports Illustrated? + +THOMPSON + +The personnel guy there said, “Well, we do have this trainee program.” +So I became a kind of copy boy. + +INTERVIEWER + +You eventually ended up in San Francisco. With the publication in 1967 +of Hell’s Angels, your life must have taken an upward spin. + +THOMPSON + +All of a sudden I had a book out. At the time I was twenty-nine years +old and I couldn’t even get a job driving a cab in San Francisco, much +less writing. Sure, I had written important articles for The +Nation and The Observer, but only a few good journalists really knew +my byline. The book enabled me to buy a brand new BSA 650 Lightning, the +fastest motorcycle ever tested by Hot Rod magazine. It validated +everything I had been working toward. If Hell’s Angels hadn’t happened I +never would have been able to write Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas or +anything else. To be able to earn a living as a freelance writer in this +country is damned hard; there are very few people who can do +that. Hell’s Angels all of a sudden proved to me that, Holy Jesus, +maybe I can do this. I knew I was a good journalist. I knew I was a good +writer, but I felt like I got through a door just as it was closing. + +INTERVIEWER + +With the swell of creative energy flowing throughout the San Francisco +scene at the time, did you interact with or were you influenced by any +other writers? + +THOMPSON + +Ken Kesey for one. His novels One Flew Over the Cuckoo’s +Nest and Sometimes a Great Notion had quite an impact on me. I looked +up to him hugely. One day I went down to the television station to do a +roundtable show with other writers, like Kay Boyle, and Kesey was there. +Afterwards we went across the street to a local tavern and had several +beers together. I told him about the Angels, who I planned to meet later +that day, and I said, “Well, why don’t you come along?” He said, “Whoa, +I’d like to meet these guys.” Then I got second thoughts, because it’s +never a good idea to take strangers along to meet the Angels. But I +figured that this was Ken Kesey, so I’d try. By the end of the night +Kesey had invited them all down to La Honda, his woodsy retreat outside +of San Francisco. It was a time of extreme turbulence—riots in Berkeley. +He was always under assault by the police—day in and day out, so La +Honda was like a war zone. But he had a lot of the literary, +intellectual crowd down there, Stanford people also, visiting editors, +and Hell’s Angels. Kesey’s place was a real cultural vortex. diff --git a/_stories/1979/9371847.md b/_stories/1979/9371847.md index 3506773..e5911d4 100644 --- a/_stories/1979/9371847.md +++ b/_stories/1979/9371847.md @@ -19,7 +19,67 @@ _tags: objectID: '9371847' --- -[Source](https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2014/oct/29/mathematics-khachian-russia-travelling-salesman-archive-1979 "Permalink to ") +A young Soviet mathematician, apparently totally unknown to any of the +world’s senior practitioners, has found an answer to one of the most +baffling problems in computer calculation. +But his obscurity is such that his discovery went unnoticed for 10 +months in the mathematical world, although work on the problem has been +going on for years. +The apparent breakthrough was achieved by L. G. Khachian, and was +published in a Soviet scientific journal, Doklady, last January. Few +people in the West read the journal and it was only after rumours of the +discovery circulated at a conference in Germany that anyone in the +mathematical world at large had even a hint that someone had come up +with an answer to what is known in the trade as the “travelling +salesman” problem. +The fact that some of the world’s best brains have been trying to solve +the problem gives some idea of its density to the layman. Reduced to its +simplest, the difficulty is to find a formula for a computer to work out +the best route for a salesman to take when he has to make calls in a +number of different cities. + +This is only a sample problem. There are any number of analogous +situations in the everyday life of the industrial world: calculating the +most efficient way of staffing a factory with three shifts of workers is +another. + +On the face of it, this should present no difficulty at all and, up to a +point, the computer can do the sums at its normal speed. But it only +needs a small increase in the number of cities to be visited by the +salesman for the machine to fall into the binary version of a nervous +breakdown. + +The trouble is that the machine can only be programmed to work on the +problem through trial and error, laboriously going through all the +possible combinations until one emerges which is better than all the +others - known in the trade as the exponential time method. + +The alternative being sought would use the polynomial time method, by +which the machine can carry out a whole range of simultaneous +calculations. + +A route for a salesman visiting 60 cities would take about one-fifth of +a second to work out with a polynomial formula. Using exponential time +methods it needs literally billions of centuries. But no one so far has +managed to come up with a mathematical theory to underpin a solution. + +Now Mr Khachian has burst on the scene and seems to have provided a +significant bit of the answer. Since no one knows who he is and since +there is no record of any previous publication by him, the speculation +is that he carried out his work as part of his doctoral thesis. + +The best brains in the business have tried out his formula and agree +that it works, at least on a pocket calculator. It has yet to be given a +full-blown test as part of a computer programme. + +Mr Khachian’s solution is not easily explained, but involves the use of +sets (that central element in the new maths) in a more imaginative way +than hitherto which closes in on the best solution. + +The practical advantage of this is to cut out consideration of obvious +non-starters. The consensus of the mathematical fraternity is that the +Russian’s obscurity is not likely to last if he continues to produce +work of this calibre. diff --git a/_stories/1980/10206262.md b/_stories/1980/10206262.md deleted file mode 100644 index d8c770b..0000000 --- a/_stories/1980/10206262.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,25 +0,0 @@ ---- -created_at: '2015-09-11T21:23:55.000Z' -title: The 6502 Gets Microprogrammable Instructions (1980) -url: http://www.wiz-worx.com/resume/byte8010.htm -author: ingve -points: 49 -story_text: -comment_text: -num_comments: 7 -story_id: -story_title: -story_url: -parent_id: -created_at_i: 1442006635 -_tags: -- story -- author_ingve -- story_10206262 -objectID: '10206262' - ---- -[Source](http://www.wiz-worx.com/resume/byte8010.htm "Permalink to ") - - - diff --git a/_stories/1981/10070103.md b/_stories/1981/10070103.md index 4d959fc..2191d88 100644 --- a/_stories/1981/10070103.md +++ b/_stories/1981/10070103.md @@ -19,270 +19,139 @@ _tags: objectID: '10070103' --- -[Source](http://www.nytimes.com/1981/06/09/us/changing-san-francisco-is-foreseen-as-a-haven-for-wealthy-and-childless.html?l=0 "Permalink to CHANGING SAN FRANCISCO IS FORESEEN AS A HAVEN FOR WEALTHY AND CHILDLESS - NYTimes.com") - -# CHANGING SAN FRANCISCO IS FORESEEN AS A HAVEN FOR WEALTHY AND CHILDLESS - NYTimes.com - -* [Log In][1] -* [Register Now][2] -* [Help][3] -* [Home Page][4] -* [Today's Paper][5] -* [Video][6] -* [Most Popular][7] - -Edition: [U.S.][4] / [Global][8] - -Search All NYTimes.com - -![New York Times][9] - -## [U.S.][10] - -* [World][11] -* [U.S.][10] - * [Politics][12] - * [Education][13] - * [Texas][14] -* [N.Y. / Region][15] -* [Business][16] -* [Technology][17] -* [Science][18] -* [Health][19] -* [Sports][20] -* [Opinion][21] -* [Arts][22] -* [Style][23] -* [Travel][24] -* [Jobs][25] -* [Real Estate][26] -* [Autos][27] - -# CHANGING SAN FRANCISCO IS FORESEEN AS A HAVEN FOR WEALTHY AND CHILDLESS - -###### By WAYNE KING, Special to the New York Times - -###### Published: June 9, 1981 - -**SAN FRANCISCO, June 8— ** Soaring housing costs, urban violence, shifting ethnic patterns and an increase in childless adults living together may be turning San Francisco, which the Chamber of Commerce likes to call ''everybody's favorite city,'' into a haven for the young, the old, the wealthy and the childless. - -That is the conclusion of demographers, real estate people and others who monitor urban trends here, underscored by preliminary statistics from the 1980 census. - -Over the decade of the 1970's, the city lost 5 percent of its population, declining to 678,974 in 1980 from 715,674 in 1970. But more important than the population loss itself, demographers and planners here say, is the continued, and in this census, dramatic, alteration in the population mix. Whites and blacks are being replaced by persons of Asian and Hispanic origin, the middle class by the affluent and families with children by singles and childless. - -A City for the Elite Seen - -''At this rate we could become a place only the elite can afford,'' said Dr. Kenneth T. Rosen, chairman of the Center for Real Estate and Urban Economics in the graduate school of business at the University of California at Berkeley. - -''Ten years from now,'' he predicted, ''unless we adopt some sort of policy to insure income integration, we will crowd out all the middle-income people. I think San Francisco is going to become a very rich living area, a lot of single and retired people who have money, executives who work down in the financial district. It's going to be very difficult for a nonwealthy person to live here.'' - -The largest population loss in the last decade was among whites, whose number declined nearly 23 percent, from 511,186 in 1970 to 395,082 in 1980. The drop in white population was not unusual for a mature urban area of the North and West. But San Francisco did have an unusual loss of black population, from 96,414 to 86,078, a decline of 10 percent. Big Increase From Asia - -At the same time the number of Asian-Americans living here increased by more than 50 percent, from 97,379 in 1970 to 147,426 at the end of the decade, according to an interolation of census data by the senior San Francisco city planner, Peter Groat. - -Although the figures for the Hispanic American population in San Francisco indicated a decline over the decade, from 101,090 in 1970 to 83,273 in 1980, Mr. Groat said that the method of enumerating Hispanic Americans probably skewed the figures significantly, and it it was generally thought that the Hispanic American population actually increased here. The reason is that in 1970 the number of Hispanics was arrived at by a computer model that listed everyone with a Spanish surname as Hispanic. In 1980, census respondents were allowed to choose their own ethnic category. As a result some who would have been listed as Hispanic in 1970 described themselves in 1980 as white, black or ''other.'' In 1980, 46,504 people listed themselves as ''other'' in San Francisco. - -The displacement of blacks in San Francisco, according to Mr. Groat and others, appears to result in large measure from the lack of reasonably priced housing, but also from the easing of racial barriers in the suburbs. - -''One of the hypotheses,'' said Mr. Groat, ''would be that affluent blacks have left San Francisco as the real estate market in the suburbs has opened up.'' Reasons for White Flight - -Housing expenses, problems in the schools and a rising rate of violent crime in the city - the rate of reported rape in San Francisco in 1980 was nearly three times that of Chicago, and the robbery rate almost equal to Detroit - are all cited as contributors to white flight. - -The data from the 1980 census have not been analyzed completely. But preliminary theories are that the major population loss has been among the middle class, particularly children. - -''What is happening is that San Francisco is losing people, but it is gaining households,'' observed William Witte, deputy director for housing in the city's Office of Community Development. ''It's a net loss of people, a net gain in households, so there is more pressure on the housing market and more pressure on the people who can least afford it. The nationwide trend is to smaller households, and more households per capita, and that is exaggerated here, greater than the national trend. According to the latest figures, the size of the household decreased in the past decade from about 2.7 persons per household to 2.1, something like that. And the incomes went up.'' Exodus Linked to Housing Costs - -A major reason for the exodus of the middle class from San Francisco, demographers say, is the high cost of housing, the highest in the mainland United States. Last month, the median cost of a dwelling in the San Francisco Standard Metropolitan Statistical Area was $129,000, according to the Federal Home Loan Bank Board in Washington, D.C. The comparable figure for New York, Newark and Jersey City was $90,400, and for Los Angeles, the second most expensive city, $118,400. - -''This city dwarfs anything I've ever seen in terms of housing prices,'' said Mr. Witte. Among factors contributing to high housing cost, according to Mr. Witte and others, is its relative scarcity, since the number of housing units has not grown significantly in a decade; the influx of Asians, whose first priority is usually to buy a home; the high incidence of adults with good incomes and no children, particularly homosexuals who pool their incomes to buy homes, and the desirability of San Francisco as a place to live. - -''What you have is a sharp drop in the birth rate, and what we've really lost is children under 15,'' said Dr. Rosen. ''We can't demonstrate it without the numbers, which we'll get in six months to a year, but it has happened in many cities. It's not people moving out of the cities. The number of households has gone up so the number of adults has gone up. People are not having kids, and there is the nontraditional life style. Traditional families are not being formed, people are not getting married and having children.'' More 'Nontraditional' People - -''These are people who are nontraditional,'' he continued, ''people who are turning age 30 in the l980's, and San Francisco has more of them, a city where nontraditional life style is very accepted, not only not getting married, but also forming gay households. Gay or nongay, there are a lot of single people living together.'' - -Estimates of the city's homosexual population range from 10 to 20 percent of the total, and it is generally believed that homosexual households are a significant factor in the trend toward small households. - -''We are the center of what we call life-style changes,'' said Mr. Groate. ''But it is very difficult to assess all the impact of the life-style changes. But housing pressures do reflect, for instance, the influx of the gay population, which will not be accounted for in the census figures. I'm sure that will have an impact, a severe impact, on the housing situation.'' - -Demographers like Mr. Groat say that they not surprised at the shifts. ''We've always had a transient situation,'' he said. ''From the time of the gold rush on, this has not been a normal, stable population.'' - -Illustrations: photo of Victorian townhouses in Alamo Square, San Francisco photo of moving van and San Francisco houses - -![][28] - -![][29] ![][30] - -#### Inside NYTimes.com - -| ----- | -| - -###### [Health »][19] - -![Too Hot to Handle][31] - -###### [Too Hot to Handle__][32] - - | - -###### [Arts »][33] - -![The Harmony of Liberty][34] - -###### [The Harmony of Liberty__][35] - - | - -###### [Opinion »][21] - -### [Should Beach Privatization Be Allowed?__][36] - -Room for Debate asks whether shorefront homeowners should have to open their land to all comers. - - | - -###### [Sports »][20] - -![A Woman’s Leadership May Steady Murray][37] - -###### [A Woman’s Leadership May Steady Murray__][38] - - | - - | - -###### [Opinion »][21] - -![Menagerie: Streaming Eagles][39] - -###### [Menagerie: Streaming Eagles__][40] - - | - -###### [U.S. »][10] - -![Curlers’ Aim: Sweep to a Win Over the 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http://www.nytimes.com/rss -[60]: http://www.nytimes.com/ref/membercenter/help/infoservdirectory.html -[61]: https://myaccount.nytimes.com/membercenter/feedback.html -[62]: http://wt.o.nytimes.com/dcsym57yw10000s1s8g0boozt_9t1x/njs.gif?dcsuri=/nojavascript&WT.js=No&WT.tv=1.0.7 -[63]: http://up.nytimes.com/?d=0//&t=&s=0&ui=&r=&u=www.nytimes.com%2F1981%2F06%2F09%2Fus%2Fchanging-san-francisco-is-foreseen-as-a-haven-for-wealthy-and-childless.html - +**SAN FRANCISCO, June 8—** Soaring housing costs, urban violence, +shifting ethnic patterns and an increase in childless adults living +together may be turning San Francisco, which the Chamber of Commerce +likes to call ''everybody's favorite city,'' into a haven for the young, +the old, the wealthy and the childless. + +That is the conclusion of demographers, real estate people and others +who monitor urban trends here, underscored by preliminary statistics +from the 1980 census. + +Over the decade of the 1970's, the city lost 5 percent of its +population, declining to 678,974 in 1980 from 715,674 in 1970. But more +important than the population loss itself, demographers and planners +here say, is the continued, and in this census, dramatic, alteration in +the population mix. Whites and blacks are being replaced by persons of +Asian and Hispanic origin, the middle class by the affluent and families +with children by singles and childless. + +A City for the Elite Seen + +''At this rate we could become a place only the elite can afford,'' said +Dr. Kenneth T. Rosen, chairman of the Center for Real Estate and Urban +Economics in the graduate school of business at the University of +California at Berkeley. + +''Ten years from now,'' he predicted, ''unless we adopt some sort of +policy to insure income integration, we will crowd out all the +middle-income people. I think San Francisco is going to become a very +rich living area, a lot of single and retired people who have money, +executives who work down in the financial district. It's going to be +very difficult for a nonwealthy person to live here.'' + +The largest population loss in the last decade was among whites, whose +number declined nearly 23 percent, from 511,186 in 1970 to 395,082 in +1980. The drop in white population was not unusual for a mature urban +area of the North and West. But San Francisco did have an unusual loss +of black population, from 96,414 to 86,078, a decline of 10 percent. Big +Increase From Asia + +At the same time the number of Asian-Americans living here increased by +more than 50 percent, from 97,379 in 1970 to 147,426 at the end of the +decade, according to an interolation of census data by the senior San +Francisco city planner, Peter Groat. + +Although the figures for the Hispanic American population in San +Francisco indicated a decline over the decade, from 101,090 in 1970 to +83,273 in 1980, Mr. Groat said that the method of enumerating Hispanic +Americans probably skewed the figures significantly, and it it was +generally thought that the Hispanic American population actually +increased here. The reason is that in 1970 the number of Hispanics was +arrived at by a computer model that listed everyone with a Spanish +surname as Hispanic. In 1980, census respondents were allowed to choose +their own ethnic category. As a result some who would have been listed +as Hispanic in 1970 described themselves in 1980 as white, black or +''other.'' In 1980, 46,504 people listed themselves as ''other'' in San +Francisco. + +The displacement of blacks in San Francisco, according to Mr. Groat and +others, appears to result in large measure from the lack of reasonably +priced housing, but also from the easing of racial barriers in the +suburbs. + +''One of the hypotheses,'' said Mr. Groat, ''would be that affluent +blacks have left San Francisco as the real estate market in the suburbs +has opened up.'' Reasons for White Flight + +Housing expenses, problems in the schools and a rising rate of violent +crime in the city - the rate of reported rape in San Francisco in 1980 +was nearly three times that of Chicago, and the robbery rate almost +equal to Detroit - are all cited as contributors to white flight. + +The data from the 1980 census have not been analyzed completely. But +preliminary theories are that the major population loss has been among +the middle class, particularly children. + +''What is happening is that San Francisco is losing people, but it is +gaining households,'' observed William Witte, deputy director for +housing in the city's Office of Community Development. ''It's a net loss +of people, a net gain in households, so there is more pressure on the +housing market and more pressure on the people who can least afford it. +The nationwide trend is to smaller households, and more households per +capita, and that is exaggerated here, greater than the national trend. +According to the latest figures, the size of the household decreased in +the past decade from about 2.7 persons per household to 2.1, something +like that. And the incomes went up.'' Exodus Linked to Housing Costs + +A major reason for the exodus of the middle class from San Francisco, +demographers say, is the high cost of housing, the highest in the +mainland United States. Last month, the median cost of a dwelling in the +San Francisco Standard Metropolitan Statistical Area was $129,000, +according to the Federal Home Loan Bank Board in Washington, D.C. The +comparable figure for New York, Newark and Jersey City was $90,400, and +for Los Angeles, the second most expensive city, $118,400. + +''This city dwarfs anything I've ever seen in terms of housing prices,'' +said Mr. Witte. Among factors contributing to high housing cost, +according to Mr. Witte and others, is its relative scarcity, since the +number of housing units has not grown significantly in a decade; the +influx of Asians, whose first priority is usually to buy a home; the +high incidence of adults with good incomes and no children, particularly +homosexuals who pool their incomes to buy homes, and the desirability of +San Francisco as a place to live. + +''What you have is a sharp drop in the birth rate, and what we've really +lost is children under 15,'' said Dr. Rosen. ''We can't demonstrate it +without the numbers, which we'll get in six months to a year, but it has +happened in many cities. It's not people moving out of the cities. The +number of households has gone up so the number of adults has gone up. +People are not having kids, and there is the nontraditional life style. +Traditional families are not being formed, people are not getting +married and having children.'' More 'Nontraditional' People + +''These are people who are nontraditional,'' he continued, ''people who +are turning age 30 in the l980's, and San Francisco has more of them, a +city where nontraditional life style is very accepted, not only not +getting married, but also forming gay households. Gay or nongay, there +are a lot of single people living together.'' + +Estimates of the city's homosexual population range from 10 to 20 +percent of the total, and it is generally believed that homosexual +households are a significant factor in the trend toward small +households. + +''We are the center of what we call life-style changes,'' said Mr. +Groate. ''But it is very difficult to assess all the impact of the +life-style changes. But housing pressures do reflect, for instance, the +influx of the gay population, which will not be accounted for in the +census figures. I'm sure that will have an impact, a severe impact, on +the housing situation.'' + +Demographers like Mr. Groat say that they not surprised at the shifts. +''We've always had a transient situation,'' he said. ''From the time of +the gold rush on, this has not been a normal, stable population.'' + +Illustrations: photo of Victorian townhouses in Alamo Square, San +Francisco photo of moving van and San Francisco houses diff --git a/_stories/1981/10430276.md b/_stories/1981/10430276.md index c170e34..2e75349 100644 --- a/_stories/1981/10430276.md +++ b/_stories/1981/10430276.md @@ -19,7 +19,17 @@ _tags: objectID: '10430276' --- -[Source](https://www.caranddriver.com/reviews/1981-de-lorean-archived-first-drive-review "Permalink to ") - - - +The world's hands-on debut of the De Lorean after years of anticipation +did resolve a couple of longstanding concerns. First of all, this is +unquestionably the most ambitious attempt at running-before-walking ever +seen in the variegated history of the auto industry. The backbone frame +is easy but expensive, the molded-plastic body complicated and +expensive. The gull-wing doors are currently smack-dab in the middle of +a no-man's land in terms of manufacturing experience: Mercedes-Benz +broke the molds after 1400 300SLs, and Malcolm Bricklin went bust +squeezing the next couple thousand winged cars out of his Canadian +plant. What's more, the De Lorean is first packed with the power +accessories and miles of wiring that go with a luxury ride these days, +and only then sealed up in its silver wrapper. To find a +more-complex-to-build car, you might try Rolls-Royce, but it crafts only +a few thousand units a year and their prices run into six figures. diff --git a/_stories/1981/10768239.md b/_stories/1981/10768239.md index f448c4e..8b0738d 100644 --- a/_stories/1981/10768239.md +++ b/_stories/1981/10768239.md @@ -19,270 +19,145 @@ _tags: objectID: '10768239' --- -[Source](http://www.nytimes.com/1981/02/19/nyregion/the-10000-a-year-college-education-has-arrived.html "Permalink to THE $10,000-A-YEAR COLLEGE EDUCATION HAS ARRIVED - NYTimes.com") - -# THE $10,000-A-YEAR COLLEGE EDUCATION HAS ARRIVED - NYTimes.com - -* [Log In][1] -* [Register Now][2] -* [Help][3] -* [Home Page][4] -* [Today's Paper][5] -* [Video][6] -* [Most Popular][7] - -Edition: [U.S.][4] / [Global][8] - -Search All NYTimes.com - -![New York Times][9] - -## [N.Y. / Region][10] - -* [World][11] -* [U.S.][12] -* [N.Y. / Region][10] -* [Business][13] -* [Technology][14] -* [Science][15] -* [Health][16] -* [Sports][17] -* [Opinion][18] -* [Arts][19] -* [Style][20] -* [Travel][21] -* [Jobs][22] -* [Real Estate][23] -* [Autos][24] - -# THE $10,000-A-YEAR COLLEGE EDUCATION HAS ARRIVED - -###### By LAURIE JOHNSTON - -###### Published: February 19, 1981 - -Correction Appended - -The price of a college education, which hard-pressed parents have long said is going through the roof, has done just that - only there is apparently no longer a roof. As Gertrude Stein said, ''When you get there, there is no there there.'' - -For 1981-82 undergraduates, tuition charges alone are crashing through the $7,000 barrier for the first time. Total fees, including room and board, are not only shooting past $10,000, but also emerging strong on the other side at such pace-setting schools as Harvard, Yale, Brown, Bennington, Columbia, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Stanford. - -At several campuses, they carry such canny price tags as Princeton's $9,994. Outstripping the inflation rate by several points, the increases will commonly be 15 percent and often more. A benchmark 20 percent rise has been announced by Boston's Northeastern University for four of its colleges, where freshmen will pay $4,500 tuition, with a 16.7 percent rise to $4,200 at the other colleges. Cornell's endowed colleges will go up 18 percent to $7,000 tuition, with housing and dining increases expected to bring the total to $9,864. Student Aid a Concern - -The increases come at a time of severe concern over the Reagan Administration's announced goal of limiting Federal financial aid to students, and many schools are increasing their own budgets for student aid. ''I have never been so beside myself about financial aid, both at Barnard and across the country,'' said Suzanne Guard, the Barnard director of financial aid. - -At Amherst College, which expects a 13 to 15 percent increase above the present $8,450 comprehensive fee (compared with $3,600 ten years ago), 70 percent of the students have federally guaranteed student loans. The college has budgeted its own financial help for 35 percent of next year's freshmen, as against 27 percent this year. - -''If there's no major reduction in Government loans and grants, we're in good shape,'' said Donald Routh, dean for financial aid. ''If there are reductions, then we have some very realproblems.'' - -Around the country, campus press editorials and a scattering of demonstrations have protested the proposed rises in tuition and other fees. While some officials and students talk about ''pricing ourselves out of the market'' or ''getting beyond what the traffic will bear,'' for the most part they report a mood of near resignation to what is considered inevitable. Some Students Protest - -At Fordham University, which has announced 13 and 14 percent increases in tuition, a demonstration was held recently on the Bronx campus, where total fees will go from $3,750 to $4,240. Seven students carried signs and chanted in the cold for 15 minutes before jamming their signs in the door of the administration building and dispersing. - -Students at New York University were described as ''complaining'' about increases of 14 percent for tuition, to $5,770, and 12 percent for living costs, but they were said to be more immediately concerned about possible cuts in Federal aid. Housing at N.Y.U. will go to $1,430 and the maximum meal plan charge to $1,384. - -Putting the blame on inflation, college officials cite soaring costs of fuel and insulation programs, food and equipment, as well as relatively modest faculty and staff salary increases of 9 to 13 percent. Administrators note in passing that income from endowments and other sources is not keeping pace with inflation. - -Announcing that Yale's undergraduate bill would be $10,340, President A. Bartlett Giamatti called it ''as low as it can possibly be'' in the face of energy costs, a decline in the purchasing power of endowments and Yale's decision to increase salaries. - -Columbia and Barnard, which expect to announce increases of at least 12 percent, to about $10,300 and $8,840, respectively, are among the schools citing a need for improved security to justify the rises. State University Fees Up - -Tuition increases of at least 11 percent at the State University of New York - to $1,000 or $1,050 for undergraduates on 29 four-year campuses, compared with $550 a decade ago - were tentatively approved this month in an attempt to save most of the 440 faculty and nonfaculty positions believed lost in Governor Carey's proposed 1981-82 budget. The trustees also raised next year's dormitory fees by $150 a year, to $1,100. - -The breaching of both $1,000 levels, while psychologically dramatic in the state-supported system, still leaves the state university's 10-year increase slightly below the now typical 100 percent rate. - -Although the City University of New York is also heavily dependent on the state budget, it plans to remain at the $900 mark, reached four years after its schools began charging for tuition in 1976. ''We have absolutely no intention of increasing the tuition for next year,'' said James P. Murphy, chairman of the board of trustees. - -Total fees on nearly all campuses have at least doubled in the past decade - a period when the national consumer price index was rising 112 percent - and most picked up speed in the later years. At Brown University, for example, next year's $10,242 comprehensive fee is up 110 percent from $4,890 in 1970-71 and 78 percent from $5,750 in 1975. - -Princeton will break its own records with a 15 percent increase in tuition to $7,250. The total charges come to $9,994 -a 133 percent increase in the last decade. However, students and their families are urged to count also on an allowance of $1,055 (up from this year's $975 estimate) for such expenses as books and laundry -not to mention the beer-and-skittles part of education - bringing the recognized total to $11,049. Bennington at High End - -With a mere 12.3 percent rise in total fees, Bennington College in Vermont may still present the nation's most expensive undergraduate bill: $10,560 for tuition, room and board. At Wesleyan University in Middletown, Conn., a planned 15 percent increase will bring student fees to $9,780, of which $6,850 is for tuition. - -Like many other schools, Harvard University cited ''steady inflation and rising energy costs'' for its $1,370 increase in undergraduate charges to $10,540, with tuition alone up 15.5 percent to $6,930. Henry Rosovsky, dean of the faculty of arts and sciences, said an 80 percent rise in the price of steam for heat and hot water had contributed to Harvard's current annual energy bill of $27 million, up 25 percent in a year. - -Like other schools, too, Harvard maintains that ''families will still allocate about the same percentage of income in real dollars'' because college charges have only paralleled the inflation in the nation's disposable personal income. - -Many students and parents, however, note that money intended for college does not always come out of current income. When Deborah Levinger, a Brandeis University freshman from Sioux City, Iowa., started planning and saving for college five years ago, for example, she thought the money earmarked would last her through graduate school, with ''maybe a little left over.'' - -''But now, by the time I get to grad school, I won't have any money at all,'' said Miss Levinger, whose 1981-82 tuition, board and room will be $9,824, compared with this year's $8,574. ''The cost is outrageous, but what can I do? Other schools I've looked at are in about the same range.'' - -Illustrations: photo of students on Yale campus photo of Suzanne Guard and Mel O'Connor at Barnard table comparing tuition at ten colleges - -**Correction:** February 27, 1981, Friday, Late City Final Edition A chart in Metropolitan Report last Thursday comparing college costs included an incorrect figure for Fordham University. 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+Correction Appended + +Correction Appended + +The price of a college education, which hard-pressed parents have long +said is going through the roof, has done just that - only there is +apparently no longer a roof. As Gertrude Stein said, ''When you get +there, there is no there there.'' + +For 1981-82 undergraduates, tuition charges alone are crashing through +the $7,000 barrier for the first time. Total fees, including room and +board, are not only shooting past $10,000, but also emerging strong on +the other side at such pace-setting schools as Harvard, Yale, Brown, +Bennington, Columbia, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and +Stanford. + +At several campuses, they carry such canny price tags as Princeton's +$9,994. Outstripping the inflation rate by several points, the increases +will commonly be 15 percent and often more. A benchmark 20 percent rise +has been announced by Boston's Northeastern University for four of its +colleges, where freshmen will pay $4,500 tuition, with a 16.7 percent +rise to $4,200 at the other colleges. Cornell's endowed colleges will go +up 18 percent to $7,000 tuition, with housing and dining increases +expected to bring the total to $9,864. Student Aid a Concern + +The increases come at a time of severe concern over the Reagan +Administration's announced goal of limiting Federal financial aid to +students, and many schools are increasing their own budgets for student +aid. ''I have never been so beside myself about financial aid, both at +Barnard and across the country,'' said Suzanne Guard, the Barnard +director of financial aid. + +At Amherst College, which expects a 13 to 15 percent increase above the +present $8,450 comprehensive fee (compared with $3,600 ten years ago), +70 percent of the students have federally guaranteed student loans. The +college has budgeted its own financial help for 35 percent of next +year's freshmen, as against 27 percent this year. + +''If there's no major reduction in Government loans and grants, we're in +good shape,'' said Donald Routh, dean for financial aid. ''If there are +reductions, then we have some very realproblems.'' + +Around the country, campus press editorials and a scattering of +demonstrations have protested the proposed rises in tuition and other +fees. While some officials and students talk about ''pricing ourselves +out of the market'' or ''getting beyond what the traffic will bear,'' +for the most part they report a mood of near resignation to what is +considered inevitable. Some Students Protest + +At Fordham University, which has announced 13 and 14 percent increases +in tuition, a demonstration was held recently on the Bronx campus, where +total fees will go from $3,750 to $4,240. Seven students carried signs +and chanted in the cold for 15 minutes before jamming their signs in the +door of the administration building and dispersing. + +Students at New York University were described as ''complaining'' about +increases of 14 percent for tuition, to $5,770, and 12 percent for +living costs, but they were said to be more immediately concerned about +possible cuts in Federal aid. Housing at N.Y.U. will go to $1,430 and +the maximum meal plan charge to $1,384. + +Putting the blame on inflation, college officials cite soaring costs of +fuel and insulation programs, food and equipment, as well as relatively +modest faculty and staff salary increases of 9 to 13 percent. +Administrators note in passing that income from endowments and other +sources is not keeping pace with inflation. + +Announcing that Yale's undergraduate bill would be $10,340, President A. +Bartlett Giamatti called it ''as low as it can possibly be'' in the face +of energy costs, a decline in the purchasing power of endowments and +Yale's decision to increase salaries. + +Columbia and Barnard, which expect to announce increases of at least 12 +percent, to about $10,300 and $8,840, respectively, are among the +schools citing a need for improved security to justify the rises. State +University Fees Up + +Tuition increases of at least 11 percent at the State University of New +York - to $1,000 or $1,050 for undergraduates on 29 four-year campuses, +compared with $550 a decade ago - were tentatively approved this month +in an attempt to save most of the 440 faculty and nonfaculty positions +believed lost in Governor Carey's proposed 1981-82 budget. The trustees +also raised next year's dormitory fees by $150 a year, to $1,100. + +The breaching of both $1,000 levels, while psychologically dramatic in +the state-supported system, still leaves the state university's 10-year +increase slightly below the now typical 100 percent rate. + +Although the City University of New York is also heavily dependent on +the state budget, it plans to remain at the $900 mark, reached four +years after its schools began charging for tuition in 1976. ''We have +absolutely no intention of increasing the tuition for next year,'' said +James P. Murphy, chairman of the board of trustees. + +Total fees on nearly all campuses have at least doubled in the past +decade - a period when the national consumer price index was rising 112 +percent - and most picked up speed in the later years. At Brown +University, for example, next year's $10,242 comprehensive fee is up 110 +percent from $4,890 in 1970-71 and 78 percent from $5,750 in 1975. + +Princeton will break its own records with a 15 percent increase in +tuition to $7,250. The total charges come to $9,994 -a 133 percent +increase in the last decade. However, students and their families are +urged to count also on an allowance of $1,055 (up from this year's $975 +estimate) for such expenses as books and laundry -not to mention the +beer-and-skittles part of education - bringing the recognized total to +$11,049. Bennington at High End + +With a mere 12.3 percent rise in total fees, Bennington College in +Vermont may still present the nation's most expensive undergraduate +bill: $10,560 for tuition, room and board. At Wesleyan University in +Middletown, Conn., a planned 15 percent increase will bring student fees +to $9,780, of which $6,850 is for tuition. + +Like many other schools, Harvard University cited ''steady inflation and +rising energy costs'' for its $1,370 increase in undergraduate charges +to $10,540, with tuition alone up 15.5 percent to $6,930. Henry +Rosovsky, dean of the faculty of arts and sciences, said an 80 percent +rise in the price of steam for heat and hot water had contributed to +Harvard's current annual energy bill of $27 million, up 25 percent in a +year. + +Like other schools, too, Harvard maintains that ''families will still +allocate about the same percentage of income in real dollars'' because +college charges have only paralleled the inflation in the nation's +disposable personal income. + +Many students and parents, however, note that money intended for college +does not always come out of current income. When Deborah Levinger, a +Brandeis University freshman from Sioux City, Iowa., started planning +and saving for college five years ago, for example, she thought the +money earmarked would last her through graduate school, with ''maybe a +little left over.'' + +''But now, by the time I get to grad school, I won't have any money at +all,'' said Miss Levinger, whose 1981-82 tuition, board and room will be +$9,824, compared with this year's $8,574. ''The cost is outrageous, but +what can I do? Other schools I've looked at are in about the same +range.'' + +Illustrations: photo of students on Yale campus photo of Suzanne Guard +and Mel O'Connor at Barnard table comparing tuition at ten colleges diff --git a/_stories/1981/13464747.md b/_stories/1981/13464747.md index 255f5a0..b1fdf48 100644 --- a/_stories/1981/13464747.md +++ b/_stories/1981/13464747.md @@ -19,270 +19,139 @@ _tags: objectID: '13464747' --- -[Source](http://www.nytimes.com/1981/06/09/us/changing-san-francisco-is-foreseen-as-a-haven-for-wealthy-and-childless.html "Permalink to CHANGING SAN FRANCISCO IS FORESEEN AS A HAVEN FOR WEALTHY AND CHILDLESS - NYTimes.com") - -# CHANGING SAN FRANCISCO IS FORESEEN AS A HAVEN FOR WEALTHY AND CHILDLESS - NYTimes.com - -* [Log In][1] -* [Register Now][2] -* [Help][3] -* [Home Page][4] -* [Today's Paper][5] -* [Video][6] -* [Most Popular][7] - -Edition: [U.S.][4] / [Global][8] - -Search All NYTimes.com - -![New York Times][9] - -## [U.S.][10] - -* [World][11] -* [U.S.][10] - * [Politics][12] - * [Education][13] - * [Texas][14] -* [N.Y. / Region][15] -* [Business][16] -* [Technology][17] -* [Science][18] -* [Health][19] -* [Sports][20] -* [Opinion][21] -* [Arts][22] -* [Style][23] -* [Travel][24] -* [Jobs][25] -* [Real Estate][26] -* [Autos][27] - -# CHANGING SAN FRANCISCO IS FORESEEN AS A HAVEN FOR WEALTHY AND CHILDLESS - -###### By WAYNE KING, Special to the New York Times - -###### Published: June 9, 1981 - -**SAN FRANCISCO, June 8— ** Soaring housing costs, urban violence, shifting ethnic patterns and an increase in childless adults living together may be turning San Francisco, which the Chamber of Commerce likes to call ''everybody's favorite city,'' into a haven for the young, the old, the wealthy and the childless. - -That is the conclusion of demographers, real estate people and others who monitor urban trends here, underscored by preliminary statistics from the 1980 census. - -Over the decade of the 1970's, the city lost 5 percent of its population, declining to 678,974 in 1980 from 715,674 in 1970. But more important than the population loss itself, demographers and planners here say, is the continued, and in this census, dramatic, alteration in the population mix. Whites and blacks are being replaced by persons of Asian and Hispanic origin, the middle class by the affluent and families with children by singles and childless. - -A City for the Elite Seen - -''At this rate we could become a place only the elite can afford,'' said Dr. Kenneth T. Rosen, chairman of the Center for Real Estate and Urban Economics in the graduate school of business at the University of California at Berkeley. - -''Ten years from now,'' he predicted, ''unless we adopt some sort of policy to insure income integration, we will crowd out all the middle-income people. I think San Francisco is going to become a very rich living area, a lot of single and retired people who have money, executives who work down in the financial district. It's going to be very difficult for a nonwealthy person to live here.'' - -The largest population loss in the last decade was among whites, whose number declined nearly 23 percent, from 511,186 in 1970 to 395,082 in 1980. The drop in white population was not unusual for a mature urban area of the North and West. But San Francisco did have an unusual loss of black population, from 96,414 to 86,078, a decline of 10 percent. Big Increase From Asia - -At the same time the number of Asian-Americans living here increased by more than 50 percent, from 97,379 in 1970 to 147,426 at the end of the decade, according to an interolation of census data by the senior San Francisco city planner, Peter Groat. - -Although the figures for the Hispanic American population in San Francisco indicated a decline over the decade, from 101,090 in 1970 to 83,273 in 1980, Mr. Groat said that the method of enumerating Hispanic Americans probably skewed the figures significantly, and it it was generally thought that the Hispanic American population actually increased here. The reason is that in 1970 the number of Hispanics was arrived at by a computer model that listed everyone with a Spanish surname as Hispanic. In 1980, census respondents were allowed to choose their own ethnic category. As a result some who would have been listed as Hispanic in 1970 described themselves in 1980 as white, black or ''other.'' In 1980, 46,504 people listed themselves as ''other'' in San Francisco. - -The displacement of blacks in San Francisco, according to Mr. Groat and others, appears to result in large measure from the lack of reasonably priced housing, but also from the easing of racial barriers in the suburbs. - -''One of the hypotheses,'' said Mr. Groat, ''would be that affluent blacks have left San Francisco as the real estate market in the suburbs has opened up.'' Reasons for White Flight - -Housing expenses, problems in the schools and a rising rate of violent crime in the city - the rate of reported rape in San Francisco in 1980 was nearly three times that of Chicago, and the robbery rate almost equal to Detroit - are all cited as contributors to white flight. - -The data from the 1980 census have not been analyzed completely. But preliminary theories are that the major population loss has been among the middle class, particularly children. - -''What is happening is that San Francisco is losing people, but it is gaining households,'' observed William Witte, deputy director for housing in the city's Office of Community Development. ''It's a net loss of people, a net gain in households, so there is more pressure on the housing market and more pressure on the people who can least afford it. The nationwide trend is to smaller households, and more households per capita, and that is exaggerated here, greater than the national trend. According to the latest figures, the size of the household decreased in the past decade from about 2.7 persons per household to 2.1, something like that. And the incomes went up.'' Exodus Linked to Housing Costs - -A major reason for the exodus of the middle class from San Francisco, demographers say, is the high cost of housing, the highest in the mainland United States. Last month, the median cost of a dwelling in the San Francisco Standard Metropolitan Statistical Area was $129,000, according to the Federal Home Loan Bank Board in Washington, D.C. The comparable figure for New York, Newark and Jersey City was $90,400, and for Los Angeles, the second most expensive city, $118,400. - -''This city dwarfs anything I've ever seen in terms of housing prices,'' said Mr. Witte. Among factors contributing to high housing cost, according to Mr. Witte and others, is its relative scarcity, since the number of housing units has not grown significantly in a decade; the influx of Asians, whose first priority is usually to buy a home; the high incidence of adults with good incomes and no children, particularly homosexuals who pool their incomes to buy homes, and the desirability of San Francisco as a place to live. - -''What you have is a sharp drop in the birth rate, and what we've really lost is children under 15,'' said Dr. Rosen. ''We can't demonstrate it without the numbers, which we'll get in six months to a year, but it has happened in many cities. It's not people moving out of the cities. The number of households has gone up so the number of adults has gone up. People are not having kids, and there is the nontraditional life style. Traditional families are not being formed, people are not getting married and having children.'' More 'Nontraditional' People - -''These are people who are nontraditional,'' he continued, ''people who are turning age 30 in the l980's, and San Francisco has more of them, a city where nontraditional life style is very accepted, not only not getting married, but also forming gay households. Gay or nongay, there are a lot of single people living together.'' - -Estimates of the city's homosexual population range from 10 to 20 percent of the total, and it is generally believed that homosexual households are a significant factor in the trend toward small households. - -''We are the center of what we call life-style changes,'' said Mr. Groate. ''But it is very difficult to assess all the impact of the life-style changes. But housing pressures do reflect, for instance, the influx of the gay population, which will not be accounted for in the census figures. I'm sure that will have an impact, a severe impact, on the housing situation.'' - -Demographers like Mr. Groat say that they not surprised at the shifts. ''We've always had a transient situation,'' he said. ''From the time of the gold rush on, this has not been a normal, stable population.'' - -Illustrations: photo of Victorian townhouses in Alamo Square, San Francisco photo of moving van and San Francisco houses - -![][28] - -![][29] ![][30] - -#### Inside NYTimes.com - -| ----- | -| - -###### [Health »][19] - -![Too Hot to Handle][31] - -###### [Too Hot to Handle__][32] - - | - -###### [Arts »][33] - -![The Harmony of Liberty][34] - -###### [The Harmony of Liberty__][35] - - | - -###### [Opinion »][21] - -### [Should Beach Privatization Be Allowed?__][36] - -Room for Debate asks whether shorefront homeowners should have to open their land to all comers. - - | - -###### [Sports »][20] - -![A Woman’s Leadership May Steady Murray][37] - -###### [A Woman’s Leadership May Steady Murray__][38] - - | - - | - -###### [Opinion »][21] - -![Menagerie: Streaming Eagles][39] - -###### [Menagerie: Streaming Eagles__][40] - - | - -###### [U.S. »][10] - -![Curlers’ Aim: Sweep to a Win Over the 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-[46]: http://www.nytimes.com/2014/06/22/books/review/song-of-the-shank-by-jeffery-renard-allen.html -[47]: http://www.nytimes.com/2014/06/23/opinion/fooling-mexican-fans.html -[48]: http://www.nytimes.com/2014/06/23/world/europe/reading-writing-and-allegations-muslim-school-at-center-of-debate.html -[49]: http://www.nytimes.com/2014/06/23/opinion/new-york-citys-top-public-schools-need-diversity.html -[50]: http://www.nytimes.com/2014/06/23/business/media/vice-has-many-media-giants-salivating-but-its-terms-will-be-rich.html -[51]: http://www.nytimes.com/content/help/rights/copyright/copyright-notice.html -[52]: http://spiderbites.nytimes.com/ -[53]: http://www.nytimes.com/privacy -[54]: http://www.nytimes.com/ref/membercenter/help/privacy.html#pp -[55]: http://www.nytimes.whsites.net/mediakit/ -[56]: http://www.nytimes.com/content/help/rights/sale/terms-of-sale.html -[57]: http://www.nytimes.com/ref/membercenter/help/agree.html -[58]: http://www.nytco.com/careers -[59]: http://www.nytimes.com/rss -[60]: http://www.nytimes.com/ref/membercenter/help/infoservdirectory.html -[61]: https://myaccount.nytimes.com/membercenter/feedback.html -[62]: http://wt.o.nytimes.com/dcsym57yw10000s1s8g0boozt_9t1x/njs.gif?dcsuri=/nojavascript&WT.js=No&WT.tv=1.0.7 -[63]: http://up.nytimes.com/?d=0//&t=&s=0&ui=&r=&u=www.nytimes.com%2F1981%2F06%2F09%2Fus%2Fchanging-san-francisco-is-foreseen-as-a-haven-for-wealthy-and-childless.html - +**SAN FRANCISCO, June 8—** Soaring housing costs, urban violence, +shifting ethnic patterns and an increase in childless adults living +together may be turning San Francisco, which the Chamber of Commerce +likes to call ''everybody's favorite city,'' into a haven for the young, +the old, the wealthy and the childless. + +That is the conclusion of demographers, real estate people and others +who monitor urban trends here, underscored by preliminary statistics +from the 1980 census. + +Over the decade of the 1970's, the city lost 5 percent of its +population, declining to 678,974 in 1980 from 715,674 in 1970. But more +important than the population loss itself, demographers and planners +here say, is the continued, and in this census, dramatic, alteration in +the population mix. Whites and blacks are being replaced by persons of +Asian and Hispanic origin, the middle class by the affluent and families +with children by singles and childless. + +A City for the Elite Seen + +''At this rate we could become a place only the elite can afford,'' said +Dr. Kenneth T. Rosen, chairman of the Center for Real Estate and Urban +Economics in the graduate school of business at the University of +California at Berkeley. + +''Ten years from now,'' he predicted, ''unless we adopt some sort of +policy to insure income integration, we will crowd out all the +middle-income people. I think San Francisco is going to become a very +rich living area, a lot of single and retired people who have money, +executives who work down in the financial district. It's going to be +very difficult for a nonwealthy person to live here.'' + +The largest population loss in the last decade was among whites, whose +number declined nearly 23 percent, from 511,186 in 1970 to 395,082 in +1980. The drop in white population was not unusual for a mature urban +area of the North and West. But San Francisco did have an unusual loss +of black population, from 96,414 to 86,078, a decline of 10 percent. Big +Increase From Asia + +At the same time the number of Asian-Americans living here increased by +more than 50 percent, from 97,379 in 1970 to 147,426 at the end of the +decade, according to an interolation of census data by the senior San +Francisco city planner, Peter Groat. + +Although the figures for the Hispanic American population in San +Francisco indicated a decline over the decade, from 101,090 in 1970 to +83,273 in 1980, Mr. Groat said that the method of enumerating Hispanic +Americans probably skewed the figures significantly, and it it was +generally thought that the Hispanic American population actually +increased here. The reason is that in 1970 the number of Hispanics was +arrived at by a computer model that listed everyone with a Spanish +surname as Hispanic. In 1980, census respondents were allowed to choose +their own ethnic category. As a result some who would have been listed +as Hispanic in 1970 described themselves in 1980 as white, black or +''other.'' In 1980, 46,504 people listed themselves as ''other'' in San +Francisco. + +The displacement of blacks in San Francisco, according to Mr. Groat and +others, appears to result in large measure from the lack of reasonably +priced housing, but also from the easing of racial barriers in the +suburbs. + +''One of the hypotheses,'' said Mr. Groat, ''would be that affluent +blacks have left San Francisco as the real estate market in the suburbs +has opened up.'' Reasons for White Flight + +Housing expenses, problems in the schools and a rising rate of violent +crime in the city - the rate of reported rape in San Francisco in 1980 +was nearly three times that of Chicago, and the robbery rate almost +equal to Detroit - are all cited as contributors to white flight. + +The data from the 1980 census have not been analyzed completely. But +preliminary theories are that the major population loss has been among +the middle class, particularly children. + +''What is happening is that San Francisco is losing people, but it is +gaining households,'' observed William Witte, deputy director for +housing in the city's Office of Community Development. ''It's a net loss +of people, a net gain in households, so there is more pressure on the +housing market and more pressure on the people who can least afford it. +The nationwide trend is to smaller households, and more households per +capita, and that is exaggerated here, greater than the national trend. +According to the latest figures, the size of the household decreased in +the past decade from about 2.7 persons per household to 2.1, something +like that. And the incomes went up.'' Exodus Linked to Housing Costs + +A major reason for the exodus of the middle class from San Francisco, +demographers say, is the high cost of housing, the highest in the +mainland United States. Last month, the median cost of a dwelling in the +San Francisco Standard Metropolitan Statistical Area was $129,000, +according to the Federal Home Loan Bank Board in Washington, D.C. The +comparable figure for New York, Newark and Jersey City was $90,400, and +for Los Angeles, the second most expensive city, $118,400. + +''This city dwarfs anything I've ever seen in terms of housing prices,'' +said Mr. Witte. Among factors contributing to high housing cost, +according to Mr. Witte and others, is its relative scarcity, since the +number of housing units has not grown significantly in a decade; the +influx of Asians, whose first priority is usually to buy a home; the +high incidence of adults with good incomes and no children, particularly +homosexuals who pool their incomes to buy homes, and the desirability of +San Francisco as a place to live. + +''What you have is a sharp drop in the birth rate, and what we've really +lost is children under 15,'' said Dr. Rosen. ''We can't demonstrate it +without the numbers, which we'll get in six months to a year, but it has +happened in many cities. It's not people moving out of the cities. The +number of households has gone up so the number of adults has gone up. +People are not having kids, and there is the nontraditional life style. +Traditional families are not being formed, people are not getting +married and having children.'' More 'Nontraditional' People + +''These are people who are nontraditional,'' he continued, ''people who +are turning age 30 in the l980's, and San Francisco has more of them, a +city where nontraditional life style is very accepted, not only not +getting married, but also forming gay households. Gay or nongay, there +are a lot of single people living together.'' + +Estimates of the city's homosexual population range from 10 to 20 +percent of the total, and it is generally believed that homosexual +households are a significant factor in the trend toward small +households. + +''We are the center of what we call life-style changes,'' said Mr. +Groate. ''But it is very difficult to assess all the impact of the +life-style changes. But housing pressures do reflect, for instance, the +influx of the gay population, which will not be accounted for in the +census figures. I'm sure that will have an impact, a severe impact, on +the housing situation.'' + +Demographers like Mr. Groat say that they not surprised at the shifts. +''We've always had a transient situation,'' he said. ''From the time of +the gold rush on, this has not been a normal, stable population.'' + +Illustrations: photo of Victorian townhouses in Alamo Square, San +Francisco photo of moving van and San Francisco houses diff --git a/_stories/1981/3106646.md b/_stories/1981/3106646.md index d90cc4d..36d7437 100644 --- a/_stories/1981/3106646.md +++ b/_stories/1981/3106646.md @@ -19,7 +19,31 @@ _tags: objectID: '3106646' --- -[Source](https://plus.google.com/u/0/101960720994009339267/posts/jKyyV1tXD6c "Permalink to ") - - + + +The lot of you have had such a huge impact on my life. My father was an +engineer at Bell Labs back in the day, and I was always very interested +in his work. When I was 11 or 12, he brought home a terminal (thermal +printer w/acoustic modem), a K\&R book, and a handful of memos about how +to work the shell and the text editor. I was hooked. When I finally +realized my dream of working at Bell Labs myself, I read every technical +memo I could get my hands on from your group. I don't recall if I had +the pleasure of meeting you in person, +echoes my own thoughts. In the late 80s, I worked in the Murray Hill +comp. center for a few years. It was early in my career, but I was in a +meeting for a technical committee with which Dennis was also involved. +At one point he asked my opinion on one of the topics under discussion. +This made an enormous impression on me, not only encouraging me +personally -- if my input was of interest to the likes of dmr, I must be +doing something right\! -- but also as a reminder that the truly great +put their own egos aside and learn all they can from everyone around +them.The lot of you have had such a huge impact on my life. My father +was an engineer at Bell Labs back in the day, and I was always very +interested in his work. When I was 11 or 12, he brought home a terminal +(thermal printer w/acoustic modem), a K\&R book, and a handful of memos +about how to work the shell and the text editor. I was hooked. When I +finally realized my dream of working at Bell Labs myself, I read every +technical memo I could get my hands on from your group. I don't recall +if I had the pleasure of meeting you in person,, but please know that +your work and your writing were invaluable to me. diff --git a/_stories/1981/5995702.md b/_stories/1981/5995702.md index 4766a53..46dc930 100644 --- a/_stories/1981/5995702.md +++ b/_stories/1981/5995702.md @@ -19,262 +19,105 @@ _tags: objectID: '5995702' --- -[Source](http://www.nytimes.com/1981/07/03/us/rare-cancer-seen-in-41-homosexuals.html "Permalink to RARE CANCER SEEN IN 41 HOMOSEXUALS - NYTimes.com") - -# RARE CANCER SEEN IN 41 HOMOSEXUALS - NYTimes.com - -* [Log In][1] -* [Register Now][2] -* [Help][3] -* [Home Page][4] -* [Today's Paper][5] -* [Video][6] -* [Most Popular][7] - -Edition: [U.S.][4] / [Global][8] - -Search All NYTimes.com - -![New York Times][9] - -## [U.S.][10] - -* [World][11] -* [U.S.][10] - * [Politics][12] - * [Education][13] - * [Texas][14] -* [N.Y. / Region][15] -* [Business][16] -* [Technology][17] -* [Science][18] -* [Health][19] -* [Sports][20] -* [Opinion][21] -* [Arts][22] -* [Style][23] -* [Travel][24] -* [Jobs][25] -* [Real Estate][26] -* [Autos][27] - -# RARE CANCER SEEN IN 41 HOMOSEXUALS - -###### By LAWRENCE K. ALTMAN - -###### Published: July 3, 1981 - -Doctors in New York and California have diagnosed among homosexual men 41 cases of a rare and often rapidly fatal form of cancer. Eight of the victims died less than 24 months after the diagnosis was made. - -The cause of the outbreak is unknown, and there is as yet no evidence of contagion. But the doctors who have made the diagnoses, mostly in New York City and the San Francisco Bay area, are alerting other physicians who treat large numbers of homosexual men to the problem in an effort to help identify more cases and to reduce the delay in offering chemotherapy treatment. - -The sudden appearance of the cancer, called Kaposi's Sarcoma, has prompted a medical investigation that experts say could have as much scientific as public health importance because of what it may teach about determining the causes of more common types of cancer. First Appears in Spots - -Doctors have been taught in the past that the cancer usually appeared first in spots on the legs and that the disease took a slow course of up to 10 years. But these recent cases have shown that it appears in one or more violet-colored spots anywhere on the body. The spots generally do not itch or cause other symptoms, often can be mistaken for bruises, sometimes appear as lumps and can turn brown after a period of time. The cancer often causes swollen lymph glands, and then kills by spreading throughout the body. - -Doctors investigating the outbreak believe that many cases have gone undetected because of the rarity of the condition and the difficulty even dermatologists may have in diagnosing it. - -In a letter alerting other physicians to the problem, Dr. Alvin E. Friedman-Kien of New York University Medical Center, one of the investigators, described the appearance of the outbreak as ''rather devastating.'' - -Dr. Friedman-Kien said in an interview yesterday that he knew of 41 cases collated in the last five weeks, with the cases themselves dating to the past 30 months. The Federal Centers for Disease Control in Atlanta is expected to publish the first description of the outbreak in its weekly report today, according to a spokesman, Dr. James Curran. The report notes 26 of the cases - 20 in New York and six in California. - -There is no national registry of cancer victims, but the nationwide incidence of Kaposi's Sarcoma in the past had been estimated by the Centers for Disease Control to be less than six-one-hundredths of a case per 100,000 people annually, or about two cases in every three million people. However, the disease accounts for up to 9 percent of all cancers in a belt across equatorial Africa, where it commonly affects children and young adults. - -In the United States, it has primarily affected men older than 50 years. But in the recent cases, doctors at nine medical centers in New York and seven hospitals in California have been diagnosing the condition among younger men, all of whom said in the course of standard diagnostic interviews that they were homosexual. Although the ages of the patients have ranged from 26 to 51 years, many have been under 40, with the mean at 39. - -Nine of the 41 cases known to Dr. Friedman-Kien were diagnosed in California, and several of those victims reported that they had been in New York in the period preceding the diagnosis. Dr. Friedman-Kien said that his colleagues were checking on reports of two victims diagnosed in Copenhagen, one of whom had visited New York. Viral Infections Indicated - -No one medical investigator has yet interviewed all the victims, Dr. Curran said. According to Dr. Friedman-Kien, the reporting doctors said that most cases had involved homosexual men who have had multiple and frequent sexual encounters with different partners, as many as 10 sexual encounters each night up to four times a week. - -Many of the patients have also been treated for viral infections such as herpes, cytomegalovirus and hepatitis B as well as parasitic infections such as amebiasis and giardiasis. Many patients also reported that they had used drugs such as amyl nitrite and LSD to heighten sexual pleasure. - -Cancer is not believed to be contagious, but conditions that might precipitate it, such as particular viruses or environmental factors, might account for an outbreak among a single group. - -The medical investigators say some indirect evidence actually points away from contagion as a cause. None of the patients knew each other, although the theoretical possibility that some may have had sexual contact with a person with Kaposi's Sarcoma at some point in the past could not be excluded, Dr. Friedman-Kien said. - -Dr. Curran said there was no apparent danger to nonhomosexuals from contagion. ''The best evidence against contagion,'' he said, ''is that no cases have been reported to date outside the homosexual community or in women.'' - -Dr. Friedman-Kien said he had tested nine of the victims and found severe defects in their immunological systems. The patients had serious malfunctions of two types of cells called T and B cell lymphocytes, which have important roles in fighting infections and cancer. - -But Dr. Friedman-Kien emphasized that the researchers did not know whether the immunological defects were the underlying problem or had developed secondarily to the infections or drug use. - -The research team is testing various hypotheses, one of which is a possible link between past infection with cytomegalovirus and development of Kaposi's Sarcoma. - -![][28] - -![][29] ![][30] - -#### Inside NYTimes.com - -| ----- | -| - -###### [Health »][19] - -![Too Hot to Handle][31] - -###### [Too Hot to Handle__][32] - - | - -###### [Arts »][33] - -![The Harmony of Liberty][34] - -###### [The Harmony of Liberty__][35] - - | - -###### [Opinion »][21] - -### [Should Beach Privatization Be Allowed?__][36] - -Room for Debate asks whether shorefront homeowners should have to open their land to all comers. - - | - -###### [Sports »][20] - -![A Woman’s Leadership May Steady Murray][37] - 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+Doctors in New York and California have diagnosed among homosexual men +41 cases of a rare and often rapidly fatal form of cancer. Eight of the +victims died less than 24 months after the diagnosis was made. + +The cause of the outbreak is unknown, and there is as yet no evidence of +contagion. But the doctors who have made the diagnoses, mostly in New +York City and the San Francisco Bay area, are alerting other physicians +who treat large numbers of homosexual men to the problem in an effort to +help identify more cases and to reduce the delay in offering +chemotherapy treatment. + +The sudden appearance of the cancer, called Kaposi's Sarcoma, has +prompted a medical investigation that experts say could have as much +scientific as public health importance because of what it may teach +about determining the causes of more common types of cancer. First +Appears in Spots + +Doctors have been taught in the past that the cancer usually appeared +first in spots on the legs and that the disease took a slow course of up +to 10 years. But these recent cases have shown that it appears in one or +more violet-colored spots anywhere on the body. The spots generally do +not itch or cause other symptoms, often can be mistaken for bruises, +sometimes appear as lumps and can turn brown after a period of time. The +cancer often causes swollen lymph glands, and then kills by spreading +throughout the body. + +Doctors investigating the outbreak believe that many cases have gone +undetected because of the rarity of the condition and the difficulty +even dermatologists may have in diagnosing it. + +In a letter alerting other physicians to the problem, Dr. Alvin E. +Friedman-Kien of New York University Medical Center, one of the +investigators, described the appearance of the outbreak as ''rather +devastating.'' + +Dr. Friedman-Kien said in an interview yesterday that he knew of 41 +cases collated in the last five weeks, with the cases themselves dating +to the past 30 months. The Federal Centers for Disease Control in +Atlanta is expected to publish the first description of the outbreak in +its weekly report today, according to a spokesman, Dr. James Curran. The +report notes 26 of the cases - 20 in New York and six in California. + +There is no national registry of cancer victims, but the nationwide +incidence of Kaposi's Sarcoma in the past had been estimated by the +Centers for Disease Control to be less than six-one-hundredths of a case +per 100,000 people annually, or about two cases in every three million +people. However, the disease accounts for up to 9 percent of all cancers +in a belt across equatorial Africa, where it commonly affects children +and young adults. + +In the United States, it has primarily affected men older than 50 years. +But in the recent cases, doctors at nine medical centers in New York and +seven hospitals in California have been diagnosing the condition among +younger men, all of whom said in the course of standard diagnostic +interviews that they were homosexual. Although the ages of the patients +have ranged from 26 to 51 years, many have been under 40, with the mean +at 39. + +Nine of the 41 cases known to Dr. Friedman-Kien were diagnosed in +California, and several of those victims reported that they had been in +New York in the period preceding the diagnosis. Dr. Friedman-Kien said +that his colleagues were checking on reports of two victims diagnosed in +Copenhagen, one of whom had visited New York. Viral Infections Indicated + +No one medical investigator has yet interviewed all the victims, Dr. +Curran said. According to Dr. Friedman-Kien, the reporting doctors said +that most cases had involved homosexual men who have had multiple and +frequent sexual encounters with different partners, as many as 10 sexual +encounters each night up to four times a week. + +Many of the patients have also been treated for viral infections such as +herpes, cytomegalovirus and hepatitis B as well as parasitic infections +such as amebiasis and giardiasis. Many patients also reported that they +had used drugs such as amyl nitrite and LSD to heighten sexual pleasure. + +Cancer is not believed to be contagious, but conditions that might +precipitate it, such as particular viruses or environmental factors, +might account for an outbreak among a single group. + +The medical investigators say some indirect evidence actually points +away from contagion as a cause. None of the patients knew each other, +although the theoretical possibility that some may have had sexual +contact with a person with Kaposi's Sarcoma at some point in the past +could not be excluded, Dr. Friedman-Kien said. + +Dr. Curran said there was no apparent danger to nonhomosexuals from +contagion. ''The best evidence against contagion,'' he said, ''is that +no cases have been reported to date outside the homosexual community or +in women.'' + +Dr. Friedman-Kien said he had tested nine of the victims and found +severe defects in their immunological systems. The patients had serious +malfunctions of two types of cells called T and B cell lymphocytes, +which have important roles in fighting infections and cancer. + +But Dr. Friedman-Kien emphasized that the researchers did not know +whether the immunological defects were the underlying problem or had +developed secondarily to the infections or drug use. + +The research team is testing various hypotheses, one of which is a +possible link between past infection with cytomegalovirus and +development of Kaposi's Sarcoma. diff --git a/_stories/1981/7610592.md b/_stories/1981/7610592.md index 94570a6..a11ab19 100644 --- a/_stories/1981/7610592.md +++ b/_stories/1981/7610592.md @@ -19,7 +19,277 @@ _tags: objectID: '7610592' --- -[Source](https://www.theparisreview.org/interviews/3196/the-art-of-fiction-no-69-gabriel-garcia-marquez "Permalink to ") +  +![undefined](/il/fdb8a09feb/large/Hunter-S-Thompson.jpg "undefined") +  +In an October 1957 letter to a friend who had recommended he read Ayn +Rand’s The Fountainhead, Hunter S. Thompson wrote, “Although I don’t +feel that it’s at all necessary to tell you how I feel about the +principle of individuality, I know that I’m going to have to spend the +rest of my life expressing it one way or another, and I think that I’ll +accomplish more by expressing it on the keys of a typewriter than by +letting it express itself in sudden outbursts of frustrated violence. . +. .” + +Thompson carved out his niche early. He was born in 1937, in Louisville, +Kentucky, where his fiction and poetry earned him induction into the +local Athenaeum Literary Association while he was still in high school. +Thompson continued his literary pursuits in the United States Air Force, +writing a weekly sports column for the base newspaper. After two years +of service, Thompson endured a series of newspaper jobs—all of which +ended badly—before he took to freelancing from Puerto Rico and South +America for a variety of publications. The vocation quickly developed +into a compulsion. + +Thompson completed The Rum Diary, his only novel to date, before he +turned twenty-five; bought by Ballantine Books, it finally was +published—to glowing reviews—in 1998. In 1967, Thompson published his +first nonfiction book, Hell’s Angels, a harsh and incisive firsthand +investigation into the infamous motorcycle gang then making the +heartland of America nervous. + +Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas, which first appeared in Rolling Stone in +November 1971, sealed Thompson’s reputation as an outlandish stylist +successfully straddling the line between journalism and fiction writing. +As the subtitle warns, the book tells of “a savage journey to the heart +of the American Dream” in full-tilt gonzo style—Thompson’s hilarious +first-person approach—and is accented by British illustrator Ralph +Steadman’s appropriate drawings. + +His next book, Fear and Loathing: On the Campaign Trail ’72, was a +brutally perceptive take on the 1972 Nixon-McGovern presidential +campaign. A self-confessed political junkie, Thompson chronicled the +1992 presidential campaign in Better than Sex (1994). Thompson’s other +books include The Curse of Lono (1983), a bizarre South Seas tale, and +three collections of Gonzo Papers: The Great Shark +Hunt (1979), Generation of Swine (1988) and Songs of the +Doomed (1990). + +In 1997, The Proud Highway: Saga of a Desperate Southern Gentleman, +1955-1967, the first volume of Thompson’s correspondence with everyone +from his mother to Lyndon Johnson, was published. The second volume of +letters, Fear and Loathing in America: The Brutal Odyssey of an Outlaw +Journalist, 1968-1976, has just been released. + +• + +Located in the mostly posh neighborhood of western Colorado’s Woody +Creek Canyon, ten miles or so down-valley from Aspen, Owl Farm is a +rustic ranch with an old-fashioned Wild West charm. Although Thompson’s +beloved peacocks roam his property freely, it’s the flowers blooming +around the ranch house that provide an unexpected high-country +tranquility. Jimmy Carter, George McGovern and Keith Richards, among +dozens of others, have shot clay pigeons and stationary targets on the +property, which is a designated Rod and Gun Club and shares a border +with the White River National Forest. Almost daily, Thompson leaves Owl +Farm in either his Great Red Shark Convertible or Jeep Grand Cherokee to +mingle at the nearby Woody Creek Tavern. + +Visitors to Thompson’s house are greeted by a variety of sculptures, +weapons, boxes of books and a bicycle before entering the nerve center +of Owl Farm, Thompson’s obvious command post on the kitchen side of a +peninsula counter that separates him from a lounge area dominated by an +always-on Panasonic TV, always tuned to news or sports. An antique +upright piano is piled high and deep enough with books to engulf any +reader for a decade. Above the piano hangs a large Ralph Steadman +portrait of “Belinda”—the Slut Goddess of Polo. On another wall covered +with political buttons hangs a Che Guevara banner acquired on Thompson’s +last tour of Cuba. On the counter sits an IBM Selectric typewriter—a +Macintosh computer is set up in an office in the back wing of the house. + +The most striking thing about Thompson’s house is that it isn’t the +weirdness one notices first: it’s the words. They’re +everywhere—handwritten in his elegant lettering, mostly in fading red +Sharpie on the blizzard of bits of paper festooning every wall and +surface: stuck to the sleek black leather refrigerator, taped to the +giant TV, tacked up on the lampshades; inscribed by others on framed +photos with lines like, “For Hunter, who saw not only fear and loathing, +but hope and joy in ’72—George McGovern”; typed in IBM Selectric on +reams of originals and copies in fat manila folders that slide in piles +off every counter and table top; and noted in many hands and inks across +the endless flurry of pages. + +Thompson extricates his large frame from his ergonomically correct +office chair facing the TV and lumbers over graciously to administer a +hearty handshake or kiss to each caller according to gender, all with an +easy effortlessness and unexpectedly old-world way that somehow +underscores just who is in charge. + +• + +We talked with Thompson for twelve hours straight. This was nothing out +of the ordinary for the host: Owl Farm operates like an +eighteenth-century salon, where people from all walks of life congregate +in the wee hours for free exchanges about everything from theoretical +physics to local water rights, depending on who’s there. Walter +Isaacson, managing editor of Time, was present during parts of this +interview, as were a steady stream of friends. Given the very late hours +Thompson keeps, it is fitting that the most prominently posted quote in +the room, in Thompson’s hand, twists the last line of Dylan Thomas’s +poem “Do Not Go Gentle into That Good Night”: “Rage, rage against the +coming of the light.” + +For most of the half-day that we talked, Thompson sat at his command +post, chain-smoking red Dunhills through a German-made gold-tipped +cigarette filter and rocking back and forth in his swivel chair. Behind +Thompson’s sui generis personality lurks a trenchant humorist with a +sharp moral sensibility. His exaggerated style may defy easy +categorization, but his career-long autopsy on the death of the American +dream places him among the twentieth century’s most exciting writers. +The comic savagery of his best work will continue to electrify readers +for generations to come. + +• + +. . . I have stolen more quotes and thoughts and purely elegant little +starbursts of writing from the Book of Revelation than from anything +else in the English Language—and it is not because I am a biblical +scholar, or because of any religious faith, but because I love the wild +power of the language and the purity of the madness that governs it and +makes it music. + +  + +HUNTER S. THOMPSON + +Well, wanting to and having to are two different things. Originally I +hadn’t thought about writing as a solution to my problems. But I had a +good grounding in literature in high school. We’d cut school and go down +to a café on Bardstown Road where we would drink beer and read and +discuss Plato’s parable of the cave. We had a literary society in town, +the Athenaeum; we met in coat and tie on Saturday nights. I hadn’t +adjusted too well to society—I was in jail for the night of my high +school graduation—but I learned at the age of fifteen that to get by you +had to find the one thing you can do better than anybody else . . . at +least this was so in my case. I figured that out early. It was writing. +It was the rock in my sock. Easier than algebra. It was always work, but +it was always worthwhile work. I was fascinated early by seeing my +byline in print. It was a rush. Still is. + +When I got to the Air Force, writing got me out of trouble. I was +assigned to pilot training at Eglin Air Force Base near Pensacola in +northwest Florida, but I was shifted to electronics . . . advanced, very +intense, eight-month school with bright guys . . . I enjoyed it but I +wanted to get back to pilot training. Besides, I’m afraid of +electricity. So I went up there to the base education office one day and +signed up for some classes at Florida State. I got along well with a guy +named Ed and I asked him about literary possibilities. He asked me if I +knew anything about sports, and I said that I had been the editor of my +high-school paper. He said, “Well, we might be in luck.” It turned out +that the sports editor of the base newspaper, a staff sergeant, had been +arrested in Pensacola and put in jail for public drunkenness, pissing +against the side of a building; it was the third time and they wouldn’t +let him out. + +So I went to the base library and found three books on journalism. I +stayed there reading them until it closed. Basic journalism. I learned +about headlines, leads: who, when, what, where, that sort of thing. I +barely slept that night. This was my ticket to ride, my ticket to get +out of that damn place. So I started as an editor. Boy, what a joy. I +wrote long Grantland Rice-type stories. The sports editor of my +hometown Louisville Courier Journal always had a column, left-hand side +of the page. So I started a column. + +By the second week I had the whole thing down. I could work at night. I +wore civilian clothes, worked off base, had no hours, but I worked +constantly. I wrote not only for the base paper, The Command Courier, +but also the local paper, The Playground News. I’d put things in the +local paper that I couldn’t put in the base paper. Really inflammatory +shit. I wrote for a professional wrestling newsletter. The Air Force got +very angry about it. I was constantly doing things that violated +regulations. I wrote a critical column about how Arthur Godfrey, who’d +been invited to the base to be the master of ceremonies at a firepower +demonstration, had been busted for shooting animals from the air in +Alaska. The base commander told me: “Goddamn it, son, why did you have +to write about Arthur Godfrey that way?” + +When I left the Air Force I knew I could get by as a journalist. So I +went to apply for a job at Sports Illustrated. I had my clippings, my +bylines, and I thought that was magic . . . my passport. The personnel +director just laughed at me. I said, “Wait a minute. I’ve been sports +editor for two papers.” He told me that their writers were judged not by +the work they’d done, but where they’d done it. He said, “Our writers +are all Pulitzer Prize winners from The New York Times. This is a +helluva place for you to start. Go out into the boondocks and improve +yourself.” + +I was shocked. After all, I’d broken the Bart Starr story. + +INTERVIEWER + +What was that? + +THOMPSON + +At Eglin Air Force Base we always had these great football teams. The +Eagles. Championship teams. We could beat up on the University of +Virginia. Our bird-colonel Sparks wasn’t just any yo-yo coach. We +recruited. We had these great players serving their military time in +ROTC. We had Zeke Bratkowski, the Green Bay quarterback. We had Max +McGee of the Packers. Violent, wild, wonderful drunk. At the start of +the season McGee went AWOL, appeared at the Green Bay camp and he never +came back. I was somehow blamed for his leaving. The sun fell out of the +firmament. Then the word came that we were getting Bart Starr, the +All-American from Alabama. The Eagles were going to roll\! But then the +staff sergeant across the street came in and said, “I’ve got a terrible +story for you. Bart Starr’s not coming.” I managed to break into an +office and get out his files. I printed the order that showed he was +being discharged medically. Very serious leak. + +INTERVIEWER + +The Bart Starr story was not enough to impress Sports Illustrated? + +THOMPSON + +The personnel guy there said, “Well, we do have this trainee program.” +So I became a kind of copy boy. + +INTERVIEWER + +You eventually ended up in San Francisco. With the publication in 1967 +of Hell’s Angels, your life must have taken an upward spin. + +THOMPSON + +All of a sudden I had a book out. At the time I was twenty-nine years +old and I couldn’t even get a job driving a cab in San Francisco, much +less writing. Sure, I had written important articles for The +Nation and The Observer, but only a few good journalists really knew +my byline. The book enabled me to buy a brand new BSA 650 Lightning, the +fastest motorcycle ever tested by Hot Rod magazine. It validated +everything I had been working toward. If Hell’s Angels hadn’t happened I +never would have been able to write Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas or +anything else. To be able to earn a living as a freelance writer in this +country is damned hard; there are very few people who can do +that. Hell’s Angels all of a sudden proved to me that, Holy Jesus, +maybe I can do this. I knew I was a good journalist. I knew I was a good +writer, but I felt like I got through a door just as it was closing. + +INTERVIEWER + +With the swell of creative energy flowing throughout the San Francisco +scene at the time, did you interact with or were you influenced by any +other writers? + +THOMPSON + +Ken Kesey for one. His novels One Flew Over the Cuckoo’s +Nest and Sometimes a Great Notion had quite an impact on me. I looked +up to him hugely. One day I went down to the television station to do a +roundtable show with other writers, like Kay Boyle, and Kesey was there. +Afterwards we went across the street to a local tavern and had several +beers together. I told him about the Angels, who I planned to meet later +that day, and I said, “Well, why don’t you come along?” He said, “Whoa, +I’d like to meet these guys.” Then I got second thoughts, because it’s +never a good idea to take strangers along to meet the Angels. But I +figured that this was Ken Kesey, so I’d try. By the end of the night +Kesey had invited them all down to La Honda, his woodsy retreat outside +of San Francisco. It was a time of extreme turbulence—riots in Berkeley. +He was always under assault by the police—day in and day out, so La +Honda was like a war zone. But he had a lot of the literary, +intellectual crowd down there, Stanford people also, visiting editors, +and Hell’s Angels. Kesey’s place was a real cultural vortex. diff --git a/_stories/1982/10926423.md b/_stories/1982/10926423.md index 7b9b36b..86e4bc4 100644 --- a/_stories/1982/10926423.md +++ b/_stories/1982/10926423.md @@ -19,276 +19,107 @@ _tags: objectID: '10926423' --- -[Source](http://www.nytimes.com/1982/05/08/business/for-new-business-during-recession-start-must-be-lean.html "Permalink to FOR NEW BUSINESS DURING RECESSION, START MUST BE LEAN - NYTimes.com") - -# FOR NEW BUSINESS DURING RECESSION, START MUST BE LEAN - NYTimes.com - -* [Log In][1] -* [Register Now][2] -* [Help][3] -* [Home Page][4] -* [Today's Paper][5] -* [Video][6] -* [Most Popular][7] - -Edition: [U.S.][4] / [Global][8] - -Search All NYTimes.com - -![New York Times][9] - -## [Business Day][10] - -* [World][11] -* [U.S.][12] -* [N.Y. / Region][13] -* [Business][10] -* [Technology][14] -* [Science][15] -* [Health][16] -* [Sports][17] -* [Opinion][18] -* [Arts][19] -* [Style][20] -* [Travel][21] -* [Jobs][22] -* [Real Estate][23] -* [Autos][24] -* [DealBook][25] -* [Markets][26] -* [Economy][27] -* [Energy][28] -* [Media][29] -* [Technology][30] -* [Personal Tech][31] -* [Entrepreneurship][32] -* [Your Money][33] - -# FOR NEW BUSINESS DURING RECESSION, START MUST BE LEAN - -###### By KIRK JOHNSON - -###### Published: May 8, 1982 - -A year ago, James C. Pearson had a retail furniture business with an extensive inventory. As interest rates rose, however, his profit margin fell. Last summer, amid an expanding recession, he cleaned house and started a new business, Susan James Associates. - -''We're a consulting firm now,'' said Mr. Pearson, the firm's president. ''We place bids, then buy only what we need for each job. Somebody else has to keep the inventory.'' - -Michael R. Bloomberg was a partner at Salomon Brothers, the securities firm, until last September. His new company, Innovative Market Systems, which opened for business in February, is developing computer software systems for financial analysts. ''When we sold the company to Phibro last fall,'' Mr. Bloomberg said, ''I left to start a new business.'' - -Both companies were started during a recession, and both have endured a period of business failures unequaled since the 1940's. And while they may not be representative of all new businesses formed during the recession, they may share many of their characteristics. Tight money and technological change, business people say, are key factors in the current wave of new companies. 'Interesting Time' - -''This is an interesting time,'' Mr. Bloomberg said. ''You can't go out and start a steel mill, but the position of the business cycle and the rate of technological change are such that people can go and start small companies when they have a few people with good ideas.'' - -Not surprisingly, the number of business starts during the first quarter of 1982 declined from the same period last year. According to preliminary figures supplied by the Dun & Bradstreet Corporation, 9,094 new businesses were formed during the first three months of 1982, down 2.9 percent from the 9,366 last year. The biggest declines in business start rates were recorded in the region composed of Kentucky, Tennessee, Alabama and Mississippi, down 16.9 percent. - -Dun & Bradstreet said the rate of new incorporation declined in every region of the country except the Middle Atlantic area - New York, New Jersey and Pennsylvania - which had an increase of 10.3 percent. - -The Small Business Administration, which also monitors new business, cautions that 1982 figures, though they may be down, are being compared with a record number of business starts last year. In 1981, 581,661 new businesses were incorporated, up more than 9 percent from 1980. Thomas A. Gray, chief economist for the agency, attributed last year's increase at least partially to the unemployment caused by the recession. - -''New business formation just seems to occur more frequently during a recession,'' Mr. Gray said. ''If you're suddenly unemployed and walking around in the street, you're more likely to say to yourself, 'Now is the time to try.' '' - -''The other question you have to ask is, 'What businesses are failing?' '' Mr. Bloomberg added. ''I think businesses that are already in existence -small, medium or large - tend to have greater problems during a recession, as people stop spending or change their buying habits. I'm not sure that has anything to do with new businesses.'' Borrowing Costs Key Factor - -Though other sources echoed Mr. Bloomberg's comments, most still say that starting up a business these days is no picnic. Undoubtedly, the primary problem is the cost of borrowing money. For a smallbusiness owner, who is generally forced to borrow at rates far above the prime interest rates charged to a bank's best customers, high capital costs may narrow his choices of business. - -''Without a doubt, it's the biggest problem a small-business man will face,'' said Gordon Bizar, president of the International Business Network, a political and economic organization for small businesses. ''On the other hand, if you can get the money, now is the time to be buying a business.'' - -Most people do it the other way around, Mr. Bizar said. ''They get in when the market is good and pay premium prices,'' he said. ''Those are the businesses that are failing today.'' - -Of course, not all new businesses are surviving, either. A small company founded in Chicago last year with the goal of buying X-ray negatives from hospitals and selling them for their silver content died when silver prices fell. Other businesses struggle on, hoping to last until consumer spending picks up. Some find their niche right away. 'Nothing to Get Excited About' - -Scott Sanders, an actor who co-founded Survival Techniques in his New York loft last December, said sales of his custom-painted decorated pillows, at $22.50 each, had been ''O.K., but nothing to get excited about.'' - -Mr. Sanders said the recession had definitely hurt his sales, but, because his costs are so low (he and several friends do all the work), the tiny company will probably stay in business. - -According to Malcolm N. Smith, senior lecturer in the School of Economic Policy at the University of Chicago's Graduate School of Business, high interest rates have done more to new business formation than simply restricting the choices involved. Mr. Smith said the recession had made certains kinds of businesses - specifically, consulting and service companies - more attractive aside from their low start-up costs. - -''In times like this, most companies would rather contract out than increase their employment,'' he said. ''If they need a computer programmer, they'll turn to an outside consultant before they'll actually hire anyone.'' - -Illustrations: photo of Michael B. 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-[60]: http://www.nytimes.com/ref/membercenter/help/privacy.html#pp -[61]: http://www.nytimes.whsites.net/mediakit/ -[62]: http://www.nytimes.com/content/help/rights/sale/terms-of-sale.html -[63]: http://www.nytimes.com/ref/membercenter/help/agree.html -[64]: http://www.nytco.com/careers -[65]: http://www.nytimes.com/rss -[66]: http://www.nytimes.com/ref/membercenter/help/infoservdirectory.html -[67]: https://myaccount.nytimes.com/membercenter/feedback.html -[68]: http://wt.o.nytimes.com/dcsym57yw10000s1s8g0boozt_9t1x/njs.gif?dcsuri=/nojavascript&WT.js=No&WT.tv=1.0.7 -[69]: http://up.nytimes.com/?d=0//&t=&s=0&ui=&r=&u=www.nytimes.com%2F1982%2F05%2F08%2Fbusiness%2Ffor-new-business-during-recession-start-must-be-lean.html - +A year ago, James C. Pearson had a retail furniture business with an +extensive inventory. As interest rates rose, however, his profit margin +fell. Last summer, amid an expanding recession, he cleaned house and +started a new business, Susan James Associates. + +''We're a consulting firm now,'' said Mr. Pearson, the firm's president. +''We place bids, then buy only what we need for each job. Somebody else +has to keep the inventory.'' + +Michael R. Bloomberg was a partner at Salomon Brothers, the securities +firm, until last September. His new company, Innovative Market Systems, +which opened for business in February, is developing computer software +systems for financial analysts. ''When we sold the company to Phibro +last fall,'' Mr. Bloomberg said, ''I left to start a new business.'' + +Both companies were started during a recession, and both have endured a +period of business failures unequaled since the 1940's. And while they +may not be representative of all new businesses formed during the +recession, they may share many of their characteristics. Tight money and +technological change, business people say, are key factors in the +current wave of new companies. 'Interesting Time' + +''This is an interesting time,'' Mr. Bloomberg said. ''You can't go out +and start a steel mill, but the position of the business cycle and the +rate of technological change are such that people can go and start small +companies when they have a few people with good ideas.'' + +Not surprisingly, the number of business starts during the first quarter +of 1982 declined from the same period last year. According to +preliminary figures supplied by the Dun & Bradstreet Corporation, 9,094 +new businesses were formed during the first three months of 1982, down +2.9 percent from the 9,366 last year. The biggest declines in business +start rates were recorded in the region composed of Kentucky, Tennessee, +Alabama and Mississippi, down 16.9 percent. + +Dun & Bradstreet said the rate of new incorporation declined in every +region of the country except the Middle Atlantic area - New York, New +Jersey and Pennsylvania - which had an increase of 10.3 percent. + +The Small Business Administration, which also monitors new business, +cautions that 1982 figures, though they may be down, are being compared +with a record number of business starts last year. In 1981, 581,661 new +businesses were incorporated, up more than 9 percent from 1980. Thomas +A. Gray, chief economist for the agency, attributed last year's increase +at least partially to the unemployment caused by the recession. + +''New business formation just seems to occur more frequently during a +recession,'' Mr. Gray said. ''If you're suddenly unemployed and walking +around in the street, you're more likely to say to yourself, 'Now is the +time to try.' '' + +''The other question you have to ask is, 'What businesses are failing?' +'' Mr. Bloomberg added. ''I think businesses that are already in +existence -small, medium or large - tend to have greater problems during +a recession, as people stop spending or change their buying habits. I'm +not sure that has anything to do with new businesses.'' Borrowing Costs +Key Factor + +Though other sources echoed Mr. Bloomberg's comments, most still say +that starting up a business these days is no picnic. Undoubtedly, the +primary problem is the cost of borrowing money. For a smallbusiness +owner, who is generally forced to borrow at rates far above the prime +interest rates charged to a bank's best customers, high capital costs +may narrow his choices of business. + +''Without a doubt, it's the biggest problem a small-business man will +face,'' said Gordon Bizar, president of the International Business +Network, a political and economic organization for small businesses. +''On the other hand, if you can get the money, now is the time to be +buying a business.'' + +Most people do it the other way around, Mr. Bizar said. ''They get in +when the market is good and pay premium prices,'' he said. ''Those are +the businesses that are failing today.'' + +Of course, not all new businesses are surviving, either. A small company +founded in Chicago last year with the goal of buying X-ray negatives +from hospitals and selling them for their silver content died when +silver prices fell. Other businesses struggle on, hoping to last until +consumer spending picks up. Some find their niche right away. 'Nothing +to Get Excited About' + +Scott Sanders, an actor who co-founded Survival Techniques in his New +York loft last December, said sales of his custom-painted decorated +pillows, at $22.50 each, had been ''O.K., but nothing to get excited +about.'' + +Mr. Sanders said the recession had definitely hurt his sales, but, +because his costs are so low (he and several friends do all the work), +the tiny company will probably stay in business. + +According to Malcolm N. Smith, senior lecturer in the School of Economic +Policy at the University of Chicago's Graduate School of Business, high +interest rates have done more to new business formation than simply +restricting the choices involved. Mr. Smith said the recession had made +certains kinds of businesses - specifically, consulting and service +companies - more attractive aside from their low start-up costs. + +''In times like this, most companies would rather contract out than +increase their employment,'' he said. ''If they need a computer +programmer, they'll turn to an outside consultant before they'll +actually hire anyone.'' + +Illustrations: photo of Michael B. Bloomber and his partners diff --git a/_stories/1982/13186225.md b/_stories/1982/13186225.md index 09af82f..31bac1b 100644 --- a/_stories/1982/13186225.md +++ b/_stories/1982/13186225.md @@ -19,7 +19,86 @@ _tags: objectID: '13186225' --- -[Source](https://www.cs.utexas.edu/users/EWD/transcriptions/EWD08xx/EWD831.html "Permalink to ") +Why numbering should start at zero +To denote the subsequence of natural numbers 2, 3, ..., 12 without the +pernicious three dots, four conventions are open to us + +a) 2 ≤ *i* \< 13 b) 1 \< *i* ≤ 12 c) 2 ≤ *i* ≤ 12 d) 1 \< *i* \< 13 +Are there reasons to prefer one convention to the other? Yes, there are. +The observation that conventions a) and b) have the advantage that the +difference between the bounds as mentioned equals the length of the +subsequence is valid. So is the observation that, as a consequence, in +either convention two subsequences are adjacent means that the upper +bound of the one equals the lower bound of the other. Valid as these +observations are, they don't enable us to choose between a) and b); so +let us start afresh. + +There is a smallest natural number. Exclusion of the lower bound —as in +b) and d)— forces for a subsequence starting at the smallest natural +number the lower bound as mentioned into the realm of the unnatural +numbers. That is ugly, so for the lower bound we prefer the ≤ as in a) +and c). Consider now the subsequences starting at the smallest natural +number: inclusion of the upper bound would then force the latter to be +unnatural by the time the sequence has shrunk to the empty one. That is +ugly, so for the upper bound we prefer \< as in a) and d). We conclude +that convention a) is to be preferred. + +Remark  The programming language Mesa, developed at Xerox PARC, has +special notations for intervals of integers in all four conventions. +Extensive experience with Mesa has shown that the use of the other three +conventions has been a constant source of clumsiness and mistakes, and +on account of that experience Mesa programmers are now strongly advised +not to use the latter three available features. I mention this +experimental evidence —for what it is worth— because some people feel +uncomfortable with conclusions that have not been confirmed in practice. +(End of Remark.) + +\*                \* +\* + +When dealing with a sequence of length *N*, the elements of which we +wish to distinguish by subscript, the next vexing question is what +subscript value to assign to its starting element. Adhering to +convention a) yields, when starting with subscript 1, the subscript +range 1 ≤ *i* \< *N*+1; starting with 0, however, gives the nicer range +0 ≤  *i* \< *N*. So let us let our ordinals start at zero: an element's +ordinal (subscript) equals the number of elements preceding it in the +sequence. And the moral of the story is that we had better regard —after +all those centuries\!— zero as a most natural number. + +Remark  Many programming languages have been designed without due +attention to this detail. In FORTRAN subscripts always start at 1; in +ALGOL 60 and in PASCAL, convention c) has been adopted; the more recent +SASL has fallen back on the FORTRAN convention: a sequence in SASL is at +the same time a function on the positive integers. Pity\! (End of +Remark.) + +\*                \* +\* + +The above has been triggered by a recent incident, when, in an emotional +outburst, one of my mathematical colleagues at the University —not a +computing scientist— accused a number of younger computing scientists of +"pedantry" because —as they do by habit— they started numbering at zero. +He took consciously adopting the most sensible convention as a +provocation. (Also the "End of ..." convention is viewed of as +provocative; but the convention is useful: I know of a student who +almost failed at an examination by the tacit assumption that the +questions ended at the bottom of the first page.) I think Antony Jay is +right when he states: "In corporate religions as in others, the heretic +must be cast out not because of the probability that he is wrong but +because of the possibility that he is right." + + + +Plataanstraat 5 +5671 AL NUENEN +The Netherlands 11 August 1982 +prof.dr. Edsger W. Dijkstra +Burroughs Research Fellow + +Transcriber: Kevin Hely. +Last revised on Fri, 2 May 2008. diff --git a/_stories/1983/10144420.md b/_stories/1983/10144420.md index dc1251a..6301214 100644 --- a/_stories/1983/10144420.md +++ b/_stories/1983/10144420.md @@ -19,341 +19,439 @@ _tags: objectID: '10144420' --- -[Source](http://www.lrb.co.uk/v05/n09/oliver-sacks/the-man-who-mistook-his-wife-for-a-hat "Permalink to Oliver Sacks · The man who mistook his wife for a hat · LRB 19 May 1983") +The scientific study of the relationship between brain and mind began in +1861, when Broca, in France, found that specific difficulties in the +expressive use of speech (aphasia) consistently followed damage to a +particular portion of the left hemisphere of the brain. This opened the +way to a cerebral neurology, which made it possible, over the decades, +to ‘map’ the human brain, ascribing specific powers to equally specific +‘centres’ in the brain. -# Oliver Sacks · The man who mistook his wife for a hat · LRB 19 May 1983 +Towards the end of the century it became evident to more acute observers +– above all, Freud, in his book on Aphasia (1891) – that this sort of +mapping was too simplistic, that all mental performances had an +intricate internal structure, and must have an equally complex +physiological basis. He felt this, especially, in regard to certain +disorders of recognition and perception, for which he coined the term +‘agnosia’. An adequate understanding of aphasia or agnosia would, he +believed, require a new, more sophisticated science. -* [skip navigation][1] -* [London Review of Books home page][2] -* [from the latest issue][3] -* [site map][4] -* [site search][5] -* [about the LRB][6] -* [terms & conditions][7] -* [contact information][8] -* [accessibility and view options][9] +The new science of brain/mind which Freud envisaged came into being in +the Second World War, in Russia, as the joint creation of A.R. Luria +(and his father R.A. Luria), Leontev, Anokhin, Bernstein and others, and +was called by them ‘neuropsychology’. The development of this immensely +fruitful science was the life-work of A.R. Luria, and considering its +revolutionary importance, was somewhat slow in reaching the West. It was +set out, systematically, in a monumental book, Higher Cortical Functions +in Man (translated into English in 1966), and, in a wholly different +way, in a biography or ‘pathography’ – The Man with a Shattered World +(which appeared in English in 1973). Although these books were almost +perfect in their way, there was a whole realm which Luria had not +touched. Higher Cortical Functions in Man treated only those functions +which appertained to the left hemisphere of the brain; similarly, +Zazetsky, the man with the shattered world, had a huge lesion in the +left hemisphere – the right was intact. Indeed, the entire history of +neurology and neuropsychology can be seen as a history of the +investigation of the left hemisphere. -[Log In][10] [Register for Online Access][11]   +One important reason for the neglect of the right hemisphere, the +‘minor’ hemisphere, as it has always been called, is that while it +is easy to demonstrate the effects of variously-located lesions on the +left side, the corresponding syndromes of the right hemisphere are much +less distinct. Anatomically, too, the right hemisphere is less +differentiated than the left: it does not have hundreds of +clearly-demarcated regions like the left, but instead has a relatively +homogeneous appearance. It was presumed, usually contemptuously, to be +more primitive than the left, the latter being seen as the unique flower +of human evolution. And in a sense this is correct: the left hemisphere +is more sophisticated and specialised, a very late outgrowth of the +primate, and especially hominid, brain. On the other hand, it is the +right hemisphere which, controls the crucial powers of recognising +reality which every living creature must have in order to survive. The +left hemisphere, like a computer tacked onto the basic creatural brain, +is designed for programs and schematics; and classical neurology was +more concerned with schematics than with reality, so that when, at last, +some of the right-hemisphere syndromes emerged, they were considered +bizarre. -![London Review of Books][12] +There had been attempts in the past – for example, by Anton in the 1890s +and Pötzl in the 1930s – to explore right-hemisphere syndromes, but +these attempts themselves had been bizarrely ignored. In The Working +Brain, one of his last books, Luria devoted a short but tantalising +section to right-hemisphere syndromes, ending: ‘These still completely +unstudied defects lead us to one of the most fundamental problems – to +the role of the right hemisphere in direct consciousness ... The study +of this highly important field has been so far neglected ... It will +receive a detailed analysis in a special series of papers ... in +preparation for publication.’ Luria did, finally, write some of these +papers, in the last months of his life, when mortally ill. He never saw +their publication, nor were they published in Russia: he sent them to +Richard Gregory in England. They will appear in Gregory’s Oxford +Companion to the Mind. -* [Latest][2] -* [Archive][13] -* [Bookshop][14] -* [Contact Us][8] -* [About the LRB][6] -* [Subscribe][15] -* [Introduction][13] -* [Back Issues][16] -* [Contributors][17] -* [Categories][18] -* [Letters][19] -* [Audio][20] -* [Video][21] +Inner difficulties and outer difficulties match each other here. It is +not only difficult, it is impossible for patients with certain +right-hemisphere syndromes to know their own problems. Moreover, this +peculiar anosognosia is observed only in such patients, and it is +singularly difficult for the observer, however sensitive, to understand +what it must be like to be in this situation. Left-hemisphere syndromes, +by contrast, are relatively easily imagined. Although right-hemisphere +syndromes are as common as left-hemisphere syndromes – why should they +not be? – one will find a thousand descriptions of left-hemisphere +syndromes in the neurological and neuropsychological literature for +every description of a right-hemisphere syndrome. It is as if such +syndromes were somehow alien to the whole temper of neurology and yet, +as Luria says, they are of the most fundamental importance, so much so +that they may demand a new sort of neurology, a ‘romantic science’, as +he liked to call it. Luria thought a science of this kind would be best +introduced by a story – a detailed case-history of man with a profound +right-hemisphere disturbance, a case-history which would at once be the +complement and opposite of The Man with a Shattered World. In one of his +last letters he wrote: ‘Publish such histories, even if they are just +sketches. It is a realm of great wonder.’ -![LRB Cover][22] +Dr P. lived on the East Coast of the United States. He was well-known +for many years as a singer, and then, at the local Academy of Music, as +a teacher. It was here that certain strange mistakes were first +observed. Sometimes a student would present himself, and Dr P. would not +recognise him; or, specifically, would not recognise his face. The +moment the student spoke, he would be recognised by his voice. Such +incidents multiplied, causing embarrassment, perplexity, fear – and, +sometimes, comedy. For not only did Dr P. increasingly fail to see +faces, but he saw faces when there were no faces to see: genially, +Magoo-like, when in the street, he might pat the heads of water-hydrants +and parking-meters, taking these to be the heads of children; he would +amiably address carved knobs on the furniture, and be astounded when +they did not reply. At first these odd mistakes were laughed off as +jokes, not least by Dr P. himself. Had he not always had a quirky sense +of humour, and been given to Zen-like paradoxes and jests? His musical +powers were as dazzling as ever; he did not feel ill – he had never felt +better; and the mistakes were so ludicrous – and so ingenious – they +could hardly be serious or betoken anything serious. The notion of their +being ‘something the matter’ did not emerge until some three years +later, when diabetes developed. Well aware that diabetes could affect +his eyes, Dr P. consulted an ophthalmologist, who took a careful +history, and examined him closely. ‘There’s nothing the matter with your +eyes,’ the doctor concluded. ‘But there is trouble with the visual parts +of your brain. You don’t need my help, you must see a neurologist.’ And +so, as a result of this referral, Dr P. came to me. -[**Oliver Sacks][23]** +It was obvious within a few seconds of meeting him that Dr P. was a man +of great cultivation and charm, who talked well and fluently, with +imagination and humour. I couldn’t think why he had been referred to our +clinic. -* * * +Yet there was something a bid odd: some failure in the normal interplay +of gaze and expression. He saw me, he scanned me, and yet ... -## RELATED ARTICLES +‘What seems to be the matter?’ I asked him at length. -4 February 2016 +‘Nothing that I know of,’ he replied with a smile, but people seem to +think there’s something wrong with my eyes.’ -### [Peter Godfrey-Smith -Do squid feel pain?][24] +‘But you don’t recognise any visual problems?’ -23 May 2013 +‘No, not directly, but I occasionally make mistakes.’ -### [Mike Jay -Memorylessness][25] +I left the room briefly to talk to his wife. When I came back Dr P. was +sitting placidly by the window, attentive, listening rather than looking +out. ‘Traffic,’ he said. ‘Street sounds, distant trains – they make a +sort of symphony, do they not? Do you know Honegger’s Pacific 231?’ What +a lovely man, I thought to myself, how can there be anything seriously +the matter? Would he permit me to examine him? ‘Yes, of course, Dr +Sacks.’ -7 March 2013 +I stilled my disquiet, his perhaps too, in the soothing routine of a +neurological exam – muscle strength, co-ordination, reflexes, tone. It +was while examining his reflexes – a trifle abnormal on the left side – +that the first bizarre experience occurred. I had taken off his left +shoe and scratched the sole of his foot with a key – a frivolous-seeming +but essential test of a reflex – and then, excusing myself to screw my +ophthalmoscope together, left him to put on the shoe himself. To my +surprise, a minute later, he had not done this. -### [Mike Jay -Hallucinations][26] +‘Can I help?’I asked. -22 March 2012 +‘Help what? Help whom?’ -### [Glen Newey -'Thinking, Fast and Slow'][27] +‘Help you put on your shoe.’ -9 February 2012 +‘Ach,’ he said, ‘I had forgotten the shoe,’ adding, sotto voce: ‘The +shoe\! The shoe?’ He seemed baffled. -### [Jenny Diski -The Me Who Knew It][28] +‘Your shoe,’ I repeated. ‘Perhaps you’d put it on.’ -9 February 2012 +He continued to look downwards, though not at the shoe, with an intense +but misplaced concentration. Finally his gaze settled on his foot: ‘That +is my shoe, yes?’ -### [Gideon Lewis-Kraus -Science does ethics][29] +Did I mishear? Did he mis-see? ‘My eyes,’ he explained, and put a hand +to his foot. ‘This is my shoe, no?’ -3 March 2011 +‘No, it is not. That is your foot. There is your shoe.’ -### [Jim Holt -'The Shallows'][30] +‘Ah\! I thought that was my foot.’ -* * * +Was he joking? Was he mad? Was he blind? If this was one of his ‘strange +mistakes’, it was the strangest mistake I had ever come across. -## RELATED CATEGORIES +I helped him on with his shoe (his foot), to avoid further complication. +Dr P. himself seemed untroubled, indifferent, maybe amused. I resumed my +examination. His visual acuity was good: he had no difficulty seeing a +pin on the floor, though sometimes he missed it if it was placed to his +left. -[Science, technology and mathematics][31], [Biology][32], [Neuroscience][33] - -* * * - -[Vol. 5 No. 9 · 19 May 1983][34] -pages 3-5 | 4320 words - -* * * - -# The man who mistook his wife for a hat - -## Oliver Sacks - -The scientific study of the relationship between brain and mind began in 1861, when Broca, in France, found that specific difficulties in the expressive use of speech (aphasia) consistently followed damage to a particular portion of the left hemisphere of the brain. This opened the way to a cerebral neurology, which made it possible, over the decades, to 'map' the human brain, ascribing specific powers to equally specific 'centres' in the brain. - -Towards the end of the century it became evident to more acute observers – above all, Freud, in his book on _Aphasia_ (1891) – that this sort of mapping was too simplistic, that all mental performances had an intricate internal structure, and must have an equally complex physiological basis. He felt this, especially, in regard to certain disorders of recognition and perception, for which he coined the term 'agnosia'. An adequate understanding of aphasia or agnosia would, he believed, require a new, more sophisticated science. - -The new science of brain/mind which Freud envisaged came into being in the Second World War, in Russia, as the joint creation of A.R. Luria (and his father R.A. Luria), Leontev, Anokhin, Bernstein and others, and was called by them 'neuropsychology'. The development of this immensely fruitful science was the life-work of A.R. Luria, and considering its revolutionary importance, was somewhat slow in reaching the West. It was set out, systematically, in a monumental book, _Higher Cortical Functions in Man_ (translated into English in 1966), and, in a wholly different way, in a biography or 'pathography' – _The Man with a Shattered World_ (which appeared in English in 1973). Although these books were almost perfect in their way, there was a whole realm which Luria had not touched. _Higher Cortical Functions in Man_ treated only those functions which appertained to the left hemisphere of the brain; similarly, Zazetsky, the man with the shattered world, had a huge lesion in the left hemisphere – the right was intact. Indeed, the entire history of neurology and neuropsychology can be seen as a history of the investigation of the left hemisphere. - -One important reason for the neglect of the right hemisphere, the 'minor' hemisphere, as it has always been called, is that while it is easy to demonstrate the effects of variously-located lesions on the left side, the corresponding syndromes of the right hemisphere are much less distinct. Anatomically, too, the right hemisphere is less differentiated than the left: it does not have hundreds of clearly-demarcated regions like the left, but instead has a relatively homogeneous appearance. It was presumed, usually contemptuously, to be more primitive than the left, the latter being seen as the unique flower of human evolution. And in a sense this is correct: the left hemisphere is more sophisticated and specialised, a very late outgrowth of the primate, and especially hominid, brain. On the other hand, it is the right hemisphere which, controls the crucial powers of recognising reality which every living creature must have in order to survive. The left hemisphere, like a computer tacked onto the basic creatural brain, is designed for programs and schematics; and classical neurology was more concerned with schematics than with reality, so that when, at last, some of the right-hemisphere syndromes emerged, they were considered bizarre. - -There had been attempts in the past – for example, by Anton in the 1890s and Pötzl in the 1930s – to explore right-hemisphere syndromes, but these attempts themselves had been bizarrely ignored. In _The Working Brain_, one of his last books, Luria devoted a short but tantalising section to right-hemisphere syndromes, ending: 'These still completely unstudied defects lead us to one of the most fundamental problems – to the role of the right hemisphere in direct consciousness ... The study of this highly important field has been so far neglected ... It will receive a detailed analysis in a special series of papers ... in preparation for publication.' Luria did, finally, write some of these papers, in the last months of his life, when mortally ill. He never saw their publication, nor were they published in Russia: he sent them to Richard Gregory in England. They will appear in Gregory's _Oxford Companion to the Mind_. - -Inner difficulties and outer difficulties match each other here. It is not only difficult, it is impossible for patients with certain right-hemisphere syndromes to know their own problems. Moreover, this peculiar anosognosia is observed only in such patients, and it is singularly difficult for the observer, however sensitive, to understand what it must be like to be in this situation. Left-hemisphere syndromes, by contrast, are relatively easily imagined. Although right-hemisphere syndromes are as common as left-hemisphere syndromes – why should they not be? – one will find a thousand descriptions of left-hemisphere syndromes in the neurological and neuropsychological literature for every description of a right-hemisphere syndrome. It is as if such syndromes were somehow alien to the whole temper of neurology and yet, as Luria says, they are of the most fundamental importance, so much so that they may demand a new sort of neurology, a 'romantic science', as he liked to call it. Luria thought a science of this kind would be best introduced by a story – a detailed case-history of man with a profound right-hemisphere disturbance, a case-history which would at once be the complement and opposite of _The Man with a Shattered World_. In one of his last letters he wrote: 'Publish such histories, even if they are just sketches. It is a realm of great wonder.' - -Dr P. lived on the East Coast of the United States. He was well-known for many years as a singer, and then, at the local Academy of Music, as a teacher. It was here that certain strange mistakes were first observed. Sometimes a student would present himself, and Dr P. would not recognise him; or, specifically, would not recognise his face. The moment the student spoke, he would be recognised by his voice. Such incidents multiplied, causing embarrassment, perplexity, fear – and, sometimes, comedy. For not only did Dr P. increasingly fail to see faces, but he saw faces when there were no faces to see: genially, Magoo-like, when in the street, he might pat the heads of water-hydrants and parking-meters, taking these to be the heads of children; he would amiably address carved knobs on the furniture, and be astounded when they did not reply. At first these odd mistakes were laughed off as jokes, not least by Dr P. himself. Had he not always had a quirky sense of humour, and been given to Zen-like paradoxes and jests? His musical powers were as dazzling as ever; he did not feel ill – he had never felt better; and the mistakes were so ludicrous – and so ingenious – they could hardly be serious or betoken anything serious. The notion of their being 'something the matter' did not emerge until some three years later, when diabetes developed. Well aware that diabetes could affect his eyes, Dr P. consulted an ophthalmologist, who took a careful history, and examined him closely. 'There's nothing the matter with your eyes,' the doctor concluded. 'But there is trouble with the visual parts of your brain. You don't need my help, you must see a neurologist.' And so, as a result of this referral, Dr P. came to me. - -It was obvious within a few seconds of meeting him that Dr P. was a man of great cultivation and charm, who talked well and fluently, with imagination and humour. I couldn't think why he had been referred to our clinic. - -Yet there _was_ something a bid odd: some failure in the normal interplay of gaze and expression. He saw me, he _scanned_ me, and yet ... - -'What seems to be the matter?' I asked him at length. - -'Nothing that I know of,' he replied with a smile, but people seem to think there's something wrong with my eyes.' - -'But _you_ don't recognise any visual problems?' - -'No, not directly, but I occasionally make mistakes.' - -I left the room briefly to talk to his wife. When I came back Dr P. was sitting placidly by the window, attentive, listening rather than looking out. 'Traffic,' he said. 'Street sounds, distant trains – they make a sort of symphony, do they not? Do you know Honegger's _Pacific 231_?' What a lovely man, I thought to myself, how can there be anything seriously the matter? Would he permit me to examine him? 'Yes, of course, Dr Sacks.' - -I stilled my disquiet, his perhaps too, in the soothing routine of a neurological exam – muscle strength, co-ordination, reflexes, tone. It was while examining his reflexes – a trifle abnormal on the left side – that the first bizarre experience occurred. I had taken off his left shoe and scratched the sole of his foot with a key – a frivolous-seeming but essential test of a reflex – and then, excusing myself to screw my ophthalmoscope together, left him to put on the shoe himself. To my surprise, a minute later, he had not done this. - -'Can I help?'I asked. - -'Help what? Help whom?' - -'Help you put on your shoe.' - -'Ach,' he said, 'I had forgotten the shoe,' adding, _sotto voce_: 'The shoe! The shoe?' He seemed baffled. - -'Your shoe,' I repeated. 'Perhaps you'd put it on.' - -He continued to look downwards, though not at the shoe, with an intense but misplaced concentration. Finally his gaze settled on his foot: 'That is my shoe, yes?' - -Did I mishear? Did he mis-see? 'My eyes,' he explained, and put a hand to his foot. '_This_ is my shoe, no?' - -'No, it is not. That is your foot. _There_ is your shoe.' - -'Ah! I thought that was my foot.' - -Was he joking? Was he mad? Was he blind? If this was one of his 'strange mistakes', it was the strangest mistake I had ever come across. - -I helped him on with his shoe (his foot), to avoid further complication. Dr P. himself seemed untroubled, indifferent, maybe amused. I resumed my examination. His visual acuity was good: he had no difficulty seeing a pin on the floor, though sometimes he missed it if it was placed to his left. - -He saw all right, but what did he see? I opened out a copy of the _National Geographic Magazine_, and asked him to describe some pictures in it. His eyes darted from one thing to another, picking up tiny features, as he had picked up the pin. A brightness, a colour, a shape would arrest his attention and elicit comment, but it was always details that he saw – never the whole. And these details he 'spotted', as one might spot blips on a radar-screen. He had no sense of a landscape or a scene. +He saw all right, but what did he see? I opened out a copy of the +National Geographic Magazine, and asked him to describe some pictures in +it. His eyes darted from one thing to another, picking up tiny features, +as he had picked up the pin. A brightness, a colour, a shape would +arrest his attention and elicit comment, but it was always details that +he saw – never the whole. And these details he ‘spotted’, as one might +spot blips on a radar-screen. He had no sense of a landscape or a scene. I showed him the cover, an unbroken expanse of Sahara dunes. -'What do you see here?'I asked. +‘What do you see here?’I asked. -'I see a river,' he said. 'And a little guesthouse with its terrace on the water. People are dining out on the terrace. I see coloured parasols here and there.' He was looking, if it was 'looking', right off the cover, into mid-air, and confabulating non-existent features, as if the absence of features in the actual picture had driven him to imagine the river and the terrace and the coloured parasols. +‘I see a river,’ he said. ‘And a little guesthouse with its terrace on +the water. People are dining out on the terrace. I see coloured parasols +here and there.’ He was looking, if it was ‘looking’, right off the +cover, into mid-air, and confabulating non-existent features, as if the +absence of features in the actual picture had driven him to imagine the +river and the terrace and the coloured parasols. -I must have looked aghast, but he seemed to think he had done rather well. There was a hint of a smile on his face. He also appeared to have decided the examination was over, and started to look round for his hat. He reached out his hand, and took hold of his wife's head, tried to lift it off, to put it on. He had apparently mistaken his wife for a hat! His wife looked as if she was used to such things. +I must have looked aghast, but he seemed to think he had done rather +well. There was a hint of a smile on his face. He also appeared to have +decided the examination was over, and started to look round for his hat. +He reached out his hand, and took hold of his wife’s head, tried to lift +it off, to put it on. He had apparently mistaken his wife for a hat\! +His wife looked as if she was used to such things. -I could make no sense of what had occurred, in terms of conventional neurology (or neuropsychology). In some ways he seemed perfectly preserved, and in others absolutely, incomprehensibly devastated. How could he, on the one hand, mistake his wife for a hat and, on the other, function, as apparently he still did, as a teacher at the Music Academy? +I could make no sense of what had occurred, in terms of conventional +neurology (or neuropsychology). In some ways he seemed perfectly +preserved, and in others absolutely, incomprehensibly devastated. How +could he, on the one hand, mistake his wife for a hat and, on the other, +function, as apparently he still did, as a teacher at the Music Academy? -A few days later I called on Dr P. and his wife at home, with the score of the _Dichterliebe_ in my briefcase (I knew he liked Schumann), and a variety of odd objects for the testing of perception. Mrs P. showed me into a lofty apartment which recalled Fin-de-Siècle Berlin. A magnificent old Bosendorfer stood in state in the centre of the room, and all round it were music-stands, instruments, scores ... There were books, there were paintings, but the music was central. Dr P. came in, a little bowed and distracted, advanced with outstretched hand to the grandfather clock, but, hearing my voice, corrected himself, and shook hands with me. We exchanged greetings, and chatted a little of current concerts. Diffidently, I asked him if he would sing. +A few days later I called on Dr P. and his wife at home, with the score +of the Dichterliebe in my briefcase (I knew he liked Schumann), and a +variety of odd objects for the testing of perception. Mrs P. showed me +into a lofty apartment which recalled Fin-de-Siècle Berlin. A +magnificent old Bosendorfer stood in state in the centre of the room, +and all round it were music-stands, instruments, scores ... There were +books, there were paintings, but the music was central. Dr P. came in, a +little bowed and distracted, advanced with outstretched hand to the +grandfather clock, but, hearing my voice, corrected himself, and shook +hands with me. We exchanged greetings, and chatted a little of current +concerts. Diffidently, I asked him if he would sing. -'The _Dichterliebe_!' he exclaimed. 'But I can no longer read music. You will play them, yes?' I said I would try. On that wonderful old piano even my playing sounded right, and Dr P. was an aged, but infinitely mellow Fischer-Dieskau, combining a perfect ear and voice with the most incisive musical intelligence. It was clear that the Music Academy was not keeping him on out of charity. +‘The Dichterliebe\!’ he exclaimed. ‘But I can no longer read music. You +will play them, yes?’ I said I would try. On that wonderful old piano +even my playing sounded right, and Dr P. was an aged, but infinitely +mellow Fischer-Dieskau, combining a perfect ear and voice with the most +incisive musical intelligence. It was clear that the Music Academy was +not keeping him on out of charity. -Dr P.'s temporal lobes were obviously intact, he had a wonderful musical cortex: what, I wondered, was going on in his parietal and occipital lobes, and especially in his right visual cortex? I carry the Platonic solids in my neurological kit, and decided to start with these. +Dr P.’s temporal lobes were obviously intact, he had a wonderful musical +cortex: what, I wondered, was going on in his parietal and occipital +lobes, and especially in his right visual cortex? I carry the Platonic +solids in my neurological kit, and decided to start with these. -'What is this?' I asked, drawing out the first. +‘What is this?’ I asked, drawing out the first. -'A cube, of course.' +‘A cube, of course.’ -'Now this?' I asked, brandishing another. +‘Now this?’ I asked, brandishing another. -He asked if he might examine it, which he did swiftly and systematically: 'A dodecahedron, of course. And don't bother with the others – I'll get the eicosahedron too.' +He asked if he might examine it, which he did swiftly and +systematically: ‘A dodecahedron, of course. And don’t bother with the +others – I’ll get the eicosahedron too.’ -Abstract shapes clearly presented no problems. What about faces? I took out a pack of cards. All of these he identified instantly, including the jacks, queens, kings, and the joker. But these, after all, are stylised designs and it was impossible to tell whether he saw faces or merely patterns. I decided I would show him a volume of cartoons which I had in my briefcase. Here, again, for the most part, he did well. Churchill's cigar, Schnozzle's nose: as soon as he had picked out a key feature he could identify the face. But cartoons, again, are formal and schematic. It remained to be seen how he would do with real faces, realistically represented. +Abstract shapes clearly presented no problems. What about faces? I took +out a pack of cards. All of these he identified instantly, including the +jacks, queens, kings, and the joker. But these, after all, are stylised +designs and it was impossible to tell whether he saw faces or merely +patterns. I decided I would show him a volume of cartoons which I had in +my briefcase. Here, again, for the most part, he did well. Churchill’s +cigar, Schnozzle’s nose: as soon as he had picked out a key feature he +could identify the face. But cartoons, again, are formal and schematic. +It remained to be seen how he would do with real faces, realistically +represented. -I turned on the television, keeping the sound off, and found an early Bette Davis film. A love scene was in progress. Dr P. failed to identify the actress – but this could have been because she had never entered his world. What was more striking was that he failed to identify the expressions on her face or her partner's, though in the course of a single torrid scene these passed from sultry yearning through passion, surprise, disgust and fury to a melting reconciliation. Dr P. could make nothing of any of this. He was very unclear as to what was going on, or who was who, or even what sex they were. His comments on the scene were positively Martian. +I turned on the television, keeping the sound off, and found an early +Bette Davis film. A love scene was in progress. Dr P. failed to identify +the actress – but this could have been because she had never entered his +world. What was more striking was that he failed to identify the +expressions on her face or her partner’s, though in the course of a +single torrid scene these passed from sultry yearning through passion, +surprise, disgust and fury to a melting reconciliation. Dr P. could make +nothing of any of this. He was very unclear as to what was going on, or +who was who, or even what sex they were. His comments on the scene were +positively Martian. -It was – just – possible that some of his difficulties were associated with the unreality of a celluloid, Hollywood world; and it occurred to me that he might be more successful in identifying faces from his own life. On the walls of the apartment there were photographs of his family, his colleagues, his pupils, himself. I gathered a pile of these together, and with some misgivings, presented them to him. What had been funny, or farcical, in relation to the movie, was tragic in relation to real life. By and large, he recognised nobody: neither his family, nor his colleagues, nor his pupils, nor himself. He recognised a portrait of Einstein, because he picked up the characteristic hair and moustache; and the same thing happened with one or two other people. 'Ach, Paul!' he said, when shown a portrait of his brother. 'That square jaw, those big teeth, I would know Paul anywhere!' But was it Paul he recognised, or one or two of his features, on the basis of which he could make a reasonable guess as to the subject's identity? In the absence of obvious 'markers', he was utterly lost. It was distressing to watch him approaching these faces as if they were abstract puzzles or tests. He did not relate to them. Some were identified: not one was familiar. A face, for him, was not the semblance of a human being – it was merely an aggregation of features. +It was – just – possible that some of his difficulties were associated +with the unreality of a celluloid, Hollywood world; and it occurred to +me that he might be more successful in identifying faces from his own +life. On the walls of the apartment there were photographs of his +family, his colleagues, his pupils, himself. I gathered a pile of these +together, and with some misgivings, presented them to him. What had been +funny, or farcical, in relation to the movie, was tragic in relation to +real life. By and large, he recognised nobody: neither his family, nor +his colleagues, nor his pupils, nor himself. He recognised a portrait of +Einstein, because he picked up the characteristic hair and moustache; +and the same thing happened with one or two other people. ‘Ach, Paul\!’ +he said, when shown a portrait of his brother. ‘That square jaw, those +big teeth, I would know Paul anywhere\!’ But was it Paul he recognised, +or one or two of his features, on the basis of which he could make a +reasonable guess as to the subject’s identity? In the absence of obvious +‘markers’, he was utterly lost. It was distressing to watch him +approaching these faces as if they were abstract puzzles or tests. He +did not relate to them. Some were identified: not one was familiar. A +face, for him, was not the semblance of a human being – it was merely an +aggregation of features. -I had stopped at a florist on my way to his apartment and bought myself an extravagant red rose for my buttonhole. Now I removed this and handed it to him. He took it like a botanist or morphologist given a specimen, not like a person given a flower. +I had stopped at a florist on my way to his apartment and bought myself +an extravagant red rose for my buttonhole. Now I removed this and handed +it to him. He took it like a botanist or morphologist given a specimen, +not like a person given a flower. -'About six inches in length,' he commented, 'a convoluted red form with a linear green attachment.' +‘About six inches in length,’ he commented, ‘a convoluted red form with +a linear green attachment.’ -'Yes,' I said encouragingly, and what do you think it _is_, Dr P.?' +‘Yes,’ I said encouragingly, and what do you think it is, Dr P.?’ -'Not easy to say.' He seemed perplexed. 'It lacks the simple symmetry of the Platonic solids, although it may have a higher symmetry of its own ... I think this could be an inflorescence or flower.' +‘Not easy to say.’ He seemed perplexed. ‘It lacks the simple symmetry of +the Platonic solids, although it may have a higher symmetry of its own +... I think this could be an inflorescence or flower.’ -'_Could_ be?' I queried. +‘Could be?’ I queried. -'Could be,' he confirmed. +‘Could be,’ he confirmed. -'Smell it,' I suggested, and he again looked somewhat puzzled, as if I had asked him to smell a higher symmetry. But he complied courteously, and took it to his nose. Now, suddenly, he came to life. +‘Smell it,’ I suggested, and he again looked somewhat puzzled, as if I +had asked him to smell a higher symmetry. But he complied courteously, +and took it to his nose. Now, suddenly, he came to life. -'Beautiful!' he exclaimed. 'An early rose. What a heavenly smell!' He started to hum 'Die Rose, die Lillie ...' Reality, it seemed, might be conveyed by smell, not by sight. +‘Beautiful\!’ he exclaimed. ‘An early rose. What a heavenly smell\!’ He +started to hum ‘Die Rose, die Lillie ...’ Reality, it seemed, might be +conveyed by smell, not by sight. -I tried one final test. It was still a cold day, in early spring, and I had thrown my coat and gloves on the sofa. +I tried one final test. It was still a cold day, in early spring, and I +had thrown my coat and gloves on the sofa. -'What is this?' asked, holding up a glove. +‘What is this?’ asked, holding up a glove. -'May I examine it?' he asked, and, taking it from me, he proceeded to examine it as he had examined the geometrical shapes. +‘May I examine it?’ he asked, and, taking it from me, he proceeded to +examine it as he had examined the geometrical shapes. -'A continuous surface,' he announced at last, 'infolded on itself. It appears to have' – he hesitated – 'five outpouchings, if that is the word.' +‘A continuous surface,’ he announced at last, ‘infolded on itself. It +appears to have’ – he hesitated – ‘five outpouchings, if that is the +word.’ -'Yes,' I said cautiously. 'You have given me a description. Now tell me what it is.' +‘Yes,’ I said cautiously. ‘You have given me a description. Now tell me +what it is.’ -'A container of some sort?' +‘A container of some sort?’ -'Yes,' I said, 'and what would it contain?' +‘Yes,’ I said, ‘and what would it contain?’ -'It would contain its contents!' said Dr P., with a laugh. There are many possibilities. It could be a change-purse, for example, for coins of five sizes. It could ...' +‘It would contain its contents\!’ said Dr P., with a laugh. There are +many possibilities. It could be a change-purse, for example, for coins +of five sizes. It could ...’ -I interrupted the barmy flow. 'Does it not look familiar? Do you think it might contain, might fit, a part of your body?' +I interrupted the barmy flow. ‘Does it not look familiar? Do you think +it might contain, might fit, a part of your body?’ No light of recognition dawned on his face. -No child would have the power to see and speak of 'a continuous surface ... infolded on itself', but any child, any infant, would immediately know a glove as a glove, see it as familiar, as going with a hand. Dr P. didn't. He saw nothing as familiar. Visually, he was lost in a world of lifeless abstractions. Indeed he did not have a real visual world, as he did not have a real visual self. He could speak about things, but did not see them face-to-face. Hughlings Jackson, discussing patients with aphasia and left-hemisphere lesions, says they have lost 'abstract' and 'propositional' thought – and compares them with dogs (or, rather, he compares dogs to patients with aphasia). Dr P., on the other hand, functioned precisely as a machine functions. It wasn't merely that he displayed the same indifference to the visual world as a computer but – even more strikingly – he construed the world as a computer construes it, by means of key features and schematic relationships. +No child would have the power to see and speak of ‘a continuous surface +... infolded on itself’, but any child, any infant, would immediately +know a glove as a glove, see it as familiar, as going with a hand. Dr P. +didn’t. He saw nothing as familiar. Visually, he was lost in a world of +lifeless abstractions. Indeed he did not have a real visual world, as he +did not have a real visual self. He could speak about things, but did +not see them face-to-face. Hughlings Jackson, discussing patients with +aphasia and left-hemisphere lesions, says they have lost ‘abstract’ and +‘propositional’ thought – and compares them with dogs (or, rather, he +compares dogs to patients with aphasia). Dr P., on the other hand, +functioned precisely as a machine functions. It wasn’t merely that he +displayed the same indifference to the visual world as a computer but – +even more strikingly – he construed the world as a computer construes +it, by means of key features and schematic relationships. -The testing I had done so far told me nothing about Dr P.'s inner world. Was it possible that his visual memory and imagination were still intact? I asked him to imagine entering one of our local squares from the north side, to walk through it, in imagination or in memory, and tell me the buildings he might pass as he walked. He listed the buldings on his right side, but none of those on his left. I then asked him to imagine entering the square from the south. Again he mentioned only those buildings that were on the right side, although these were the very buildings he had omitted before. Those he had 'seen' internally before were not mentioned now – presumably, they were no longer 'seen'. It was evident that his difficulties with leftness, his visual field deficits, were as much internal as external, bisecting his visual memory and imagination. +The testing I had done so far told me nothing about Dr P.’s inner world. +Was it possible that his visual memory and imagination were still +intact? I asked him to imagine entering one of our local squares from +the north side, to walk through it, in imagination or in memory, and +tell me the buildings he might pass as he walked. He listed the buldings +on his right side, but none of those on his left. I then asked him to +imagine entering the square from the south. Again he mentioned only +those buildings that were on the right side, although these were the +very buildings he had omitted before. Those he had ‘seen’ internally +before were not mentioned now – presumably, they were no longer ‘seen’. +It was evident that his difficulties with leftness, his visual field +deficits, were as much internal as external, bisecting his visual memory +and imagination. -It was entirely in keeping with his condition that he could remember the plot of a novel and things that the characters said, but had no sense of their physiognomy; that he could remember what happened to them but not the scenes in which they took part. What surprised me was that when I engaged him in a game of mental chess he had no difficulty in visualising the chessboard – indeed, had no difficulty in beating me. Luria said of Zazetsky that he had entirely lost his capacity to play games but that his 'vivid imagination' was unimpaired. Zazetsky and Dr P. lived in worlds which were mirror images of each other. But the saddest difference between them was that Zazetsky, as Luria said, fought to regain his lost faculties with the 'tenacity of the damned', whereas Dr P. did not even know that anything was lost. +It was entirely in keeping with his condition that he could remember the +plot of a novel and things that the characters said, but had no sense of +their physiognomy; that he could remember what happened to them but not +the scenes in which they took part. What surprised me was that when I +engaged him in a game of mental chess he had no difficulty in +visualising the chessboard – indeed, had no difficulty in beating me. +Luria said of Zazetsky that he had entirely lost his capacity to play +games but that his ‘vivid imagination’ was unimpaired. Zazetsky and Dr +P. lived in worlds which were mirror images of each other. But the +saddest difference between them was that Zazetsky, as Luria said, fought +to regain his lost faculties with the ‘tenacity of the damned’, whereas +Dr P. did not even know that anything was lost. -When the examination was over, Mrs P. called us to the table, where there was coffee and a delicious spread of little cakes. Hungrily, hummingly, Dr P. started on the cakes. Swiftly, fluently, unthinkingly, melodiously, he pulled the plates towards him, and took this and that, in a great gurgling stream, an edible song of food, until, suddenly, there came an interruption: a loud, peremptory rat-ta-tat at the door. Startled, taken aback, arrested, by the interruption, Dr P. stopped eating, and sat frozen, motionless, at the table, with an indifferent, blind, bewilderment on his face. He saw, but no longer saw, the table; no longer perceived it as a table laden with cakes. His wife poured him some coffee: the smell titillated his nose, and brought him back to reality. The melody of eating resumed. +When the examination was over, Mrs P. called us to the table, where +there was coffee and a delicious spread of little cakes. Hungrily, +hummingly, Dr P. started on the cakes. Swiftly, fluently, unthinkingly, +melodiously, he pulled the plates towards him, and took this and that, +in a great gurgling stream, an edible song of food, until, suddenly, +there came an interruption: a loud, peremptory rat-ta-tat at the door. +Startled, taken aback, arrested, by the interruption, Dr P. stopped +eating, and sat frozen, motionless, at the table, with an indifferent, +blind, bewilderment on his face. He saw, but no longer saw, the table; +no longer perceived it as a table laden with cakes. His wife poured him +some coffee: the smell titillated his nose, and brought him back to +reality. The melody of eating resumed. -How does he do anything, I wondered to myself? What happens when he's dressing, goes to the lavatory, has a bath? I followed his wife into the kitchen and asked her how, for instance, he managed to dress himself. +How does he do anything, I wondered to myself? What happens when he’s +dressing, goes to the lavatory, has a bath? I followed his wife into the +kitchen and asked her how, for instance, he managed to dress himself. -'It's just like the eating,' she explained. 'I put his usual clothes out, in all the usual places, and he dresses without difficulty, singing to himself. He does everything singing to himself. But if he is interrupted and loses the thread, he comes to a complete stop, doesn't know his clothes – or his own body. He sings all the time – eating songs, dressing songs, bathing songs, everything. He can't do anything unless he makes it a song.' +‘It’s just like the eating,’ she explained. ‘I put his usual clothes +out, in all the usual places, and he dresses without difficulty, singing +to himself. He does everything singing to himself. But if he is +interrupted and loses the thread, he comes to a complete stop, doesn’t +know his clothes – or his own body. He sings all the time – eating +songs, dressing songs, bathing songs, everything. He can’t do anything +unless he makes it a song.’ -We returned to the great music-room, with the Bosendorfer in the centre, and Dr P. humming the last torte. 'Well, Doctor Sacks,' he said to me. 'You find me an interesting "case", I perceive. Can you tell me what you find wrong, make recommendations?' +We returned to the great music-room, with the Bosendorfer in the centre, +and Dr P. humming the last torte. ‘Well, Doctor Sacks,’ he said to me. +‘You find me an interesting “case”, I perceive. Can you tell me what +you find wrong, make recommendations?’ -I can't tell you what I find wrong,' I replied, 'but I'll say what I find right. You are a wonderful musician, and music is your life. What I would prescribe, in a "case" such as yours, is a life which consists entirely of music. Music has been the centre, now make it the whole of your life.' - -This was four years ago. I never saw him again. But I often wondered how he apprehended the world, given his loss of image and visuality and the perfect preservation of his musicality. I think that music for him had taken the place of image: he had no body image – he had body music. This is why he could move and act as fluently as he did, but came to a total stop if the 'inner musk' stopped. In _The World as Will and Representation_ Schopenhauer speaks of music as pure will. How fascinated he would have been by Dr P., a man who had wholly lost the world as representation but wholly preserved it as music, or will. And this, mercifully, held to the end, for despite the gradual advance of the disease – a massive tumour or degenerative process in the visual parts of his brain – Dr P. lived and taught music to the last days of his life. - -* * * - -[Vol. 5 No. 9 · 19 May 1983][34] » [Oliver Sacks][23] » [The man who mistook his wife for a hat][35] -pages 3-5 | 4320 words - -* * * - -[Contact us][8] for rights and issues inquiries. - -* * * - -## Letters - -[Vol. 5 No. 16 · 1 September 1983][36] - -SIR: I found Oliver Sacks's article ([_LRB_, 19 May][35]) most interesting. Several years ago, I shared a flat with a student working towards attaining her diploma in social work. As part of her course she had been posted to a nearby assessment centre. During holiday periods the children were mostly allowed out on recreational visits to various places along the South Coast. However, one girl – twelve to thirteen years old – was always excluded from such 'treats' as other members of the assessment centre found her behaviour to be unpredictable, and at times quite violent. On one occasion, as a rare treat, she was allowed out for the afternoon under the supervision of the social worker. I suggested she should come back to the flat for a 'grown-up' evening meal, by candlelight, linen tablecloth, red wine heavily diluted with Perrier water, napkins … the full works which she would have received in the best of restaurants. I did not have a television at the time, which disappointed the girl somewhat, but I did possess a fairly good collection of 'progressive/psychedelic' records. She picked out the most 'disturbing': Frank Zappa's _We're only in it for the money_, Captain Beefheart's _Strictly Personal_ and Robert Wyatt's _Rock Bottom_. I looked at the social worker questioningly. The reply was to the effect that I had made an open offer, so was bound to keep my promise. - -As I put on the first LP – the Frank Zappa – I asked her what had determined her choice. Her reply – I have forgotten the exact words – was to the effect that they sounded like good fun and rather silly. So, compliant host, never breaking a promise, especially to an individual who was still wary of people who promised anything at all, I set the Zappa LP on the turntable, expecting a freak-out at any moment, especially when it came to the concluding lyrics of 'What's the ugliest part of your body?': - -> Some say it's your nose -Some say it's your toes -But I say it's your mind. - -The young lady found this highly humorous rather than disturbing, believing Zappa's lyrics to be directed at the governors of the assessment centre. - -Many people – perhaps most people – find 'illogical' discourse or behaviour to be frightening. This is to impose a self-centred, nefarious dictatorship of 'belief in the one-and-only God of Reason'. I later learned that the young lady had been transferred to a different establishment, and was the subject of adoption proceedings. Evidently she had been placed in a comprehensive school, where she was showing an extraordinary facility in the composition of 'nonsense-poetry'. For her, I wonder, was it all merely self-centred indulgence in surreal silliness – or the discovery of how language can be manipulated to convey feelings of happiness and fear, as opposed to something to be used as a book of rules and regulations from which governors, wardens and guardians quoted whenever she transgressed? - -**Grahame White** -Truro - -* [More from this issue][34] » -* * [Current Issue][2] -* [Blog][37] -* [Archive][13] -* [Audio and Video][38] -* [Search][5] -* [About][6] -* [Terms and Conditions][7] -* [Copyright][39] -* [Privacy][40] -* [Accessibility][9] -* [Subscribe][15] -* [Contact][8] -* [Newsletters][41] -* [FAQs][42] -* [Librarians][43] -* [Back to the top][44] -* Follow the LRB -![Facebook][45] ![Twitter][46] ![Google Plus][47] -* © LRB Limited 2018 -* ISSN 0260-9592 -* [Send Us Feedback][48] -* [Mobile website][49] - -ISSN 0260-9592 [Copyright][39] © LRB Limited 2018 - -^ [Top][44] - -[1]: http://www.lrb.co.uk#bodycontent -[2]: http://www.lrb.co.uk/ -[3]: http://www.lrb.co.uk/contents -[4]: http://www.lrb.co.uk/sitemap -[5]: http://www.lrb.co.uk/search -[6]: http://www.lrb.co.uk/about -[7]: http://www.lrb.co.uk/terms -[8]: http://www.lrb.co.uk/contacts -[9]: http://www.lrb.co.uk/accessibility -[10]: http://www.lrb.co.uk/login?href=%2Fv05%2Fn09%2Foliver-sacks%2Fthe-man-who-mistook-his-wife-for-a-hat -[11]: http://www.lrb.co.uk/activate -[12]: https://cdn.lrb.co.uk/assets/images/lrb_logo_big.gif -[13]: http://www.lrb.co.uk/archive -[14]: http://www.lrb.co.uk/bookshop -[15]: http://www.lrb.co.uk/subscribe -[16]: http://www.lrb.co.uk/v40/n03/contents -[17]: http://www.lrb.co.uk/contributors -[18]: http://www.lrb.co.uk/categories -[19]: http://www.lrb.co.uk/v40/n03/letters -[20]: http://www.lrb.co.uk/audio -[21]: http://www.lrb.co.uk/video -[22]: https://cdn.lrb.co.uk/assets/covers/m/cov0509.jpg -[23]: http://www.lrb.co.uk/contributors/oliver-sacks -[24]: http://www.lrb.co.uk/v38/n03/peter-godfrey-smith/do-squid-feel-pain -[25]: http://www.lrb.co.uk/v35/n10/mike-jay/argument-with-myself -[26]: http://www.lrb.co.uk/v35/n05/mike-jay/elves-blew-his-mind -[27]: http://www.lrb.co.uk/v34/n06/glen-newey/sheep-dont-read-barcodes -[28]: http://www.lrb.co.uk/v34/n03/jenny-diski/the-me-who-knew-it -[29]: http://www.lrb.co.uk/v34/n03/gideon-lewis-kraus/its-good-to-be-alive -[30]: http://www.lrb.co.uk/v33/n05/jim-holt/smarter-happier-more-productive -[31]: http://www.lrb.co.uk/search?subject=Science,+technology+and+mathematics -[32]: http://www.lrb.co.uk/search?subject=Science,+technology+and+mathematics//Biology -[33]: http://www.lrb.co.uk/search?subject=Science,+technology+and+mathematics//Biology//Neuroscience -[34]: http://www.lrb.co.uk/v05/n09/contents -[35]: http://www.lrb.co.uk/v05/n09/oliver-sacks/the-man-who-mistook-his-wife-for-a-hat -[36]: http://www.lrb.co.uk/v05/n16/letters#letter11 -[37]: http://www.lrb.co.uk/blog/ -[38]: http://www.lrb.co.uk/audio-and-video -[39]: http://www.lrb.co.uk/copyright -[40]: http://www.lrb.co.uk/privacy -[41]: http://www.lrb.co.uk/newsletter -[42]: http://www.lrb.co.uk/subscribe/faq -[43]: http://www.lrb.co.uk/librarian -[44]: http://www.lrb.co.uk#pagetop -[45]: https://cdn.lrb.co.uk/assets/sm-icons/footer/facebook.svg -[46]: https://cdn.lrb.co.uk/assets/sm-icons/footer/twitter.svg -[47]: https://cdn.lrb.co.uk/assets/sm-icons/footer/google-plus.svg -[48]: http://www.lrb.co.uk/feedbackform -[49]: +I can’t tell you what I find wrong,’ I replied, ‘but I’ll say what I +find right. You are a wonderful musician, and music is your life. What I +would prescribe, in a “case” such as yours, is a life which consists +entirely of music. Music has been the centre, now make it the whole of +your life.’ +This was four years ago. I never saw him again. But I often wondered how +he apprehended the world, given his loss of image and visuality and the +perfect preservation of his musicality. I think that music for him had +taken the place of image: he had no body image – he had body music. This +is why he could move and act as fluently as he did, but came to a total +stop if the ‘inner musk’ stopped. In The World as Will and +Representation Schopenhauer speaks of music as pure will. How fascinated +he would have been by Dr P., a man who had wholly lost the world as +representation but wholly preserved it as music, or will. And this, +mercifully, held to the end, for despite the gradual advance of the +disease – a massive tumour or degenerative process in the visual parts +of his brain – Dr P. lived and taught music to the last days of his +life. diff --git a/_stories/1983/12121946.md b/_stories/1983/12121946.md deleted file mode 100644 index e8bcb8a..0000000 --- a/_stories/1983/12121946.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,25 +0,0 @@ ---- -created_at: '2016-07-19T14:25:03.000Z' -title: Hints for Computer System Design (1983) -url: http://research.microsoft.com/en-us/um/people/blampson/33-Hints/WebPage.html -author: martincmartin -points: 69 -story_text: -comment_text: -num_comments: 9 -story_id: -story_title: -story_url: -parent_id: -created_at_i: 1468938303 -_tags: -- story -- author_martincmartin -- story_12121946 -objectID: '12121946' - ---- -[Source](http://www.butler.lampsons.us "Permalink to ") - - - diff --git a/_stories/1984/15185827.md b/_stories/1984/15185827.md index 099ebe5..10aea68 100644 --- a/_stories/1984/15185827.md +++ b/_stories/1984/15185827.md @@ -19,7 +19,56 @@ _tags: objectID: '15185827' --- -[Source](https://hanshuebner.github.io/lmman/title.xml "Permalink to ") +Lisp Machine ManualSixth Edition, System Version 99June 1984Richard +StallmanDaniel WeinrebDavid Moon +This report describes research done at the Artificial Intelligence +Laboratory of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Support for the +laboratory's artificial intelligence research is provided in part by the +Advanced Research Projects Agency of the Department of Defense under +Office of Naval Research Contract number N00014-80-C-0505. +Preface +The Lisp Machine manual describes both the language and the operating +system of the Lisp Machine. The language, a dialect of Lisp called +Zetalisp, is completely documented by this manual. The software +environment and operating-system-like parts of the system contain many +things which are still in a state of flux. This manual confines itself +primarily to the stabler parts of the system. It describes how to +program, but not for the most part how to operate the machine. The +window system is documented separately in the Lisp Machine Window System +manual. + +Any comments, suggestions, or criticisms will be welcomed. Please send +Arpa network mail to BUG-LMMAN@MIT-MC. + +Those not on the Arpanet may send U.S. mail to Richard M. Stallman +Artificial Intelligence Lab 545 Technology Square Cambridge, Mass. 02139 + +Portions of this manual were written by Mike McMahon and Alan Bawden. +The chapter on the LOOP iteration macro is mostly a reprint of +Laboratory for Computer Science memo TM-169, by Glenn Burke. Sarah +Smith, Meryl Cohen and Richard Ingria of LMI, and Richard Mlynarik of +MIT, helped to correct the manual. + +Personal Note from Richard Stallman + +The Lisp Machine is a product of the efforts of many people too numerous +to list here and of the former unique unbureaucratic, free-wheeling and +cooperative environment of the M.I.T. Artificial Intelligence +Laboratory. I believe that the commercialization of computer software +has harmed the spirit which enabled such systems to be developed. Now I +am attempting to build a software-sharing movement to revive that spirit +from near oblivion. + +Since January 1984 I have been working primarily on the development of +GNU, a complete Unix-compatible software system for standard hardware +architectures, to be shared freely with everyone just like EMACS. This +will enable people to use computers and be good neighbors legally (a +good neighbor allows his neighbors to copy any generally useful software +he has a copy of). This project has inspired a growing movement of +enthusiastic supporters. Just recently the first free portable C +compiler compiled itself. If you would like to contribute to GNU, write +to me at the address above. Restrain social decay--help get programmers +sharing again. diff --git a/_stories/1984/7117644.md b/_stories/1984/7117644.md index 98c5523..02cd51e 100644 --- a/_stories/1984/7117644.md +++ b/_stories/1984/7117644.md @@ -19,258 +19,126 @@ _tags: objectID: '7117644' --- -[Source](http://www.nytimes.com/1984/01/24/science/personal-computers-hardware-review-apple-weighs-in-with-macintosh.html?smid=fb-nytimes&WT.z_sma=SC_PCH_20140124&bicmp=AD&bicmlukp=WT.mc_id&bicmst=1388552400000&bicmet=1420088400000 "Permalink to PERSONAL COMPUTERS - HARDWARE REVIEW - APPLE WEIGHS IN WITH MACINTOSH - NYTimes.com") - -# PERSONAL COMPUTERS - HARDWARE REVIEW - APPLE WEIGHS IN WITH MACINTOSH - NYTimes.com - -* [Log In][1] -* [Register Now][2] -* [Help][3] -* [Home Page][4] -* [Today's Paper][5] -* [Video][6] -* [Most Popular][7] - -Edition: [U.S.][4] / [Global][8] - -Search All NYTimes.com - -![New York Times][9] - -## [Science][10] - -* [World][11] -* [U.S.][12] -* [N.Y. / Region][13] -* [Business][14] -* [Technology][15] -* [Science][10] - * [Environment][16] - * [Space & Cosmos][17] -* [Health][18] -* [Sports][19] -* [Opinion][20] -* [Arts][21] -* [Style][22] -* [Travel][23] -* [Jobs][24] -* [Real Estate][25] -* [Autos][26] - -###### PERSONAL COMPUTERS - -# PERSONAL COMPUTERS; HARDWARE REVIEW: APPLE WEIGHS IN WITH MACINTOSH - -###### By ERIK SANDBERG-DIMENT - -###### Published: January 24, 1984 - -WHEN it comes to apples, I've always preferred tart, crisp ones like Granny Smiths or Idas to McIntoshes. It seems to me, therefore, that as a new name in Apple Computer's growing orchard of machines one of those would have done admirably. What could sound more ''user friendly'' than a Granny Smith computer around the house. Then again, maybe Apple had hamburgers on the mind in naming its new computer - in hopes of its Mac becoming as much a part of the American mythos as the golden arches are. - -Names, and their concomitant marketing strategy, aside, today's launching of the Macintosh by Apple, unlike I.B.M.'s recent introduction of the rather unexceptional PCjr, presages a revolution in personal computing. Like all major innovations, this one entails a high risk of failure. Apple lost the first battle, begun with its $10,000 Lisa. The second assault is with a machine only a fourth the cost of its big sister and almost as versatile. - -One computer the Mac definitely cannot be compared with, though many people will try, is the PCjr. That would be like comparing apples and peanuts. It just cannot be done. The PCjr is a more limited product offered at a lower price. The only real connection between the two machines is that the introduction of both computers was anxiously awaited for what seems a decade. - -The roughly 17-pound Macintosh comes in a square bushel-basket-size canvas tote bag with an oversized zipper. The preproduction version I saw did not sport the Apple-with-a-bite logo. The addition of this emblem could well turn the bag into a classic status symbol, and even if the computer stayed home, the bag would accompany people on the move, stuffed with picnic goodies or laundry. - -As to the computer itself, unpacked, it sits like a towering, square, robotic Cyclops, its single disk drive an off-center mouth. The machine definitely has personality, though its high profile, designed, no doubt, to reduce the amount of desk space needed, is a bit startling. - -The first thing to take me by surprise as I sat down at the Macintosh was not the mouse pointer used to move the cursor on screen, which everyone has been expecting, but the size of the screen itself. With a scant nine-inch diagonal, it presents a diminutive five-by-seven viewing image. My personal dislike for small screens made me chalk up an immediate minus on the Mac's scorecard, particularly since I found myself, as I usually do when confronted with a miniscreen, hunkering right up to the computer, much closer than comfort called for, as I flicked it on. Then came the second surprise. - -The Mac display makes all the other personal computer screens look like distorted rejects from a Cubist art school. With a 512-line horizontal by 342-line vertical, the display conveys an image that is refreshingly crisp and clear. The use of square dots rather than the standard rectangular ones at each of the almost 200,000 line crossings adds even more to the sharpness of the picture. After a couple of hours of looking at this screen, going back to the Apple IIe at home brought tears to my eyes. What the Mac adds in visual clarity, however, it takes away in chromatics. At present, only a black-and-white screen is available. Apple appears to be aiming this computer at the small-business and educational markets rather than the home entertainment segment, so perhaps the company feels that color is not necessary. Certainly the machine could not be delivered with the rainbow at the current price of roughly $2,495. Even so, I suspect the absence of color capability is a mistake, one which, along with the diminutive screen size, will hopefully be rectified eventually by add-ons for those wanting them. As it is, if you can live with the small screen, and the lack of color does not bother you, there is simply no personal computer that comes close to the Mac in display quality. - -Another startling feature that I became aware of after a few minutes, although it may be a minor point to some people, is the absence of fan noise. The vacuum cleaner sound effects so annoying to many people and so prevalent in small computers is totally nonexistent. The reason is simple: The Macintosh has been engineered to cool itself. There is no fan to drown one's thinking. In fact, at 60 words per minute, the only sound you will hear is the clicking of the keyboard. - -Keyboards are a very subjective matter. This one is certainly more comfortable and responsive than those to be found on the Apple II series. It is also light enough to rest comfortably on one's lap, which is what manufacturers seem to think people do with these things, although I personally have never seen anyone work that way. Furthermore, it solves one of the minor mysteries of personal computer engineering that has long bothered me; namely, why does the keyboard cord always have to plug into the rear of the computer so it inevitably becomes snarled coming around the side? The answer is that it does not. The Mac's keyboard plugs quite naturally into the front of the computer and never seems to get hung up. - -That is one plus for the Mac's design - followed by a negative. There is no numeric keypad on the board. A separate one may be attached, but then, counting the mouse's tail, you have three cables snaking their way back to the machine. All in all, I get the feeling, as I do with I.B.M. PC products, that a lot of outside manufacturers are going to be cranking out modified keyboards for owners who do not like the standard model. - -As to the mouse, it is part and parcel of the Mac revolution, and it will probably be the reason you either sign up for or turn your back on this machine. To a large extent, the Macintosh works with what has been termed a ''finder environment.'' - -YOU find either a word or an icon or pictogram on the screen representing what you want the computer to do, then slide the mouse on your desk to move the cursor into position over that screen object, then press the button on the mouse to activate that particular part of the program. - -For instance, there is a menu bar at the top of the screen with the words ''file,'' ''edit,'' ''U,'' ''special,'' and so on. Slide the cursor over to ''file,'' click the mouse button, and a window beneath the word opens up with such commands as ''open,'' ''duplicate,'' ''get info,'' ''close'' and ''print.'' To print what is in a file, all you do, essentially, is bring the cursor down to ''print,'' press the mouse button and release. - -The fundamental difference between the Mac and other personal computers is that the Macintosh is visually oriented rather than word oriented. You choose from a menu of commands by simply pressing the wandering mouse's button rather than by using a number of control keys or by entering words. - -More on the pluses and minuses of the innovative Mac software, such as side orders of Macwriter, Macpaint and Macpascal, will appear in next week's column. - -Drawing - -![][27] - -![][28] ![][29] - -#### Inside NYTimes.com - -| ----- | -| - -###### [Health »][18] - -![Too Hot to Handle][30] - -###### [Too Hot to Handle__][31] - - | - -###### [Arts »][32] - -![The Harmony of Liberty][33] - -###### [The Harmony of Liberty__][34] - - | - -###### [Opinion »][20] - -### [Should Beach Privatization Be Allowed?__][35] - -Room for Debate asks whether shorefront homeowners should have to open their land to all comers. - - | - -###### [Sports »][19] - -![A Woman’s Leadership May Steady Murray][36] - -###### [A Woman’s Leadership May Steady Murray__][37] - - | - - | - -###### [Opinion »][20] - -![Menagerie: Streaming Eagles][38] - -###### 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http://www.nytimes.com/rss -[59]: http://www.nytimes.com/ref/membercenter/help/infoservdirectory.html -[60]: https://myaccount.nytimes.com/membercenter/feedback.html -[61]: http://wt.o.nytimes.com/dcsym57yw10000s1s8g0boozt_9t1x/njs.gif?dcsuri=/nojavascript&WT.js=No&WT.tv=1.0.7 -[62]: http://up.nytimes.com/?d=0//&t=&s=0&ui=&r=&u=www.nytimes.com%2F1984%2F01%2F24%2Fscience%2Fpersonal-computers-hardware-review-apple-weighs-in-with-macintosh.html - +WHEN it comes to apples, I've always preferred tart, crisp ones like +Granny Smiths or Idas to McIntoshes. It seems to me, therefore, that as +a new name in Apple Computer's growing orchard of machines one of those +would have done admirably. What could sound more ''user friendly'' than +a Granny Smith computer around the house. Then again, maybe Apple had +hamburgers on the mind in naming its new computer - in hopes of its Mac +becoming as much a part of the American mythos as the golden arches are. + +Names, and their concomitant marketing strategy, aside, today's +launching of the Macintosh by Apple, unlike I.B.M.'s recent introduction +of the rather unexceptional PCjr, presages a revolution in personal +computing. Like all major innovations, this one entails a high risk of +failure. Apple lost the first battle, begun with its $10,000 Lisa. The +second assault is with a machine only a fourth the cost of its big +sister and almost as versatile. + +One computer the Mac definitely cannot be compared with, though many +people will try, is the PCjr. That would be like comparing apples and +peanuts. It just cannot be done. The PCjr is a more limited product +offered at a lower price. The only real connection between the two +machines is that the introduction of both computers was anxiously +awaited for what seems a decade. + +The roughly 17-pound Macintosh comes in a square bushel-basket-size +canvas tote bag with an oversized zipper. The preproduction version I +saw did not sport the Apple-with-a-bite logo. The addition of this +emblem could well turn the bag into a classic status symbol, and even if +the computer stayed home, the bag would accompany people on the move, +stuffed with picnic goodies or laundry. + +As to the computer itself, unpacked, it sits like a towering, square, +robotic Cyclops, its single disk drive an off-center mouth. The machine +definitely has personality, though its high profile, designed, no doubt, +to reduce the amount of desk space needed, is a bit startling. + +The first thing to take me by surprise as I sat down at the Macintosh +was not the mouse pointer used to move the cursor on screen, which +everyone has been expecting, but the size of the screen itself. With a +scant nine-inch diagonal, it presents a diminutive five-by-seven viewing +image. My personal dislike for small screens made me chalk up an +immediate minus on the Mac's scorecard, particularly since I found +myself, as I usually do when confronted with a miniscreen, hunkering +right up to the computer, much closer than comfort called for, as I +flicked it on. Then came the second surprise. + +The Mac display makes all the other personal computer screens look like +distorted rejects from a Cubist art school. With a 512-line horizontal +by 342-line vertical, the display conveys an image that is refreshingly +crisp and clear. The use of square dots rather than the standard +rectangular ones at each of the almost 200,000 line crossings adds even +more to the sharpness of the picture. After a couple of hours of looking +at this screen, going back to the Apple IIe at home brought tears to my +eyes. What the Mac adds in visual clarity, however, it takes away in +chromatics. At present, only a black-and-white screen is available. +Apple appears to be aiming this computer at the small-business and +educational markets rather than the home entertainment segment, so +perhaps the company feels that color is not necessary. Certainly the +machine could not be delivered with the rainbow at the current price of +roughly $2,495. Even so, I suspect the absence of color capability is a +mistake, one which, along with the diminutive screen size, will +hopefully be rectified eventually by add-ons for those wanting them. As +it is, if you can live with the small screen, and the lack of color does +not bother you, there is simply no personal computer that comes close to +the Mac in display quality. + +Another startling feature that I became aware of after a few minutes, +although it may be a minor point to some people, is the absence of fan +noise. The vacuum cleaner sound effects so annoying to many people and +so prevalent in small computers is totally nonexistent. The reason is +simple: The Macintosh has been engineered to cool itself. There is no +fan to drown one's thinking. In fact, at 60 words per minute, the only +sound you will hear is the clicking of the keyboard. + +Keyboards are a very subjective matter. This one is certainly more +comfortable and responsive than those to be found on the Apple II +series. It is also light enough to rest comfortably on one's lap, which +is what manufacturers seem to think people do with these things, +although I personally have never seen anyone work that way. Furthermore, +it solves one of the minor mysteries of personal computer engineering +that has long bothered me; namely, why does the keyboard cord always +have to plug into the rear of the computer so it inevitably becomes +snarled coming around the side? The answer is that it does not. The +Mac's keyboard plugs quite naturally into the front of the computer and +never seems to get hung up. + +That is one plus for the Mac's design - followed by a negative. There is +no numeric keypad on the board. A separate one may be attached, but +then, counting the mouse's tail, you have three cables snaking their way +back to the machine. All in all, I get the feeling, as I do with I.B.M. +PC products, that a lot of outside manufacturers are going to be +cranking out modified keyboards for owners who do not like the standard +model. + +As to the mouse, it is part and parcel of the Mac revolution, and it +will probably be the reason you either sign up for or turn your back on +this machine. To a large extent, the Macintosh works with what has been +termed a ''finder environment.'' + +YOU find either a word or an icon or pictogram on the screen +representing what you want the computer to do, then slide the mouse on +your desk to move the cursor into position over that screen object, then +press the button on the mouse to activate that particular part of the +program. + +For instance, there is a menu bar at the top of the screen with the +words ''file,'' ''edit,'' ''U,'' ''special,'' and so on. Slide the +cursor over to ''file,'' click the mouse button, and a window beneath +the word opens up with such commands as ''open,'' ''duplicate,'' ''get +info,'' ''close'' and ''print.'' To print what is in a file, all you do, +essentially, is bring the cursor down to ''print,'' press the mouse +button and release. + +The fundamental difference between the Mac and other personal computers +is that the Macintosh is visually oriented rather than word oriented. +You choose from a menu of commands by simply pressing the wandering +mouse's button rather than by using a number of control keys or by +entering words. + +More on the pluses and minuses of the innovative Mac software, such as +side orders of Macwriter, Macpaint and Macpascal, will appear in next +week's column. + +Drawing diff --git a/_stories/1984/8908053.md b/_stories/1984/8908053.md index 9d2be61..3f7ba8b 100644 --- a/_stories/1984/8908053.md +++ b/_stories/1984/8908053.md @@ -21,12 +21,10 @@ objectID: '8908053' --- [Source](http://public.wsu.edu/~hughesc/why_men_love_war.htm "Permalink to why_men_love_war") -# why_men_love_war +# Why men love war _Esquire, _November 1984 -Why Men Love War - by William Broyles Jr. I last saw Hiers in a rice paddy in Vietnam. He was nineteen then--my wonderfully skilled and maddeningly insubordinate radio operator. For months we were seldom more than three feet apart. Then one day he went home, and fifteen years passed before we met by accident last winter at the Vietnam Veterans Memorial in Washington. A few months later I visited Hiers and his wife. Susan, in Vermont, where they run a bed-and -breakfast place. The first morning we were up at dawn trying to save five newborn rabbits. Hiers built a nest of rabbit fur and straw in his barn and positioned a lamp to provide warmth against the bitter cold. @@ -152,24 +150,3 @@ Hiers turned to me with a smile and said, "It's a long way from Nam isn't it?" Yes. And no. - -  - -  - -  - -  - -  - -  - -  - -  - -  - - - diff --git a/_stories/1984/9334666.md b/_stories/1984/9334666.md index 1cf3834..4735d98 100644 --- a/_stories/1984/9334666.md +++ b/_stories/1984/9334666.md @@ -19,7 +19,360 @@ _tags: objectID: '9334666' --- -[Source](https://www.nytimes.com/books/97/05/18/reviews/pynchon-luddite.html "Permalink to ") +![A](/images/qa.gif)s if being 1984 weren't enough, it's also the 25th +anniversary this year of C. P. Snow's famous Rede Lecture, ''The Two +Cultures and the Scientific Revolution,'' notable for its warning that +intellectual life in the West was becoming increasingly polarized into +''literary'' and ''scientific'' factions, each doomed not to understand +or appreciate the other. The lecture was originally meant to address +such matters as curriculum reform in the age of Sputnik and the role of +technology in the development of what would soon be known as the third +world. But it was the two-culture formulation that got people's +attention. In fact it kicked up an amazing row in its day. To some +already simplified points, further reductions were made, provoking +certain remarks, name-calling, even intemperate rejoinders, giving the +whole affair, though attenuated by the mists of time, a distinctly +cranky look. +Today nobody could get away with making such a distinction. Since 1959, +we have come to live among flows of data more vast than anything the +world has seen. Demystification is the order of our day, all the cats +are jumping out of all the bags and even beginning to mingle. We +immediately suspect ego insecurity in people who may still try to hide +behind the jargon of a specialty or pretend to some data base forever +''beyond'' the reach of a layman. Anybody with the time, literacy and +access fee these days can get together with just about any piece of +specialized knowledge s/he may need. So, to that extent, the +two-cultures quarrel can no longer be sustained. As a visit to any local +library or magazine rack will easily confirm, there are now so many more +than two cultures that the problem has really become how to find the +time to read anything outside one's own specialty. +What has persisted, after a long quarter century, is the element of +human character. C. P. Snow, with the reflexes of a novelist after all, +sought to identify not only two kinds of education but also two kinds of +personality. Fragmentary echoes of old disputes, of unforgotten offense +taken in the course of long-ago high- table chitchat, may have helped +form the subtext for Snow's immoderate, and thus celebrated, assertion, +''If we forget the scientific culture, then the rest of intellectuals +have never tried, wanted, or been able to understand the Industrial +Revolution.'' Such ''intellectuals,'' for the most part ''literary,'' +were supposed, by Lord Snow, to be ''natural Luddites.'' +Except maybe for Brainy Smurf, it's hard to imagine anybody these days +wanting to be called a literary intellectual, though it doesn't sound so +bad if you broaden the labeling to, say, ''people who read and think.'' +Being called a Luddite is another matter. It brings up questions such +as, Is there something about reading and thinking that would cause or +predispose a person to turn Luddite? Is it O.K. to be a Luddite? And +come to think of it, what is a Luddite, anyway? + +HISTORICALLY, Luddites flourished in Britain from about 1811 to 1816. +They were bands of men, organized, masked, anonymous, whose object was +to destroy machinery used mostly in the textile industry. They swore +allegiance not to any British king but to their own King Ludd. It isn't +clear whether they called themselves Luddites, although they were so +termed by both friends and enemies. C. P. Snow's use of the word was +clearly polemical, wishing to imply an irrational fear and hatred of +science and technology. Luddites had, in this view, come to be imagined +as the counterrevolutionaries of that ''Industrial Revolution'' which +their modern versions have ''never tried, wanted, or been able to +understand.'' + +But the Industrial Revolution was not, like the American and French +Revolutions of about the same period, a violent struggle with a +beginning, middle and end. It was smoother, less conclusive, more like +an accelerated passage in a long evolution. The phrase was first +popularized a hundred years ago by the historian Arnold Toynbee, and has +had its share of revisionist attention, lately in the July 1984 +Scientific American. Here, in ''Medieval Roots of the Industrial +Revolution,'' Terry S. Reynolds suggests that the early role of the +steam engine (1765) may have been overdramatized. Far from being +revolutionary, much of the machinery that steam was coming to drive had +already long been in place, having in fact been driven by water power +since the Middle Ages. Nevertheless, the idea of a technosocial +''revolution,'' in which the same people came out on top as in France +and America, has proven of use to many over the years, not least to +those who, like C. P. Snow, have thought that in ''Luddite'' they have +discovered a way to call those with whom they disagree both politically +reactionary and anti-capitalist at the same time. + +But the Oxford English Dictionary has an interesting tale to tell. In +1779, in a village somewhere in Leicestershire, one Ned Lud broke into a +house and ''in a fit of insane rage'' destroyed two machines used for +knitting hosiery. Word got around. Soon, whenever a stocking- frame was +found sabotaged - this had been going on, sez the Encyclopedia +Britannica, since about 1710 - folks would respond with the catch phrase +''Lud must have been here.'' By the time his name was taken up by the +frame-breakers of 1812, historical Ned Lud was well absorbed into the +more or less sarcastic nickname ''King (or Captain) Ludd,'' and was now +all mystery, resonance and dark fun: a more-than-human presence, out in +the night, roaming the hosiery districts of England, possessed by a +single comic shtick - every time he spots a stocking-frame he goes crazy +and proceeds to trash it. + +But it's important to remember that the target even of the original +assault of 1779, like many machines of the Industrial Revolution, was +not a new piece of technology. The stocking-frame had been around since +1589, when, according to the folklore, it was invented by the Rev. +William Lee, out of pure meanness. Seems that Lee was in love with a +young woman who was more interested in her knitting than in him. He'd +show up at her place. ''Sorry, Rev, got some knitting.'' ''What, +again?'' After a while, unable to deal with this kind of rejection, Lee, +not, like Ned Lud, in any fit of insane rage, but let's imagine +logically and coolly, vowed to in vent a machine that would make the +hand-knitting of hosiery obsolete. And he did. According to the +encyclopedia, the jilted cleric's frame ''was so perfect in its +conception that it continued to be the only mechanical means of knitting +for hundreds of years.'' + +Now, given that kind of time span, it's just not easy to think of Ned +Lud as a technophobic crazy. No doubt what people admired and +mythologized him for was the vigor and single-mindedness of his assault. +But the words ''fit of insane rage'' are third-hand and at least 68 +years after the event. And Ned Lud's anger was not directed at the +machines, not exactly. I like to think of it more as the controlled, +martial-arts type anger of the dedicated Badass. + +There is a long folk history of this figure, the Badass. He is usually +male, and while sometimes earning the quizzical tolerance of women, is +almost universally admired by men for two basic virtues: he is Bad, and +he is Big. Bad meaning not morally evil, necessarily, more like able to +work mischief on a large scale. What is important here is the amplifying +of scale, the multiplication of effect. + +The knitting machines which provoked the first Luddite disturbances had +been putting people out of work for well over two centuries. Everybody +saw this happening - it became part of daily life. They also saw the +machines coming more and more to be the property of men who did not +work, only owned and hired. It took no German philosopher, then or +later, to point out what this did, had been doing, to wages and jobs. +Public feeling about the machines could never have been simple +unreasoning horror, but likely something more complex: the love/hate +that grows up between humans and machinery - especially when it's been +around for a while - not to mention serious resentment toward at least +two multiplications of effect that were seen as unfair and threatening. +One was the concentration of capital that each machine represented, and +the other was the ability of each machine to put a certain number of +humans out of work - to be ''worth'' that many human souls. What gave +King Ludd his special Bad charisma, took him from local hero to +nationwide public enemy, was that he went up against these amplified, +multiplied, more than human opponents and prevailed. When times are +hard, and we feel at the mercy of forces many times more powerful, don't +we, in seeking some equalizer, turn, if only in imagination, in wish, to +the Badass - the djinn, the golem, the hulk, the superhero - who will +resist what otherwise would overwhelm us? Of course, the real or secular +frame-bashing was still being done by everyday folks, trade unionists +ahead of their time, using the night, and their own solidarity and +discipline, to achieve their multiplications of effect. + +It was open-eyed class war. The movement had its Parliamentary allies, +among them Lord Byron, whose maiden speech in the House of Lords in 1812 +compassionately argued against a bill proposing, among other repressive +measures, to make frame-breaking punishable by death. ''Are you not near +the Luddites?'' he wrote from Venice to Thomas Moore. ''By the Lord\! if +there's a row, but I'll be among ye\! How go on the weavers - the +breakers of frames - the Lutherans of politics - the reformers?'' He +includes an ''amiable *chanson,* '' which proves to be a Luddite hymn so +inflammatory that it wasn't published till after the poet's death. The +letter is dated December 1816: Byron had spent the summer previous in +Switzerland, cooped up for a while in the Villa Diodati with the +Shelleys, watching the rain come down, while they all told each other +ghost stories. By that December, as it happened, Mary Shelley was +working on Chapter Four of her novel ''Frankenstein, or the Modern +Prometheus.'' + +If there were such a genre as the Luddite novel, this one, warning of +what can happen when technology, and those who practice it, get out of +hand, would be the first and among the best. Victor Frankenstein's +creature also, surely, qualifies as a major literary Badass. ''I +resolved . . .,'' Victor tells us, ''to make the being of a gigantic +stature, that is to say, about eight feet in height, and proportionably +large,'' which takes care of Big. The story of how he got to be so Bad +is the heart of the novel, sheltered innermost: told to Victor in the +first person by the creature himself, then nested inside of Victor's own +narrative, which is nested in its turn in the letters of the arctic +explorer Robert Walton. However much of ''Frankenstein's'' longevity is +owing to the undersung genius James Whale, who translated it to film, it +remains today more than well worth reading, for all the reasons we read +novels, as well as for the much more limited question of its Luddite +value: that is, for its attempt, through literary means which are +nocturnal and deal in disguise, to *deny the machine.* + +Look, for example, at Victor's account of how he assembles and animates +his creature. He must, of course, be a little vague about the details, +but we're left with a procedure that seems to include surgery, +electricity (though nothing like Whale's galvanic extravaganzas), +chemistry, even, from dark hints about Paracelsus and Albertus Magnus, +the still recently discredited form of magic known as alchemy. What is +clear, though, despite the commonly depicted Bolt Through the Neck, is +that neither the method nor the creature that results is mechanical. + +This is one of several interesting similarities between ''Frankenstein'' +and an earlier tale of the Bad and Big, ''The Castle of Otranto'' +(1765), by Horace Walpole, usually regarded as the first Gothic novel. +For one thing, both authors, in presenting their books to the public, +used voices not their own. Mary Shelley's preface was written by her +husband, Percy, who was pretending to be her. Not till 15 years later +did she write an introduction to ''Frankenstein'' in her own voice. +Walpole, on the other hand, gave his book an entire made-up publishing +history, claiming it was a translation from medieval Italian. Only in +his preface to the second edition did he admit authorship. + +THE novels are also of strikingly similar nocturnal origin: both +resulted from episodes of lucid dreaming. Mary Shelley, that ghost-story +summer in Geneva, trying to get to sleep one midnight, suddenly beheld +the creature being brought to life, the images arising in her mind +''with a vividness far beyond the usual bounds of reverie.'' Walpole had +awakened from a dream, ''of which, all I could remember was, that I had +thought myself in an ancient castle . . . and that on the uppermost +bannister of a great staircase I saw a gigantic hand in armour.'' + +In Walpole's novel, this hand shows up as the hand of Alfonso the Good, +former Prince of Otranto and, despite his epithet, the castle's resident +Badass. Alfonso, like Frankenstein's creature, is assembled from pieces +- sable-plumed helmet, foot, leg, sword, all of them, like the hand, +quite oversized - which fall from the sky or just materialize here and +there about the castle grounds, relentless as Freud's slow return of the +repressed. The activating agencies, again like those in +''Frankenstein,'' are non-mechanical. The final assembly of ''the form +of Alfonso, dilated to an immense magnitude,'' is achieved through +supernatural means: a family curse, and the intercession of Otranto's +patron saint. + +The craze for Gothic fiction after ''The Castle of Otranto'' was +grounded, I suspect, in deep and religious yearnings for that earlier +mythical time which had come to be known as the Age of Miracles. In ways +more and less literal, folks in the 18th century believed that once upon +a time all kinds of things had been possible which were no longer so. +Giants, dragons, spells. The laws of nature had not been so strictly +formulated back then. What had once been true working magic had, by the +Age of Reason, degenerated into mere machinery. Blake's dark Satanic +mills represented an old magic that, like Satan, had fallen from grace. +As religion was being more and more secularized into Deism and +nonbelief, the abiding human hunger for evidence of God and afterlife, +for salvation - bodily resurrection, if possible - remained. The +Methodist movement and the American Great Awakening were only two +sectors on a broad front of resistance to the Age of Reason, a front +which included Radicalism and Freemasonry as well as Luddites and the +Gothic novel. Each in its way expressed the same profound unwillingness +to give up elements of faith, however ''irrational,'' to an emerging +technopolitical order that might or might not know what it was doing. +''Gothic'' became code for ''medieval,'' and that has remained code for +''miraculous,'' on through Pre-Raphaelites, turn-of-the-century tarot +cards, space opera in the pulps and the comics, down to ''Star Wars'' +and contemporary tales of sword and sorcery. + +TO insist on the miraculous is to deny to the machine at least some of +its claims on us, to assert the limited wish that living things, earthly +and otherwise, may on occasion become Bad and Big enough to take part in +transcendent doings. By this theory, for example, King Kong (?-1933) +becomes your classic Luddite saint. The final dialogue in the movie, you +recall, goes: ''Well, the airplanes got him.'' ''No . . . it was Beauty +killed the Beast.'' In which again we encounter the same Snovian +Disjunction, only different, between the human and the technological. + +But if we do insist upon fictional violations of the laws of nature - of +space, time, thermodynamics, and the big one, mortality itself - then we +risk being judged by the literary mainstream as Insufficiently Serious. +Being serious about these matters is one way that adults have +traditionally defined themselves against the confidently immortal +children they must deal with. Looking back on ''Frankenstein,'' which +she wrote when she was 19, Mary Shelley said, ''I have an affection for +it, for it was the offspring of happy days, when death and grief were +but words which found no true echo in my heart.'' The Gothic attitude in +general, because it used images of death and ghostly survival toward no +more responsible end than special effects and cheap thrills, was judged +not Serious enough and confined to its own part of town. It is not the +only neighborhood in the great City of Literature so, let us say, +closely defined. In westerns, the good people always win. In romance +novels, love conquers all. In whodunitsses we know better. We say, ''But +the world isn't like that.'' These genres, by insisting on what is +contrary to fact, fail to be Serious enough, and so they get redlined +under the label ''escapist fare.'' + +This is especially unfortunate in the case of science fiction, in which +the decade after Hiroshima saw one of the most remarkable flowerings of +literary talent and, quite often, genius, in our history. It was just as +important as the Beat movement going on at the same time, certainly more +important than mainstream fiction, which with only a few exceptions had +been paralyzed by the political climate of the cold war and McCarthy +years. Besides being a nearly ideal synthesis of the Two Cultures, +science fiction also happens to have been one of the principal refuges, +in our time, for those of Luddite persuasion. + +By 1945, the factory system - which, more than any piece of machinery, +was the real and major result of the Industrial Revolution - had been +extended to include the Manhattan Project, the German long-range rocket +program and the death camps, such as Auschwitz. It has taken no major +gift of prophecy to see how these three curves of development might +plausibly converge, and before too long. Since Hiroshima, we have +watched nuclear weapons multiply out of control, and delivery systems +acquire, for global purposes, unlimited range and accuracy. An +unblinking acceptance of a holocaust running to seven- and eight-figure +body counts has become - among those who, particularly since 1980, have +been guiding our military policies - conventional wisdom. + +To people who were writing science fiction in the 50's, none of this was +much of a surprise, though modern Luddite imaginations have yet to come +up with any countercritter Bad and Big enough, even in the most +irresponsible of fictions, to begin to compare with what would happen in +a nuclear war. So, in the science fiction of the Atomic Age and the cold +war, we see the Luddite impulse to deny the machine taking a different +direction. The hardware angle got de-emphasized in favor of more +humanistic concerns - exotic cultural evolutions and social scenarios, +paradoxes and games with space/ time, wild philosophical questions - +most of it sharing, as the critical literature has amply discussed, a +definition of ''human'' as particularly distinguished from ''machine.'' +Like their earlier counterparts, 20th-century Luddites looked back +yearningly to another age - curiously, the same Age of Reason which had +forced the first Luddites into nostalgia for the Age of Miracles. + +But we now live, we are told, in the Computer Age. What is the outlook +for Luddite sensibility? Will mainframes attract the same hostile +attention as knitting frames once did? I really doubt it. Writers of all +descriptions are stampeding to buy word processors. Machines have +already become so user-friendly that even the most unreconstructed of +Luddites can be charmed into laying down the old sledgehammer and +stroking a few keys instead. Beyond this seems to be a growing consensus +that knowledge really is power, that there is a pretty straightforward +conversion between money and information, and that somehow, if the +logistics can be worked out, miracles may yet be possible. If this is +so, Luddites may at last have come to stand on common ground with their +Snovian adversaries, the cheerful army of technocrats who were supposed +to have the ''future in their bones.'' It may be only a new form of the +perennial Luddite ambivalence about machines, or it may be that the +deepest Luddite hope of miracle has now come to reside in the computer's +ability to get the right data to those whom the data will do the most +good. With the proper deployment of budget and computer time, we will +cure cancer, save ourselves from nuclear extinction, grow food for +everybody, detoxify the results of industrial greed gone berserk - +realize all the wistful pipe dreams of our days. + +THE word ''Luddite'' continues to be applied with contempt to anyone +with doubts about technology, especially the nuclear kind. Luddites +today are no longer faced with human factory owners and vulnerable +machines. As well-known President and unintentional Luddite D. D. +Eisenhower prophesied when he left office, there is now a permanent +power establishment of admirals, generals and corporate CEO's, up +against whom us average poor bastards are completely outclassed, +although Ike didn't put it quite that way. We are all supposed to keep +tranquil and allow it to go on, even though, because of the data +revolution, it becomes every day less possible to fool any of the people +any of the time. If our world survives, the next great challenge to +watch out for will come - you heard it here first - when the curves of +research and development in artificial intelligence, molecular biology +and robotics all converge. Oboy. It will be amazing and unpredictable, +and even the biggest of brass, let us devoutly hope, are going to be +caught flat-footed. It is certainly something for all good Luddites to +look forward to if, God willing, we should live so long. Meantime, as +Americans, we can take comfort, however minimal and cold, from Lord +Byron's mischievously improvised song, in which he, like other observers +of the time, saw clear identification between the first Luddites and our +own revolutionary origins. It begins: + +*As the Liberty lads o'er the sea +Bought their freedom, and cheaply, with blood, +So we, boys, we +Will die fighting, or live free, +And down with all kings but King Ludd\!* diff --git a/_stories/1985/10897368.md b/_stories/1985/10897368.md index 627a936..dd7f62f 100644 --- a/_stories/1985/10897368.md +++ b/_stories/1985/10897368.md @@ -19,268 +19,112 @@ _tags: objectID: '10897368' --- -[Source](http://www.nytimes.com/1985/12/08/business/the-executive-computer.html? "Permalink to THE EXECUTIVE COMPUTER - NYTimes.com") - -# THE EXECUTIVE COMPUTER - NYTimes.com - -* [Log In][1] -* [Register Now][2] -* [Help][3] -* [Home Page][4] -* [Today's Paper][5] -* [Video][6] -* [Most Popular][7] - -Edition: [U.S.][4] / [Global][8] - -Search All NYTimes.com - -![New York Times][9] - -## [Business Day][10] - -* [World][11] -* [U.S.][12] -* [N.Y. / Region][13] -* [Business][10] -* [Technology][14] -* [Science][15] -* [Health][16] -* [Sports][17] -* [Opinion][18] -* [Arts][19] -* [Style][20] -* [Travel][21] -* [Jobs][22] -* [Real Estate][23] -* [Autos][24] -* [DealBook][25] -* [Markets][26] -* [Economy][27] -* [Energy][28] -* [Media][29] -* [Technology][30] -* [Personal Tech][31] -* [Entrepreneurship][32] -* [Your Money][33] - -# THE EXECUTIVE COMPUTER - -###### By Erik Sandberg-Diment - -###### Published: December 8, 1985 - -WHATEVER happened to the laptop computer? Two years ago, on my flight to Las Vegas for Comdex, the annual microcomputer trade show, every second or third passenger pulled out a portable, ostensibly to work, but more likely to demonstrate an ability to keep up with the latest fad. Last year, only a couple of these computers could be seen on the fold-down trays. This year, every one of them had been replaced by the more traditional mixed drink or beer. - -Was the laptop dream an illusion, then? Or was the problem merely that the right combination of features for such lightweight computers had not yet materialized? The answer probably is a combination of both views. For the most part, the portable computer is a dream machine for the few. - -The limitations come from what people actually do with computers, as opposed to what the marketers expect them to do. On the whole, people don't want to lug a computer with them to the beach or on a train to while away hours they would rather spend reading the sports or business section of the newspaper. Somehow, the microcomputer industry has assumed that everyone would love to have a keyboard grafted on as an extension of their fingers. It just is not so. - -The proponents of portables stoutly maintain that the stumbling block to a computer in every attache case is price. Right now, a laptop computer costs considerably more than the equivalent desktop version. - -Yes, there are a lot of people who would like to be able to work on a computer at home. But would they really want to carry one back from the office with them? It would be much simpler to take home a few floppy disks tucked into an attache case. For the majority of consumers, a second computer for the home office is usually an inexpensive clone of the one at work. Not only is such an alternative more convenient, but it is more cost effective as well. In fact, one ends up with better technology. - -Consumers have passed judgment. Convergent Technology allowed its laptop to sink into oblivion in June of this year. I.B.M. never legitimized the market with its much rumored ''Clamshell,'' probably because the company realized that laptops are a small niche market, not a mass market. Hewlett-Packard, Panasonic, Data General and, of course, Tandy, which started it all, are still producing their laptops, albeit with the almost unreadable liquid crystal display, or L.C.D. Sales, however, are a fraction of the optimistic projections made only a year ago by industry soothsayers. - -One key to greater consumer acceptance is better display. It is is available in the Gridcase laptop (from the Grid Systems Corporation, Mountain View, Calif., 415-961-4800), which offers a gas-plasma display quite different from - and in some ways better than - the standard cathode-ray tube display. The display does much to make the Gridcase the only battery-powered laptop currently worth considering. But it costs $4,350, without the recommended maintenance contract and the requisite software, which together easily bring the total price up to $6,000 to $7,000, or even more. - -Software is the real weak spot for laptops. If the machines were merely too expensive, especially in view of their limited display, they would still sell if they served an unbeatable function. But for that to be the case, special software would be needed. The word processing and spreadsheet packages commonly available for them are intended to accomplish tasks to which laptop computers are simply not well suited. - -Where these machines could shine is in such specialized field applications as those required by the military, the Internal Revenue Service, accountants and sales representatives. The largest of these markets is probably sales, and special software to meet the needs of sales representatives is beginning to dribble into the marketplace. - -One firm that has established itself in this area is Sales Technologies, of Atlanta (404-239-0799). Founded in 1983 by two former Procter & Gamble employees and an M.I.T. computer whiz, the company produces a series of sales-oriented software programs for laptop computers. These include an order-entry system, an expense tracker, electronic mail, data communications and a territory management program, which permits a traveling sales representative to update customer files and the home office's computer data base. TO outfit one sales representative with this software and a Gridcase computer on which to run it -would cost $5,000 to $7,000, depending on the package. (The two companies are not affiliated, although Grid does package Sales Technologies software with its computers.) For a concern with a sales force of 500 people, the type of company for which such packages are geared, the expense would not be slight. The benefits presumably would come from increased sales by a more efficient sales force. - -Fred Burke, a spokesman for Sales Technologies, cites the case of a large apparel maker. The company routinely was unable to fill 13 percent of its orders because many of the products were out of stock by the time orders came in from the road. Once they were equipped with laptop computers, sales representatives were linked to the main office and were able to convert many ''lost'' orders into sales. - -By being able to determine immediately that, say, a particular green shirt was sold out, they could push the green-striped ones instead. The recouped business paid for the apparel company's laptop system in less than six months. - -Sales representatives, service managers, field auditors of all varieties have not been adequately served by the computer industry in pushing laptop computers. As the technology of these machines, particularly of their displays, improves, and as their price declines, a lot of briefcase computers will probably be sold. And as the software that is capable of turning them into true satellite offices becomes refined, they will probably even be used - in fact, profitably so. - -But the real future of the laptop computer will remain in the specialized niche markets. 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Two years ago, on my flight to +Las Vegas for Comdex, the annual microcomputer trade show, every second +or third passenger pulled out a portable, ostensibly to work, but more +likely to demonstrate an ability to keep up with the latest fad. Last +year, only a couple of these computers could be seen on the fold-down +trays. This year, every one of them had been replaced by the more +traditional mixed drink or beer. + +Was the laptop dream an illusion, then? Or was the problem merely that +the right combination of features for such lightweight computers had not +yet materialized? The answer probably is a combination of both views. +For the most part, the portable computer is a dream machine for the few. + +The limitations come from what people actually do with computers, as +opposed to what the marketers expect them to do. On the whole, people +don't want to lug a computer with them to the beach or on a train to +while away hours they would rather spend reading the sports or business +section of the newspaper. Somehow, the microcomputer industry has +assumed that everyone would love to have a keyboard grafted on as an +extension of their fingers. It just is not so. + +The proponents of portables stoutly maintain that the stumbling block to +a computer in every attache case is price. Right now, a laptop computer +costs considerably more than the equivalent desktop version. + +Yes, there are a lot of people who would like to be able to work on a +computer at home. But would they really want to carry one back from the +office with them? It would be much simpler to take home a few floppy +disks tucked into an attache case. For the majority of consumers, a +second computer for the home office is usually an inexpensive clone of +the one at work. Not only is such an alternative more convenient, but it +is more cost effective as well. In fact, one ends up with better +technology. + +Consumers have passed judgment. Convergent Technology allowed its laptop +to sink into oblivion in June of this year. I.B.M. never legitimized the +market with its much rumored ''Clamshell,'' probably because the company +realized that laptops are a small niche market, not a mass market. +Hewlett-Packard, Panasonic, Data General and, of course, Tandy, which +started it all, are still producing their laptops, albeit with the +almost unreadable liquid crystal display, or L.C.D. Sales, however, are +a fraction of the optimistic projections made only a year ago by +industry soothsayers. + +One key to greater consumer acceptance is better display. It is is +available in the Gridcase laptop (from the Grid Systems Corporation, +Mountain View, Calif., 415-961-4800), which offers a gas-plasma display +quite different from - and in some ways better than - the standard +cathode-ray tube display. The display does much to make the Gridcase the +only battery-powered laptop currently worth considering. But it costs +$4,350, without the recommended maintenance contract and the requisite +software, which together easily bring the total price up to $6,000 to +$7,000, or even more. + +Software is the real weak spot for laptops. If the machines were merely +too expensive, especially in view of their limited display, they would +still sell if they served an unbeatable function. But for that to be the +case, special software would be needed. The word processing and +spreadsheet packages commonly available for them are intended to +accomplish tasks to which laptop computers are simply not well suited. + +Where these machines could shine is in such specialized field +applications as those required by the military, the Internal Revenue +Service, accountants and sales representatives. The largest of these +markets is probably sales, and special software to meet the needs of +sales representatives is beginning to dribble into the marketplace. + +One firm that has established itself in this area is Sales Technologies, +of Atlanta (404-239-0799). Founded in 1983 by two former Procter & +Gamble employees and an M.I.T. computer whiz, the company produces a +series of sales-oriented software programs for laptop computers. These +include an order-entry system, an expense tracker, electronic mail, data +communications and a territory management program, which permits a +traveling sales representative to update customer files and the home +office's computer data base. TO outfit one sales representative with +this software and a Gridcase computer on which to run it -would cost +$5,000 to $7,000, depending on the package. (The two companies are not +affiliated, although Grid does package Sales Technologies software with +its computers.) For a concern with a sales force of 500 people, the type +of company for which such packages are geared, the expense would not be +slight. The benefits presumably would come from increased sales by a +more efficient sales force. + +Fred Burke, a spokesman for Sales Technologies, cites the case of a +large apparel maker. The company routinely was unable to fill 13 percent +of its orders because many of the products were out of stock by the time +orders came in from the road. Once they were equipped with laptop +computers, sales representatives were linked to the main office and were +able to convert many ''lost'' orders into sales. + +By being able to determine immediately that, say, a particular green +shirt was sold out, they could push the green-striped ones instead. The +recouped business paid for the apparel company's laptop system in less +than six months. + +Sales representatives, service managers, field auditors of all varieties +have not been adequately served by the computer industry in pushing +laptop computers. As the technology of these machines, particularly of +their displays, improves, and as their price declines, a lot of +briefcase computers will probably be sold. And as the software that is +capable of turning them into true satellite offices becomes refined, +they will probably even be used - in fact, profitably so. + +But the real future of the laptop computer will remain in the +specialized niche markets. Because no matter how inexpensive the +machines become, and no matter how sophisticated their software, I still +can't imagine the average user taking one along when going fishing. + +Drawing diff --git a/_stories/1985/14253187.md b/_stories/1985/14253187.md deleted file mode 100644 index 12466c0..0000000 --- a/_stories/1985/14253187.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,25 +0,0 @@ ---- -created_at: '2017-05-03T05:03:54.000Z' -title: 'Miranda: A non-strict functional language with polymorphic types (1985) [pdf]' -url: http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.105.6357&rep=rep1&type=pdf -author: tjalfi -points: 95 -story_text: -comment_text: -num_comments: 37 -story_id: -story_title: -story_url: -parent_id: -created_at_i: 1493787834 -_tags: -- story -- author_tjalfi -- story_14253187 -objectID: '14253187' - ---- -[Source](http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.105.6357&rep=rep1&type=pdf "Permalink to ") - - - diff --git a/_stories/1985/14443638.md b/_stories/1985/14443638.md index 6eabc0c..32e6656 100644 --- a/_stories/1985/14443638.md +++ b/_stories/1985/14443638.md @@ -19,7 +19,247 @@ _tags: objectID: '14443638' --- -[Source](https://www.cs.utexas.edu/users/EWD/transcriptions/EWD09xx/EWD936.html "Permalink to ") +On anthropomorphism in science +(Delivered at The Philosophers’ Lunch, 25 September 1985) +I must apologize for not speaking to you, but reading to you. I chose to +do so because, not yet feeling quite at home, I am a bit nervous. Of +course I can argue to myself that I don’t need to, but that does not +always work. +I can argue to myself that I grew up in a country whose population is +only slightly larger than that of Texas, so why should I feel not at +home? I spent most of my life at two universities, one four centuries +old, the other a quarter, and if I take the geometric mean of those two +ages I arrive precisely at that of UT, so why shouldn’t I feel at home +here? + +Well, actually it is not too bad. I think I am much happier here than I +would have been, say, at XXX–XXX where it is possible to lose sight of +what it means to be an intellectual. The reason that I am a bit nervous +is that I am not quite sure what philosophers do and, hence, somewhat +uncertain about my role here. + +OK, so much for an irrelevant introduction; it was given to give you the +opportunity to adapt your ear to my English. + +\* \* \* + +I chose “anthropomorphism” because —besides being a nice broad topic— it +is so pervasive that many of my colleagues don’t realize how pernicious +it is. + +Let me first relate my experience that drove home how pervasive +anthropomorphism is. It took place at one of the monthly meetings of the +science section of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences, +where we were shown a motion picture made through a microscope. Thanks +to phase contrast microscopy —the invention for which Zernike got the +Nobel Prize— it is now possible to see through the microscope undyed +cultures of living cells, and that was what they had done while making +this motion picture. It showed us —somewhat accelerated— the life of a +culture of amoebae. For quite a while we looked at something we had +never seen: I can only describe it as identifiable bubbles with +irregular changing contours, slowly moving without any pattern through a +two-dimensional aquarium. To all intents and purposes it could have been +some sort of dynamic wallpaper. It was, in fact, rather boring, looking +at those aimlessly moving grey blots, until one of the amoeba in the +centre of the screen began to divide. We saw it constrict, we saw in +succession all the images familiar from our high-school biology, we saw +the centres of the two halves move in opposite directions until they +were only connected by a thin thread as they began to pull more +frantically at either end of the leash that still connected them. +Finally the connection broke and the two swam away from each other at +the maximum speed young amoebae can muster. + +The fascinating and somewhat frightening observation, however, was that +at the moment of the rupture one hundred otherwise respectable +scientists gave all a sigh of relief: “at last they had succeeded in +freeing themselves from each other.” None of us had been able to resist, +as the division process went on, the temptation to discern two +individuals with which we could identify and of which we felt —more in +our bones than in our brains, but that is beside the point— how much +they “wanted” to get loose. A whole pattern of human desires had been +projected on those blots\! Crazy, of course, but such is the pervasive +and insidious habit of anthropomorphic thought. + +Is anthropomorphic thinking bad? Well, it is certainly no good in the +sense that it does not help. Why did the stone fall in Greek antiquity? +Quite simply because it wanted to go to the centre of the earth. And, +several centuries later, we had the burning question: why do stones want +to go to the centre of the earth? Well, that is simple too: because +that’s where they belong. Why are heavier stones heavier than lighter +stones? Because they are more eager to be at the centre of the earth. +But then Galileo made the troubling discovery that the heavier stone +does not fall any faster than the lighter one. How come? Simple, dear +Watson: the heavier stone has indeed a greater desire to be at the +centre of the earth, but it is also more lazy. So much for a —be it +somewhat simplified— history of the development of physics. I trust you +got the message. + +So anthropomorphic thinking is no good in the sense that it does not +help. But is it also bad? Yes, it is, because even if we can point to +some analogy between Man and Thing, the analogy is always negligible in +comparison to the differences, and as soon as we allow ourselves to be +seduced by the analogy to describe the Thing in anthropomorphic +terminology, we immediately lose our control over which human +connotations we drag into the picture. And as most of those are totally +inadequate, the anthropomorphism becomes more misleading than helpful. + +I started as a theoretical physicist, became involved in computing and +may end up as a mathematician. It is specifically my connection with +computing that has made me allergic, since computing science is cursed +by a rampant anthropomorphism. + +This has been so right from its inception, and found its way in the +public perception of the topic, as is illustrated by the title of the +book that Edmund C. Berkeley published in the fifties: “Giant Brains or +Machines that Think”. The simplest way of showing how preposterous that +title is is by pointing at its two companion volumes —still to be +written— “Giant Hearts or Machines that Fall in Love” and “Giant Souls +or Machines that Believe in God”, the most fascinating feature of the +latter, of course, being that they can believe in God much faster than +you. Regrettably we cannot sweep this nonsense under the rug by saying +“Why bother? This is only popular press”. It finds its echo in +publications that are intended to be serious, such as Grace M. Hopper’s +article with the title “The education of a computer.”. It also finds its +reflection in the multi-billion yen mistake of the Japanese “fifth +generation computer project”, of which you may have heard. It would have +taken care of the Japanese competition; regrettably —for the Western +world— they seem to come to their senses, as the larger Japanese +companies are pulling out of the efforts aimed at blurring the +distinction between Man and Machine. + +But the blur continues to linger on, and has a much wider impact than +you might suspect. You see, it is not only that the question “Can +machines think?” is regularly raised; we can —and should— deal with that +by pointing out that it is just as relevant as the equally burning +question “Can submarines swim?” A more serious byproduct of the tendency +to talk about machines in anthropomorphic terms is the companion +phenomenon of talking about people in mechanistic terminology. The +critical reading of articles about computer-assisted learning —excuse +me: CAL for the intimi— leaves you no option: in the eyes of their +authors, the educational process is simply reduced to a caricature, +something like the building up of conditional reflexes. For those +educationists, Pavlov’s dog adequately captures the essence of Mankind +—while I can assure you, from intimate observations, that it only +captures a minute fraction of what is involved in being a dog—. + +The anthropomorphic metaphor is perhaps even more devastating within +computing science itself. Its use is almost all-pervading. To give you +just an example: entering a lecture hall at a conference I caught just +one sentence and quickly went out again. The sentence started with “When +this guy wants to talk to that guy...”. The speaker referred to two +components of a computer network. + +The trouble with the metaphor is, firstly, that it invites you to +identify yourself with the computational processes going on in system +components and, secondly, that we see ourselves as existing in time. +Consequently the use of the metaphor forces one to what we call +“operational reasoning”, that is reasoning in terms of the +computational processes that could take place. From a methodological +point of view this is a well-identified and well-documented mistake: it +induces a combinatorial explosion of the number of cases to consider and +designs thus conceived are as a result full of bugs. + +It is possible to base one’s reasoning on non-operational semantics and +to design for instance one’s programs by manipulating one’s program text +as a formal object in its own right, in one’s arguments completely +ignoring that these texts also admit the interpretation of executable +code. By ignoring the computational processes one saves oneself from the +combinatorial explosion. This nonoperational approach is the only known +reliable way of digital system design, and enables you to publish for +instance in full confidence intricate algorithms you designed but never +tested on a machine. The implied abstraction, in which time has +disappeared from the picture, is however beyond the computing scientist +imbued with the operational approach that the anthropomorphic metaphor +induces. In a very real and tragic sense he has a mental block: his +anthropomorphic thinking erects an insurmountable barrier between him +and the only effective way in which his work can be done well. By the +prevailing anthropomorphism the US, computer industry could easily be +done in. + +It is not only the industry that suffers, so does the science. Recently, +a whole group of computing scientists from all over the world has wasted +several years of effort. They had decided to apply to the relationship +between a component and its environment a dichotomy: the “obligations” +of the environment versus the “responsibilities” of the component. The +terminology alone should have been sufficient to make them very +suspicious; it did not and they learned the hard way that the whole +distinction did not make sense. + +Another notion that creeps in as a result of our anthropomorphism is the +dichotomy of cause and effect. These terms come from our perception of +our intended acts: we wish to pour ourselves a glass of wine, so we pick +up the bottle and turn it, thereby causing the wine to flow from the +bottle into our glass. Our act of pouring had the desired effect. But in +the inanimate world there is little place for such a causal hierarchy. +One of Newton’s Laws says that force equals mass times acceleration, and +there is no point in insisting that the one causes the other or the +other way round: they are equal. In the case of a piezo-electric crystal +deformation and voltage difference are accompanying phenomena: if one +applies a voltage difference, the crystal changes its shape, if the +crystal is deformed, a voltage difference appears (as we all know from +the butane cigarette lighter). + +In particular the study of distributed computer systems has severely +suffered from the vain effort to impose a causal hierarchy on the events +that constitute a computational process, thus completely hiding the +symmetry between the sending and the receiving of messages, and between +input and output. + +But even in the so much more abstract world of mathematics this has +created havoc. It has caused a preponderance of mathematical structures +of the form: “If A then B” or equivalently “A implies B”. Take good old +Pythagoras + +> “If, in triangle ABC, angle C is right, then a2+b2=c2”. + +but we have equally well + +> “If, in triangle ABC, a2+b2=c2, then angle C is right”. + +and the proper way of stating Pythagoras’s Theorem is by saying that in +triangle ABC “a2+b2=c2” and “angle C is right” are equivalent +propositions, either both true or both false. Analyzing the structure of +traditional mathematical arguments one will discover that the +equivalence is the most underexploited logical connective, in contrast +to the implication that is used all over the place. The +underexploitation of the equivalence, i.e. the failure to exploit +inherent symmetries, often lengthens an argument by a factor of 2, 4 or +more. + +Why then have mathematicians stuck to the implication? Well, because +they feel comfortable with it because they associate it —again\!— with +cause and effect. They will rephrase “If A then B” also as “B because A” +or “B follows from A”. (The use of the words “because” and “follows” is +very revealing\!). Somehow, in the implication “if A then B”, the +antecedent A is associated with the cause and the consequent B with the +effect. + +One can defend the thesis that traditional mathematics is +anthropomorphic in the sense that its proofs reflect the causal +hierarchy we discern in our acts, in the same way that traditional logic +—for centuries viewed as the handmaiden of philosophy— is +anthropomorphic in the sense that it tries to formalize and follow our +habits of reasoning. + +The advantage of this thesis is that it invites the speculation how +mathematics and logic will evolve when they divest themselves from our +ingrained human reasoning habits, when the role of formalisms will no +longer be to mimic our familiar reasoning patterns but to liberate +ourselves from the latter’s shackles. + +And that is a fascinating question to ponder about\! + +Austin, 23 September 1985 + +prof. dr. Edsger W. Dijkstra +Department of Computer Sciences +The University of Texas at Austin +AUSTIN, Texas 78712–1188 +USA + +Transcribed by Michael Lugo + +Last revised 10 April, 2016 . diff --git a/_stories/1985/15741381.md b/_stories/1985/15741381.md index 4b908ad..42a5838 100644 --- a/_stories/1985/15741381.md +++ b/_stories/1985/15741381.md @@ -19,286 +19,147 @@ _tags: objectID: '15741381' --- -[Source](http://www.nytimes.com/1985/09/04/business/microsoft-has-it-all-almost.html "Permalink to MICROSOFT HAS IT ALL - ALMOST - NYTimes.com") - -# MICROSOFT HAS IT ALL - ALMOST - NYTimes.com - -* [Log In][1] -* [Register Now][2] -* [Help][3] -* [Home Page][4] -* [Today's Paper][5] -* [Video][6] -* [Most Popular][7] - -Edition: [U.S.][4] / [Global][8] - -Search All NYTimes.com - -![New York Times][9] - -## [Business Day][10] - -* [World][11] -* [U.S.][12] -* [N.Y. / Region][13] -* [Business][10] -* [Technology][14] -* [Science][15] -* [Health][16] -* [Sports][17] -* [Opinion][18] -* [Arts][19] -* [Style][20] -* [Travel][21] -* [Jobs][22] -* [Real Estate][23] -* [Autos][24] -* [DealBook][25] -* [Markets][26] -* [Economy][27] -* [Energy][28] -* [Media][29] -* [Technology][30] -* [Personal Tech][31] -* [Entrepreneurship][32] -* [Your Money][33] - -# MICROSOFT HAS IT ALL - ALMOST - -###### By ANDREW POLLACK, Special to the New York Times - -###### Published: September 4, 1985 - -**BELLEVUE, Wash— ** Something is gnawing at Microsoft. - -By all accounts, the Microsoft Corporation, the first major company spawned by the personal computer to reach its 10th birthday, has a lot to celebrate. Clearly the company has prospered, with revenues leaping by more than 40 percent in its last fiscal year. It has by far the broadest product line among software companies. And recently it signed a long-term agreement with the International Business Machines Corporation that is seen as cementing Microsoft's position at the center of the personal computer universe. - -''They're just on top of the world right now, as far as I'm concerned,'' said David S. Wagman, co-chairman of Softsel Computer Products, a leading distributor of software. - -But what is spoiling the party is that the company was eclipsed last year as the largest personal computer software concern by the Lotus Development Corporation, creator of the highly successful 1-2-3 spreadsheet program. Lotus's revenues totaled $200 million for the 12 months ended June 30. Microsoft's revenues came to $140 million in that period. - -Some Shortcomings - -While Lotus and Microsoft remain friendly rivals, Microsoft and its 29-year-old chairman, William H. Gates, clearly want to be No. 1 again. ''It drives him up the wall,'' said one friend of Mr. Gates. Perhaps more important, however, the ascendance of Lotus has pointed out some Microsoft shortcomings that the company is hastening to correct. - -To catch up to Lotus, or even merely to continue to grow, Microsoft must continue to expand beyond systems software, which governs the basic functions of the computer, to the far larger market of applications programs, such as word processors and spreadsheets, which guide the computer in particular tasks. Lotus sells only applications software. - -Microsoft is now unleashing a barrage of programs, including Excel, a spreadsheet program for the Macintosh computer, and Access, a communications package for the I.B.M. computer. It is also finally bringing Windows to market. That program, a key part of its strategy, is more than a year behind schedule. - -But selling software to consumers is different from selling highly technical operating systems directly to computer companies. To compete against sophisticated marketers like Lotus, Microsoft is also undergoing a corporate makeover, trying to shed its ''techie'' image in favor of a flashier one. The corporate image perhaps is a reflection of Mr. Gates himself, who is a technical genius but is much less outgoing than Mitchell D. Kapor, Lotus's chairman. - -Perhaps symbolically, the company has already replaced its drab green packaging cartons with more colorful boxes and will concentrate its advertising on fewer products to make a bigger splash. ''We're taking a look at everything,'' said Jean Richardson, a former Apple official who now heads Microsoft's corporate communications. ''A year from now you will see a very different image of Microsoft.'' - -Going public next year is also part of the plan. Officials say that the need for money is not the primary reason for a public offering. The company has been consistently profitable and is believed to have more than $15 million in cash on hand. But going public is expected to win increased attention and credibility. In addition, such a move would provide a way of rewarding Microsoft employees, who have received stock or options. - -Microsoft was founded in 1975 by Mr. Gates, then 19, and a friend, Paul Allen, who is now less actively involved in the company. Mr. Gates, who as a teen-ager had developed a previous computer programming business, dropped out of Harvard and wrote a version of the Basic computer language for one of the first personal computers. Selected by I.B.M. Microsoft's big break came five years ago, when its MS-DOS - which stands for Microsoft disk operating system - was chosen by I.B.M. for use on its personal computer. As I.B.M. soared to prominence in the personal computer business, so did Microsoft, in a relationship that one Microsoft official recently described as ''five years on a raft.'' There was always the risk that I.B.M. would go its own way. But the agreement signed recently between I.B.M. and Microsoft seems to remove this threat for the next few years at least. - -Last year, MS-DOS accounted for about 20 percent of Microsoft's revenues, while other systems software, mainly programming languages, totaled 30 percent. In applications software, which accounted for most of the rest of the revenues and is expected to grow fastest, Microsoft has done only moderately well. - -It got a late start in the applications software market for I.B.M. and faced entrenched, highly specialized competitors. The I.B.M. computer version of Microsoft Word, the company's word processing software, trails programs by Multimate, Micropro International and I.B.M. itself, according to audits of computer stores by IMS America, a market research firm. - -Microsoft was also hurt by its reputation for bringing products to market behind schedule and full of ''bugs'' or errors. In a letter in the latest issue of Macworld magazine, for instance, a reader gripes about finding ''15 bugs and 7 shortcomings'' in the initial Macintosh version of Microsoft Word. ''Word is typical untested Microsoft software,'' he said. - -To improve its production process, Microsoft has changed its management. Mr. Gates, while still chief executive and clear leader of the company, has no one reporting directly to him. That allows him to concentrate on the direction of the company while leaving day-to-day management to others, particularly the president and chief operating officer, Jon Shirley, former head of the Tandy Corporation's personal computer merchandising. - -The company has also moved quickly into software for the Macintosh computer, and now dominates that market. It is also expanding overseas, where its Multiplan spreadsheet outsells 1-2-3. - -But Microsoft is still in search of a hit product. One contender, coming this month, is Excel, a spreadsheet program for the Macintosh that Mr. Gates expects will become Microsoft's best seller. Excel is more like 1-2-3 than Lotus's own program for the Macintosh, which is called Jazz and has sold below expectations. - -Microsoft officials predict that Excel will do better. The company also plans a multifunctional product for Macintosh, known as Microsoft Works, that will be lower priced than Jazz. Yet it is unclear whether any product for the Macintosh, which has suffered a sales slowdown, will sell all that well. - -Windows Coming in Fall - -For the I.B.M. world, Microsoft this fall is introducing Windows, a program that allows various applications to appear on the screen at once, each in its own ''window.'' Microsoft hopes to make Windows a standard on all MS-DOS PC's. - -While Windows, which is operating system software, might be a big product in its own right, it could also help increase sales of other Microsoft applications software. Since Windows makes the I.B.M. computer screen resemble the Macintosh screen, Microsoft will be able to convert its Macintosh programs for use on the I.B.M. computers using Windows. A version of Excel running on Windows for the I.B.M. computer, which would directly compete with 1-2-3, is expected early next year. - -But Windows faces an uphill battle. While more than a dozen companies expressed support for Windows when it was announced in 1983, enthusiasm has cooled. - -graph of Microsofts annual revenue for fiscal year in millions of dollars; photo of William Gates and Jon Shirley (AP) - -![][34] - -![][35] ![][36] - -#### Inside NYTimes.com - -| ----- | -| - -###### [Health »][16] - -![Too Hot to Handle][37] - -###### [Too Hot to Handle__][38] - - | - -###### [Arts »][39] - -![The Harmony of Liberty][40] - -###### [The Harmony of Liberty__][41] - - | - -###### [Opinion »][18] - -### [Should Beach Privatization Be Allowed?__][42] - -Room for Debate asks whether shorefront homeowners should have to open their land to all comers. - - | - -###### [Sports »][17] - -![A Woman’s Leadership May Steady Murray][43] - -###### [A Woman’s Leadership May Steady Murray__][44] - - | - - | - -###### [Opinion »][18] - -![Menagerie: Streaming Eagles][45] - -###### [Menagerie: Streaming Eagles__][46] - - | - -###### [U.S. »][12] - -![Curlers’ Aim: 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Wash—** Something is gnawing at Microsoft. + +By all accounts, the Microsoft Corporation, the first major company +spawned by the personal computer to reach its 10th birthday, has a lot +to celebrate. Clearly the company has prospered, with revenues leaping +by more than 40 percent in its last fiscal year. It has by far the +broadest product line among software companies. And recently it signed a +long-term agreement with the International Business Machines Corporation +that is seen as cementing Microsoft's position at the center of the +personal computer universe. + +''They're just on top of the world right now, as far as I'm concerned,'' +said David S. Wagman, co-chairman of Softsel Computer Products, a +leading distributor of software. + +But what is spoiling the party is that the company was eclipsed last +year as the largest personal computer software concern by the Lotus +Development Corporation, creator of the highly successful 1-2-3 +spreadsheet program. Lotus's revenues totaled $200 million for the 12 +months ended June 30. Microsoft's revenues came to $140 million in that +period. + +Some Shortcomings + +While Lotus and Microsoft remain friendly rivals, Microsoft and its +29-year-old chairman, William H. Gates, clearly want to be No. 1 again. +''It drives him up the wall,'' said one friend of Mr. Gates. Perhaps +more important, however, the ascendance of Lotus has pointed out some +Microsoft shortcomings that the company is hastening to correct. + +To catch up to Lotus, or even merely to continue to grow, Microsoft must +continue to expand beyond systems software, which governs the basic +functions of the computer, to the far larger market of applications +programs, such as word processors and spreadsheets, which guide the +computer in particular tasks. Lotus sells only applications software. + +Microsoft is now unleashing a barrage of programs, including Excel, a +spreadsheet program for the Macintosh computer, and Access, a +communications package for the I.B.M. computer. It is also finally +bringing Windows to market. That program, a key part of its strategy, is +more than a year behind schedule. + +But selling software to consumers is different from selling highly +technical operating systems directly to computer companies. To compete +against sophisticated marketers like Lotus, Microsoft is also undergoing +a corporate makeover, trying to shed its ''techie'' image in favor of a +flashier one. The corporate image perhaps is a reflection of Mr. Gates +himself, who is a technical genius but is much less outgoing than +Mitchell D. Kapor, Lotus's chairman. + +Perhaps symbolically, the company has already replaced its drab green +packaging cartons with more colorful boxes and will concentrate its +advertising on fewer products to make a bigger splash. ''We're taking a +look at everything,'' said Jean Richardson, a former Apple official who +now heads Microsoft's corporate communications. ''A year from now you +will see a very different image of Microsoft.'' + +Going public next year is also part of the plan. Officials say that the +need for money is not the primary reason for a public offering. The +company has been consistently profitable and is believed to have more +than $15 million in cash on hand. But going public is expected to win +increased attention and credibility. In addition, such a move would +provide a way of rewarding Microsoft employees, who have received stock +or options. + +Microsoft was founded in 1975 by Mr. Gates, then 19, and a friend, Paul +Allen, who is now less actively involved in the company. Mr. Gates, who +as a teen-ager had developed a previous computer programming business, +dropped out of Harvard and wrote a version of the Basic computer +language for one of the first personal computers. Selected by I.B.M. +Microsoft's big break came five years ago, when its MS-DOS - which +stands for Microsoft disk operating system - was chosen by I.B.M. for +use on its personal computer. As I.B.M. soared to prominence in the +personal computer business, so did Microsoft, in a relationship that one +Microsoft official recently described as ''five years on a raft.'' There +was always the risk that I.B.M. would go its own way. But the agreement +signed recently between I.B.M. and Microsoft seems to remove this threat +for the next few years at least. + +Last year, MS-DOS accounted for about 20 percent of Microsoft's +revenues, while other systems software, mainly programming languages, +totaled 30 percent. In applications software, which accounted for most +of the rest of the revenues and is expected to grow fastest, Microsoft +has done only moderately well. + +It got a late start in the applications software market for I.B.M. and +faced entrenched, highly specialized competitors. The I.B.M. computer +version of Microsoft Word, the company's word processing software, +trails programs by Multimate, Micropro International and I.B.M. itself, +according to audits of computer stores by IMS America, a market research +firm. + +Microsoft was also hurt by its reputation for bringing products to +market behind schedule and full of ''bugs'' or errors. In a letter in +the latest issue of Macworld magazine, for instance, a reader gripes +about finding ''15 bugs and 7 shortcomings'' in the initial Macintosh +version of Microsoft Word. ''Word is typical untested Microsoft +software,'' he said. + +To improve its production process, Microsoft has changed its management. +Mr. Gates, while still chief executive and clear leader of the company, +has no one reporting directly to him. That allows him to concentrate on +the direction of the company while leaving day-to-day management to +others, particularly the president and chief operating officer, Jon +Shirley, former head of the Tandy Corporation's personal computer +merchandising. + +The company has also moved quickly into software for the Macintosh +computer, and now dominates that market. It is also expanding overseas, +where its Multiplan spreadsheet outsells 1-2-3. + +But Microsoft is still in search of a hit product. One contender, coming +this month, is Excel, a spreadsheet program for the Macintosh that Mr. +Gates expects will become Microsoft's best seller. Excel is more like +1-2-3 than Lotus's own program for the Macintosh, which is called Jazz +and has sold below expectations. + +Microsoft officials predict that Excel will do better. The company also +plans a multifunctional product for Macintosh, known as Microsoft Works, +that will be lower priced than Jazz. Yet it is unclear whether any +product for the Macintosh, which has suffered a sales slowdown, will +sell all that well. + +Windows Coming in Fall + +For the I.B.M. world, Microsoft this fall is introducing Windows, a +program that allows various applications to appear on the screen at +once, each in its own ''window.'' Microsoft hopes to make Windows a +standard on all MS-DOS PC's. + +While Windows, which is operating system software, might be a big +product in its own right, it could also help increase sales of other +Microsoft applications software. Since Windows makes the I.B.M. computer +screen resemble the Macintosh screen, Microsoft will be able to convert +its Macintosh programs for use on the I.B.M. computers using Windows. A +version of Excel running on Windows for the I.B.M. computer, which would +directly compete with 1-2-3, is expected early next year. + +But Windows faces an uphill battle. While more than a dozen companies +expressed support for Windows when it was announced in 1983, enthusiasm +has cooled. + +graph of Microsofts annual revenue for fiscal year in millions of +dollars; photo of William Gates and Jon Shirley (AP) diff --git a/_stories/1985/8200387.md b/_stories/1985/8200387.md index fbc39fe..d352df1 100644 --- a/_stories/1985/8200387.md +++ b/_stories/1985/8200387.md @@ -19,296 +19,133 @@ _tags: objectID: '8200387' --- -[Source](http://www.nytimes.com/1985/05/14/us/police-drop-bomb-on-radicals-home-in-philadelphia.html "Permalink to POLICE DROP BOMB ON RADICALS' HOME IN PHILADELPHIA - NYTimes.com") +**PHILADELPHIA, May 13—** A state police helicopter this evening dropped +a bomb on a house occupied by an armed group after a 24-hour siege +involving gun battles. + +A 90-minute shootout this morning came after a week of growing tension +between the city and the group, known as Move. Residents in the western +Philadelphia neighborhood had complained about the group for years. The +only known survivors from within the house were a woman and a child. + +The fire spread to 50 to 60 other houses in the neighborhood, said the +Fire Commissioner, William Richmond. He declared the fire under control +about 11:40 P.M. + +Aimed to Hit Bunker + +The Police Commissioner, Gregore Sambor, said tonight that it was was +his decision to drop the charge, a square package of explosives designed +to destroy a bunker atop the house and drop it through to the second +floor. He said the charge succeeded in eliminating the threat from the +roof, but touched off the fire. + +Steve Harmon, a resident of the area, said: ''Drop a bomb on a +residential area? I never in my life heard of that. It's like Vietnam.'' + +The Move group, which says it disdains modern technology and materialism +and the establishment, was involved in a confrontation with the police +in August 1978. One police officer was killed in that shootout. Nine +members of the group were convicted on murder charges and are in prison. +The group has been demanding their release. + +The Police Commissioner said that the authorities did not know whether +there were any bodies in the house. + +One Officer Injured + +Commissioner Sambor said that one police officer whom he did not +identify was bruised in the back by gunfire. ''And the only thing that +saved him was his body armor,'' the Comissioner said. + +The police said earlier that at least three officers had suffered slight +injuries, including smoke inhalation, exhaustion and hyperventilation. + +No other casualties were reported, but the whereabouts of some occupants +of the house were unknown. + +Mayor W. Wilson Goode said this evening that a 9-year-old left the +building with a woman, identified as Ramona Africa, shortly after the +fire began. The child, who was taken to a hospital, told the police +there were four or five adults and four or five children in the house +when the bomb was dropped, the Mayor said at a City Hall news +conference. The child was not identified, but the police said the woman +was in custody. + +Leo Brooks, the City Managing Director, said tonight at the scene that +one of the first things the authorities wanted to do Tuesday was to +search the charred area. + +A Fire Department officer, who requested anonymity, said the authorities +did not know where the other children were. + +Mayor 'Saddened' by Fire + +The Mayor said that three armed adults had been in an alley behind the +house, where they were firing at the police. He said there were no known +deaths and that he was heartened by that, but he was ''saddened'' by +reports that many homes had been destroyed by the blaze spreading from +the house that was bombed. + +A Fire Department officer at the scene this evening had said houses +burned on both sides of the street in the 6200 block of Osage Avenue, +where the Move headquarters was situated, and houses in the block behind +it on Pine Street. + +The Mayor, when asked why the bomb was dropped, said, ''It was an +attempt to remove the bunker,'' the structure on the roof of the house. + +He repeatedly took responsibility for the outcome, although he said he +had given his department heads complete freedom to decide on the tactics +they thought best. ''As Mayor of this city I accept full and total +responsibility,'' Mr. Goode said. ''There was no way to avoid it. No way +to extract ourselves from that situation except by armed +confrontation.'' + +Arrived With Warrants + +Mr. Brooks, the City Managing Director, said tonight that the police +arrived at the house this morning with arrest warrants for four +individuals and asked them to come out of the house. He said the police +had promised them there would be no firing. + +Commissioner Sambor, according to Mr. Brooks, gave them 15 minutes to +come out. They refused, Mr. Brooks said, and responded with ''vitriolic +talk'' over a loudspeaker and then started firing. + +''We took a significant number of rounds in our positions,'' said Mr. +Brooks. + +In the siege this morning, Commissioner Sambor said, the police started +returning the fire, with frequent lulls. He said the Move people refused +all overtures of family, friends and clergy to mediate and to attempt to +talk them into coming out. ''At no time did the police fire in an +offensive posture,'' he said. He said the bunker on the roof had wooden +beams and steel plates, and that it would not budget despite the +authorities' use of water cannon. + +Commissioner Sambor said the bomb was dropped to flush out people who +were firing at the police. ''If you were in a firefight and the +opposition held the higher ground,'' he said, ''what would you do?'' -# POLICE DROP BOMB ON RADICALS' HOME IN PHILADELPHIA - NYTimes.com +Fire Starts to Spread + +Fire engulfed the house hit by the bomb and spread to neighboring row +houses, but firefighters delayed attempts to battle the blaze for at +least an hour out of fear that they would become targets of any +surviving members of the heavily armed group. + +''There is no question in my mind that from the time the fire started +until this time there was a real danger'' for the firefighters, the +Mayor said at the news conference. -* [Log In][1] -* [Register Now][2] -* [Help][3] -* [Home Page][4] -* [Today's Paper][5] -* [Video][6] -* [Most Popular][7] +Mr. Brooks said that four people came out of the back of the Move house +during the blaze. Two of them were the woman and the child. He said they +were with another woman and a man. -Edition: [U.S.][4] / [Global][8] - -Search All NYTimes.com - -![New York Times][9] - -## [U.S.][10] - -* [World][11] -* [U.S.][10] - * [Politics][12] - * [Education][13] - * [Texas][14] -* [N.Y. / Region][15] -* [Business][16] -* [Technology][17] -* [Science][18] -* [Health][19] -* [Sports][20] -* [Opinion][21] -* [Arts][22] -* [Style][23] -* [Travel][24] -* [Jobs][25] -* [Real Estate][26] -* [Autos][27] - -# POLICE DROP BOMB ON RADICALS' HOME IN PHILADELPHIA - -###### By WILLIAM K. STEVENS, Special to the New York Times - -###### Published: May 14, 1985 - -**PHILADELPHIA, May 13— ** A state police helicopter this evening dropped a bomb on a house occupied by an armed group after a 24-hour siege involving gun battles. - -A 90-minute shootout this morning came after a week of growing tension between the city and the group, known as Move. Residents in the western Philadelphia neighborhood had complained about the group for years. The only known survivors from within the house were a woman and a child. - -The fire spread to 50 to 60 other houses in the neighborhood, said the Fire Commissioner, William Richmond. He declared the fire under control about 11:40 P.M. - -Aimed to Hit Bunker - -The Police Commissioner, Gregore Sambor, said tonight that it was was his decision to drop the charge, a square package of explosives designed to destroy a bunker atop the house and drop it through to the second floor. He said the charge succeeded in eliminating the threat from the roof, but touched off the fire. - -Steve Harmon, a resident of the area, said: ''Drop a bomb on a residential area? I never in my life heard of that. It's like Vietnam.'' - -The Move group, which says it disdains modern technology and materialism and the establishment, was involved in a confrontation with the police in August 1978. One police officer was killed in that shootout. Nine members of the group were convicted on murder charges and are in prison. The group has been demanding their release. - -The Police Commissioner said that the authorities did not know whether there were any bodies in the house. - -One Officer Injured - -Commissioner Sambor said that one police officer whom he did not identify was bruised in the back by gunfire. ''And the only thing that saved him was his body armor,'' the Comissioner said. - -The police said earlier that at least three officers had suffered slight injuries, including smoke inhalation, exhaustion and hyperventilation. - -No other casualties were reported, but the whereabouts of some occupants of the house were unknown. - -Mayor W. Wilson Goode said this evening that a 9-year-old left the building with a woman, identified as Ramona Africa, shortly after the fire began. The child, who was taken to a hospital, told the police there were four or five adults and four or five children in the house when the bomb was dropped, the Mayor said at a City Hall news conference. The child was not identified, but the police said the woman was in custody. - -Leo Brooks, the City Managing Director, said tonight at the scene that one of the first things the authorities wanted to do Tuesday was to search the charred area. - -A Fire Department officer, who requested anonymity, said the authorities did not know where the other children were. - -Mayor 'Saddened' by Fire - -The Mayor said that three armed adults had been in an alley behind the house, where they were firing at the police. He said there were no known deaths and that he was heartened by that, but he was ''saddened'' by reports that many homes had been destroyed by the blaze spreading from the house that was bombed. - -A Fire Department officer at the scene this evening had said houses burned on both sides of the street in the 6200 block of Osage Avenue, where the Move headquarters was situated, and houses in the block behind it on Pine Street. - -The Mayor, when asked why the bomb was dropped, said, ''It was an attempt to remove the bunker,'' the structure on the roof of the house. - -He repeatedly took responsibility for the outcome, although he said he had given his department heads complete freedom to decide on the tactics they thought best. ''As Mayor of this city I accept full and total responsibility,'' Mr. Goode said. ''There was no way to avoid it. No way to extract ourselves from that situation except by armed confrontation.'' - -Arrived With Warrants - -Mr. Brooks, the City Managing Director, said tonight that the police arrived at the house this morning with arrest warrants for four individuals and asked them to come out of the house. He said the police had promised them there would be no firing. - -Commissioner Sambor, according to Mr. Brooks, gave them 15 minutes to come out. They refused, Mr. Brooks said, and responded with ''vitriolic talk'' over a loudspeaker and then started firing. - -''We took a significant number of rounds in our positions,'' said Mr. Brooks. - -In the siege this morning, Commissioner Sambor said, the police started returning the fire, with frequent lulls. He said the Move people refused all overtures of family, friends and clergy to mediate and to attempt to talk them into coming out. ''At no time did the police fire in an offensive posture,'' he said. He said the bunker on the roof had wooden beams and steel plates, and that it would not budget despite the authorities' use of water cannon. - -Commissioner Sambor said the bomb was dropped to flush out people who were firing at the police. ''If you were in a firefight and the opposition held the higher ground,'' he said, ''what would you do?'' - -Fire Starts to Spread - -Fire engulfed the house hit by the bomb and spread to neighboring row houses, but firefighters delayed attempts to battle the blaze for at least an hour out of fear that they would become targets of any surviving members of the heavily armed group. - -''There is no question in my mind that from the time the fire started until this time there was a real danger'' for the firefighters, the Mayor said at the news conference. - -Mr. Brooks said that four people came out of the back of the Move house during the blaze. Two of them were the woman and the child. He said they were with another woman and a man. - -The man fired at the police, Mr. Brooks said. He said the police did not return the fire, and the man and the woman disappeared back into the smoke. - -Commissioner Sambor said earlier that the police were looking for three armed men who might be in alleys or tunnels dug from under the house. - -* 1 -* [2][28] -[Next Page >][29] - -![][30] - -![][31] ![][32] - -#### Inside NYTimes.com - -| ----- | -| - -###### [Health »][19] - -![Too Hot to Handle][33] - -###### [Too Hot to Handle__][34] - - | - -###### [Arts »][35] - -![The Harmony of Liberty][36] - -###### [The Harmony of Liberty__][37] - - | - -###### [Opinion »][21] - -### [Should Beach Privatization Be Allowed?__][38] - -Room for Debate asks whether shorefront homeowners should have to open their land to all comers. - - | - -###### [Sports »][20] - -![A Woman’s Leadership May Steady Murray][39] - -###### [A Woman’s Leadership May Steady Murray__][40] - - | - - | - -###### [Opinion »][21] - -![Menagerie: Streaming Eagles][41] - -###### [Menagerie: Streaming Eagles__][42] - - | 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http://www.nytimes.com/content/help/rights/sale/terms-of-sale.html -[59]: http://www.nytimes.com/ref/membercenter/help/agree.html -[60]: http://www.nytco.com/careers -[61]: http://www.nytimes.com/rss -[62]: http://www.nytimes.com/ref/membercenter/help/infoservdirectory.html -[63]: https://myaccount.nytimes.com/membercenter/feedback.html -[64]: http://wt.o.nytimes.com/dcsym57yw10000s1s8g0boozt_9t1x/njs.gif?dcsuri=/nojavascript&WT.js=No&WT.tv=1.0.7 -[65]: http://up.nytimes.com/?d=0//&t=&s=0&ui=&r=&u=www.nytimes.com%2F1985%2F05%2F14%2Fus%2Fpolice-drop-bomb-on-radicals-home-in-philadelphia.html +The man fired at the police, Mr. Brooks said. He said the police did not +return the fire, and the man and the woman disappeared back into the +smoke. +Commissioner Sambor said earlier that the police were looking for three +armed men who might be in alleys or tunnels dug from under the house. diff --git a/_stories/1985/9325637.md b/_stories/1985/9325637.md index a46c3eb..306bc0f 100644 --- a/_stories/1985/9325637.md +++ b/_stories/1985/9325637.md @@ -19,268 +19,112 @@ _tags: objectID: '9325637' --- -[Source](http://www.nytimes.com/1985/12/08/business/the-executive-computer.html "Permalink to THE EXECUTIVE COMPUTER - NYTimes.com") - -# THE EXECUTIVE COMPUTER - NYTimes.com - -* [Log In][1] -* [Register Now][2] -* [Help][3] -* [Home Page][4] -* [Today's Paper][5] -* [Video][6] -* [Most Popular][7] - -Edition: [U.S.][4] / [Global][8] - -Search All NYTimes.com - -![New York Times][9] - -## [Business Day][10] - -* [World][11] -* [U.S.][12] -* [N.Y. / Region][13] -* [Business][10] -* [Technology][14] -* [Science][15] -* [Health][16] -* [Sports][17] -* [Opinion][18] -* [Arts][19] -* [Style][20] -* [Travel][21] -* [Jobs][22] -* [Real Estate][23] -* [Autos][24] -* [DealBook][25] -* [Markets][26] -* [Economy][27] -* [Energy][28] -* [Media][29] -* [Technology][30] -* [Personal Tech][31] -* [Entrepreneurship][32] -* [Your Money][33] - -# THE EXECUTIVE COMPUTER - -###### By Erik Sandberg-Diment - -###### Published: December 8, 1985 - -WHATEVER happened to the laptop computer? Two years ago, on my flight to Las Vegas for Comdex, the annual microcomputer trade show, every second or third passenger pulled out a portable, ostensibly to work, but more likely to demonstrate an ability to keep up with the latest fad. Last year, only a couple of these computers could be seen on the fold-down trays. This year, every one of them had been replaced by the more traditional mixed drink or beer. - -Was the laptop dream an illusion, then? Or was the problem merely that the right combination of features for such lightweight computers had not yet materialized? The answer probably is a combination of both views. For the most part, the portable computer is a dream machine for the few. - -The limitations come from what people actually do with computers, as opposed to what the marketers expect them to do. On the whole, people don't want to lug a computer with them to the beach or on a train to while away hours they would rather spend reading the sports or business section of the newspaper. Somehow, the microcomputer industry has assumed that everyone would love to have a keyboard grafted on as an extension of their fingers. It just is not so. - -The proponents of portables stoutly maintain that the stumbling block to a computer in every attache case is price. Right now, a laptop computer costs considerably more than the equivalent desktop version. - -Yes, there are a lot of people who would like to be able to work on a computer at home. But would they really want to carry one back from the office with them? It would be much simpler to take home a few floppy disks tucked into an attache case. For the majority of consumers, a second computer for the home office is usually an inexpensive clone of the one at work. Not only is such an alternative more convenient, but it is more cost effective as well. In fact, one ends up with better technology. - -Consumers have passed judgment. Convergent Technology allowed its laptop to sink into oblivion in June of this year. I.B.M. never legitimized the market with its much rumored ''Clamshell,'' probably because the company realized that laptops are a small niche market, not a mass market. Hewlett-Packard, Panasonic, Data General and, of course, Tandy, which started it all, are still producing their laptops, albeit with the almost unreadable liquid crystal display, or L.C.D. Sales, however, are a fraction of the optimistic projections made only a year ago by industry soothsayers. - -One key to greater consumer acceptance is better display. It is is available in the Gridcase laptop (from the Grid Systems Corporation, Mountain View, Calif., 415-961-4800), which offers a gas-plasma display quite different from - and in some ways better than - the standard cathode-ray tube display. The display does much to make the Gridcase the only battery-powered laptop currently worth considering. But it costs $4,350, without the recommended maintenance contract and the requisite software, which together easily bring the total price up to $6,000 to $7,000, or even more. - -Software is the real weak spot for laptops. If the machines were merely too expensive, especially in view of their limited display, they would still sell if they served an unbeatable function. But for that to be the case, special software would be needed. The word processing and spreadsheet packages commonly available for them are intended to accomplish tasks to which laptop computers are simply not well suited. - -Where these machines could shine is in such specialized field applications as those required by the military, the Internal Revenue Service, accountants and sales representatives. The largest of these markets is probably sales, and special software to meet the needs of sales representatives is beginning to dribble into the marketplace. - -One firm that has established itself in this area is Sales Technologies, of Atlanta (404-239-0799). Founded in 1983 by two former Procter & Gamble employees and an M.I.T. computer whiz, the company produces a series of sales-oriented software programs for laptop computers. These include an order-entry system, an expense tracker, electronic mail, data communications and a territory management program, which permits a traveling sales representative to update customer files and the home office's computer data base. TO outfit one sales representative with this software and a Gridcase computer on which to run it -would cost $5,000 to $7,000, depending on the package. (The two companies are not affiliated, although Grid does package Sales Technologies software with its computers.) For a concern with a sales force of 500 people, the type of company for which such packages are geared, the expense would not be slight. The benefits presumably would come from increased sales by a more efficient sales force. - -Fred Burke, a spokesman for Sales Technologies, cites the case of a large apparel maker. The company routinely was unable to fill 13 percent of its orders because many of the products were out of stock by the time orders came in from the road. Once they were equipped with laptop computers, sales representatives were linked to the main office and were able to convert many ''lost'' orders into sales. - -By being able to determine immediately that, say, a particular green shirt was sold out, they could push the green-striped ones instead. The recouped business paid for the apparel company's laptop system in less than six months. - -Sales representatives, service managers, field auditors of all varieties have not been adequately served by the computer industry in pushing laptop computers. As the technology of these machines, particularly of their displays, improves, and as their price declines, a lot of briefcase computers will probably be sold. And as the software that is capable of turning them into true satellite offices becomes refined, they will probably even be used - in fact, profitably so. - -But the real future of the laptop computer will remain in the specialized niche markets. Because no matter how inexpensive the machines become, and no matter how sophisticated their software, I still can't imagine the average user taking one along when going fishing. - -Drawing - -![][34] - -![][35] ![][36] - -#### Inside NYTimes.com - -| ----- | -| - -###### [Health »][16] - -![Too Hot to Handle][37] - -###### [Too Hot to Handle__][38] - - | - -###### [Arts »][39] - -![The Harmony of Liberty][40] - -###### [The Harmony of Liberty__][41] - - | - -###### [Opinion »][18] - -### [Should Beach Privatization Be Allowed?__][42] - -Room for Debate asks whether shorefront homeowners should have to open their land to all comers. - - | - -###### [Sports »][17] - -![A Woman’s Leadership May Steady Murray][43] - -###### [A Woman’s Leadership May Steady Murray__][44] - - | - - | - -###### [Opinion »][18] - -![Menagerie: Streaming Eagles][45] - -###### [Menagerie: Streaming Eagles__][46] - - | - -###### [U.S. »][12] - -![Curlers’ Aim: Sweep to a Win Over the Heat][47] - -###### 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Two years ago, on my flight to +Las Vegas for Comdex, the annual microcomputer trade show, every second +or third passenger pulled out a portable, ostensibly to work, but more +likely to demonstrate an ability to keep up with the latest fad. Last +year, only a couple of these computers could be seen on the fold-down +trays. This year, every one of them had been replaced by the more +traditional mixed drink or beer. + +Was the laptop dream an illusion, then? Or was the problem merely that +the right combination of features for such lightweight computers had not +yet materialized? The answer probably is a combination of both views. +For the most part, the portable computer is a dream machine for the few. + +The limitations come from what people actually do with computers, as +opposed to what the marketers expect them to do. On the whole, people +don't want to lug a computer with them to the beach or on a train to +while away hours they would rather spend reading the sports or business +section of the newspaper. Somehow, the microcomputer industry has +assumed that everyone would love to have a keyboard grafted on as an +extension of their fingers. It just is not so. + +The proponents of portables stoutly maintain that the stumbling block to +a computer in every attache case is price. Right now, a laptop computer +costs considerably more than the equivalent desktop version. + +Yes, there are a lot of people who would like to be able to work on a +computer at home. But would they really want to carry one back from the +office with them? It would be much simpler to take home a few floppy +disks tucked into an attache case. For the majority of consumers, a +second computer for the home office is usually an inexpensive clone of +the one at work. Not only is such an alternative more convenient, but it +is more cost effective as well. In fact, one ends up with better +technology. + +Consumers have passed judgment. Convergent Technology allowed its laptop +to sink into oblivion in June of this year. I.B.M. never legitimized the +market with its much rumored ''Clamshell,'' probably because the company +realized that laptops are a small niche market, not a mass market. +Hewlett-Packard, Panasonic, Data General and, of course, Tandy, which +started it all, are still producing their laptops, albeit with the +almost unreadable liquid crystal display, or L.C.D. Sales, however, are +a fraction of the optimistic projections made only a year ago by +industry soothsayers. + +One key to greater consumer acceptance is better display. It is is +available in the Gridcase laptop (from the Grid Systems Corporation, +Mountain View, Calif., 415-961-4800), which offers a gas-plasma display +quite different from - and in some ways better than - the standard +cathode-ray tube display. The display does much to make the Gridcase the +only battery-powered laptop currently worth considering. But it costs +$4,350, without the recommended maintenance contract and the requisite +software, which together easily bring the total price up to $6,000 to +$7,000, or even more. + +Software is the real weak spot for laptops. If the machines were merely +too expensive, especially in view of their limited display, they would +still sell if they served an unbeatable function. But for that to be the +case, special software would be needed. The word processing and +spreadsheet packages commonly available for them are intended to +accomplish tasks to which laptop computers are simply not well suited. + +Where these machines could shine is in such specialized field +applications as those required by the military, the Internal Revenue +Service, accountants and sales representatives. The largest of these +markets is probably sales, and special software to meet the needs of +sales representatives is beginning to dribble into the marketplace. + +One firm that has established itself in this area is Sales Technologies, +of Atlanta (404-239-0799). Founded in 1983 by two former Procter & +Gamble employees and an M.I.T. computer whiz, the company produces a +series of sales-oriented software programs for laptop computers. These +include an order-entry system, an expense tracker, electronic mail, data +communications and a territory management program, which permits a +traveling sales representative to update customer files and the home +office's computer data base. TO outfit one sales representative with +this software and a Gridcase computer on which to run it -would cost +$5,000 to $7,000, depending on the package. (The two companies are not +affiliated, although Grid does package Sales Technologies software with +its computers.) For a concern with a sales force of 500 people, the type +of company for which such packages are geared, the expense would not be +slight. The benefits presumably would come from increased sales by a +more efficient sales force. + +Fred Burke, a spokesman for Sales Technologies, cites the case of a +large apparel maker. The company routinely was unable to fill 13 percent +of its orders because many of the products were out of stock by the time +orders came in from the road. Once they were equipped with laptop +computers, sales representatives were linked to the main office and were +able to convert many ''lost'' orders into sales. + +By being able to determine immediately that, say, a particular green +shirt was sold out, they could push the green-striped ones instead. The +recouped business paid for the apparel company's laptop system in less +than six months. + +Sales representatives, service managers, field auditors of all varieties +have not been adequately served by the computer industry in pushing +laptop computers. As the technology of these machines, particularly of +their displays, improves, and as their price declines, a lot of +briefcase computers will probably be sold. And as the software that is +capable of turning them into true satellite offices becomes refined, +they will probably even be used - in fact, profitably so. + +But the real future of the laptop computer will remain in the +specialized niche markets. Because no matter how inexpensive the +machines become, and no matter how sophisticated their software, I still +can't imagine the average user taking one along when going fishing. + +Drawing diff --git a/_stories/1986/15426562.md b/_stories/1986/15426562.md index 97d9a78..fc39ee7 100644 --- a/_stories/1986/15426562.md +++ b/_stories/1986/15426562.md @@ -19,7 +19,563 @@ _tags: objectID: '15426562' --- -[Source](https://history.nasa.gov/rogersrep/v2appf.htm "Permalink to ") +**Report of the PRESIDENTIAL COMMISSION on the Space Shuttle Challenger +Accident** +** ** +**Volume 2: Appendix F - Personal Observations on Reliability of +Shuttle** +by R. P. Feynman + +** ** + +** ** + +**Introduction** + +\[**F1**\] It appears that there are enormous differences of opinion as +to the probability of a failure with loss of vehicle and of human life. +The estimates range from roughly 1 in 100 to 1 in 100,000. The higher +figures come from the working engineers, and the very low figures from +management. What are the causes and consequences of this lack of +agreement? Since 1 part in 100,000 would imply that one could put a +Shuttle up each day for 300 years expecting to lose only one, we could +properly ask "What is the cause of management's fantastic faith in the +machinery?" + +We have also found that certification criteria used in Flight Readiness +Reviews often develop a gradually decreasing strictness. The argument +that the same risk was flown before without failure is often accepted as +an argument for the safety of accepting it again. Because of this, +obvious weaknesses are accepted again and again, sometimes without a +sufficiently serious attempt to remedy them, or to delay a flight +because of their continued presence. + +There are several sources of information. There are published criteria +for certification, including a history of modifications in the form of +waivers and deviations. In addition, the records of the Flight Readiness +Reviews for each flight document the arguments used to accept the risks +of the flight. Information was obtained from the direct testimony and +the reports of the range safety officer, Louis J. Ullian, with respect +to the history of success of solid fuel rockets. There was a further +study by him (as chairman of the launch abort safety panel (LASP)) in an +attempt to determine the risks involved in possible accidents leading to +radioactive contamination from attempting to fly a plutonium power +supply (RTG) for future planetary missions. The NASA study of the same +question is also available. For the History of the Space Shuttle Main +Engines, interviews with management and engineers at Marshall, and +informal interviews with engineers at Rocketdyne, were made. An +independent (Cal Tech) mechanical engineer who consulted for NASA about +engines was also interviewed informally. A visit to Johnson was made to +gather information on the reliability of the avionics (computers, +sensors, and effectors). Finally there is a report "A Review of +Certification Practices, Potentially Applicable to Man-rated Reusable +Rocket Engines," prepared at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory by N. Moore, +et al., in February, 1986, for NASA Headquarters, Office of Space +Flight. It deals with the methods used by the FAA and the military to +certify their gas turbine and rocket engines. These authors were also +interviewed informally. + +** ** + +**Solid Fuel Rockets (SRB)** + +An estimate of the reliability of solid rockets was made by the range +safety officer, by studying the experience of all previous rocket +flights. Out of a total of nearly 2,900 flights, 121 failed (1 in 25). +This includes, however, what may be called, early errors, rockets flown +for the first few times in which design errors are discovered and fixed. +A more reasonable figure for the mature rockets might be 1 in 50. With +special care in the selection of parts and in inspection, a figure of +below 1 in 100 might be achieved but 1 in 1,000 is probably not +attainable with today's technology. (Since there are two rockets on the +Shuttle, these rocket failure rates must be doubled to get Shuttle +failure rates from Solid Rocket Booster failure.) + +NASA officials argue that the figure is much lower. They point out that +these figures are for unmanned rockets but since the Shuttle is a manned +vehicle "the probability of mission success is necessarily very close to +1.0." It is not very clear what this phrase means. Does it mean it is +close to 1 or that it ought to be close to 1? They go on to explain +"Historically this extremely high degree of mission success has given +rise to a difference in philosophy between manned space flight programs +and unmanned programs; i.e., numerical probability usage versus +engineering judgment." (These quotations are from "Space Shuttle Data +for Planetary Mission RTG Safety Analysis," Pages 3-1, 3-2, February 15, +1985, NASA, JSC.) It is true that if the probability of failure was as +low as 1 in 100,000 it would take an inordinate number of tests to +determine it ( you would get nothing but a string of perfect flights +from which no precise figure, other than that the probability is likely +less than the number of such flights in the string so far). But, if the +real probability is not so small, flights would show troubles, near +failures, and possible actual failures with a reasonable number of +trials. and standard statistical methods could give a reasonable +estimate. In fact, previous NASA experience had shown, on occasion, just +such difficulties, near accidents, and accidents, all giving warning +that the probability of flight failure was not so very small. The +inconsistency of the argument not to determine reliability through +historical experience, as the range safety officer did, is that NASA +also appeals to history, beginning "Historically this high degree of +mission success..." Finally, if we are to replace standard numerical +probability usage with engineering judgment, why do we find such an +enormous disparity between the management estimate and the judgment of +the engineers? It would appear that, for whatever purpose, be it for +internal or external consumption, the management of NASA exaggerates the +reliability of its product, to the point of fantasy. + +The history of the certification and Flight Readiness Reviews will not +be repeated here. (See other part of Commission reports.) The phenomenon +of accepting for flight, seals that had shown erosion and blow-by in +previous flights, is very clear. The Challenger flight is an excellent +example. There are several references to flights that had gone before. +The acceptance and success of these flights is taken as evidence of +safety. But erosion and blow-by are not what the design expected. They +are warnings that something is wrong. The equipment is not operating as +expected, and therefore there is a danger that it can operate with even +wider deviations in this unexpected and not thoroughly understood way. +The fact that this danger did not lead to a catastrophe before is no +guarantee that it will not the next time, unless it is completely +understood. When playing Russian roulette the fact that the first shot +got off safely is little comfort for the next. The origin and +consequences of the erosion and blow-by were not understood. They did +not occur equally on all flights and all joints; sometimes more, and +sometimes less. Why not sometime, when whatever conditions determined it +were right, still more leading to catastrophe? + +In spite of these variations from case to case, officials behaved as if +they understood it, giving apparently logical arguments to each other +often depending on the "success" of previous flights. For example. in +determining if flight 51-L was safe to fly in the face of ring erosion +in flight 51-C, it was noted that the erosion depth was only one-third +of the radius. It had been noted in an \[**F2**\] experiment cutting the +ring that cutting it as deep as one radius was necessary before the ring +failed. Instead of being very concerned that variations of poorly +understood conditions might reasonably create a deeper erosion this +time, it was asserted, there was "a safety factor of three." This is a +strange use of the engineer's term ,"safety factor." If a bridge is +built to withstand a certain load without the beams permanently +deforming, cracking, or breaking, it may be designed for the materials +used to actually stand up under three times the load. This "safety +factor" is to allow for uncertain excesses of load, or unknown extra +loads, or weaknesses in the material that might have unexpected flaws, +etc. If now the expected load comes on to the new bridge and a crack +appears in a beam, this is a failure of the design. There was no safety +factor at all; even though the bridge did not actually collapse because +the crack went only one-third of the way through the beam. The O-rings +of the Solid Rocket Boosters were not designed to erode. Erosion was a +clue that something was wrong. Erosion was not something from which +safety can be inferred. + +There was no way, without full understanding, that one could have +confidence that conditions the next time might not produce erosion three +times more severe than the time before. Nevertheless, officials fooled +themselves into thinking they had such understanding and confidence, in +spite of the peculiar variations from case to case. A mathematical model +was made to calculate erosion. This was a model based not on physical +understanding but on empirical curve fitting. To be more detailed, it +was supposed a stream of hot gas impinged on the O-ring material, and +the heat was determined at the point of stagnation (so far, with +reasonable physical, thermodynamic laws). But to determine how much +rubber eroded it was assumed this depended only on this heat by a +formula suggested by data on a similar material. A logarithmic plot +suggested a straight line, so it was supposed that the erosion varied as +the .58 power of the heat, the .58 being determined by a nearest fit. At +any rate, adjusting some other numbers, it was determined that the model +agreed with the erosion (to depth of one-third the radius of the ring). +There is nothing much so wrong with this as believing the answer\! +Uncertainties appear everywhere. How strong the gas stream might be was +unpredictable, it depended on holes formed in the putty. Blow-by showed +that the ring might fail even though not, or only partially eroded +through. The empirical formula was known to be uncertain, for it did not +go directly through the very data points by which it was determined. +There were a cloud of points some twice above, and some twice below the +fitted curve, so erosions twice predicted were reasonable from that +cause alone. Similar uncertainties surrounded the other constants in the +formula, etc., etc. When using a mathematical model careful attention +must be given to uncertainties in the model. + +** ** + +**Liquid Fuel Engine (SSME)** + +During the flight of 51-L the three Space Shuttle Main Engines all +worked perfectly, even, at the last moment, beginning to shut down the +engines as the fuel supply began to fail. The question arises, however, +as to whether, had it failed, and we were to investigate it in as much +detail as we did the Solid Rocket Booster, we would find a similar lack +of attention to faults and a deteriorating reliability. In other words, +were the organization weaknesses that contributed to the accident +confined to the Solid Rocket Booster sector or were they a more general +characteristic of NASA? To that end the Space Shuttle Main Engines and +the avionics were both investigated. No similar study of the Orbiter, or +the External Tank were made. + +The engine is a much more complicated structure than the Solid Rocket +Booster, and a great deal more detailed engineering goes into it. +Generally, the engineering seems to be of high quality and apparently +considerable attention is paid to deficiencies and faults found in +operation. + +The usual way that such engines are designed (for military or civilian +aircraft) may be called the component system, or bottom-up design. First +it is necessary to thoroughly understand the properties and limitations +of the materials to be used (for turbine blades, for example), and tests +are begun in experimental rigs to determine those. With this knowledge +larger component parts (such as bearings) are designed and tested +individually. As deficiencies and design errors are noted they are +corrected and verified with further testing. Since one tests only parts +at a time these tests and modifications are not overly expensive. +Finally one works up to the final design of the entire engine, to the +necessary specifications. There is a good chance, by this time that the +engine will generally succeed, or that any failures are easily isolated +and analyzed because the failure modes, limitations of materials, etc., +are so well understood. There is a very good chance that the +modifications to the engine to get around the final difficulties are not +very hard to make, for most of the serious problems have already been +discovered and dealt with in the earlier, less expensive, stages of the +process. + +The Space Shuttle Main Engine was handled in a different manner, top +down, we might say. The engine was designed and put together all at once +with relatively little detailed preliminary study of the material and +components. Then when troubles are found in the bearings, turbine +blades, coolant pipes, etc., it is more expensive and difficult to +discover the causes and make changes. For example, cracks have been +found in the turbine blades of the high pressure oxygen turbopump. Are +they caused by flaws in the material, the effect of the oxygen +atmosphere on the properties of the material, the thermal stresses of +startup or shutdown, the vibration and stresses of steady running, or +mainly at some resonance at certain speeds, etc.? How long can we run +from crack initiation to crack failure, and how does this depend on +power level? Using the completed engine as a test bed to resolve such +questions is extremely expensive. One does not wish to lose an entire +engine in order to find out where and how failure occurs. Yet, an +accurate knowledge of this information is essential to acquire a +confidence in the engine reliability in use. Without detailed +understanding, confidence can not be attained. + +A further disadvantage of the top-down method is that, if an +understanding of a fault is obtained, a simple fix, such as a new shape +for the turbine housing, may be impossible to implement without a +redesign of the entire engine. + +The Space Shuttle Main Engine is a very remarkable machine. It has a +greater ratio of thrust to weight than any previous engine. It is built +at the edge of, or outside of, previous engineering experience. +Therefore, as expected, many different kinds of flaws and difficulties +have turned up. Because, unfortunately, it was built in the top-down +manner, they are difficult to find and fix. The design aim of a lifetime +of 55 missions equivalent firings (27,000 seconds of operation, either +in a mission of 500 seconds, or on a test stand) has not been obtained. +The engine now requires very frequent maintenance and replacement of +important parts, such as turbopumps, bearings, sheet metal housings, +etc. The high-pressure fuel turbopump had to be replaced every three or +four mission equivalents (although that may have been fixed, now) and +the high pressure oxygen turbopump every five or six. This is at most +ten percent of the original specification. But our main concern here is +the determination of reliability. + +In a total of about 250,000 seconds of operation, the engines have +failed seriously perhaps 16 times. Engineering pays close attention to +these failings and tries to remedy them as quickly as possible. This it +does by test studies on special rigs experimentally designed for the +flaws in question, by careful inspection of the engine for suggestive +clues (like cracks), and by considerable study and analysis. In this +way, in spite of the difficulties of top-down design, through hard work, +many of the problems have apparently been solved. + +\[**F3**\] A list of some of the problems follows. Those followed by an +asterisk (\*) are probably solved: + + - Turbine blade cracks in high pressure fuel turbopumps (HPFTP). (May + have been solved.) + - Turbine blade cracks in high pressure oxygen turbopumps (HPOTP). + - Augmented Spark Igniter (ASI) line rupture.\* + - Purge check valve failure.\* + - ASI chamber erosion.\* + - HPFTP turbine sheet metal cracking. + - HPFTP coolant liner failure.\* + - Main combustion chamber outlet elbow failure.\* + - Main combustion chamber inlet elbow weld offset.\* + - HPOTP subsynchronous whirl.\* + - Flight acceleration safety cutoff system (partial failure in a + redundant system).\* + - Bearing spalling (partially solved). + - A vibration at 4,000 Hertz making some engines inoperable, etc. + +Many of these solved problems are the early difficulties of a new +design, for 13 of them occurred in the first 125,000 seconds and only +three in the second 125,000 seconds. Naturally, one can never be sure +that all the bugs are out, and, for some, the fix may not have addressed +the true cause. Thus, it is not unreasonable to guess there may be at +least one surprise in the next 250,000 seconds, a probability of 1/500 +per engine per mission. On a mission there are three engines, but some +accidents would possibly be contained, and only affect one engine. The +system can abort with only two engines. Therefore let us say that the +unknown suprises do not, even of themselves, permit us to guess that the +probability of mission failure do to the Space Shuttle Main Engine is +less than 1/500. To this we must add the chance of failure from known, +but as yet unsolved, problems (those without the asterisk in the list +above). These we discuss below. (Engineers at Rocketdyne, the +manufacturer, estimate the total probability as 1/10,000. Engineers at +marshal estimate it as 1/300, while NASA management, to whom these +engineers report, claims it is 1/100,000. An independent engineer +consulting for NASA thought 1 or 2 per 100 a reasonable estimate.) + +The history of the certification principles for these engines is +confusing and difficult to explain. Initially the rule seems to have +been that two sample engines must each have had twice the time operating +without failure as the operating time of the engine to be certified +(rule of 2x). At least that is the FAA practice, and NASA seems to have +adopted it, originally expecting the certified time to be 10 missions +(hence 20 missions for each sample). Obviously the best engines to use +for comparison would be those of greatest total (flight plus test) +operating time -- the so-called "fleet leaders." But what if a third +sample and several others fail in a short time? Surely we will not be +safe because two were unusual in lasting longer. The short time might be +more representative of the real possibilities, and in the spirit of the +safety factor of 2, we should only operate at half the time of the +short-lived samples. + +The slow shift toward decreasing safety factor can be seen in many +examples. We take that of the HPFTP turbine blades. First of all the +idea of testing an entire engine was abandoned. Each engine number has +had many important parts (like the turbopumps themselves) replaced at +frequent intervals, so that the rule must be shifted from engines to +components. We accept an HPFTP for a certification time if two samples +have each run successfully for twice that time (and of course, as a +practical matter, no longer insisting that this time be as large as 10 +missions). But what is "successfully?" The FAA calls a turbine blade +crack a failure, in order, in practice, to really provide a safety +factor greater than 2. There is some time that an engine can run between +the time a crack originally starts until the time it has grown large +enough to fracture. (The FAA is contemplating new rules that take this +extra safety time into account, but only if it is very carefully +analyzed through known models within a known range of experience and +with materials thoroughly tested. None of these conditions apply to the +Space Shuttle Main Engine. + +Cracks were found in many second stage HPFTP turbine blades. In one case +three were found after 1,900 seconds, while in another they were not +found after 4,200 seconds, although usually these longer runs showed +cracks. To follow this story further we shall have to realize that the +stress depends a great deal on the power level. The Challenger flight +was to be at, and previous flights had been at, a power level called +104% of rated power level during most of the time the engines were +operating. Judging from some material data it is supposed that at the +level 104% of rated power level, the time to crack is about twice that +at 109% or full power level (FPL). Future flights were to be at this +level because of heavier payloads, and many tests were made at this +level. Therefore dividing time at 104% by 2, we obtain units called +equivalent full power level (EFPL). (Obviously, some uncertainty is +introduced by that, but it has not been studied.) The earliest cracks +mentioned above occurred at 1,375 EFPL. + +Now the certification rule becomes "limit all second stage blades to a +maximum of 1,375 seconds EFPL." If one objects that the safety factor of +2 is lost it is pointed out that the one turbine ran for 3,800 seconds +EFPL without cracks, and half of this is 1,900 so we are being more +conservative. We have fooled ourselves in three ways. First we have only +one sample, and it is not the fleet leader, for the other two samples of +3,800 or more seconds had 17 cracked blades between them. (There are 59 +blades in the engine.) Next we have abandoned the 2x rule and +substituted equal time. And finally, 1,375 is where we did see a crack. +We can say that no crack had been found below 1,375, but the last time +we looked and saw no cracks was 1,100 seconds EFPL. We do not know when +the crack formed between these times, for example cracks may have formed +at 1,150 seconds EFPL. (Approximately 2/3 of the blade sets tested in +excess of 1,375 seconds EFPL had cracks. Some recent experiments have, +indeed, shown cracks as early as 1,150 seconds.) It was important to +keep the number high, for the Challenger was to fly an engine very close +to the limit by the time the flight was over. + +Finally it is claimed that the criteria are not abandoned, and the +system is safe, by giving up the FAA convention that there should be no +cracks, and considering only a completely fractured blade a failure. +With this definition no engine has yet failed. The idea is that since +there is sufficient time for a crack to grow to a fracture we can insure +that all is safe by inspecting all blades for cracks. If they are found, +replace them, and if none are found we have enough time for a safe +mission. This makes the crack problem not a flight safety problem, but +merely a maintenance problem. + +This may in fact be true. But how well do we know that cracks always +grow slowly enough that no fracture can occur in a mission? Three +engines have run for long times with a few cracked blades (about 3,000 +seconds EFPL) with no blades broken off. + +But a fix for this cracking may have been found. By changing the blade +shape, shot-peening the surface, and covering with insulation to exclude +thermal shock, the blades have not cracked so far. + +A very similar story appears in the history of certification of the +HPOTP, but we shall not give the details here. + +It is evident, in summary, that the Flight Readiness Reviews and +certification rules show a deterioration for some of the problems of the +Space Shuttle Main Engine that is closely analogous to the deterioration +seen in the rules for the Solid Rocket Booster. + +** ** + +**Avionics** + +By "avionics" is meant the computer system on the Orbiter as well as its +input sensors and output actuators. At first we will restrict ourselves +to the computers proper and not be concerned with the reliability of the +input information from the sensors of \[**F4**\] temperature, pressure, +etc., nor with whether the computer output is faithfully followed by the +actuators of rocket firings, mechanical controls, displays to +astronauts, etc. + +The computer system is very elaborate, having over 250,000 lines of +code. It is responsible, among many other things, for the automatic +control of the entire ascent to orbit, and for the descent until well +into the atmosphere (below Mach 1) once one button is pushed deciding +the landing site desired. It would be possible to make the entire +landing automatically (except that the landing gear lowering signal is +expressly left out of computer control, and must be provided by the +pilot, ostensibly for safety reasons) but such an entirely automatic +landing is probably not as safe as a pilot controlled landing. During +orbital flight it is used in the control of payloads, in displaying +information to the astronauts, and the exchange of information to the +ground. It is evident that the safety of flight requires guaranteed +accuracy of this elaborate system of computer hardware and software. + +In brief, the hardware reliability is ensured by having four essentially +independent identical computer systems. Where possible each sensor also +has multiple copies, usually four, and each copy feeds all four of the +computer lines. If the inputs from the sensors disagree, depending on +circumstances, certain averages, or a majority selection is used as the +effective input. The algorithm used by each of the four computers is +exactly the same, so their inputs (since each sees all copies of the +sensors) are the same. Therefore at each step the results in each +computer should be identical. From time to time they are compared, but +because they might operate at slightly different speeds a system of +stopping and waiting at specific times is instituted before each +comparison is made. If one of the computers disagrees, or is too late in +having its answer ready, the three which do agree are assumed to be +correct and the errant computer is taken completely out of the system. +If, now, another computer fails, as judged by the agreement of the other +two, it is taken out of the system, and the rest of the flight canceled, +and descent to the landing site is instituted, controlled by the two +remaining computers. It is seen that this is a redundant system since +the failure of only one computer does not affect the mission. Finally, +as an extra feature of safety, there is a fifth independent computer, +whose memory is loaded with only the programs of ascent and descent, and +which is capable of controlling the descent if there is a failure of +more than two of the computers of the main line four. + +There is not enough room in the memory of the main line computers for +all the programs of ascent, descent, and payload programs in flight, so +the memory is loaded about four time from tapes, by the astronauts. + +Because of the enormous effort required to replace the software for such +an elaborate system, and for checking a new system out, no change has +been made to the hardware since the system began about fifteen years +ago. The actual hardware is obsolete; for example, the memories are of +the old ferrite core type. It is becoming more difficult to find +manufacturers to supply such old-fashioned computers reliably and of +high quality. Modern computers are very much more reliable, can run much +faster, simplifying circuits, and allowing more to be done, and would +not require so much loading of memory, for the memories are much larger. + +The software is checked very carefully in a bottom-up fashion. First, +each new line of code is checked, then sections of code or modules with +special functions are verified. The scope is increased step by step +until the new changes are incorporated into a complete system and +checked. This complete output is considered the final product, newly +released. But completely independently there is an independent +verification group, that takes an adversary attitude to the software +development group, and tests and verifies the software as if it were a +customer of the delivered product. There is additional verification in +using the new programs in simulators, etc. A discovery of an error +during verification testing is considered very serious, and its origin +studied very carefully to avoid such mistakes in the future. Such +unexpected errors have been found only about six times in all the +programming and program changing (for new or altered payloads) that has +been done. The principle that is followed is that all the verification +is not an aspect of program safety, it is merely a test of that safety, +in a non-catastrophic verification. Flight safety is to be judged solely +on how well the programs do in the verification tests. A failure here +generates considerable concern. + +To summarize then, the computer software checking system and attitude is +of the highest quality. There appears to be no process of gradually +fooling oneself while degrading standards so characteristic of the Solid +Rocket Booster or Space Shuttle Main Engine safety systems. To be sure, +there have been recent suggestions by management to curtail such +elaborate and expensive tests as being unnecessary at this late date in +Shuttle history. This must be resisted for it does not appreciate the +mutual subtle influences, and sources of error generated by even small +changes of one part of a program on another. There are perpetual +requests for changes as new payloads and new demands and modifications +are suggested by the users. Changes are expensive because they require +extensive testing. The proper way to save money is to curtail the number +of requested changes, not the quality of testing for each. + +One might add that the elaborate system could be very much improved by +more modern hardware and programming techniques. Any outside competition +would have all the advantages of starting over, and whether that is a +good idea for NASA now should be carefully considered. + +Finally, returning to the sensors and actuators of the avionics system, +we find that the attitude to system failure and reliability is not +nearly as good as for the computer system. For example, a difficulty was +found with certain temperature sensors sometimes failing. Yet 18 months +later the same sensors were still being used, still sometimes failing, +until a launch had to be scrubbed because two of them failed at the same +time. Even on a succeeding flight this unreliable sensor was used again. +Again reaction control systems, the rocket jets used for reorienting and +control in flight still are somewhat unreliable. There is considerable +redundancy, but a long history of failures, none of which has yet been +extensive enough to seriously affect flight. The action of the jets is +checked by sensors, and, if they fail to fire the computers choose +another jet to fire. But they are not designed to fail, and the problem +should be solved. + +** ** + +**Conclusions** + +If a reasonable launch schedule is to be maintained, engineering often +cannot be done fast enough to keep up with the expectations of +originally conservative certification criteria designed to guarantee a +very safe vehicle. In these situations, subtly, and often with +apparently logical arguments, the criteria are altered so that flights +may still be certified in time. They therefore fly in a relatively +unsafe condition, with a chance of failure of the order of a percent (it +is difficult to be more accurate). + +Official management, on the other hand, claims to believe the +probability of failure is a thousand times less. One reason for this may +be an attempt to assure the government of NASA perfection and success in +order to ensure the supply of funds. The other may be that they +sincerely believed it to be true, demonstrating an almost incredible +lack of communication between themselves and their working engineers. + +In any event this has had very unfortunate consequences, the most +serious of which is to encourage ordinary citizens to fly in such a +dangerous machine, as if it had attained the safety of an ordinary +airliner. The astronauts, like test pilots, should know their risks, and +we honor them for their courage. Who can doubt that McAuliffe was +equally a person of great courage, who was closer to an awareness of the +true risk than NASA management would have us believe? + +\[**F5**\] Let us make recommendations to ensure that NASA officials +deal in a world of reality in understanding technological weaknesses and +imperfections well enough to be actively trying to eliminate them. They +must live in reality in comparing the costs and utility of the Shuttle +to other methods of entering space. And they must be realistic in making +contracts, in estimating costs, and the difficulty of the projects. Only +realistic flight schedules should be proposed, schedules that have a +reasonable chance of being met. If in this way the government would not +support them, then so be it. NASA owes it to the citizens from whom it +asks support to be frank, honest, and informative, so that these +citizens can make the wisest decisions for the use of their limited +resources. + +For a successful technology, reality must take precedence over public +relations, for nature cannot be fooled. diff --git a/_stories/1988/1666445.md b/_stories/1988/1666445.md deleted file mode 100644 index fae8739..0000000 --- a/_stories/1988/1666445.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,25 +0,0 @@ ---- -created_at: '2010-09-06T11:22:36.000Z' -title: Dijkstra on the cruelty of really teaching computing science (1988) -url: http://userweb.cs.utexas.edu/users/EWD/transcriptions/EWD10xx/EWD1036.html -author: gnosis -points: 74 -story_text: '' -comment_text: -num_comments: 47 -story_id: -story_title: -story_url: -parent_id: -created_at_i: 1283772156 -_tags: -- story -- author_gnosis -- story_1666445 -objectID: '1666445' - ---- -[Source](http://userweb.cs.utexas.edu/users/EWD/transcriptions/EWD10xx/EWD1036.html "Permalink to ") - - - diff --git a/_stories/1988/9050597.md b/_stories/1988/9050597.md index 49eba5a..c953763 100644 --- a/_stories/1988/9050597.md +++ b/_stories/1988/9050597.md @@ -19,254 +19,59 @@ _tags: objectID: '9050597' --- -[Source](http://www.nytimes.com/1988/02/25/us/brain-wound-eliminates-man-s-mental-illness.html "Permalink to Brain Wound Eliminates Man's Mental Illness - NYTimes.com") - -# Brain Wound Eliminates Man's Mental Illness - NYTimes.com - -* [Log In][1] -* [Register Now][2] -* [Help][3] -* [Home Page][4] -* [Today's Paper][5] -* [Video][6] -* [Most Popular][7] - -Edition: [U.S.][4] / [Global][8] - -Search All NYTimes.com - -![New York Times][9] - -## [U.S.][10] - -* [World][11] -* [U.S.][10] - * [Politics][12] - * [Education][13] - * [Texas][14] -* [N.Y. / Region][15] -* [Business][16] -* [Technology][17] -* [Science][18] -* [Health][19] -* [Sports][20] -* [Opinion][21] -* [Arts][22] -* [Style][23] -* [Travel][24] -* [Jobs][25] -* [Real Estate][26] -* [Autos][27] - -# Brain Wound Eliminates Man's Mental Illness - -###### AP - -###### Published: February 25, 1988 - -Correction Appended - -**LOS ANGELES, Feb. 24— ** A mentally ill young man who shot himself in the head in a suicide attempt suffered a brain injury that apparently eliminated his phobia of germs and his obsession with washing his hands, doctors say. - -The .22-caliber slug destroyed the section of the brain responsible for his disabling obsessive-compulsive behavior without causing any other brain damage, his doctor said in a report in Physician's Weekly, a British journal of psychiatry. Victims of the disorder typically have an inexplicable compulsion to repeat activities over and over. - -The afflicted man, now a straight-A college student, tried to kill himself five years ago, when he was 19 years old, said Dr. Leslie Solyom, a psychiatrist at Shaughnessy Hospital in Vancouver, British Columbia. Effects of His Behavior - -The man, identified only as George, washed his hands hundreds of times a day and took frequent showers, Dr. Solyom said. The behavior had forced him to drop out of school and quit his job. - -Dr. Solyom treated him for more than a year before he tried suicide. - -''George was also very depressed and told his mother that his life was so wretched that he would rather die,'' Dr. Solyom related. ''She said, 'So look George, if your life is so wretched, just go and shoot yourself.' So George went to the basement, stuck a .22-caliber rifle in his mouth and pulled the trigger.'' - -The bullet lodged in the left front lobe of the brain. Surgeons removed it but could not get out all the fragments. - -''When he was transferred to our hospital three weeks later, he had hardly any compulsions left,'' Dr. Solyom said. - -George had also retained the same I.Q. he had before becoming ill, Dr. Solyum said, and he returned to school, got a new job and is now in his second year of college. #3% in U.S. May Be Compulsive The story was also reported in today's issue of The Los Angeles Times. - -New research indicates that as much as 3 percent of the United States population displays some obsessive-compulsive behavior, said Dr. Michael Jenike, a psychiatrist at Harvard University. - -Conventional psychotherapy is useless in such victims, Dr. Jenike said. The disorder is most effectively treated with a combination of antidepressant drugs and behavioral therapy. - -As a last resort, neurosurgeons will occasionally remove part of the left front lobe of the brain, where the obsessive behavior is thought to originate. The operation is probably performed between 10 and 30 times a year in the United States, with mixed results, said Dr. Thomas Ballantine of Massachusetts General Hospital in Boston. - -**Correction:** February 26, 1988, Friday, Late City Final Edition It is a medical news publication produced in New York City by Whittle Communications of Knoxville, Tenn. - -![][28] - -![][29] ![][30] - -#### Inside NYTimes.com - -| ----- | -| - -###### [Health »][19] - -![Too Hot to Handle][31] - -###### [Too Hot to Handle__][32] - - | - -###### [Arts »][33] - -![The Harmony of Liberty][34] - -###### [The Harmony of Liberty__][35] - - | - -###### [Opinion »][21] - -### [Should Beach Privatization Be Allowed?__][36] - -Room for Debate asks whether shorefront homeowners should have to open their land to all comers. - - | - -###### [Sports »][20] - -![A Woman’s Leadership May Steady Murray][37] - -###### [A Woman’s Leadership May Steady Murray__][38] - - | - - | - -###### [Opinion »][21] - -![Menagerie: Streaming Eagles][39] - 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+Correction Appended + +Correction Appended + +**LOS ANGELES, Feb. 24—** A mentally ill young man who shot himself in +the head in a suicide attempt suffered a brain injury that apparently +eliminated his phobia of germs and his obsession with washing his hands, +doctors say. + +The .22-caliber slug destroyed the section of the brain responsible for +his disabling obsessive-compulsive behavior without causing any other +brain damage, his doctor said in a report in Physician's Weekly, a +British journal of psychiatry. Victims of the disorder typically have an +inexplicable compulsion to repeat activities over and over. + +The afflicted man, now a straight-A college student, tried to kill +himself five years ago, when he was 19 years old, said Dr. Leslie +Solyom, a psychiatrist at Shaughnessy Hospital in Vancouver, British +Columbia. Effects of His Behavior + +The man, identified only as George, washed his hands hundreds of times a +day and took frequent showers, Dr. Solyom said. The behavior had forced +him to drop out of school and quit his job. + +Dr. Solyom treated him for more than a year before he tried suicide. + +''George was also very depressed and told his mother that his life was +so wretched that he would rather die,'' Dr. Solyom related. ''She said, +'So look George, if your life is so wretched, just go and shoot +yourself.' So George went to the basement, stuck a .22-caliber rifle in +his mouth and pulled the trigger.'' + +The bullet lodged in the left front lobe of the brain. Surgeons removed +it but could not get out all the fragments. + +''When he was transferred to our hospital three weeks later, he had +hardly any compulsions left,'' Dr. Solyom said. + +George had also retained the same I.Q. he had before becoming ill, Dr. +Solyum said, and he returned to school, got a new job and is now in his +second year of college. \#3% in U.S. May Be Compulsive The story was +also reported in today's issue of The Los Angeles Times. + +New research indicates that as much as 3 percent of the United States +population displays some obsessive-compulsive behavior, said Dr. Michael +Jenike, a psychiatrist at Harvard University. + +Conventional psychotherapy is useless in such victims, Dr. Jenike said. +The disorder is most effectively treated with a combination of +antidepressant drugs and behavioral therapy. + +As a last resort, neurosurgeons will occasionally remove part of the +left front lobe of the brain, where the obsessive behavior is thought to +originate. The operation is probably performed between 10 and 30 times a +year in the United States, with mixed results, said Dr. Thomas +Ballantine of Massachusetts General Hospital in Boston. diff --git a/_stories/1988/9964995.md b/_stories/1988/9964995.md index 6034725..0af5200 100644 --- a/_stories/1988/9964995.md +++ b/_stories/1988/9964995.md @@ -19,7 +19,646 @@ _tags: objectID: '9964995' --- -[Source](https://www.cs.utexas.edu/~EWD/transcriptions/EWD10xx/EWD1036.html "Permalink to ") +On the cruelty of really teaching computing science +The second part of this talk pursues some of the scientific and +educational consequences of the assumption that computers represent a +radical novelty. In order to give this assumption clear contents, we +have to be much more precise as to what we mean in this context by the +adjective "radical". We shall do so in the first part of this talk, in +which we shall furthermore supply evidence in support of our assumption. +The usual way in which we plan today for tomorrow is in yesterday's +vocabulary. We do so, because we try to get away with the concepts we +are familiar with and that have acquired their meanings in our past +experience. Of course, the words and the concepts don't quite fit +because our future differs from our past, but then we stretch them a +little bit. Linguists are quite familiar with the phenomenon that the +meanings of words evolve over time, but also know that this is a slow +and gradual process. +It is the most common way of trying to cope with novelty: by means of +metaphors and analogies we try to link the new to the old, the novel to +the familiar. Under sufficiently slow and gradual change, it works +reasonably well; in the case of a sharp discontinuity, however, the +method breaks down: though we may glorify it with the name "common +sense", our past experience is no longer relevant, the analogies become +too shallow, and the metaphors become more misleading than illuminating. +This is the situation that is characteristic for the "radical" novelty. + +Coping with radical novelty requires an orthogonal method. One must +consider one's own past, the experiences collected, and the habits +formed in it as an unfortunate accident of history, and one has to +approach the radical novelty with a blank mind, consciously refusing to +try to link it with what is already familiar, because the familiar is +hopelessly inadequate. One has, with initially a kind of split +personality, to come to grips with a radical novelty as a dissociated +topic in its own right. Coming to grips with a radical novelty amounts +to creating and learning a new foreign language that can not be +translated into one's mother tongue. (Any one who has learned quantum +mechanics knows what I am talking about.) Needless to say, adjusting to +radical novelties is not a very popular activity, for it requires hard +work. For the same reason, the radical novelties themselves are +unwelcome. + +By now, you may well ask why I have paid so much attention to and have +spent so much eloquence on such a simple and obvious notion as the +radical novelty. My reason is very simple: radical novelties are so +disturbing that they tend to be suppressed or ignored, to the extent +that even the possibility of their existence in general is more often +denied than admitted. + +On the historical evidence I shall be short. Carl Friedrich Gauss, the +Prince of Mathematicians but also somewhat of a coward, was certainly +aware of the fate of Galileo —and could probably have predicted the +calumniation of Einstein— when he decided to suppress his discovery of +non-Euclidean geometry, thus leaving it to Bolyai and Lobatchewsky to +receive the flak. It is probably more illuminating to go a little bit +further back, to the Middle Ages. One of its characteristics was that +"reasoning by analogy" was rampant; another characteristic was almost +total intellectual stagnation, and we now see why the two go together. A +reason for mentioning this is to point out that, by developing a keen +ear for unwarranted analogies, one can detect a lot of medieval thinking +today. + +The other thing I can not stress enough is that the fraction of the +population for which gradual change seems to be all but the only +paradigm of history is very large, probably much larger than you would +expect. Certainly when I started to observe it, their number turned out +to be much larger than I had expected. + +For instance, the vast majority of the mathematical community has never +challenged its tacit assumption that doing mathematics will remain very +much the same type of mental activity it has always been: new topics +will come, flourish, and go as they have done in the past, but, the +human brain being what it is, our ways of teaching, learning, and +understanding mathematics, of problem solving, and of mathematical +discovery will remain pretty much the same. Herbert Robbins clearly +states why he rules out a quantum leap in mathematical ability: + +> "Nobody is going to run 100 meters in five seconds, no matter how much +> is invested in training and machines. The same can be said about using +> the brain. The human mind is no different now from what it was five +> thousand years ago. And when it comes to mathematics, you must realize +> that this is the human mind at an extreme limit of its capacity." + +My comment in the margin was "so reduce the use of the brain and +calculate\!". Using Robbins's own analogy, one could remark that, for +going from A to B fast, there could now exist alternatives to running +that are orders of magnitude more effective. Robbins flatly refuses to +honour any alternative to time-honoured brain usage with the name of +"doing mathematics", thus exorcizing the danger of radical novelty by +the simple device of adjusting his definitions to his needs: simply by +definition, mathematics will continue to be what it used to be. So much +for the mathematicians. + +Let me give you just one more example of the widespread disbelief in the +existence of radical novelties and, hence, in the need of learning how +to cope with them. It is the prevailing educational practice, for which +gradual, almost imperceptible, change seems to be the exclusive +paradigm. How many educational texts are not recommended for their +appeal to the student's intuition\! They constantly try to present +everything that could be an exciting novelty as something as familiar as +possible. They consciously try to link the new material to what is +supposed to be the student's familiar world. It already starts with the +teaching of arithmetic. Instead of teaching 2 + 3 = 5 , the hideous +arithmetic operator "plus" is carefully disguised by calling it "and", +and the little kids are given lots of familiar examples first, with +clearly visible such as apples and pears, which are in, in contrast to +equally countable objects such as percentages and electrons, which are +out. The same silly tradition is reflected at university level in +different introductory calculus courses for the future physicist, +architect, or business major, each adorned with examples from the +respective fields. The educational dogma seems to be that everything is +fine as long as the student does not notice that he is learning +something really new; more often than not, the student's impression is +indeed correct. I consider the failure of an educational practice to +prepare the next generation for the phenomenon of radical novelties a +serious shortcoming. \[When King Ferdinand visited the conservative +university of Cervera, the Rector proudly reassured the monarch with the +words; "Far be from us, Sire, the dangerous novelty of thinking.". +Spain's problems in the century that followed justify my +characterization of the shortcoming as "serious".\] So much for +education's adoption of the paradigm of gradual change. + +The concept of radical novelties is of contemporary significance +because, while we are ill-prepared to cope with them, science and +technology have now shown themselves expert at inflicting them upon us. +Earlier scientific examples are the theory of relativity and quantum +mechanics; later technological examples are the atom bomb and the pill. +For decades, the former two gave rise to a torrent of religious, +philosophical, or otherwise quasi-scientific tracts. We can daily +observe the profound inadequacy with which the latter two are +approached, be it by our statesmen and religious leaders or by the +public at large. So much for the damage done to our peace of mind by +radical novelties. + +I raised all this because of my contention that automatic computers +represent a radical novelty and that only by identifying them as such +can we identify all the nonsense, the misconceptions and the mythology +that surround them. Closer inspection will reveal that it is even worse, +viz. that automatic computers embody not only one radical novelty but +two of them. + +The first radical novelty is a direct consequence of the raw power of +today's computing equipment. We all know how we cope with something big +and complex; divide and rule, i.e. we view the whole as a compositum of +parts and deal with the parts separately. And if a part is too big, we +repeat the procedure. The town is made up from neighbourhoods, which are +structured by streets, which contain buildings, which are made from +walls and floors, that are built from bricks, etc. eventually down to +the elementary particles. And we have all our specialists along the +line, from the town planner, via the architect to the solid state +physicist and further. Because, in a sense, the whole is "bigger" than +its parts, the depth of a hierarchical decomposition is some sort of +logarithm of the ratio of the "sizes" of the whole and the ultimate +smallest parts. From a bit to a few hundred megabytes, from a +microsecond to a half an hour of computing confronts us with completely +baffling ratio of 109\! The programmer is in the unique position that +his is the only discipline and profession in which such a gigantic +ratio, which totally baffles our imagination, has to be bridged by a +single technology. He has to be able to think in terms of conceptual +hierarchies that are much deeper than a single mind ever needed to face +before. Compared to that number of semantic levels, the average +mathematical theory is almost flat. By evoking the need for deep +conceptual hierarchies, the automatic computer confronts us with a +radically new intellectual challenge that has no precedent in our +history. + +Again, I have to stress this radical novelty because the true believer +in gradual change and incremental improvements is unable to see it. For +him, an automatic computer is something like the familiar cash register, +only somewhat bigger, faster, and more flexible. But the analogy is +ridiculously shallow: it is orders of magnitude worse than comparing, as +a means of transportation, the supersonic jet plane with a crawling +baby, for that speed ratio is only a thousand. + +The second radical novelty is that the automatic computer is our first +large-scale digital device. We had a few with a noticeable discrete +component: I just mentioned the cash register and can add the typewriter +with its individual keys: with a single stroke you can type either a Q +or a W but, though their keys are next to each other, not a mixture of +those two letters. But such mechanisms are the exception, and the vast +majority of our mechanisms are viewed as analogue devices whose +behaviour is over a large range a continuous function of all parameters +involved: if we press the point of the pencil a little bit harder, we +get a slightly thicker line, if the violinist slightly misplaces his +finger, he plays slightly out of tune. To this I should add that, to the +extent that we view ourselves as mechanisms, we view ourselves primarily +as analogue devices: if we push a little harder we expect to do a little +better. Very often the behaviour is not only a continuous but even a +monotonic function: to test whether a hammer suits us over a certain +range of nails, we try it out on the smallest and largest nails of the +range, and if the outcomes of those two experiments are positive, we are +perfectly willing to believe that the hammer will suit us for all nails +in between. + +It is possible, and even tempting, to view a program as an abstract +mechanism, as a device of some sort. To do so, however, is highly +dangerous: the analogy is too shallow because a program is, as a +mechanism, totally different from all the familiar analogue devices we +grew up with. Like all digitally encoded information, it has unavoidably +the uncomfortable property that the smallest possible perturbations +—i.e. changes of a single bit— can have the most drastic consequences. +\[For the sake of completness I add that the picture is not essentially +changed by the introduction of redundancy or error correction.\] In the +discrete world of computing, there is no meaningful metric in which +"small" changes and "small" effects go hand in hand, and there never +will be. + +This second radical novelty shares the usual fate of all radical +novelties: it is denied, because its truth would be too discomforting. I +have no idea what this specific denial and disbelief costs the United +States, but a million dollars a day seems a modest guess. + +Having described —admittedly in the broadest possible terms— the nature +of computing's novelties, I shall now provide the evidence that these +novelties are, indeed, radical. I shall do so by explaining a number of +otherwise strange phenomena as frantic —but, as we now know, doomed— +efforts at hiding or denying the frighteningly unfamiliar. + +A number of these phenomena have been bundled under the name "Software +Engineering". As economics is known as "The Miserable Science", software +engineering should be known as "The Doomed Discipline", doomed because +it cannot even approach its goal since its goal is self-contradictory. +Software engineering, of course, presents itself as another worthy +cause, but that is eyewash: if you carefully read its literature and +analyse what its devotees actually do, you will discover that software +engineering has accepted as its charter "How to program if you cannot.". + +The popularity of its name is enough to make it suspect. In what we +denote as "primitive societies", the superstition that knowing someone's +true name gives you magic power over him is not unusual. We are hardly +less primitive: why do we persist here in answering the telephone with +the most unhelpful "hello" instead of our name? + +Nor are we above the equally primitive superstition that we can gain +some control over some unknown, malicious demon by calling it by a safe, +familiar, and innocent name, such as "engineering". But it is totally +symbolic, as one of the US computer manufacturers proved a few years ago +when it hired, one night, hundreds of new "software engineers" by the +simple device of elevating all its programmers to that exalting rank. So +much for that term. + +The practice is pervaded by the reassuring illusion that programs are +just devices like any others, the only difference admitted being that +their manufacture might require a new type of craftsmen, viz. +programmers. From there it is only a small step to measuring "programmer +productivity" in terms of "number of lines of code produced per month". +This is a very costly measuring unit because it encourages the writing +of insipid code, but today I am less interested in how foolish a unit it +is from even a pure business point of view. My point today is that, if +we wish to count lines of code, we should not regard them as "lines +produced" but as "lines spent": the current conventional wisdom is so +foolish as to book that count on the wrong side of the ledger. + +Besides the notion of productivity, also that of quality control +continues to be distorted by the reassuring illusion that what works +with other devices works with programs as well. It is now two decades +since it was pointed out that program testing may convincingly +demonstrate the presence of bugs, but can never demonstrate their +absence. After quoting this well-publicized remark devoutly, the +software engineer returns to the order of the day and continues to +refine his testing strategies, just like the alchemist of yore, who +continued to refine his chrysocosmic purifications. + +Unfathomed misunderstanding is further revealed by the term "software +maintenance", as a result of which many people continue to believe that +programs —and even programming languages themselves— are subject to wear +and tear. Your car needs maintenance too, doesn't it? Famous is the +story of the oil company that believed that its PASCAL programs did not +last as long as its FORTRAN programs "because PASCAL was not +maintained". + +In the same vein I must draw attention to the astonishing readiness with +which the suggestion has been accepted that the pains of software +production are largely due to a lack of appropriate "programming tools". +(The telling "programmer's workbench" was soon to follow.) Again, the +shallowness of the underlying analogy is worthy of the Middle Ages. +Confrontations with insipid "tools" of the "algorithm-animation" variety +has not mellowed my judgement; on the contrary, it has confirmed my +initial suspicion that we are primarily dealing with yet another +dimension of the snake oil business. + +Finally, to correct the possible impression that the inability to face +radical novelty is confined to the industrial world, let me offer you an +explanation of the —at least American— popularity of Artificial +Intelligence. One would expect people to feel threatened by the "giant +brains or machines that think". In fact, the frightening computer +becomes less frightening if it is used only to simulate a familiar +noncomputer. I am sure that this explanation will remain controversial +for quite some time, for Artificial Intelligence as mimicking the human +mind prefers to view itself as at the front line, whereas my explanation +relegates it to the rearguard. (The effort of using machines to mimic +the human mind has always struck me as rather silly: I'd rather use them +to mimic something better.) + +So much for the evidence that the computer's novelties are, indeed, +radical. + +And now comes the second —and hardest— part of my talk: the scientific +and educational consequences of the above. The educational consequences +are, of course, the hairier ones, so let's postpone their discussion and +stay for a while with computing science itself. What is computing? And +what is a science of computing about? + +Well, when all is said and done, the only thing computers can do for us +is to manipulate symbols and produce results of such manipulations. From +our previous observations we should recall that this is a discrete world +and, moreover, that both the number of symbols involved and the amount +of manipulation performed are many orders of magnitude larger than we +can envisage: they totally baffle our imagination and we must therefore +not try to imagine them. + +But before a computer is ready to perform a class of meaningful +manipulations —or calculations, if you prefer— we must write a program. +What is a program? Several answers are possible. We can view the program +as what turns the general-purpose computer into a special-purpose symbol +manipulator, and does so without the need to change a single wire (This +was an enormous improvement over machines with problem-dependent wiring +panels.) I prefer to describe it the other way round: the program is an +abstract symbol manipulator, which can be turned into a concrete one by +supplying a computer to it. After all, it is no longer the purpose of +programs to instruct our machines; these days, it is the purpose of +machines to execute our programs. + +So, we have to design abstract symbol manipulators. We all know what +they look like: they look like programs or —to use somewhat more general +terminology— usually rather elaborate formulae from some formal system. +It really helps to view a program as a formula. Firstly, it puts the +programmer's task in the proper perspective: he has to derive that +formula. Secondly, it explains why the world of mathematics all but +ignored the programming challenge: programs were so much longer formulae +than it was used to that it did not even recognize them as such. Now +back to the programmer's job: he has to derive that formula, he has to +derive that program. We know of only one reliable way of doing that, +viz. by means of symbol manipulation. And now the circle is closed: we +construct our mechanical symbol manipulators by means of human symbol +manipulation. + +Hence, computing science is —and will always be— concerned with the +interplay between mechanized and human symbol manipulation, usually +referred to as "computing" and "programming" respectively. An immediate +benefit of this insight is that it reveals "automatic programming" as a +contradiction in terms. A further benefit is that it gives us a clear +indication where to locate computing science on the world map of +intellectual disciplines: in the direction of formal mathematics and +applied logic, but ultimately far beyond where those are now, for +computing science is interested in effective use of formal methods and +on a much, much, larger scale than we have witnessed so far. Because no +endeavour is respectable these days without a TLA (= Three-Letter +Acronym), I propose that we adopt for computing science FMI (= Formal +Methods Initiative), and, to be on the safe side, we had better follow +the shining examples of our leaders and make a Trade Mark of it. + +In the long run I expect computing science to transcend its parent +disciplines, mathematics and logic, by effectively realizing a +significant part of Leibniz's Dream of providing symbolic calculation as +an alternative to human reasoning. (Please note the difference between +"mimicking" and "providing an alternative to": alternatives are allowed +to be better.) + +Needless to say, this vision of what computing science is about is not +universally applauded. On the contrary, it has met widespread —and +sometimes even violent— opposition from all sorts of directions. I +mention as examples + +(0) the mathematical guild, which would rather continue to believe that +the Dream of Leibniz is an unrealistic illusion + +(1) the business community, which, having been sold to the idea that +computers would make life easier, is mentally unprepared to accept that +they only solve the easier problems at the price of creating much harder +ones + +(2) the subculture of the compulsive programmer, whose ethics prescribe +that one silly idea and a month of frantic coding should suffice to make +him a life-long millionaire + +(3) computer engineering, which would rather continue to act as if it is +all only a matter of higher bit rates and more flops per second + +(4) the military, who are now totally absorbed in the business of using +computers to mutate billion-dollar budgets into the illusion of +automatic safety + +(5) all soft sciences for which computing now acts as some sort of +interdisciplinary haven + +(6) the educational business that feels that, if it has to teach formal +mathematics to CS students, it may as well close its schools. + +And with this sixth example I have reached, imperceptibly but also alas +unavoidably, the most hairy part of this talk: educational consequences. + +The problem with educational policy is that it is hardly influenced by +scientific considerations derived from the topics taught, and almost +entirely determined by extra-scientific circumstances such as the +combined expectations of the students, their parents and their future +employers, and the prevailing view of the role of the university: is the +stress on training its graduates for today's entry-level jobs or to +providing its alumni with the intellectual bagage and attitudes that +will last them another 50 years? Do we grudgingly grant the abstract +sciences only a far-away corner on campus, or do we recognize them as +the indispensable motor of the high-technology industry? Even if we do +the latter, do we recognize a high-technology industry as such if its +technology primarily belongs to formal mathematics? Do the universities +provide for society the intellectual leadership it needs or only the +training it asks for? + +Traditional academic rhetoric is perfectly willing to give to these +questions the reassuring answers, but I don't believe them. By way of +illustration of my doubts, in a recent article on "Who Rules Canada?", +David H. Flaherty bluntly states "Moreover, the business elite dismisses +traditional academics and intellectuals as largely irrelevant and +powerless.". + +So, if I look into my foggy crystal ball at the future of computing +science education, I overwhelmingly see the depressing picture of +"Business as usual". The universities will continue to lack the courage +to teach hard science, they will continue to misguide the students, and +each next stage of infantilization of the curriculum will be hailed as +educational progress. + +I now have had my foggy crystal ball for quite a long time. Its +predictions are invariably gloomy and usually correct, but I am quite +used to that and they won't keep me from giving you a few suggestions, +even if it is merely an exercise in futility whose only effect is to +make you feel guilty. + +We could, for instance, begin with cleaning up our language by no longer +calling a bug a bug but by calling it an error. It is much more honest +because it squarely puts the blame where it belongs, viz. with the +programmer who made the error. The animistic metaphor of the bug that +maliciously sneaked in while the programmer was not looking is +intellectually dishonest as it disguises that the error is the +programmer's own creation. The nice thing of this simple change of +vocabulary is that it has such a profound effect: while, before, a +program with only one bug used to be "almost correct", afterwards a +program with an error is just "wrong" (because in error). + +My next linguistical suggestion is more rigorous. It is to fight the +"if-this-guy-wants-to-talk-to-that-guy" syndrome: never refer to parts +of programs or pieces of equipment in an anthropomorphic terminology, +nor allow your students to do so. This linguistical improvement is much +harder to implement than you might think, and your department might +consider the introduction of fines for violations, say a quarter for +undergraduates, two quarters for graduate students, and five dollars for +faculty members: by the end of the first semester of the new regime, you +will have collected enough money for two scholarships. + +The reason for this last suggestion is that the anthropomorphic metaphor +—for whose introduction we can blame John von Neumann— is an enormous +handicap for every computing community that has adopted it. I have now +encountered programs wanting things, knowing things, expecting things, +believing things, etc., and each time that gave rise to avoidable +confusions. The analogy that underlies this personification is so +shallow that it is not only misleading but also paralyzing. + +It is misleading in the sense that it suggests that we can adequately +cope with the unfamiliar discrete in terms of the familiar continuous, +i.e. ourselves, quod non. It is paralyzing in the sense that, because +persons exist and act in time, its adoption effectively prevents a +departure from operational semantics and thus forces people to think +about programs in terms of computational behaviours, based on an +underlying computational model. This is bad, because operational +reasoning is a tremendous waste of mental effort. + +Let me explain to you the nature of that tremendous waste, and allow me +to try to convince you that the term "tremendous waste of mental effort" +is not an exaggeration. For a short while, I shall get highly technical, +but don't get frightened: it is the type of mathematics that one can do +with one's hands in one's pockets. The point to get across is that if we +have to demonstrate something about all the elements of a large set, it +is hopelessly inefficient to deal with all the elements of the set +individually: the efficient argument does not refer to individual +elements at all and is carried out in terms of the set's definition. + +Consider the plane figure Q, defined as the 8 by 8 square from which, at +two opposite corners, two 1 by 1 squares have been removed. The area of +Q is 62, which equals the combined area of 31 dominos of 1 by 2. The +theorem is that the figure Q cannot be covered by 31 of such dominos. + +Another way of stating the theorem is that if you start with squared +paper and begin covering this by placing each next domino on two new +adjacent squares, no placement of 31 dominos will yield the figure Q. + +So, a possible way of proving the theorem is by generating all possible +placements of dominos and verifying for each placement that it does not +yield the figure Q: a tremendously laborious job. + +The simple argument, however is as follows. Colour the squares of the +squared paper as on a chess board. Each domino, covering two adjacent +squares, covers 1 white and 1 black square, and, hence, each placement +covers as many white squares as it covers black squares. In the figure +Q, however, the number of white squares and the number of black squares +differ by 2 —opposite corners lying on the same diagonal— and hence no +placement of dominos yields figure Q. + +Not only is the above simple argument many orders of magnitude shorter +than the exhaustive investigation of the possible placements of 31 +dominos, it is also essentially more powerful, for it covers the +generalization of Q by replacing the original 8 by 8 square by any +rectangle with sides of even length. The number of such rectangles being +infinite, the former method of exhaustive exploration is essentially +inadequate for proving our generalized theorem. + +And this concludes my example. It has been presented because it +illustrates in a nutshell the power of down-to-earth mathematics; +needless to say, refusal to exploit this power of down-to-earth +mathematics amounts to intellectual and technological suicide. The moral +of the story is: deal with all elements of a set by ignoring them and +working with the set's definition. + +Back to programming. The statement that a given program meets a certain +specification amounts to a statement about all computations that could +take place under control of that given program. And since this set of +computations is defined by the given program, our recent moral says: +deal with all computations possible under control of a given program by +ignoring them and working with the program. We must learn to work with +program texts while (temporarily) ignoring that they admit the +interpretation of executable code. + +Another way of saying the same thing is the following one. A programming +language, with its formal syntax and with the proof rules that define +its semantics, is a formal system for which program execution provides +only a model. It is well-known that formal systems should be dealt with +in their own right, and not in terms of a specific model. And, again, +the corollary is that we should reason about programs without even +mentioning their possible "behaviours". + +And this concludes my technical excursion into the reason why +operational reasoning about programming is "a tremendous waste of mental +effort" and why, therefore, in computing science the anthropomorphic +metaphor should be banned. + +Not everybody understands this sufficiently well. I was recently exposed +to a demonstration of what was pretended to be educational software for +an introductory programming course. With its "visualizations" on the +screen it was such an obvious case of curriculum infantilization that +its author should be cited for "contempt" of the student body", but this +was only a minor offense compared with what the visualizations were used +for: they were used to display all sorts of features of computations +evolving under control of the student's program\! The system highlighted +precisely what the student has to learn to ignore, it reinforced +precisely what the student has to unlearn. Since breaking out of bad +habits, rather than acquiring new ones, is the toughest part of +learning, we must expect from that system permanent mental damage for +most students exposed to it. + +Needless to say, that system completely hid the fact that, all by +itself, a program is no more than half a conjecture. The other half of +the conjecture is the functional specification the program is supposed +to satisfy. The programmer's task is to present such complete +conjectures as proven theorems. + +Before we part, I would like to invite you to consider the following way +of doing justice to computing's radical novelty in an introductory +programming course. + +On the one hand, we teach what looks like the predicate calculus, but we +do it very differently from the philosophers. In order to train the +novice programmer in the manipulation of uninterpreted formulae, we +teach it more as boolean algebra, familiarizing the student with all +algebraic properties of the logical connectives. To further sever the +links to intuition, we rename the values {true, false} of the boolean +domain as {black, white}. + +On the other hand, we teach a simple, clean, imperative programming +language, with a skip and a multiple assignment as basic statements, +with a block structure for local variables, the semicolon as operator +for statement composition, a nice alternative construct, a nice +repetition and, if so desired, a procedure call. To this we add a +minimum of data types, say booleans, integers, characters and strings. +The essential thing is that, for whatever we introduce, the +corresponding semantics is defined by the proof rules that go with it. + +Right from the beginning, and all through the course, we stress that the +programmer's task is not just to write down a program, but that his main +task is to give a formal proof that the program he proposes meets the +equally formal functional specification. While designing proofs and +programs hand in hand, the student gets ample opportunity to perfect his +manipulative agility with the predicate calculus. Finally, in order to +drive home the message that this introductory programming course is +primarily a course in formal mathematics, we see to it that the +programming language in question has not been implemented on campus so +that students are protected from the temptation to test their programs. +And this concludes the sketch of my proposal for an introductory +programming course for freshmen. + +This is a serious proposal, and utterly sensible. Its only disadvantage +is that it is too radical for many, who, being unable to accept it, are +forced to invent a quick reason for dismissing it, no matter how +invalid. I'll give you a few quick reasons. + +You don't need to take my proposal seriously because it is so ridiculous +that I am obviously completely out of touch with the real world. But +that kite won't fly, for I know the real world only too well: the +problems of the real world are primarily those you are left with when +you refuse to apply their effective solutions. So, let us try again. + +You don't need to take my proposal seriously because it is utterly +unrealistic to try to teach such material to college freshmen. Wouldn't +that be an easy way out? You just postulate that this would be far too +difficult. But that kite won't fly either for the postulate has been +proven wrong: since the early 80's, such an introductory programming +course has successfully been given to hundreds of college freshmen each +year. \[Because, in my experience, saying this once does not suffice, +the previous sentence should be repeated at least another two times.\] +So, let us try again. + +Reluctantly admitting that it could perhaps be taught to sufficiently +docile students, you yet reject my proposal because such a course would +deviate so much from what 18-year old students are used to and expect +that inflicting it upon them would be an act of educational +irresponsibility: it would only frustrate the students. Needless to say, +that kite won't fly either. It is true that the student that has never +manipulated uninterpreted formulae quickly realizes that he is +confronted with something totally unlike anything he has ever seen +before. But fortunately, the rules of manipulation are in this case so +few and simple that very soon thereafter he makes the exciting discovery +that he is beginning to master the use of a tool that, in all its +simplicity, gives him a power that far surpasses his wildest dreams. + +Teaching to unsuspecting youngsters the effective use of formal methods +is one of the joys of life because it is so extremely rewarding. Within +a few months, they find their way in a new world with a justified degree +of confidence that is radically novel for them; within a few months, +their concept of intellectual culture has acquired a radically novel +dimension. To my taste and style, that is what education is about. +Universities should not be afraid of teaching radical novelties; on the +contrary, it is their calling to welcome the opportunity to do so. Their +willingness to do so is our main safeguard against dictatorships, be +they of the proletariat, of the scientific establishment, or of the +corporate elite. + +Austin, 2 December 1988 + +prof. dr. Edsger W. Dijkstra +Department of Computer Sciences +The University of Texas at Austin +Austin, TX 78712-1188 +USA + +Transcription by Javier Smaldone. +Revised Tue, 12 May 2009. diff --git a/_stories/1989/15428846.md b/_stories/1989/15428846.md index 01db62d..1238dd7 100644 --- a/_stories/1989/15428846.md +++ b/_stories/1989/15428846.md @@ -19,7 +19,282 @@ _tags: objectID: '15428846' --- -[Source](https://bombmagazine.org/article/1269/kazuo-ishiguro "Permalink to ") +Kazuo Ishiguro sprang to international prominence with the publication +of his second novel, An Artist of the Floating World, which won the 1986 +Whitbread Book of the Year prize and was shortlisted for the Booker. It +is about a Japanese painter who, having once enjoyed great popular +success, finds himself the victim of a revisionist post-war culture, +shunned and despised for the incorrect political choices he made in the +’30s. The Remains of the Day, out this fall from Knopf, works a +similar theme, though this time our narrator is a very English butler +called Stevens, who reflects upon the long years of service he gave to a +nobleman prominent in British politics in the 1930s. +Stevens is a glorious creation, stiff on the outside, touchingly blind +and pathetic within. He agonizes over the question of what makes a +“great” butler, what is dignity, and how to acquire the ability to +banter. It’s a mark of Ishiguro’s technical assurance and delicacy of +touch that he can softly laugh at his character while at the same time +suggesting the deep sadness of his frigid emotional nature. There is, +too, at the heart of the novel a quiet examination of British +anti-Semitism in the ’30s. Swift talked to Ishiguro in London. +Graham Swift You were born in Japan and came to England when you were +five … How Japanese would you say you are? +Kazuo Ishiguro I’m not entirely like English people because I’ve been +brought up by Japanese parents in a Japanese-speaking home. My parents +didn’t realize that we were going to stay in this country for so long, +they felt responsible for keeping me in touch with Japanese values. I do +have a distinct background. I think differently, my perspectives are +slightly different. + +GS Would you say that the rest of you is English? Do you feel +particularly English? + +KI People are not two-thirds one thing and the remainder something else. +Temperament, personality, or outlook don’t divide quite like that. The +bits don’t separate clearly. You end up a funny homogeneous mixture. +This is something that will become more common in the latter part of the +century—people with mixed cultural backgrounds, and mixed racial +backgrounds. That’s the way the world is going. + +GS You are one of a number of English writers, your contemporaries, who +are precisely that: they were born outside England. Do you identify with +them? I’m thinking of people like Timothy Mo, Salman Rushdie, Ben Okri … + +KI There is a big difference between someone in my position and someone +who has come from one of the countries that belonged to the British +Empire. There is a very special and very potent relationship between +someone brought up in India, with a very powerful notion of Britain as +the mother country, and the source of modernity and culture and +education. + +GS The experience of empire from the other end. Yet it’s true that in +two of your novels, which you could loosely call Japanese novels, A Pale +View of Hills and An Artist of the Floating World, you have dealt with +the ruins of empire, Japanese empire. These are post-war novels. Your +latest novel, The Remains of the Day, is set in the ’50s, in postwar +England. It seems to be as concerned as An Artist of the Floating +World with mistaken allegiances and ideals of an imperial period: +pre-war Britain in the ’30s, Japan in the ’30s. There is a similarity +there. + +KI I chose these settings for a particular reason: they are potent for +my themes. I tend to be attracted to pre-war and post-war settings +because I’m interested in this business of values and ideals being +tested, and people having to face up to the notion that their ideals +weren’t quite what they thought they were before the test came. In all +three books the Second World War is present. + +GS The Remains of the Day, has for its central character, a butler. One +tends to think of butlers in literary association with detective novels +or comedy, stage farces, but your butler is a very serious figure +indeed. How did you alight on this character? + +KI The butler is a good metaphor for the relationship of very ordinary, +small people to power. Most of us aren’t given governments to run or +coup d’etats to lead. We have to offer up the little services we have +perfected to various people: to causes, to employers, to organizations +and hope for the best—that we approve of the way it gets used. This is a +condition that I want to write about. It struck me that the figure of +the butler, the man who serves, someone who is so close and yet so very +far from the hub of power would be a useful person to write through. And +there’s the other reason that you’ve hinted at … It’s precisely because +the butler has become such a mythical figure in British culture. I’ve +always found that bizarre and amusing. This has got something to do with +the fact that I come from a Japanese background. There are certain +things that are very exotic to me about Englishness. + +GS Although, you could say that the butler is a figure who leads, by +necessity, a very stylized existence. Dignity is enormously important to +this character. There is a resemblance with Japan—that feeling of +dignity, service, life as a kind of performance. There is a strong echo +of An Artist of the Floating World. The central character of that novel, +Masuji Ono, is also concerned with dignity. Yet Stevens is a much less +self-knowing and more pathetic character. He seems to have this terrible +blindness about his own experience. The only thing which redeems him is +the enormous importance he attaches to dignity. Do you think of dignity +as a virtue? + +KI I’m not quite sure what dignity is, you see. This is part of the +debate in The Remains of the Day. Stevens is obsessed with this thing +that he calls dignity. He thinks dignity has to do with not showing your +feelings, in fact he thinks dignity has to do with not having feelings. + +GS It’s to do with the suppression of feelings. + +KI Yes, being something less than human. He somehow thinks that turning +yourself into some animal that will carry out the duties you’ve been +given to such an extent that you don’t have feelings, or anything that +undermines your professional self, is dignity. People are prone to +equate having feelings with weakness. The book debates that notion of +dignity—not having emotions against another concept of dignity. The +dignity given to human beings when they have a certain amount of control +over their lives. The dignity that democracy gives to ordinary people. +In the end, no one can argue that Stevens has been very dignified in one +sense: he starts to question whether there isn’t something profoundly +undignified about a condition he has rather unthinkingly given all his +loyalty to. A cause in which he has no control over the moral value of +how his talents are spent. + +GS And that cause proves to be, however honorably it began, a mistaken +one. + +KI Yes. + +GS There is of course a whole other area, even more extreme and even +more poignant. Stevens seems to have suppressed completely the +possibility he once had of a love affair with the former housekeeper, +Miss Kenton. He is now taking a rare holiday, to visit her. He hasn’t +seen her for a long time. He’s going back to this crucial moment in the +past. Yet, nothing he says actually constitutes an admission of his +feelings over the matter. The novel succeeds in a very difficult area. +That’s to say, you have a character who is articulate and intelligent to +a degree, and yet he doesn’t seem to have any power of self-analysis or +self-recognition. That’s very hard to get away with. Did you find it +difficult to do? + +KI He ends up saying the sorts of things he does because somewhere deep +down he knows which things he has to avoid. He is intelligent enough, in +the true sense of the word, to perceive the danger areas, and this +controls how his narrative goes. The book is written in the language of +self-deception. Why he says certain things, why he brings up certain +topics at certain moments, is not random. It’s controlled by the things +that he doesn’t say. That’s what motivates the narrative. He is in this +painful condition where at some level he does know what’s happening, but +he hasn’t quite brought it to the front. And he has a certain amount of +skill in trying to persuade himself that it’s not there. He’s articulate +and intelligent enough to do quite a good self-deception job. + +GS You talk about the language of self-deception. That is a language +that is developed with all your main narrator figures. It particularly +revolves around the fallibility of memory. Your characters seem to +forget and remember at their own convenience or they remember things in +the wrong context or they remember one event elided with another. What +is involved is a process of conscious or unconscious evasion. How +knowing would you say this is? + +KI Knowing on their part? + +GS Yes. + +KI At some level they have to know what they have to avoid and that +determines the routes they take through memory, and through the past. +There’s no coincidence that they’re usually worrying over the past. +They’re worrying because they sense there isn’t something quite right +there. But of course memory is this terribly treacherous terrain, the +very ambiguities of memory go to feed self-deception. And so quite +often, we have situations where the license of the person to keep +inventing versions of what happened in the past is rapidly beginning to +run out. The results of one’s life, the accountability of one’s life is +beginning to catch up. + +GS After Stevens has visited Miss Kenton, the former housekeeper, he +goes to sit by the sea and cries. This is a kind of facing up to +himself, a kind of coming clean, but perhaps also a moment of another +kind of dignity. There is a dignity that goes with the recognition of +loss and failure. A dignity way beyond Stevens’s scheme of things, and +yet he acquires it. + +KI Yes. + +GS Painfully. + +KI It’s the dignity of being human, of being honest. I suppose, with +Stevens and with the painter, Ono, in the last book, that would be the +appeal I would make on their behalf. Yes, they’re often pompous and +despicable. They have contributed to rather ugly causes. If there is any +plea on their behalf, it is that they have some sense of dignity as +human beings, that ultimately there is something heroic about coming to +terms with very painful truths about yourself. + +GS You seem to have quite a complicated view of dignity. There is a kind +of dignity in the process of writing itself. One could say that your own +style has its dignity. I wonder how much you think that for the artist +or the writer there is a perennial problem, which is not unlike +Stevens’s. There is an inherent dignity; grace in art itself; yet, +when it becomes involved in big affairs, politics and so on, this can be +both an extension of the sphere of art and very ensnaring. Ono, in An +Artist of the Floating World, has been an artist in a very pure sense. +The ‘floating world’ is all about beauty and transience, pure art. It’s +when he puts his talent in the service of politics, that everything goes +wrong in his life. Was he wrong to have done that? Is it bad for art to +be put in the service of politics? Is it right that art should concern +itself with social and political things? + +KI It’s right that artists always have to ask themselves these +questions, all the time. A writer, and artists in general, occupy a very +particular and crucial role in society. The question isn’t, “should they +or should they not?” It’s always, “to what extent?” What is appropriate +in any given context? I think this changes with time, depending upon +what country you’re in, or which sector of society you occupy. It’s a +question that artists and writers have to ask every day of their lives. + +Obviously, it isn’t good enough to just ponder and sit on the fence +forever. There has to come a point when you say, “No matter the +imperfections of a particular cause, it has to be supported because the +alternatives are disastrous.” The difficulty is judging when. There is +something about the act of writing novels in particular, which makes it +appropriate to actually defer the moment of commitment to quite a late +point. The nature of what a novel is means that it’s very unequipped for +front line campaigning. If you take issue with certain legislation +that’s being debated, you’re better off writing letters to the press, +writing articles in the media. The strength of the novel is that it gets +read at a deeper level; it gets read over a long stretch of time by +generations with a future. There is something about the form of a novel +that makes it appropriate to political debate at a more fundamental, +deeper, more universal level. I’ve been involved in certain campaigns +about homelessness but I’ve never brought any of that into my novel +writing. + +GS Are you writing another novel? + +KI I’m trying to get going. I’ve got books out of the library. It takes +me a long, long time to start writing the actual drafts. The actual +writing of the words, I can do in under a year, but the background work +takes a long time. Getting myself familiar with the territory I’m going +to enter. I have to more or less know what my themes are, what the +emphasis will be in the book, I have to know about the characters…. + +GS Before you even put pen to paper. + +KI Yes, I’m a very cautious writer in that sense. I can’t do the +business of shoving a blank piece of paper in the typewriter and having +a brain-storming session to see what comes out. I have to have a very +clear map next to me. + +GS Do you find that in practice you actually adhere to your plan? + +KI Yes. More and more. Less so for my first novel. One of the lessons I +tried to teach myself between my first and second novel was thematic +discipline. However attractive a certain plot development, or idea may +be that you stumble across in the process of writing, if it’s not going +to serve the overall architecture, you must leave it, and keep pursuing +what you wish to pursue. I had the experience in my first novel of +having certain things upstage the subjects I really wanted to explore. +But now I’m beginning to crave the brilliant messiness that certain +writers can achieve through, I suspect, not sticking to their map. + +GS From following their noses. + +KI I have these two god-like figures in my reading experience: Chekhov +and Dostoevsky. So far, in my writing career, I’ve aspired more to the +Chekhov: the spare and the precise, the carefully, controlled tone. But +I do sometimes envy the utter mess, the chaos of Dostoevsky. He does +reach some things that you can’t reach in any other way than by doing +that. + +GS You can’t reach it by a plan. + +KI Yes, there is something in that messiness itself that has great +value. Life is messy. I sometimes wonder, should books be so neat, +well-formed? Is it praise to say that book is beautifully structured? Is +it a criticism to say that bits of the book don’t hang together? + +GS I think it’s a matter of how it stays or doesn’t stay with the +reader. + +KI I feel like a change. There’s another side of my writing self that I +need to explore: the messy, chaotic, undisciplined side. The undignified +side. diff --git a/_stories/1989/16199541.md b/_stories/1989/16199541.md index 982a5ae..9b6fc9f 100644 --- a/_stories/1989/16199541.md +++ b/_stories/1989/16199541.md @@ -19,277 +19,336 @@ _tags: objectID: '16199541' --- -[Source](http://www.nytimes.com/1989/07/02/magazine/the-joys-of-victimhood.html?pagewanted=2&pagewanted=all "Permalink to THE JOYS OF VICTIMHOOD - NYTimes.com") - -# THE JOYS OF VICTIMHOOD - NYTimes.com - -* [Log In][1] -* [Register Now][2] -* [Help][3] -* [Home Page][4] -* [Today's Paper][5] -* [Video][6] -* [Most Popular][7] - -Edition: [U.S.][4] / [Global][8] - -Search All NYTimes.com - -![New York Times][9] - -## [Magazine][10] - -* [World][11] -* [U.S.][12] -* [N.Y. / Region][13] -* [Business][14] -* [Technology][15] -* [Science][16] -* [Health][17] -* [Sports][18] -* [Opinion][19] -* [Arts][20] -* [Style][21] -* [Travel][22] -* [Jobs][23] -* [Real Estate][24] -* [Autos][25] - -# THE JOYS OF VICTIMHOOD - -###### By Joseph Epstein; Joseph Epstein's most recent book is ''Partial Payments.'' - -###### Published: July 2, 1989 - -A SHAME THERE ISN'T A MA-chine, the sociological equivalent of a seismograph, that registers fundamental shifts in social attitudes and concerns. In the absence of such a machine, we all have to operate with our own often rather primitive social radar, taking our signals where we find them. When one's dentist, for example, begins to say ''pasta'' instead of spaghetti or noodles, one knows that the interest in cookery has fully swept the middle classes. When one sees Mafia men jogging and worrying about their cholesterol, one knows that anxiety about health really is endemic. What began as a fad becomes a trend, which becomes a shift, which finally becomes a serious change in the way we live and think about ourselves. - -My own fairly low-voltage radar has been pinging away for some while on another such shift, and last summer, while I was watching the Democratic National Convention on television, it began to bleep furiously in my mind. The noise could no longer be avoided when, at the moment that Ann Richards, the Texas State Treasurer, completed her strong keynote speech, the commentator on the television network I was watching remarked (as near as I can recall), ''Ann Richards is a divorced mother of four who has undergone rehabilitation for an alcohol problem.'' Earlier in the campaign, Kitty Dukakis had announced that she had undergone treatment for an addiction she had to diet pills. During his speech at the convention, Jesse Jackson, in speaking of his own origins, declared that he was an illegitimate child, and then he wove a speech around the metaphor of the Democratic Party being a quilt both made by and supplying warmth to all those elements in American life - minority groups, homosexuals, American Indians (or Native Americans, as they're now known), welfare families, and many others - who, in Mr. Jackson's reading, were America's victims. Eight and even four years earlier, the Democratic Party had advertised itself as the party of concern. Last summer, though, the Democratic Party seemed to have cut out the middleman and gone from ''caring persons'' straight to victims. The logic of the convention seemed to call for Michael Dukakis, on the night of his nomination, to arrive in an iron lung and announce that he was a lesbian mother. - -Victims have never been in short supply in the world, but the rush to identify oneself as a victim is rather a new feature of modern life. Why this should be so isn't very complicated: to position oneself as a victim is to position oneself for sympathy, special treatment, even victory. It's not only individuals who benefit. In international politics, one sees the deliberate strategy of positioning for victimhood played out in the Middle East. Although Israel is a country of fewer than four million Jewish people surrounded by Arab nations numbering some 200 million people, very few of whom mean the Israelis well, the Arabs have somehow been able to make themselves - or at least the Palestinians as their representatives - seem the great victims in the Middle East. Every time a woman or a small child is injured in the organized riots known as the intifada - one might ask why small children are allowed anywhere near such danger - the victimhood of the Palestinians is reinforced and their cause, as victims, made all the stronger. - -Gandhi was the great teacher of the art of victimhood, of setting one's victimization on full public display. Part of the genius of the Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. was to recognize the value of Gandhi's lessons for the American civil rights movement, and most especially the lesson of nonviolent resistance, which not only highlights victimhood but gives it, in a good cause, a genuinely moral aura. Their moral and physical courage lent civil rights workers in the South an appeal that was irresistible to all but the most hard-hearted of segregationists. Americans, all of whose families began in this country as immigrants, have a built-in tradition of having known victimhood, at least historically, and hence a strong tendency toward sympathy for victims. - -Yet it was the civil rights movement, by my reckoning, that changed the tenor, the quality, the very nature of victimhood in the United States. I happened to be living in the South in the early 1960's, working as a director of the antipoverty program in Little Rock, Ark., while the civil rights movement was under way in full earnest. What I saw was a number of bad laws called into question and ultimately removed by acts of courage and wise restraint on the part of the victims of those laws. One really had to have nailed shut the shutters to one's heart not to have been moved by the spectacle of men and women risking everything to gain only what in fairness was coming to them. It was immensely impressive, on every level. Why? Because the early civil rights movement's appeal was unmistakably not to the guilt but to the conscience of the nation. - -An appeal to conscience is an appeal to one's ethical nature, to one's sense of fair play; it is fundamentally an appeal to act upon the best that is in one. An appeal to guilt is almost entirely negative; rather than awaken the best in one, it reminds one what a dog one is. Conscience seeks its outlet in action, or right conduct; guilt seeks assuagement, or to find a way to be let off the hook. - -The civil rights movement, like a spiritual oil spill, left a vast residue of guilt in its wake. Suddenly, if you were white you couldn't possibly be in the right. Such civil rights figures as Stokely Carmichael and H. Rap Brown - and not they alone -were endlessly reminding everyone that their forebears were brought to this country against their will in chains by our forebears. (That my forebears themselves fled a 25-year conscription in the czar's army and your forebears fled the peril of another potato famine was judged beside the point.) This abundant stirring up of guilt may have produced little in the way of direct social change, but it did without doubt strike its target - so profoundly that social scientists began to write about a ''culture of guilt.'' The guilt that was loosed, moreover, was of a kind that had no outlet. What are you supposed to do, after all, if someone blames you for slavery, a hideous institution, to be sure, but one defunct for more than a century? Say you are sorry it ever happened? Should you clear your throat and announce that there are historical reasons for some of these things? - -And yet if you couldn't fight 'em, you could, spiritually at any rate, attempt to join 'em. The most efficient way to do so was not to deny the claims of militant blacks but instead set out claims of your own to victimhood alongside theirs. One saw this happen straightaway with the student protest movement of the late 1960's and early 1970's. Many students of those days not only claimed victimhood but claimed it precisely on the black model. Students were powerless, they said, they were exploited. Powerless, exploited, thoroughly alienated. Those were the claims of one group after another - 60's students, feminists, homosexuals, Vietnam veterans, the handicapped, even artists. Yea, verily, they would all overcome, except over whom? Who was left to be overcome? It soon began to seem as if there wasn't anyone in American life who couldn't find grounds for claiming to be a victim. - -Small wonder, too, for victimhood has not only its privileges but its pleasures. To begin with, it allows one to save one's greatest sympathy for that most sympathetic of characters -oneself. Of the various kinds and degrees of pity, easily the most vigilant is self-pity. To stake out one's own territory as a victim, or member of a victim group, also allows one to cut the moral ground out from under others who make an appeal on the basis of their victimhood - to go off singing, as it were, ''You've got your troubles, I've got mine.'' - -THE PLEASURES OF VICTIM-hood include imbuing one's life with a sense of drama. The drama of daily life is greatly heightened if one feels that society is organized against one. - -To feel oneself excluded and set apart is no longer obviously or even necessarily a bad thing. A victim cannot properly be thought bourgeois or middle-class in any significant way, which in some circles is itself meritorious. Excluded, set apart, alienated, the victim begins to sound like no one so much as the modern artist. - -Artists have for some while now liked to think of themselves as victims. Whole books - usually overwrought, rather boring books - have been written about the alienation of the artist in modern society. The bill of complaint states that the artist is undervalued, underappreciated - like the soft drink Dr Pepper in an old television commercial, so misunderstood. Best-selling novelists are driven in limousines to give lectures whose main message is that the artist in America has no place to rest his head. Painters with serious real estate holdings rant against a vile and philistine coun-try. Artists meanwhile maintain permanent victim status, which, it is understood, no public recognition or financial success can ever hope to diminish. - -Like other victim groups, artists can be exceedingly touchy. I once sat in a room where grants in the arts were being discussed, and I had the temerity to wonder aloud about the usefulness of a series of grants to support places where writers might meet to discuss their own and one another's work. Did writers truly need such institutions, I asked, being in the trade some years myself and never having felt the need of them. In response, a rather famous novelist replied with a lengthy exegesis on the loneliness of the writer who spends months, often years on the same project, filled with doubt, encouraged by no one, stirred only by the passion to create something that no one may eventually want. . . . Did she, I wondered (this time to myself), show slides with that talk? It reminded me of H. L. Mencken's remark that whenever he heard writers complain about the loneliness of their work he recommended that they spend a few days on the assembly line, where they would have plenty of opportunities for camaraderie with their mates. - -Sometimes it must be difficult for the spokesmen for victims to keep up the anger - Jesse Jackson in an expensive suit, Gloria Steinem at a socialite party at the New York Public Library - but, whether simulated or real, the note of outrage always seems to be there when they need it. A victim, especially a professional victim, must at all times be angry, suspicious, above all progress-denying. He or she is ever on the lookout for that touch of racism, sexism, or homophobia that might show up in a stray opinion, an odd locution, an uninformed misnomer. With victims everywhere, life becomes a minefield in a cow pasture - no matter where you step, you are in trouble. - -As if all this isn't nervous-making enough, there has come into being a large number of people, many of them in universities, who, if not victims themselves, wish to speak for victims or rouse other people to a sense of their injury as victims. They are the intellectual equivalent of ambulance chasers. - -Perhaps the best place to see the traffic of victims and ambulance chasers in full flow is in the contemporary university. I don't think it's stretching things to say that nowadays if you cannot declare victim status, or find some way to align yourself with putative victims, in the contemporary university you don't figure to have much standing. Victimisme, to Frenchify the condition, is very much where the action is in universities. Women's centers, African-American studies programs, student gay and lesbian programs, and those ultimate intellectual ambulance chasers, academic Marxists, all hammer cheerfully away at revealing what a perfect hell life has been, and continues to be, for almost everyone in the world. And yet they all seem so happy in their work: the young man wearing a smile and a black T-shirt with the pink triangle that Hitler forced homosexuals under the Nazis to wear; the young female professor and her graduate student sharing an intimate scornful laugh at the hopeless sexist assumptions of an older male professor; the recently tenured Marxist theorist in the black leather jacket and Bertolt Brecht haircut. Happy victims all. - -One might conceivably be a victim if one works in a coal mine or a steel mill or in the fields as a sharecropper, but no one who works as a teacher in a university, or for that matter is a student there, is a victim. To have a teaching job in a university is to work roughly seven months a year in a generally Edenic setting at intellectual tasks largely of one's own choosing. Relativity of relativities, a victim among university teachers is someone who isn't permitted to teach the Shakespeare course, or who feels he has stupid students, or whose office is drafty, or who doesn't get tenure (which is lifetime security in the job) and therefore must find another job within (usually) the next 16 months. These are not exactly the kinds of problem faced by, say, boat people fleeing Cambodia. - -Yet an increasing number of university teachers nowadays teach one or another branch of victimology -what might not unfairly be called Victim Lit. The more prestige-laden the school, the more victimological studies are likely to be a strong component in its curriculum. ''Unfortunately,'' writes a black Harvard graduate named Christopher H. Foreman Jr. in a letter to The New Republic about ethnic sensitivity training at Harvard, ''the psychological comfort of being simultaneously privileged and oppressed seems too enticing for many people to forgo.'' Harvard, Yale, Princeton, Stanford and other only scarcely less august institutions compete among themselves lest they be caught without a goodly supply of angry teachers of victimological subjects. Irony of ironies, nuttiness of nuttinesses, the scene thus presented is that of the fortunate teaching the privileged that the world is by and large divided between the oppressed and the oppressors, victims and executioners, and that the former are inevitably morally superior. As a tuition-paying parent, I used sometimes to think, writing out those heavy checks to universities, that the only true victims in this entire arrangement were those of us who helped to pay for it all. - -Such a situation could never have come about without certain fundamental confusions having been firmly established, and these begin with language itself. Victims have traditionally been minority groups, but in fact women, who in the United States are a slight majority, have been deemed victims, whereas the Jews and the Chinese in America, though clearly minorities (and vastly less numerous than blacks or Hispanic people), are not usually counted as victims and thus rarely get included in affirmative action or other quota favoritism programs. A victim, then, is someone who insistently declares himself a victim. - -People who count and call themselves victims never blame themselves for their condition. They therefore have to find enemies. Forces high and low block their progress: society is organized against them; history is not on their side; the malevolent, who are always in ample supply, conspire to keep them down. Asked by an interviewer in Time magazine about violence in schools that are all-black -that is, violence by blacks against blacks - the novelist Toni Morrison replies, ''None of those things can take place, you know, without the complicity of the people who run the schools and the city.'' - -For victimhood to be taken seriously, there has to be a core of substance to the victim's complaints. Blacks were discriminated against, de facto and de jure, in this country for a very long while. Women were paid lower wages for doing the same work as men and they were indubitably excluded from jobs they were perfectly capable of performing. Mexican-Americans often worked under deplorable conditions. A case for victimhood cannot simply be invented, though some people try. I recall some time ago watching a television program that stressed the problems of the unwed teen-age father. Greatly gripping though they doubtless were, I remember muttering to myself: the unwed father, another victim group - who'd've thunk it? - -Even when there is a core of substance to the victims' complaints, they tend to push it. A subtle shift takes place, and suddenly the victim is no longer making appeals but demands. The terms lady and homosexual are out; it's only woman and gay that are acceptable. Public pronouncements from victims take on a slightly menacing quality, in which, somehow, the line between victim and bully seems to blur. At some point, one gets the sense that the victims actively enjoy their victimhood - enjoy the moral vantage point it gives them to tell off the rest of the country, to overstate their case, to absolve themselves from all responsibility for their condition, to ask the impossible and then demonstrate outrage when it isn't delivered. - -Apparently, the victims of our day rather like this state of affairs. I say ''apparently'' because it has been many years since any of the victim groups have shown anything approaching a genuine interest in organization. Instead, they seem to function chiefly as loose repositories for the expression of resentment. A strong sign of this is the striking absence of leadership in any of the major victim movements of the time: black, women, gay. The Rainbow Coalition - it might more accurately be called the Victim Coalition - isn't cutting it. Like the wild rookie pitcher in the movie ''Bull Durham,'' the various victim groups are ''all over the place'': blaming racism for black teen-age crime, male psychology for capitalism, the Government for AIDS. There is something fundamentally unserious about all of this. Whereas once the idea was to shake off victimhood through courage and organization, nowadays the idea seems to be to enjoy it for its emotional effects. - -Not many other people seem to be enjoying it, though. The reserves of guilt that victims once felt they could draw on now appear all but depleted. White ethnics and others have begun to feel themselves the victims of affirmative action and other favoritism programs, so that we have the phenomenon of victims created by victims. Those whom the victims have been attacking all these years are themselves beginning to feel like victims. It's a real growth industry. When I recently read, in The Times Literary Supplement of London, at the close of a review of two books on adultery, that ''Adultery is built upon, even aimed at, female unhappiness,'' I wondered if the T.L.S. would one day soon carry an angry answering letter from a man representing a society of cuckolds. - -Just the other day I heard a fresh euphemism for what used to be known as ''the handicapped.'' Take a moment to breathe in deeply before I set it out on the page, for I think it might take your breath away. The handicapped, in this new euphemism, are ''the physically challenged.'' Somebody, obviously, has been working overtime. - -Yet I cannot help think of the contempt in which that euphemism is likely to be held by the people I know who are seriously handicapped. These people do not in the least think themselves physically challenged; instead, they know that they have to undergo endless small and infuriating difficulties that the rest of us have been spared. They have been kicked, very hard, in the stomach by fate. Without denying or attempting to disguise the effects of this devastating kick, they neither whine about it nor protest it. - -As it happens, these people are all intensely political (they are liberals and conservatives), but the last thing I can imagine any of them doing is using his handicap for political advantage or for that matter in any public way either to define or advance himself. Because they neither act as nor think of themselves as victims, in the end they seem, far from victimized, immensely dignified and quietly heroic. Although it was never their intention to do so, they make the contemporary joys of victimhood -the assumption of moral superiority, the spread of guilt and bad feeling, the shifting of responsibility for one's own destiny onto others or the ''system'' or society at large - seem rather dreary, if not pathetic. 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http://up.nytimes.com/?d=0//&t=&s=0&ui=&r=&u=www.nytimes.com%2F1989%2F07%2F02%2Fmagazine%2Fthe-joys-of-victimhood.html - +A SHAME THERE ISN'T A MA-chine, the sociological equivalent of a +seismograph, that registers fundamental shifts in social attitudes and +concerns. In the absence of such a machine, we all have to operate with +our own often rather primitive social radar, taking our signals where we +find them. When one's dentist, for example, begins to say ''pasta'' +instead of spaghetti or noodles, one knows that the interest in cookery +has fully swept the middle classes. When one sees Mafia men jogging and +worrying about their cholesterol, one knows that anxiety about health +really is endemic. What began as a fad becomes a trend, which becomes a +shift, which finally becomes a serious change in the way we live and +think about ourselves. + +My own fairly low-voltage radar has been pinging away for some while on +another such shift, and last summer, while I was watching the Democratic +National Convention on television, it began to bleep furiously in my +mind. The noise could no longer be avoided when, at the moment that Ann +Richards, the Texas State Treasurer, completed her strong keynote +speech, the commentator on the television network I was watching +remarked (as near as I can recall), ''Ann Richards is a divorced mother +of four who has undergone rehabilitation for an alcohol problem.'' +Earlier in the campaign, Kitty Dukakis had announced that she had +undergone treatment for an addiction she had to diet pills. During his +speech at the convention, Jesse Jackson, in speaking of his own origins, +declared that he was an illegitimate child, and then he wove a speech +around the metaphor of the Democratic Party being a quilt both made by +and supplying warmth to all those elements in American life - minority +groups, homosexuals, American Indians (or Native Americans, as they're +now known), welfare families, and many others - who, in Mr. Jackson's +reading, were America's victims. Eight and even four years earlier, the +Democratic Party had advertised itself as the party of concern. Last +summer, though, the Democratic Party seemed to have cut out the +middleman and gone from ''caring persons'' straight to victims. The +logic of the convention seemed to call for Michael Dukakis, on the night +of his nomination, to arrive in an iron lung and announce that he was a +lesbian mother. + +Victims have never been in short supply in the world, but the rush to +identify oneself as a victim is rather a new feature of modern life. Why +this should be so isn't very complicated: to position oneself as a +victim is to position oneself for sympathy, special treatment, even +victory. It's not only individuals who benefit. In international +politics, one sees the deliberate strategy of positioning for victimhood +played out in the Middle East. Although Israel is a country of fewer +than four million Jewish people surrounded by Arab nations numbering +some 200 million people, very few of whom mean the Israelis well, the +Arabs have somehow been able to make themselves - or at least the +Palestinians as their representatives - seem the great victims in the +Middle East. Every time a woman or a small child is injured in the +organized riots known as the intifada - one might ask why small children +are allowed anywhere near such danger - the victimhood of the +Palestinians is reinforced and their cause, as victims, made all the +stronger. + +Gandhi was the great teacher of the art of victimhood, of setting one's +victimization on full public display. Part of the genius of the Rev. Dr. +Martin Luther King Jr. was to recognize the value of Gandhi's lessons +for the American civil rights movement, and most especially the lesson +of nonviolent resistance, which not only highlights victimhood but gives +it, in a good cause, a genuinely moral aura. Their moral and physical +courage lent civil rights workers in the South an appeal that was +irresistible to all but the most hard-hearted of segregationists. +Americans, all of whose families began in this country as immigrants, +have a built-in tradition of having known victimhood, at least +historically, and hence a strong tendency toward sympathy for victims. + +Yet it was the civil rights movement, by my reckoning, that changed the +tenor, the quality, the very nature of victimhood in the United States. +I happened to be living in the South in the early 1960's, working as a +director of the antipoverty program in Little Rock, Ark., while the +civil rights movement was under way in full earnest. What I saw was a +number of bad laws called into question and ultimately removed by acts +of courage and wise restraint on the part of the victims of those laws. +One really had to have nailed shut the shutters to one's heart not to +have been moved by the spectacle of men and women risking everything to +gain only what in fairness was coming to them. It was immensely +impressive, on every level. Why? Because the early civil rights +movement's appeal was unmistakably not to the guilt but to the +conscience of the nation. + +An appeal to conscience is an appeal to one's ethical nature, to one's +sense of fair play; it is fundamentally an appeal to act upon the best +that is in one. An appeal to guilt is almost entirely negative; rather +than awaken the best in one, it reminds one what a dog one is. +Conscience seeks its outlet in action, or right conduct; guilt seeks +assuagement, or to find a way to be let off the hook. + +The civil rights movement, like a spiritual oil spill, left a vast +residue of guilt in its wake. Suddenly, if you were white you couldn't +possibly be in the right. Such civil rights figures as Stokely +Carmichael and H. Rap Brown - and not they alone -were endlessly +reminding everyone that their forebears were brought to this country +against their will in chains by our forebears. (That my forebears +themselves fled a 25-year conscription in the czar's army and your +forebears fled the peril of another potato famine was judged beside the +point.) This abundant stirring up of guilt may have produced little in +the way of direct social change, but it did without doubt strike its +target - so profoundly that social scientists began to write about a +''culture of guilt.'' The guilt that was loosed, moreover, was of a kind +that had no outlet. What are you supposed to do, after all, if someone +blames you for slavery, a hideous institution, to be sure, but one +defunct for more than a century? Say you are sorry it ever happened? +Should you clear your throat and announce that there are historical +reasons for some of these things? + +And yet if you couldn't fight 'em, you could, spiritually at any rate, +attempt to join 'em. The most efficient way to do so was not to deny the +claims of militant blacks but instead set out claims of your own to +victimhood alongside theirs. One saw this happen straightaway with the +student protest movement of the late 1960's and early 1970's. Many +students of those days not only claimed victimhood but claimed it +precisely on the black model. Students were powerless, they said, they +were exploited. Powerless, exploited, thoroughly alienated. Those were +the claims of one group after another - 60's students, feminists, +homosexuals, Vietnam veterans, the handicapped, even artists. Yea, +verily, they would all overcome, except over whom? Who was left to be +overcome? It soon began to seem as if there wasn't anyone in American +life who couldn't find grounds for claiming to be a victim. + +Small wonder, too, for victimhood has not only its privileges but its +pleasures. To begin with, it allows one to save one's greatest sympathy +for that most sympathetic of characters -oneself. Of the various kinds +and degrees of pity, easily the most vigilant is self-pity. To stake out +one's own territory as a victim, or member of a victim group, also +allows one to cut the moral ground out from under others who make an +appeal on the basis of their victimhood - to go off singing, as it were, +''You've got your troubles, I've got mine.'' + +THE PLEASURES OF VICTIM-hood include imbuing one's life with a sense of +drama. The drama of daily life is greatly heightened if one feels that +society is organized against one. + +To feel oneself excluded and set apart is no longer obviously or even +necessarily a bad thing. A victim cannot properly be thought bourgeois +or middle-class in any significant way, which in some circles is itself +meritorious. Excluded, set apart, alienated, the victim begins to sound +like no one so much as the modern artist. + +Artists have for some while now liked to think of themselves as victims. +Whole books - usually overwrought, rather boring books - have been +written about the alienation of the artist in modern society. The bill +of complaint states that the artist is undervalued, underappreciated - +like the soft drink Dr Pepper in an old television commercial, so +misunderstood. Best-selling novelists are driven in limousines to give +lectures whose main message is that the artist in America has no place +to rest his head. Painters with serious real estate holdings rant +against a vile and philistine coun-try. Artists meanwhile maintain +permanent victim status, which, it is understood, no public recognition +or financial success can ever hope to diminish. + +Like other victim groups, artists can be exceedingly touchy. I once sat +in a room where grants in the arts were being discussed, and I had the +temerity to wonder aloud about the usefulness of a series of grants to +support places where writers might meet to discuss their own and one +another's work. Did writers truly need such institutions, I asked, being +in the trade some years myself and never having felt the need of them. +In response, a rather famous novelist replied with a lengthy exegesis on +the loneliness of the writer who spends months, often years on the same +project, filled with doubt, encouraged by no one, stirred only by the +passion to create something that no one may eventually want. . . . Did +she, I wondered (this time to myself), show slides with that talk? It +reminded me of H. L. Mencken's remark that whenever he heard writers +complain about the loneliness of their work he recommended that they +spend a few days on the assembly line, where they would have plenty of +opportunities for camaraderie with their mates. + +Sometimes it must be difficult for the spokesmen for victims to keep up +the anger - Jesse Jackson in an expensive suit, Gloria Steinem at a +socialite party at the New York Public Library - but, whether simulated +or real, the note of outrage always seems to be there when they need it. +A victim, especially a professional victim, must at all times be angry, +suspicious, above all progress-denying. He or she is ever on the lookout +for that touch of racism, sexism, or homophobia that might show up in a +stray opinion, an odd locution, an uninformed misnomer. With victims +everywhere, life becomes a minefield in a cow pasture - no matter where +you step, you are in trouble. + +As if all this isn't nervous-making enough, there has come into being a +large number of people, many of them in universities, who, if not +victims themselves, wish to speak for victims or rouse other people to a +sense of their injury as victims. They are the intellectual equivalent +of ambulance chasers. + +Perhaps the best place to see the traffic of victims and ambulance +chasers in full flow is in the contemporary university. I don't think +it's stretching things to say that nowadays if you cannot declare victim +status, or find some way to align yourself with putative victims, in the +contemporary university you don't figure to have much standing. +Victimisme, to Frenchify the condition, is very much where the action is +in universities. Women's centers, African-American studies programs, +student gay and lesbian programs, and those ultimate intellectual +ambulance chasers, academic Marxists, all hammer cheerfully away at +revealing what a perfect hell life has been, and continues to be, for +almost everyone in the world. And yet they all seem so happy in their +work: the young man wearing a smile and a black T-shirt with the pink +triangle that Hitler forced homosexuals under the Nazis to wear; the +young female professor and her graduate student sharing an intimate +scornful laugh at the hopeless sexist assumptions of an older male +professor; the recently tenured Marxist theorist in the black leather +jacket and Bertolt Brecht haircut. Happy victims all. + +One might conceivably be a victim if one works in a coal mine or a steel +mill or in the fields as a sharecropper, but no one who works as a +teacher in a university, or for that matter is a student there, is a +victim. To have a teaching job in a university is to work roughly seven +months a year in a generally Edenic setting at intellectual tasks +largely of one's own choosing. Relativity of relativities, a victim +among university teachers is someone who isn't permitted to teach the +Shakespeare course, or who feels he has stupid students, or whose office +is drafty, or who doesn't get tenure (which is lifetime security in the +job) and therefore must find another job within (usually) the next 16 +months. These are not exactly the kinds of problem faced by, say, boat +people fleeing Cambodia. + +Yet an increasing number of university teachers nowadays teach one or +another branch of victimology -what might not unfairly be called Victim +Lit. The more prestige-laden the school, the more victimological studies +are likely to be a strong component in its curriculum. +''Unfortunately,'' writes a black Harvard graduate named Christopher H. +Foreman Jr. in a letter to The New Republic about ethnic sensitivity +training at Harvard, ''the psychological comfort of being simultaneously +privileged and oppressed seems too enticing for many people to forgo.'' +Harvard, Yale, Princeton, Stanford and other only scarcely less august +institutions compete among themselves lest they be caught without a +goodly supply of angry teachers of victimological subjects. Irony of +ironies, nuttiness of nuttinesses, the scene thus presented is that of +the fortunate teaching the privileged that the world is by and large +divided between the oppressed and the oppressors, victims and +executioners, and that the former are inevitably morally superior. As a +tuition-paying parent, I used sometimes to think, writing out those +heavy checks to universities, that the only true victims in this entire +arrangement were those of us who helped to pay for it all. + +Such a situation could never have come about without certain fundamental +confusions having been firmly established, and these begin with language +itself. Victims have traditionally been minority groups, but in fact +women, who in the United States are a slight majority, have been deemed +victims, whereas the Jews and the Chinese in America, though clearly +minorities (and vastly less numerous than blacks or Hispanic people), +are not usually counted as victims and thus rarely get included in +affirmative action or other quota favoritism programs. A victim, then, +is someone who insistently declares himself a victim. + +People who count and call themselves victims never blame themselves for +their condition. They therefore have to find enemies. Forces high and +low block their progress: society is organized against them; history is +not on their side; the malevolent, who are always in ample supply, +conspire to keep them down. Asked by an interviewer in Time magazine +about violence in schools that are all-black -that is, violence by +blacks against blacks - the novelist Toni Morrison replies, ''None of +those things can take place, you know, without the complicity of the +people who run the schools and the city.'' + +For victimhood to be taken seriously, there has to be a core of +substance to the victim's complaints. Blacks were discriminated against, +de facto and de jure, in this country for a very long while. Women were +paid lower wages for doing the same work as men and they were +indubitably excluded from jobs they were perfectly capable of +performing. Mexican-Americans often worked under deplorable conditions. +A case for victimhood cannot simply be invented, though some people try. +I recall some time ago watching a television program that stressed the +problems of the unwed teen-age father. Greatly gripping though they +doubtless were, I remember muttering to myself: the unwed father, +another victim group - who'd've thunk it? + +Even when there is a core of substance to the victims' complaints, they +tend to push it. A subtle shift takes place, and suddenly the victim is +no longer making appeals but demands. The terms lady and homosexual are +out; it's only woman and gay that are acceptable. Public pronouncements +from victims take on a slightly menacing quality, in which, somehow, the +line between victim and bully seems to blur. At some point, one gets the +sense that the victims actively enjoy their victimhood - enjoy the moral +vantage point it gives them to tell off the rest of the country, to +overstate their case, to absolve themselves from all responsibility for +their condition, to ask the impossible and then demonstrate outrage when +it isn't delivered. + +Apparently, the victims of our day rather like this state of affairs. I +say ''apparently'' because it has been many years since any of the +victim groups have shown anything approaching a genuine interest in +organization. Instead, they seem to function chiefly as loose +repositories for the expression of resentment. A strong sign of this is +the striking absence of leadership in any of the major victim movements +of the time: black, women, gay. The Rainbow Coalition - it might more +accurately be called the Victim Coalition - isn't cutting it. Like the +wild rookie pitcher in the movie ''Bull Durham,'' the various victim +groups are ''all over the place'': blaming racism for black teen-age +crime, male psychology for capitalism, the Government for AIDS. There is +something fundamentally unserious about all of this. Whereas once the +idea was to shake off victimhood through courage and organization, +nowadays the idea seems to be to enjoy it for its emotional effects. + +Not many other people seem to be enjoying it, though. The reserves of +guilt that victims once felt they could draw on now appear all but +depleted. White ethnics and others have begun to feel themselves the +victims of affirmative action and other favoritism programs, so that we +have the phenomenon of victims created by victims. Those whom the +victims have been attacking all these years are themselves beginning to +feel like victims. It's a real growth industry. When I recently read, in +The Times Literary Supplement of London, at the close of a review of two +books on adultery, that ''Adultery is built upon, even aimed at, female +unhappiness,'' I wondered if the T.L.S. would one day soon carry an +angry answering letter from a man representing a society of cuckolds. + +Just the other day I heard a fresh euphemism for what used to be known +as ''the handicapped.'' Take a moment to breathe in deeply before I set +it out on the page, for I think it might take your breath away. The +handicapped, in this new euphemism, are ''the physically challenged.'' +Somebody, obviously, has been working overtime. + +Yet I cannot help think of the contempt in which that euphemism is +likely to be held by the people I know who are seriously handicapped. +These people do not in the least think themselves physically challenged; +instead, they know that they have to undergo endless small and +infuriating difficulties that the rest of us have been spared. They have +been kicked, very hard, in the stomach by fate. Without denying or +attempting to disguise the effects of this devastating kick, they +neither whine about it nor protest it. + +As it happens, these people are all intensely political (they are +liberals and conservatives), but the last thing I can imagine any of +them doing is using his handicap for political advantage or for that +matter in any public way either to define or advance himself. Because +they neither act as nor think of themselves as victims, in the end they +seem, far from victimized, immensely dignified and quietly heroic. +Although it was never their intention to do so, they make the +contemporary joys of victimhood -the assumption of moral superiority, +the spread of guilt and bad feeling, the shifting of responsibility for +one's own destiny onto others or the ''system'' or society at large - +seem rather dreary, if not pathetic. They also remind the rest of us +that the most efficient way to become truly a victim is to think and act +like a victim. + +drawing diff --git a/_stories/1990/2731600.md b/_stories/1990/2731600.md index aac273c..0b33807 100644 --- a/_stories/1990/2731600.md +++ b/_stories/1990/2731600.md @@ -19,294 +19,188 @@ _tags: objectID: '2731600' --- -[Source](http://www.nytimes.com/1990/12/24/business/all-next-inc-s-plant-lacks-is-orders.html?pagewanted=all&src=pm "Permalink to All Next Inc.'s Plant Lacks Is Orders - NYTimes.com") - -# All Next Inc.'s Plant Lacks Is Orders - NYTimes.com - -* [Log In][1] -* [Register Now][2] -* [Help][3] -* [Home Page][4] -* [Today's Paper][5] -* [Video][6] -* [Most Popular][7] - -Edition: [U.S.][4] / [Global][8] - -Search All NYTimes.com - -![New York Times][9] - -## [Business Day][10] - -* [World][11] -* [U.S.][12] -* [N.Y. / Region][13] -* [Business][10] -* [Technology][14] -* [Science][15] -* [Health][16] -* [Sports][17] -* [Opinion][18] -* [Arts][19] -* [Style][20] -* [Travel][21] -* [Jobs][22] -* [Real Estate][23] -* [Autos][24] -* [DealBook][25] -* [Markets][26] -* [Economy][27] -* [Energy][28] -* [Media][29] -* [Technology][30] -* [Personal Tech][31] -* [Entrepreneurship][32] -* [Your Money][33] - -# All Next Inc.'s Plant Lacks Is Orders - -###### By JOHN MARKOFF, Special to The New York Times - -###### Published: December 24, 1990 - -**FREMONT, Calif.— ** In a cavernous factory here, Next Inc.'s flashy jet-black work stations began creating their own offspring this month. The highly automated factory, where robots controlled by Next computers do almost all of the assembling, is a model for improving American competitiveness, many experts say. But the ambitious manufacturing experiment at Silicon Valley's most visible start-up company may be wasted unless its new second generation of computers gains wider acceptance. - -"There is a tremendous amount of thought that has gone into their manufacturing process -- it's one of the most automated factories I've ever seen," said Michael Gibson, vice president of the Juran Institute, a Wilton, Conn., manufacturing consulting firm. "But the proof of the pudding will be in high-volume production." - -Automated manufacturing is not unusual in Silicon Valley, but those who have visited the $10 million computer factory say that Next has done the best job in the United States computer industry of achieving high quality, low cost and flexibility, as well as linking research and development to manufacturing. - -It has accomplished this feat in several important ways. One is the extent to which the plant is automated. It requires only five manual-assembly workers and fewer than a hundred other workers, mostly engineers, for a line capable of producing $1 billion of computers a year. The assembly-line workers are needed only to install a few parts, like the microprocessor. By contrast, Next's main competitor, Sun Microsystems Inc., has only begun to automate and still does much assembly with manual labor. - -To visit the factory is to glimpse the high-tech asceticism of Steven P. Jobs, Next's founder, chairman and chief executive, who is fond of buying multimillion-dollar residences, yet has lived in rooms with barely any furniture. - -In place of workers along the assembly line are robots, each controlled by an earlier-generation Next work station. These work stations are far easier to program for various assembly tasks than are conventional systems, which rely on a central minicomputer to direct all the robots. With the work stations so easy to reprogram, the changes can be made on the fly, and as a result, all four of Next's new computer models can be assembled without stopping the line. Monitoring Product Quality - -The work stations on the assembly line have another important advantage over traditional manufacturing systems: They double as monitors of the quality of the products coming off the line. Using a camera, the system records images of circuit boards moving along the assembly line and feeds the data to a special chip in the work station that analyzes the images for defects. - -The robots also illustrate Mr. Jobs's exacting attention to detail: Next asked the Japanese and American makers of the robots to remove their logos and painted the machines gray simply to preserve a uniform appearance. - -Another manufacturing advantage is that unlike the Apple Macintosh factory down the road in Fremont and most other plants, the Next factory has no warehouse. Parts arrive at the last minute and go directly into production. What is more, Next uses only 40 suppliers, compared with hundreds for some conventional factories. High-Speed Data Network - -The Next factory is also connected by a high-speed data network to the company's headquarters across San Francisco Bay in Redwood City. Computer designers at headquarters can therefore reprogram the robots on the line to assemble experimental circuit boards; they need not manufacture them on a separate prototype line. By allowing the factory people to participate in the design of future products, the often-difficult transition from prototype assembly to full-scale manufacturing is mostly eliminated. - -And because software is simpler to write for the Next work stations than for other work stations, technicians in the factory can easily modify programs that control each robot. Many of Next's technicians have advanced degrees and are paid 30 to 40 percent more on average than their counterparts elsewhere, Next officials say. - -"It's extraordinary what they've been able to do with a very small group of programmers," said Dr. Martin B. Piszczalski, a manufacturing researcher at the Yankee Group, a market research and consulting organization. Dr. Piszczalski contrasted the dozen programmers who have developed the software for the Next factory with the hundreds of programmers doing a similar task at an I.B.M. factory he visited. Investment in Factory Questioned - -But he questioned whether the investment made sense without higher volumes. "Right now it is a little like having a battleship when a 40-foot sailboat would do," he said. - -Indeed, critics of Mr. Jobs, who is 35 years old, say he is wasting his money by building a factory at this point. With the small number of machines he is building today, it would have been cheaper simply to contract with other companies to assemble the computers, they say. - -But Dr. Piszczalski said the initial high investment in an automated factory may permit Next more control of its expenses while volumes are low. - -And backers of Mr. Jobs note that he has a long-term strategy in which manufacturing makes sense. "Steve will be in business for the long pull," said H. Ross Perot, one of Next's investors. "He's not in business for six months." Strategic Advantage Claimed - -Next's products have yet to gain a significant share of the marketplace, but Mr. Jobs, who has a reputation for painstaking attention to detail and a passion for the importance of manufacturing, argues that by linking this flexible factory more closely than ever to Next's research and development process, his company can gain a strategic advantage in the industry that will eventually pay off in larger sales. - -In Mr. Jobs's view, the factory testifies to the fact that the United States can still compete as both a low-cost and a world-class manufacturer when it sets its mind to the task. - -Mr. Jobs said he modeled the factory after those of Japanese corporations like the Sony Corporation that have perfected a design-for-manufacturing strategy that transforms the factory floor into an extension of the company research and development center. Proof of Manufacturing Prowess - -Proof of Next's manufacturing prowess came when Sony, which supplies monitors to the computer maker, was able to save $20 a monitor by purchasing the electronics boards for the monitor from Next rather than making them in Japan, said Randy Heffner, Next's vice president of manufacturing. - -Next, now four years old, has failed to meet early expectations. The first work station, called the Next Computer System, was acquired only by loyal software developers and universities; other potential customers were deterred by its price, lack of a floppy disk drive and enough software, slow erasable optical disk drive, and incompatibility with most common desktop computers. Sales through Next's retail distributor, Businessland Inc., were weak. The first computer sold fewer than 10,000 machines by some estimates. Four New Computers - -Yet with a family of four new computers -- including the souped-up and slimmed-down entry-level Nextstation, which is drawing positive initial reactions -- Mr. Jobs is once again enthusiastically preaching his computer gospel. The Nextstation, about three times faster than Apple's top-of-the-line IIfx and slightly faster than Sun Microsystems' Sparcstation I, is selling for $4,995, significantly less expensive than its competitors. The new machine also has an I.B.M.-compatible floppy disk drive and a hard disk, and the optical disk is available as an option. - -Although some in the industry dismiss it, the company does have the support of a number of influential industry executives who think the computer business has been stalled by primitive MS-DOS operating-system standards that are now more than a decade old. Mr. Jobs's machines, which use an advanced version of Unix, offer a path to break the industry out of its malaise, they say. At the September product introduction, both the Lotus Development Corporation and the Wordperfect Corporation enthusiastically endorsed the new Next products and introduced software packages for the computer. In 1991, I.B.M. plans to offer Next's software on its RS/6000 and PS/2 models. - -"I feel weird saying nice things about Next because nobody else is," said Stewart Alsop, publisher of PC Letter, a computer industry newsletter. "But I'm betting that he succeeds. Next is farther ahead in software than any of the Unix vendors or Windows." - -"The world badly needs an alternative," said Mitchell D. Kapor, the founder of Lotus who has since started the software company On Technology Inc. "I hope Steve makes it." Hopes and Visions - -But hope may not be enough, and Mr. Jobs's window of opportunity could soon close. Many in the industry who heard the keynote speech of William Gates, chairman of the Microsoft Corporation, at the Comdex computer show in November noted that his vision for the I.B.M.-compatible personal computer world in 1994 or 1995 appears to be remarkably similar to what Next is offering today. These observers were referring to the ease with which Next work stations communicate and their ability to search quickly through vast amounts of data. - -Some industry analysts said Next needs to sell 25,000 computers next year just to survive. Mr. Jobs said he could sell far more than that. The company now describes the market for Next computers as professional workers including financial analysts, lawyers and executives. - -Photos: The highly automated factory for Next Inc. in Fremont, Calif., is capable of producing $1 billion worth of computers a year. It requires only five manual-assembly workers and fewer than a hundred other workers (Terrence McCarthy for The New York Times) (pg. 29); The $10 million computer factory in Fremont, Calif., where robots do almost all of the assembly-line work. 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+competitiveness, many experts say. But the ambitious manufacturing +experiment at Silicon Valley's most visible start-up company may be +wasted unless its new second generation of computers gains wider +acceptance. + +"There is a tremendous amount of thought that has gone into their +manufacturing process -- it's one of the most automated factories I've +ever seen," said Michael Gibson, vice president of the Juran Institute, +a Wilton, Conn., manufacturing consulting firm. "But the proof of the +pudding will be in high-volume production." + +Automated manufacturing is not unusual in Silicon Valley, but those who +have visited the $10 million computer factory say that Next has done the +best job in the United States computer industry of achieving high +quality, low cost and flexibility, as well as linking research and +development to manufacturing. + +It has accomplished this feat in several important ways. One is the +extent to which the plant is automated. It requires only five +manual-assembly workers and fewer than a hundred other workers, mostly +engineers, for a line capable of producing $1 billion of computers a +year. The assembly-line workers are needed only to install a few parts, +like the microprocessor. By contrast, Next's main competitor, Sun +Microsystems Inc., has only begun to automate and still does much +assembly with manual labor. + +To visit the factory is to glimpse the high-tech asceticism of Steven P. +Jobs, Next's founder, chairman and chief executive, who is fond of +buying multimillion-dollar residences, yet has lived in rooms with +barely any furniture. + +In place of workers along the assembly line are robots, each controlled +by an earlier-generation Next work station. These work stations are far +easier to program for various assembly tasks than are conventional +systems, which rely on a central minicomputer to direct all the robots. +With the work stations so easy to reprogram, the changes can be made on +the fly, and as a result, all four of Next's new computer models can be +assembled without stopping the line. Monitoring Product Quality + +The work stations on the assembly line have another important advantage +over traditional manufacturing systems: They double as monitors of the +quality of the products coming off the line. Using a camera, the system +records images of circuit boards moving along the assembly line and +feeds the data to a special chip in the work station that analyzes the +images for defects. + +The robots also illustrate Mr. Jobs's exacting attention to detail: Next +asked the Japanese and American makers of the robots to remove their +logos and painted the machines gray simply to preserve a uniform +appearance. + +Another manufacturing advantage is that unlike the Apple Macintosh +factory down the road in Fremont and most other plants, the Next factory +has no warehouse. Parts arrive at the last minute and go directly into +production. What is more, Next uses only 40 suppliers, compared with +hundreds for some conventional factories. High-Speed Data Network + +The Next factory is also connected by a high-speed data network to the +company's headquarters across San Francisco Bay in Redwood City. +Computer designers at headquarters can therefore reprogram the robots on +the line to assemble experimental circuit boards; they need not +manufacture them on a separate prototype line. By allowing the factory +people to participate in the design of future products, the +often-difficult transition from prototype assembly to full-scale +manufacturing is mostly eliminated. + +And because software is simpler to write for the Next work stations than +for other work stations, technicians in the factory can easily modify +programs that control each robot. Many of Next's technicians have +advanced degrees and are paid 30 to 40 percent more on average than +their counterparts elsewhere, Next officials say. + +"It's extraordinary what they've been able to do with a very small group +of programmers," said Dr. Martin B. Piszczalski, a manufacturing +researcher at the Yankee Group, a market research and consulting +organization. Dr. Piszczalski contrasted the dozen programmers who have +developed the software for the Next factory with the hundreds of +programmers doing a similar task at an I.B.M. factory he visited. +Investment in Factory Questioned + +But he questioned whether the investment made sense without higher +volumes. "Right now it is a little like having a battleship when a +40-foot sailboat would do," he said. + +Indeed, critics of Mr. Jobs, who is 35 years old, say he is wasting his +money by building a factory at this point. With the small number of +machines he is building today, it would have been cheaper simply to +contract with other companies to assemble the computers, they say. + +But Dr. Piszczalski said the initial high investment in an automated +factory may permit Next more control of its expenses while volumes are +low. + +And backers of Mr. Jobs note that he has a long-term strategy in which +manufacturing makes sense. "Steve will be in business for the long +pull," said H. Ross Perot, one of Next's investors. "He's not in +business for six months." Strategic Advantage Claimed + +Next's products have yet to gain a significant share of the marketplace, +but Mr. Jobs, who has a reputation for painstaking attention to detail +and a passion for the importance of manufacturing, argues that by +linking this flexible factory more closely than ever to Next's research +and development process, his company can gain a strategic advantage in +the industry that will eventually pay off in larger sales. + +In Mr. Jobs's view, the factory testifies to the fact that the United +States can still compete as both a low-cost and a world-class +manufacturer when it sets its mind to the task. + +Mr. Jobs said he modeled the factory after those of Japanese +corporations like the Sony Corporation that have perfected a +design-for-manufacturing strategy that transforms the factory floor into +an extension of the company research and development center. Proof of +Manufacturing Prowess + +Proof of Next's manufacturing prowess came when Sony, which supplies +monitors to the computer maker, was able to save $20 a monitor by +purchasing the electronics boards for the monitor from Next rather than +making them in Japan, said Randy Heffner, Next's vice president of +manufacturing. + +Next, now four years old, has failed to meet early expectations. The +first work station, called the Next Computer System, was acquired only +by loyal software developers and universities; other potential customers +were deterred by its price, lack of a floppy disk drive and enough +software, slow erasable optical disk drive, and incompatibility with +most common desktop computers. Sales through Next's retail distributor, +Businessland Inc., were weak. The first computer sold fewer than 10,000 +machines by some estimates. Four New Computers + +Yet with a family of four new computers -- including the souped-up and +slimmed-down entry-level Nextstation, which is drawing positive initial +reactions -- Mr. Jobs is once again enthusiastically preaching his +computer gospel. The Nextstation, about three times faster than Apple's +top-of-the-line IIfx and slightly faster than Sun Microsystems' +Sparcstation I, is selling for $4,995, significantly less expensive than +its competitors. The new machine also has an I.B.M.-compatible floppy +disk drive and a hard disk, and the optical disk is available as an +option. + +Although some in the industry dismiss it, the company does have the +support of a number of influential industry executives who think the +computer business has been stalled by primitive MS-DOS operating-system +standards that are now more than a decade old. Mr. Jobs's machines, +which use an advanced version of Unix, offer a path to break the +industry out of its malaise, they say. At the September product +introduction, both the Lotus Development Corporation and the Wordperfect +Corporation enthusiastically endorsed the new Next products and +introduced software packages for the computer. In 1991, I.B.M. plans to +offer Next's software on its RS/6000 and PS/2 models. + +"I feel weird saying nice things about Next because nobody else is," +said Stewart Alsop, publisher of PC Letter, a computer industry +newsletter. "But I'm betting that he succeeds. Next is farther ahead in +software than any of the Unix vendors or Windows." + +"The world badly needs an alternative," said Mitchell D. Kapor, the +founder of Lotus who has since started the software company On +Technology Inc. "I hope Steve makes it." Hopes and Visions + +But hope may not be enough, and Mr. Jobs's window of opportunity could +soon close. Many in the industry who heard the keynote speech of William +Gates, chairman of the Microsoft Corporation, at the Comdex computer +show in November noted that his vision for the I.B.M.-compatible +personal computer world in 1994 or 1995 appears to be remarkably similar +to what Next is offering today. These observers were referring to the +ease with which Next work stations communicate and their ability to +search quickly through vast amounts of data. + +Some industry analysts said Next needs to sell 25,000 computers next +year just to survive. Mr. Jobs said he could sell far more than that. +The company now describes the market for Next computers as professional +workers including financial analysts, lawyers and executives. + +Photos: The highly automated factory for Next Inc. in Fremont, Calif., +is capable of producing $1 billion worth of computers a year. It +requires only five manual-assembly workers and fewer than a hundred +other workers (Terrence McCarthy for The New York Times) (pg. 29); The +$10 million computer factory in Fremont, Calif., where robots do almost +all of the assembly-line work. (Terrence McCarthy for The New York +Times) (pg. 33) diff --git a/_stories/1990/4739555.md b/_stories/1990/4739555.md deleted file mode 100644 index 34a6f53..0000000 --- a/_stories/1990/4739555.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,25 +0,0 @@ ---- -created_at: '2012-11-04T12:05:40.000Z' -title: The Science of Scientific Writing (1990) -url: http://www.americanscientist.org/issues/pub/the-science-of-scientific-writing -author: wamatt -points: 42 -story_text: '' -comment_text: -num_comments: 9 -story_id: -story_title: -story_url: -parent_id: -created_at_i: 1352030740 -_tags: -- story -- author_wamatt -- story_4739555 -objectID: '4739555' - ---- -[Source](https://www.americanscientist.org/issues/pub/the-science-of-scientific-writing "Permalink to ") - - - diff --git a/_stories/1991/11102051.md b/_stories/1991/11102051.md index e31362c..3a493ac 100644 --- a/_stories/1991/11102051.md +++ b/_stories/1991/11102051.md @@ -19,7 +19,444 @@ _tags: objectID: '11102051' --- -[Source](https://readtext.org/hamradio/cordless-telephones-privacy/ "Permalink to ") +This file may also be known as wombat file \#01, or wombat01 if I ever +bother to type/write something else. \\/\\/ombat (originally published +in Popular Communications, June 1991) +This file is a work of fiction. Everything in it is fictitious. Any +resemblance to persons living or dead, magazines, companies, products, +trademarks, copyrights, or anything else in the real world is purely +coincidental, and you should see a shrink about your over-active +imagination if you think otherwise. +A Boon to Eavesdroppers, Cordless Phones Are as Private as Conversing in +an Elevator. You’ll Never Guess Who’s Listening In\! +OK, so it took a while, but now you’ve accepted the fact that your +cellular phone conversations can easily be overheard by the public at +large. Now you can begin wrestling with the notion that there are many +more scanners in the hands of the public that can listen to cordless +telephone calls than can tune in on cellulars. + +Monitoring cellular calls requires the listener to own equipment capable +of picking up signals in the 800 to 900 MHz frequency range. Not all +scanners can receive this band, so unless the scannist wants to purchase +a new scanner, or a converter covering those frequencies, \[see February +and March issues of Radio-Electronics for a converter project +-\\/\\/ombat-\] they can’t tune in on cellular calls. And let’s not +forget that it’s a violation of federal law to monitor cellular +conversations. Not that there seems to be any practical way yet devised +to enforce that law, nor does the U.S. Dept. of Justice appear to be +especially interested in trying. + +On the other hand, cordless telephones operate with their base pedestals +in the 46 MHz band, and the handsets in the 49 MHz band. Virtually every +scanner ever built can pick up these frequencies with ease. Cordless +telephones are usually presented to the public as having ranges up to +1,000 feet, but that requires some clarification. That distance +represents the reliable two-way communications range that can be +expected between the handset and the pedestal, given their small +inefficient receivers and antennas, and that they are both being used at +ground level. + +In fact, even given those conditions, 1,000 feet of range is far more +coverage than necessary for the average apartment or house and yard. +Consider that 1,000 feet is a big distance. It’s almost one-fifth of a +mile. It’s the height of a 100-story skyscraper. The Chrysler Building, +third tallest building in New York City, is about 1,000 feet high, so is +the First Interstate World Center, tallest building in Los Angeles. When +someone uses a sensitive scanner connected to an efficient antenna +mounted above ground level, the signals from the average 46 MHz cordless +phone base pedestal unit (which broadcasts both sides of all +conversations) can often be monitored from several miles away, and in +all directions. + +Some deluxe cordless phones are a snoop’s delight. Like the beautiful +Panasonic KX-T4000. Its range is described as “up to 1,000 feet from the +phone’s base,” however the manufacturer brags that “range may exceed +1,000 feet depending upon operating conditions.” When you stop to think +about it, what at first seems like a boast is really a somewhat harmless +sounding way of warning you that someone could monitor the unit from an +unspecified great distance. In fact, just about all standard cordless +phones exceed their rated ranges. But the KX-T4000’s main bonus and +challenge to the snoop is that it can operate on ten different +frequencies instead of only a single frequency. The BellSouth Products +Southwind 170 cordless phone suggests a range of up to 1,500 feet., +depending on location and operating conditions. The ten-channel Sony +SPP-1508 has a built-in auto-scan system to select the clearest +channels. + +What with millions of scanners in the hands of the public, a cordless +telephone in an urban or suburban area could easily be within receiving +range of dozens of persons owning receiving equipment capable of +listening to every word said over that phone. Likewise, every urban or +suburban scanner owner is most likely to be within receiving range of +dozens of cordless telephones. Many persons with scanners program their +units to search between 46.50 and 47.00 MHz and do listen. Some do it +casually to pass the time of day, others have specific purposes. + +## Not Covered + +The Electronic communications Privacy Act of 1986, the federal law that +supposedly confers privacy to cellular conversations, doesn’t cover +cordless telephones. + +A year and a half ago, the U.S. Supreme Court wasn’t interested in +reviewing a lower court decision that held that some fellow didn’t have +any “justifiable expectation of privacy” for their cordless phone +conversations. It seems that man’s conversations regarding suspected +criminal activity were overheard and the police were alerted, which +caused the police to investigate further and arrest the man after +recording more of his cordless phone conversations. + +Yet, even though (at this point) there is no federal law against +monitoring cordless phones, there are several states with laws that +restrict the practice. In New York State, for instance, a state +appellate court ruled that New York’s eavesdropping law prohibits the +government from intentionally tuning in on such conversations. + +California recently passed the Cordless and Cellular Radio Telephone +Privacy Act (amending Sections 632, 633, 633.5, 634, and 635 of the +Penal Code, amending Section 1 of Chapter 909 of the Statutes of 1985, +and adding Section 632.6 to the Penal Code) promising to expose an +eavesdropper to a $2,500 fine and a year in jail in the event he or she +gets caught. Gathering the evidence for a conviction may be easier said +than done. + +There may be other areas with similar local restrictions, these are two +that I know about. Obviously listening to cordless phones in major +population areas is sufficiently popular to have inspired such +legislative action. There are, however, reported to be efforts afoot to +pass federal legislation forbidding the monitoring of cordless phones as +well as baby monitors. Such a law wouldn’t stop monitoring, nor could it +be enforced. It would be, like the ECPA, just one more piece of glitzy +junk legislation to hoodwink the public and let the ACLU and +well-meaning, know-nothing, starry-eyed privacy advocates think they’ve +accomplished something of genuine value. + +## Strange Calls + +On April 20th, The Press Democrat, of Santa Rosa, Calif., reported that +a scanner owner had contacted the police in the community of Rohnert +Park to say that he was overhearing cordless phone conversations +concerning sales of illegal drugs. The monitor, code named Zorro by the +police, turned over thirteen tapes of such conversations made over a two +month period. + +Police took along a marijuana-sniffing cocker spaniel when they showed +up at the suspect’s home with a warrant one morning. Identifying +themselves, they broke down the door and found a man and a woman, each +with a loaded gun. They also found a large amount of cash, some cocaine, +marijuana, marijuana plants, and assorted marijuana cultivating +paraphernalia. + +In another example, Newsday, of Long Island, New York, reported in its +February 10, 1991 edition another tale of beneficial cordless phone +monitoring. + +It seems a scanner owner heard a cordless phone conversation between +three youths who were planning a burglary. First, they said that they +were going to buy a handheld CB radio so they could take it with them in +order to keep in contact with the driver of the car, which had a mobile +CB rig installed. Then, they were going to head over to break into a +building that had, until recently, been a nightclub. + +The scanner owner notified Suffolk County Police, which staked out the +closed building. At 10:30 p.m., the youths appeared and forced their way +into the premises. They were immediately arrested and charged with +third-degree burglary and possession of burglary tools. + +I selected these two examples from the many similar I have on hand +because they happen to have taken place in states where local laws seek +to restrict the monitoring of cordless telephones. + +Most of the calls people monitor aren’t criminal in nature, but are +apparently interesting enough to have attracted a growing audience of +recreational monitors easily willing to live with accusations of their +being unethical, nosy, busybodies, snoops, voyeurs, and worse. + +As it turns out, recreational monitors are undoubtedly the most harmless +persons listening in on cordless phone calls. + +## They're All Ears + +A newsletter called Privacy Today, is put out by Murray Associates, one +of the more innovative counterintelligence consultants serving business +and government. This publication noted (as reported in the mass media) +that IRS investigators may use scanners to eavesdrop on suspected tax +cheats as they chat on their cordless phones. + +But, the publication points out that accountants who work out of their +homes could turn up as prime targets of such monitoring. Their clients +might not even realize the accountant is using a cordless phone, and +therefore assume that they have some degree of privacy. One accountant +suspected of preparing fraudulent tax returns could, if monitored, allow +the IRS to collect evidence on all clients. + +Furthermore, Privacy Today notes that this has ramifications on the IRS +snitch program (recycle tax cheats for cash). They say, “Millions of +scanner owners who previously listened to cordless phones for amusement +will now be able to do it for profit. Any incriminating conversation +they record can be parlayed into cash, legally.” + +In fact, in addition to various federal agents and police, there are +private detectives, industrial spies, insurance investigators, spurned +lovers, scam artists, burglars, blackmailers, and various others who +regularly tune in with deliberate intent on cordless telephones in the +pursuit of their respective callings. If you saw the film Midnight Run, +starring Robert DeNiro, you’ll recall that the bounty hunter was shown +using a handheld scanner to eavesdrop on a cordless phone during his +effort to track down a fugitive bail jumper. + +No, cordless phone monitoring isn’t primarily being done for sport by +the incurably nosy for the enjoyment and entertainment it can provide. +The cordless telephone has been recognized as a viable and even +important tool for gathering intelligence. + +## Intelligence Gathering? + +In fact, there are differences between cordless and cellular monitoring. +When a cellular call is monitored, it’s quite difficult to ascertain the +identity of the caller, and impossible to select a particular person for +surveillance. These are mostly portable and mobile units that are +passing through from other areas, and they’re operation on hundreds of +different channels. Sometimes the calls cut off right in the middle of a +conversation. The opportunities for ever hearing the same caller more +than once are very slim. + +Not so with cordless phones. These units are operated at permanent +locations in homes, offices, factories, stores. Most models transmit on +only one or two specific frequencies, and while a few models can switch +to any of ten channels, that’s still a lot fewer places to have to look +around than scanning through the hundreds of cellular frequencies. So, +with only minor effort, it’s possible to know which cordless phones in +receiving range are set up to operate on which channels. And you +continually hear the same cordless phone users over a long period of +time. They soon become very familiar voices; you might even recognize +some of them. + +The diligent, professional intelligence gatherer creates a logbook for +each of the frequencies in the band, then logs in each cordless phone +normally monitored using that frequency. Then, each time a transmission +is logged from a particular phone, bits and scraps of information can be +added to create a growing dossier picked up from conversations. With +very little real effort, it doesn’t take long to assemble an amazing +amount of information on all cordless phones within monitoring range. + +Think about the information that is inadvertently passed in phone calls +that would go into such files. Personal names (first and last) which are +easily obtained from salutations, calls, and messages left on other +people’s answering machines; phone numbers (that people give for +callbacks or leave on answering machines); addresses; credit card +numbers; salary and employment information; discussions of health and +legal problems; details of legit and shady business deals; even +information on the hours when people are normally not at home or will be +out of town, and much more, including the most intimate details of their +personal lives. Anybody who stops for a moment to think about all the +things they say over a cordless telephone over a period of a week or two +should seriously wonder how many of those things they’d prefer not be +transmitted by shortwave radio throughout their neighborhood. + +Cordless phone users don’t realize that these units don’t only broadcast +the phone calls themselves. Most units start transmitting the instant +the handset is activated, and will broadcast anything said to others in +the room before and while the phone is being dialed, and while the +called number is ringing. Using a DTMF tone decoder, it’s even possible +to learn the numbers being called from cordless phones. \[see the +classified ads in Popular Communications for DTMF decoders; also for +books on how to modify scanners to restore the cellular frequencies, and +more\! -\\/\\/ombat-\] + +One private investigator told me that part of a infidelity surveillance +he just completed included a scanner tuned to someone’s cordless phone +channel, feeding a voice-operated (VOX) tape recorder. Every day he +picked up the old tape and started a new one. The scanner was located in +a rented room several blocks away from the person whose conversations +were being recorded. + +## Hardware Topics + +Many people are under the impression that the security features included +in some cordless phones provide some sort of voice scrambling or +privacy. They don’t do anything of the kind. All they do is permit the +user to set up a code so that only his or her own handset can access the +pedestal portion of his own cordless phone system. In these days of too +few cordless channels, neighbors have sometimes ended up with cordless +phones operating on the identical frequency pair. That created the +problem of making a call and accessing your neighbor’s dial tone instead +of your own, or your handset ringing when calls come in on your +neighbor’s phone. + +The FCC is going to require this feature on all new cordless telephones, +but it still won’t mean that the two neighbors will be able to talk on +their identical-channel cordless phones simultaneously. Such situations +allow neighbors to eavesdrop on one another’s calls, even without owning +a scanner. The FCC is attempting to relieve the common problem of too +many cordless phones having to share the ten existing base channels in +the 46.50 to 47.00 MHz band. These frequencies are 46.61, 46.63, 46.67, +46.71, 46.73, 46.77, 46.83, 46.87, 46.93, and 46.97 MHz. Each of these +frequencies are paired with a 49 MHz handset channel. + +Manufacturers are going to be permitted to produce cordless phones with +channels positions in between the existing ten frequency pairs. Cordless +phones will now be permitted operation on these additional offset +frequencies to relieve the congestion. + +A date for implementing these new frequencies hasn’t yet been announced, +but it should be soon. The FCC feels that the life expectancy of a +cordless phone isn’t very long, and they’d like these new phones to be +ready to go on line as the existing phones are ready to be replaced. The +new model phones are going to have to also incorporate the dial tone +access security encoding feature I mentioned. + +Let’s hope the new batch of cordless phones is less quirky than some of +the ones now in use. We understand that the transmitters of some +cordless phones switch on for brief periods whenever they detect a sharp +increase in the sound level, such as laughter, shouting, or a loud voice +on the extension phone. + +Privacy Today tells of the cordless phone that refused to die. They +noted it was reported that the General Electric System 10 cordless +phone, Model 2-9675, just won’t shut up. It broadcasts phone calls even +when they are made using regular extension phones\! + +As for receiving all of these signals, any scanner will do. Antennas +that do an especially good job include 50 MHz (6 meter ham band) +omnidirectional types, or (secondarily) any scanner antenna designed for +reception in the 30 to 50 MHz range. + +There is a dipole available that is specifically tuned for the 46 to 49 +MHz band, which you can string up in your attic (or back yard) and get a +good shot at all signals in the band. This comes with 50 ft. of RG-6 +coaxial cable lead-in, plus a BNC connector for hooking to a scanner. +This cordless phone monitoring antenna is $49.95 (shipping included to +USA, add $5 to Canada) from the Cellular Security Group, 4 Gerring Road, +Gloucester, MA 01930. \[you can build one yourself for much less $; look +in the chapter on antennas in the ARRL Radio Amateur’s Handbook +-\\/\\/ombat-\] + +The higher an antenna is mounted for this reception, the better the +range and reception quality, and the more phones will be heard. + +## Zip The Lip + +Once you understand the nature of cordless phoning, you should easily be +able to deal with these useful devices. Let’s face it, it isn’t really +absolutely necessary for all of your conversations to achieve complete +privacy. You are perfectly willing to relinquish expectations of +conversational privacy. You do it every time you converse in an +elevator, a restaurant, a store, a waiting room, a theatre, on the +street, etc. You take precautions not to say certain things at such +times, so you don’t feel that you are being threatened by having been +overheard. Think of speaking on a cordless phone as being in the same +category as if you were in a crowded elevator, and you’ll be just fine. +It’s only when a person subscribes to the completely erroneous notion +that a cordless phone is a secure communications device that any +problems could arise, or paranoia could set in. + +Manufacturers don’t claim cordless phones offer any privacy. Frankly, +because they instill a false and misleading expectation of privacy, the +several well-intentioned but unenforceable local laws intended to +restrict cordless monitoring actually do more harm than good. The laws +serve no other purpose or practical function. It would be far better for +all concerned to simply publicize that cordless phones are an open line +for all to hear. + +So, cordless phones must be used with the realization that there is no +reason to expect privacy. Not long ago, GTE Telephone Operations +Incorporated issued a notice to its subscribers under the headline +“Cordless Convenience May Warrant Caution.” Users were told to +“recognize that cordless messages are, in fact, open-air FM radio +transmissions. As such, they are subject to interception (without legal +constraint) by those with scanners and similar electronic gear… +Discretion should dictate the comparative advisability of hard-wired +phone use.” + +Good advice. We might add that if you are using a cordless phone, you +don’t give out your last name, telephone number, address, any credit +card numbers, bank account numbers, charge account numbers, or discuss +any matters of a confidential nature. Moreover, it might be a good idea +to advise the other party on you call that the conversation is going +through a cordless phone. + +Some people might not care, but others could find that their +conversations could put them in an unfortunate position. Harvard Law +School Professor Alan M. Dershowitz, writing on cordless phone snooping +in The Boston Globe (January 22, 1990), said, “The problem of the +non-secure cordless telephone will be particularly acute for +professionals, such as doctors, psychologists, lawyers, priests, and +financial advisors. Anyone who has an ethical obligation of +confidentiality should no longer conduct business over cordless phones, +unless they warn their confidants that they are risking privacy for +convenience.” + +That’s more good advice. Not that the public will heed that advice. +People using cellulars have been given similar information many times +over, and somehow it doesn’t sink in. But you got the message, didn’t +you? Zip your lip when using any of these devices. And, if you’ve got a +scanner,you can tune in on everybody else blabbing their lives away, and +maybe even help the police catch drug dealers and other bad guys – well, +unless you live in California or some other place where the local laws +are more protective of cordless phone privacy than the federal courts +are. + +That’s it. There wasn’t much high-tech intelligence there, but it was a +lot more readable than something copied out of The Bell System Technical +Journal, right? + +Think about the implications: Someone who’d turn in their neighbours for +enjoying recreational chemicals would probably narc on phreaks, hackers, +anarchists or trashers as well. It isn’t just the FBI, Secret Service, +and cops you have to worry about – it’s the guy down the street with a +dozen antennas on his roof. The flip side is that if you knew someone +was listening in, you could have a lot of fun, like implicating your +enemies in child prostitution rings, or making up outrageous plots that +will cause the eavesdropper to sound like a paranoid conspiracy freak +when he she or it talks to the cops. + +On the more, uh, active side, the potential for acquiring useful +information like long-distance codes is obvious. Other possibilities +will no doubt occur to you. + +Cordless phones also have the potential to allow you to use someone’s +phone line without the hassles of alligator clips. With a bit of luck +you could buy a popular model of phone, then try various channels and +security codes until you get a dial tone. Since many phones have these +codes preset by the factory, one might have to capture the code for a +given system and play it back somehow to gain access. The ultimate would +be a 10 channel handset with the ability to capture and reproduce the +so-called security codes automatically. + +This subject requires further research. Guess I’d better get a scanner. +Most short-wave receivers don’t go past 30 MHz, and they generally don’t +have FM demodulators. Looking in the Radio Shark catalog, any of their +scanners would do the job. Some scanners can be modified to restore +cellular coverage and increase the number of channels just by clipping +diodes. If you’re going to buy a scanner, you might as well get one of +those. The scanner modification books advertised in Pop Comm would help, +or check out Sterling’s article “Introduction to Radio +Telecommunications Interception” in Informatik \#01. He lists many +interesting frequencies, and has the following information on the Radio +Shark scanners: + +Restoring cellular reception. + +Some scanners have been blocked from receiving the cellular band. This +can be corrected. It started out with the Realistic PRO-2004 and the +PRO-34, and went to the PRO-2005. To restore cellular for the 2004, open +the radio and turn it upside down. Carefully remove the cover. Clip one +leg of D-513 to restore cellular frequencies. For the PRO-2005, \[and +for the PRO-2006 -\\/\\/ombat-\] the procedure is the same, except you +clip one leg of D-502 to restore cellular reception. On the PRO-34 and +PRO-37, Cut D11 to add 824-851 and 869-896 MHz bands with 30 kHz +spacing. + +All these are described in great detail in the “Scanner Modification +Handbook” volumes I. and II. by Bill Cheek, both available from +Communications Electronics Inc. (313) 996-8888. They run about $18 +apiece. + +(reproduced from Informatik \#01, file 02) + + - Author: Tom Kneitel, K2AES / Wombat / Popular Communications + - Original: diff --git a/_stories/1991/11802952.md b/_stories/1991/11802952.md index 246eba6..0644b5e 100644 --- a/_stories/1991/11802952.md +++ b/_stories/1991/11802952.md @@ -19,279 +19,140 @@ _tags: objectID: '11802952' --- -[Source](http://www.nytimes.com/1991/01/04/news/how-the-supermarket-tabloids-stay-out-of-court.html?smid=tw-share "Permalink to How the Supermarket Tabloids Stay Out of Court - NYTimes.com") - -# How the Supermarket Tabloids Stay Out of Court - NYTimes.com - -* [Log In][1] -* [Register Now][2] -* [Help][3] -* [Home Page][4] -* [Today's Paper][5] -* [Video][6] -* [Most Popular][7] - -Edition: [U.S.][4] / [Global][8] - -Search All NYTimes.com - -![New York Times][9] - -## [News][10] - -* [World][11] -* [U.S.][12] -* [N.Y. / Region][13] -* [Business][14] -* [Technology][15] -* [Science][16] -* [Health][17] -* [Sports][18] -* [Opinion][19] -* [Arts][20] -* [Style][21] -* [Travel][22] -* [Jobs][23] -* [Real Estate][24] -* [Autos][25] - -# How the Supermarket Tabloids Stay Out of Court - -###### Published: January 4, 1991 - -Every few months a Hollywood celebrity walks into Vincent Chieffo's law office in Los Angeles, angrily waving a copy of one of the supermarket tabloids, those weekly newspapers that offer readers a feast of gossip, scandal and believe-it-or-not phenomena. - -Asserting that an article is not true, the celebrity asks about suing the newspaper. Mr. Chieffo, a veteran entertainment lawyer, usually responds with what he calls "the facts of life" in the never-ending battle between these publications and the famous people whose lives provide the fodder for each week's blaring headlines. - -He tells the celebrity that the tabloid will aggressively fight back, so the lawsuit will cost hundreds of thousands of dollars and will probably drag on for years. He emphasizes that in preparing their defense, the tabloid's lawyers might be given legal permission to scrutinize the celebrity's personal life. - -And he points out that by law, the standard of libel for public figures is high, making the case difficult to win. The celebrity will have to prove "actual malice" -- that the tabloid was not just negligent, but rather knew that the item was false and nonetheless displayed a reckless disregard for the truth. Warnings Often Deter Lawsuits - -Such lawyers' warnings, which often deter lawsuits, reflect how successful these newspapers have been at avoiding legal judgments. - -Even though newspapers like The National Enquirer, The Star and The Globe regularly leave famous people fuming about what those people consider to be lies, half-truths and innuendo, the tabloids face few lawsuits and almost never lose trials. - -The Enquirer, which publishes about 3,600 stories a year and boasts a circulation of about four million copies a week, is currently involved in only two libel suits, said Paul Wolff, a lawyer for the newspaper with the Washington law firm Williams & Connolly. - -Paul M. Levy, a lawyer at Deutsch, Levy & Engel in Chicago who represents The Globe, said that in about 25 years of publication, there had never been a legal judgment against his client in a celebrity lawsuit. 'The Scorpion Defense' - -Lawyers who have fought the publications say that by spending lavishly to employ powerful law firms, these newspapers have built intimidating reputations. - -"It's the scorpion defense: You don't attack a scorpion because you're going to get stung," said Mr. Chieffo, a partner at Gipson, Hoffman & Pancione who has sued tabloids about a dozen times. "It's very tough. It's very difficult to prevail." - -These lawyers say that the case many celebrities cite as their inspiration for suing the tabloids, the actress Carol Burnett's lawsuit against The Enquirer, was an anomaly. - -Ms. Burnett contended that The Enquirer made up a 1976 article that depicted her as intoxicated during an encounter at a restaurant with former Secretary of State Henry A. Kissinger. The Enquirer wrote: - -"At a Washington restaurant, a boisterous Carol Burnett had a loud argument with another diner, Henry Kissinger. She traipsed around the place offering everyone a bite of her dessert. But Carol really raised eyebrows when she accidentally knocked a glass of wine over one diner and started giggling instead of apologizing." - -A jury awarded Ms. Burnett $1.6 million, but that judgment was later reduced to $200,000 after a number of appeals, and Ms. Burnett then agreed to an unspecified out-of-court settlement with The Enquirer. Damages Often Reduced - -John D. Forbess, a Los Angeles lawyer who has sued The Enquirer and The Star on behalf of clients like Cher, noted that the Burnett case symbolized another difficulty in suing such publications -- or, for that matter, any publication: Even if a plaintiff wins high damages, appeals courts tend to reduce the award. - -For those who decide to pursue a case, the going can be rough. - -The tabloids' lawyers, employing a defense strategy that is often used by daily newspapers and other publications in libel suits, usually file a barrage of motions in court that tend to delay cases and put pressure on the plaintiffs to settle. - -As a result, very few lawsuits ever come to trial. Some end with a settlement that includes a printed retraction or an agreement that the newspaper will not write anything about the celebrity for a specified period. - -Mr. Chieffo and Mr. Forbess said that nearly all of their lawsuits against the tabloids had ended in out-of-court settlements. Suit From Elizabeth Taylor - -Elizabeth Taylor sued The Enquirer about three months ago for libel and defamation of character. She cited two articles, one that said she had brought liquor into her hospital room when she was ill and another that said she was suffering from lupus. - -Neil Papiano, Ms. Taylor's lawyer, said The Enquirer had filed motions asserting that the complaint is insufficient, seeking to move the case from state to Federal court and requesting Ms. Taylor's medical records from the past 30 years. - -"I think they'll do everything they can to drag this on for a while," said Mr. Papiano, a partner at Iverson, Yoakum, Papiano & Hatch in Los Angeles. "Their object is to drag their feet. Our's is to move forward." - -But Mr. Wolff, who heads the litigation team for The Enquirer, said he does not try to delay cases. - -Mr. Wolff said no one at Williams & Connolly had ever been disciplined by a judge for filing unnecessary motions or seeking unnecessary depositions in an Enquirer case. 'A Thorough Defense' - -"Our strategy is to do the best possible job for our client," he said. "And that, of course, means litigating with all the resources necessary. We do what we need to do to win the case. We do not engage in overkill. We engage in a thorough defense of The Enquirer." - -Mr. Wolff said that The Enquirer's success in avoiding legal judgments stems from its careful reporting and editing and its reliance on legal advice throughout the editorial process. - -In addition to the three lawyers from Williams & Connolly who represent The Enquirer in litigation matters, a group of four lawyers from the firm reads nearly every article before publication. Other supermarket tabloids have similar policies. - -Mr. Levy said lawyers who criticize the tabloids' legal tactics are making excuses for their own failures. - -"Why haven't celebrities been more successful?" he asked. "We are talking about celebrities with great resources. The reason is that we must be doing something properly within the law, or else there would be more successes here, and there are none." - -Photo: "You're going to get stung," Vincent Chieffo, a lawyer, said about suing supermarket tabloids. 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+Every few months a Hollywood celebrity walks into Vincent Chieffo's law +office in Los Angeles, angrily waving a copy of one of the supermarket +tabloids, those weekly newspapers that offer readers a feast of gossip, +scandal and believe-it-or-not phenomena. + +Asserting that an article is not true, the celebrity asks about suing +the newspaper. Mr. Chieffo, a veteran entertainment lawyer, usually +responds with what he calls "the facts of life" in the never-ending +battle between these publications and the famous people whose lives +provide the fodder for each week's blaring headlines. + +He tells the celebrity that the tabloid will aggressively fight back, so +the lawsuit will cost hundreds of thousands of dollars and will probably +drag on for years. He emphasizes that in preparing their defense, the +tabloid's lawyers might be given legal permission to scrutinize the +celebrity's personal life. + +And he points out that by law, the standard of libel for public figures +is high, making the case difficult to win. The celebrity will have to +prove "actual malice" -- that the tabloid was not just negligent, but +rather knew that the item was false and nonetheless displayed a reckless +disregard for the truth. Warnings Often Deter Lawsuits + +Such lawyers' warnings, which often deter lawsuits, reflect how +successful these newspapers have been at avoiding legal judgments. + +Even though newspapers like The National Enquirer, The Star and The +Globe regularly leave famous people fuming about what those people +consider to be lies, half-truths and innuendo, the tabloids face few +lawsuits and almost never lose trials. + +The Enquirer, which publishes about 3,600 stories a year and boasts a +circulation of about four million copies a week, is currently involved +in only two libel suits, said Paul Wolff, a lawyer for the newspaper +with the Washington law firm Williams & Connolly. + +Paul M. Levy, a lawyer at Deutsch, Levy & Engel in Chicago who +represents The Globe, said that in about 25 years of publication, there +had never been a legal judgment against his client in a celebrity +lawsuit. 'The Scorpion Defense' + +Lawyers who have fought the publications say that by spending lavishly +to employ powerful law firms, these newspapers have built intimidating +reputations. + +"It's the scorpion defense: You don't attack a scorpion because you're +going to get stung," said Mr. Chieffo, a partner at Gipson, Hoffman & +Pancione who has sued tabloids about a dozen times. "It's very tough. +It's very difficult to prevail." + +These lawyers say that the case many celebrities cite as their +inspiration for suing the tabloids, the actress Carol Burnett's lawsuit +against The Enquirer, was an anomaly. + +Ms. Burnett contended that The Enquirer made up a 1976 article that +depicted her as intoxicated during an encounter at a restaurant with +former Secretary of State Henry A. Kissinger. The Enquirer wrote: + +"At a Washington restaurant, a boisterous Carol Burnett had a loud +argument with another diner, Henry Kissinger. She traipsed around the +place offering everyone a bite of her dessert. But Carol really raised +eyebrows when she accidentally knocked a glass of wine over one diner +and started giggling instead of apologizing." + +A jury awarded Ms. Burnett $1.6 million, but that judgment was later +reduced to $200,000 after a number of appeals, and Ms. Burnett then +agreed to an unspecified out-of-court settlement with The Enquirer. +Damages Often Reduced + +John D. Forbess, a Los Angeles lawyer who has sued The Enquirer and The +Star on behalf of clients like Cher, noted that the Burnett case +symbolized another difficulty in suing such publications -- or, for that +matter, any publication: Even if a plaintiff wins high damages, appeals +courts tend to reduce the award. + +For those who decide to pursue a case, the going can be rough. + +The tabloids' lawyers, employing a defense strategy that is often used +by daily newspapers and other publications in libel suits, usually file +a barrage of motions in court that tend to delay cases and put pressure +on the plaintiffs to settle. + +As a result, very few lawsuits ever come to trial. Some end with a +settlement that includes a printed retraction or an agreement that the +newspaper will not write anything about the celebrity for a specified +period. + +Mr. Chieffo and Mr. Forbess said that nearly all of their lawsuits +against the tabloids had ended in out-of-court settlements. Suit From +Elizabeth Taylor + +Elizabeth Taylor sued The Enquirer about three months ago for libel and +defamation of character. She cited two articles, one that said she had +brought liquor into her hospital room when she was ill and another that +said she was suffering from lupus. + +Neil Papiano, Ms. Taylor's lawyer, said The Enquirer had filed motions +asserting that the complaint is insufficient, seeking to move the case +from state to Federal court and requesting Ms. Taylor's medical records +from the past 30 years. + +"I think they'll do everything they can to drag this on for a while," +said Mr. Papiano, a partner at Iverson, Yoakum, Papiano & Hatch in Los +Angeles. "Their object is to drag their feet. Our's is to move forward." + +But Mr. Wolff, who heads the litigation team for The Enquirer, said he +does not try to delay cases. + +Mr. Wolff said no one at Williams & Connolly had ever been disciplined +by a judge for filing unnecessary motions or seeking unnecessary +depositions in an Enquirer case. 'A Thorough Defense' + +"Our strategy is to do the best possible job for our client," he said. +"And that, of course, means litigating with all the resources necessary. +We do what we need to do to win the case. We do not engage in overkill. +We engage in a thorough defense of The Enquirer." + +Mr. Wolff said that The Enquirer's success in avoiding legal judgments +stems from its careful reporting and editing and its reliance on legal +advice throughout the editorial process. + +In addition to the three lawyers from Williams & Connolly who represent +The Enquirer in litigation matters, a group of four lawyers from the +firm reads nearly every article before publication. Other supermarket +tabloids have similar policies. + +Mr. Levy said lawyers who criticize the tabloids' legal tactics are +making excuses for their own failures. + +"Why haven't celebrities been more successful?" he asked. "We are +talking about celebrities with great resources. The reason is that we +must be doing something properly within the law, or else there would be +more successes here, and there are none." + +Photo: "You're going to get stung," Vincent Chieffo, a lawyer, said +about suing supermarket tabloids. (Bart Bartholomew for The New York +Times) diff --git a/_stories/1991/8562358.md b/_stories/1991/8562358.md deleted file mode 100644 index b5c5e90..0000000 --- a/_stories/1991/8562358.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,25 +0,0 @@ ---- -created_at: '2014-11-05T15:54:59.000Z' -title: A Categorical Manifesto (1991) [pdf] -url: http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.13.362&rep=rep1&type=pdf -author: pmoriarty -points: 44 -story_text: '' -comment_text: -num_comments: 20 -story_id: -story_title: -story_url: -parent_id: -created_at_i: 1415202899 -_tags: -- story -- author_pmoriarty -- story_8562358 -objectID: '8562358' - ---- -[Source](http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.13.362&rep=rep1&type=pdf "Permalink to ") - - - diff --git a/_stories/1992/11278172.md b/_stories/1992/11278172.md index 5c81f5f..5365a97 100644 --- a/_stories/1992/11278172.md +++ b/_stories/1992/11278172.md @@ -19,228 +19,23 @@ _tags: objectID: '11278172' --- -[Source](http://www.nytimes.com/1992/09/30/nyregion/court-computer-says-all-hartford-is-dead.html "Permalink to Court Computer Says All Hartford Is Dead - NYTimes.com") - -# Court Computer Says All Hartford Is Dead - NYTimes.com - -* [Log In][1] -* [Register Now][2] -* [Help][3] -* [Home Page][4] -* [Today's Paper][5] -* [Video][6] -* [Most Popular][7] - -Edition: [U.S.][4] / [Global][8] - -Search All NYTimes.com - -![New York Times][9] - -## [N.Y. / Region][10] - -* [World][11] -* [U.S.][12] -* [N.Y. / Region][10] -* [Business][13] -* [Technology][14] -* [Science][15] -* [Health][16] -* [Sports][17] -* [Opinion][18] -* [Arts][19] -* [Style][20] -* [Travel][21] -* [Jobs][22] -* [Real Estate][23] -* [Autos][24] - -# Court Computer Says All Hartford Is Dead - -###### Published: September 30, 1992 - -**HARTFORD, Sept. 29— ** Court officials have figured out why Hartford residents were excluded from Federal grand jury pools over the past three years: The computer that selected names thought everyone in the city was dead. - -Federal District Court workers discovered the computer error while investigating why no Hartford residents had been on lists of prospective grand jurors. - -The city's name had been listed in the wrong place on computer records, forcing the "d" at the end of "Hartford" into the column used to describe the status of prospective jurors. "D" stands for dead. - -So every time the names of Hartford residents popped up for jury duty, the computer noted the deaths and declined to send them juror questionnaires, said Kevin Rowe, chief Federal clerk. - -The problem came to light in a lawsuit challenging the racial makeup of the grand jury that indicted Luis Colon Osario, a defendant in the $7.1 million robbery of a Wells Fargo depot in West Hartford in 1983. - -![][25] - -![][26] ![][27] - -#### Inside NYTimes.com - -| ----- | -| - -###### [Health »][16] - -![Too Hot to Handle][28] - -###### [Too Hot to Handle__][29] - - | - -###### [Arts »][30] - -![The Harmony of Liberty][31] - -###### [The Harmony of Liberty__][32] - - | - -###### [Opinion »][18] - -### [Should Beach Privatization Be Allowed?__][33] - -Room for Debate asks whether shorefront homeowners should have to open their land to all comers. - - | - -###### [Sports »][17] - -![A Woman’s Leadership May Steady Murray][34] - -###### [A Woman’s Leadership May Steady Murray__][35] - 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+**HARTFORD, Sept. 29—** Court officials have figured out why Hartford +residents were excluded from Federal grand jury pools over the past +three years: The computer that selected names thought everyone in the +city was dead. + +Federal District Court workers discovered the computer error while +investigating why no Hartford residents had been on lists of prospective +grand jurors. + +The city's name had been listed in the wrong place on computer records, +forcing the "d" at the end of "Hartford" into the column used to +describe the status of prospective jurors. "D" stands for dead. + +So every time the names of Hartford residents popped up for jury duty, +the computer noted the deaths and declined to send them juror +questionnaires, said Kevin Rowe, chief Federal clerk. + +The problem came to light in a lawsuit challenging the racial makeup of +the grand jury that indicted Luis Colon Osario, a defendant in the $7.1 +million robbery of a Wells Fargo depot in West Hartford in 1983. diff --git a/_stories/1992/14038211.md b/_stories/1992/14038211.md index b5777a6..1bbba30 100644 --- a/_stories/1992/14038211.md +++ b/_stories/1992/14038211.md @@ -19,7 +19,27 @@ _tags: objectID: '14038211' --- -[Source](https://ntrs.nasa.gov/search.jsp?R=19930010781 "Permalink to ") - - - +Abstract: Many types of paper documentation are employed on the +flight-deck. They range from a simple checklist card to a bulky Aircraft +Flight Manual (AFM). Some of these documentations have typographical and +graphical deficiencies; yet, many cockpit tasks such as conducting +checklists, way-point entry, limitations and performance calculations, +and many more, require the use of these documents. Moreover, during +emergency and abnormal situations, the flight crews' effectiveness in +combating the situation is highly dependent on such documentation; +accessing and reading procedures has a significant impact on flight +safety. Although flight-deck documentation are an important (and +sometimes critical) form of display in the modern cockpit, there is a +dearth of information on how to effectively design these displays. The +object of this report is to provide a summary of the available +literature regarding the design and typographical aspects of printed +matter. The report attempts 'to bridge' the gap between basic research +about typography, and the kind of information needed by designers of +flight-deck documentation. The report focuses on typographical factors +such as type-faces, character height, use of lower- and upper-case +characters, line length, and spacing. Some graphical aspects such as +layout, color coding, fonts, and character contrast are also discussed. +In addition, several aspects of cockpit reading conditions such as +glare, angular alignment, and paper quality are addressed. Finally, a +list of recommendations for the graphical design of flight-deck +documentation is provided. diff --git a/_stories/1992/14287943.md b/_stories/1992/14287943.md deleted file mode 100644 index 9486b68..0000000 --- a/_stories/1992/14287943.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,25 +0,0 @@ ---- -created_at: '2017-05-07T22:01:55.000Z' -title: A History of CLU – Barbara Liskov (1992) [pdf] -url: http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download;jsessionid=F5D7C821199F22C5D30A51F155DB9D23?doi=10.1.1.46.9499&rep=rep1&type=pdf -author: tjalfi -points: 75 -story_text: -comment_text: -num_comments: 8 -story_id: -story_title: -story_url: -parent_id: -created_at_i: 1494194515 -_tags: -- story -- author_tjalfi -- story_14287943 -objectID: '14287943' - ---- -[Source](http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download;jsessionid=F5D7C821199F22C5D30A51F155DB9D23?doi=10.1.1.46.9499&rep=rep1&type=pdf "Permalink to ") - - - diff --git a/_stories/1992/15350015.md b/_stories/1992/15350015.md index e7d5637..d79591c 100644 --- a/_stories/1992/15350015.md +++ b/_stories/1992/15350015.md @@ -19,7 +19,459 @@ _tags: objectID: '15350015' --- -[Source](https://newrepublic.com/article/90898/shame-why-americans-should-be-wary-self-esteem "Permalink to ") +This distinction had a twofold effect: it robbed shame of its +transgressive dimension, now reserved for guilt alone, and it encouraged +a legalistic understanding of transgression itself. Piers and Singer +were quite explicit about the first of these effects: “Guilt anxiety +accompanies transgression; shame, failure.” The second implication +became unmistakable in Helen Merrell Lynd’s study *On Shame and the +Search for Identity,* which appeared in 1958. Elaborating on the +interpretation advanced by Piers and Singer, Lynd associated guilt not +simply with “transgression of prohibitions” but with “Violation of a +specific taboo,” a feeling therefore concentrated on “each separate, +discrete act.” In Lynd’s account, guilt moved away from its old +association with sin and came to be assimilated to the category of +crime—and finally to any kind of merely unconventional conduct. In an +older moral tradition, sin referred not only to violations of the moral +law, but also to a failure to keep faith with God. It referred not only +to specific actions, but also to a disposition of the will, a chronic +state of rebellion against God and the human condition. Lynd’s +secularized conception of guilt reduced it to the fear of punishment +that follows violation of community standards, which were themselves +trivialized and partially discredited as “taboos.” +Cultural anthropologists made guilt, the inner voice of conscience, seem +more weighty than shame; but “guilt feelings,” according to Lynd, +actually “result from efforts for social adjustment” and carry very +little “self reference.” Now it was shame that appeared more deeply +internalized. “The deepest shame is not shame in the eyes of others but +weakness in one’s own eyes.” Shame called one’s entire identity into +question, shattered “basic trust” in the world, and thus could “be said +to go deeper than guilt.” Shame was more disturbing than its cousin, +more deeply felt, more urgently in need of treatment. “It is worse to be +inferior and isolated than to be wrong, to be outcast in one’s own eyes +than to be condemned by society.” This remarkable statement, uttered in +casual disregard of the accumulated weight of moral and philosophical +tradition, casts a flood of light on the current preoccupation with +shame and self-esteem. We fear weakness more than a troubled conscience. +Indeed, conscience disappears from our conceptual order: guilt becomes +condemnation by “society.” +Helen Block Lewis added a few details to this emerging consensus in her +*Shame and Guilt in Neurosis,* which appeared in 1971 and is often over +praised today as a pioneering work in the field. Lewis devoted most of +her attention to variations in “proneness” to guilt or shame. Men’s +aggressiveness, she decided, predisposed them to guilty fears of +retaliation. Women were more inclined to shame, thanks to their +eagerness to please. “Girls’ self-esteem is neither so objectively nor +firmly grounded as boys’.” Later commentators would extend this line of +thinking to underprivileged groups in general. Shame could be +eliminated, they maintained by improving their collective self-image. +Leon Wurmser resisted such simplifications in *The Mask of Shame,* the +best of the psychoanalytic studies of shame and quite possibly the last, +given the probable collapse of the whole psychoanalytic enterprise. By +1981, when it appeared, the reaction against psychoanalysis was in full +swing: a chorus of critics denounced Freud’s ideas as unscientific, +elitist, patriarchal, and therapeutically useless. Within +psychoanalysis, Heinz Kohut and his followers had shifted the emphasis +from intrapsychic conflict to the “whole self and its relations with +others.” The need to counter these tendencies led Wurmser to undertake a +much deeper analysis of the inner conflicts leading to shame than +anything offered by his predecessors. + +Thus, although he built on the work of Piers and Singer, he cautioned +against excessive emphasis on the ego ideal. “A mere falling short of +ego standards or even of the postulates of the ego ideal does not evoke +shame.” No less than guilt, shame had to be seen as a form of +self-punishment, a fierce condemnation of the self that is rooted, in +the case of shame, in the “absolute sense of unlovability.” If this +element of self-torture was missing, it was appropriate to speak only of +a “loss of self-esteem.” Wurmser’s refusal to confuse this with shame +made intelligible much that otherwise remained obscure. + +Psychoanalysis, as Wurmser understood it, was above all the +interpretation of inner psychic conflict and the inner defenses against +it. His insistence on the “centrality of conflict,” in the face of an +“incessant pull away” from conflict that was making the psychoanalytic +method increasingly superficial, had the added and unexpected advantage +of restoring some of the moral and religious associations that once +clustered around the concept of shame. Wurmser asked himself, in effect, +how the same word could refer both to the impulse to pry and to the +impulse to conceal. Mindful of Freud’s dictum that opposites share an +underlying affinity, he found that his patients were simultaneously +obsessed with seeing and with being seen. + +One of them, a woman suffering from anxiety, depression, and a consuming +suspiciousness, told him: “I want to find out the hidden, forbidden +truth about who creates and who does not create”—a statement worthy of +Faust or Prometheus. But she was also consumed with the fear” that her +own secrets would be revealed. Penetrating other people’s secrets (those +of her parents in particular) became a way of presenting her own. Her +fear of defilement and dishonor made her wish to defile others—a +striking illustration of the connection between shameful disgrace and +the shameless act of exposure. Another patient wished to hide her face +from the world—the characteristic stance of shame—but also bad a +compulsion to exhibit herself. It was as if she were saying: “I want to +show the world how magnificently I can hide.” Here the rage for exposure +was redirected to the self, in the form of an exhibitionism that “knew +no shame,” as we used to say. + +Beneath the contradictory wish to hide and to spy, to see and be seen, +Wurmser detected a deeper set of paired opposites—the “polarity” between +the “yearning for boundless union” and a “murderous contempt.” Both +arose out of an underlying fear of abandonment. What Wurmser’s patients +experience as shameful is the contingency and the finitude of human +life, nothing less. They cannot reconcile themselves to the +intractability of limits. The record of their suffering makes us see why +shame is so closely associated with the body, which resists efforts to +control it and therefore reminds us, vividly and painfully, of our +inescapable limitations, the inescapability of death above everything. +It is man’s bondage to nature, as Erich Heller once said, that makes him +ashamed. “Anything that is nature about him, ... anything that shows him +to be enslaved by laws and necessities impervious to his will,” becomes +a source of unbearable humiliation, which can express itself in +seemingly incompatible ways—in the effort to hide from the world, but +also in the effort to penetrate its secrets. What these opposite +reactions share is a kind of outrage in the face of whatever is +mysterious and therefore resistant to human control, “Shame,” said +Nietzsche, “exists everywhere where there is a ‘mystery.’” + +When psychoanalysts reject the temptation to dismiss shame as the +vestigial remnant of an outmoded prudery, they have much to tell us +about its moral and existential implications, Wurmser’s study owes its +power and its clarity not only to his sensitive reporting of case +histories, but also to his insistence on the philosophical dimension of +psychoanalysis. He conceives his work as a “dialogue with the best minds +that still speak directly to us across the abyss of death and time.” It +disturbs him that “the vast symbolic fields of the humanities no longer +form the shared matrix in which psychoanalytic work is organically +embedded.” The newer studies of shame and self-esteem—only a few of +which will be considered here, a small selection from a huge +outpouring—owe very little to the best psychoanalytic tradition and +suffer accordingly. + +The decline in quality is immediately evident. The value of Donald +Nathanson’s *Shame and Pride,* the most ambitious of these studies, is +inversely proportional to its pretensions. Nathanson wants to show that +shame performs certain functions that contribute to psychic equilibrium. +There may be some truth in this, but it hardly qualifies as an “entirely +new way of thinking” about shame, an “entirely new theory for the nature +of human sexuality,” an “entirely new mode of study.” Nathanson’s +ambitious system often seems to yield more than banalities. “Shame will +occur whenever desire outruns fulfillment.” “Shame affect is triggered +any time interest or enjoyment is impeded.” “Life is full of impediments +to positive affect.” “It seems that nearly everybody needs an inferior.” + +Nathanson thanks Wurmser for unstinting “support and assistance”—a +tribute to Wurmser’s generosity if not to his judgment. Nathanson’.s +approach exemplifies precisely the behaviorism that Wurmser cautioned +against. It treats “shame affect” as a “unique biological mechanism,” It +aims to “return psychology entirely to biological science” and to banish +“mysticism.” It rests on a mechanistic model of the psyche as a +comptiter, a system for processing information. Evidently struggling for +scientific precision, Nathanson writes much of the time in a barbarous +jargon in which “startle” becomes a noun and “dissmell” refers to the +recoil from unpleasant odors. He is deaf to the conversation of the +ages, and perhaps to his patients as well, since he reports no case +histories. As for his therapy, it seems to consist largely of drugs. “We +stopped the medication, and the symptom disappeared,” “All of these +symptoms vanished when he began to take the drug *fluoxetine.”* “She was +astonished to see these feelings of shame disappear when she resumed her +medication.” + +In place of the interpretation of intrapsychic conflict, Nathanson +offers a mechanistic theory, derived from the work of Sylvan Tomkins, in +which affect acts as an “amplifier,” informing the organism of unruly +appetites in need of intelligent management. Shame, an essential +component in our “basic wiring pattern,” protects the organism “from its +growing avidity for positive affect.” By forcing us to “know and +remember our failures,” it acts as a “teacher.” Just what it teaches +remains a little unclear: to modify our expectations? to pursue more +realistic goals? Whenever his prose veers too close to clarity, +Nathanson interjects an explanation that defies explanation: It +\[shame\] is a biological system by which the organism controls its +affective output so that it will not remain interested or content when +it may not be safe to do so, or so that it will not remain in affective +resonance with an organism that fails to match patterns stored in +memory. In plain English, shame keeps us from taking ourselves too +seriously. + +This seems to be the gist of it. Whereas Wurmser pleads for the “heroic +transcendence of shame” through love and work, Nathanson recommends a +kind of inoculation against shame—a healthy dose of shame in manageable +amounts, such as we find in the therapeutic comedy of Buddy Hackett, +that keeps it from becoming lethal. What he finds appealing, I take it, +is the lowering effect of Hackett’s bathroom humor. The reminder that no +one escapes “the call of nature,” as our grandmothers used to put it so +delicately, serves both to deflate self-importance and to mock false +modesty—all the more effectively, Nathanson seems to think, when it is +couched in coarse, uninhibited language. Hackett’s “comedy of +acceptance” reconciles us to our limitations, according to Nathanson. +I think it merely encourages us to lower our sights. There is a crucial +difference between the acceptance of limitations and the impulse to +reduce everything exalted to its lowest common denominator. “Acceptance” +becomes shameless, cynical surrender when it can no longer distinguish +between nobility and pomposity, refinement of taste and social snobbery, +modesty and prudery. Cynicism confuses delusions of grandeur, which call +for moral and therapeutic correction, with grandeur itself. + +Cynicism, of course, is the last thing Nathanson intends to promote. He +wants only to replace shame with what he calls pride—a sense of +accomplishment based on acceptance of our limitations, but his vaccine +is worse than the disease. By recommending the deflation of ideals as +the prescription for mental health, he proposes, in effect, to cure +shame with shamelessness. This is itself a well-known defense (and, as +such, hardly a cure)—the strategy cogently identified by Wurmser as the +“lifelong reversal” of the “‘shameless’ cynic,” the transvaluation of +values by means of which “narcissistic grandiosity and contemptuousness +defend against a fatal brittleness and woundedness.” As Wurmser points +out, this defense now sets the tone of our culture as a whole: +Everywhere there is an unrestrained exposure of one’s emotions and of +one’s body, a parading of secrets, a wanton intrusion of curiosity.... +It has ... become hard to express tender feelings, feelings of respect, +of awe, of idealization, of reverence. It almost belongs to the “good +tone” to be irreverent. It is no accident that in German and Greek, +words for shame are also words of reverence. The culture of +shamelessness is also the culture of irreverence, of debunking and +devaluing ideals. Trust in life carries the risk of disappointment, so +we inoculate ourselves with irreverence. + +Even the most obtuse students of shame understand, in principle, that +shamelessness is a defensive strategy, not a real solution. In *No Place +to Hide,* Michael Nichols warns that “shamelessness is a reaction +formation against shame, a defiant, counter phobic attempt to deny and +overcome a profound inner fear of weakness.” But Nichols and his like +recognize the affinity between shamelessness and shame only in its most +blatant form. They can see shamelessness in “defiance” but not in their +own ideology of “acceptance,” The deflation of “extravagant +expectations”—Nichols’s favorite remedy for the oppressive sense of +failure—amounts to a milder version of Nathanson’s strategy of +existential distrust. Thus he warns against religion, which purveys +“oversimplified messages about right and wrong” and holds up +impossible standards—”a vision of righteousness that remains forever out +of reach.” The old religions preached the sinfulness of sex and divorce, +discouraged “understanding and acceptance.” Fortunately “today’s +enlightened ministers and rabbis are preaching a humanistic acceptance +of the self and the body.” Indeed, they are “more attuned to humanistic +concerns than most psychiatrists”— surely a backhanded compliment, +though Nichols intends it as high praise. + +“The story of Adam and Eve,” in Nichols’s retelling, “reflects the +general awareness that children of nature don’t know shame; they have to +be taught.” From this Panglossian point of view, we can rid the world of +shame and many other evils simply by treating children with “empathy,” +engineering settings in which they can “feel good about themselves,” and +“validating their right to think and feel whatever they wish.” There is +some value in the advice to “let them be themselves,” if it helps to +discourage over management of children by adults. We do children a +terrible disservice, however, by showering them with undeserved +approval. The kind of reassurance they need comes only with a growing +ability to meet impersonal standards of competence. Children need to +risk failure and disappointment, to overcome obstacles, to face down the +terrors that surround them. Self-respect cannot be conferred, it has to +be earned. Current therapeutic and pedagogical practice, all “empathy” +and “understanding,” hopes to manufacture self-respect without risk. Not +even witch doctors could perform a medical miracle on that order. + +The early Freudians warned against “prophylactic” misapplications of +psychoanalysis, as Anna Freud called them. They knew that a superficial +reading of Freud encouraged the notion that enlightened methods of +child-rearing could do away with suffering and neurosis. They countered +this foolish optimism with the reminder that growing up is never easy, +that children will never achieve maturity unless they work things out +for themselves. But the helping professions paid no attention to this +realism. In order to justify the expansion of therapeutic authority over +the family, the school, and large areas of public policy, they made +extravagant claims for their expertise. They set themselves up as +doctors not only to sick patients, but to a sick society. + +By 1937 Karen Horney, one of the first of the Freudian revisionists, was +already insisting that “neurosis and culture” were problems “not only +for psychiatrists but for social workers and teachers,” for +“anthropologists and sociologists,” and for all those professionals, +indeed, who had become “aware of the significance of psychic factors” in +social life. Therapy was no longer the business of psychiatrists alone; +nor could it be confined to individuals. In an influential essay +published in the same year, the sociologist Lawrence Frank took the +position that society itself was the patient. + +It is significant that this consensus took shape in the ‘30s, when the +designers of an emerging welfare state were trying to convince the +public that poverty and unemployment should not be attributed to lack of +individual enterprise, that the system (not the individual) was at +fault, that dependence on public relief was no disgrace, and that +self-help was an illusion. The first step toward economic recovery and +social justice, it appeared, was to “absolve the individual from guilt,” +as Frank put it, To the chagrin of reformers, however, many Americans, +even those victimized by unemployment, clung to an ethic of self-help +and refused to acknowledge the state’s responsibility to relieve +suffering or the individual’s right to relief. For liberals, the debates +touched off by the Depression and the New Deal appeared to confirm the +wisdom of therapeutic as opposed to ethical analysis of social problems. +The “conception of a sick society in need of treatment,” according to +Frank, was far more useful than conceptions stressing “human volition, +human autonomy, and individual responsibility.” + +This has remained the dominant view, right down to the present day. It +has come to be widely shared even by “religious and ethical groups,” +singled out (along with lawyers) by Frank as bastions of the old ethic +of individual accountability. As Nichols says, the contemporary church +is just as “enlightened” as the helping professions. “Pastors ... speak +out about healthy self-esteem. You wouldn’t have heard this twenty years +ago.” His description of pastoral speech is accurate enough, but his +memory is much too short. The clergy began to see the light a long time +ago. The social gospel, an important influence in American Protestantism +since the turn of the century, had prepared them for the idea that +society is the patient. Henry J. Cadbury, a critic of the social gospel, +observed in 1937 that it had become the “staple diet of American +liberals,” who “affirm with one voice that society, not individuals +merely, is the subject of redemption.” Thirty years later the Harvard +theologian Harvey Cox argued in *The Secular City* that “the achievement +of health in place of neurosis on the individual level cannot be +separated from the restoration of wholeness to the entire society.” +Freud “concentrated on the sick individual in his therapy,” Cox +complained; but the sick individual could no longer be treated apart +from the “sick society.” + +Low self-esteem is merely the latest form of social pathology commending +itself to specialists in the cure of souls. Il should not surprise us +when the new pathologists of shame announce that a “more articulated +theory” of shame, in the words of Michael Lewis, has “applicability to +the social as well as to the individual level.” Lewis readily embraces +the cliché that blacks and women are “shamed by the culture in which +they live,” in need of “understanding rather than humiliation.” Raising +their self-esteem, he thinks, would “eliminate many social problems.” +“The solution I propose,” he writes, “is a cognitive affective program +designed to reduce shame.” + +Gloria Steinem, like Lewis, dwells at length on the social implications +of low self-esteem, especially in women. Feminists have criticized her +new book as a retreat from political involvements, but it is better +understood as another plea to the effect that politics and therapy are +indistinguishable. It is completely consistent with the dominant brand +of liberalism, a liberalism obsessed with the rights of women and +minorities, with gay rights and unlimited abortion rights, with the +allegedly epidemic spread of child abuse and sexual harassment, with the +need for regulations against offensive speech, and with curricular +reforms designed to end the cultural hegemony of “dead white European +males.” “Social justice,” as liberals have come to define it, now refers +to political therapies intended to undo the unwholesome effects of +“authoritarian,” “patriarchal” attitudes and to prevent anyone from +“blaming the victim.” The therapeutic discovery of shame finds its +political expression in remedial programs administered by caretakers +professing to speak on behalf of the downtrodden, but concerned above +all to expand their own professional jurisdiction. Steinem’s “revolution +from within” does not signal a flight from politics, only a continuation +of politics by other means. + +Her therapeutic assault on shame requires political action for its +completion. As a salutary example, she recommends California’s Statewide +Task Force to Promote Self-Esteem. She maintains that although +journalists and politicians have ridiculed this noble experiment, it +showed that almost every social problem can be traced to a failure of +self-esteem. Self-contempt, the task force discovered, was a “primary +causal factor” in “crime and violence, alcohol abuse, drug abuse, +teenage pregnancy, child and spousal abuse, chronic welfare dependency, +and failure to achieve in school”—the “very problems,” Steinem adds, +that “Americans fear most.” + +She does not bother to explain how the California task force arrived at +this finding—that is, by ignoring the reservations that were advanced by +the experts on whose testimony its report was based. Papers prepared for +the task force repeatedly spoke of the “paucity of good research” +linking low self-esteem to social pathology; but the chairman of the +body, John Vasconcellos, dismissed these reservations on the grounds +that they came from “those who only live in their heads, in the +intellectual.” The importance of self-esteem, he said, was confirmed by +“our intuitive knowledge.” + +Steinem says nothing about the controversy surrounding the Vasconcellos +report. It is enough for her that California’s dubious example has been +initiated by other states and by California’s fifty-eight counties, +almost every one of which now has its own task force on self-esteem. +She, too, prefers to rely on “intuitive knowledge.” Her book overflows +with it. Children, she explains, should “feel loved and valued from the +beginning.” Most of us, however, were ignored or abused as children, and +since we all “continue to treat ourselves the way we were treated as +children,” we therefore abuse ourselves as adults. But a “unique and +true self resides in each one of us,” the discovery of which will set us +free. “The moment we find the true reason for some feeling that has an +irrationally powerful hold over us... the spell is broken.” + +It is hard to see how anyone could take such stuff seriously, but it +commands automatic assent in many quarters and it provides much of the +rationale for an expansion of the welfare state. That liberal +“activists,” as Steinem refers to them admiringly, now find themselves +reduced to such slogans may indicate that welfare liberalism is +suffering from terminal fatigue. Is it really necessary to point out, at +this late date, that public policies based on a therapeutic model of the +state have failed miserably, over and over again? Far from promoting +self-respect, they have created a nation of dependents. They have given +rise to a cult of the victim in which entitlements are based on the +display of accumulated injuries inflicted by an uncaring society. The +politics of “compassion” degrades both the victims, by reducing them to +objects of pity, and their would-be benefactors, who find it easier to +pity their fellow citizens than to hold them up to impersonal standards, +the attainment of which would make them respected. Compassion has become +the human face of contempt. + +Democracy once meant opposition to every kind of double standard. Today +we accept double standards—as always, a recipe for second-class +citizenship—in the name of humanitarian concern. We hand out awards +indiscriminately, hoping to give the recipients the illusion of +accomplishment. Having given up attempts to raise the general level of +competence, we are content to restrict it to the caring class, which +arrogates to itself the job of looking out for everybody else. The +professionalization of compassion does not make us a kinder, gentler +nation. Instead it institutionalizes inequality, under the pretense that +everyone is “special” in his own way. And since the pretense is +transparent, the attempt to make people feel good about themselves only +makes them cynical. “Caring” is no substitute for candor. + +If psychotherapy has failed as politics, most recently as the politics +of self-esteem, it has also failed as a replacement for religion. The +founder of psychoanalysis believed that men and women would outgrow the +need for religion as they came to depend on their own resources. He was +wrong about that, as it turned out. Still, his kind of therapy +encouraged introspection, and it aimed at moral insight; and it was not +entirely unreasonable, therefore, to suppose that psychiatry could take +over the healing functions performed by priests and confessors—performed +very clumsily at that, according to Freud. + +For some time now, however, the psychiatric profession has been moving +toward therapies aimed more at behavior modification than insight. +Whatever it has gained in the management of symptoms, often with the +help of drugs, bas been achieved at the expense of introspection. This +trend may be regrettable, but it is easy to see why psychoanalytic +therapies, in their classic form, no longer have much of a following in +the profession as a whole. They cost too much, last too long, and demand +too much intellectual sophistication from the patient. Even the most +enthusiastic admirers of the psychoanalytic method might be disconcerted +to read that one of Wurmser’s patients “abruptly” broke off analysis “in +the 1,172nd session.” Another patient of Wurmser’s remained in analysis +for eleven years. Still another “eventually killed herself by jumping +off a bridge.” When psychoanalytic treatment threatens to become +interminable and often ends in failure, sometimes after years of +intensive self-exploration, both doctors and patients understandably +turn to methods promising fast relief, even at the price of deep +understanding. + +At its best, psychoanalytic theory exposes the moral and existential +dimension of mental conflict; but even then it cannot compete with +religion. Wurmser’s book on shame, a work in the grand tradition of +psychoanalytic speculation, reminds us that psychoanalytically informed +interpretation can reclaim ageless moral wisdom and deepen our +understanding of it. Reading Wurmser, we see why shame and curiosity +have always been so closely linked in people’s minds, why shame ought to +evoke feelings of awe and reverence, and why it refers, above all, to +the irreducible element of mystery in human affairs. + +But this very depth of moral understanding, so compelling at the level +of moral theory, can also render psychoanalysis useless not only for +therapeutic purposes but also as a guide to the conduct of life. The +more it infringes on the territory once occupied by religion, the more +it invites unflattering comparisons with its rival. Can psychoanalysis +really do anything for people who suffer from an inner conviction of +“absolute unlovability”? Maybe religion is the answer after all. It is +not at all clear, at any rate, that religion could do much worse. diff --git a/_stories/1993/12270819.md b/_stories/1993/12270819.md index e126947..45e5c4a 100644 --- a/_stories/1993/12270819.md +++ b/_stories/1993/12270819.md @@ -19,7 +19,1405 @@ _tags: objectID: '12270819' --- -[Source](https://home.chicagobusiness.com/clickshare/authenticateUserSubscription.do?CSProduct=crainschicago-metered&CSAuthReq=1:273674823319752:AID:65C8C3F8FBFA023813CFCD34BFEE4601&AID=/19931009/ISSUE01/100018007&title=The%20fall%20of%20Schwinn%20(pt.%201%20of%202)&CSTargetURL=http://www.chicagobusiness.com/article/19931009/ISSUE01/100018007/the-fall-of-schwinn-pt-1-of-2 "Permalink to ") +Like the Chicago summer of 1992, Schwinn Bicycle Co.'s negotiations with +prospective buyers had turned cold. +On Aug. 26, Chief Operating Officer Ralph Day Murray delivered the +prognosis to an advisory board that included several Schwinn family +members and three outside businessmen. +No savior was coming, Mr. Murray reported. Schwinn was $75 million in +debt. It was losing $1 million a month. Suppliers were demanding cash +for bikes. And the banks were squeezing harder and harder. +Keck Mahin & Cate attorney Dennis O'Dea — a familiar face lately at +Schwinn's West Loop headquarters, where employees had morbidly dubbed +him "the Angel of Death" — added his grim assessment: A Chapter 11 +petition already had been prepared, he told the gathering. Bankruptcy +was not an if. It was a when. + +Keck Mahin & Cate attorney Dennis O'Dea — a familiar face lately at +Schwinn's West Loop headquarters, where employees had morbidly dubbed +him "the Angel of Death" — added his grim assessment: A Chapter 11 +petition already had been prepared, he told the gathering. Bankruptcy +was not an if. It was a when. + +Schwinn's outside board members glanced at one another, then asked for a +brief caucus. Mere advisers, they were powerless. Moments later, the +trio announced their joint resignations, effective immediately. + +Tears welled in the eyes of Schwinn cousins Betty Dembecki and Debbie +Bailey. A century-old family company was dying as they watched. A proud +name and business tradition soon would be the province of $200-an-hour +lawyers, bankers and other vultures of commerce. + +They looked at President and CEO Edward R. Schwinn Jr., the man +ultimately responsible for this mess. + +As usual, Ed just sat, stone-faced and impenetrable. + +"We are where we are," he'd answer matter-of-factly when family or +Schwinn executives criticized the company's deteriorating performance. + +For his part, Ed had endured many emotional meetings in the past year, +Schwinn executives say. Ugly bouts filled with machinations and +recriminations from Betty, Debbie and other cousins and in-laws who +lived off the business but didn't know how to run it any better than he +did. + +Ed had struggled for more than eight months as the company's fortunes +faded, trying to find some way to preserve the Schwinn dynasty. Maybe he +couldn't maintain the family's control. But at least members might hold +onto a minority stake. + +It still could happen, he told colleagues. + +It never did. + +Six weeks later, Schwinn Bicycle Co. was in U.S. Bankruptcy Court, +pleading for federal protection from creditors who seemed ready to slice +up the company. + +By year's end, most of the company was sold for $43.3 million in cash to +a partnership headed by Chicago financier Sam Zell. The 14 members of +the Schwinn family trust pocketed a paltry $2.5 million from the deal. + +And Ed was sitting on the sidelines. For the first time in its 97-year +history, Schwinn Bicycle Co. would not be headed by a Schwinn. + +What went wrong? + +Ed Schwinn declined repeated requests to be interviewed for this +article, as did most Schwinn family members who had worked for the +closely held company or owned shares of it. + +But six months of research, including interviews with more than 100 +sources inside and outside the bicycle industry, reveals for the first +time exactly why and how Schwinn self-destructed. + +It is a saga of spectacular failure. Of management blunders that +stretched across the globe. Of vengeance wreaked by former executives +and Asian suppliers. Of a family's insistence on retaining control and +rejecting outside capital until it was too late. Of two corporate +cultures — good old boys living in the past, MBAs flow-charting the +future — clashing while competitors raced by them both. + +Most of all, it is a tale of a young CEO who wanted to save his company +but blew it. A man who ultimately alienated just about everyone he +needed — from relatives, employees and longtime dealers to lenders, +suppliers and bidders — with a world-class combination of arrogance, +carelessness and flawed judgment. + +The Schwinn drama deepens when one considers that Ed might have had the +stuff to save the company, for he had saved it before. + +Outside a small circle of company managers and bankers, no one knew that +a financial crisis in the early 1980s had wiped out most of the Schwinn +family's equity and brought the company to the brink of bankruptcy. + +In fact, Schwinn hocked its name and patents to Harris Bank and Northern +Trust Co. in 1983 to preserve its borrowing power. + +But when the company turned profitable again — the family regained +ownership of the Schwinn name in 1988 — Ed and his senior managers +breathed too easily too quickly. They embarked on a spending spree, +sinking too much time and money into ill-advised ventures with overseas +suppliers and domestic entrepreneurs. + +Suddenly, they were dealmakers, not bikemakers. And the arrogance +returned. + +Like so many family-owned companies, Schwinn faltered as its third and +fourth generations assumed leadership (see story on Page 33). + +While the Schwinns aren't Rockefellers — their company's profits peaked +in 1986 at a modest $7.0 million — the family name is one of America's +most famous. + +And Ed was born with a silver spoke in his mouth. He carried himself in +the Schwinn tradition: proud, stubborn, comfortable with his celebrity +status in the bike industry. But he possessed neither the drive of his +great-grandfather, company founder Ignaz Schwinn, nor the genius of his +grandfather, Frank W. Schwinn. + +That's not uncommon for the later generations in any family company. Yet +Schwinn never was your typical family business. + +It is a corporate rarity: a Great American Company, one that transformed +an industry and, at its height in the 1950s, commanded 25% of its +market. It also is something even rarer: a fond and wistful memory for +generations of children who pedaled, or pined for, its Excelsiors, +Phantoms, Sting-Rays and Varsitys. + +"Schwinn is a company apart," says Stuart J. Meyers, publisher of the +New York trade magazine American Bicyclist and Motorcyclist. "Schwinn +has roots in every child's memory . . . every child up to a certain +age." + +And therein lays the problem. + +Schwinn was used to being the big wheel. It was a Chicago manufacturer +that produced some of the best bikes in the world. An R\&D leader that +innovated first or fastest. A marketer that sensed what Americans +wanted. A maker of merchants that set the highest of standards and, in +the process, built itself the strongest and smartest dealer network in +the business. + +"Working for Schwinn, you were playing for the Yankees," says Allen +Singer, former president of Schwinn's Midwest sales operation. + +"It was the pinnacle," says Jim Burris, a Sunnyvale, Calif., bike dealer +who in 1972 took a 60% pay cut to join Schwinn's West Coast salesforce. +"I wanted to work for Schwinn so bad. They were like IBM. You got +prestige. You got respect. You commanded respect." + +But some top executives grew sloppy and complacent in the 1970s and +'80s, living high on swollen expense accounts and spending more time on +golf carts than bicycles. They stopped looking over their shoulders, +instead coasting on their reputation for innovation and quality just +when younger and more active consumers began demanding lighter and more +adventurous bikes. + +Some dealers flagged warnings — they were the front lines, after all — +but too often, management failed to respond. + +"We figured because it said 'Schwinn,' people would buy it," says Brian +Fiala, former vice-president of human resources. + +"Schwinn fell into the same trap that the auto industry did: They +thought they knew the pulse," says Marin County, Calif., cycling guru +Gary Fisher, widely credited with inventing the mountain bike in the +1970s — a bicycle that Schwinn's engineers literally laughed at. + +This was no time to get uppity. + +The rise in the 1960s and '70s of Asian-based parts manufacturers and +bikemakers — especially Japan's Shimano Inc., which today dominates the +market for bike components the way Intel Corp. dominates computer chips +— was turning U.S. bicycle companies into mere assemblers of +increasingly standardized parts. + +To his credit, Ed Schwinn embraced the global marketplace. Under his +administration, the company became an enthusiastic customer of the new +manufacturers. Its margins were fatter, the globe-trotting and +deal-making headier. + +But Schwinn was inexperienced in the world arena, and botched its Asian +relationships. + +For instance, Ed Schwinn found an efficient and accommodating supplier +in then-tiny Giant Manufacturing Corp. of Taiwan. But he handed over +four-fifths of Schwinn's bicycle production to Giant without gaining an +equity stake. + +By the time Schwinn wised up and diversified sourcing in the late 1980s, +it had created a formidable competitor that was selling its own +attractively priced brand of bikes in the United States. When Schwinn +went into Bankruptcy Court, Giant was one of its largest trade +creditors, and President Tony Lo may have had more motive to kill the +beleaguered company than to save it. + +"They expected to get in bed with the Chinese," Mr. Fisher says of +Schwinn, "and the Chinese ate 'em for breakfast." + +Even as Schwinn went offshore for bikes, Ed maintained the company's +heritage as manufacturer to ensure control over product quality and +pricing. He would buy stakes in overseas factories in China and Hungary +and invest in a high-tech plant in Mississippi, so as not to abandon +Schwinn's made-in-America tradition. + +The problem was not so much the strategy as the execution. Schwinn +heaped too much on its plate and diverted attention from its core +mission — designing good, marketable bikes. + +For much of this century, Schwinn produced bikes from a Northwest Side +factory complex that, during its peak in the early '70s, employed 1,800 +people and cranked out more than 1 million cycles annually. + +But like too many Midwest metal-benders, Schwinn didn't invest enough in +new technology. Union organizing only stiffened the family's resolve not +to sink more money into its aging plant. + +A 1980 strike sealed the factory's fate: It would be closed three years +later. Today, the Kildare Avenue site is a vacant lot of weeds and +broken glass. + +Wanting to maintain domestic production, Schwinn launched a plant in the +union-free but remote town of Greenville, Miss. The move proved +disastrous. The poorly managed plant never made a dime, racking up +losses of more than $30 million in 10 years. + +And dealers shuddered at the inferior bikes shipped from Greenville each +season. "You found yourself repairing the bikes as you were assembling +them," says Terry Gibson, a veteran dealer in Downstate Normal. + +Meantime, youthful new American brands came on the scene, challenging +Schwinn's control of the independent bicycle market. + +Trek Bicycle Corp. of Waterloo, Wis., appealed to affluent adults and +proved it was possible to manufacture successfully in the United States. +And Specialized Bicycle Components Inc. of Morgan Valley, Calif., +commercialized Gary Fisher's mountain bike ideas and ultimately +dominated the pricier market niches. + +"A lot of people were carving the turkey," says Bernie Kotlier, +executive vice-president of Long Beach, Calif.-based Lawee Inc., which +markets Univega bikes. "Everyone got their piece." + +Except Schwinn. Its marketshare dwindled to about 12% in 1979 — Ed's +first year as president — only to sink further during the 1980s, to 5% +by 1992. + +Schwinn could have overcome its obstacles. Its name maintains a grip on +baby boomer imaginations. And Schwinn could have gone public or taken on +minority investors to ensure growth and financial security. + +More radical voices in the industry called for Ed to reinvent the +company, casting off some dealers if necessary and selling the famous +Schwinn name in the Sportmarts or Kmarts of the world. + +But in the end, Ed never articulated a broad vision that could keep his +troops pedaling in the same direction. + +He launched bold initiatives. But the moves were too grand for a company +the size of Schwinn, whose annual sales never exceeded $212 million. + +He lacked the attention to detail needed to make his ambitious projects +succeed. And because of executive turnover, the onus kept returning to +him. + +Some colleagues and dealers find him charming, unpretentious, capable — +an articulate spokesman for Schwinn and the cycling industry. + +But others saw a different side. + +Ed, they say, just couldn't gut it out. He hated to hear bad news. He +was buffeted by competing management agendas. And he was known to slip +out of important meetings or never show up at all. + +To the banks, Ed seemed dangerously flip. As tensions rose in 1992, +lenders' confidence in him declined, and they made no bones about their +desire to see Ed step aside as chief executive. + +"I'll do that before I let this company go down the tubes," he told COO +Mr. Murray in the summer of 1992. + +He never kept that vow. + +Now, with the family tie severed, Schwinn has lost its last reason to be +in Chicago. New owner Scott Sports Group — run by Idaho sporting goods +entrepreneur Charles T. Ferries but controlled by Chicago's +Zell-Chilmark Fund L.P. — is relocating Schwinn's headquarters to the +fitness mecca of Boulder, Colo. + +Most bike industry observers say Schwinn has a strong shot at +rebounding. Tougher and more experienced management is in charge now. +And Sam Zell's participation ensures that Schwinn will be well-financed. + +"An extraordinary nameplate with an extraordinary franchise that was +allowed to deteriorate," says Mr. Zell, explaining his attraction to the +company. + +It was a long and tortured deterioration, one with lessons for many +businesses, large and small. What follows is the story of that decline. +And how a Great American Family failed to stop it. + +**THE BEGINNINGS** + +If one word defines the Schwinn clan, it is headstrong. + +That can be a compliment, when the headstrong man knows what he is +doing. + +It is something else when he doesn't. + +Company founder Ignaz Schwinn always knew what he was doing. At least, +he always seemed to. When the 88-year-old died of a stroke in 1948, +condolences from customers and even competitors approached veneration. + +Ignaz was the "dean of our industry," wrote the CEO of Huffman +Manufacturing Co., maker of Huffy bikes. + +The "Henry Ford of the bicycle industry," mourned the leader of a cycle +parts association. + +No false praise. Ignaz was a German immigrant who had turned a small +Chicago bike factory into one of the best-known businesses in America. A +demanding chief executive who, with his son, Frank W., had resuscitated +a lifeless industry in the 1930s with innovations that captured the +imaginations of American children and made Schwinn a synonym for +bicycle. + +And he did it the old-fashioned way: his way. + +"Ignaz was a typical Schwinn: hardheaded and stubborn," says Niles +resident Rudolph Schwinn, a retired Schwinn engineer whose grandfather +and Ignaz were brothers. + +He was a gruff little bulldog of a man. + +Schwinn old-timers tell a tale, perhaps apocryphal, of a production +worker in the 1920s who wanted to buy a stripped-down bike frame from +Ignaz. + +"How much?" the worker asked. + +Ignaz quoted the price of a complete bicycle. + +"Why so much?" the worker wondered. + +"Because you had to have stolen the parts if all you need is a frame," +Ignaz answered, "so I'll charge you for the entire bicycle." + +Frank W. once told trade magazine publisher Stuart Meyers: "My father +was a stern man of the old school. He did not spoil his children." + +So, the young Schwinn was stupefied when his father gave him a raise +soon after he joined the company, then pointed to a new car in front of +the plant. "That's for you," Ignaz barked. "If you're going to make a +fool of yourself, I'd rather know about it now." + +Ignaz was tough, but then, so was his background. + +He was born April 1, 1860, in Germany's Baden province, the bourgeois +boy of a piano factory owner. His father died when Ignaz was 11, +however, and money for vocational school soon dried up. He was forced to +apprentice as a machinist, then wander the country as a migrant factory +worker. + +Bicycles were the hot new technology in the last quarter of the century, +attracting such mechanically minded men as Henry Ford and the brothers +Wilbur and Orville Wright. + +And young Ignaz Schwinn. + +He rode to higher and higher positions in German cycle factories — +usually leaving, according to Schwinn Bicycle Co. lore, when his bosses +wouldn't embrace his ideas for improving parts or production. + +At 30, he emigrated to America with his wife, Helen, arriving in the +manufacturing magnet of Chicago in 1891. + +Still more restlessness: A short stint with a local bikemaker was +followed by several apparently unhappy years designing and opening a +bicycle factory for International Manufacturing Co. + +"The enterprise was not managed to his liking," reports an official +Schwinn history, "and in 1894, he severed his connection." + +Later that year, Ignaz found his angel in Adolf Arnold, a successful +Chicago investor, banker and meatpacking executive. + +Mr. Arnold knew an opportunity when he saw one. The bike business was +booming, with the nation in the grip of a cycling craze spurred by the +recent invention of easy-to-ride two-wheelers (see story on Page 24). + +By the mid-1890s, the building of bicycles had become a $60-million +industry. Annual production surpassed 500,000 units. Then 700,000 . . . +800,000. One million. "Bicycle men today assert that theirs is the +largest specific manufacturing industry in America," reported Munsey's +Magazine in 1896. + +Heady stuff. And Chicago was its hub: Fully two-thirds of all bikes and +accessories were made within 150 miles of the city, according to the +1898 Chicago Bicycle Directory. + +More than 30 factories bustled along Lake Street west of the Loop during +the late 1890s, their 6,000 workers churning out cheaper and cheaper +product for such major merchants as The Fair department store — which +sold up to 1,000 bikes a day from its colossal store straddling State, +Adams and Dearborn streets — and Chicago-based mail-order giants +Montgomery Ward & Co. and Sears, Roebuck and Co. + +Into this frenzy jumped Messrs. Arnold and Schwinn, who incorporated +their Arnold Schwinn & Co. in 1895 and rented a building at Lake and +Peoria streets. + +Mr. Arnold let his expert run the venture. It proved a wise decision. + +Ignaz was a master manufacturer. He built both his own World brand and +bikes for retailers that slapped on their labels — including Sears, one +of Schwinn's earliest customers. + +And he had a flair for marketing. The company sponsored a World team of +racers who smashed speed barriers around the globe — and earned ink in +the many cycling publications of the era. At an 1896 race in Garfield +Park, Bearings magazine reported, "Mr. Schwinn took the liveliest +interest . . . and hoped that records would be broken in the home city." + +Initial sales hardly were out of this world — about 25,000 units +annually at first. But Schwinn's star was rising. + +Not so for most of the rest of the industry, where a too-crowded field +of 300 cycle makers hacked one another into oblivion. + +Between 1897 and 1898, the price of a top-of-the-line bike snapped in +half — to $50 wholesale from $100. Cheaply made bikes were fetching $20 +retail. + +Worse, adults stopped cycling as the automobile age revved up. By 1905, +national bicycle production had plunged to 250,000 units annually from a +dizzying high of 1.2 million units just six years earlier. Only a dozen +factories survived the shake-up. + +Schwinn fared well through the turmoil. It even expanded and relocated +its headquarters in 1901 to 1856 N. Kostner Ave., its home for the next +85 years. + +Key to Schwinn's survival was its relationship with Sears, then the +largest peddler of Schwinn-made bikes. In fact, Sears accounted for up +to 75% of Schwinn's sales in some of the years before World War I. +(Later, Ward's was a major customer, with volume reaching one-third of +all Schwinn sales in the early 1920s.) + +Despite such patrons, the automobile made the bike business a bust for +the next 30 years. + +Adolf Arnold bailed out — Ignaz bought his partner's shares in 1908, +making the Schwinn family sole owner (although no one bothered changing +the name until the late '60s.) + +And Ignaz turned his attention to the new field of motorcycles with his +purchase in 1911 of Excelsior Motor Manufacturing & Supply Co. Chicago +telephone books from the 1920s list Ignaz as "president-treasurer, +Excelsior Motor" — no word on the family bike business. + +Frank W. shared his father's passion for making motorcycles. "You will +have to get up early in the morning if you get to the Excelsior factory +in Chicago before Frank Schwinn is at his desk," reported American +Bicyclist and Motorcyclist magazine in 1921, "for Frank is the son of +his father when it comes to being on the job." + +Excelsior motorcycles had a reputation for engineering and pizzazz — +especially the trade show models, accented in sparkling white enamel. +But as the market for motorcycles waned in the late 1920s, Schwinn +squeezed the brakes. + +Ignaz and F. W., as Frank was now called in executive circles, shut down +the sputtering motorcycle operations and ordered their engineers to +focus on bicycles. Their first order of business was to reinvent a +product that hadn't changed much in a generation. + +Children were the primary market now. But their choice of products was a +few brands that looked alike. + +In the depths of the Great Depression, Schwinn's plan was to reap new +profits by making bikes bigger and flashier — by making something swell, +something that Junior would weep for, something that Ma and Pa would +have to buy this Christmas or they'd never ever hear the end of it. + +Thus, the balloon-tire bicycle — rolling on a whopper of a tread more +than two inches wide, with thick nobs that pinched pavement and lasted +lots longer than those piddly, 1½-inchers all the other kids rode. + +Introduced in 1933, the balloon tire was an instant hit. And Schwinn +shipments ballooned 137% to 107,200 by 1935, the year the new tire +became the standard in the industry. + +A string of styles and gimmicks were introduced, all chased by +double-digit sales increases. + +In 1934 came the Streamline Aerocycle — "built like an airplane +fuselage," read the trade ads. + +In 1935, the Cycleplane, with its sweeping lines, rounded tank, +chromium-plated headlight and electric horn button on the handlebar. + +Chastened competitors like Huffy and Murray soon began introducing new +designs, too. But Schwinn was on a roll. + +It introduced the built-in Cyclelock (with cheaper theft insurance via +Schwinn), the front-wheel brake, the cantilever frame (another future +industry standard) and the Paramount line of exquisitely designed +European-style racing bikes. + +All told, the company was awarded more than 40 patents during the '30s. +Annual production hit 346,000 by 1941. + +Schwinn had led the bicycle industry out of the Depression. + +It also had led another portion of the bike industry: the upper end that +was moving toward the independent dealer and away from the mass +merchants. + +As early as the 1920s, Schwinn was growing disenchanted with its major +retail customers. Sears, especially, had been leaning on Schwinn to use +cheaper suppliers. + +"Sears supposedly told F. W., 'Your bike is too good,'" says former +Schwinn marketing chief Ray Burch. "The Old Man blew his stack: 'Don't +tell me how to build my bike\!'" + +Whatever happened, the relationships with Sears and Ward's were over by +the 1930s. After World War II, Schwinn's only major chain store customer +would be tire dealer B. F. Goodrich. + +By 1948, the company would make its last private-label bike. Henceforth, +F. W. told workers proudly, Schwinn would sell only Schwinn. And it +would create the nation's strongest network of independent bicycle +dealers, all selling premium-priced Schwinns at a premium profit for +him. + +F. W. was firmly in charge now. In fact, he'd been running the operation +for years. After all, Ignaz was in his 80s — a widower growing feeble, +old-timers recall, a blind man with a cane who'd pinch a nurse's behind +one moment and ramble unintelligibly the next. + +Still, when Ignaz did shuffle into headquarters, it often was at his +customary early hour. And he always was escorted by F. W., who tended to +his father at work and at the family's Humboldt Park home. + +An American Bicyclist correspondent once told F. W. he was impressed +with the son's show of devotion. + +"I love that old gentleman," was F. W.'s unadorned response. + +Apparently, so did many others. And if not love, then at least respect. + +When Ignaz died in 1948, hundreds of floral arrangements flooded the +funeral home — bountiful offerings, including a full-size bicycle made +of flowers, from competitors, customers, cyclists. + +Yet one tribute was most heartfelt. Draping the casket was a blanket of +lilies bearing the single word "Father." + +**THE HEYDAY** + +Frank W. Schwinn flung a pair of pliers on his desk, smashing its glass +top. Following up a complaint about defective pedals, he'd taken them +apart and found they indeed were flawed. + +The boss buzzed for General Manager Bill Stoeffhaas, demanding that he +summon the factory's chief inspector. + +"The Old Man was shaking, he was so mad," recalls Mr. Burch, sales +promotion manager at the time. + +"You let this stuff in with my name on it," F. W. yelled at the hapless +inspector. "Get out, before I say something I shouldn't." + +F. W. was demanding, to say the least. At the Schwinn Bicycle Co. of the +1950s, he ran a tight ship. + +Schwinn was capitalizing on postwar prosperity and revved-up demand for +consumer goods. And this was its heyday — the era of the Black Phantom, +the top-of-the-line balloon-tire bike introduced in 1949 that gripped +many a young heart for the next 10 years. + +The Phantom was an instant American classic. Priced high, $80 to $90, it +was a beauty swathed in chrome, its fenders gleaming as you opened the +garage door. And it was built like a truck, confidently taking +subdivision curbs head-on. + +"It was like the '57 Chevy convertible," says James L. Hurd, curator of +the Schwinn family's substantial collection of bicycles and memorabilia. +"Upon looking at it, you just wanted one." + +The crush for Phantoms and other Schwinns had the Northwest Side factory +producing more than 400,000 bikes a year. Marketshare peaked in 1950, +when Schwinn made one of every four bikes sold in America. Afterward, it +maintained a share in the mid-teens but rode a steadily growing market. +The outlook was rosy. + +"35 million kids by 1960\!" exclaimed a 1951 edition of the in-house +newsletter, The Schwinn Reporter, citing expanding birth rate forecasts. +"Everyone engaged in the bicycle business is bound to gain." + +F. W., however, had his worries. Foremost was his company's unwieldy +distribution system. + +Schwinn was selling to almost anyone — some 15,000 retail outlets of +varying ilks, including pool halls, gas stations, barber shops and +funeral parlors. Yet Mr. Burch, hired from motorbike maker Whizzer Motor +Co. in 1950 to tame the merchandising monster, found that 27% of +Schwinn's retailers accounted for 94% of sales. + +The problem, as Schwinn saw it, was that too many bikes were being +handled by people who didn't know or care much about them. That led to +faults in assembly or repair and a chorus of customer complaints — +disastrous for a company touting a "no-time-limit warranty." + +During a training session at Marshall Field's, for instance, the sales +people "would sit and gab," recalls Mr. Burch, now retired and living +near San Diego. "They were toy department people interested in dolls and +toy trains. You can't make bike people out of them." + +Even worse was "Joe's Bike Shop," the catch-all name that Schwinn +executives used to describe the back-alley dealer. Scratching his +T-shirted gut, drinking beer with his buddies while a kid fixed flat +tires in the dirt, ol' Joe wouldn't attract the new suburban family +willing to pay a premium for Schwinn bikes. + +The solution, as fashioned by Mr. Burch, was to certify a corps of +several thousand credible bicycle dealers and weed out undesirables. + +Schwinn executives called it franchising, although the parent company +never collected fees or royalties. The Department of Justice, however, +called it restraint of trade and waged a 10-year antitrust suit against +the company. It ended with a Supreme Court loss for Schwinn (see story +on Page 28) that spurred the company to cut loose its independent +distributors and spend heavily to set up its own warehouse network. + +The retail winnowing of the '50s and '60s mainly involved cutting off +the hardware distributors, who handled about 15% of Schwinn's volume, +and dealing only to middlemen geared to the bike business. + +Paul Oberlin, Schwinn's imposing but genial sales manager, reluctantly +broke the news to many longtime clients with his lip quivering: "I can't +sell you anymore." + +"That's all right, Paul," one jobber consoled him. + +"The guys almost felt sorry for us," recalls William P. Chambers, +Schwinn's veteran dealer relations manager. + +But the strategy also required something else: developing a loyal dealer +infrastructure — the strongest in the business, even to this day. + +In the '50s, '60s and '70s, Schwinn made merchants out of mom-and-pop +shops with training and assistance that no other company offered — from +traveling mechanics schools and budget and marketing analysis to +advertising co-ops and assistance in relocating and designing not just +bike shops, but "ultramodern Schwinn cycleries." + +The goal was 100% Schwinn sales. And the company often succeeded: +Approximately 75% of its 1,700 dealers sold Schwinn exclusively by the +late 1970s. + +Not all dealers would be — or could be — 100% Schwinn, especially in +sophisticated East and West Coast cycling markets. + +Still, the minimum requirement was 50% of floor space devoted to +Schwinn, according to the dealership agreement. And the company's sales +and marketing forces religiously pressed dealers to up their Schwinn +counts — mostly through persuasion, but sometimes through bullying. + +The prototype of what the company came to call its "total concept store" +was established by George Garner, a top-selling Southern California +dealer who moved to Northbrook in the early 1960s to open several North +Shore cycleries and consult for Schwinn. + +Mr. Garner was Uberdealer, the kind of man a good Schwinn dealer should +strive to be. Fit, friendly and faithful to all things Schwinn, Mr. +Garner was the company's No. 1 seller for 19 years. In a row. + +"My heart and soul was with Schwinn," he says today at age 70, still +running his Northbrook store. "I always said, 'If you cut open a vein, +the word Schwinn would come out.'" + +Schwinn repeatedly trumpeted Mr. Garner's recipe for success: big, +brightly lit stores on the main drag of town; spotless, organized and +stocked with row after row of sparkling bikes beckoning passers-by to +come on in and give 'em a ride. + +No grubby mechanics here; they wore white lab coats. No digging for oily +spare parts; they were polished and encased in glass, like jewels at +Tiffany's. Mr. Garner's standard offer to less-than-satisfied customers: +"What can I do to make things right?" + +Basic merchandising by today's standards, but almost unheard of in the +bike business 40 years ago. + +Mr. Garner regularly offered his merchandising wisdom in a monthly +column for The Schwinn Reporter. + +The sprightly house organ and marketing tool was filled with news and +advice, horror stories about the evil chain stores and inspirational +dealer success stories. Read the legend on one 1952 article: "Put 'em on +the bike, feed 'em with the info, watch 'em buy . . . is the sales +technique employed with zest and honesty by Scotty's Bike Shop, Compton, +Calif., a 100% Schwinn dealer." + +The formula worked, judging by the rising ranks of dealers making a +middle-class living selling Schwinn — and the growing number of wives +wearing furs in photos of regional dealer meetings. + +Just as F. W. worked to strengthen the independent dealer, he kept the +factory on a tight leash. + +"You couldn't change the nuts, screws and bolts on a bike without his +approval," recalls Al Fritz, who began his 40-year Schwinn career in the +factory and rose to executive vice-president, the No. 2 post. + +As with the defective pedals, any flaw would make F. W. cranky. + +"The Old Man walked through the factory, looking at parts," Mr. Fritz +recalls. "If he found a defective piece in a 50-gallon drum, it would +hit the fan. He'd catch my eye or press a buzzer. The riot act would +go." + +Although he cast a long shadow in the factory, F. W. was slight, frail +and something of a hypochondriac. + +"His drawer was full of pills," recalls Mr. Chambers, the dealer +relations manager, "and he had thick books on medicine." + +F. W. lived comfortably but not ostentatiously. He was chauffeured daily +to the factory from his Humboldt Park home. He spent weekends at a +second house on Lake Geneva and wintered near Palm Beach, Fla., mailing +to Chicago envelopes stuffed with designs drafted on the lightest of +tissue paper. + +He never cut a wide swath in Chicago society, preferring low-key +pastimes like fishing in Lake Geneva. + +As F. W.'s health worsened in the early 1960s, Mr. Fritz became more +active in design work. + +He got a call one Saturday morning from a West Coast sales manager. +"Something goofy is going on," the manager told Mr. Fritz. "The kids are +buying used 20-inch bikes and equipping them with Texas longhorn +handlebars." + +"Send me the handlebars." Mr. Fritz said. + +The result was the Sting-Ray, with its distinctive high-rise handlebars, +banana seat and elongated sissy bar. + +Mr. Fritz was working on the prototype when F. W. died of prostate +cancer in April 1963. He had combed the dictionary looking for a name, +and was struck by a picture of a stingray. "It reminded me of the bike," +he says. + +On the morning of F. W.'s funeral, Mr. Fritz invited three visiting +distributors to look at a model. "They laughed at me," Mr. Fritz says. +"They thought it was a joke." + +But the bike, which mimicked the era's hot rod craze, turned out to be +hot stuff among kids, who snapped up nearly 2 million Sting-Rays between +1963 and 1968. + +"I dig the crazy styling," a Milwaukee bike buyer scribbled on a Schwinn +comment card in 1964. + +"You're not cool unless you have a Schwinn," another wrote in 1965. + +Cool? And how. Here was a vehicle made for popping wheelies, perfect for +carting a pal on the handlebars — or a girl on the back of the banana +seat. (For girls, Schwinn soon introduced the smooth-tired Slik Chik.) + +Again, the industry followed Schwinn: During the mid-1960s, the +Sting-Ray style, generically called a "high-rise" by competing +manufacturers, accounted for more than 60% of bikes sold in the U.S. + +And again, Schwinn held its lead among independent dealers by presenting +variations on a theme: the Fastback five-speed stick shift attached to +the frame, the Fair Lady, the Little Chik and the wildly popular Krate +series — the Orange Krate, Apple Krate, Lemon Peeler, Cotton Picker and +Pea Picker. + +In 1968, nearly 250 Schwinn dealers sold 1,000 or more bikes — earning +membership in the venerable 1000 Club — up from fewer than 50 in 1963. + +The Sting-Ray fad faded by the late '60s, but Schwinn had its sturdy, +10-speed Varsity to pick up the slack. + +The Varsity was the first mass-produced multispeed bike in the U.S. At a +relatively affordable $70, it appealed to kids between 11 and 18 and, +slowly at first, to an adult market whose interest in cycling was +bubbling. + +Schwinn would crank out 400,000 Varsitys a year by the early 1970s. +Because it was built for older children, the company made the 10-speed +durable and dependable — not like those skinny European models you +occasionally saw whizzing down the street. + +"They overbuilt it to withstand abuse, and people (of all ages) loved +it," says dealer Chris Travers of La Mirada, Calif. + +Schwinn quality was legendary, and rightly so. A Colorado customer wrote +the company in 1975, "Just wondering whether to replace the tires on my +wife's 1940 Schwinn New World bike." + +Mr. Fritz tells of a Southern Illinois dealer who stood on the chain +guard of a child's bike to show that it wouldn't crumple. An effective +sales tool, yes. But competitors soon complained: Customers were doing +comparative shopping and experimenting on their bikes, and the chain +guards were collapsing. + +That reputation ensured steady growth — production rose an average 10% +annually in the 1960s — and generated satisfying enough profits. + +In prosperous times, say informed sources, annual dividends to the +Schwinn family trust that owned the company ranged from $800,000 to $1.2 +million. + +Best-remunerated was Ignaz "Brownie" Schwinn II, F. W.'s colorful and +high-living nephew, who owned a full third of the trust by the 1970s and +earned an additional salary traveling the country to golf, drink and +schmooze with dealers. + +Presiding over all this prosperity was F. W.'s oldest son, Frank V., who +was about as different from dad as a son could get. + +Studious and introverted, Frankie, as he was called by colleagues, +"showed some of the marks of being the son of a very strong father," +says American Bicyclist Publisher Stuart Meyers. "He had a slight +stammer. He was quiet — very serious, and very serious about the +company." + +For years, Frankie shared an office with his father, making finance and +marketing his specialty. He maintained copious records of Schwinn's +volume and profitability stretching back to the 1890s and hand-colored +maps of the United States — county by county — to determine which +Schwinn dealers and distributors did their jobs and which didn't. + +Like F. W. and grandfather Ignaz, Frankie could be a tough executive. + +In 1971, he threatened to cancel a dealer's franchise following several +customer complaints. "I must tell you most frankly," said a letter from +Frankie excerpted in The Schwinn Reporter, "I will not tolerate +discourtesy in the sale of a Schwinn bicycle under any circumstances by +any Schwinn dealership, regardless — I repeat, regardless of volume of +business." + +But compared to his father, old-timers say, Frankie just couldn't +measure up. + +"He was a cold fish — a terrible public speaker," says retired dealer +Robert J. Letford of Pinole, Calif. + +Under Frankie's tenure, which began in 1963, when he was 43, most +management powers were ceded to the outgoing Mr. Burch and the polished +Mr. Fritz. Some observers credit the third-generation Schwinn for +recognizing his limitations. But there would never again be a Schwinn as +chief executive with F. W.'s drive, stature and intensity. + +Like his father, Frankie was unpretentious. He drove an Oldsmobile, +freeing up the Cadillac and the company's chauffeur for his mother, +Gertrude, and his sister-in-law, Mary. + +He married once, in 1964, but the union lasted less than six months. "He +didn't say much," recalls Mr. Chambers, "except that it cost him a pile +of money." + +Under Frankie's watch, new rivalries developed at Schwinn. + +His only brother, Edward (father of Edward Schwinn Jr.), also had toiled +in the shadow of his domineering father. But Edward was younger, +gregarious and, most important, ran the factory from an office separate +from F. W. + +Edward came to resent what he saw as lavish budgets of the sales and +marketing units. + +"He complained the marketing department had money to spend, and he +didn't have money for machines," Mr. Chambers recalls. + +The complaint largely was justified: The factory got short shrift during +the tail end of the '60s, when the company spent more than $1 million +fighting and losing the Justice Department's antitrust case. + +"They didn't keep manufacturing up-to-date," says former Schwinn +distributor Harry Manko, now president of Service Cycle Supply Co. in +Commack, N.Y., which markets the competing Mongoose line. + +Edward was a jovial fellow: He owned a beaver-skin coat, was fond of +performing vaudeville numbers in an ersatz German accent and once drove +an Army vehicle downtown. But he wasn't taken seriously by many at the +company, although "Frankie always treated him with affection," Mr. Burch +recalls. + +Edward developed leukemia and died in 1972 at age 48, leaving his wife, +Mary, Ed Jr. and four other children. Yet his mistrust of the +high-flying sales and marketing types simmered within his family — and +it stuck in the craw of his oldest son when Ed Jr. succeeded his Uncle +Frankie as president in 1979. + +If sales and marketing executives let the good times roll, well, that +reflected the way much of America did business in the 1960s. + +Schwinn executives caucused with suppliers at posh settings like Pebble +Beach, Calif., or Greenbrier, W. Va., at confabs that usually included +morning business sessions, afternoons of golf and long evenings at the +19th hole. + +Regional meetings to honor dealers who sold 500 or 1,000 Schwinn bikes +in a year always featured steak dinners, plaques and diamond or ruby +lapel pins. + +The rallies bloated as more and more dealers prospered via Schwinn. In +1973, the company produced a lollapalooza for dealers and their spouses +at the Fontainebleau Hotel in Miami Beach. One beguiling evening, Mr. +Chambers recalls, Schwinn hosted cocktails and a dinner-dance for 1,990, +with entertainment by singer Anita Bryant. The tab: more than $35,000. + +Schwinn could afford to be lavish. It — and the rest of the industry — +was in the middle of a nationwide boom that saw annual production more +than double to 15.2 million bikes in 1973 from 6.9 million in 1970. + +Sales had been heating up since the late 1960s: Schwinn's Chicago +factory cranked out 1 million bicycles in one year for the first time in +1968. + +By the early 1970s, almost everyone wanted bikes — not just kids or +college students, but adults young and old. + +Explanations range from the influence of the ecology movement to the +first OPEC oil embargo to an increased interest in fitness among adults +with more leisure time on their hands. + +Whatever the reasons, crowds lined the streets before stores opened. +Inside, "it was like sale day at Macy's — people fought over the same +bike," says Mr. Travers, the La Mirada, Calif., dealer. + +"You didn't have to know how to sell a bike," says Normal dealer Terry +Gibson. "All you had to do was have one." + +Larry Parker of Pasadena, Texas, recollects working in his family's +store when a customer who'd just bought a Varsity returned for another. + +"What happened?" Mr. Parker says he asked. + +"I tied the bicycle to a tree," the customer answered, "and someone cut +down the tree." + +Although the good times were rolling (in 1974, the company earned a +record $6.2 million on sales of $135 million), ominous signs pointed to +some of the troubles to come. + +Schwinn for decades had told its dealers that the company could supply +all their needs. And it had been the standard-bearer in quality, with +little domestic competition in the independent dealer market. + +Now, its dealers were on allocation and begging for more bikes. Frankie +had to tell them, Get bikes wherever you can. + +To some extent, that's something many Schwinn dealers on the East and +West coasts had always done. But for 100% Schwinn dealers, especially +those in the Heartland, it was a first taste of forbidden fruit. + +"They brought in Raleigh, Japanese brands, anything," says Allen Singer, +former president of Schwinn Sales Midwest. "They found there were other +bikes out there, and that the other bikes were not all that bad." + +Then, the boom ended. In 1975, nationwide bicycle sales cracked in half, +to 7.3 million units. + +"It took (only) four years to get our garages full of bikes," says Pat +Murphy, former vice-president of Schwinn Sales Midwest. + +But the genie was out of the bottle. During the boom, Made-in-America +Schwinn itself started importing its first bikes from two Japanese +factories. + +"That legitimized us and others," says Michael L. Bobrick, president of +competitor Western States Imports, which got its start importing +Japanese bikes. "And took away the Schwinn mystique." + +**THE COMPETITION BEGINS** + +The '70s bike boom revolutionized the industry in at least one way: It +brought new blood-investors and cycling enthusiasts lured by the call of +manufacturing profits or the sight of mom-and-pop shops suddenly making +50-, 60-, even a hundred-grand a year selling bikes. + +"Everyone thought we were geniuses," recalls Villa Park Schwinn dealer +Jeff Allen. + +Schwinn executives thought they were pretty smart, too, judging by the +back-slapping in photos documenting corporate outings to golf and beach +resorts. "We had the world by the tail on a downhill pull," says former +Marketing Director Ray Burch. + +Yet something else seems clear in the pictures of middle-aged men +filling out kelly-green slacks and Banlon sport shirts: It had been a +long time since some of these guys had been on a bike. + +Leaner and hungrier competitors already were developing and marketing +new styles and technologies that — just like Schwinn's Sting-Ray — +sprang from the garages of California kids. + +In the San Fernando Valley, a bustling cottage industry was making +motorcross-style cycles with cast aluminum wheels that could survive the +muddy poundings of an off-road BMX race. + +The craze attracted frame makers and welders from the motorcycle and +auto racing fields. Designer Skip Hess was one of the first to +commercialize the BMX bike, founding Mongoose Bicycle Co. in 1976, and +Gary Turner's GT brand later would become the biggest force in the BMX +market. + +And in Marin County, 10-speed bike racers and mechanics were +reconfiguring 1930s balloon-tire bikes — including Schwinn Excelsiors — +with longer-lasting motorcycle brakes and gears so they could tear down +local mountain trails at speeds topping 30 mph. + +Imported bike parts salesman Michael Sinyard was the first to mass +produce these so-called mountain bikes. It was a coup that helped turn +his Specialized Bicycle Components (corporate motto: "Innovate or die") +into a major force in top-of-the-line bikes. By 1992, his company's +sales would hit an estimated $140 million. + +Schwinn engineers and executives initially scoffed at the California +fads. + +"It was puzzling to me to see a company that wasn't moving" after such +markets, Mr. Sinyard says in retrospect. "I thought, 'Maybe this is the +way a big company acts.'" + +Truth was, Schwinn was nearly oblivious to the West Coast bike culture, +concedes Pat Murphy, former sales manager of the company's Midwest sales +arm. "Schwinn didn't know there were mountains west of the Rockies." + +It wasn't watching its backyard, either. + +In Waterloo, Wis., Richard A. Burge and Bevil Hogg were building a +lighter-weight road bike for affluent, fitness-minded adults. + +Its starting price, $279, was $100 more than Schwinn's least expensive +model. But the co-founders of Trek Bicycle Corp. — 1992 sales: about +$175 million — correctly calculated that the upper end of the market was +untapped. + +"We caught the baby boomer who wanted something different and was +willing to spend more," says Mr. Burke, now president of Trek parent +Intrepid Corp. + +To the consternation of many Schwinn dealers during the 1970s and '80s, +customers started asking for lighter road bikes and off- road BMX and +mountain bikes. They weren't in the Schwinn product line at first, so +the more ingenious dealers started reconfiguring what they had. + +"We took Sting-Rays and changed the handlebars," says San Diego dealer +Michael H. McKittrick. + +CEO Frank V. Schwinn had made a deliberate decision in the early 1970s +to stay away from the BMX market. He was worried that Schwinn would be +the target of personal injury lawsuits as the result of racing +accidents. + +The fear was not unfounded: The Consumer Product Safety Commission had +just published a study of accident injuries that called bicycles "the +most dangerous consumer product" in America. + +Schwinn soon found itself on the defensive as younger bike buyers +embraced the competition. It was an inexplicable situation to many in +the company. After all, executives had long believed, Schwinn was the +market. + +When a dealer at a sales and management session during the early 1970s +criticized the company for the lack of lightweight bikes, the Schwinn +representative retorted, "Are you gonna ride it or carry it?" says +dealer Chris Travers of La Mirada, Calif. + +Reps later suggested that dealers use scales to weigh their bikes in +front of customers and show that Schwinns weren't significantly heavier +than the new competition. + +If that failed to impress, "they always had the excuse, 'Well, once you +got that bike rolling, weight didn't matter,'" says John Pelc, longtime +owner of Lincoln Cycle Center in Downstate Lincoln. + +The customer wasn't fooled. + +"When people thought 'Schwinn,' they thought 'tank,'" says dealer John +Lewis of Mill Valley, Calif. "They've never been able to shake that +image." + +As dealers diversified and brought in new lines, Schwinn tried to throw +its weight around, rather than adapt and meet the competition. + +Gary Sirota's Brands Cycle in Wantaugh, N.Y., for years had been one of +the nation's 10 biggest sellers of Schwinns, although the name accounted +for only 30% of bike sales at his bustling Long Island store. + +In the middle of the 1978 season, Mr. Sirota says, Schwinn stopped +shipping him bikes. When he called to ask why, "I was told they'd yanked +my dealership." + +Mr. Sirota says Schwinn offered him an ultimatum: "'You have to sell a +minimum of 80% Schwinn next year.' I said, 'Okay,' and signed on the +dotted line. And the next year, we kept our word." + +But the experience left a sour taste. "They thought beating me up was +the way to sell more bikes here. I knew in my heart it was wrong — and I +mean that businesswise. You can't keep that up." + +If Schwinn was lagging, much of the lapse could be blamed on the aging +Chicago factory, where the company simply had not invested in new +technology for lighterweight bikes. + +In Chicago, the Varsity 10-speed was manufactured by electro- welding to +seal joints under high heat. That required relatively thick-walled steel +tubes and resulted in a heavier bike. + +By contrast, Japanese firms had developed the lug-frame technology in +which the joints were connected by a separate fitting. This method used +brazing. accomplished at lower temperatures, and opened the way for +thinner-gauge steel and other metals — and, ultimately, a lighter bike. + +Schwinn had expanded its manufacturing complex during the bike boom, +adding a new rim mill and warehouse. But it was a hodgepodge, and +production was inefficient. Workers ferried parts to a satellite station +on Ohio Street for welding into a frame. Then, the frame was sent back +to the main Kildare Avenue plant for final assembly and painting. + +The central building dated to the turn of the century — and looked it, +with wooden floors and leaking roof. In the summer, temperatures inside +were so hot, "the chrome on the wheels would burn your skin," says Mary +Jones, a 12-year veteran of the plant. + +"It was run-down," says Mr. Pelc of Lincoln, recalling a dealers' tour +in the 1970s. "It looked like a factory I worked in in Detroit right +after World War II. And I was on a tour — they were showing us the good +parts\!" + +Even management cringed at the factory's condition. In early 1980, new +President Ed Schwinn asked his just-recruited vice- president of +finance, John Barker, to name the first thing he needed. Mr. Barker +joked, "An arsonist." + +Schwinn had pursued the idea of building a new plant in the mid- 1970s, +spending $700,000 to buy 140 acres in an industrial area near Tulsa, +Okla., and hiring New York's Salomon Bros. Inc. to sell bonds to fund a +factory (it even had a prospectus printed in 1975). + +The idea had been conceived during the bike boom. And its No. 1 advocate +was young Ed, who'd joined the company in late December 1972 and was +named vice-president of corporate development in November 1974. + +Ed was bullish on Schwinn sales, predicting they'd grow to 2 million +units from the peak 1.5 million unit sold in 1974. + +Instead, business was rolling to a halt. Recalls Mr. Burch, marketing +director at the time: "I made a conservative (sales) estimate and Ed was +incensed. He thought I was trying to kill the (Oklahoma) deal." + +(Schwinn brass also considered ways to refurbish and expand the Chicago +plant. One tactic: Win tax breaks from Illinois officials eager to +preserve local jobs. In 1977, the dark-blue Checker car of then-Gov. +James R. Thompson frequently was parked in front of the corporate +offices on Kostner Avenue, and his daughter rode a pink Schwinn Pixie in +the building's halls, recalls former Vice-president Jay Townley.) + +The Oklahoma initiative ultimately died. President Frank V. Schwinn and +other old-timers, such as cousin Brownie Schwinn, weren't eager to leave +Chicago. + +When the board formally nixed the Oklahoma project in 1978, "Eddie went +ballistic," Mr. Burch recalls. "He came flying down the hall. 'Tulsa is +dead,' he said. 'You better get off your ass and sell bicycles.' He +never forgave me for it." + +The price tag of the move — an estimated $30 million to $40 million — +proved too daunting for the closely held company. Frank V. wouldn't +consider taking on minority investors to help fund this kind of project. + +"We got letters from people offering to buy the company, or a stake," +says Al Fritz, then the No. 2 executive. "If we sold 25%, we could get +$20 million. But Frankie said, 'I'm never going to sell . . . . I don't +want anyone looking over my shoulder.'" + +Selling a minority stake so Schwinn could build a modern plant and +control its destiny might have been prescient. But plans for the +Oklahoma factory called for using the fading welded-frame technology. +The plant would have become a dinosaur as soon as it opened. + +So, Schwinn was stuck — for the moment — in its Chicago location, where +the family faced a changing workforce. + +During the 1950s and '60s, management style had been paternal. The 1,200 +or so factory workers were represented by in-house committees rather +than outside unions. + +"Before, it was like a family," says worker Henry Mahone, who headed +Schwinn's independent shop union. "Everyone knew everybody's business." + +But the relationship changed during the bike boom, as employment rose to +a peak of 1,800 workers. + +From management's perspective, there were fewer familiar faces. The +ethnic mix in the neighborhood shifted from Polish and Irish immigrants +to black, Hispanic and Korean. The factory was cranking out bikes around +the clock, and during the second and third shifts, English wasn't +necessarily the primary language heard on the assembly lines. + +From the workers' point of view, management became adversarial. + +"Before, the supervisors were nice, considerate; they thanked you," says +Ms. Jones. "Then, management changed . . . a bunch of dogs. There wasn't +that kindness for the people." + +Though there had been several unsuccessful attempts to organize the +factory, the issue that would make Schwinn workers receptive to the +organizing efforts of the United Auto Workers (UAW) was the lack of a +pension plan. + +By September 1979, 70% of hourly workers had signed petitions in favor +of holding an election. Schwinn fought the union at every step with +legal maneuvers. + +"The family had an attitude about bankers and unions," says Mr. Murphy +of Schwinn Sales Midwest. "They didn't want people telling them what to +do." + +Management waged a campaign during the spring 1980 election to have no +union representation at all, not even the old committees. + +"The old-timers didn't like that," says Mr. Townley, the former +vice-president. "If the company had supported the old shop union, it +would have won." + +The UAW eked out a narrow victory. Workers elected Mr. Mahone president +of Local 2153. But management, he says, stonewalled when it came time to +negotiate a contract. + +"They were not serious," Mr. Mahone says. The union called a strike in +October 1980. + +The action surprised management, especially since Schwinn's labor +attorneys had predicted there wouldn't be a walkout, says Mr. Townley. + +Before the strike, Schwinn had been importing 20% of its bikes — mainly +from Japan — and was buying a small number from an upstart Taiwan +company, Giant Manufacturing Corp. + +When the union walked out, Schwinn asked Giant if it could rev up +production. Giant President Tony Lo had an answer for Mr. Townley within +24 hours: "A friend in need is a friend indeed." + +Giant agreed to pump out bicycles for Schwinn — it shipped about 80,000 +units over the next five months — with the understanding that the gravy +train would halt when the strike was over. + +It was a smart move on Mr. Lo's part. Giant impressed Schwinn with its +quality, service and delivery. Schwinn would be back. + +The strike was settled in February 1981 and the union got a modest +pension plan. But if the union won the battle, it lost the war, because +the strike laid the groundwork for the closing of the Chicago plant. + +The presence of the union virtually ruled out future investments there, +says Peter Davis, former director of corporate planning and Ed Schwinn's +brother-in-law. + +Yet Ed, elevated to the presidency in October 1979, was emotionally +committed to manufacturing, reflecting his father's bent. In the months +after the strike, the marketers who favored importing, led by Mr. +Townley, struggled with the factory loyalists. And the factory started +to die a slow death. + +Managers boosted production to shrink the average cost per bike and make +the plant more profitable. (Schwinn had barely broken even in 1980, and +it would lose more than $5 million in 1981.) + +Unfortunately, no one wanted the Varsitys the factory was cranking out +at the rate of more than 3,000 a day. Schwinn still was mired in the +mindset of manufacturing dictating to marketing. + +By 1981, Group Vice-president John Nielsen, who had built Schwinn's +parts business into a substantial moneymaker, had replaced Mr. Burch in +the top marketing post. Mr. Nielsen soon realized that the 3,000 bikes a +day were piling up unsold. + +"He had the office next to mine, and he had an intercom," says Mr. +Townley. "He buzzed me: 'Jay, get in here. You're right. We can't sell +these bikes.'" + +When the imposing Mr. Nielsen presented his bleak assessment to Ed +Schwinn at a managers' meeting, the president flew into a rage. + +"Ed shouted, 'If you can't sell them, I'll get someone who can,'" Mr. +Townley says. + +No human could. But tempers escalated, say sources who attended the +meeting. + +"Don't talk to me that way here," Mr. Nielsen responded to Ed. "I'll see +you in your office." + +Mr. Nielsen stormed out of the room. Days later, he resigned. + +Today, the retired Mr. Nielsen notes that the issue of unsold bikes +merely contributed to his decision to leave Schwinn. + +More frustrating, he says, was the cultural change sweeping the company, +as Ed recruited brash MBAs who clashed with the old-timers. + +"They were long on theory, short on reality and practice." Mr. Nielsen +says. "This was not what Schwinn was all about." + +He was replaced in September 1981 by Bill Austin, a masterful schmoozer +who'd been vice-president of marketing and sales at Aladdin Industries, +a Tennessee maker of lunch boxes and thermos bottles. + +Schwinn "had four warehouses full of merchandise," Mr. Austin recalls. +"I pulled the sales and marketing people together for a two-day meeting +and asked them, 'What do we need?'" + +The bikes Schwinn needed, attendees answered, couldn't be produced by +the Chicago factory. + +"Don't worry about the factory," Mr. Austin told his troops. + +In this instance, time was on his side. As the plant's limitations +became increasingly obvious, Ed and other stalwarts began examining the +facility more critically. + +The new Asian suppliers also strengthened the case against Chicago. +Having missed the BMX craze, the company asked Giant to produce a line +for spring 1982. The result — the Predator BMX — was a success. + +"Once the strategy was determined, it was a matter of time," Mr. Austin +says. + +Between the second half of 1982 and the third quarter of 1983, Mr. +Townley headed a task force charged with closing sections of the plant +and sourcing production elsewhere. + +"As early as February 1981, at the bargaining table, I began to get the +sense they would shut Chicago," says the UAW's Mr. Mahone, noting that +after the strike, Schwinn called back only 65% of the hourly workforce. +"They made comparisons between what they could import and what they were +paying Schwinn workers here." + +During the strike, Schwinn had formulated plans to open a second +factory, far from Chicago and its union woes. A task force selected +Greenville, Miss. + +The site was puzzling. Greenville sits about 75 miles from the nearest +interstate. Getting there from Chicago required a flight to Memphis, +Tenn., then either a connecting commuter flight or a nearly three-hour +drive. And few managers wanted to relocate to Greenville. + +But there was one prime attraction: Mississippi, as a right-to- work +state, wasn't hospitable to unions. + +After years of debating where to invest in a new factory, Schwinn had +finally found its spot. A Greenville plant with up-to- date bike-making +technology opened in 1981. + +Back in Chicago, workers watched more and more production transferred +elsewhere. The end was inevitable. Soon, there were just 200 workers. +Then, 92. + +"When I left, there were four to five maintenance people," Mr. Mahone +says. + +Ed Schwinn had beaten the union. But he couldn't have devised a more +Pyrrhic victory. The closing of Chicago and opening of Greenville +ultimately proved a disaster — a black hole that swallowed the family's +equity, sucked in millions of additional dollars and spat out bikes of +astoundingly poor quality. + +"My mechanics didn't like putting together a Schwinn," says dealer John +Lewis of Mill Valley, California's mountain bike capital. "A dealer's +salesforce is also the mechanics and assembly force. If they don't want +to put together a Schwinn, they won't want to sell one, either." + +It was a vicious downward spiral — one of several crises that would spin +the company to the edge of insolvency in the early 1990s and, finally, +into Bankruptcy Court in 1992. + +Ed was in charge now. And he was shaking up Schwinn. Out would go the +old-timers, like Messrs. Fritz and Burch. In would come his own +management, a younger crew who thought they could regain Schwinn's lost +reputation in bicycles and return the company to the top. + +Ed had the right destination. But the great-grandson of Ignaz and +grandson of F. W. was steering Schwinn in the wrong direction. + +*Journalist Drew Wilson contributed to this article from Hong Kong.* + +© Crain Communications Inc. diff --git a/_stories/1993/5568374.md b/_stories/1993/5568374.md deleted file mode 100644 index 0a63629..0000000 --- a/_stories/1993/5568374.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,25 +0,0 @@ ---- -created_at: '2013-04-18T01:04:45.000Z' -title: Secrets of the Magus (1993) -url: http://www.newyorker.com/archive/1993/04/05/1993_04_05_054_TNY_CARDS_000362341?currentPage=all -author: kqr2 -points: 54 -story_text: '' -comment_text: -num_comments: 7 -story_id: -story_title: -story_url: -parent_id: -created_at_i: 1366247085 -_tags: -- story -- author_kqr2 -- story_5568374 -objectID: '5568374' - ---- -[Source](https://www.newyorker.com/archive/1993/04/05/1993_04_05_054_TNY_CARDS_000362341?currentPage=all "Permalink to ") - - - diff --git a/_stories/1993/8860143.md b/_stories/1993/8860143.md index c036c46..9d61ccc 100644 --- a/_stories/1993/8860143.md +++ b/_stories/1993/8860143.md @@ -19,7 +19,452 @@ _tags: objectID: '8860143' --- -[Source](https://thebaffler.com/salvos/the-problem-with-music "Permalink to ") +Whenever I talk to a band who are about to sign with a major label, I +always end up thinking of them in a particular context. I imagine a +trench, about four feet wide and five feet deep, maybe sixty yards long, +filled with runny, decaying shit. I imagine these people, some of them +good friends, some of them barely acquaintances, at one end of this +trench. I also imagine a faceless industry lackey at the other end, +holding a fountain pen and a contract waiting to be signed. +Nobody can see what’s printed on the contract. It’s too far away, and +besides, the shit stench is making everybody’s eyes water. The lackey +shouts to everybody that the first one to swim the trench gets to sign +the contract. Everybody dives in the trench and they struggle furiously +to get to the other end. Two people arrive simultaneously and begin +wrestling furiously, clawing each other and dunking each other under the +shit. Eventually, one of them capitulates, and there’s only one +contestant left. He reaches for the pen, but the Lackey says, “Actually, +I think you need a little more development. Swim it again, please. +Backstroke.” +And he does, of course. +I. A\&R Scouts + +Every major label involved in the hunt for new bands now has on staff a +high-profile point man, an “A\&R” rep who can present a comfortable face +to any prospective band. The initials stand for “Artist and Repertoire,” +because historically, the A\&R staff would select artists to record +music that they had also selected, out of an available pool of each. +This is still the case, though not openly. + +> The A\&R person is the first person to promise them the moon. + +These guys are universally young (about the same age as the bands being +wooed), and nowadays they always have some obvious underground rock +credibility flag they can wave. Lyle Preslar, former guitarist for Minor +Threat, is one of them. Terry Tolkin, former NY independent booking +agent and assistant manager at Touch and Go is one of them. Al Smith, +former soundman at CBGB is one of them. Mike Gitter, former editor of +XXX fanzine and contributor to Rip, Kerrang and other lowbrow rags is +one of them. Many of the annoying turds who used to staff college radio +stations are in their ranks as well. + +There are several reasons A\&R scouts are always young. The explanation +usually copped-to is that the scout will be “hip” to the current musical +“scene.” A more important reason is that the bands will intuitively +trust someone they think is a peer, and who speaks fondly of the same +formative rock and roll experiences. + +The A\&R person is the first person to make contact with the band, and +as such is the first person to promise them the moon. Who better to +promise them the moon than an idealistic young turk who expects to be +calling the shots in a few years, and who has had no previous experience +with a big record company. Hell, he’s as naive as the band he’s duping. +When he tells them no one will interfere in their creative process, he +probably even believes it. + +When he sits down with the band for the first time, over a plate of +angel hair pasta, he can tell them with all sincerity that when they +sign with company X, they’re really signing with him, and he’s on their +side. Remember that great gig I saw you at in ’85? Didn’t we have a +blast. + +By now all rock bands are wise enough to be suspicious of music industry +scum. There is a pervasive caricature in popular culture of a portly, +middle aged ex-hipster talking a mile-a-minute, using outdated jargon +and calling everybody “baby.” After meeting “their” A\&R guy, the band +will say to themselves and everyone else, “He’s not like a record +company guy at all\! He’s like one of us.” And they will be right. +That’s one of the reasons he was hired. + +These A\&R guys are not allowed to write contracts. What they do is +present the band with a letter of intent, or “deal memo,” which loosely +states some terms, and affirms that the band will sign with the label +once a contract has been agreed on. + +> One of my favorite bands was held hostage for two years by a “He’s not +> like a label guy at all,” A\&R rep. + +The spookiest thing about this harmless sounding little “memo,” is that +it is, for all legal purposes, a binding document. That is, once the +band sign it, they are under obligation to conclude a deal with the +label. If the label presents them with a contract that the band don’t +want to sign, all the label has to do is wait. There are a hundred other +bands willing to sign the exact same contract, so the label is in a +position of strength. + +These letters never have any term of expiry, so the band remain bound by +the deal memo until a contract is signed, no matter how long that takes. +The band cannot sign to another label or even put out its own material +unless they are released from their agreement, which never happens. Make +no mistake about it: once a band has signed a letter of intent, they +will either eventually sign a contract that suits the label or they will +be destroyed. + +One of my favorite bands was held hostage for the better part of two +years by a slick young “He’s not like a label guy at all,” A\&R rep, on +the basis of such a deal memo. He had failed to come through on any of +his promises (something he did with similar effect to another well-known +band), and so the band wanted out. Another label expressed interest, but +when the A\&R man was asked to release the band, he said he would need +money or points, or possibly both, before he would consider it. + +The new label was afraid the price would be too dear, and they said no +thanks. On the cusp of making their signature album, an excellent band, +humiliated, broke up from the stress and the many months of inactivity. + +II. What I Hate about Recording + +1\. Producers and engineers who use meaningless words to make their +clients think they know what’s going on. Words like “Punchy,” “Warm,” +“Groove,” “Vibe,” “Feel.” Especially “Punchy” and “Warm.” Every time I +hear those words, I want to throttle somebody. + +2\. Producers who aren’t also engineers, and as such, don’t have the +slightest fucking idea what they’re doing in a studio, besides talking +all the time. Historically, the progression of effort required to become +a producer went like this: Go to college, get an EE degree. Get a job as +an assistant at a studio. Eventually become a second engineer. Learn the +job and become an engineer. Do that for a few years, then you can try +your hand at producing. Now, all that’s required to be a full-fledged +“producer” is the gall it takes to claim to be one. + +Calling people like Don Fleming, Al Jourgensen, Lee Ranaldo or Jerry +Harrison “producers” in the traditional sense is akin to calling Bernie +a “shortstop” because he watched the whole playoffs this year. + +The term has taken on perjorative qualities in some circles. Engineers +tell jokes about producers the way people back in Montana tell jokes +about North Dakotans. (How many producers does it take to change a light +bulb?—Hmmm. I don’t know. What do you think? Why did the producer cross +the road?—Because that’s the way the Beatles did it, man.) That’s why +few self-respecting engineers will allow themselves to be called +“producers.” + +The minimum skills required to do an adequate job recording an album +are: + +– Working knowledge of all the microphones at hand and their properties +and uses. I mean something beyond knowing that you can drop an SM57 +without breaking it. + +– Experience with every piece of equipment which might be of use and +every function it may provide. This means more than knowing what echo +sounds like. Which equalizer has the least phase shift in neighbor +bands? Which console has more head-room? Which mastering deck has the +cleanest output electronics? + +– Experience with the style of music at hand, to know when obvious +blunders are occurring. + +> Nobody on earth could make the Smashing Pumpkins sound like the +> Beatles. + +– Ability to tune and maintain all the required instruments and +electronics, so as to insure that everything is in proper working order. +This means more than plugging a guitar into a tuner. How should the +drums be tuned to simulate a rising note on the decay? A falling note? A +consonant note? Can a bassoon play a concert E-flat in key with a piano +tuned to a reference A of 440 Hz? What percentage of varispeed is +necessary to make a whole-tone pitch change? What degree of overbias +gives you the most headroom at 10Khz? What reference fluxivity gives you +the lowest self-noise from biased, unrecorded tape? Which tape +manufacturer closes every year in July, causing shortages of tape +globally? What can be done for a shedding master tape? A sticky one? + +– Knowledge of electronic circuits to an extent that will allow +selection of appropriate signal paths. This means more than knowing the +difference between a delay line and an equalizer. Which has more +headroom, a discrete class A microphone preamp with a transformer output +or a differential circuit built with monolithics? Where is the best +place in an unbalanced line to attenuate the signal? If you short the +cold leg of a differential input to ground, what happens to the signal +level? Which gain control device has the least distortion, a VCA, a +printed plastic pot, a photoresistor or a wire-wound stepped attenuator? +Will putting an unbalanced line on a half-normalled jack unbalance the +normal signal path? Will a transformer splitter load the input to a +device parallel to it? Which will have less RF noise, a shielded +unbalanced line or a balanced line with a floated shield? + +– An aesthetic that is well-rooted and compatible with the music, and + +– The good taste to know when to exercise it. + +3\. Trendy electronics and other flashy shit that nobody really needs. +Five years ago, everything everywhere was being done with discrete +samples. No actual drumming allowed on most records. Samples only. The +next trend was Pultec Equalizers. Everything had to be run through +Pultec EQs. + +Then vintage microphones were all the rage (but only Neumanns, the most +annoyingly whiny microphone line ever made). The current trendy thing is +compression. Compression by the ton, especially if it comes from a tube +limiter. Wow. It doesn’t matter how awful the recording is, as long as +it goes through a tube limiter, somebody will claim it sounds “warm,” or +maybe even “punchy.” They might even compare it to the Beatles. I want +to find the guy that invented compression and tear his liver out. I hate +it. It makes everything sound like a beer commercial. + +> Tape machines ought to be big and cumbersome and difficult to use, if +> only to keep the riff-raff out. + +4\. DAT machines. They sound like shit and every crappy studio has one +now because they’re so cheap. Because the crappy engineers that inhabit +crappy studios are too thick to learn how to align and maintain analog +mastering decks, they’re all using DAT machines exclusively. DAT tapes +deteriorate over time, and when they do, the information on them is lost +forever. I have personally seen tapes go irretrievably bad in less than +a month. Using them for final masters is almost fraudulently +irresponsible. + +Tape machines ought to be big and cumbersome and difficult to use, if +only to keep the riff-raff out. DAT machines make it possible for morons +to make a living, and do damage to the music we all have to listen to. + +5\. Trying to sound like the Beatles. Every record I hear these days has +incredibly loud, compressed vocals, and a quiet little murmur of a rock +band in the background. The excuse given by producers for inflicting +such an imbalance on a rock band is that it makes the record sound more +like the Beatles. Yeah, right. Fuck’s sake, Thurston Moore is not Paul +McCartney, and nobody on earth, not with unlimited time and resources, +could make the Smashing Pumpkins sound like the Beatles. Trying just +makes them seem even dumber. Why can’t people try to sound like the +Smashchords or Metal Urbain or Third World War for a change? + +III. There’s This Band + +There’s this band. They’re pretty ordinary, but they’re also pretty +good, so they’ve attracted some attention. They’re signed to a +moderate-sized “independent” label owned by a distribution company, and +they have another two albums owed to the label. + +They’re a little ambitious. They’d like to get signed by a major label +so they can have some security—you know, get some good equipment, tour +in a proper tour bus—nothing fancy, just a little reward for all the +hard work. + +To that end, they got a manager. He knows some of the label guys, and he +can shop their next project to all the right people. He takes his cut, +sure, but it’s only 15%, and if he can get them signed then it’s money +well spent. Anyway, it doesn’t cost them anything if it doesn’t work. +15% of nothing isn’t much\! + +One day an A\&R scout calls them, says he’s “been following them for a +while now,” and when their manager mentioned them to him, it just +“clicked.” Would they like to meet with him about the possibility of +working out a deal with his label? Wow. Big Break time. + +> The A\&R guy was full of great ideas, even talked about using a name +> producer. + +They meet the guy, and y’know what—he’s not what they expected from a +label guy. He’s young and dresses pretty much like the band does. He +knows all their favorite bands. He’s like one of them. He tells them he +wants to go to bat for them, to try to get them everything they want. He +says anything is possible with the right attitude. They conclude the +evening by taking home a copy of a deal memo they wrote out and signed +on the spot. + +The A\&R guy was full of great ideas, even talked about using a name +producer. Butch Vig is out of the question—he wants 100 g’s and three +points, but they can get Don Fleming for $30,000 plus three points. Even +that’s a little steep, so maybe they’ll go with that guy who used to be +in David Letterman’s band. He only wants three points. Or they can have +just anybody record it (like Warton Tiers, maybe—cost you 5 or 10 grand) +and have Andy Wallace remix it for 4 grand a track plus 2 points. It was +a lot to think about. + +Well, they like this guy and they trust him. Besides, they already +signed the deal memo. He must have been serious about wanting them to +sign. They break the news to their current label, and the label manager +says he wants them to succeed, so they have his blessing. He will need +to be compensated, of course, for the remaining albums left on their +contract, but he’ll work it out with the label himself. Sub Pop made +millions from selling off Nirvana, and Twin Tone hasn’t done bad either: +50 grand for the Babes and 60 grand for the Poster Children—without +having to sell a single additional record. It’ll be something modest. +The new label doesn’t mind, so long as it’s recoupable out of royalties. + +Well, they get the final contract, and it’s not quite what they +expected. They figure it’s better to be safe than sorry and they turn it +over to a lawyer—one who says he’s experienced in entertainment law—and +he hammers out a few bugs. They’re still not sure about it, but the +lawyer says he’s seen a lot of contracts, and theirs is pretty good. +They’ll be getting a great royalty: 13% (less a 10% packaging +deduction). Wasn’t it Buffalo Tom that were only getting 12% less 10? +Whatever. + +The old label only wants 50 grand, and no points. Hell, Sub Pop got 3 +points when they let Nirvana go. They’re signed for four years, with +options on each year, for a total of over a million dollars\! That’s a +lot of money in any man’s english. The first year’s advance alone is +$250,000. Just think about it, a quarter-million, just for being in a +rock band\! + +Their manager thinks it’s a great deal, especially the large advance. +Besides, he knows a publishing company that will take the band on if +they get signed, and even give them an advance of 20 grand, so they’ll +be making that money too. The manager says publishing is pretty +mysterious, and nobody really knows where all the money comes from, but +the lawyer can look that contract over too. Hell, it’s free money. + +> He used a bunch of equipment on them and by the end of it, they all +> agreed that it sounded very “punchy,” yet “warm.” + +Their booking agent is excited about the band signing to a major. He +says they can maybe average $1,000 or $2,000 a night from now on. That’s +enough to justify a five week tour, and with tour support, they can use +a proper crew, buy some good equipment and even get a tour bus\! Buses +are pretty expensive, but if you figure in the price of a hotel room for +everybody in the band and crew, they’re actually about the same cost. +Some bands (like Therapy? and Sloan and Stereolab) use buses on their +tours even when they’re getting paid only a couple hundred bucks a +night, and this tour should earn at least a grand or two every night. +It’ll be worth it. The band will be more comfortable and will play +better. + +The agent says a band on a major label can get a merchandising company +to pay them an advance on t-shirt sales\! Ridiculous\! There’s a gold +mine here\! The lawyer should look over the merchandising contract, just +to be safe. + +They get drunk at the signing party. Polaroids are taken and everybody +looks thrilled. The label picked them up in a limo. + +They decided to go with the producer who used to be in Letterman’s band. +He had these technicians come in and tune the drums for them and tweak +their amps and guitars. He had a guy bring in a slew of expensive old +“vintage” microphones. Boy, were they “warm.” He even had a guy come +in and check the phase of all the equipment in the control room\! Boy, +was he professional. He used a bunch of equipment on them and by the end +of it, they all agreed that it sounded very “punchy,” yet “warm.” + +All that hard work paid off. With the help of a video, the album went +like hotcakes\! They sold a quarter million copies\! + +Here is the math that will explain just how fucked they are: + +These figures are representative of amounts that appear in record +contracts daily. There’s no need to skew the figures to make the +scenario look bad, since real-life examples more than abound. Income is +underlined, expenses are not. + +Advance: $250,000 + +Manager’s cut: $37,500 +Legal fees: $10,000 + +Recording Budget: $150,000 +Producer’s advance: $50,000 +Studio fee: $52,500 +Drum, Amp, Mic and Phase “Doctors”: $3,000 +Recording tape: $8,000 +Equipment rental: $5,000 +Cartage and Transportation: $5,000 +Lodgings while in studio: $10,000 +Catering: $3,000 +Mastering: $10,000 +Tape copies, reference CD’s, shipping tapes, misc expenses: $2,000 + +Video budget: $30,000 +Cameras: $8,000 +Crew: $5,000 +Processing and transfers: $3,000 +Offline: $2,000 +Online editing: $3,000 +Catering: $1,000 +Stage and construction: $3,000 +Copies, couriers, transportation: $2,000 +Director’s fee: $3,000 + +Album Artwork: $5,000 +Promotional photo shoot and duplication: $2,000 + +Band fund: $15,000 +New fancy professional drum kit: $5,000 +New fancy professional guitars (2): $3,000 +New fancy professional guitar amp rigs (2): $4,000 +New fancy potato-shaped bass guitar: $1,000 +New fancy rack of lights bass amp: $1,000 +Rehearsal space rental: $500 +Big blowout party for their friends: $500 + +Tour expense (5 weeks): $50,875 +Bus: $25,000 +Crew (3): $7,500 +Food and per diems: $7,875 +Fuel: $3,000 +Consumable supplies: $3,500 +Wardrobe: $1,000 +Promotion: $3,000 + +Tour gross income: $50,000 +Agent’s cut: $7,500 +Manager’s cut: $7,500 + +Merchandising advance: $20,000 +Manager’s cut: $3,000 +Lawyer’s fee: $1,000 +Publishing advance: $20,000 +Manager’s cut: $3,000 +Lawyer’s fee: $1,000 + +Record sales: 250,000 @ $12 = $3,000,000 gross retail revenue Royalty +(13% of 90% of retail): $351,000 +less advance: $250,000 +Producer’s points: (3% less $50,000 advance) $40,000 +Promotional budget: $25,000 +Recoupable buyout from previous label: $50,000 +Net royalty: (-$14,000) + +Record company income: +Record wholesale price $6,50 x 250,000 = $1,625,000 gross income Artist +Royalties: $351,000 +Deficit from royalties: $14,000 +Manufacturing, packaging and distribution @ $2.20 per record: $550,000 +Gross profit: $710,000 + +THE BALANCE SHEET + +This is how much each player got paid at the end of the game. +Record company: $710,000 +Producer: $90,000 +Manager: $51,000 +Studio: $52,500 +Previous label: $50,000 +Agent: $7,500 +Lawyer: $12,000 + +Band member net income each: $4,031.25 + +The band is now 1/4 of the way through its contract, has made the music +industry more than 3 million dollars richer, but is in the hole $14,000 +on royalties. The band members have each earned about 1/3 as much as +they would working at a 7-11, but they got to ride in a tour bus for a +month. + +The next album will be about the same, except that the record company +will insist they spend more time and money on it. Since the previous one +never “recouped,” the band will have no leverage, and will oblige. + +The next tour will be about the same, except the merchandising advance +will have already been paid, and the band, strangely enough, won’t have +earned any royalties from their t-shirts yet. Maybe the t-shirt guys +have figured out how to count money like record company guys. + +**Some of your friends are probably already this +fucked.** + +[![baf5-problem-with-music](http://48ic4g3gr5iyzszh237mlfcm-wpengine.netdna-ssl.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/09/baf5-problem-with-music-1024x723.jpg)](http://48ic4g3gr5iyzszh237mlfcm-wpengine.netdna-ssl.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/09/baf5-problem-with-music.jpg) diff --git a/_stories/1994/10526572.md b/_stories/1994/10526572.md index 9c75d8e..b417f47 100644 --- a/_stories/1994/10526572.md +++ b/_stories/1994/10526572.md @@ -19,302 +19,160 @@ _tags: objectID: '10526572' --- -[Source](http://www.nytimes.com/1994/08/12/business/attention-shoppers-internet-is-open.html "Permalink to Attention Shoppers - Internet Is Open - NYTimes.com") - -# Attention Shoppers - Internet Is Open - NYTimes.com - -* [Log In][1] -* [Register Now][2] -* [Help][3] -* [Home Page][4] -* [Today's Paper][5] -* [Video][6] -* [Most Popular][7] - -Edition: [U.S.][4] / [Global][8] - -Search All NYTimes.com - -![New York Times][9] - -## [Business Day][10] - -* [World][11] -* [U.S.][12] -* [N.Y. / Region][13] -* [Business][10] -* [Technology][14] -* [Science][15] -* [Health][16] -* [Sports][17] -* [Opinion][18] -* [Arts][19] -* [Style][20] -* [Travel][21] -* [Jobs][22] -* [Real Estate][23] -* [Autos][24] -* [DealBook][25] -* [Markets][26] -* [Economy][27] -* [Energy][28] -* [Media][29] -* [Technology][30] -* [Personal Tech][31] -* [Entrepreneurship][32] -* [Your Money][33] - -# Attention Shoppers: Internet Is Open - -###### By PETER H. LEWIS - -###### Published: August 12, 1994 - -At noon yesterday, Phil Brandenberger of Philadelphia went shopping for a compact audio disk, paid for it with his credit card and made history. - -Moments later, the champagne corks were popping in a small two-story frame house in Nashua, N.H. There, a team of young cyberspace entrepreneurs celebrated what was apparently the first retail transaction on the Internet using a readily available version of powerful data encryption software designed to guarantee privacy. - -Experts have long seen such iron-clad security as a necessary first step before commercial transactions can become common on the Internet, the global computer network. - -From his work station in Philadelphia, Mr. Brandenburger logged onto the computer in Nashua, and used a secret code to send his Visa credit card number to pay $12.48, plus shipping costs, for the compact disk "Ten Summoners' Tales" by the rock musician Sting. - -"Even if the N.S.A. was listening in, they couldn't get his credit card number," said Daniel M. Kohn, the 21-year-old chief executive of the Net Market Company of Nashua, N.H., a new venture that is the equivalent of a shopping mall in cyberspace. Mr. Kohn was referring to the National Security Agency, the arm of the Pentagon that develops and breaks the complex algorithms that are used to keep the most secret electronic secrets secret. - -Even bigger organizations working on rival systems yesterday called the achievement by the tiny Net Market a welcome first step. - -"It's really clear that most companies want the security prior to doing major commitments to significant electronic commerce on the Internet," said Cathy Medich, executive director of Commercenet, a Government and industry organization based in Menlo Park, Calif., that hopes to establish standards for commercial transactions on the Internet and other networks. - -The idea is to make such data communications immune to wiretaps, electronic eavesdropping and theft by scrambling the transmissions with a secret code -- a security technique known as data encryption. - -While Commercenet and other organizations have been working to develop a standard for the automated data encryption of commercial transactions, the small band of recent college graduates who formed the Net Market Company in New Hampshire appear to be the first to implement such technology successfully. - -Tests of Commercenet's encryption system, which is based on algorithms -- mathematical formulas -- developed by RSA Data Security Inc. of Redwood City, Calif., are expected to begin this fall. - -Commercenet hopes to create an easy-to-use industry standard for protecting Internet transactions. - -For now, Net Market's approach is available to the limited number of computer users who have work stations running the Unix software operating system and a sophisticated Internet navigational program called X-Mosaic. The data encryption program is called PGP, for Pretty Good Privacy, which is based on the same RSA algorithms used by Commercenet. - -PGP is available free, but it requires technical expertise to download it from the Internet. But within a few months commercial versions of PGP are expected to be available for personal computers using the Windows and Macintosh operating systems, which comprise the vast majority of computers in North America. Security Breaches Reported - -The widespread adoption of standard data encryption tools cannot come too quickly for many Internet entrepreneurs, who hope to foster new levels of commerce on the rapidly growing network. - -Alarmed by increasing reports of security breaches on the Internet, many people and businesses are reluctant to transmit sensitive information, including credit cards numbers, sales information or private electronic mail messages, on the network. - -But the use of standard data encryption software, which scrambles messages so they can be read only by someone with the proper software "key," has been hindered by a combination of Government regulations and software patent disputes. - -Experts say the PGP encryption software used by Net Market is at least as robust as the so-called Clipper encryption technology that the Clinton Administration has been pushing as a national standard. But unlike the Clipper system, the software keys for opening and reading PGP-encrypted documents is not controlled by the Government. - -A version of PGP for individuals is available free through the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, but users must retrieve it from an M.I.T. computer through the Internet. - -Organizations wanting to use PGP for commercial purposes must obtain it on the Internet from a company in Phoenix called Viacrypt, a maker of computer security software and hardware tools. Prices for PGP begin at $100 a copy. A Browsing Feature - -One achievement of the young programmers at Net Market was to incorporate PGP into X-Mosaic, the software that many Internet users rely on for browsing through the global network. - -X-Mosaic is a software tool that allows the users of Unix computers to browse a service of the Internet called the World Wide Web, where companies can post the electronic equivalent of a glossy color brochure with supporting sales or marketing documents. - -In the case of Noteworthy Music, the record retailer that leases a "store front" in Net Market's Internet computer, a shopper can look at color pictures of CD album covers. - -Mr. Kohn, a 1994 honors graduate in economics from Swarthmore College, came up with the idea for Net Market during his junior year abroad, at the London School of Economics. There, he persuaded an American classmate, Roger Lee, to join his venture. - -Mr. Lee, who graduated from Yale this past spring with a degree in political science, is president of the company. For technical expertise, they recruited two other partners from Swarthmore, Guy H. T. Haskin and Eiji Hirai. - -The four men live upstairs in the house in Nashua, commuting downstairs each morning to run the business. Because of the pressures of running the system and debugging the software, they rarely venture outside, even though they have a backyard swimming pool. - -"We don't get much sun," Mr. Kohn said, "but we're down to a case of Coke a day." 'An Important Step' - -Although Net Market has been selling various products like CD's, flowers and books for several months on behalf of various merchants, yesterday was the first time they had offered digitally secure transactions. - -"I think it's an important step in pioneering this work, but later on we'll probably see more exciting things in the way of digital cash," said Philip R. Zimmermann, a computer security consultant in Boulder, Colo., who created the PGP program. - -Digital cash, Mr. Zimmermann explained, is "a combination of cryptographic protocols that behave the way real dollars behave but are untraceable." - -In other words, they are packets of worth that have value in cyberspace, the same way dollars have value in the real world, except that they have the properties of anonymity, privacy and untraceability. Many details remain to be worked out, Mr. Zimmermann said. - -For now, Mr. Brandenberger, despite his historic transaction yesterday, will be paying with plain old dollars, when he gets his credit card bill. And sometime today, the Sting CD will arrive by fairly conventional means -- shipped FedEx from the Noteworthy Music warehouse in Nashua. - -Photo: A system from the Net Market Company allows credit card shopping on the Internet in total privacy. Net Market's chief executive, Daniel M. Kohn, foreground, worked at the company's office in Nashua, N.H., yesterday. Behind him, from left, were the president, Roger Lee; program developer, Mark Birmingham; senior program developer, Guy H. T. Haskin, and chief information officer, Eiji Hirai. (MacArther S. 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-[60]: http://www.nytimes.com/ref/membercenter/help/privacy.html#pp -[61]: http://www.nytimes.whsites.net/mediakit/ -[62]: http://www.nytimes.com/content/help/rights/sale/terms-of-sale.html -[63]: http://www.nytimes.com/ref/membercenter/help/agree.html -[64]: http://www.nytco.com/careers -[65]: http://www.nytimes.com/rss -[66]: http://www.nytimes.com/ref/membercenter/help/infoservdirectory.html -[67]: https://myaccount.nytimes.com/membercenter/feedback.html -[68]: http://wt.o.nytimes.com/dcsym57yw10000s1s8g0boozt_9t1x/njs.gif?dcsuri=/nojavascript&WT.js=No&WT.tv=1.0.7 -[69]: http://up.nytimes.com/?d=0//&t=&s=0&ui=&r=&u=www.nytimes.com%2F1994%2F08%2F12%2Fbusiness%2Fattention-shoppers-internet-is-open.html - +At noon yesterday, Phil Brandenberger of Philadelphia went shopping for +a compact audio disk, paid for it with his credit card and made history. + +Moments later, the champagne corks were popping in a small two-story +frame house in Nashua, N.H. There, a team of young cyberspace +entrepreneurs celebrated what was apparently the first retail +transaction on the Internet using a readily available version of +powerful data encryption software designed to guarantee privacy. + +Experts have long seen such iron-clad security as a necessary first step +before commercial transactions can become common on the Internet, the +global computer network. + +From his work station in Philadelphia, Mr. Brandenburger logged onto the +computer in Nashua, and used a secret code to send his Visa credit card +number to pay $12.48, plus shipping costs, for the compact disk "Ten +Summoners' Tales" by the rock musician Sting. + +"Even if the N.S.A. was listening in, they couldn't get his credit card +number," said Daniel M. Kohn, the 21-year-old chief executive of the Net +Market Company of Nashua, N.H., a new venture that is the equivalent of +a shopping mall in cyberspace. Mr. Kohn was referring to the National +Security Agency, the arm of the Pentagon that develops and breaks the +complex algorithms that are used to keep the most secret electronic +secrets secret. + +Even bigger organizations working on rival systems yesterday called the +achievement by the tiny Net Market a welcome first step. + +"It's really clear that most companies want the security prior to doing +major commitments to significant electronic commerce on the Internet," +said Cathy Medich, executive director of Commercenet, a Government and +industry organization based in Menlo Park, Calif., that hopes to +establish standards for commercial transactions on the Internet and +other networks. + +The idea is to make such data communications immune to wiretaps, +electronic eavesdropping and theft by scrambling the transmissions with +a secret code -- a security technique known as data encryption. + +While Commercenet and other organizations have been working to develop a +standard for the automated data encryption of commercial transactions, +the small band of recent college graduates who formed the Net Market +Company in New Hampshire appear to be the first to implement such +technology successfully. + +Tests of Commercenet's encryption system, which is based on algorithms +-- mathematical formulas -- developed by RSA Data Security Inc. of +Redwood City, Calif., are expected to begin this fall. + +Commercenet hopes to create an easy-to-use industry standard for +protecting Internet transactions. + +For now, Net Market's approach is available to the limited number of +computer users who have work stations running the Unix software +operating system and a sophisticated Internet navigational program +called X-Mosaic. The data encryption program is called PGP, for Pretty +Good Privacy, which is based on the same RSA algorithms used by +Commercenet. + +PGP is available free, but it requires technical expertise to download +it from the Internet. But within a few months commercial versions of PGP +are expected to be available for personal computers using the Windows +and Macintosh operating systems, which comprise the vast majority of +computers in North America. Security Breaches Reported + +The widespread adoption of standard data encryption tools cannot come +too quickly for many Internet entrepreneurs, who hope to foster new +levels of commerce on the rapidly growing network. + +Alarmed by increasing reports of security breaches on the Internet, many +people and businesses are reluctant to transmit sensitive information, +including credit cards numbers, sales information or private electronic +mail messages, on the network. + +But the use of standard data encryption software, which scrambles +messages so they can be read only by someone with the proper software +"key," has been hindered by a combination of Government regulations and +software patent disputes. + +Experts say the PGP encryption software used by Net Market is at least +as robust as the so-called Clipper encryption technology that the +Clinton Administration has been pushing as a national standard. But +unlike the Clipper system, the software keys for opening and reading +PGP-encrypted documents is not controlled by the Government. + +A version of PGP for individuals is available free through the +Massachusetts Institute of Technology, but users must retrieve it from +an M.I.T. computer through the Internet. + +Organizations wanting to use PGP for commercial purposes must obtain it +on the Internet from a company in Phoenix called Viacrypt, a maker of +computer security software and hardware tools. Prices for PGP begin at +$100 a copy. A Browsing Feature + +One achievement of the young programmers at Net Market was to +incorporate PGP into X-Mosaic, the software that many Internet users +rely on for browsing through the global network. + +X-Mosaic is a software tool that allows the users of Unix computers to +browse a service of the Internet called the World Wide Web, where +companies can post the electronic equivalent of a glossy color brochure +with supporting sales or marketing documents. + +In the case of Noteworthy Music, the record retailer that leases a +"store front" in Net Market's Internet computer, a shopper can look at +color pictures of CD album covers. + +Mr. Kohn, a 1994 honors graduate in economics from Swarthmore College, +came up with the idea for Net Market during his junior year abroad, at +the London School of Economics. There, he persuaded an American +classmate, Roger Lee, to join his venture. + +Mr. Lee, who graduated from Yale this past spring with a degree in +political science, is president of the company. For technical expertise, +they recruited two other partners from Swarthmore, Guy H. T. Haskin and +Eiji Hirai. + +The four men live upstairs in the house in Nashua, commuting downstairs +each morning to run the business. Because of the pressures of running +the system and debugging the software, they rarely venture outside, even +though they have a backyard swimming pool. + +"We don't get much sun," Mr. Kohn said, "but we're down to a case of +Coke a day." 'An Important Step' + +Although Net Market has been selling various products like CD's, flowers +and books for several months on behalf of various merchants, yesterday +was the first time they had offered digitally secure transactions. + +"I think it's an important step in pioneering this work, but later on +we'll probably see more exciting things in the way of digital cash," +said Philip R. Zimmermann, a computer security consultant in Boulder, +Colo., who created the PGP program. + +Digital cash, Mr. Zimmermann explained, is "a combination of +cryptographic protocols that behave the way real dollars behave but are +untraceable." + +In other words, they are packets of worth that have value in cyberspace, +the same way dollars have value in the real world, except that they have +the properties of anonymity, privacy and untraceability. Many details +remain to be worked out, Mr. Zimmermann said. + +For now, Mr. Brandenberger, despite his historic transaction yesterday, +will be paying with plain old dollars, when he gets his credit card +bill. And sometime today, the Sting CD will arrive by fairly +conventional means -- shipped FedEx from the Noteworthy Music warehouse +in Nashua. + +Photo: A system from the Net Market Company allows credit card shopping +on the Internet in total privacy. Net Market's chief executive, Daniel +M. Kohn, foreground, worked at the company's office in Nashua, N.H., +yesterday. Behind him, from left, were the president, Roger Lee; program +developer, Mark Birmingham; senior program developer, Guy H. T. Haskin, +and chief information officer, Eiji Hirai. (MacArther S. McBurney for +The New York Times) diff --git a/_stories/1994/1092842.md b/_stories/1994/1092842.md index 3955999..b8dd0a1 100644 --- a/_stories/1994/1092842.md +++ b/_stories/1994/1092842.md @@ -19,7 +19,7 @@ _tags: objectID: '1092842' --- -[Source](http://www.rollingstone.com/news/story/31896381/from_the_archives_a_revealing_interview_with_steve_jobs/print "Permalink to ") - - +U2 Plan Vinyl Reissues for 'Pop,' 'All That You Can't Leave Behind' +Rockers' 1985 EP 'Wide Awake in America' also remastered and pressed +onto 180-gram LP diff --git a/_stories/1994/14539492.md b/_stories/1994/14539492.md index 3ef3381..546d14b 100644 --- a/_stories/1994/14539492.md +++ b/_stories/1994/14539492.md @@ -19,7 +19,490 @@ _tags: objectID: '14539492' --- -[Source](https://newrepublic.com/article/77732/grammar-puss-steven-pinker-language-william-safire "Permalink to ") +Of course, forcing modern speakers of English to not—whoops, not +to—split an infinitive because it isn't done in Latin makes about as +much sense as forcing modern residents of England to wear laurels and +togas. Julius Caesar could not have split an infinitive if he had wanted +to. In Latin the infinitive is a single word such as "facere," a +syntactic atom. But in English, which prefers to build sentences around +many simple words instead of a few complicated ones, the infinitive is +composed of two words.Words, by definition, are rearrangeable units, and +there is no conceivable reason why an adverb should not come between +them: +Space—the final frontier.... These are the voyages of the starship +Enterprise. Its five-year mission: to explore strange new worlds, to +seek out new life and new civilizations, to boldly go where no man has +gone before. +To "go boldly" where no man has gone before? Beam me up, Scotty; there's +no intelligent life down here. As for outlawing sentences that end with +a preposition (impossible in Latin for reasons irrelevant to English)—as +Winston Churchill said, "It is a rule up with which we should not put." +But once introduced, a prescriptive rule is very hard to eradicate, no +matter how ridiculous. Inside the writing establishment, the rules +survive by the same dynamic that perpetuates ritual genital mutilations +and college fraternity hazing. Anyone daring to overturn a rule by +example must always worry that readers will think he or she is ignorant +of the rule, rather than challenging it. Perhaps most importantly, since +prescriptive rules are so psychologically unnatural that only those with +access to the right schooling can abide by them, they serve as +shibboleths, differentiating the elite from the rabble.Throughout the +country people have spoken a dialect of English, some of whose features +date to the Early Modern English period, that H.L. Mencken called The +American Language. It had the misfortune of not becoming the standard of +government and education, and large parts of the "grammar" curriculum in +U.S. schools have been dedicated to stigmatizing it as sloppy speech. + +Frequently the language mavens claim that nonstandard American English +is not just different, but less sophisticated and logical. The case, +they would have to admit, is hard to make for nonstandard irregular +verbs such as "drag/drug" (and even more so for conversions to +regularity such as "feeled" and "growed"). After all, in "correct" +English, Richard Lederer noted, "Today we speak, but first we spoke; +some faucets leak, but never loke. Today we write, but first we wrote; +we bite our tongues, but never bote." At first glance, the mavens would +seem to have a better argument when it comes to the loss of +conjugational distinctions in "He don't" and "We was." But then, this +has been the trend in standard English for centuries. No one gets upset +that we no longer distinguish the second person singular form of verbs, +as in "thou sayest." And by this criterion it is the nonstandard +dialects that are superior, because they provide their speakers with +second person plural pronouns like "y'all" and "youse." + +At this point, defenders of the standard are likely to pull out the +notorious double negative, as in "I can't get no satisfaction." +Logically speaking, they teach, the two negatives cancel out each other; +Mr. Jagger is actually saying that he is satisfied. The song should be +titled "I Can't Get Any Satisfaction." But this reasoning is not +satisfactory. Hundreds of languages require their speakers to use a +negative element in the context of a negated verb. The so-called "double +negative," far from being a corruption, was the norm in Chaucer's Middle +English, and negation in standard French, as in "Je ne sais pas" where +"ne" and "pas" are both negative, is a familiar contemporary +example. Come to think of it, standard English is really no +different. What do "any," "even" and "at all" mean in the following +sentences? + +I didn't buy any lottery tickets. I didn't eat even a single french +fry. I didn't eat junk food at all today. + +Clearly, not much: you can't use them alone, as the following strange +sentences show: + +I bought any lottery tickets. I ate even a single french fry. I ate junk +food at all today. + +What these words are doing is exactly what "no" is doing in nonstandard +English, such as in the equivalent "I didn't buy no lottery +tickets"—agreeing with the negated verb. The slim difference is that +nonstandard English co-opted the word "no" as the agreement element, +whereas standard English co-opted the word "any." + +A tin ear for stress and melody along with an obliviousness to the +principles of discourse and rhetoric are important tools of the trade +for the language maven. Consider an alleged atrocity committed by +today's youth: the expression "I could care less." The teenagers are +trying to express disdain, the adults note, in which case they should be +saying "I couldn't care less." If they could care less than they do, +that means that they really do care, the opposite of what they are +trying to say. But the argument is bogus. Listen to how the two versions +are pronounced:  + +> COULDN'T care                  I + +>                       LE                        CARE                   + +> i                         ESS                              LE + +>                                                 could          ESS + +The melodies and stresses are completely different, and for a good +reason. The second version is not illogical, it's sarcastic. The point +of sarcasm is that by making an assertion that is manifestly false or +accompanied by ostentatiously mannered intonation, one deliberately +implies its opposite. A good paraphrase is, "Oh yeah, as if there were +something in the world that I care less about." + +Through the ages, language mavens have deplored the way English speakers +convert nouns into verbs. The following verbs have all been denounced in +this century: to caveat, to input, to host, to nuance, to access, to +chair, to dialogue, to showcase, to progress, to parent, to intrigue, to +contact, to impact. + +As you can see, they range from varying degrees of awkwardness to the +completely unexceptionable.In fact, easy conversion of nouns to verbs +has been part of English grammar for centuries. I have estimated that +about a fifth of all English verbs were originally nouns. Consider the +human body: you can "head" a committee, "scalp" the missionary, "eye" a +babe, "stomach" someone's complaints and so on—virtually every body part +can be "verbed" (including several that cannot be printed in a family +journal of opinion). + +What's the problem? The concern seems to be that fuzzy-minded speakers +are eroding the distinction between nouns and verbs. But once again, the +person on the street is not getting any respect. A simple quirk of +everyday usage shows why the accusation is untrue. Take the baseball +term "to fly out," a verb that comes from the noun "pop fly." The past +form is "flied," not "flew" and "flown"; no mere mortal has ever flown +out to center field. Similarly, in using the verb-from-noun "to ring the +city" (form a ring around), people say "ringed," not "rang." Speakers' +preference for the regular form with "-ed" shows that they tacitly keep +track of the fact that the verbs came from nouns. They avoid irregular +forms like "flew out" because they sense that the baseball verb "to fly" +is different from the ordinary verb "to fly" (what birds do): the first +is a verb based on a noun root, the second, a verb with a verb root. + +The most remarkable aspect of the special status of verbs-from-nouns is +that everyone feels it. I have tried out examples on hundreds of +people—college students, people without college educations, children +as young as 4. They all behave like good intuitive grammarians: they +inflect verbs that come from nouns differently than plain old verbs. So +is there anyone, anywhere, who does not grasp the principle? Yes—the +language mavens. Uniformly, the style manuals bungle their explanations +of "flied out" and similar lawful examples. + +I am obliged to discuss one more example: the much vilified "hopefully." +A sentence such as "Hopefully, the treaty will pass" is said to be a +grave error. The adverb "hopefully" comes from the adjective "hopeful," +meaning "in a manner full of hope." Therefore, the mavens say, it should +be used only when the sentence refers to a person who is doing something +in a hopeful manner. If it is the writer or reader who is hopeful, one +should say, "It is hoped that the treaty will pass," or "If hopes are +realized, the treaty will pass," or "I hope the treaty will pass." + +Now consider the following: + +(1) It is simply not true that an English adverb must indicate the +manner in which the actor performs the action. Adverbs come in two +kinds: "verb phrase" adverbs such as "carefully," which do refer to the +actor, and "sentence" adverbs such as "frankly," which indicate the +attitude of the speaker toward the content of the sentence. Other +examples of sentence adverbs are "accordingly," "basically," +"confidentially," "happily," "mercifully," "roughly," "supposedly" and +"understandably." Many (such as "happily") come from verb phrase +adverbs, and they are virtually never ambiguous in context.The use of +"hopefully" as a sentence adverb, which has been around for at least +sixty years, is a perfectly sensible example. + +(2) The suggested alternatives, "It is hoped that" and "If hopes are +realized," display four sins of bad writing: passive voice, needless +words, vagueness, pomposity. + +(3) The suggested alternatives do not mean the same thing as +"hopefully," so the ban would leave certain thoughts +unexpressible. "Hopefully" makes a hopeful prediction, whereas "I hope +that" and "It is hoped that" merely describe certain people's mental +states. Thus you can say, "I hope the treaty will pass, but it isn't +likely," but it would be odd to say, "Hopefully, the treaty will pass, +but it isn't likely." + +(4) We are supposed to use "hopefully" only as a verb phrase adverb, as +in the following: + +Hopefully, Larry hurled the ball toward the basket with one second left +in the game. Hopefully, Melvin turned the record over and sat back down +on the couch eleven centimeters closer to Ellen. + +Call me uncouth, call me ignorant, but these sentences do not belong to +any language that I speak. + +I have taken these examples from generic schoolmarms, copy editors and +writers of irate letters to newspaper ombudsmen. The more famous +language mavens come in two temperaments: Jeremiahs and Sages. + +The Jeremiahs express their bitter laments and righteous prophesies of +doom. The best-known is the film and theater critic John Simon. Here is +a representative opening to one of his language columns: + +"The English language is being treated nowadays exactly as slave traders +once handled the merchandise in their slave ships, or as the inmates of +concentration camps were dealt with by their Nazi jailers." + +What grammatical horror could have inspired this tasteless comparison, +you might ask? It was Tip O'Neill's redundantly referring to his "fellow +colleagues." + +Speaking of the American Black English dialect, Simon says: + +Why should we consider some, usually poorly educated, subculture's +notion of the relationship between sound and meaning? And how could a +grammar—any grammar—possibly describe that relationship?... As for "I +be," "you be," "he be," etc., which should give us all the +heebie-jeebies, these may indeed be comprehensible, but they go against +all accepted classical and modern grammars and are the product not of a +language with roots in history but of ignorance of how language works. + +This, of course, is nonsense from beginning to end (Black English is +uncontroversially a language with its own systematic grammar), but there +is no point in refuting this malicious know-nothing, for he is not +participating in any sincere discussion. Simon has simply discovered the +trick used with great effectiveness by certain comedians, talk show +hosts and punk rock musicians: people of modest talent can attract +attention, at least for a while, by being unrelentingly offensive. + +The Sages, on the other hand, typified by the late Theodore Bernstein +and by William Safire himself, take a moderate, commonsense approach to +matters of usage, and they tease their victims with wit rather than +savaging them with invective. I enjoy reading the Sages, and have +nothing but awe for a pen like Safire's that can summarize the content +of an anti-pornography statute as, "It isn't the teat, it's the +tumidity." But the sad fact is that even Safire, the closest thing we +have to an enlightened language pundit, misjudges the linguistic +sophistication of the common speaker and as a result misses the target +in most of his commentaries and advice. To prove this charge, I will +walk you through parts of one of his columns, from the October 4, 1992, +New York Times Magazine. + +The first story was a nonpartisan analysis of supposed pronoun case +errors made by the two candidates in the 1992 presidential +election. George Bush had recently adopted the slogan "Who do you +trust?," alienating schoolteachers across the nation who noted that +"who" is a subject pronoun and the question is asking about the object +of "trust." One would say "You do trust him," not "You do trust he," and +so the question word should be "whom," not "who." + +In reply, one might point out that the "who/whom" distinction is a relic +of the English case system, abandoned by nouns centuries ago and found +today only among pronouns in distinctions such as "he/him." Even among +pronouns, the old distinction between subject "ye" and object "you" has +vanished, leaving "you" to play both roles and "ye" as sounding +archaic. Though "whom" has outlived "ye," it is clearly moribund, and +already sounds pretentious in most spoken contexts. No one demands of +Bush that he say, "Whom do ye trust?" If the language can bear the loss +of "ye," why insist on clinging to "whom"? + +Safire, with his reasonable attitude toward usage, recognizes the +problem, and proposes: + +Safire's Law of Who/Whom, which forever solves the problem troubling +writers and speakers caught between the pedantic and the +incorrect: "When whom is correct, recast the sentence." Thus, instead +of changing his slogan to "Whom do you trust?"—making him sound like a +hypereducated Yalie stiff—Mr. Bush would win back the purist vote with +"Which candidate do you trust?" + +Telling people to avoid a problematic construction sounds like common +sense, but in the case of object questions with "who," it demands an +intolerable sacrifice. People ask questions about the objects of verbs +and prepositions a lot. Consider the kinds of questions one might ask a +child in ordinary conversation: "Who did we see on the way home?," "Who +did you play with outside tonight?," "Who did you sound like?" + +Safire's advice is to change such questions to "Which person...?" or +"Which child...?" But the advice would have people violate the most +important maxim of good prose: omit needless words. It also subverts the +supposed goal of rules of usage, which is to allow people to express +their thoughts as clearly and precisely as possible. A question such as +"Who did we see on the way home?" can embrace one person, many people or +any combination or number of adults, babies and familiar dogs.Any +specific substitution such as "Which person?" forecloses some of these +possibilities. Extremism in defense of liberty is no vice. Safire should +have taken his observation about "whom" to its logical conclusion and +advised the president that there is no reason to change the slogan, at +least no grammatical reason. + +Turning to the Democrats, Safire gets on Bill Clinton's case, as he puts +it, for asking voters to "give Al Gore and I a chance to bring America +back." No one would say "give I a break," because the indirect object of +"give" must have objective case. So it should be "give Al Gore and me a +chance." + +Probably no "grammatical error" has received as much scorn as the +"misuse" of pronoun case inside conjunctions (phrases with two parts +joined by "and" or "or"). What teenager has not been corrected for +saying "Me and Jennifer are going to the mall"? The standard story is +that the object pronoun "me" does not belong in the subject position—no +one would say "Me is going to the mall"—so it should be "Jennifer and +I." People tend to misremember the advice as, "When in doubt, say +\`so-and-so and I,' not \`so-and-so and me,'" so they unthinkingly +overapply it, resulting in hyper-corrected solecisms like "give Al Gore +and I a chance" and the even more despised "between you and I." + +But if the person on the street is so good at avoiding "Me is going" and +"Give I a break," and even former Rhodes Scholars and Ivy League +professors can't seem to avoid "Me and Jennifer are going" and "Give Al +and I a chance," might it be the mavens that misunderstand English +grammar, not the speakers? The mavens' case about case rests on one +assumption: if a conjunction phrase has a grammatical feature like +subject case, every word inside that phrase has to have that grammatical +feature, too. But that is just false. + +"Jennifer" is singular; you say "Jennifer is," not "Jennifer are." The +pronoun "she" is singular; you say "She is," not "She are." But the +conjunction "She and Jennifer" is not singular, it's plural; you say +"She and Jennifer are," not "She and Jennifer is." So a conjunction can +have a different grammatical number from the pronouns inside it. Why, +then, must it have the same grammatical case as the pronouns inside +it? The answer is that it need not. A conjunction is not grammatically +equivalent to any of its parts. If John and Marsha met, it does not mean +that John met and that Marsha met. If voters give Clinton and Gore a +chance, they are not giving Gore his own chance, added on to the chance +they are giving Clinton; they are giving the entire ticket a chance. So +just because "Al Gore and I" is an object that requires object case, it +does not mean that "I" is an object that requires object case. By the +logic of grammar, the pronoun is free to have any case it wants. + +In his third story Safire deconstructs a breathless quote from Barbra +Streisand, describing tennis star Andre Agassi: "He's very, very +intelligent; very, very, sensitive, very evolved;... He plays like a Zen +master. It's very in the moment." + +Safire speculates on Streisand's use of the word "evolved": "its change +from the active to passive voice—from \`he evolved from the Missing +Link' to \`He is evolved'—was probably influenced by the adoption of +involved as a compliment." + +These kinds of derivations have been studied intensively in linguistics, +but Safire shows here that he does not appreciate how they work. He +seems to think that people change words by being reminded of rhyming +ones—"evolved" from "involved," a kind of malapropism. But in fact +people are not that literal-minded. New usages (such as "to fly out") +are based not on rhymes, but on systematic rules that change the +hundreds of words' grammatical behavior of dozens of words in the same +precise ways. + +Thus Safire's suggestion that "very evolved" is based on "involved" does +not work at all. For one thing, if you're involved, it means that +something involves you (you're the object), whereas if you're evolved, +it means that you have been doing some evolving (you're the +subject). The problem is that the conversion of "evolved from" to "very +evolved" is not a switch from the active voice of a verb to the passive +voice, as in "Andre beat Boris" to "Boris was beaten by Andre." To +passivize a verb you convert the direct object into a subject, so "is +evolved" could only have been passivized from "Something evolved +Andre"—which does not exist in contemporary English. Safire's +explanation is like saying you can take "Bill bicycled from Lexington" +and change it to "Bill is bicycled" and then to "Bill is very bicycled." + +This breakdown is a good illustration of one of the main scandals of the +language mavens: they show lapses in elementary problems of grammatical +analysis, like figuring out the part-of-speech category of a word. In +analyzing "very evolved," Safire refers to the active and passive voice, +two forms of a verb.But the preceding adverb "very" is an unmistakable +tipoff that "evolved" is not being used as a verb at all, but as an +adjective. Safire was misled because adjectives can look like verbs in +the passive voice, and are clearly related to them, but they are not the +same thing. This is the ambiguity behind the joke in the Bob Dylan +lyric, "They'll stone you when you're riding in your car; They'll stone +you when you're playing your guitar.... Everybody must get stoned." + +This discovery steers us toward the real source of "evolved." There is a +lively rule in English that takes the participle of certain intransitive +verbs and creates a corresponding adjective: + +a leaf that has fallen —\> a fallen leaf + +snow that has drifted  —\> the drifted snow + +a man who has traveled widely —\> a widely traveled man + +Take this rule and apply it to "a tennis player that has evolved," and +you get "an evolved tennis player." This solution also allows us to make +sense of Streisand's meaning. When a verb is converted from the active +to the passive voice, the verb's meaning is conserved: "Dog bites man" +to "Man is bitten by dog." But when a verb is converted to an adjective, +the adjective can acquire idiosyncratic nuances. Not every woman who has +fallen is a fallen woman, and if someone stones you you are not +necessarily stoned. We all evolved from a missing link, but not all of +us are evolved in the sense of being more spiritually sophisticated than +our contemporaries. + +Safire then goes on to rebuke Streisand for "very in the moment": + +This very calls attention to the use of a preposition or a noun as a +modifier, as in "It's very in," or "It's very New York," or the ultimate +fashion compliment, "It's very you." To be very in the moment (perhaps a +variation of the moment or up to the minute) appears to be a loose +translation of the French au courant, variously translated as "up to +date, fashionable, with-it" ... + +Once again, by patronizing Streisand's language, Safire has misanalyzed +its form and its meaning. He has not noticed that: + +The word "very" is not connected to the preposition "in"; it's connected +to the entire prepositional phrase "in the moment." + +Streisand is not using the intransitive "in," with its special sense of +"fashionable"; she is using the conventional transitive "in," with a +noun phrase object "the moment." + +Her use of a prepositional phrase as if it were an adjective to describe +some mental or emotional state follows a common pattern in +English: "under the weather," "out of character," "off the wall," "in +the dumps," "out to lunch," "on the ball" and "out of his mind." + +It's unlikely that Streisand was trying to say that Agassi is au +courant, or fashionable; that would be a put-down implying shallowness, +not a compliment. Her reference to Zen makes her meaning clear:that +Agassi is good at shutting out distractions and concentrating on the +game or person he is involved with at that moment. + +The foibles of the language mavens, then, can be blamed on two blind +spots: a gross underestimation of the linguistic wherewithal of the +common person, and an ignorance of the science of language—not just +technical linguistics, but basic knowledge of the constructions and +idioms of English, and how people use them. + +Unlike some academics in the '60s, I am not saying that concern for +grammar and composition are tools to perpetuate an oppressive status quo +and that The People should be liberated to write however they +please. Some aspects of how people express themselves in some settings +are worth trying to change. What I am calling for is a more thoughtful +discussion of language and how people use it, replacing bubbe-maises +(old wives' tales) with the best scientific knowledge available. It is +ironic that the Jeremiahs' wailing about how sloppy language leads to +sloppy thought are themselves hairballs of loosely associated factoids +and tangled non sequiturs. All the examples of verbal behavior that the +complainer takes exception to for any reason are packed together and +coughed up as proof of The Decline of the Language: teenage slang, +sophistry, regional variations in pronunciation and vocabulary, +bureaucratic bafflegab, poor spelling and punctuation, pseudo-errors +like "hopefully," government euphemism, nonstandard grammar like +"ain't," misleading advertising and so on (not to mention occasional +witticisms that go over the complainer's head). + +I hope to have convinced you of two things. Many prescriptive rules are +just plain dumb and should be deleted from the handbooks. And most of +standard English is just that, standard, in the sense of standard units +of currency or household voltages. It is just common sense that people +should be encouraged to learn the dialect that has become the standard +in their society. But there is no need to use terms like "bad grammar," +"fractured syntax" and "incorrect usage" when referring to rural, black +and other nonstandard dialects (even if you dislike "politically +correct" euphemism): the terms are not only insulting, but +scientifically inaccurate. + +The aspect of language use that is most worth changing is the clarity +and style of written prose. The human language faculty was not designed +for putting esoteric thoughts on paper for the benefit of strangers, and +this makes writing a difficult craft that must be mastered through +practice, feedback and intensive exposure to good examples. There are +excellent manuals of composition that discuss these skills with great +wisdom—but note how their advice concentrates on important practical +tips like "omit needless words" and "revise extensively," not on the +trivia of split infinitives and slang. + +As for slang, I'm all for it\! I don't know how I ever did without "to +flame," "to dis" and "to blow off," and there are thousands of now +unexceptionable English words such as "clever," "fun," "sham," "banter" +and "stingy" that began life as slang. It is especially hypocritical to +oppose linguistic innovations reflexively and at the same time to decry +the loss of distinctions like "lie" versus "lay" on the pretext of +preserving expressive power. Vehicles for expressing thought are being +created far more quickly than they are being abandoned. + +Indeed, appreciating the linguistic genius of your ordinary Joe is the +cure for the deepest fear of the mavens: that English is steadily +deteriorating. Every component of every language changes over time, and +at any moment a language is enduring many losses. But the richness of a +language is always being replenished, because the one aspect of language +that does not change is the very thing that creates it: the human mind. + +Steven Pinker is Johnstone Professor of Psychology at Harvard and the +author of The Stuff of Thought. + +**For more TNR, become a fan +on [Facebook ](http://www.facebook.com/thenewrepublic)and follow us +on [Twitter](http://twitter.com/tnr).** diff --git a/_stories/1994/16070656.md b/_stories/1994/16070656.md index bf2b349..be85963 100644 --- a/_stories/1994/16070656.md +++ b/_stories/1994/16070656.md @@ -19,409 +19,865 @@ _tags: objectID: '16070656' --- -[Source](http://www.nytimes.com/1994/06/12/magazine/battle-of-the-clipper-chip.html?pagewanted=all "Permalink to Battle of the Clipper Chip - NYTimes.com") - -# Battle of the Clipper Chip - NYTimes.com - -* [Log In][1] -* [Register Now][2] -* [Help][3] -* [Home Page][4] -* [Today's Paper][5] -* [Video][6] -* [Most Popular][7] - -Edition: [U.S.][4] / [Global][8] - -Search All NYTimes.com - -![New York Times][9] - -## [Magazine][10] - -* [World][11] -* [U.S.][12] -* [N.Y. / Region][13] -* [Business][14] -* 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They may not look subversive sitting around a conference table dressed in T-shirts and jeans and eating burritos, but they are self-proclaimed saboteurs. They are the Cypherpunks, a loose confederation of computer hackers, hardware engineers and high-tech rabble-rousers. - -The precise object of their rage is the Clipper chip, offically known as the MYK-78 and not much bigger than a tooth. Just another tiny square of plastic covering a silicon thicket. A computer chip, from the outside indistinguishable from thousands of others. It seems improbable that this black Chiclet is the focal point of a battle that may determine the degree to which our civil liberties survive in the next century. But that is the shared belief in this room. - -The Clipper chip has prompted what might be considered the first holy war of the information highway. Two weeks ago, the war got bloodier, as a researcher circulated a report that the chip might have a serious technical flaw. But at its heart, the issue is political, not technical. The Cypherpunks consider the Clipper the lever that Big Brother is using to pry into the conversations, messages and transactions of the computer age. These high-tech Paul Reveres are trying to mobilize America against the evil portent of a "cyberspace police state," as one of their Internet jeremiads put it. Joining them in the battle is a formidable force, including almost all of the communications and computer industries, many members of Congress and political columnists of all stripes. The anti-Clipper aggregation is an equal-opportunity club, uniting the American Civil Liberties Union and Rush Limbaugh. - -The Clipper's defenders, who are largely in the Government, believe it represents the last chance to protect personal safety and national security against a developing information anarchy that fosters criminals, terrorists and foreign foes. Its adherents pose it as the answer, or at least part of the answer, to a problem created by an increasingly sophisticated application of an age-old technology: cryptography, the use of secret codes. - -For centuries, cryptography was the domain of armies and diplomatic corps. Now it has a second purpose: protecting personal and corporate privacy. Computer technology and advanced telecommunications equipment have drawn precious business information and intimate personal communications out into the open. This phenomenon is well known to the current Prince of Wales, whose intimate cellular phone conversations were intercepted, recorded and broadcast worldwide. And corporations realize that competitors can easily intercept their telephone conversations, electronic messages and faxes. High tech has created a huge privacy gap. But miraculously, a fix has emerged: cheap, easy-to-use, virtually unbreakable encryption. Cryptography is the silver bullet by which we can hope to reclaim our privacy. - -The solution, however, has one drawback: cryptography shields the law abiding and the lawless equally. Law-enforcement and intelligence agencies contend that if strong codes are widely available, their efforts to protect the public would be paralyzed. So they have come up with a compromise, a way to neutralize such encryption. That's the Clipper chip and that compromise is what the war is about. - -The idea is to give the Government means to override other people's codes, according to a concept called "key escrow." Employing normal cryptography, two parties can communicate in total privacy, with both of them using a digital "key" to encrypt and decipher the conversation or message. A potential eavesdropper has no key and therefore cannot understand the conversation or read the data transmission. But with Clipper, an additional key -- created at the time the equipment is manufactured -- is held by the Government in escrow. With a court-approved wiretap, an agency like the F.B.I. could listen in. By adding Clipper chips to telephones, we could have a system that assures communications will be private -- from everybody but the Government. - -And that's what rankles Clipper's many critics. Why, they ask, should people accused of no crime have to give Government the keys to their private communications? Why shouldn't the market rather than Government determine what sort of cryptosystem wins favor. And isn't it true that the use of key escrow will make our technology so unattractive to the international marketplace that the United States will lose its edge in the lucrative telecommunications and computer fields? Clipper might clip the entire economy. - -Nonetheless, on Feb. 4 the White House announced its approval of the Clipper chip, which had been under study as a Government standard since last April, and the Crypto War broke out in full force. Within a month, one civil liberties group, Computer Professionals for Social Responsibility, received 47,000 electronic missives urging a stop to Clipper. "The war is upon us," wrote Tim May, co-founder of the Cypherpunks, in an urgent electronic dispatch soon after the announcement. "Clinton and Gore folks have shown themselves to be enthusiastic supporters of Big Brother." - -And though the Clinton Administration's endorsement of Clipper as a Government standard required no Congressional approval, rumblings of discontent came from both sides of the Capitol. Senator Patrick J. Leahy, the Vermont Democrat whose subcomittee has held contentious hearings on the matter, has called the plan a "misstep," charging that "the Government should not be in the business of mandating particular technologies." - -Two weeks ago, an AT&T Bell Laboratories researcher revealed that he had found a serious flaw in the Clipper technology itself, enabling techno-savvy lawbreakers to bypass the security fuction of the chip in some applications. Besides being a bad idea, Clipper's foes now say, it doesn't even work properly. - -Yet the defenders of Clipper have refused to back down, claiming that the scheme -- which is, they often note, voluntary -- is an essential means of stemming an increasing threat to public safety and security by strong encryption in everyday use. Even if Clipper itself has to go back to the drawing board, its Government designers will come up with something quite similar. The underlying issue remains unchanged: If something like Clipper is not implemented, writes Dorothy E. Denning, a Georgetown University computer scientist, "All communications on the information highway would be immune from lawful interception. In a world threatened by international organized crime, terrorism and rogue governments, this would be folly." - -The claims from both sides sound wild, almost apocalyptic. The passion blurs the problem: Can we protect our privacy in an age of computers -- without also protecting the dark forces in society? - -The crypto war is the inevitable consequence of a remarkable discovery made almost 20 years ago, a breakthrough that combined with the microelectronics revolution to thrust the once-obscure field of cryptography into the mainstream of communications policy. - -It began with Whitfield Diffie, a young computer scientist and cryptographer. He did not work for the Government, which was strange because in the 1960's almost all serious crypto in this country was done under Federal auspices, specifically at the Fort Meade, Md., headquarters of the supersecret National Security Agency. Though it became bigger than the C.I.A., the N.S.A. was for years unknown to Americans; the Washington Beltway joke was that the initials stood for "No Such Agency." Its working premise has always been that no information about its activities should ever be revealed. Its main mission involved cryptography, and the security agency so dominated the field that it had the power to rein in even those few experts in the field who were not on its payroll. - -But Whitfield Diffie never got that message. He had been bitten by the cryptography bug at age 10 when his father, a professor, brought home the entire crypto shelf of the City College library in New York. Then he lost interest, until he arrived at M.I.T.'s Artifical Intelligence Laboratory in 1966. Two things rekindled his passion. Now trained as a mathematician, he had an affinity for the particular challenges of sophisticated crypto. Just as important, he says, "I was always concerned about individuals, an individual's privacy as opposed to Goverment secrecy." - -Diffie, now 50, is still committed to those beliefs. When asked about his politics, he says, "I like to describe myself as an iconoclast." He is a computer security specialist for Sun Microsystems, a celebrated cryptographer and an experienced hand at Congressional testimony. But he looks like he stumbled out of a Tom Robbins novel -- with blond hair that falls to his shoulders and a longish beard that seems a virtual trademark among code makers. At a Palo Alto, Calif., coffeehouse one morning, he describes, in clipped, precise cadence, how he and Martin E. Hellman, an electrical engineering professor at Stanford University, created a crypto revolution. - -Diffie was dissatisfied with the security on a new time-sharing computer system being developed by M.I.T. in the 1960's. Files would be protected by passwords, but he felt that was insufficient. The system had a generic flaw. A system manager had access to all passwords. "If a subpeona was served against the system managers, they would sell you out, because they had no interest in going to jail," Diffie says. A perfect system would eliminate the need for a trusted third party. - -This led Diffie to think about a more general problem in cryptography: key management. Even before Julius Caesar devised a simple cipher to encode his military messages, cryptography worked by means of keys. That is, an original message (what is now called "plaintext") was encrypted by the sender into seeming gibberish (known as "ciphertext"). The receiver, using the same key, decrypted the message back into the original plaintext. For instance, the Caesar key was the simple replacement of each letter by the letter three places down in the alphabet. If you knew the key, you could encrypt the word help into the nonsense word khos; the recipient of the message would decrypt the message back to help. - -The problem came with protecting the key. Since anyone who knew the Caesar key would be able to understand the encoded message, it behooved the Romans to change that key as often as possible. But if you change the key, how do you inform your spies behind enemy lines? (If you tell them using the old code, which may have already been cracked, your enemies will then learn the new code.) For centuries, generals and diplomats have faced that predicament. But a few years ago, it took on added urgency. - -With computers and advanced telecommunications, customers outside Government were discovering a need for information security. Cryptography was the answer, but how could it be applied widely, considering the problem of keys? The best answer to date was something called a key-management repository, where two parties who wanted secrecy would go to a trusted third party who would generate a new key for the private session. But that required just what Diffie deplored -- an unwanted third wheel. - -"The virtue of cryptography should be that you don't have to trust anybody not directly involved with your communication," Diffie says. "Without conventional key distribution centers, which involved trusting third parties, I couldn't figure how you could build a system to secure, for instance, all the phones in the country." - -When Diffie moved to Stanford University in 1969, he foresaw the rise of home computer terminals and began pondering the problem of how to use them to make transactions. "I got to thinking how you could possibly have electronic business, because signed letters of intent, contracts and all seemed so critical," he says. He devoured what literature he could find outside the National Security Agency. And in the mid-1970's, Diffie and Hellman achieved a stunning breakthrough that changed cryptography forever. They split the cryptographic key. - -In their system, every user has two keys, a public one and a private one, that are unique to their owner. Whatever is scrambled by one key can be unscrambled by the other. It works like this: If I want to send a message to Whit Diffie, I first obtain his public key. (For complicated mathematical reasons, it is possible to distribute one's public key freely without compromising security; a potential enemy will have no advantage in code-cracking if he holds your public key alone.) Then I use that key to encode the message. Now it's gobbledygook and only one person in the world can decode it -- Whit Diffie, who holds the other, private, key. If he wants to respond to me with a secret message, he uses my public key to encode his answer. And I decode it, using my private key. - -It was an amazing solution, but even more remarkable was that this split-key system solved both of Diffie's problems, the desire to shield communications from eavesdroppers and also to provide a secure electronic identification for contracts and financial transactions done by computer. It provided the identification by the use of "digital signatures" that verify the sender much the same way that a real signature validates a check or contract. - -Suddenly, the ancient limitations on cryptography had vanished. Now, perhaps before the millennium, strong cryptography could find its way to every telephone, computer and fax machine -- if users wanted it. Subsequent variations on the Diffie-Hellman scheme focused on using crypto algorithms to insure the anonymity of transactions. Using these advances, it is now possible to think of replacing money with digital cash -- while maintaining the comforting untraceability of bills and coins. The dark art of cryptography has become a tool of liberation. - -From the moment Diffie and Hellman published their findings in 1976, the National Security Agency's crypto monopoly was effectively terminated. In short order, three M.I.T. mathematicians -- Ronald L. Rivest, Adi Shamir and Leonard M. Adleman -- developed a system with which to put the Diffie and Hellman findings into practice. It was known by their initials, RSA. It seemed capable of creating codes that even the N.S.A. could not break. They formed a company to sell their new system; it was only a matter of time before thousands and then millions of people began using strong encryption. - -That was the National Security Agency's greatest nightmare. Every company, every citizen now had routine access to the sorts of cryptographic technology that not many years ago ranked alongside the atom bomb as a source of power. Every call, every computer message, every fax in the world could be harder to decipher than the famous German "Enigma" machine of World War II. Maybe even impossible to decipher! - -The genie was out of the bottle. Next question: Could the genie be made to wear a leash and collar? Enter the Clipper chip. - -When illustrating the Government's need to control crypto, Jim Kallstrom, the agent in charge of the special operations division of the New York office of the F.B.I., quickly shifts the discussion to the personal: "Are you married? Do you have a child? O.K., someone kidnaps one of your kids and they are holding your kid in this fortress up in the Bronx. Now, we have probable cause that your child is inside this fortress. We have a search warrant. But for some reason, we cannot get in there. They made it out of some new metal, or something, right? Nothing'll cut it, right? And there are guys in there, laughing at us. That's what the basis of this issue really is -- we've got a situation now where a technology has become so sophisticated that the whole notion of a legal process is at stake here!" - -Kallstrom is a former head of the Bureau Tech Squad, involved in the bugging operation that brought John Gotti to justice. Some have described him as the F.B.I.'s answer to "Q," the gadget wizard of the James Bond tales. - -"From the standpoint of law enforcement, there's a superbig threat out there -- this guy is gonna build this domain in the Bronx now, because he's got a new steel door and none of the welding torches, none of the boomerangs, nothing we have is gonna blast our way in there. Sure, we want those new steel doors ourselves, to protect our banks, to protect the American corporation trade secrets, patent rights, technology. But people operating in legitimate business are not violating the laws -- it becomes a different ball of wax when we have probable cause and we have to get into that domain. Do we want a digital superhighway where not only the commerce of the nation can take place but where major criminals can operate impervious to the legal process? If we don't want that, then we have to look at Clipper." - -Wiretapping is among law enforcement's most cherished weapons. Only 919 Federal, state and local taps were authorized last year, but police agencies consider them essential to fighting crime. Obviously if criminals communicate using military-grade cryptosystems, wiretapping them becomes impossible. - -For two years, the F.B.I. has been urging Congress to pass the proposed Digital Telephony and Communications Privacy Act, which would in essence require that new communications technologies be designed to facilitate wiretapping. Even if the bill should somehow pass, overcoming the opposition of the communications industry and civil libertarians, the extra effort and expense will be wasted if the only thing the wiretappers can hear is the hissy white noise of encrypted phone conversations and faxes. If cryptography is not controlled, wiretapping could be rendered obsolete. Louis J. Freeh, the Director of the F.B.I., surely fears that prospect. He has told Congress that preserving the ability to intercept communications legally, in the face of these technological advances, is "the No. 1 law enforcement, public safety and national security issue facing us today." - -Some people criticize Clipper on the basis that truly sophisticated criminals would never use it, preferring other easily obtained systems that use high-grade cryptography. Despite Clipper, kidnappers and drug kingpins may construct Kallstrom's virtual fort in the Bronx with impunity, laughing at potential wiretappers. - -The Government understands the impossibility of eradicating strong crypto. Its objective is instead to prevent unbreakable encryption from becoming rountine. If that happens, even the stupidest criminal would be liberated from the threat of surveillance. But by making Clipper the standard, the Government is betting that only a tiny percentage of users would use other encryption or try to defeat the Clipper. - -At a rare public appearance in March at a conference on computers and privacy, Stewart A. Baker, then general counsel of the National Security Agency, tried to explain. "The concern is not so much what happens today when people go in and buy voice scramblers," said Baker, a dapper, mustached lawyer who worked as an Education Department lawyer in the Carter Administration. "It is the prospect that in 5 years or 10 years every phone you buy that costs $75 or more will have an encrypt button on it that will interoperate with every other phone in the country and suddenly we will discover that our entire communications network is being used in ways that are profoundly antisocial. That's the real concern, I think, that Clipper addresses. If we are going to have a standardized form of encryption that is going to change the world, we should think seriously about what we are going to do when it is misused." - -Not all law-enforcement experts believe that cryptography will unleash a riot of lawlessness. William R. Spernow, a Sacramento, Calif., computer crime specialist who works on a grant from the Federal Bureau of Justice Assistance, has encountered a few cases in which criminals have encrypted information unbreakably, including one involving a pedophile who encrypted the identities of his young victims. Yet Spernow sees no reason to panic. "In cases where there's encryption, the officers have been able to make the case through other investigative means," he says. "If we hustle, we can still make our cases through other kinds of police work." - -But crime is only part of the problem. What happens to national security if cryptography runs free? Those who know best, officials of the National Security Agency, won't say. When the agency's director, Vice Adm. John M. McConnell testified before a Senate subcommittee on May 3, he withheld comment on this question until the public hearing was terminated and a second, classified session convened in a secure room. - -Still, the effect of strong crypto on N.S.A. operations is not difficult to imagine. The agency is charged with signals intelligence, and it is widely assumed that it monitors all the communications between borders and probably much of the traffic within foreign countries. (It is barred from intercepting domestic communications.) If the crypto revolution crippled N.S.A.'s ability to listen in on the world, the agency might miss out on something vital -- for instance, portents of a major terrorist attack. - -No compelling case has been made, however, that the key-escrow system would make it easier for authorities to learn of such an attack. The National Security Agency would take the legal steps to seek the telltale keys after it had first identified those potential terrorists and wiretapped their calls, then discovered the inpenetrable hiss of encryption. Even then, the keys would be useful only if the terrorists were encoding conversations with Clipper technology, the one kind the Government had the capability to decode instantly. What sort of nuclear terrorist would choose Clipper? - -The Government response has been to say that potential terrorists might indeed use alternative crypto methods to converse among themselves. But if Clipper were the accepted standard, the terrorists would have to use it to communicate with outsiders -- banks, suppliers and other contacts. The Government could listen in on those calls. However, the work of the Bell Labs researcher, Matthew Blaze, casts serious doubt on that contention. Blaze has uncovered a flaw in Clipper that would allow a user to bypass the security funtion of the chip. Anyone who tinkered with Clipper in this way could communicate in privacy with anyone else with a Clipper phone and Government wiretappers would be unable to locate the key to unscramble the conversations. - -Nonetheless, it was the terrorist threat, along with national security concerns, that moved the Clinton Administration to support the key-escrow inititative. White House high-tech policy makers share a recurrent fear: one day they might be sitting before an emergency Congressional investigation after the destruction of half of Manhattan by a stolen nuclear weapon planted in the World Trade towers and trying to explain that the Government had intercepted the communications of the terrorists but could not understand them because they used strong encryption. If Clipper were enacted, they could at least say, "We tried." - -Obviously the Government views the Crypto revolution with alarm and wants to contain it. For years, much of its efforts have focused on the use of stringent export controls. While cryptography within the United States is unrestricted, the country's export laws treat any sort of encryption as munitions, like howitzers or nuclear triggers. The National Security Agency is the final arbiter and it will approve exports of cryptosystems in computer software and electronic hardware only if the protective codes are significantly weakened. - -The N.S.A. stance is under attack from American businesses losing sales to foreign competitors. Listen to D. James Bidzos, the 39-year-old president of RSA Data Security, the Redwood City, Calif., company that controls the patents for public-key cryptography: "For almost 10 years, I've been going toe to toe with these people at Fort Meade. The success of this company is the worst thing that can happen to them. To them, we're the real enemy, we're the real target." - -RSA is making a pitch to become the standard in encryption; its technology has been adopted by Apple, AT&T, Lotus, Microsoft, Novell and other major manufacturers. So imagine its unhappiness that its main rival is not another private company, but the National Security Agency, designer of the key-escrow cryptosystems. The agency is a powerful and dedicated competitor. - -"We have the system that they're most afraid of," Bidzos says. "If the U.S. adopted RSA as a standard, you would have a truly international, interoperable, unbreakable, easy-to-use encryption technology. And all those things together are so synergistically theatening to the N.S.A.'s interests that it's driving them into a frenzy." - -The export laws put shackles on Bidzos's company while his overseas competitors have no such restaints. Cryptographic algorithms that the N.S.A. bans for export are widely published and are literally being sold on the streets of Moscow. "We did a study on the problem and located 340 foreign cryptographic products sold by foreign countires," says Douglas R. Miller, government affairs manager of the Software Publishers Association. "The only effect of export controls is to cripple our ability to compete." - -The real potential losses, though, come not in the stand-alone encryption category, but in broader applications. Companies like Microsoft, Apple and Lotus want to put strong encryption into their products but cannot get licenses to export them. Often, software companies wind up installing a weaker brand of crypto in all their products so that they can sell a single version worldwide. This seems to be the Government's intent -- to encourage "crypto lite," strong enough to protect communications from casual intruders but not from Government itself. - -In the long run, however, export regulation will not solve the National Security Agency's problem. The crypto business is exploding. People are becoming more aware of the vunerability of phone conversations, particularly wireless ones. Even the National Football League is adopting crypto technology; it will try out encrypted radio communication between coaches and quarterbacks, so rivals can't intercept last-minute audibles. - -Anticipating such a boom, the N.S.A. devised a strategy for the 90's. It would concede the need for strong encryption but encourage a system with a key-escrow "back door" that provides access to communications for itself and law enforcement. The security agency had already developed a strong cryptosystem based on an algorithm called Skipjack, supposedly 16 million times stronger than the previous standard, D.E.S. (Data Encryption Standard). Now the agency's designers integrated Skipjack into a new system that uses a Law Enforcement Access Field (LEAF) that adds a signal to the message that directs a potential wiretapper to the approriate key to decipher the message. These features were included in a chip called Capstone, which could handle not only telephone communications but computer data transfers and digital signatures. - -Supposedly, this technology was designed for Government use, but in 1993 the National Security Agency had a sudden opportunity to thrust it into the marketplace. AT&T had come to the agency with a new, relatively low-cost secure-phone device called the Surity 3600 that was designed to use the nonexportable DES encryption algorithm. The N.S.A. suggested that perhaps AT&T could try something else: a stripped-down version of Capstone for telephone communications. This was the Clipper chip. As a result, AT&T got two things: an agreement that Uncle Sam would buy thousands of phones for its own use (the initial commitment was 9,000, from the F.B.I.) and the prospect that the phone would not suffer the unhappy fate of some other secure devices when considered for export. There was also the expectation that AT&T would sell a lot more phones, since private companies would need to buy Clipper-equipped devices to communicate with the Governmment's Clipper phones. - -It was an ingenious plan for several reasons. By agreeing to buy thousands of phones, and holding out the promise that thousands, or even millions more might be sold, AT&T phones gained a price advantage that comes with volume. (The original price of the Surity 3600 was $1,195, considerably less than the previous generation of secure phones; Mykotronx, the company making the Clipper chip, says that each chip now costs $30, but in large orders could quickly go as low as $10.) That would give the phones a big push in the marketplace. But by saturating the market, Clipper had a chance to become the standard for encryption, depending on whether businesses and individuals would be willing to accept a device that had the compromise of a government-controlled back door. - -This compromise, of course, is the essence of Clipper. The Government recognizes the importance of keeping business secrets, intimate information and personal data hidden from most eyes and ears. But it also preserves a means of getting hold of that information after obtaining "legal authorization, normally a court order," according to a White House description. - -The N.S.A. presented the idea to the Bush Administration, which took no action before the election. Then it had to convince a Democratic Administration to adopt the scheme, and started briefing the Clinton people during the transition. Many in the computer industry figured that with Vice President Al Gore's enthusiastic endorsement of the high-frontier virtues of the information highway, the Administration would never adopt any proposal so tilted in favor of law enforcement and away from his allies in the information industries. They figured wrong. A little more than two months after taking office, the Clinton Administration announced the existence of the Clipper chip and directed the National Institute of Standards and Technology to consider it as a Government standard. - -Clipper was something the Administration -- starting with the Vice President -- felt compelled to adopt, and key escrow was considered an honorable attempt to balance two painfully contradictory interests, privacy and safety. - -The reaction was instant, bitter and ceaseless. The most pervasive criticisms challenged the idea that a Clipper would be, as the standard said, "voluntary." The Government's stated intent is to manipulate the marketplace so that it will adopt an otherwise unpalatable scheme and make it the standard. Existing systems have to cope with export regulations and, now, incompatibility with the new Government Clipper standard. Is it fair to call a system voluntary if the Government puts all sorts of obstacles in the way of its competitors? - -Others felt that it was only a matter of time before the National Security Agency pressured the Government to require key escrow of all cryptographic devices -- that Clipper was only the first step in a master plan to give Uncle Sam a key to everyone's cyberspace back door. - -"That's a real fear," says Stephen T. Walker, a former N.S.A. employee who is now president of Trusted Information Systems, a company specializing in computer security products. "I don't think the Government could pull it off -- it would be like prohibition, only worse. But I think they might try it." - -But mostly, people were unhappy with the essence of Clipper, that the Government would escrow their keys. As Diffie notes, key escrow reintroduces the vulnerability that led him to invent public key cryptography -- any system that relies on trusted third parties is, by definition, weaker than one that does not. Almost no one outside the Government likes the key-escrow idea. "We published the standard for 60 days of public comments," says F. Lynn McNulty, associate director for computer security at the National Institute of Standards and Technology. "We received 320 comments, only 2 of which were supportive." - -Many people thought that in the face of such opposition, the Administration would quietly drop the Clipper proposal. They were dismayed by the Feb. 4 announcement of the adoption of Clipper as a Government standard. Administration officials knew they were alienating their natural allies in the construction of the information superhighway but felt they had no alternative. "This," said Michael R. Nelson, a White House technology official, "is the Bosnia of telecommunications." - -If clipper is the administration's Techno-Bosnia, the crypto equivalent of snipers are everywhere -- in industry, among privacy lobbyists and even among Christian Fundamentalists. But the most passionate foes are the Cypherpunks. They have been meeting on the second Saturday of every month at the offices of Cygnus, a Silicon Valley company, assessing new ways they might sabotage Clipper. The group was co-founded in September 1992 by Eric Hughes, a 29-year-old freelance cryptogapher, and Tim May, a 42-year-old physicist who retired early and rich from the Intel company. Other Cypherpunk cells often meet simultaneously in six or seven locations around the world, but the main gathering place for Cypherpunks is the Internet, by means of an active mailing list in which members post as many as 100 electronic messages a day. - -Cypherpunks share a few common premises. They assume that cryptography is a liberating tool, one that empowers individuals. They think that one of the most important uses of cryptography is to protect communications from the Government. Many of them believe that the Clipper is part of an overall initiative against cryptography that will culminate in Draconian control of the technology. And they consider it worth their time to fight, educating the general public and distributing cryptographic tools to obstruct such control. - -Both Hughes and May have composed manifestos. Hughes's call to arms proclaims: "Cypherpunks write code. We know that someone has to write software to defend privacy, and since we can't get privacy unless we all do, we're going to write it." - -May's document envisions a golden age in which strong cryptography belongs to all -- an era of "crypto anarchism" that governments cannot contain. To May, cryptography is a tool that will not only bestow privacy on people but help rearrange the economic underpinnings of society. - -"Combined with emerging information markets, cryptography will create a liquid market for any and all material that can be put into words and pictures," May's document says. "And just as a seemingly minor invention like barbed wire made possible the fencing-off of vast ranches and farms, thus altering forever the concepts of land and property rights in the frontier West, so too will the seemingly minor discovery out of an arcane branch of mathematics come to be the wire clippers which dismantle the barbed wire around intellectual property." - -At a recent meeting, about 50 Cypherpunks packed into the Cygnus conference room, with dozens of others participating electronically from sites as distant as Cambridge, Mass., and San Diego. The meeting stretched for six hours, with discussions of hardware encryption schemes, methods to fight an electronic technique of identity forgery called "spoofing," the operation of "remailing" services, which allow people to post electronic messages anonymously -- and various ways to fight Clipper. - -While the Cypherpunks came up with possible anti-Clipper slogans for posters and buttons, a bearded crypto activist in wire-rim glasses named John Gilmore was outside the conference room, showing the latest sheaf of cryptography-related Freedom of Information documents he'd dragged out of Government files. Unearthing and circulating the hidden crypto treasures of the National Security Agency is a passion of Gilmore, an early employee of Sun Microsystems who left the company a multimillionaire. The Government once threatened to charge him with a felony for copying some unclassified-and-later-reclassified N.S.A. documents from a university library. After the story hit the newspapers, the Government once again declassified the documents. - -"This country was founded as an open society, and we still have the remnants of that society," Gilmore says. "Will crypto tend to open it or close it? Our Government is building some of these tools for its own use, but they are unavailable -- we have paid for cryptographic breakthroughs but they're classified. I wish I could hire 10 guys -- cryptographers, librarians -- to try to pry cryptography out of the dark ages." - -Perhaps the most admired Cypherpunk is someone who says he is ineligible because he often wears a suit. He is Philip R. Zimmermann, a 40-year-old software engineer and cryptographic consultant from Boulder, Colo., who in 1991 cobbled together a cryptography program for computer data and electronic mail. "PGP," he called it, meaning Pretty Good Privacy, and he decided to give it away. Anticipating the Cypherpunk credo, Zimmermann hoped that the appearance of free cryptography would guarantee its continued use after a possible Government ban. One of the first people receiving the program placed it on a computer attached to the Internet and within days thousands of people had PGP. Now the program has been through several updates and is becoming sort of a people's standard for public key cryptography. So far, it appears that no one has been able to crack information encoded with PGP. - -Like Diffie, Zimmermann developed a boyhood interest in crypto. "When I was a kid growing up in Miami, it was just kind of cool -- secret messages and all," he says. Later, "computers made it possible to do ciphers in a practical manner." He was fascinated to hear of public key cryptography and during the mid-1980's he began experimenting with a system that would work on personal computers. With the help of some colleagues, he finally devised a strong system, albeit one that used some patented material from RSA Data Security. And then he heard about the Senate bill that proposed to limit a citizen's right to use strong encryption by requiring manufacturers to include back doors in their products. Zimmermann, formerly a nuclear freeze activist, felt that one of the most valuable potential uses of cryptography was to keep messages secret from the Government. - -Zimmermann has put some political content into the documentation for his program: "If privacy is outlawed, only outlaws will have privacy. Intelligence agencies have access to good cryptographic technology. So do the big arms and drug traffickers. So do defense contractors, oil companies, and other corporate giants. But ordinary people and grassroots political organizations mostly have not had access to affordable 'military grade' public-key cryptographic technology. Until now." - -He has been told that Burmese freedom fighters learn PGP in jungle training camps on portable computers, using it to keep documents hidden from their oppressive Government. But his favorite letter comes from a person in Latvia, who informed him that his program was a favorite among one-time refuseniks in that former Soviet republic. "Let it never be," wrote his correspondant, "but if dictatorship takes over Russia, your PGP is widespread from Baltic to Far East now and will help democratic people if necessary." - -Early last year, Zimmermann received a visit from two United States Customs Service agents. They wanted to know how it was that the strong encryption program PGP had found its way overseas with no export license. In the fall, he learned from his lawyer that he was a target of a grand jury investigation in San Jose, Calif. But even if the Feds should try to prosecute, they are likely to face a tough legal issue: Can it be a crime, in the process of legally distributing information in this country, to place it on an Internet computer site that is incidentally accessible to network users in other countries? There may well be a First Amendment issue here: Americans prize the right to circulate ideas, including those on software disks. - -John Gilmore has discovered that Government lawyers have their own doubts about these issues. In some documents he sued to get, there are mid-1980's warnings by the Justice Department that the export controls on cryptography presented "sensitive constitutional issues." In one letter, an assistant attorney general warns that "the regulatory scheme extends too broadly into an area of protected First Amendment speech." - -Perhaps taking Phil Zimmermann to court would not be the Government's best method for keeping the genie in the bottle. - -The Clipper program has already begun. About once a month, four couriers with security clearances travel from Washington to the Torrance, Calif., headquarters of Mykotronx, which holds the contract to make Clipper chips. They travel in pairs, two from each escrow agency: the NIST and the Treasury Department. The redundancy is a requirement of a protocol known as Two-Person Integrity, used in situations like nuclear missile launches, where the stakes are too high to rely on one person. - -The couriers wait while a Sun work station performs the calculations to generate the digital cryptographic keys that will be imprinted in the Clipper chips. Then it splits the keys into two pieces, separate number chains, and writes them on two floppy disks, each holding lists of "key splits." To reconstruct the keys imprinted on the chip, and thereby decode private conversations, you would need both sets of disks. - -After being backed up, the sets of disks are separated, each one going with a pair of couriers. When the couriers return to their respective agencies, each set of disks is placed in a double-walled safe. The backup copies are placed in similar safes. There they wait, two stacks of floppy disks that grow each month, now holding about 20,000 key splits, the so-called back doors. - -Will this number grow into the millions as the Government hopes? Ultimately the answer lies with the American public. Administration officials are confident that when the public contemplates scenarios like the Fortress in the Bronx or the Mushroom Cloud in Lower Manhattan, it will realize that allowing the Government to hold the keys is a relatively painless price to pay for safety and national security. They believe the public will eventually accept it in the same way it now views limited legal wiretapping. But so far the Administration hasn't recruited many prominent supporters. The main one is Dorothy Denning, a crypto expert who heads the computer science department at Georgetown University. - -Since endorsing Clipper (and advocating passage of the Digital Telephony initiative) Denning has been savagely attacked on the computer nets. Some of the language would wither a professional wrestler. "I've seen horrible things written about me," Denning says with a nervous smile. "I try to actually now avoid looking at them, because that's not what's important to me. What's important is that we end up doing the right thing with this. It was an accumulation of factors that led me to agree with Clipper, and the two most important areas, to me, are organized crime and terrorism. I was exposed to cases where wiretaps had actually stopped crimes in the making, and I started thinking, 'If they didn't have this tool, some of these things might have happened.' You know, I hate to use the word responsibility, but I actually feel some sense of responsibility to at least state my position to the extent so that people will understand it." - -The opponents of Clipper are confident that the marketplace will vote against it. "The idea that the Government holds the keys to all our locks, before anyone has even been accused of committing a crime, doesn't parse with the public," says Jerry Berman, executive director of the Electronic Frontier Foundation. "It's not America." - -Senator Leahy hints that Congress might not stand for the Clinton Administration's attempt to construct the key-escrow system, at an estimated cost of $14 million dollars initially and $16 million annually. "If the Administration wants the money to set up and run the key-escrow facilities," he says, "it will need Congressional approval." Despite claims by the National Institute of Standards and Technology deputy director, Raymond G. Kammer, that some foreign governments have shown interest in the scheme, Leahy seems to agree with most American telecommunications and computer manufacturers that Clipper and subsequent escrow schemes will find no favor in the vast international marketplace, turning the United States into a cryptographic island and crippling important industries. - -Leahy is also concerned about the Administration's haste. "The Administration is rushing to implement the Clipper chip program without thinking through crucial details," he says. Indeed, although the Government has been buying and using Clipper encryption devices, the process of actually getting the keys out of escrow and using them to decipher scrambled conversations has never been field tested. And there exists only a single uncompleted prototype of the device intended to do the deciphering. - -Leahy is also among those who worry that, all policy issues aside, the Government's key escrow scheme might fail solely on technical issues. The Clipper and Capstone chips, while powerful enough to use on today's equipment, have not been engineered for the high speeds of the coming information highway; updates will be required. Even more serious are the potential design flaws in the unproved key-escrow scheme. Matthew Blaze's discovery that wrongdoers could foil wiretappers may be only the first indication that Clipper is unable to do the job for which it was designed. In his paper revealing the glitch, he writes, "It is not clear that it is possible to construct EES (Escrow Encryption Standard) that is both completely invulnerable to all kinds of exploitation as well as generally useful." - -At bottom, many opponents of Clipper do not trust the Government. They are unimpressed by the elaborate key-escrow security arrangements outlined for Clipper. Instead, they ask questions about the process by which the Clipper was devised -- how is it that the N.S.A., an intelligence agency whose mission does not ordinarily include consumer electronics design, has suddenly seized a central role in creating a national information matrix? They also complain that the Skipjack cryptographic algorithm is a classified secret, one that cryptographic professionals cannot subject to the rigorous, extended testing that has previously been used to gain universal trust for such a standard. - -"You don't want to buy a set of car keys from a guy who specializes in stealing cars," says Marc Rotenberg, director of the Electronic Privacy Information Center. "The N.S.A.'s specialty is the ability to break codes, and they are saying, 'Here, take our keys, we promise you they'll work.' " - -At the March conference on computers and privacy, Stewart Baker responded to this sort of criticism. "This is the revenge of people who couldn't go to Woodstock because they had too much trig homework," he said, evoking some catcalls. "It's a kind of romanticism about privacy. The problem with it is that the beneficiaries of that sort of romanticism are going to be predators. PGP, they say, is out there to protect freedom fighters in Latvia. But the fact is, the only use that has come to the attention of law enforcement agencies is a guy who was using PGP so the police could not tell what little boys he had seduced over the net. Now that's what people will use this for -- it's not the only thing people will use it for, but they will use it for that -- and by insisting on having a claim to privacy that is beyond social regulation, we are creating a world in which people like that will flourish and be able to do more than they can do today." - -Even if Clipper flops, the Crypto War will continue. The Administration remains committed to limiting the spread of strong cryptography unless there's a back door. Recently, it has taken to asking opponents for alternatives to Clipper. One suggestion it will not embrace is inaction. "Deciding that the genie is out of the bottle and throwing our arms up is not where we're at," says a White House official. - -The National Security Agency will certainly not go away. "The agency is really worried about its screens going blank" due to unbreakable encryption, says Lance J. Hoffman, a professor of computer science at George Washington University. "When that happens, the N.S.A. -- said to be the largest employer in Maryland -- goes belly-up. A way to prevent this is to expand its mission and to become, effectively, the one-stop shop for encryption for Government and those that do business with the Government." - -Sure enough, the security agency is cooking up an entire product line of new key-escrow chips. At Fort Meade, it has already created a high-speed version of the Skipjack algorithm that outperforms both Clipper and Capstone. There is also another, more powerful, encryption device in the works named Baton. As far as the agency is concerned, these developments are no more than common sense. "To say that N.S.A. shouldn't be involved in this issue is to say that Government should try to solve this difficult technical and social problem with both hands tied behind its back," Stewart Baker says. - -But Phil Zimmermann and the Cypherpunks aren't going away, either. Zimmermann is, among other things, soliciting funds for a PGP phone that will allow users the same sort of voice encryption provided by the Clipper chip. The difference, of course, is that in his phone there is no key escrow, no back door. If the F.B.I. initiated a wiretap on someone using Zimmermann's proposed phone, all the investigators would hear is static that they could never restore to orderly language. - -What if that static shielded the murderous plans of a terrorist or kidnapper? Phil Zimmermann would feel terrible. Ultimately he has no answer. "I am worried about what might happen if unlimited security communications come about," he admits. "But I also think there are tremendous benefits. Some bad things would happen, but the trade-off would be worth it. You have to look at the big picture." - -Steven Levy is the author of "Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution" and a columnist for Macworld Magazine. - -![][26] - -![][27] ![][28] - -#### Inside NYTimes.com - -| ----- | -| - -###### [Health »][17] - -![Too Hot to Handle][29] - -###### [Too Hot to Handle__][30] - - | - -###### [Arts »][31] - -![The Harmony of Liberty][32] - -###### [The Harmony of Liberty__][33] - - | - -###### [Opinion »][19] - -### [Should Beach Privatization Be Allowed?__][34] - -Room for Debate asks whether shorefront homeowners should have to open their land to all comers. - - | - -###### [Sports »][18] - -![A Woman’s Leadership May Steady Murray][35] - -###### [A Woman’s Leadership May Steady Murray__][36] - - | - - | - -###### [Opinion »][19] - -![Menagerie: Streaming Eagles][37] - -###### [Menagerie: Streaming Eagles__][38] - - | - -###### [U.S. »][12] - -![Curlers’ Aim: Sweep to a Win Over the Heat][39] - -###### [Curlers’ Aim: Sweep to a Win Over the 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http://wt.o.nytimes.com/dcsym57yw10000s1s8g0boozt_9t1x/njs.gif?dcsuri=/nojavascript&WT.js=No&WT.tv=1.0.7 -[61]: http://up.nytimes.com/?d=0//&t=&s=0&ui=&r=&u=www.nytimes.com%2F1994%2F06%2F12%2Fmagazine%2Fbattle-of-the-clipper-chip.html - +On a sunny spring day in Mountain View, Calif., 50 angry activists are +plotting against the United States Government. They may not look +subversive sitting around a conference table dressed in T-shirts and +jeans and eating burritos, but they are self-proclaimed saboteurs. They +are the Cypherpunks, a loose confederation of computer hackers, hardware +engineers and high-tech rabble-rousers. + +The precise object of their rage is the Clipper chip, offically known as +the MYK-78 and not much bigger than a tooth. Just another tiny square of +plastic covering a silicon thicket. A computer chip, from the outside +indistinguishable from thousands of others. It seems improbable that +this black Chiclet is the focal point of a battle that may determine the +degree to which our civil liberties survive in the next century. But +that is the shared belief in this room. + +The Clipper chip has prompted what might be considered the first holy +war of the information highway. Two weeks ago, the war got bloodier, as +a researcher circulated a report that the chip might have a serious +technical flaw. But at its heart, the issue is political, not technical. +The Cypherpunks consider the Clipper the lever that Big Brother is using +to pry into the conversations, messages and transactions of the computer +age. These high-tech Paul Reveres are trying to mobilize America against +the evil portent of a "cyberspace police state," as one of their +Internet jeremiads put it. Joining them in the battle is a formidable +force, including almost all of the communications and computer +industries, many members of Congress and political columnists of all +stripes. The anti-Clipper aggregation is an equal-opportunity club, +uniting the American Civil Liberties Union and Rush Limbaugh. + +The Clipper's defenders, who are largely in the Government, believe it +represents the last chance to protect personal safety and national +security against a developing information anarchy that fosters +criminals, terrorists and foreign foes. Its adherents pose it as the +answer, or at least part of the answer, to a problem created by an +increasingly sophisticated application of an age-old technology: +cryptography, the use of secret codes. + +For centuries, cryptography was the domain of armies and diplomatic +corps. Now it has a second purpose: protecting personal and corporate +privacy. Computer technology and advanced telecommunications equipment +have drawn precious business information and intimate personal +communications out into the open. This phenomenon is well known to the +current Prince of Wales, whose intimate cellular phone conversations +were intercepted, recorded and broadcast worldwide. And corporations +realize that competitors can easily intercept their telephone +conversations, electronic messages and faxes. High tech has created a +huge privacy gap. But miraculously, a fix has emerged: cheap, +easy-to-use, virtually unbreakable encryption. Cryptography is the +silver bullet by which we can hope to reclaim our privacy. + +The solution, however, has one drawback: cryptography shields the law +abiding and the lawless equally. Law-enforcement and intelligence +agencies contend that if strong codes are widely available, their +efforts to protect the public would be paralyzed. So they have come up +with a compromise, a way to neutralize such encryption. That's the +Clipper chip and that compromise is what the war is about. + +The idea is to give the Government means to override other people's +codes, according to a concept called "key escrow." Employing normal +cryptography, two parties can communicate in total privacy, with both of +them using a digital "key" to encrypt and decipher the conversation or +message. A potential eavesdropper has no key and therefore cannot +understand the conversation or read the data transmission. But with +Clipper, an additional key -- created at the time the equipment is +manufactured -- is held by the Government in escrow. With a +court-approved wiretap, an agency like the F.B.I. could listen in. By +adding Clipper chips to telephones, we could have a system that assures +communications will be private -- from everybody but the Government. + +And that's what rankles Clipper's many critics. Why, they ask, should +people accused of no crime have to give Government the keys to their +private communications? Why shouldn't the market rather than Government +determine what sort of cryptosystem wins favor. And isn't it true that +the use of key escrow will make our technology so unattractive to the +international marketplace that the United States will lose its edge in +the lucrative telecommunications and computer fields? Clipper might clip +the entire economy. + +Nonetheless, on Feb. 4 the White House announced its approval of the +Clipper chip, which had been under study as a Government standard since +last April, and the Crypto War broke out in full force. Within a month, +one civil liberties group, Computer Professionals for Social +Responsibility, received 47,000 electronic missives urging a stop to +Clipper. "The war is upon us," wrote Tim May, co-founder of the +Cypherpunks, in an urgent electronic dispatch soon after the +announcement. "Clinton and Gore folks have shown themselves to be +enthusiastic supporters of Big Brother." + +And though the Clinton Administration's endorsement of Clipper as a +Government standard required no Congressional approval, rumblings of +discontent came from both sides of the Capitol. Senator Patrick J. +Leahy, the Vermont Democrat whose subcomittee has held contentious +hearings on the matter, has called the plan a "misstep," charging that +"the Government should not be in the business of mandating particular +technologies." + +Two weeks ago, an AT\&T Bell Laboratories researcher revealed that he +had found a serious flaw in the Clipper technology itself, enabling +techno-savvy lawbreakers to bypass the security fuction of the chip in +some applications. Besides being a bad idea, Clipper's foes now say, it +doesn't even work properly. + +Yet the defenders of Clipper have refused to back down, claiming that +the scheme -- which is, they often note, voluntary -- is an essential +means of stemming an increasing threat to public safety and security by +strong encryption in everyday use. Even if Clipper itself has to go back +to the drawing board, its Government designers will come up with +something quite similar. The underlying issue remains unchanged: If +something like Clipper is not implemented, writes Dorothy E. Denning, a +Georgetown University computer scientist, "All communications on the +information highway would be immune from lawful interception. In a world +threatened by international organized crime, terrorism and rogue +governments, this would be folly." + +The claims from both sides sound wild, almost apocalyptic. The passion +blurs the problem: Can we protect our privacy in an age of computers -- +without also protecting the dark forces in society? + +The crypto war is the inevitable consequence of a remarkable discovery +made almost 20 years ago, a breakthrough that combined with the +microelectronics revolution to thrust the once-obscure field of +cryptography into the mainstream of communications policy. + +It began with Whitfield Diffie, a young computer scientist and +cryptographer. He did not work for the Government, which was strange +because in the 1960's almost all serious crypto in this country was done +under Federal auspices, specifically at the Fort Meade, Md., +headquarters of the supersecret National Security Agency. Though it +became bigger than the C.I.A., the N.S.A. was for years unknown to +Americans; the Washington Beltway joke was that the initials stood for +"No Such Agency." Its working premise has always been that no +information about its activities should ever be revealed. Its main +mission involved cryptography, and the security agency so dominated the +field that it had the power to rein in even those few experts in the +field who were not on its payroll. + +But Whitfield Diffie never got that message. He had been bitten by the +cryptography bug at age 10 when his father, a professor, brought home +the entire crypto shelf of the City College library in New York. Then he +lost interest, until he arrived at M.I.T.'s Artifical Intelligence +Laboratory in 1966. Two things rekindled his passion. Now trained as a +mathematician, he had an affinity for the particular challenges of +sophisticated crypto. Just as important, he says, "I was always +concerned about individuals, an individual's privacy as opposed to +Goverment secrecy." + +Diffie, now 50, is still committed to those beliefs. When asked about +his politics, he says, "I like to describe myself as an iconoclast." He +is a computer security specialist for Sun Microsystems, a celebrated +cryptographer and an experienced hand at Congressional testimony. But he +looks like he stumbled out of a Tom Robbins novel -- with blond hair +that falls to his shoulders and a longish beard that seems a virtual +trademark among code makers. At a Palo Alto, Calif., coffeehouse one +morning, he describes, in clipped, precise cadence, how he and Martin E. +Hellman, an electrical engineering professor at Stanford University, +created a crypto revolution. + +Diffie was dissatisfied with the security on a new time-sharing computer +system being developed by M.I.T. in the 1960's. Files would be protected +by passwords, but he felt that was insufficient. The system had a +generic flaw. A system manager had access to all passwords. "If a +subpeona was served against the system managers, they would sell you +out, because they had no interest in going to jail," Diffie says. A +perfect system would eliminate the need for a trusted third party. + +This led Diffie to think about a more general problem in cryptography: +key management. Even before Julius Caesar devised a simple cipher to +encode his military messages, cryptography worked by means of keys. That +is, an original message (what is now called "plaintext") was encrypted +by the sender into seeming gibberish (known as "ciphertext"). The +receiver, using the same key, decrypted the message back into the +original plaintext. For instance, the Caesar key was the simple +replacement of each letter by the letter three places down in the +alphabet. If you knew the key, you could encrypt the word help into the +nonsense word khos; the recipient of the message would decrypt the +message back to help. + +The problem came with protecting the key. Since anyone who knew the +Caesar key would be able to understand the encoded message, it behooved +the Romans to change that key as often as possible. But if you change +the key, how do you inform your spies behind enemy lines? (If you tell +them using the old code, which may have already been cracked, your +enemies will then learn the new code.) For centuries, generals and +diplomats have faced that predicament. But a few years ago, it took on +added urgency. + +With computers and advanced telecommunications, customers outside +Government were discovering a need for information security. +Cryptography was the answer, but how could it be applied widely, +considering the problem of keys? The best answer to date was something +called a key-management repository, where two parties who wanted secrecy +would go to a trusted third party who would generate a new key for the +private session. But that required just what Diffie deplored -- an +unwanted third wheel. + +"The virtue of cryptography should be that you don't have to trust +anybody not directly involved with your communication," Diffie says. +"Without conventional key distribution centers, which involved trusting +third parties, I couldn't figure how you could build a system to secure, +for instance, all the phones in the country." + +When Diffie moved to Stanford University in 1969, he foresaw the rise of +home computer terminals and began pondering the problem of how to use +them to make transactions. "I got to thinking how you could possibly +have electronic business, because signed letters of intent, contracts +and all seemed so critical," he says. He devoured what literature he +could find outside the National Security Agency. And in the mid-1970's, +Diffie and Hellman achieved a stunning breakthrough that changed +cryptography forever. They split the cryptographic key. + +In their system, every user has two keys, a public one and a private +one, that are unique to their owner. Whatever is scrambled by one key +can be unscrambled by the other. It works like this: If I want to send a +message to Whit Diffie, I first obtain his public key. (For complicated +mathematical reasons, it is possible to distribute one's public key +freely without compromising security; a potential enemy will have no +advantage in code-cracking if he holds your public key alone.) Then I +use that key to encode the message. Now it's gobbledygook and only one +person in the world can decode it -- Whit Diffie, who holds the other, +private, key. If he wants to respond to me with a secret message, he +uses my public key to encode his answer. And I decode it, using my +private key. + +It was an amazing solution, but even more remarkable was that this +split-key system solved both of Diffie's problems, the desire to shield +communications from eavesdroppers and also to provide a secure +electronic identification for contracts and financial transactions done +by computer. It provided the identification by the use of "digital +signatures" that verify the sender much the same way that a real +signature validates a check or contract. + +Suddenly, the ancient limitations on cryptography had vanished. Now, +perhaps before the millennium, strong cryptography could find its way to +every telephone, computer and fax machine -- if users wanted it. +Subsequent variations on the Diffie-Hellman scheme focused on using +crypto algorithms to insure the anonymity of transactions. Using these +advances, it is now possible to think of replacing money with digital +cash -- while maintaining the comforting untraceability of bills and +coins. The dark art of cryptography has become a tool of liberation. + +From the moment Diffie and Hellman published their findings in 1976, the +National Security Agency's crypto monopoly was effectively terminated. +In short order, three M.I.T. mathematicians -- Ronald L. Rivest, Adi +Shamir and Leonard M. Adleman -- developed a system with which to put +the Diffie and Hellman findings into practice. It was known by their +initials, RSA. It seemed capable of creating codes that even the N.S.A. +could not break. They formed a company to sell their new system; it was +only a matter of time before thousands and then millions of people began +using strong encryption. + +That was the National Security Agency's greatest nightmare. Every +company, every citizen now had routine access to the sorts of +cryptographic technology that not many years ago ranked alongside the +atom bomb as a source of power. Every call, every computer message, +every fax in the world could be harder to decipher than the famous +German "Enigma" machine of World War II. Maybe even impossible to +decipher\! + +The genie was out of the bottle. Next question: Could the genie be made +to wear a leash and collar? Enter the Clipper chip. + +When illustrating the Government's need to control crypto, Jim +Kallstrom, the agent in charge of the special operations division of the +New York office of the F.B.I., quickly shifts the discussion to the +personal: "Are you married? Do you have a child? O.K., someone kidnaps +one of your kids and they are holding your kid in this fortress up in +the Bronx. Now, we have probable cause that your child is inside this +fortress. We have a search warrant. But for some reason, we cannot get +in there. They made it out of some new metal, or something, right? +Nothing'll cut it, right? And there are guys in there, laughing at us. +That's what the basis of this issue really is -- we've got a situation +now where a technology has become so sophisticated that the whole notion +of a legal process is at stake here\!" + +Kallstrom is a former head of the Bureau Tech Squad, involved in the +bugging operation that brought John Gotti to justice. Some have +described him as the F.B.I.'s answer to "Q," the gadget wizard of the +James Bond tales. + +"From the standpoint of law enforcement, there's a superbig threat out +there -- this guy is gonna build this domain in the Bronx now, because +he's got a new steel door and none of the welding torches, none of the +boomerangs, nothing we have is gonna blast our way in there. Sure, we +want those new steel doors ourselves, to protect our banks, to protect +the American corporation trade secrets, patent rights, technology. But +people operating in legitimate business are not violating the laws -- it +becomes a different ball of wax when we have probable cause and we have +to get into that domain. Do we want a digital superhighway where not +only the commerce of the nation can take place but where major criminals +can operate impervious to the legal process? If we don't want that, then +we have to look at Clipper." + +Wiretapping is among law enforcement's most cherished weapons. Only 919 +Federal, state and local taps were authorized last year, but police +agencies consider them essential to fighting crime. Obviously if +criminals communicate using military-grade cryptosystems, wiretapping +them becomes impossible. + +For two years, the F.B.I. has been urging Congress to pass the proposed +Digital Telephony and Communications Privacy Act, which would in essence +require that new communications technologies be designed to facilitate +wiretapping. Even if the bill should somehow pass, overcoming the +opposition of the communications industry and civil libertarians, the +extra effort and expense will be wasted if the only thing the +wiretappers can hear is the hissy white noise of encrypted phone +conversations and faxes. If cryptography is not controlled, wiretapping +could be rendered obsolete. Louis J. Freeh, the Director of the F.B.I., +surely fears that prospect. He has told Congress that preserving the +ability to intercept communications legally, in the face of these +technological advances, is "the No. 1 law enforcement, public safety and +national security issue facing us today." + +Some people criticize Clipper on the basis that truly sophisticated +criminals would never use it, preferring other easily obtained systems +that use high-grade cryptography. Despite Clipper, kidnappers and drug +kingpins may construct Kallstrom's virtual fort in the Bronx with +impunity, laughing at potential wiretappers. + +The Government understands the impossibility of eradicating strong +crypto. Its objective is instead to prevent unbreakable encryption from +becoming rountine. If that happens, even the stupidest criminal would be +liberated from the threat of surveillance. But by making Clipper the +standard, the Government is betting that only a tiny percentage of users +would use other encryption or try to defeat the Clipper. + +At a rare public appearance in March at a conference on computers and +privacy, Stewart A. Baker, then general counsel of the National Security +Agency, tried to explain. "The concern is not so much what happens today +when people go in and buy voice scramblers," said Baker, a dapper, +mustached lawyer who worked as an Education Department lawyer in the +Carter Administration. "It is the prospect that in 5 years or 10 years +every phone you buy that costs $75 or more will have an encrypt button +on it that will interoperate with every other phone in the country and +suddenly we will discover that our entire communications network is +being used in ways that are profoundly antisocial. That's the real +concern, I think, that Clipper addresses. If we are going to have a +standardized form of encryption that is going to change the world, we +should think seriously about what we are going to do when it is +misused." + +Not all law-enforcement experts believe that cryptography will unleash a +riot of lawlessness. William R. Spernow, a Sacramento, Calif., computer +crime specialist who works on a grant from the Federal Bureau of Justice +Assistance, has encountered a few cases in which criminals have +encrypted information unbreakably, including one involving a pedophile +who encrypted the identities of his young victims. Yet Spernow sees no +reason to panic. "In cases where there's encryption, the officers have +been able to make the case through other investigative means," he says. +"If we hustle, we can still make our cases through other kinds of police +work." + +But crime is only part of the problem. What happens to national security +if cryptography runs free? Those who know best, officials of the +National Security Agency, won't say. When the agency's director, Vice +Adm. John M. McConnell testified before a Senate subcommittee on May 3, +he withheld comment on this question until the public hearing was +terminated and a second, classified session convened in a secure room. + +Still, the effect of strong crypto on N.S.A. operations is not difficult +to imagine. The agency is charged with signals intelligence, and it is +widely assumed that it monitors all the communications between borders +and probably much of the traffic within foreign countries. (It is barred +from intercepting domestic communications.) If the crypto revolution +crippled N.S.A.'s ability to listen in on the world, the agency might +miss out on something vital -- for instance, portents of a major +terrorist attack. + +No compelling case has been made, however, that the key-escrow system +would make it easier for authorities to learn of such an attack. The +National Security Agency would take the legal steps to seek the telltale +keys after it had first identified those potential terrorists and +wiretapped their calls, then discovered the inpenetrable hiss of +encryption. Even then, the keys would be useful only if the terrorists +were encoding conversations with Clipper technology, the one kind the +Government had the capability to decode instantly. What sort of nuclear +terrorist would choose Clipper? + +The Government response has been to say that potential terrorists might +indeed use alternative crypto methods to converse among themselves. But +if Clipper were the accepted standard, the terrorists would have to use +it to communicate with outsiders -- banks, suppliers and other contacts. +The Government could listen in on those calls. However, the work of the +Bell Labs researcher, Matthew Blaze, casts serious doubt on that +contention. Blaze has uncovered a flaw in Clipper that would allow a +user to bypass the security funtion of the chip. Anyone who tinkered +with Clipper in this way could communicate in privacy with anyone else +with a Clipper phone and Government wiretappers would be unable to +locate the key to unscramble the conversations. + +Nonetheless, it was the terrorist threat, along with national security +concerns, that moved the Clinton Administration to support the +key-escrow inititative. White House high-tech policy makers share a +recurrent fear: one day they might be sitting before an emergency +Congressional investigation after the destruction of half of Manhattan +by a stolen nuclear weapon planted in the World Trade towers and trying +to explain that the Government had intercepted the communications of the +terrorists but could not understand them because they used strong +encryption. If Clipper were enacted, they could at least say, "We +tried." + +Obviously the Government views the Crypto revolution with alarm and +wants to contain it. For years, much of its efforts have focused on the +use of stringent export controls. While cryptography within the United +States is unrestricted, the country's export laws treat any sort of +encryption as munitions, like howitzers or nuclear triggers. The +National Security Agency is the final arbiter and it will approve +exports of cryptosystems in computer software and electronic hardware +only if the protective codes are significantly weakened. + +The N.S.A. stance is under attack from American businesses losing sales +to foreign competitors. Listen to D. James Bidzos, the 39-year-old +president of RSA Data Security, the Redwood City, Calif., company that +controls the patents for public-key cryptography: "For almost 10 years, +I've been going toe to toe with these people at Fort Meade. The success +of this company is the worst thing that can happen to them. To them, +we're the real enemy, we're the real target." + +RSA is making a pitch to become the standard in encryption; its +technology has been adopted by Apple, AT\&T, Lotus, Microsoft, Novell +and other major manufacturers. So imagine its unhappiness that its main +rival is not another private company, but the National Security Agency, +designer of the key-escrow cryptosystems. The agency is a powerful and +dedicated competitor. + +"We have the system that they're most afraid of," Bidzos says. "If the +U.S. adopted RSA as a standard, you would have a truly international, +interoperable, unbreakable, easy-to-use encryption technology. And all +those things together are so synergistically theatening to the N.S.A.'s +interests that it's driving them into a frenzy." + +The export laws put shackles on Bidzos's company while his overseas +competitors have no such restaints. Cryptographic algorithms that the +N.S.A. bans for export are widely published and are literally being sold +on the streets of Moscow. "We did a study on the problem and located 340 +foreign cryptographic products sold by foreign countires," says Douglas +R. Miller, government affairs manager of the Software Publishers +Association. "The only effect of export controls is to cripple our +ability to compete." + +The real potential losses, though, come not in the stand-alone +encryption category, but in broader applications. Companies like +Microsoft, Apple and Lotus want to put strong encryption into their +products but cannot get licenses to export them. Often, software +companies wind up installing a weaker brand of crypto in all their +products so that they can sell a single version worldwide. This seems to +be the Government's intent -- to encourage "crypto lite," strong enough +to protect communications from casual intruders but not from Government +itself. + +In the long run, however, export regulation will not solve the National +Security Agency's problem. The crypto business is exploding. People are +becoming more aware of the vunerability of phone conversations, +particularly wireless ones. Even the National Football League is +adopting crypto technology; it will try out encrypted radio +communication between coaches and quarterbacks, so rivals can't +intercept last-minute audibles. + +Anticipating such a boom, the N.S.A. devised a strategy for the 90's. It +would concede the need for strong encryption but encourage a system with +a key-escrow "back door" that provides access to communications for +itself and law enforcement. The security agency had already developed a +strong cryptosystem based on an algorithm called Skipjack, supposedly 16 +million times stronger than the previous standard, D.E.S. (Data +Encryption Standard). Now the agency's designers integrated Skipjack +into a new system that uses a Law Enforcement Access Field (LEAF) that +adds a signal to the message that directs a potential wiretapper to the +approriate key to decipher the message. These features were included in +a chip called Capstone, which could handle not only telephone +communications but computer data transfers and digital signatures. + +Supposedly, this technology was designed for Government use, but in 1993 +the National Security Agency had a sudden opportunity to thrust it into +the marketplace. AT\&T had come to the agency with a new, relatively +low-cost secure-phone device called the Surity 3600 that was designed to +use the nonexportable DES encryption algorithm. The N.S.A. suggested +that perhaps AT\&T could try something else: a stripped-down version of +Capstone for telephone communications. This was the Clipper chip. As a +result, AT\&T got two things: an agreement that Uncle Sam would buy +thousands of phones for its own use (the initial commitment was 9,000, +from the F.B.I.) and the prospect that the phone would not suffer the +unhappy fate of some other secure devices when considered for export. +There was also the expectation that AT\&T would sell a lot more phones, +since private companies would need to buy Clipper-equipped devices to +communicate with the Governmment's Clipper phones. + +It was an ingenious plan for several reasons. By agreeing to buy +thousands of phones, and holding out the promise that thousands, or even +millions more might be sold, AT\&T phones gained a price advantage that +comes with volume. (The original price of the Surity 3600 was $1,195, +considerably less than the previous generation of secure phones; +Mykotronx, the company making the Clipper chip, says that each chip now +costs $30, but in large orders could quickly go as low as $10.) That +would give the phones a big push in the marketplace. But by saturating +the market, Clipper had a chance to become the standard for encryption, +depending on whether businesses and individuals would be willing to +accept a device that had the compromise of a government-controlled back +door. + +This compromise, of course, is the essence of Clipper. The Government +recognizes the importance of keeping business secrets, intimate +information and personal data hidden from most eyes and ears. But it +also preserves a means of getting hold of that information after +obtaining "legal authorization, normally a court order," according to a +White House description. + +The N.S.A. presented the idea to the Bush Administration, which took no +action before the election. Then it had to convince a Democratic +Administration to adopt the scheme, and started briefing the Clinton +people during the transition. Many in the computer industry figured that +with Vice President Al Gore's enthusiastic endorsement of the +high-frontier virtues of the information highway, the Administration +would never adopt any proposal so tilted in favor of law enforcement and +away from his allies in the information industries. They figured wrong. +A little more than two months after taking office, the Clinton +Administration announced the existence of the Clipper chip and directed +the National Institute of Standards and Technology to consider it as a +Government standard. + +Clipper was something the Administration -- starting with the Vice +President -- felt compelled to adopt, and key escrow was considered an +honorable attempt to balance two painfully contradictory interests, +privacy and safety. + +The reaction was instant, bitter and ceaseless. The most pervasive +criticisms challenged the idea that a Clipper would be, as the standard +said, "voluntary." The Government's stated intent is to manipulate the +marketplace so that it will adopt an otherwise unpalatable scheme and +make it the standard. Existing systems have to cope with export +regulations and, now, incompatibility with the new Government Clipper +standard. Is it fair to call a system voluntary if the Government puts +all sorts of obstacles in the way of its competitors? + +Others felt that it was only a matter of time before the National +Security Agency pressured the Government to require key escrow of all +cryptographic devices -- that Clipper was only the first step in a +master plan to give Uncle Sam a key to everyone's cyberspace back door. + +"That's a real fear," says Stephen T. Walker, a former N.S.A. employee +who is now president of Trusted Information Systems, a company +specializing in computer security products. "I don't think the +Government could pull it off -- it would be like prohibition, only +worse. But I think they might try it." + +But mostly, people were unhappy with the essence of Clipper, that the +Government would escrow their keys. As Diffie notes, key escrow +reintroduces the vulnerability that led him to invent public key +cryptography -- any system that relies on trusted third parties is, by +definition, weaker than one that does not. Almost no one outside the +Government likes the key-escrow idea. "We published the standard for 60 +days of public comments," says F. Lynn McNulty, associate director for +computer security at the National Institute of Standards and Technology. +"We received 320 comments, only 2 of which were supportive." + +Many people thought that in the face of such opposition, the +Administration would quietly drop the Clipper proposal. They were +dismayed by the Feb. 4 announcement of the adoption of Clipper as a +Government standard. Administration officials knew they were alienating +their natural allies in the construction of the information superhighway +but felt they had no alternative. "This," said Michael R. Nelson, a +White House technology official, "is the Bosnia of telecommunications." + +If clipper is the administration's Techno-Bosnia, the crypto equivalent +of snipers are everywhere -- in industry, among privacy lobbyists and +even among Christian Fundamentalists. But the most passionate foes are +the Cypherpunks. They have been meeting on the second Saturday of every +month at the offices of Cygnus, a Silicon Valley company, assessing new +ways they might sabotage Clipper. The group was co-founded in September +1992 by Eric Hughes, a 29-year-old freelance cryptogapher, and Tim May, +a 42-year-old physicist who retired early and rich from the Intel +company. Other Cypherpunk cells often meet simultaneously in six or +seven locations around the world, but the main gathering place for +Cypherpunks is the Internet, by means of an active mailing list in which +members post as many as 100 electronic messages a day. + +Cypherpunks share a few common premises. They assume that cryptography +is a liberating tool, one that empowers individuals. They think that one +of the most important uses of cryptography is to protect communications +from the Government. Many of them believe that the Clipper is part of an +overall initiative against cryptography that will culminate in Draconian +control of the technology. And they consider it worth their time to +fight, educating the general public and distributing cryptographic tools +to obstruct such control. + +Both Hughes and May have composed manifestos. Hughes's call to arms +proclaims: "Cypherpunks write code. We know that someone has to write +software to defend privacy, and since we can't get privacy unless we all +do, we're going to write it." + +May's document envisions a golden age in which strong cryptography +belongs to all -- an era of "crypto anarchism" that governments cannot +contain. To May, cryptography is a tool that will not only bestow +privacy on people but help rearrange the economic underpinnings of +society. + +"Combined with emerging information markets, cryptography will create a +liquid market for any and all material that can be put into words and +pictures," May's document says. "And just as a seemingly minor invention +like barbed wire made possible the fencing-off of vast ranches and +farms, thus altering forever the concepts of land and property rights in +the frontier West, so too will the seemingly minor discovery out of an +arcane branch of mathematics come to be the wire clippers which +dismantle the barbed wire around intellectual property." + +At a recent meeting, about 50 Cypherpunks packed into the Cygnus +conference room, with dozens of others participating electronically from +sites as distant as Cambridge, Mass., and San Diego. The meeting +stretched for six hours, with discussions of hardware encryption +schemes, methods to fight an electronic technique of identity forgery +called "spoofing," the operation of "remailing" services, which allow +people to post electronic messages anonymously -- and various ways to +fight Clipper. + +While the Cypherpunks came up with possible anti-Clipper slogans for +posters and buttons, a bearded crypto activist in wire-rim glasses named +John Gilmore was outside the conference room, showing the latest sheaf +of cryptography-related Freedom of Information documents he'd dragged +out of Government files. Unearthing and circulating the hidden crypto +treasures of the National Security Agency is a passion of Gilmore, an +early employee of Sun Microsystems who left the company a +multimillionaire. The Government once threatened to charge him with a +felony for copying some unclassified-and-later-reclassified N.S.A. +documents from a university library. After the story hit the newspapers, +the Government once again declassified the documents. + +"This country was founded as an open society, and we still have the +remnants of that society," Gilmore says. "Will crypto tend to open it or +close it? Our Government is building some of these tools for its own +use, but they are unavailable -- we have paid for cryptographic +breakthroughs but they're classified. I wish I could hire 10 guys -- +cryptographers, librarians -- to try to pry cryptography out of the dark +ages." + +Perhaps the most admired Cypherpunk is someone who says he is ineligible +because he often wears a suit. He is Philip R. Zimmermann, a 40-year-old +software engineer and cryptographic consultant from Boulder, Colo., who +in 1991 cobbled together a cryptography program for computer data and +electronic mail. "PGP," he called it, meaning Pretty Good Privacy, and +he decided to give it away. Anticipating the Cypherpunk credo, +Zimmermann hoped that the appearance of free cryptography would +guarantee its continued use after a possible Government ban. One of the +first people receiving the program placed it on a computer attached to +the Internet and within days thousands of people had PGP. Now the +program has been through several updates and is becoming sort of a +people's standard for public key cryptography. So far, it appears that +no one has been able to crack information encoded with PGP. + +Like Diffie, Zimmermann developed a boyhood interest in crypto. "When I +was a kid growing up in Miami, it was just kind of cool -- secret +messages and all," he says. Later, "computers made it possible to do +ciphers in a practical manner." He was fascinated to hear of public key +cryptography and during the mid-1980's he began experimenting with a +system that would work on personal computers. With the help of some +colleagues, he finally devised a strong system, albeit one that used +some patented material from RSA Data Security. And then he heard about +the Senate bill that proposed to limit a citizen's right to use strong +encryption by requiring manufacturers to include back doors in their +products. Zimmermann, formerly a nuclear freeze activist, felt that one +of the most valuable potential uses of cryptography was to keep messages +secret from the Government. + +Zimmermann has put some political content into the documentation for his +program: "If privacy is outlawed, only outlaws will have privacy. +Intelligence agencies have access to good cryptographic technology. So +do the big arms and drug traffickers. So do defense contractors, oil +companies, and other corporate giants. But ordinary people and +grassroots political organizations mostly have not had access to +affordable 'military grade' public-key cryptographic technology. Until +now." + +He has been told that Burmese freedom fighters learn PGP in jungle +training camps on portable computers, using it to keep documents hidden +from their oppressive Government. But his favorite letter comes from a +person in Latvia, who informed him that his program was a favorite among +one-time refuseniks in that former Soviet republic. "Let it never be," +wrote his correspondant, "but if dictatorship takes over Russia, your +PGP is widespread from Baltic to Far East now and will help democratic +people if necessary." + +Early last year, Zimmermann received a visit from two United States +Customs Service agents. They wanted to know how it was that the strong +encryption program PGP had found its way overseas with no export +license. In the fall, he learned from his lawyer that he was a target of +a grand jury investigation in San Jose, Calif. But even if the Feds +should try to prosecute, they are likely to face a tough legal issue: +Can it be a crime, in the process of legally distributing information in +this country, to place it on an Internet computer site that is +incidentally accessible to network users in other countries? There may +well be a First Amendment issue here: Americans prize the right to +circulate ideas, including those on software disks. + +John Gilmore has discovered that Government lawyers have their own +doubts about these issues. In some documents he sued to get, there are +mid-1980's warnings by the Justice Department that the export controls +on cryptography presented "sensitive constitutional issues." In one +letter, an assistant attorney general warns that "the regulatory scheme +extends too broadly into an area of protected First Amendment speech." + +Perhaps taking Phil Zimmermann to court would not be the Government's +best method for keeping the genie in the bottle. + +The Clipper program has already begun. About once a month, four couriers +with security clearances travel from Washington to the Torrance, Calif., +headquarters of Mykotronx, which holds the contract to make Clipper +chips. They travel in pairs, two from each escrow agency: the NIST and +the Treasury Department. The redundancy is a requirement of a protocol +known as Two-Person Integrity, used in situations like nuclear missile +launches, where the stakes are too high to rely on one person. + +The couriers wait while a Sun work station performs the calculations to +generate the digital cryptographic keys that will be imprinted in the +Clipper chips. Then it splits the keys into two pieces, separate number +chains, and writes them on two floppy disks, each holding lists of "key +splits." To reconstruct the keys imprinted on the chip, and thereby +decode private conversations, you would need both sets of disks. + +After being backed up, the sets of disks are separated, each one going +with a pair of couriers. When the couriers return to their respective +agencies, each set of disks is placed in a double-walled safe. The +backup copies are placed in similar safes. There they wait, two stacks +of floppy disks that grow each month, now holding about 20,000 key +splits, the so-called back doors. + +Will this number grow into the millions as the Government hopes? +Ultimately the answer lies with the American public. Administration +officials are confident that when the public contemplates scenarios like +the Fortress in the Bronx or the Mushroom Cloud in Lower Manhattan, it +will realize that allowing the Government to hold the keys is a +relatively painless price to pay for safety and national security. They +believe the public will eventually accept it in the same way it now +views limited legal wiretapping. But so far the Administration hasn't +recruited many prominent supporters. The main one is Dorothy Denning, a +crypto expert who heads the computer science department at Georgetown +University. + +Since endorsing Clipper (and advocating passage of the Digital Telephony +initiative) Denning has been savagely attacked on the computer nets. +Some of the language would wither a professional wrestler. "I've seen +horrible things written about me," Denning says with a nervous smile. "I +try to actually now avoid looking at them, because that's not what's +important to me. What's important is that we end up doing the right +thing with this. It was an accumulation of factors that led me to agree +with Clipper, and the two most important areas, to me, are organized +crime and terrorism. I was exposed to cases where wiretaps had actually +stopped crimes in the making, and I started thinking, 'If they didn't +have this tool, some of these things might have happened.' You know, I +hate to use the word responsibility, but I actually feel some sense of +responsibility to at least state my position to the extent so that +people will understand it." + +The opponents of Clipper are confident that the marketplace will vote +against it. "The idea that the Government holds the keys to all our +locks, before anyone has even been accused of committing a crime, +doesn't parse with the public," says Jerry Berman, executive director of +the Electronic Frontier Foundation. "It's not America." + +Senator Leahy hints that Congress might not stand for the Clinton +Administration's attempt to construct the key-escrow system, at an +estimated cost of $14 million dollars initially and $16 million +annually. "If the Administration wants the money to set up and run the +key-escrow facilities," he says, "it will need Congressional approval." +Despite claims by the National Institute of Standards and Technology +deputy director, Raymond G. Kammer, that some foreign governments have +shown interest in the scheme, Leahy seems to agree with most American +telecommunications and computer manufacturers that Clipper and +subsequent escrow schemes will find no favor in the vast international +marketplace, turning the United States into a cryptographic island and +crippling important industries. + +Leahy is also concerned about the Administration's haste. "The +Administration is rushing to implement the Clipper chip program without +thinking through crucial details," he says. Indeed, although the +Government has been buying and using Clipper encryption devices, the +process of actually getting the keys out of escrow and using them to +decipher scrambled conversations has never been field tested. And there +exists only a single uncompleted prototype of the device intended to do +the deciphering. + +Leahy is also among those who worry that, all policy issues aside, the +Government's key escrow scheme might fail solely on technical issues. +The Clipper and Capstone chips, while powerful enough to use on today's +equipment, have not been engineered for the high speeds of the coming +information highway; updates will be required. Even more serious are the +potential design flaws in the unproved key-escrow scheme. Matthew +Blaze's discovery that wrongdoers could foil wiretappers may be only the +first indication that Clipper is unable to do the job for which it was +designed. In his paper revealing the glitch, he writes, "It is not clear +that it is possible to construct EES (Escrow Encryption Standard) that +is both completely invulnerable to all kinds of exploitation as well as +generally useful." + +At bottom, many opponents of Clipper do not trust the Government. They +are unimpressed by the elaborate key-escrow security arrangements +outlined for Clipper. Instead, they ask questions about the process by +which the Clipper was devised -- how is it that the N.S.A., an +intelligence agency whose mission does not ordinarily include consumer +electronics design, has suddenly seized a central role in creating a +national information matrix? They also complain that the Skipjack +cryptographic algorithm is a classified secret, one that cryptographic +professionals cannot subject to the rigorous, extended testing that has +previously been used to gain universal trust for such a standard. + +"You don't want to buy a set of car keys from a guy who specializes in +stealing cars," says Marc Rotenberg, director of the Electronic Privacy +Information Center. "The N.S.A.'s specialty is the ability to break +codes, and they are saying, 'Here, take our keys, we promise you they'll +work.' " + +At the March conference on computers and privacy, Stewart Baker +responded to this sort of criticism. "This is the revenge of people who +couldn't go to Woodstock because they had too much trig homework," he +said, evoking some catcalls. "It's a kind of romanticism about privacy. +The problem with it is that the beneficiaries of that sort of +romanticism are going to be predators. PGP, they say, is out there to +protect freedom fighters in Latvia. But the fact is, the only use that +has come to the attention of law enforcement agencies is a guy who was +using PGP so the police could not tell what little boys he had seduced +over the net. Now that's what people will use this for -- it's not the +only thing people will use it for, but they will use it for that -- and +by insisting on having a claim to privacy that is beyond social +regulation, we are creating a world in which people like that will +flourish and be able to do more than they can do today." + +Even if Clipper flops, the Crypto War will continue. The Administration +remains committed to limiting the spread of strong cryptography unless +there's a back door. Recently, it has taken to asking opponents for +alternatives to Clipper. One suggestion it will not embrace is inaction. +"Deciding that the genie is out of the bottle and throwing our arms up +is not where we're at," says a White House official. + +The National Security Agency will certainly not go away. "The agency is +really worried about its screens going blank" due to unbreakable +encryption, says Lance J. Hoffman, a professor of computer science at +George Washington University. "When that happens, the N.S.A. -- said to +be the largest employer in Maryland -- goes belly-up. A way to prevent +this is to expand its mission and to become, effectively, the one-stop +shop for encryption for Government and those that do business with the +Government." + +Sure enough, the security agency is cooking up an entire product line of +new key-escrow chips. At Fort Meade, it has already created a high-speed +version of the Skipjack algorithm that outperforms both Clipper and +Capstone. There is also another, more powerful, encryption device in the +works named Baton. As far as the agency is concerned, these developments +are no more than common sense. "To say that N.S.A. shouldn't be involved +in this issue is to say that Government should try to solve this +difficult technical and social problem with both hands tied behind its +back," Stewart Baker says. + +But Phil Zimmermann and the Cypherpunks aren't going away, either. +Zimmermann is, among other things, soliciting funds for a PGP phone that +will allow users the same sort of voice encryption provided by the +Clipper chip. The difference, of course, is that in his phone there is +no key escrow, no back door. If the F.B.I. initiated a wiretap on +someone using Zimmermann's proposed phone, all the investigators would +hear is static that they could never restore to orderly language. + +What if that static shielded the murderous plans of a terrorist or +kidnapper? Phil Zimmermann would feel terrible. Ultimately he has no +answer. "I am worried about what might happen if unlimited security +communications come about," he admits. "But I also think there are +tremendous benefits. Some bad things would happen, but the trade-off +would be worth it. You have to look at the big picture." diff --git a/_stories/1994/3418764.md b/_stories/1994/3418764.md index a07e428..d4336be 100644 --- a/_stories/1994/3418764.md +++ b/_stories/1994/3418764.md @@ -19,7 +19,65 @@ _tags: objectID: '3418764' --- -[Source](https://www.geek.com/articles/chips/how-jeff-bezos-advertised-for-the-first-amazon-employees-1994-20101228/ "Permalink to ") +[](http://www.geek.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/12/jeffbezos.jpg) +In 1994 Amazon.com did not exist. The idea was still in founder Jeff +Bezos’ head, and the company he was setting up had the name Cadabra Inc. +But like any new start-up, he needed developers on staff in order to +realize what was to become the biggest online retailer in the world. How +exactly did Bezos go about finding those first few individuals that +helped create Amazon.com? +The answer comes in the form of a [job posting on +Usenet](http://groups.google.com/group/mi.jobs/msg/d81b6c1fa8f361fc?pli=1) +made in August 1994 by Bezos, asking for “extremely talented C/C++/Unix +developers”. The listing discovered by web consultant [Joe +Devon](http://twitter.com/RWW/status/19659039260549121), and has been +included below in full: + +> Well-capitalized start-up seeks extremely talented C/C++/Unix +> developers to help pioneer commerce on the Internet. You must have +> experience designing and building large and complex (yet maintainable) +> systems, and you should be able to do so in about one-third the time +> that most competent people think possible. You should have a BS, MS, +> or PhD in Computer Science or the equivalent. Top-notch communication +> skills are essential. Familiarity with web servers and HTML would be +> helpful but is not necessary. +> +> Expect talented, motivated, intense, and interesting co-workers. Must +> be willing to relocate to the Seattle area (we will help cover moving +> costs). +> +> Your compensation will include meaningful equity ownership. +> +> Send resume and cover letter to Jeff Bezos: +> +> mail: be…@netcom.com +> fax: 206/828-0951 +> US mail: Cadabra, Inc. +> 10704 N.E. 28th St. +> Bellevue, WA 98004 +> +> We are an equal opportunity employer. +> +> ——————————————————————- +> “It’s easier to invent the future than to predict it.” — Alan Kay +> ——————————————————————- + +Did the first few developers who got asked to interview and secured a +position at Cadabra have any idea what they were about to create? I +doubt it, and most would have just seen it as an interesting challenge +they couldn’t pass up. All of them, if they stayed, are probably quite +well off now with that equity ownership they got offered. + +Cadabra Inc. became Amazon when it was found people sometimes confused +the original name with Cadaver. Then the site launched in 1995, and the +rest is history. + +So next time you see a job listing for a new start-up, just remember +Amazon started the same way, and that new listing might just be for a +company that turns out to be the next Amazon, or Facebook, or Google. + +Read more at +[ReadWriteWeb](http://www.readwriteweb.com/archives/history_job_posting_for_amazoncom_before_it_launch.php) diff --git a/_stories/1994/5851820.md b/_stories/1994/5851820.md deleted file mode 100644 index 5a058ba..0000000 --- a/_stories/1994/5851820.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,25 +0,0 @@ ---- -created_at: '2013-06-10T01:53:15.000Z' -title: NSA security guidelines (1994) -url: http://vserver1.cscs.lsa.umich.edu/~crshalizi/nsa.html -author: rdl -points: 48 -story_text: '' -comment_text: -num_comments: 1 -story_id: -story_title: -story_url: -parent_id: -created_at_i: 1370829195 -_tags: -- story -- author_rdl -- story_5851820 -objectID: '5851820' - ---- -[Source](http://vserver1.cscs.lsa.umich.edu/~crshalizi/nsa.html "Permalink to ") - - - diff --git a/_stories/1995/11367422.md b/_stories/1995/11367422.md index 5a9e97a..eac2122 100644 --- a/_stories/1995/11367422.md +++ b/_stories/1995/11367422.md @@ -19,262 +19,66 @@ _tags: objectID: '11367422' --- -[Source](http://www.nytimes.com/1995/12/29/world/a-120-year-lease-on-life-outlasts-apartment-heir.html "Permalink to A 120-Year Lease on Life Outlasts Apartment Heir - NYTimes.com") - -# A 120-Year Lease on Life Outlasts Apartment Heir - NYTimes.com - -* [Log In][1] -* [Register Now][2] -* [Help][3] -* [Home Page][4] -* [Today's Paper][5] -* [Video][6] -* [Most Popular][7] - -Edition: [U.S.][4] / [Global][8] - -Search All NYTimes.com - -![New York Times][9] - -## [World][10] - -* [World][10] - * [Africa][11] - * [Americas][12] - * [Asia][13] - * [Australia][14] - * [Europe][15] - * [Middle East][16] -* [U.S.][17] -* [N.Y. / Region][18] -* [Business][19] -* [Technology][20] -* [Science][21] -* [Health][22] -* [Sports][23] -* [Opinion][24] -* [Arts][25] -* [Style][26] -* [Travel][27] -* [Jobs][28] -* [Real Estate][29] -* [Autos][30] - -# A 120-Year Lease on Life Outlasts Apartment Heir - -###### AP - -###### Published: December 29, 1995 - -**PARIS, Dec. 28— ** Andre-Francois Raffray thought he had a great deal 30 years ago: He would pay a 90-year-old woman 2,500 francs (about $500) a month until she died, then move into her grand apartment in a town Vincent van Gogh once roamed. - -But this Christmas, Mr. Raffray died at age 77, having laid out the equivalent of more than $184,000 for an apartment he never got to live in. - -On the same day, Jeanne Calment, now listed in the Guinness Book of Records as the world's oldest person at 120, dined on foie gras, duck thighs, cheese and chocolate cake at her nursing home near the sought-after apartment in Arles, northwest of Marseilles in the south of France. - -She need not worry about losing income. Although the amount Mr. Raffray already paid is more than twice the apartment's current market value, his widow is obligated to keep sending that monthly check. If Mrs. Calment outlives her, too, then the Raffray children and grandchildren will have to pay. - -"In life, one sometimes makes bad deals," Mrs. Calment said on her birthday last Feb. 21. - -The apartment is currently unoccupied, according to local media. - -Buying apartments "en viager," or "for life," is common in France. The elderly owner gets to enjoy a monthly income from the buyer, who gambles on getting a real estate bargain -- provided the owner dies in due time. - -Upon the owner's death, the buyer inherits the apartment, regardless of how much was paid. - -Mrs. Calment, who has lived through the administrations of 17 French presidents, has proven the nightmare of all those who buy real estate "en viager." - -Mrs. Calment, physically active all her life, rode a bicycle until she was 100, and until 1985 occupied the several large rooms of her apartment on the second floor of a classic old Provencal building in the center of Arles, where Mr. Raffray was her notary public. She moved that year into a nursing home, which is now named after her. - -She has outlived her husband, her daughter and her grandson, who died in a car crash, and has no direct descendants. - -Mrs. Calment seemed to offer some consolation to the Raffrays when asked on her last birthday for her vision of the future, she replied: "Very brief." - -Born in Arles in 1875, Mrs. Calment recalls working in her father's shop at age 14 and selling colored pencils and canvases to Van Gogh, the Dutch impressionist who depicted Arles in several of his vibrant paintings. - -On Oct. 18, the Guinness Book of Records listed her as the world's oldest person able to authenticate her age with official records, mostly civil and religious documents. - -Photo: Thirty years ago, Andre-Francois Raffray, bottom, agreed to pay Jeanne Calment 2,500 francs a month to get her apartment when she died; she was 90 then. She has not died yet, but this week he did. 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https://myaccount.nytimes.com/membercenter/feedback.html -[65]: http://wt.o.nytimes.com/dcsym57yw10000s1s8g0boozt_9t1x/njs.gif?dcsuri=/nojavascript&WT.js=No&WT.tv=1.0.7 -[66]: http://up.nytimes.com/?d=0//&t=&s=0&ui=&r=&u=www.nytimes.com%2F1995%2F12%2F29%2Fworld%2Fa-120-year-lease-on-life-outlasts-apartment-heir.html - +**PARIS, Dec. 28—** Andre-Francois Raffray thought he had a great deal +30 years ago: He would pay a 90-year-old woman 2,500 francs (about $500) +a month until she died, then move into her grand apartment in a town +Vincent van Gogh once roamed. + +But this Christmas, Mr. Raffray died at age 77, having laid out the +equivalent of more than $184,000 for an apartment he never got to live +in. + +On the same day, Jeanne Calment, now listed in the Guinness Book of +Records as the world's oldest person at 120, dined on foie gras, duck +thighs, cheese and chocolate cake at her nursing home near the +sought-after apartment in Arles, northwest of Marseilles in the south of +France. + +She need not worry about losing income. Although the amount Mr. Raffray +already paid is more than twice the apartment's current market value, +his widow is obligated to keep sending that monthly check. If Mrs. +Calment outlives her, too, then the Raffray children and grandchildren +will have to pay. + +"In life, one sometimes makes bad deals," Mrs. Calment said on her +birthday last Feb. 21. + +The apartment is currently unoccupied, according to local media. + +Buying apartments "en viager," or "for life," is common in France. The +elderly owner gets to enjoy a monthly income from the buyer, who gambles +on getting a real estate bargain -- provided the owner dies in due time. + +Upon the owner's death, the buyer inherits the apartment, regardless of +how much was paid. + +Mrs. Calment, who has lived through the administrations of 17 French +presidents, has proven the nightmare of all those who buy real estate +"en viager." + +Mrs. Calment, physically active all her life, rode a bicycle until she +was 100, and until 1985 occupied the several large rooms of her +apartment on the second floor of a classic old Provencal building in the +center of Arles, where Mr. Raffray was her notary public. She moved that +year into a nursing home, which is now named after her. + +She has outlived her husband, her daughter and her grandson, who died in +a car crash, and has no direct descendants. + +Mrs. Calment seemed to offer some consolation to the Raffrays when asked +on her last birthday for her vision of the future, she replied: "Very +brief." + +Born in Arles in 1875, Mrs. Calment recalls working in her father's shop +at age 14 and selling colored pencils and canvases to Van Gogh, the +Dutch impressionist who depicted Arles in several of his vibrant +paintings. + +On Oct. 18, the Guinness Book of Records listed her as the world's +oldest person able to authenticate her age with official records, mostly +civil and religious documents. + +Photo: Thirty years ago, Andre-Francois Raffray, bottom, agreed to pay +Jeanne Calment 2,500 francs a month to get her apartment when she died; +she was 90 then. She has not died yet, but this week he did. (Associated +Press) diff --git a/_stories/1995/16003560.md b/_stories/1995/16003560.md index 8ef43a4..6d19990 100644 --- a/_stories/1995/16003560.md +++ b/_stories/1995/16003560.md @@ -19,7 +19,121 @@ _tags: objectID: '16003560' --- -[Source](https://www.mediamatic.net/5909/en/electronic-loneliness "Permalink to ") +Post-sociologists disguised as trend tasters are projecting all their +reborn enthusiasm onto the home. Their concern is directed at the army +of out-of-action white- and blue-collar workers, who will be taken out +of their state of anomie and unproductivity thanks to home terminals. +Individual enthusiasm for techno-gadgetry is being transformed into the +hope of a new economic élan. It turns out that installing new media in +your own home provokes a labour situation. The combination of data +highway and enhanced television will inevitably lead to the return of +cottage industry in the form of virtual looms. The countryside will +bloom again, traffic jams disappear, the environment will be spared and +the family restored. And in all reasonableness, who wouldn't want that? +In the age of the shop floor, the open-plan office, the canteen and the +meeting room, a political work climate still existed. One could still +speak of spatially proximate and visible hierarchical relationships +within a technically integrated division of labour. Engagement in +material production fostered a compelling solidarity. This laid fertile +ground for the corporate dreams of the 20th century, from Fordism and +Taylorism to Japanese management and New Age. Labour unions ensured the +pacification of always-latent labour unrest. After World War II in the +West there thus arose a configuration which guaranteed a manageable +social dynamic. Until the perpetual restructuring finally resulted in +empty factories. Passion for socialism and communism disappeared just as +soundlessly. The social question thus shifted from the factory gates to +people's front doors. The home has thereby become the object of fantasy +for political economists and other social visionaries. +Those who take early retirement are no longer motivatible and are de +facto written off. This grey mass belongs to the industrial past, is +using up the last of the welfare state's money and is otherwise left +alone. But these were the people who consciously dedicated themselves to +home furnishing. The post-war generations discovered the home as leisure +object and mirror of the ego. Remodelling and renovation became the way +they filled their lives, and their relationship therapy (an open kitchen +in an open marriage). It all came down to the order of purchase and +correct arrangement of refrigerator, stereo, living room furniture, +floor lamp, motorcycle, lawnmower, blinds and washing machine. Means of +communication occupied a privileged place: the car for outside and the +television for inside. The house was a recovery centre where you got +what was coming to you: a sheltered space where family ideals were +practised. The fatal turn came with the delayed insight that people were +working on a realised utopia which was impossible to stand for long. The +complete collection of comforts became dead capital. The social function +of the familial reception room died out and made place for an active and +temporary arrangement of support functions geared towards the +individual. The excess of dusty knickknacks has made way for a strictly +selected mix of sterile objects. A combination of stylized and +functional ambience ensures the house is ready to be turned into a +workplace. +Visions of home tele-work are on a par with wishful imaginings about +robots, artificial intelligence and transplant organs. There is an +appeal to a coming stage of development, as yet unknown but imaginable. +Working at a home terminal creates a work situation lacking in all the +traditional attributes (physical exertion, collegiality, change of +place, noise and dirt). Everything which used to make work a nuisance +now seems to have disappeared. The work at (industrial-age) machines of +a few vouchsafes the prosperity of the many who stay home. But the +internalised urge to work cannot bear this apparent idleness, which is +scarcely discernible in unemployment statistics. A feeling of urgency +must be created, the feeling that unless we all do something about it, +everything will end posthaste in decadence, crime and entropy. There is +delight that the masses will once again have something to do and can +once again be kept on a leash. At home we are experiencing a +science-fiction invasion: the spaceship is ensconcing itself in the +living room and the feeling of being on a virtual trip through space +imposes itself. + +With video games, toll numbers, interactive media and home shopping +people have been put in the mood and acquired the tactile skills to work +for money at a distance. But the decision makers still have to be warmed +up to equip the tele-sector with a technical as well as an ideological +infrastructure. They can be helped by the articulation of an act of will +that we will, together yet individually, create a positive perspective +on economic activity. An axiom of self-realisation has been slapped onto +telework in passing: you're only someone if you're in business. No +activity, no identity. Pepped up, in shape and evaluated for +performance, the individualised mass must be brought into a state of +readiness for digital piecework. + +Telework is not an institution, but a constitution, a mental frame in +which the new work effort can move. Psychic, to begin with: what used to +be called immobility is now the point of departure for delivering labour +performance. Isolation must thus be conditioned. The individual is shut +up in a niche, at one with the network. One is urged to keep one's mind +on the screen, for there is nothing else. There will be no flourishing +family life, no workplace adultery. And even the promised outlet of +virtual sex has come to a dead end. All we're left with is the bill. +Since chance meetings have been banished, dating services bring us +videos and careful matching and screening techniques to line up our +wishes with a tailored selection. But once the stage of visitation +rights is reached, the all-too-human imperfections come to light, and +become acute obstacles before the adventure is even underway. By and +large, the other we choose is unbearable. The other's always-lacking +gloss and perfection create a social footing of boredom and apathy. +Communication is stifled, and the tele-beings stay invisible and +meaningless to each other. Martin Buber, where are you? + +Electronic loneliness cannot be expressed in metaphysical or psychiatric +terms. It is not a melancholy depth, but an artificial surface. +Desolation is a fatal production factor, a trap people fall into through +reckless thinking and belief in mirages. Only organised tourism is still +seen as a solution. One builds up a collection of psycho-physical +experiences, of meditation, repentance, exhaustion, ecstasy, fasting, +pilgrimages for heroic assistance. But these sensations yield no answers +in the extremely personal confrontation with the machine. Pulling the +plug on the Net is suicide. There is no future without the Net; +alternative scenarios no longer circulate. Nothing seems to stand in the +way of the advance of enclosures. The age of despair is definitively +behind us. Get serious. Sentiment has landed up in the archaeological +layers of consciousness (in an age in which the history of mentality is +being written). The Net as ideal treadmill for self-styled identities +will create no revolutionary situations, nor bring the world to an end. +Cybernetic emptiness need not be filled, nor will it ever be full (of +desire, abhorrence or unrest). Until telematic energy finally disappears +into the flatland of silence in the face of blinking commands. + +translation Laura Martz diff --git a/_stories/1995/6720621.md b/_stories/1995/6720621.md index b6bfbcd..2bcbbca 100644 --- a/_stories/1995/6720621.md +++ b/_stories/1995/6720621.md @@ -19,415 +19,655 @@ _tags: objectID: '6720621' --- -[Source](http://www.nytimes.com/1995/01/15/magazine/the-great-ivy-league-nude-posture-photo-scandal.html?pagewanted=all "Permalink to THE GREAT IVY LEAGUE NUDE POSTURE PHOTO SCANDAL - NYTimes.com") - -# THE GREAT IVY LEAGUE NUDE POSTURE PHOTO SCANDAL - NYTimes.com - -* [Log In][1] -* [Register Now][2] -* [Help][3] -* [Home Page][4] -* [Today's Paper][5] -* [Video][6] -* [Most Popular][7] - -Edition: [U.S.][4] / [Global][8] - -Search All NYTimes.com - -![New York Times][9] - -## [Magazine][10] - -* [World][11] -* [U.S.][12] -* [N.Y. / Region][13] -* [Business][14] -* [Technology][15] -* [Science][16] -* [Health][17] -* [Sports][18] -* [Opinion][19] -* [Arts][20] -* [Style][21] -* [Travel][22] -* [Jobs][23] -* [Real Estate][24] -* [Autos][25] - -# THE GREAT IVY LEAGUE NUDE POSTURE PHOTO SCANDAL - -###### By RON ROSENBAUM; - -###### Published: January 15, 1995 - -ONE AFTERNOON IN THE LATE 1970's, deep in the labyrinthine interior of a massive Gothic tower in New Haven, an unsuspecting employee of Yale University opened a long-locked room in the Payne Whitney Gymnasium and stumbled upon something shocking and disturbing. - -Shocking, because what he found was an enormous cache of nude photographs, thousands and thousands of photographs of young men in front, side and rear poses. Disturbing, because on closer inspection the photos looked like the record of a bizarre body-piercing ritual: sticking out from the spine of each and every body was a row of sharp metal pins. - -The employee who found them was mystified. The athletic director at the time, Frank Ryan, a former Cleveland Browns quarterback new to Yale, was mystified. But after making some discreet inquiries, he found out what they were -- and took swift action to burn them. He called in a professional, a document-disposal expert, who initiated a two-step torching procedure. First, every single one of the many thousands of photographs was fed into a shredder, and then each of the shreds was fed to the flames, thereby insuring that not a single intact or recognizable image of the nude Yale students -- some of whom had gone on to assume positions of importance in government and society -- would survive. - -It was the Bonfire of the Best and the Brightest, and the assumption was that the last embarrassing reminders of a peculiar practice, which masqueraded as science and now looked like a kind of kinky voodoo ritual, had gone up in smoke. The assumption was wrong. Thousands upon thousands of photos from Yale and other elite schools survive to this day. - -When I first embarked on my quest for the lost nude "posture photos," I could not decide whether to think of the phenomenon as a scandal or as an extreme example of academic folly -- of what happens when well-intentioned institutions allow their reverence for the reigning conjectures of scientific orthodoxy to persuade them to do things that seem silly or scandalous in retrospect. And now that I've found them, I'm still not sure whether outrage or laughter is the more appropriate reaction. Your response, dear reader, may depend on whether your nude photograph is among them. And if you attended Yale, Mount Holyoke, Vassar, Smith or Princeton -- to name a few of the schools involved -- from the 1940's through the 1960's, there's a chance that yours may be. - -Your response may also depend on how you feel about the fact that some of these schools made nude or seminude photographs of you available to the disciples of what many now regard as a pseudo-science without asking permission. And on how you feel about an obscure archive in Washington making them available for researchers to study. - -While investigating the strange odyssey of the missing nude "posture photos," I found that the issue is, in every respect, a very touchy matter -- indeed, a kind of touchstone for registering the uneven evolution of attitudes toward body, race and gender in the past half-century. UP YOUR LEGS FOR YALE - -I personally have posed nude only twice in my life. The second time -- for a John and Yoko film titled "Up Your Legs Forever," which has been screened at the Whitney -- I was one of many, it was Art, and let's leave it at that. But the first time was even more strange and bizarre because of its strait-laced Ivy setting, its preliberation context -- and yes, because of the metal pins stuck on my body. - -One fall afternoon in the mid-60's, shortly after I arrived in New Haven to begin my freshman year at Yale, I was summoned to that sooty Gothic shrine to muscular virtue known as Payne Whitney Gym. I reported to a windowless room on an upper floor, where men dressed in crisp white garments instructed me to remove all of my clothes. And then -- and this is the part I still have trouble believing -- they attached metal pins to my spine. There was no actual piercing of skin, only of dignity, as four-inch metal pins were affixed with adhesive to my vertebrae at regular intervals from my neck down. I was positioned against a wall; a floodlight illuminated my pin-spiked profile and a camera captured it. - -It didn't occur to me to object: I'd been told that this "posture photo" was a routine feature of freshman orientation week. Those whose pins described a too violent or erratic postural curve were required to attend remedial posture classes. - -The procedure did seem strange. But I soon learned that it was a long-established custom at most Ivy League and Seven Sisters schools. George Bush, George Pataki, Brandon Tartikoff and Bob Woodward were required to do it at Yale. At Vassar, Meryl Streep; at Mount Holyoke, Wendy Wasserstein; at Wellesley, Hillary Rodham and Diane Sawyer. All of them -- whole generations of the cultural elite -- were asked to pose. But however much the colleges tried to make this bizarre procedure seem routine, its undeniable strangeness engendered a scurrilous strain of folklore. THE MISMEASURE OF MAN - -There were several salacious stories circulating at Yale back in the 60's. Most common was the report that someone had broken into a photo lab in Poughkeepsie, N.Y., and stolen the negatives of that year's Vassar posture nudes, which were supposedly for sale on the Ivy League black market or available to the initiates of Skull and Bones. Little did I know how universal this myth was. - -"Ah, yes, the famous rumored stolen Vassar posture pictures," Nora Ephron (Wellesley '62) recalled when I spoke with her. "But don't forget the famous rumored stolen Wellesley posture photos." - -"Wellesley too?" - -"Oh, yes," she said. "It's one of those urban legends." - -She can laugh about it now, she said, but in retrospect the whole idea that she and all her smart classmates went along with being photographed in this way dismays her. "We were idiots," she said. "Idiots!" - -Sally Quinn (Smith '63), the Washington writer, expressed alarm when I first reached her. "God, I'm relieved," she said. "I thought you were going to tell me you found mine. You always thought when you did it that one day they'd come back to haunt you. That 25 years later, when your husband was running for President, they'd show up in Penthouse." - -Another Wellesley alumna, Judith Martin, author of the Miss Manners column, told me she's "appalled in retrospect" that the college forced this practice on their freshmen. "Why weren't we more appalled at the time?" she wondered. Nonetheless, she confessed to making a kind of good-natured extortionate use of the posture-photo specter herself. - -"I do remember making a reunion speech in which I offered to sell them back to people for large donations. And there were a lot of people who turned pale before they realized it was a joke." - -Distinguishing between joke and reality is often difficult in posture-photo lore. Consider the astonishing rumor Ephron clued me in to, a story she assured me she'd heard from someone very close to the source: - -"There was a guy, an adjunct professor of sociology who was working on a grant for the tobacco industry. And what I heard when I was at Wellesley was that, using Harvard posture photos, he had proved conclusively that the more manly you are, the more you smoked. And I believe the criterion for manliness was the obvious one." - -"The obvious one?" - -"I assume -- what else could it have been?" - -In fact, the study was real. I was able to track it down, although the conclusion it reached about Harvard men was somewhat different from what Ephron recalled. But, clearly, the nude-posture-photo practice engendered heated fantasies in both sexes. Perhaps in the otherwise circumspect Ivy League-Seven Sisters world, nude posture photos were the licensed exception to propriety that spawned licentious fantasies. Fantasies that were to lie unremembered, or at least unpublicized until. . . . THE RETURN OF THE REPRESSED - -It was Naomi Wolf, author of "The Beauty Myth," who opened the Pandora's box of posture-photo controversy. In that book and in a 1992 Op-Ed piece in The Times, Wolf (Yale '84) bitterly attacked Dick Cavett (Yale '55) for a joke he'd made at Wolf's graduation ceremonies. According to Wolf, who'd never had a posture photo taken (the practice was discontinued at Yale in 1968), Cavett took the microphone and told the following anecdote: - -"When I was an undergraduate . . . there were no women [ at Yale ] . The women went to Vassar. At Vassar they had nude photographs taken of women in gym class to check their posture. One year the photos were stolen and turned up for sale in New Haven's red-light district." His punchline: "The photos found no buyers." - -Wolf was horrified. Cavett, she wrote in her book, "transposed us for a moment out of the gentle quadrangle where we had been led to believe we were cherished, and into the tawdry district four blocks away, where stolen photographs of our naked bodies would find no buyers." - -Cavett responded, in a letter to The Times, by dismissing the joke as an innocuous "example of how my Yale years showed up in my long-forgotten nightclub act." - -Wolf's horrified account attests to the totemic power of the posture-photo legend. But little did she know, little did Cavett know, how potentially sinister the entire phenomenon really was. No one knew until. . . . THE NAZI-POSTURE-PHOTO ALLEGATION - -This is where things get really strange. Shortly after Cavett's reply, George Hersey, a respected art history professor at Yale, wrote a letter to The Times that ran under the headline "A Secret Lies Hidden in Vassar and Yale Nude 'Posture Photos.' " Sounding an ominous note, Hersey declared that the photos "had nothing to do with posture . . . that is only what we were told." - -Hersey went on to say that the pictures were actually made for anthropological research: "The reigning school of the time, presided over by E. A. Hooton of Harvard and W. H. Sheldon" -- who directed an institute for physique studies at Columbia University -- "held that a person's body, measured and analyzed, could tell much about intelligence, temperament, moral worth and probable future achievement. The inspiration came from the founder of social Darwinism, Francis Galton, who proposed such a photo archive for the British population." - -And then Hersey evoked the specter of the Third Reich: - -"The Nazis compiled similar archives analyzing the photos for racial as well as characterological content (as did Hooton). . . . The Nazis often used American high school yearbook photographs for this purpose. . . . The American investigators planned an archive that could correlate each freshman's bodily configuration ('somatotype') and physiognomy with later life history. That the photos had no value as pornography is a tribute to their resolutely scientific nature." - -A truly breathtaking missive. What Hersey seemed to be saying was that entire generations of America's ruling class had been unwitting guinea pigs in a vast eugenic experiment run by scientists with a master-race hidden agenda. My classmate Steve Weisman, the Times editor who first called my attention to the letter, pointed out a fascinating corollary: The letter managed in a stroke to confer on some of the most overprivileged people in the world the one status distinction it seemed they'd forever be denied -- victim. - -My first stop in what would turn out to be a prolonged and eventful quest for the truth about the posture photos was Professor Hersey's office in New Haven. A thoughtful, civilized scholar, Hersey did not seem prone to sensationalism. But he showed me a draft chapter from his forthcoming book on the esthetics of racism that went even further than the allegations in his letter to The Times. I was struck by one passage in particular: - -"From the outset, the purpose of these 'posture photographs' was eugenic. The data accumulated, says Hooton, will eventually lead on to proposals to 'control and limit the production of inferior and useless organisms.' Some of the latter would be penalized for reproducing . . . or would be sterilized. But the real solution is to be enforced better breeding -- getting those Exeter and Harvard men together with their corresponding Wellesley, Vassar and Radcliffe girls." - -In other words, a kind of eugenic dating service, "Studs" for the cultural elite. But my talk with Hersey left key questions unanswered. What was the precise relationship between theorists like Hooton and Sheldon (the man who actually took tens of thousands of those nude posture photos) and the Ivy League and Seven Sisters schools whose student bodies were photographed? Were the schools complicit or were they simply dupes? And finally: What became of the photographs? - -As for the last question, Hersey thought there'd be no trouble locating the photographs. He assumed that "they can probably be found with Sheldon's research papers" in one of the several academic institutions with which he had been associated. But most of those institutions said that they had burned whatever photos they'd had. Harley P. Holden, curator of Harvard's archives, said that from the 1880's to the 1940's the university had its own posture-photo program in which some 3,500 pictures of its students were taken. Most were destroyed 15 or 20 years ago "for privacy scruples," Holden said. Nonetheless, quite a few Harvard nudes can be found illustrating Sheldon's book on body types, the "Atlas of Men." Radcliffe took posture photos from 1931 to 1961; the curator there said that most of them had been destroyed (although some might be missing) and that none were taken by Sheldon. - -Hersey insisted that there was a treasure trove of Sheldon photographs out there to be found. He gave me the phone number of a man in New Mexico named Ellery Lanier, a friend of Sheldon, the posture-photo mastermind. "He might know where they ended up," Hersey told me. - -Going from Hersey to Lanier meant stepping over the threshold from contemporary academic orthodoxy into the more exotic precincts of Sheldon subculture, a loose-knit network of his surviving disciples. A number of them keep the Sheldon legacy alive, hoping for a revival. - -Lanier, an articulate, seventyish doctoral student at New Mexico State, told me he'd gotten to know Sheldon at Columbia in the late 1940's, when the two of them were hanging out with Aldous Huxley and Christopher Isherwood and their crew. (Sheldon had a prophetic mystical side, which revealed itself in Huxleian philosophic treatises on the "Promethean will." Sheldon was also, Lanier told me, "the world's leading expert on the history of the American penny.") At that time, Sheldon was at the apex of his now-forgotten renown. Life magazine ran a cover story in 1951 on Sheldon's theory of somatotypes. - -While the popular conception of Sheldonism has it that he divided human beings into three types -- skinny, nervous "ectomorphs"; fat and jolly "endomorphs"; confident, buffed "mesomorphs" -- what he actually did was somewhat more complex. He believed that every individual harbored within him different degrees of each of the three character components. By using body measurements and ratios derived from nude photographs, Sheldon believed he could assign every individual a three-digit number representing the three components, components that Sheldon believed were inborn -- genetic -- and remained unwavering determinants of character regardless of transitory weight change. In other words, physique equals destiny. - -It was the pop-psych flavor of the month for a while; Cosmopolitan magazine published quizzes about how to understand your husband on the basis of somatotype. Ecto-, meso- and endomorphic have entered the language, although few scientists these days give credence to Sheldon's claims. "Half the textbooks in [ his ] area fail to take [ him ] seriously," remarked one academician in a 1992 paper on Sheldon's legacy. Others, like Hans Eysenck, the British psychologist, have suggested that Sheldon wasn't really doing science at all, that he was just winging it, that there was "little theoretical foundation for the observed findings." - -Nonetheless, in the late 40's and early 50's, Sheldonism seemed mainstream, and Sheldon took advantage of that to approach Ivy League schools. Many, like Harvard, already had a posture-photo tradition. But it was at Wellesley College in the late 1920's that concern about postural correctness metamorphosed into a cottage industry with pretensions to science. The department of hygiene circulated training films about posture measurement to other women's colleges, which took up the practice, as did some "progressive" high schools and elementary schools. (By the time Hillary Rodham arrived on the Wellesley campus, women were allowed to have their pictures taken only partly nude. Although Lanier assumes that Sheldon took the Rodham photo, Wellesley archivists believe that Sheldon didn't take posture photos at their school.) - -What Sheldon did was appropriate the ritual. Lanier confirmed that the Ivy League "posture photos" Sheldon used were "part of a facade or cover-up for what we were really doing" -- which would make the schools less complicit. But Lanier stoutly defended "what we were really doing" as valid science. As part of his Ph.D. project, he has been examining Sheldonian ecto-, meso- and endomorphic categories and the "time horizon" of the individual. - -"Conflicting temporal horizon can account for all the divorce we have today," Lanier said. "The Woody Allen-Mia Farrow-type thing." - -Huh? Woody and Mia? - -"I'm trying to find some clue to the breakup because of the discrepancies between their time focus," Lanier said. - -"Well, Woody's certainly ectomorphic, but. . . . " - -"No, let me correct you," Lanier said tartly. "Woody Allen creates an illusion. He puts on a big show of being ectomorphic, but this is all a cover-up because he's quite mesomorphic." - -"I think he would be surprised to hear that." - -"I know," Lanier said. "He wouldn't want to admit it, but the only way you can know this is by looking at photographs very carefully." - -Lanier also filled me in on the cause of Sheldon's downfall: his never completed, partly burned "Atlas of Women." In attempting to compile what would have been the companion volume to his "Atlas of Men," which included hundreds of nude Harvard men to illustrate each of the three-digit body types, Sheldon made the strategic mistake of taking his photo show on the road. - -What happened was this: In September 1950, Sheldon and his team descended on Seattle, where the University of Washington had agreed to play host to his project. He'd begun taking nude pictures of female freshmen, but something went wrong. One of them told her parents about the practice. The next morning, a battalion of lawyers and university officials stormed Sheldon's lab, seized every photo of a nude woman, convicted the images of shamefulness and sentenced them to burning. The angry crew then shoveled the incendiary film into an incinerator. A short-lived controversy broke out: Was this a book burning? A witch hunt? Was Professor Sheldon's nude photography a legitimate scientific investigation into the relationship between physique and temperament, the raw material of serious scholarship? Or just raw material -- pornography masquerading as science? - -They burned a few thousand photos in Seattle. Thousands more were burned at Harvard, Vassar and Yale in the 60's and 70's, when the colleges phased out the posture-photo practice. But thousands more escaped the flames, tens of thousands that Sheldon took at Harvard, Vassar, Yale and elsewhere but sequestered in his own archives. And what became of the archives? Lanier didn't know, but he said they were out there somewhere. He dug up the phone number of a man who was once the lawyer for Sheldon's estate, a Mr. Joachim Weissfeld in Providence, R.I. "Maybe he'll know," Lanier said. - -At this point, the posture-photo quest turned into a kind of high-speed parody of "The Aspern Papers." The lawyer in Rhode Island professed ignorance as to the whereabouts or even continued existence of the lost Sheldonian archives, but he did put me in touch with the last living leaf on the Sheldon family tree, a niece by marriage who lived in Warwick, R.I. She, too, said she didn't know what had become of the Sheldon photos, but she did give me the name of an 84-year-old man living in Columbus, Ohio, who had worked very closely with Sheldon, one Roland D. Elderkin -- a man who, in fact, had shot many of the lost photos himself and who promised to reveal their location to me. THE MYSTERY SOLVED - -With Roland D. Elderkin, we're now this close to the late, great Sheldon himself. "There was nobody closer," Elderkin declared shortly after I reached him at his rooming house in Columbus. "I was his soul mate." - -Elderkin described himself a bit mournfully as "just an 84-year-old man living alone in a furnished room." But he once had a brush with greatness, and you can hear it in his recollection of Sheldon and his grand project. - -To Elderkin, Sheldon was no mere body-typer: he was a true philosophe, "the first to introduce holistic perspective" to American science, a proto-New Ager. Elderkin became Sheldon's research associate, his trusty cameraman and a kind of private eye, compiling case histories of Sheldon's posture nudes to confirm Sheldon's theories about physique and destiny. He also witnessed Sheldon's downfall. - -The Bonfire of the Nude Coed Photos in Seattle wasn't Sheldon's only public burning, Elderkin told me: "He went through a number of furors over women. A similar thing later happened at Pembroke, the women's college at Brown." In each case, the fact that female nudes were involved kindled the flame against Sheldon. Toward the end, Sheldon became a kind of pathetic Willy Loman-esque figure as he wandered America far from the elite Ivy halls that had once housed him, seeking a place he could complete the photography for his "Atlas of Women." - -Rejected and scorned, out of fashion with academic officialdom, Sheldon is still a hero to Roland D. Elderkin. And so when Sheldon died in 1977, "a lonely old man who did nothing his last years but sit in his room and read detective stories," Elderkin said, "there was nobody else to carry on." It fell to Elderkin to find a final resting place for the huge archives of Sheldon's posture nudes. - -It wasn't easy, he said. Elderkin went "up and down the East Coast trying to peddle them" to places like Harvard and Columbia, which once welcomed Sheldon but now wanted nothing to do with nude photos and the controversy trailing them. "That's how I found out about the burning at Pembroke," Elderkin recalled. "I was trying to get someone at Brown to accept them, and he said, 'That filth? We already burned the ones we had.' " - -"And you know where they are now?" I asked incredulously. "Hersey and Lanier said they didn't know." - -"Sure I do," he said. "I was the one that finally found a home for them." - -And then he told me where. - -BEFORE WE PROCEED TO the location of the treasure itself, it might be wise to pause and ponder the wisdom of opening such a Pandora's box. With scholars like Hersey alleging eugenic motives behind Sheldon's project, with the self-images of so many of the cultural elite at stake, would exposure of the hidden hoard be defensible? Is there anyone, aside from lifelong Sheldon disciples, who will step forward to defend Sheldon's posture photos? - -Of course there is: Camille Paglia. - -"I'm very interested in somatotypes," she said. "I constantly use the term in my work. The word 'ectomorph' is used repeatedly in 'Sexual Personae' about Spenser's Apollonian angels. That's one of the things I'm trying to do: to reconsider these classification schemes, to rescue them from their tainting by Nazi ideology. It's always been a part of classicism. It's sort of like we've lost the old curiosity about physical characteristics, physical differences. And I maintain it's bourgeois prudery. - -"See, I'm interested in looking at women's breasts! I'm interested in looking at men's penises! I maintain that at the present date, Penthouse, Playboy, Hustler, serve the same cultural functions as the posture photos." - -With these words ringing in my ears, I set out to see if I could open up the Sheldon archives. THE SECRET IS BARED - -Down a dimly lit back corridor of the National Museum of Natural History in Washington, far from the dinosaur displays, is a branch of the Smithsonian not well known to the public: the National Anthropological Archives. - -Although it contains a rich and strange assortment of archival treasures, it's particularly notable for the number of Native Americans who travel here to investigate centuries-old anthropological records, poring over them in a cramped, windowless research room whose walls are hung with stylized illustrations of tribal rituals painted by one Chief Blue Eagle. It was here that my quest for another kind of tribal illustration -- the taboo images of the blue-blood tribe, the long-lost nude posture photos -- culminated at last. - -In 1987, the curators of the National Anthropological Archives acquired the remains of Sheldon's life work, which were gathering dust in "dead storage" in a Goodwill warehouse in Boston. While there were solid archival reasons for making the acquisition, the curators are clearly aware that they harbor some potentially explosive material in their storage rooms. And they did not make it easy for me to gain access. - -On my first visit, I was informed by a good-natured but wary supervisor that the restrictive grant of Sheldon's materials by his estate would permit me to review only the written materials in the Sheldon archives. The actual photographs, he said, were off-limits. To see them, I would have to petition the chief of archivists. Determined to pursue the matter to the bitter end, I began the process of applying for permission. - -Meanwhile, I plunged into the written material hoping to find answers to several unresolved mysteries. Although I did not find substantiation in those files for Hersey's belief that Sheldon was actively engaged in a master-race eugenic project, I did find stunning confirmation of Hersey's charge that Sheldon held racist views. - -In Box 43 I came across a document never referred to in any of the literature on Sheldon I'd seen. It was a faded offprint of a 1924 Sheldon study, "The Intelligence of Mexican Children." In it are damning assertions presented as scientific truisms that "Negro intelligence" comes to a "standstill at about the 10th year," Mexican at about age 12. To the author of such sentiments, America's elite institutions entrusted their student bodies. - -Another box held clues to the truth behind Nora Ephron's tale about smoking and organ size. It turned out to be true that a research arm of the tobacco industry had sponsored studies on the relationship between masculinity and smoking, and that the studies had involved Sheldonian posture photos of Harvard men -- although there is no evidence that the criterion of masculinity was the "obvious one" referred to by Ephron. I located a fascinating report on this research in a December 1959 issue of the respected journal Science, a report titled "Masculinity and Smoking." According to the article, and contrary to the rumor, it is "not strength but weakness of the masculine component" that is "more frequent in the heavier smokers." Here, perhaps, is the most profound cultural legacy of the Sheldonian posture-photo phenomenon: the blueprint for the sexual iconography of tobacco advertising. If, in fact, heavy smokers looked more like Harvard nerds than Marlboro men, why not use advertising imagery to make Harvard nerds feel like virile cowboys when they smoked? - -Finally and most telling, I found a letter nearly four decades old that did something nothing else in the files did. It gave a glimpse, a clue to the feelings of the subjects of Sheldon's research, particularly the women. I found the letter in a file of correspondence between Sheldon and various phys ed directors at women's colleges who were providing Sheldon with bodies for the ill-fated "Atlas of Women." In this letter, an official at Denison University in Granville, Ohio, was responding to Sheldon's request to rephotograph the female freshmen he had photographed the year before. Something had apparently gone wrong with the technical side of the earlier shoot. But the official refused to allow Sheldon to reshoot the women, declaring that "to require them to pose for another [ nude posture photo ] would create insurmountable psychological problems." - -Insurmountable psychological problems. Suddenly the subjects of Sheldon's photography leaped into the foreground: the shy girl, the fat girl, the religiously conservative, the victim of inappropriate parental attention. Here, perhaps, Naomi Wolf has a point. In a culture that already encourages women to scrutinize their bodies critically, the first thing that happens to these women when they arrive at college is an intrusive, uncomfortable, public examination of their nude bodies. - -THREE MONTHS LATER, I FINALLY SUCCEEDED IN gaining permission to study the elusive posture photos. As I sat at my desk in the reading room, under a portrait of Chief Blue Eagle, the long-sought cache materialized. A curator trundled in a library cart from the storage facility. Teetering on top of the cart were stacks of big, gray cardboard boxes. The curator handed me a pair of the white cotton gloves that researchers must use to handle archival material. - -The contents of the boxes were described in an accompanying "Finder's Aid" in this fashion: BOX 90 YALE UNIVERSITY CLASS OF 1971 - -Negatives. Full length views of nude freshmen men, front, back and rear. Includes weight, height, previous or maximum weight, with age, name, or initials. BOX 95 MOUNT HOLYOKE COLLEGE PHOTOGRAPHS - -Negatives. Made in 1950. Full length views of nude women, front, back and rear. Includes height, weight, date and age. Includes some photographs marked S.P.C. - -Among the other classes listed in the Finder's Aid were: the Yale classes of '50, '63, '64, '66 and '71; the Princeton class of '52; Smith '50 and '52; Vassar '42 and '52; Mount Holyoke '53; Swarthmore '51; University of California '61 and '67; Hotchkiss '71; Syracuse '50; University of Wisconsin '53; Purdue '53; University of Pennsylvania '51, and Brooklyn College '51 and '52. There were also undated photos from the Oregon Hospital for the Criminally Insane (which I could not distinguish in any way from the Ivy League photos). All told, there were some 20,000 photographs of men -- 9,000 from Yale -- and 7,000 of women. - -In flipping through those thousands of images (which were recently transferred to Smithsonian archives in Suitland, Md.), I found surprising testimony to the "insurmountable psychological problems" that the Denison University official had referred to. It took awhile for the "problems" to become apparent, because, as it turned out, I was not permitted to see positive photographs -- only negatives (with no names attached). - -A fascinating distinction was being exhibited here, a kind of light-polarity theory of prurience and privacy that absolves the negative image of the naked body of whatever transgressive power it might have in a positive print. There's an intuitive logic to the theory, although here the Sheldon posture-photo phenomenon exposes how fragile are the distinctions we make between the sanctioned and the forbidden images of the body. - -As I thumbed rapidly through box after box to confirm that the entries described in the Finder's Aid were actually there, I tried to glance at only the faces. It was a decision that paid off, because it was in them that a crucial difference between the men and the women revealed itself. For the most part, the men looked diffident, oblivious. That's not surprising considering that men of that era were accustomed to undressing for draft physicals and athletic-squad weigh-ins. - -But the faces of the women were another story. I was surprised at how many looked deeply unhappy, as if pained at being subjected to this procedure. On the faces of quite a few I saw what looked like grimaces, reflecting pronounced discomfort, perhaps even anger. - -I was not much more comfortable myself sitting there in the midst of stacks of boxes of such images. There I was at the end of my quest. I'd tracked down the fabled photographs, but the lessons of the posture-photo ritual were elusive. - -"THERE'S A TREMENDOUS LESSON HERE," MISS manners declares. "Which is that one should have sympathy and tolerance for respectable women from whose past naked pictures suddenly show up. One should think of the many times where some woman becomes prominent like Marilyn Monroe and suddenly there are nude pictures in her past. Shouldn't we be a little less condemning of someone in that position?" - -A little less condemning of the victims, yes, certainly. (I speak as one myself, although it turned out that my photo was burned in the Yale bonfire of the late 70's.) But what about the perpetrators? What could have possessed so many elite institutions of higher education to turn their student bodies over to the practitioners of what now seems so dubious a science project? - -It's a question that baffles the current powers that be at Ivy League schools. The response of Gary Fryer, Yale's spokesman, is representative: "We searched, but there's nobody around now who was involved with the decision." Even so, he assures me, nothing like it could happen again; concerns about privacy have heightened, and, as he puts it, "there's now a Federal law against disclosing anything in a college student's record to any outsider without written permission." - -In other words, "We won't get fooled again." Though he is undoubtedly correct that nothing precisely like the posture-photo folly could happen again, it is hard to deny the possibility, the likelihood, that well-meaning people and institutions will get taken in -- are being taken in -- by those who peddle scientific conjecture as certainty. Sheldon's dream of reducing the complexity of human personality and the contingency of human fate to a single number is a recurrent one, as the continuing I.Q. controversy demonstrates. And a reminder that skepticism is still valuable in the face of scientific claims of certainty, particularly in the slippery realms of human behavior. - -The rise and fall of "sciences" like Marxist history, Freudian psychology and Keynesian economics suggests that at least some of the beliefs and axioms treated as science today (Rorschach analysis, "rational choice" economics, perhaps) will turn out to have little more validity than nude stick-pin somatotyping. - -In the Sheldon rituals, the student test subjects were naked -- but it was the emperors of scientific certainty who had no clothes. - -Photos: W. H. Sheldon, the posture-photo guru. Wellesley student (circa 1930) with posture-measuring pins. (FROM "THE VARIETIES OF HUMAN PHYSIQUE."); Examples of Sheldon's endo-, meso- and ectomorphs, right. (RESEARCH QUARTERLY/AAHPERD, FROM NEW YORK UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES)(pg. 26-27); Sheldon believed that photos like these could yield a three-digit number to define a person's temperament. Insets: Wellesley posture technicians and their laboratories circa 1930. (SINGLE POSTURE PHOTO: FROM "ATLAS OF MEN," FROM NEW YORK UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES. TRIPTYCHS: FROM "THE VARIETIES OF HUMAN PHYSIQUE." INSETS: RESEARCH QUARTERLY/AAHPERD.)(pgh. 28-29); Whether scandal or folly, the strange phenomenon of the nude "posture photos" is also a kind of touchstone for registering attitudes toward body, race and gender in the past half-century. (SINGLE POSTURE PHOTO: FROM "ATLAS OF MEN." TRIPTYCHS, LEFT AND SECOND FROM RIGHT: FROM "ATLAS OF MEN"; OTHERS: FROM "THE VARIETIES OF HUMAN PHYSIQUE." 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+ONE AFTERNOON IN THE LATE 1970's, deep in the labyrinthine interior of a +massive Gothic tower in New Haven, an unsuspecting employee of Yale +University opened a long-locked room in the Payne Whitney Gymnasium and +stumbled upon something shocking and disturbing. + +Shocking, because what he found was an enormous cache of nude +photographs, thousands and thousands of photographs of young men in +front, side and rear poses. Disturbing, because on closer inspection the +photos looked like the record of a bizarre body-piercing ritual: +sticking out from the spine of each and every body was a row of sharp +metal pins. + +The employee who found them was mystified. The athletic director at the +time, Frank Ryan, a former Cleveland Browns quarterback new to Yale, was +mystified. But after making some discreet inquiries, he found out what +they were -- and took swift action to burn them. He called in a +professional, a document-disposal expert, who initiated a two-step +torching procedure. First, every single one of the many thousands of +photographs was fed into a shredder, and then each of the shreds was fed +to the flames, thereby insuring that not a single intact or recognizable +image of the nude Yale students -- some of whom had gone on to assume +positions of importance in government and society -- would survive. + +It was the Bonfire of the Best and the Brightest, and the assumption was +that the last embarrassing reminders of a peculiar practice, which +masqueraded as science and now looked like a kind of kinky voodoo +ritual, had gone up in smoke. The assumption was wrong. Thousands upon +thousands of photos from Yale and other elite schools survive to this +day. + +When I first embarked on my quest for the lost nude "posture photos," I +could not decide whether to think of the phenomenon as a scandal or as +an extreme example of academic folly -- of what happens when +well-intentioned institutions allow their reverence for the reigning +conjectures of scientific orthodoxy to persuade them to do things that +seem silly or scandalous in retrospect. And now that I've found them, +I'm still not sure whether outrage or laughter is the more appropriate +reaction. Your response, dear reader, may depend on whether your nude +photograph is among them. And if you attended Yale, Mount Holyoke, +Vassar, Smith or Princeton -- to name a few of the schools involved -- +from the 1940's through the 1960's, there's a chance that yours may be. + +Your response may also depend on how you feel about the fact that some +of these schools made nude or seminude photographs of you available to +the disciples of what many now regard as a pseudo-science without asking +permission. And on how you feel about an obscure archive in Washington +making them available for researchers to study. + +While investigating the strange odyssey of the missing nude "posture +photos," I found that the issue is, in every respect, a very touchy +matter -- indeed, a kind of touchstone for registering the uneven +evolution of attitudes toward body, race and gender in the past +half-century. UP YOUR LEGS FOR YALE + +I personally have posed nude only twice in my life. The second time -- +for a John and Yoko film titled "Up Your Legs Forever," which has been +screened at the Whitney -- I was one of many, it was Art, and let's +leave it at that. But the first time was even more strange and bizarre +because of its strait-laced Ivy setting, its preliberation context -- +and yes, because of the metal pins stuck on my body. + +One fall afternoon in the mid-60's, shortly after I arrived in New Haven +to begin my freshman year at Yale, I was summoned to that sooty Gothic +shrine to muscular virtue known as Payne Whitney Gym. I reported to a +windowless room on an upper floor, where men dressed in crisp white +garments instructed me to remove all of my clothes. And then -- and this +is the part I still have trouble believing -- they attached metal pins +to my spine. There was no actual piercing of skin, only of dignity, as +four-inch metal pins were affixed with adhesive to my vertebrae at +regular intervals from my neck down. I was positioned against a wall; a +floodlight illuminated my pin-spiked profile and a camera captured it. + +It didn't occur to me to object: I'd been told that this "posture photo" +was a routine feature of freshman orientation week. Those whose pins +described a too violent or erratic postural curve were required to +attend remedial posture classes. + +The procedure did seem strange. But I soon learned that it was a +long-established custom at most Ivy League and Seven Sisters schools. +George Bush, George Pataki, Brandon Tartikoff and Bob Woodward were +required to do it at Yale. At Vassar, Meryl Streep; at Mount Holyoke, +Wendy Wasserstein; at Wellesley, Hillary Rodham and Diane Sawyer. All of +them -- whole generations of the cultural elite -- were asked to pose. +But however much the colleges tried to make this bizarre procedure seem +routine, its undeniable strangeness engendered a scurrilous strain of +folklore. THE MISMEASURE OF MAN + +There were several salacious stories circulating at Yale back in the +60's. Most common was the report that someone had broken into a photo +lab in Poughkeepsie, N.Y., and stolen the negatives of that year's +Vassar posture nudes, which were supposedly for sale on the Ivy League +black market or available to the initiates of Skull and Bones. Little +did I know how universal this myth was. + +"Ah, yes, the famous rumored stolen Vassar posture pictures," Nora +Ephron (Wellesley '62) recalled when I spoke with her. "But don't forget +the famous rumored stolen Wellesley posture photos." + +"Wellesley too?" + +"Oh, yes," she said. "It's one of those urban legends." + +She can laugh about it now, she said, but in retrospect the whole idea +that she and all her smart classmates went along with being photographed +in this way dismays her. "We were idiots," she said. "Idiots\!" + +Sally Quinn (Smith '63), the Washington writer, expressed alarm when I +first reached her. "God, I'm relieved," she said. "I thought you were +going to tell me you found mine. You always thought when you did it that +one day they'd come back to haunt you. That 25 years later, when your +husband was running for President, they'd show up in Penthouse." + +Another Wellesley alumna, Judith Martin, author of the Miss Manners +column, told me she's "appalled in retrospect" that the college forced +this practice on their freshmen. "Why weren't we more appalled at the +time?" she wondered. Nonetheless, she confessed to making a kind of +good-natured extortionate use of the posture-photo specter herself. + +"I do remember making a reunion speech in which I offered to sell them +back to people for large donations. And there were a lot of people who +turned pale before they realized it was a joke." + +Distinguishing between joke and reality is often difficult in +posture-photo lore. Consider the astonishing rumor Ephron clued me in +to, a story she assured me she'd heard from someone very close to the +source: + +"There was a guy, an adjunct professor of sociology who was working on a +grant for the tobacco industry. And what I heard when I was at Wellesley +was that, using Harvard posture photos, he had proved conclusively that +the more manly you are, the more you smoked. And I believe the criterion +for manliness was the obvious one." + +"The obvious one?" + +"I assume -- what else could it have been?" + +In fact, the study was real. I was able to track it down, although the +conclusion it reached about Harvard men was somewhat different from what +Ephron recalled. But, clearly, the nude-posture-photo practice +engendered heated fantasies in both sexes. Perhaps in the otherwise +circumspect Ivy League-Seven Sisters world, nude posture photos were the +licensed exception to propriety that spawned licentious fantasies. +Fantasies that were to lie unremembered, or at least unpublicized until. +. . . THE RETURN OF THE REPRESSED + +It was Naomi Wolf, author of "The Beauty Myth," who opened the Pandora's +box of posture-photo controversy. In that book and in a 1992 Op-Ed piece +in The Times, Wolf (Yale '84) bitterly attacked Dick Cavett (Yale '55) +for a joke he'd made at Wolf's graduation ceremonies. According to Wolf, +who'd never had a posture photo taken (the practice was discontinued at +Yale in 1968), Cavett took the microphone and told the following +anecdote: + +"When I was an undergraduate . . . there were no women \[ at Yale \] . +The women went to Vassar. At Vassar they had nude photographs taken of +women in gym class to check their posture. One year the photos were +stolen and turned up for sale in New Haven's red-light district." His +punchline: "The photos found no buyers." + +Wolf was horrified. Cavett, she wrote in her book, "transposed us for a +moment out of the gentle quadrangle where we had been led to believe we +were cherished, and into the tawdry district four blocks away, where +stolen photographs of our naked bodies would find no buyers." + +Cavett responded, in a letter to The Times, by dismissing the joke as an +innocuous "example of how my Yale years showed up in my long-forgotten +nightclub act." + +Wolf's horrified account attests to the totemic power of the +posture-photo legend. But little did she know, little did Cavett know, +how potentially sinister the entire phenomenon really was. No one knew +until. . . . THE NAZI-POSTURE-PHOTO ALLEGATION + +This is where things get really strange. Shortly after Cavett's reply, +George Hersey, a respected art history professor at Yale, wrote a letter +to The Times that ran under the headline "A Secret Lies Hidden in Vassar +and Yale Nude 'Posture Photos.' " Sounding an ominous note, Hersey +declared that the photos "had nothing to do with posture . . . that is +only what we were told." + +Hersey went on to say that the pictures were actually made for +anthropological research: "The reigning school of the time, presided +over by E. A. Hooton of Harvard and W. H. Sheldon" -- who directed an +institute for physique studies at Columbia University -- "held that a +person's body, measured and analyzed, could tell much about +intelligence, temperament, moral worth and probable future achievement. +The inspiration came from the founder of social Darwinism, Francis +Galton, who proposed such a photo archive for the British population." + +And then Hersey evoked the specter of the Third Reich: + +"The Nazis compiled similar archives analyzing the photos for racial as +well as characterological content (as did Hooton). . . . The Nazis often +used American high school yearbook photographs for this purpose. . . . +The American investigators planned an archive that could correlate each +freshman's bodily configuration ('somatotype') and physiognomy with +later life history. That the photos had no value as pornography is a +tribute to their resolutely scientific nature." + +A truly breathtaking missive. What Hersey seemed to be saying was that +entire generations of America's ruling class had been unwitting guinea +pigs in a vast eugenic experiment run by scientists with a master-race +hidden agenda. My classmate Steve Weisman, the Times editor who first +called my attention to the letter, pointed out a fascinating corollary: +The letter managed in a stroke to confer on some of the most +overprivileged people in the world the one status distinction it seemed +they'd forever be denied -- victim. + +My first stop in what would turn out to be a prolonged and eventful +quest for the truth about the posture photos was Professor Hersey's +office in New Haven. A thoughtful, civilized scholar, Hersey did not +seem prone to sensationalism. But he showed me a draft chapter from his +forthcoming book on the esthetics of racism that went even further than +the allegations in his letter to The Times. I was struck by one passage +in particular: + +"From the outset, the purpose of these 'posture photographs' was +eugenic. The data accumulated, says Hooton, will eventually lead on to +proposals to 'control and limit the production of inferior and useless +organisms.' Some of the latter would be penalized for reproducing . . . +or would be sterilized. But the real solution is to be enforced better +breeding -- getting those Exeter and Harvard men together with their +corresponding Wellesley, Vassar and Radcliffe girls." + +In other words, a kind of eugenic dating service, "Studs" for the +cultural elite. But my talk with Hersey left key questions unanswered. +What was the precise relationship between theorists like Hooton and +Sheldon (the man who actually took tens of thousands of those nude +posture photos) and the Ivy League and Seven Sisters schools whose +student bodies were photographed? Were the schools complicit or were +they simply dupes? And finally: What became of the photographs? + +As for the last question, Hersey thought there'd be no trouble locating +the photographs. He assumed that "they can probably be found with +Sheldon's research papers" in one of the several academic institutions +with which he had been associated. But most of those institutions said +that they had burned whatever photos they'd had. Harley P. Holden, +curator of Harvard's archives, said that from the 1880's to the 1940's +the university had its own posture-photo program in which some 3,500 +pictures of its students were taken. Most were destroyed 15 or 20 years +ago "for privacy scruples," Holden said. Nonetheless, quite a few +Harvard nudes can be found illustrating Sheldon's book on body types, +the "Atlas of Men." Radcliffe took posture photos from 1931 to 1961; the +curator there said that most of them had been destroyed (although some +might be missing) and that none were taken by Sheldon. + +Hersey insisted that there was a treasure trove of Sheldon photographs +out there to be found. He gave me the phone number of a man in New +Mexico named Ellery Lanier, a friend of Sheldon, the posture-photo +mastermind. "He might know where they ended up," Hersey told me. + +Going from Hersey to Lanier meant stepping over the threshold from +contemporary academic orthodoxy into the more exotic precincts of +Sheldon subculture, a loose-knit network of his surviving disciples. A +number of them keep the Sheldon legacy alive, hoping for a revival. + +Lanier, an articulate, seventyish doctoral student at New Mexico State, +told me he'd gotten to know Sheldon at Columbia in the late 1940's, when +the two of them were hanging out with Aldous Huxley and Christopher +Isherwood and their crew. (Sheldon had a prophetic mystical side, which +revealed itself in Huxleian philosophic treatises on the "Promethean +will." Sheldon was also, Lanier told me, "the world's leading expert on +the history of the American penny.") At that time, Sheldon was at the +apex of his now-forgotten renown. Life magazine ran a cover story in +1951 on Sheldon's theory of somatotypes. + +While the popular conception of Sheldonism has it that he divided human +beings into three types -- skinny, nervous "ectomorphs"; fat and jolly +"endomorphs"; confident, buffed "mesomorphs" -- what he actually did was +somewhat more complex. He believed that every individual harbored within +him different degrees of each of the three character components. By +using body measurements and ratios derived from nude photographs, +Sheldon believed he could assign every individual a three-digit number +representing the three components, components that Sheldon believed were +inborn -- genetic -- and remained unwavering determinants of character +regardless of transitory weight change. In other words, physique equals +destiny. + +It was the pop-psych flavor of the month for a while; Cosmopolitan +magazine published quizzes about how to understand your husband on the +basis of somatotype. Ecto-, meso- and endomorphic have entered the +language, although few scientists these days give credence to Sheldon's +claims. "Half the textbooks in \[ his \] area fail to take \[ him \] +seriously," remarked one academician in a 1992 paper on Sheldon's +legacy. Others, like Hans Eysenck, the British psychologist, have +suggested that Sheldon wasn't really doing science at all, that he was +just winging it, that there was "little theoretical foundation for the +observed findings." + +Nonetheless, in the late 40's and early 50's, Sheldonism seemed +mainstream, and Sheldon took advantage of that to approach Ivy League +schools. Many, like Harvard, already had a posture-photo tradition. But +it was at Wellesley College in the late 1920's that concern about +postural correctness metamorphosed into a cottage industry with +pretensions to science. The department of hygiene circulated training +films about posture measurement to other women's colleges, which took up +the practice, as did some "progressive" high schools and elementary +schools. (By the time Hillary Rodham arrived on the Wellesley campus, +women were allowed to have their pictures taken only partly nude. +Although Lanier assumes that Sheldon took the Rodham photo, Wellesley +archivists believe that Sheldon didn't take posture photos at their +school.) + +What Sheldon did was appropriate the ritual. Lanier confirmed that the +Ivy League "posture photos" Sheldon used were "part of a facade or +cover-up for what we were really doing" -- which would make the schools +less complicit. But Lanier stoutly defended "what we were really doing" +as valid science. As part of his Ph.D. project, he has been examining +Sheldonian ecto-, meso- and endomorphic categories and the "time +horizon" of the individual. + +"Conflicting temporal horizon can account for all the divorce we have +today," Lanier said. "The Woody Allen-Mia Farrow-type thing." + +Huh? Woody and Mia? + +"I'm trying to find some clue to the breakup because of the +discrepancies between their time focus," Lanier said. + +"Well, Woody's certainly ectomorphic, but. . . . " + +"No, let me correct you," Lanier said tartly. "Woody Allen creates an +illusion. He puts on a big show of being ectomorphic, but this is all a +cover-up because he's quite mesomorphic." + +"I think he would be surprised to hear that." + +"I know," Lanier said. "He wouldn't want to admit it, but the only way +you can know this is by looking at photographs very carefully." + +Lanier also filled me in on the cause of Sheldon's downfall: his never +completed, partly burned "Atlas of Women." In attempting to compile what +would have been the companion volume to his "Atlas of Men," which +included hundreds of nude Harvard men to illustrate each of the +three-digit body types, Sheldon made the strategic mistake of taking his +photo show on the road. + +What happened was this: In September 1950, Sheldon and his team +descended on Seattle, where the University of Washington had agreed to +play host to his project. He'd begun taking nude pictures of female +freshmen, but something went wrong. One of them told her parents about +the practice. The next morning, a battalion of lawyers and university +officials stormed Sheldon's lab, seized every photo of a nude woman, +convicted the images of shamefulness and sentenced them to burning. The +angry crew then shoveled the incendiary film into an incinerator. A +short-lived controversy broke out: Was this a book burning? A witch +hunt? Was Professor Sheldon's nude photography a legitimate scientific +investigation into the relationship between physique and temperament, +the raw material of serious scholarship? Or just raw material -- +pornography masquerading as science? + +They burned a few thousand photos in Seattle. Thousands more were burned +at Harvard, Vassar and Yale in the 60's and 70's, when the colleges +phased out the posture-photo practice. But thousands more escaped the +flames, tens of thousands that Sheldon took at Harvard, Vassar, Yale and +elsewhere but sequestered in his own archives. And what became of the +archives? Lanier didn't know, but he said they were out there somewhere. +He dug up the phone number of a man who was once the lawyer for +Sheldon's estate, a Mr. Joachim Weissfeld in Providence, R.I. "Maybe +he'll know," Lanier said. + +At this point, the posture-photo quest turned into a kind of high-speed +parody of "The Aspern Papers." The lawyer in Rhode Island professed +ignorance as to the whereabouts or even continued existence of the lost +Sheldonian archives, but he did put me in touch with the last living +leaf on the Sheldon family tree, a niece by marriage who lived in +Warwick, R.I. She, too, said she didn't know what had become of the +Sheldon photos, but she did give me the name of an 84-year-old man +living in Columbus, Ohio, who had worked very closely with Sheldon, one +Roland D. Elderkin -- a man who, in fact, had shot many of the lost +photos himself and who promised to reveal their location to me. THE +MYSTERY SOLVED + +With Roland D. Elderkin, we're now this close to the late, great Sheldon +himself. "There was nobody closer," Elderkin declared shortly after I +reached him at his rooming house in Columbus. "I was his soul mate." + +Elderkin described himself a bit mournfully as "just an 84-year-old man +living alone in a furnished room." But he once had a brush with +greatness, and you can hear it in his recollection of Sheldon and his +grand project. + +To Elderkin, Sheldon was no mere body-typer: he was a true philosophe, +"the first to introduce holistic perspective" to American science, a +proto-New Ager. Elderkin became Sheldon's research associate, his trusty +cameraman and a kind of private eye, compiling case histories of +Sheldon's posture nudes to confirm Sheldon's theories about physique and +destiny. He also witnessed Sheldon's downfall. + +The Bonfire of the Nude Coed Photos in Seattle wasn't Sheldon's only +public burning, Elderkin told me: "He went through a number of furors +over women. A similar thing later happened at Pembroke, the women's +college at Brown." In each case, the fact that female nudes were +involved kindled the flame against Sheldon. Toward the end, Sheldon +became a kind of pathetic Willy Loman-esque figure as he wandered +America far from the elite Ivy halls that had once housed him, seeking a +place he could complete the photography for his "Atlas of Women." + +Rejected and scorned, out of fashion with academic officialdom, Sheldon +is still a hero to Roland D. Elderkin. And so when Sheldon died in 1977, +"a lonely old man who did nothing his last years but sit in his room and +read detective stories," Elderkin said, "there was nobody else to carry +on." It fell to Elderkin to find a final resting place for the huge +archives of Sheldon's posture nudes. + +It wasn't easy, he said. Elderkin went "up and down the East Coast +trying to peddle them" to places like Harvard and Columbia, which once +welcomed Sheldon but now wanted nothing to do with nude photos and the +controversy trailing them. "That's how I found out about the burning at +Pembroke," Elderkin recalled. "I was trying to get someone at Brown to +accept them, and he said, 'That filth? We already burned the ones we +had.' " + +"And you know where they are now?" I asked incredulously. "Hersey and +Lanier said they didn't know." + +"Sure I do," he said. "I was the one that finally found a home for +them." + +And then he told me where. + +BEFORE WE PROCEED TO the location of the treasure itself, it might be +wise to pause and ponder the wisdom of opening such a Pandora's box. +With scholars like Hersey alleging eugenic motives behind Sheldon's +project, with the self-images of so many of the cultural elite at stake, +would exposure of the hidden hoard be defensible? Is there anyone, aside +from lifelong Sheldon disciples, who will step forward to defend +Sheldon's posture photos? + +Of course there is: Camille Paglia. + +"I'm very interested in somatotypes," she said. "I constantly use the +term in my work. The word 'ectomorph' is used repeatedly in 'Sexual +Personae' about Spenser's Apollonian angels. That's one of the things +I'm trying to do: to reconsider these classification schemes, to rescue +them from their tainting by Nazi ideology. It's always been a part of +classicism. It's sort of like we've lost the old curiosity about +physical characteristics, physical differences. And I maintain it's +bourgeois prudery. + +"See, I'm interested in looking at women's breasts\! I'm interested in +looking at men's penises\! I maintain that at the present date, +Penthouse, Playboy, Hustler, serve the same cultural functions as the +posture photos." + +With these words ringing in my ears, I set out to see if I could open up +the Sheldon archives. THE SECRET IS BARED + +Down a dimly lit back corridor of the National Museum of Natural History +in Washington, far from the dinosaur displays, is a branch of the +Smithsonian not well known to the public: the National Anthropological +Archives. + +Although it contains a rich and strange assortment of archival +treasures, it's particularly notable for the number of Native Americans +who travel here to investigate centuries-old anthropological records, +poring over them in a cramped, windowless research room whose walls are +hung with stylized illustrations of tribal rituals painted by one Chief +Blue Eagle. It was here that my quest for another kind of tribal +illustration -- the taboo images of the blue-blood tribe, the long-lost +nude posture photos -- culminated at last. + +In 1987, the curators of the National Anthropological Archives acquired +the remains of Sheldon's life work, which were gathering dust in "dead +storage" in a Goodwill warehouse in Boston. While there were solid +archival reasons for making the acquisition, the curators are clearly +aware that they harbor some potentially explosive material in their +storage rooms. And they did not make it easy for me to gain access. + +On my first visit, I was informed by a good-natured but wary supervisor +that the restrictive grant of Sheldon's materials by his estate would +permit me to review only the written materials in the Sheldon archives. +The actual photographs, he said, were off-limits. To see them, I would +have to petition the chief of archivists. Determined to pursue the +matter to the bitter end, I began the process of applying for +permission. + +Meanwhile, I plunged into the written material hoping to find answers to +several unresolved mysteries. Although I did not find substantiation in +those files for Hersey's belief that Sheldon was actively engaged in a +master-race eugenic project, I did find stunning confirmation of +Hersey's charge that Sheldon held racist views. + +In Box 43 I came across a document never referred to in any of the +literature on Sheldon I'd seen. It was a faded offprint of a 1924 +Sheldon study, "The Intelligence of Mexican Children." In it are damning +assertions presented as scientific truisms that "Negro intelligence" +comes to a "standstill at about the 10th year," Mexican at about age 12. +To the author of such sentiments, America's elite institutions entrusted +their student bodies. + +Another box held clues to the truth behind Nora Ephron's tale about +smoking and organ size. It turned out to be true that a research arm of +the tobacco industry had sponsored studies on the relationship between +masculinity and smoking, and that the studies had involved Sheldonian +posture photos of Harvard men -- although there is no evidence that the +criterion of masculinity was the "obvious one" referred to by Ephron. I +located a fascinating report on this research in a December 1959 issue +of the respected journal Science, a report titled "Masculinity and +Smoking." According to the article, and contrary to the rumor, it is +"not strength but weakness of the masculine component" that is "more +frequent in the heavier smokers." Here, perhaps, is the most profound +cultural legacy of the Sheldonian posture-photo phenomenon: the +blueprint for the sexual iconography of tobacco advertising. If, in +fact, heavy smokers looked more like Harvard nerds than Marlboro men, +why not use advertising imagery to make Harvard nerds feel like virile +cowboys when they smoked? + +Finally and most telling, I found a letter nearly four decades old that +did something nothing else in the files did. It gave a glimpse, a clue +to the feelings of the subjects of Sheldon's research, particularly the +women. I found the letter in a file of correspondence between Sheldon +and various phys ed directors at women's colleges who were providing +Sheldon with bodies for the ill-fated "Atlas of Women." In this letter, +an official at Denison University in Granville, Ohio, was responding to +Sheldon's request to rephotograph the female freshmen he had +photographed the year before. Something had apparently gone wrong with +the technical side of the earlier shoot. But the official refused to +allow Sheldon to reshoot the women, declaring that "to require them to +pose for another \[ nude posture photo \] would create insurmountable +psychological problems." + +Insurmountable psychological problems. Suddenly the subjects of +Sheldon's photography leaped into the foreground: the shy girl, the fat +girl, the religiously conservative, the victim of inappropriate parental +attention. Here, perhaps, Naomi Wolf has a point. In a culture that +already encourages women to scrutinize their bodies critically, the +first thing that happens to these women when they arrive at college is +an intrusive, uncomfortable, public examination of their nude bodies. + +THREE MONTHS LATER, I FINALLY SUCCEEDED IN gaining permission to study +the elusive posture photos. As I sat at my desk in the reading room, +under a portrait of Chief Blue Eagle, the long-sought cache +materialized. A curator trundled in a library cart from the storage +facility. Teetering on top of the cart were stacks of big, gray +cardboard boxes. The curator handed me a pair of the white cotton gloves +that researchers must use to handle archival material. + +The contents of the boxes were described in an accompanying "Finder's +Aid" in this fashion: BOX 90 YALE UNIVERSITY CLASS OF 1971 + +Negatives. Full length views of nude freshmen men, front, back and rear. +Includes weight, height, previous or maximum weight, with age, name, or +initials. BOX 95 MOUNT HOLYOKE COLLEGE PHOTOGRAPHS + +Negatives. Made in 1950. Full length views of nude women, front, back +and rear. Includes height, weight, date and age. Includes some +photographs marked S.P.C. + +Among the other classes listed in the Finder's Aid were: the Yale +classes of '50, '63, '64, '66 and '71; the Princeton class of '52; Smith +'50 and '52; Vassar '42 and '52; Mount Holyoke '53; Swarthmore '51; +University of California '61 and '67; Hotchkiss '71; Syracuse '50; +University of Wisconsin '53; Purdue '53; University of Pennsylvania '51, +and Brooklyn College '51 and '52. There were also undated photos from +the Oregon Hospital for the Criminally Insane (which I could not +distinguish in any way from the Ivy League photos). All told, there were +some 20,000 photographs of men -- 9,000 from Yale -- and 7,000 of women. + +In flipping through those thousands of images (which were recently +transferred to Smithsonian archives in Suitland, Md.), I found +surprising testimony to the "insurmountable psychological problems" that +the Denison University official had referred to. It took awhile for the +"problems" to become apparent, because, as it turned out, I was not +permitted to see positive photographs -- only negatives (with no names +attached). + +A fascinating distinction was being exhibited here, a kind of +light-polarity theory of prurience and privacy that absolves the +negative image of the naked body of whatever transgressive power it +might have in a positive print. There's an intuitive logic to the +theory, although here the Sheldon posture-photo phenomenon exposes how +fragile are the distinctions we make between the sanctioned and the +forbidden images of the body. + +As I thumbed rapidly through box after box to confirm that the entries +described in the Finder's Aid were actually there, I tried to glance at +only the faces. It was a decision that paid off, because it was in them +that a crucial difference between the men and the women revealed itself. +For the most part, the men looked diffident, oblivious. That's not +surprising considering that men of that era were accustomed to +undressing for draft physicals and athletic-squad weigh-ins. + +But the faces of the women were another story. I was surprised at how +many looked deeply unhappy, as if pained at being subjected to this +procedure. On the faces of quite a few I saw what looked like grimaces, +reflecting pronounced discomfort, perhaps even anger. + +I was not much more comfortable myself sitting there in the midst of +stacks of boxes of such images. There I was at the end of my quest. I'd +tracked down the fabled photographs, but the lessons of the +posture-photo ritual were elusive. + +"THERE'S A TREMENDOUS LESSON HERE," MISS manners declares. "Which is +that one should have sympathy and tolerance for respectable women from +whose past naked pictures suddenly show up. One should think of the many +times where some woman becomes prominent like Marilyn Monroe and +suddenly there are nude pictures in her past. Shouldn't we be a little +less condemning of someone in that position?" + +A little less condemning of the victims, yes, certainly. (I speak as one +myself, although it turned out that my photo was burned in the Yale +bonfire of the late 70's.) But what about the perpetrators? What could +have possessed so many elite institutions of higher education to turn +their student bodies over to the practitioners of what now seems so +dubious a science project? + +It's a question that baffles the current powers that be at Ivy League +schools. The response of Gary Fryer, Yale's spokesman, is +representative: "We searched, but there's nobody around now who was +involved with the decision." Even so, he assures me, nothing like it +could happen again; concerns about privacy have heightened, and, as he +puts it, "there's now a Federal law against disclosing anything in a +college student's record to any outsider without written permission." + +In other words, "We won't get fooled again." Though he is undoubtedly +correct that nothing precisely like the posture-photo folly could happen +again, it is hard to deny the possibility, the likelihood, that +well-meaning people and institutions will get taken in -- are being +taken in -- by those who peddle scientific conjecture as certainty. +Sheldon's dream of reducing the complexity of human personality and the +contingency of human fate to a single number is a recurrent one, as the +continuing I.Q. controversy demonstrates. And a reminder that skepticism +is still valuable in the face of scientific claims of certainty, +particularly in the slippery realms of human behavior. + +The rise and fall of "sciences" like Marxist history, Freudian +psychology and Keynesian economics suggests that at least some of the +beliefs and axioms treated as science today (Rorschach analysis, +"rational choice" economics, perhaps) will turn out to have little more +validity than nude stick-pin somatotyping. + +In the Sheldon rituals, the student test subjects were naked -- but it +was the emperors of scientific certainty who had no clothes. + +Photos: W. H. Sheldon, the posture-photo guru. Wellesley student (circa +1930) with posture-measuring pins. (FROM "THE VARIETIES OF HUMAN +PHYSIQUE."); Examples of Sheldon's endo-, meso- and ectomorphs, right. +(RESEARCH QUARTERLY/AAHPERD, FROM NEW YORK UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES)(pg. +26-27); Sheldon believed that photos like these could yield a +three-digit number to define a person's temperament. Insets: Wellesley +posture technicians and their laboratories circa 1930. (SINGLE POSTURE +PHOTO: FROM "ATLAS OF MEN," FROM NEW YORK UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES. +TRIPTYCHS: FROM "THE VARIETIES OF HUMAN PHYSIQUE." INSETS: RESEARCH +QUARTERLY/AAHPERD.)(pgh. 28-29); Whether scandal or folly, the strange +phenomenon of the nude "posture photos" is also a kind of touchstone for +registering attitudes toward body, race and gender in the past +half-century. (SINGLE POSTURE PHOTO: FROM "ATLAS OF MEN." TRIPTYCHS, +LEFT AND SECOND FROM RIGHT: FROM "ATLAS OF MEN"; OTHERS: FROM "THE +VARIETIES OF HUMAN PHYSIQUE." INSETS: RESEARCH QUARTERLY/AAHPERD.)(pg. +30-31) diff --git a/_stories/1995/9393868.md b/_stories/1995/9393868.md index 3af9a6e..f94f550 100644 --- a/_stories/1995/9393868.md +++ b/_stories/1995/9393868.md @@ -19,7 +19,12 @@ _tags: objectID: '9393868' --- -[Source](https://www.duckware.com/bugfreec/index.html "Permalink to ") - - - +**Note to this online book:** On April 29, 2002, I reacquired the +publishing rights to my book (from Prentice Hall), and have decided to +publish it online, where it is now freely available for anyone to read +(and print - provided that the printed copy is only for your personal +use). I have personally moved on to the Java programming language, and +now to HTML5. This book is showing its age, but for anyone who still +programs in C, the techniques described in this book -- **especially the +class methodology in Chapter 4** -- are still a 'little gem' worth +knowing about. Enjoy\! diff --git a/_stories/1996/10449357.md b/_stories/1996/10449357.md deleted file mode 100644 index 6886fea..0000000 --- a/_stories/1996/10449357.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,25 +0,0 @@ ---- -created_at: '2015-10-26T02:37:59.000Z' -title: The Log-Structured Merge-Tree (LSM-Tree) (1996) [pdf] -url: http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.44.2782&rep=rep1&type=pdf -author: espeed -points: 59 -story_text: -comment_text: -num_comments: 24 -story_id: -story_title: -story_url: -parent_id: -created_at_i: 1445827079 -_tags: -- story -- author_espeed -- story_10449357 -objectID: '10449357' - ---- -[Source](http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.44.2782&rep=rep1&type=pdf "Permalink to ") - - - diff --git a/_stories/1996/10953359.md b/_stories/1996/10953359.md index 3802732..afe2c6f 100644 --- a/_stories/1996/10953359.md +++ b/_stories/1996/10953359.md @@ -19,95 +19,29 @@ _tags: objectID: '10953359' --- -[Source](http://www.nytimes.com/1996/01/22/business/the-new-york-times-introduces-a-web-site.html "Permalink to The New York Times Introduces a Web Site - The New York Times") +The Web-based Times is the newest of dozens of papers available to a +global audience on the Internet's fastest-growing service, which lets +computer users see electronic publications consisting of text, pictures +and, in some cases, video and sound. -# The New York Times Introduces a Web Site - The New York Times +A selection of the day's news, discussion forums and other material from +The Times has been available through the @times service since the spring +of 1994 on America Online. -__NYTimes.com no longer supports Internet Explorer 9 or earlier. Please upgrade your browser. [LEARN MORE »][1] +The Web site's global audience means a larger potential readership than +that of @times, which is limited to America Online's subscribers, +currently more than four million. The new site also offers new products +and services. -__Sections __ Home __Search [Skip to content][2] [Skip to navigation][3] [View mobile version][4] - -## [ The New York Times ][5] - -###### [Archives][6]|The New York Times Introduces a Web Site - -__Search - -Subscribe Now Log In __0 __Settings - -__Close search - -## Site Search Navigation - -Search NYTimes.com - -__Clear this text input - -Go - - - -1. Loading... - -See next articles - -See previous articles - -## Site Navigation - -## Site Mobile Navigation - -Advertisement - -### [Archives][6] | 1996 - -# The New York Times Introduces a Web Site - -By [PETER H. LEWIS][7] - -[Continue reading the main story][8] Share This Page - -[Continue reading the main story][8] - -[ ![The article as it originally appeared.][9] - -__ - -##### [View page in TimesMachine][10] - -, Page 00007 The New York Times Archives - -The New York Times begins publishing daily on the World Wide Web today, offering readers around the world immediate access to most of the daily newspaper's contents. - -The New York Times on the Web, as the electronic publication is known, contains most of the news and feature articles from the current day's printed newspaper, classified advertising, reporting that does not appear in the newspaper, and interactive features including the newspaper's crossword puzzle. - -The electronic newspaper (address: http:/www.nytimes.com) is part of a strategy to extend the readership of The Times and to create opportunities for the company in the electronic media industry, said Martin Nisenholtz, president of The New York Times Electronic Media Company. - -The company, formed in 1995 to develop products for the rapidly growing field of digital publishing, is a wholly owned subsidiary of The New York Times Company, and also produces the times service on America Online Inc. - -Advertisement - -[Continue reading the main story][8] - -Mr. Nisenholtz reports to Russell T. Lewis, the president and general manager of The New York Times, and to Joseph Lelyveld, the newspaper's executive editor. - -[Continue reading the main story][11] - -Advertisement - -[Continue reading the main story][12] - -The Web-based Times is the newest of dozens of papers available to a global audience on the Internet's fastest-growing service, which lets computer users see electronic publications consisting of text, pictures and, in some cases, video and sound. - -A selection of the day's news, discussion forums and other material from The Times has been available through the @times service since the spring of 1994 on America Online. - -The Web site's global audience means a larger potential readership than that of @times, which is limited to America Online's subscribers, currently more than four million. The new site also offers new products and services. - -"Our site is designed to take full advantage of the evolving capabilities offered by the Internet," said Arthur Sulzberger Jr., publisher of The Times. "We see our role on the Web as being similar to our traditional print role -- to act as a thoughtful, unbiased filter and to provide our customers with information they need and can trust." +"Our site is designed to take full advantage of the evolving +capabilities offered by the Internet," said Arthur Sulzberger Jr., +publisher of The Times. "We see our role on the Web as being similar to +our traditional print role -- to act as a thoughtful, unbiased filter +and to provide our customers with information they need and can trust." ## Newsletter Sign Up -[Continue reading the main story][13] +[Continue reading the main story](#continues-post-newsletter) ### @@ -117,265 +51,57 @@ Invalid email address. Please re-enter. You must select a newsletter to subscribe to. -Sign Up - -You agree to receive occasional updates and special offers for The New York Times's products and services. +You agree to receive occasional updates and special offers for The New +York Times's products and services. ### Thank you for subscribing. ### An error has occurred. Please try again later. -### You are already subscribed to this email. +[View all New York Times newsletters.](/newsletters) -[View all New York Times newsletters.][14] +The Web site will also offer access to much of what the newspaper has +published the previous week and access to feature articles from as far +back as 1980. -* [See Sample][15] -* [Manage Email Preferences][16] -* [Not you?][17] -* [Privacy Policy][18] -* Opt out or [contact us][19] anytime +Mr. Nisenholtz said that initially, at least, no subscription or access +fee would be charged for readers in the United States and that the +electronic paper would generate revenue from advertising. Readers who +connect to the electronic paper from outside the country will be offered +a 30-day trial without charge, but will eventually face a subscription +fee. -The Web site will also offer access to much of what the newspaper has published the previous week and access to feature articles from as far back as 1980. +Advertisers that have already announced participation on the Web site +include Toyota Motor Corporate Services, Chemical Bank and the Northeast +real estate concern Douglas Elliman. -Mr. Nisenholtz said that initially, at least, no subscription or access fee would be charged for readers in the United States and that the electronic paper would generate revenue from advertising. Readers who connect to the electronic paper from outside the country will be offered a 30-day trial without charge, but will eventually face a subscription fee. - -Advertisers that have already announced participation on the Web site include Toyota Motor Corporate Services, Chemical Bank and the Northeast real estate concern Douglas Elliman. - -Subscribers will have limited access to archives of Times articles and features dating to 1980, and will be able to copy articles to their own computers for $1.95 each, Mr. Nisenholtz said. +Subscribers will have limited access to archives of Times articles and +features dating to 1980, and will be able to copy articles to their own +computers for $1.95 each, Mr. Nisenholtz said. Advertisement -[Continue reading the main story][20] +[Continue reading the main story](#story-continues-4) -The new service will also offer, for a fee, a customized clipping service that delivers to a subscriber's electronic mailbox articles gleaned from each day's editions of the newspaper, based on key words the subscriber selects. +The new service will also offer, for a fee, a customized clipping +service that delivers to a subscriber's electronic mailbox articles +gleaned from each day's editions of the newspaper, based on key words +the subscriber selects. -With its entry on the Web, The Times is hoping to become a primary information provider in the computer age and to cut costs for newsprint, delivery and labor. Companies that have established Web-based information sites include television networks, computer companies, on-line information services, magazines and even individuals creating electronic newspapers of their own. +With its entry on the Web, The Times is hoping to become a primary +information provider in the computer age and to cut costs for newsprint, +delivery and labor. Companies that have established Web-based +information sites include television networks, computer companies, +on-line information services, magazines and even individuals creating +electronic newspapers of their own. -"The New York Times name will get people to look at the product once or maybe twice, and the fact that The New York Times has the kind of reach and credibility it does may persuade people to look three or four times," said John F. Kelsey 3d, president of the Kelsey Group, a consultancy running a conference on interactive newspapers next month. +"The New York Times name will get people to look at the product once or +maybe twice, and the fact that The New York Times has the kind of reach +and credibility it does may persuade people to look three or four +times," said John F. Kelsey 3d, president of the Kelsey Group, a +consultancy running a conference on interactive newspapers next month. -"The market is booming for newspapers on the World Wide Web," Mr. Kelsey said. - -We are continually improving the quality of our text archives. Please send feedback, error reports, and suggestions to archive_feedback@nytimes.com. - -A version of this article appears in print on January 22, 1996, on Page D00007 of the National edition with the headline: The New York Times Introduces a Web Site. 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https://www.nytimes.com/subscriptions/Multiproduct/lp5558.html?campaignId=37WXW +"The market is booming for newspapers on the World Wide Web," Mr. Kelsey +said. +[Continue reading the main story](#whats-next) diff --git a/_stories/1996/1235589.md b/_stories/1996/1235589.md index b3d9305..f6b550c 100644 --- a/_stories/1996/1235589.md +++ b/_stories/1996/1235589.md @@ -19,95 +19,29 @@ _tags: objectID: '1235589' --- -[Source](http://www.nytimes.com/1996/01/22/business/the-new-york-times-introduces-a-web-site.html "Permalink to The New York Times Introduces a Web Site - The New York Times") +The Web-based Times is the newest of dozens of papers available to a +global audience on the Internet's fastest-growing service, which lets +computer users see electronic publications consisting of text, pictures +and, in some cases, video and sound. -# The New York Times Introduces a Web Site - The New York Times +A selection of the day's news, discussion forums and other material from +The Times has been available through the @times service since the spring +of 1994 on America Online. -__NYTimes.com no longer supports Internet Explorer 9 or earlier. Please upgrade your browser. [LEARN MORE »][1] +The Web site's global audience means a larger potential readership than +that of @times, which is limited to America Online's subscribers, +currently more than four million. The new site also offers new products +and services. -__Sections __ Home __Search [Skip to content][2] [Skip to navigation][3] [View mobile version][4] - -## [ The New York Times ][5] - -###### [Archives][6]|The New York Times Introduces a Web Site - -__Search - -Subscribe Now Log In __0 __Settings - -__Close search - -## Site Search Navigation - -Search NYTimes.com - -__Clear this text input - -Go - - - -1. Loading... - -See next articles - -See previous articles - -## Site Navigation - -## Site Mobile Navigation - -Advertisement - -### [Archives][6] | 1996 - -# The New York Times Introduces a Web Site - -By [PETER H. LEWIS][7] - -[Continue reading the main story][8] Share This Page - -[Continue reading the main story][8] - -[ ![The article as it originally appeared.][9] - -__ - -##### [View page in TimesMachine][10] - -, Page 00007 The New York Times Archives - -The New York Times begins publishing daily on the World Wide Web today, offering readers around the world immediate access to most of the daily newspaper's contents. - -The New York Times on the Web, as the electronic publication is known, contains most of the news and feature articles from the current day's printed newspaper, classified advertising, reporting that does not appear in the newspaper, and interactive features including the newspaper's crossword puzzle. - -The electronic newspaper (address: http:/www.nytimes.com) is part of a strategy to extend the readership of The Times and to create opportunities for the company in the electronic media industry, said Martin Nisenholtz, president of The New York Times Electronic Media Company. - -The company, formed in 1995 to develop products for the rapidly growing field of digital publishing, is a wholly owned subsidiary of The New York Times Company, and also produces the times service on America Online Inc. - -Advertisement - -[Continue reading the main story][8] - -Mr. Nisenholtz reports to Russell T. Lewis, the president and general manager of The New York Times, and to Joseph Lelyveld, the newspaper's executive editor. - -[Continue reading the main story][11] - -Advertisement - -[Continue reading the main story][12] - -The Web-based Times is the newest of dozens of papers available to a global audience on the Internet's fastest-growing service, which lets computer users see electronic publications consisting of text, pictures and, in some cases, video and sound. - -A selection of the day's news, discussion forums and other material from The Times has been available through the @times service since the spring of 1994 on America Online. - -The Web site's global audience means a larger potential readership than that of @times, which is limited to America Online's subscribers, currently more than four million. The new site also offers new products and services. - -"Our site is designed to take full advantage of the evolving capabilities offered by the Internet," said Arthur Sulzberger Jr., publisher of The Times. "We see our role on the Web as being similar to our traditional print role -- to act as a thoughtful, unbiased filter and to provide our customers with information they need and can trust." +"Our site is designed to take full advantage of the evolving +capabilities offered by the Internet," said Arthur Sulzberger Jr., +publisher of The Times. "We see our role on the Web as being similar to +our traditional print role -- to act as a thoughtful, unbiased filter +and to provide our customers with information they need and can trust." ## Newsletter Sign Up -[Continue reading the main story][13] +[Continue reading the main story](#continues-post-newsletter) ### @@ -117,265 +51,57 @@ Invalid email address. Please re-enter. You must select a newsletter to subscribe to. -Sign Up - -You agree to receive occasional updates and special offers for The New York Times's products and services. +You agree to receive occasional updates and special offers for The New +York Times's products and services. ### Thank you for subscribing. ### An error has occurred. Please try again later. -### You are already subscribed to this email. +[View all New York Times newsletters.](/newsletters) -[View all New York Times newsletters.][14] +The Web site will also offer access to much of what the newspaper has +published the previous week and access to feature articles from as far +back as 1980. -* [See Sample][15] -* [Manage Email Preferences][16] -* [Not you?][17] -* [Privacy Policy][18] -* Opt out or [contact us][19] anytime +Mr. Nisenholtz said that initially, at least, no subscription or access +fee would be charged for readers in the United States and that the +electronic paper would generate revenue from advertising. Readers who +connect to the electronic paper from outside the country will be offered +a 30-day trial without charge, but will eventually face a subscription +fee. -The Web site will also offer access to much of what the newspaper has published the previous week and access to feature articles from as far back as 1980. +Advertisers that have already announced participation on the Web site +include Toyota Motor Corporate Services, Chemical Bank and the Northeast +real estate concern Douglas Elliman. -Mr. Nisenholtz said that initially, at least, no subscription or access fee would be charged for readers in the United States and that the electronic paper would generate revenue from advertising. Readers who connect to the electronic paper from outside the country will be offered a 30-day trial without charge, but will eventually face a subscription fee. - -Advertisers that have already announced participation on the Web site include Toyota Motor Corporate Services, Chemical Bank and the Northeast real estate concern Douglas Elliman. - -Subscribers will have limited access to archives of Times articles and features dating to 1980, and will be able to copy articles to their own computers for $1.95 each, Mr. Nisenholtz said. +Subscribers will have limited access to archives of Times articles and +features dating to 1980, and will be able to copy articles to their own +computers for $1.95 each, Mr. Nisenholtz said. Advertisement -[Continue reading the main story][20] +[Continue reading the main story](#story-continues-4) -The new service will also offer, for a fee, a customized clipping service that delivers to a subscriber's electronic mailbox articles gleaned from each day's editions of the newspaper, based on key words the subscriber selects. +The new service will also offer, for a fee, a customized clipping +service that delivers to a subscriber's electronic mailbox articles +gleaned from each day's editions of the newspaper, based on key words +the subscriber selects. -With its entry on the Web, The Times is hoping to become a primary information provider in the computer age and to cut costs for newsprint, delivery and labor. Companies that have established Web-based information sites include television networks, computer companies, on-line information services, magazines and even individuals creating electronic newspapers of their own. +With its entry on the Web, The Times is hoping to become a primary +information provider in the computer age and to cut costs for newsprint, +delivery and labor. Companies that have established Web-based +information sites include television networks, computer companies, +on-line information services, magazines and even individuals creating +electronic newspapers of their own. -"The New York Times name will get people to look at the product once or maybe twice, and the fact that The New York Times has the kind of reach and credibility it does may persuade people to look three or four times," said John F. Kelsey 3d, president of the Kelsey Group, a consultancy running a conference on interactive newspapers next month. +"The New York Times name will get people to look at the product once or +maybe twice, and the fact that The New York Times has the kind of reach +and credibility it does may persuade people to look three or four +times," said John F. Kelsey 3d, president of the Kelsey Group, a +consultancy running a conference on interactive newspapers next month. -"The market is booming for newspapers on the World Wide Web," Mr. Kelsey said. - -We are continually improving the quality of our text archives. Please send feedback, error reports, and suggestions to archive_feedback@nytimes.com. - -A version of this article appears in print on January 22, 1996, on Page D00007 of the National edition with the headline: The New York Times Introduces a Web Site. [Order Reprints][21]| [Today's Paper][22]|[Subscribe][23] - -[Continue reading the main story][24] - -## - -* * * * ## What's Next - -Loading... - -[Go to Home Page »][5] - -## Site Index [ The New York Times ][5] - -## Site Index Navigation - -### News - -* [World][25] -* [U.S.][26] -* [Politics][27] -* [N.Y.][28] -* [Business][29] -* [Tech][30] -* [Science][31] -* [Health][32] -* [Sports][33] -* [Education][34] -* [Obituaries][35] -* [Today's Paper][36] -* [Corrections][37] - -### Opinion - -* [Today's Opinion][38] -* [Op-Ed Columnists][39] -* [Editorials][40] -* [Op-Ed Contributors][41] -* [Letters][42] -* [Sunday Review][43] -* [Video: Opinion][44] - -### Arts - -* [Today's Arts][45] -* [Art & Design][46] -* [Books][47] -* [Dance][48] -* [Movies][49] -* [Music][50] -* [N.Y.C. 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We would love to hear from you. -* [Contact Us][90] -* [Work With Us][91] -* [Advertise][92] -* [Your Ad Choices][93] -* [Privacy][94] -* [Terms of Service][95] -* [Terms of Sale][96] - -## Site Information Navigation - -* [Site Map][97] -* [Help][98] -* [Site Feedback][99] -* [Subscriptions][100] - -[1]: http://www.nytimes.com/content/help/site/ie9-support.html -[2]: http://www.nytimes.com#story-header -[3]: http://www.nytimes.com#site-index-navigation -[4]: http://mobile.nytimes.com/1996/01/22/business/the-new-york-times-introduces-a-web-site.html -[5]: https://www.nytimes.com/ -[6]: http://timesmachine.nytimes.com/browser -[7]: https://www.nytimes.com/by/peter-h-lewis "More Articles by PETER H. 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https://www.nytimes.com/subscriptions/Multiproduct/lp5558.html?campaignId=37WXW +"The market is booming for newspapers on the World Wide Web," Mr. Kelsey +said. +[Continue reading the main story](#whats-next) diff --git a/_stories/1996/12589242.md b/_stories/1996/12589242.md deleted file mode 100644 index bbb5ae9..0000000 --- a/_stories/1996/12589242.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,25 +0,0 @@ ---- -created_at: '2016-09-27T12:59:12.000Z' -title: Essentials of Standard ML Modules (1996) [pdf] -url: http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.208.9430&rep=rep1&type=pdf -author: eatonphil -points: 92 -story_text: -comment_text: -num_comments: 11 -story_id: -story_title: -story_url: -parent_id: -created_at_i: 1474981152 -_tags: -- story -- author_eatonphil -- story_12589242 -objectID: '12589242' - ---- -[Source](http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.208.9430&rep=rep1&type=pdf "Permalink to ") - - - diff --git a/_stories/1996/12880598.md b/_stories/1996/12880598.md index f4cf71b..a3f1102 100644 --- a/_stories/1996/12880598.md +++ b/_stories/1996/12880598.md @@ -19,7 +19,615 @@ _tags: objectID: '12880598' --- -[Source](https://hbr.org/1996/01/a-country-is-not-a-company&cm_sp=Article-_-Links-_-Top of Page Recirculation "Permalink to ") +![JAN15\_22](/resources/images/article_assets/1996/01/JAN15_22.jpg) +Carlo Giambarresi +College students who plan to go into business often major in economics, +but few believe that they will end up using what they hear in the +lecture hall. Those students understand a fundamental truth: What they +learn in economics courses won’t help them run a business. +The converse is also true: What people learn from running a business +won’t help them formulate economic policy. A country is not a big +corporation. The habits of mind that make a great business leader are +not, in general, those that make a great economic analyst; an executive +who has made $1 billion is rarely the right person to turn to for advice +about a $6 trillion economy. + +Why should that be pointed out? After all, neither businesspeople nor +economists are usually very good poets, but so what? Yet many people +(not least successful business executives themselves) believe that +someone who has made a personal fortune will know how to make an entire +nation more prosperous. In fact, his or her advice is often disastrously +misguided. + +Many people believe that someone who has made a personal fortune will +know how to make an entire nation more prosperous. + +I am not claiming that business-people are stupid or that economists are +particularly smart. On the contrary, if the 100 top U.S. business +executives got together with the 100 leading economists, the least +impressive of the former group would probably outshine the most +impressive of the latter. My point is that the style of thinking +necessary for economic analysis is very different from that which leads +to success in business. By understanding that difference, we can begin +to understand what it means to do good economic analysis and perhaps +even help some businesspeople become the great economists they surely +have the intellect to be. + +Let me begin with two examples of economic issues that I have found +business executives generally do not understand: first, the relationship +between exports and job creation, and, second, the relationship between +foreign investment and trade balances. Both issues involve international +trade, partly because it is the area I know best but also because it is +an area in which businesspeople seem particularly inclined to make false +analogies between countries and corporations. + +## Exports and Jobs + +Business executives consistently misunderstand two things about the +relationship between international trade and domestic job creation. +First, since most U.S. business-people support free trade, they +generally agree that expanded world trade is good for world employment. +Specifically, they believe that free trade agreements such as the +recently concluded General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade are good +largely because they mean more jobs around the world. Second, +businesspeople tend to believe that countries compete for those jobs. +The more the United States exports, the thinking goes, the more people +we will employ, and the more we import, the fewer jobs will be +available. According to that view, the United States must not only have +free trade but also be sufficiently competitive to get a large +proportion of the jobs that free trade creates. + +Do those propositions sound reasonable? Of course they do. This sort of +rhetoric dominated the last U.S. presidential election and will likely +be heard again in the upcoming race. However, economists in general do +not believe that free trade creates more jobs worldwide (or that its +benefits should be measured in terms of job creation) or that countries +that are highly successful exporters will have lower unemployment than +those that run trade deficits. + +Why don’t economists subscribe to what sounds like common sense to +businesspeople? The idea that free trade means more global jobs seems +obvious: More trade means more exports and therefore more export-related +jobs. But there is a problem with that argument. Because one country’s +exports are another country’s imports, every dollar of export sales is, +as a matter of sheer mathematical necessity, matched by a dollar of +spending shifted from some country’s domestic goods to imports. Unless +there is some reason to think that free trade will increase total world +spending—which is not a necessary outcome—overall world demand will not +change. + +Moreover, beyond this indisputable point of arithmetic lies the question +of what limits the overall number of jobs available. Is it simply a +matter of insufficient demand for goods? Surely not, except in the very +short run. It is, after all, easy to increase demand. The Federal +Reserve can print as much money as it likes, and it has repeatedly +demonstrated its ability to create an economic boom when it wants to. +Why, then, doesn’t the Fed try to keep the economy booming all the time? +Because it believes, with good reason, that if it were to do so—if it +were to create too many jobs—the result would be unacceptable and +accelerating inflation. In other words, the constraint on the number of +jobs in the United States is not the U.S. economy’s ability to generate +demand, from exports or any other source, but the level of unemployment +that the Fed thinks the economy needs in order to keep inflation under +control. + +That is not an abstract point. During 1994, the Fed raised interest +rates seven times and made no secret of the fact that it was doing so to +cool off an economic boom that it feared would create too many jobs, +overheat the economy, and lead to inflation. Consider what that implies +for the effect of trade on employment. Suppose that the U.S. economy +were to experience an export surge. Suppose, for example, that the +United States agreed to drop its objections to slave labor if China +agreed to buy $200 billion worth of U.S. goods. What would the Fed do? +It would offset the expansionary effect of the exports by raising +interest rates; thus any increase in export-related jobs would be more +or less matched by a loss of jobs in interest-rate-sensitive sectors of +the economy, such as construction. Conversely, the Fed would surely +respond to an import surge by lowering interest rates, so the direct +loss of jobs to import competition would be roughly matched by an +increased number of jobs elsewhere. + +Even if we ignore the point that free trade always increases world +imports by exactly as much as it increases world exports, there is still +no reason to expect free trade to increase U.S. employment, nor should +we expect any other trade policy, such as export promotion, to increase +the total number of jobs in our economy. When the U.S. secretary of +commerce returns from a trip abroad with billions of dollars in new +orders for U.S. companies, he may or may not be instrumental in creating +thousands of export-related jobs. If he is, he is also instrumental in +destroying a roughly equal number of jobs elsewhere in the economy. The +ability of the U.S. economy to increase exports or roll back imports has +essentially nothing to do with its success in creating jobs. + +Needless to say, this argument does not sit well with business +audiences. (When I argued on one business panel that the North American +Free Trade Agreement would have no effect, positive or negative, on the +total number of jobs in the United States, one of my fellow panelists—a +NAFTA supporter—reacted with rage: “It’s comments like that that explain +why people hate economists\!”) The job gains from increased exports or +losses from import competition are tangible: You can actually see the +people making the goods that foreigners buy, the workers whose factories +were closed in the face of import competition. The other effects that +economists talk about seem abstract. And yet if you accept the idea that +the Fed has both a jobs target and the means to achieve it, you must +conclude that changes in exports and imports have little effect on +overall employment. + +## Investment and the Trade Balance + +Our second example, the relationship between foreign investment and +trade balances, is equally troubling to businesspeople. Suppose that +hundreds of multinational companies decide that a country is an ideal +manufacturing site and start pouring billions of dollars a year into the +country to build new plants. What happens to the country’s trade +balance? Business executives, almost without exception, believe that the +country will start to run trade surpluses. They are generally +unconvinced by the economist’s answer that such a country will +necessarily run large trade deficits. + +It’s easy to see where the business-people’s answer comes from. They +think of their own companies and ask what would happen if capacity in +their industries suddenly expanded. Clearly their companies would import +less and export more. If the same story is played out in many +industries, surely this would mean a shift toward a trade surplus for +the economy as a whole. + +The economist knows that just the opposite is true. Why? Because the +balance of trade is part of the balance of payments, and the overall +balance of payments of any country—the difference between its total +sales to foreigners and its purchases from foreigners—must always be +zero.1 Of course, a country can run a trade deficit or surplus. That is, +it can buy more goods from foreigners than it sells or vice versa. But +that imbalance must always be matched by a corresponding imbalance in +the capital account. A country that runs a trade deficit must be selling +foreigners more assets than it buys; a country that runs a surplus must +be a net investor abroad. When the United States buys Japanese +automobiles, it must be selling something in return; it might be Boeing +jets, but it could also be Rockefeller Center or, for that matter, +Treasury bills. That is not just an opinion that economists hold; it is +an unavoidable accounting truism. + +So what happens when a country attracts a lot of foreign investment? +With the inflow of capital, foreigners are acquiring more assets in that +country than the country’s residents are acquiring abroad. But that +means, as a matter of sheer accounting, that the country’s imports must, +at the same time, exceed its exports. A country that attracts large +capital inflows will necessarily run a trade deficit. + +A country that attracts a lot of foreign investment will necessarily run +a trade deficit. + +But that is just accounting. How does it happen in practice? When +companies build plants, they will purchase some imported equipment. The +investment inflow may spark a domestic boom, which leads to surging +import demand. If the country has a floating exchange rate, the +investment inflow may drive up the currency’s value; if the country’s +exchange rate is fixed, the result may be inflation. Either scenario +will tend to price the country’s goods out of export markets and +increase its imports. Whatever the channel, the outcome for the trade +balance is not in doubt: Capital inflows must lead to trade deficits. + +Consider, for example, Mexico’s recent history. During the 1980s, nobody +would invest in Mexico and the country ran a trade surplus. After 1989, +foreign investment poured in amid new optimism about Mexico’s prospects. +Some of that money was spent on imported equipment for Mexico’s new +factories. The rest fueled a domestic boom, which sucked in imports and +caused the peso to become increasingly overvalued. That, in turn, +discouraged exports and prompted many Mexican consumers to purchase +imported goods. The result: Massive capital inflows were matched by +equally massive trade deficits. + +Then came the peso crisis of December 1994. Once again, investors were +trying to get out of Mexico, not in, and the scenario ran in reverse. A +slumping economy reduced the demand for imports, as did a newly devalued +peso. Meanwhile, Mexican exports surged, helped by a weak currency. As +any economist could have predicted, the collapse of foreign investment +in Mexico has been matched by an equal and opposite move of Mexican +trade into surplus. + +But like the proposition that expanded exports do not mean more +employment, the necessary conclusion that countries attracting foreign +investment typically run trade deficits sits poorly with business +audiences. The specific ways in which foreign investment might worsen +the trade balance seem questionable to them. Will investors really spend +that much on imported equipment? How do we know that the currency will +appreciate or that, if it does, exports will decrease and imports will +increase? At the root of the businessperson’s skepticism is the failure +to understand the force of the accounting, which says that an inflow of +capital must—not might—be accompanied by a trade deficit. + +In each of the above examples, there is no question that the economists +are right and the business-people are wrong. But why do the arguments +that economists find compelling seem deeply implausible and even +counterintuitive to businesspeople? + +There are two answers to that question. The shallow answer is that the +experiences of business life do not generally teach practitioners to +look for the principles that underlie economists’ arguments. The deeper +answer is that the kinds of feedback that typically arise in an +individual business are both weaker than and different from the kinds of +feedback that typically arise in the economy as a whole. Let me analyze +each of these answers in turn. + +## The Parable of the Paralyzed Centipede + +Every once in a while, a highly successful businessperson writes a book +about what he or she has learned. Some of these books are memoirs: They +tell the story of a career through anecdotes. Others are ambitious +efforts to describe the principles on which the great person’s success +was based. + +Almost without exception, the first kind of book is far more successful +than the second, not only in terms of sales but also in terms of its +reception among serious thinkers. Why? Because a corporate leader +succeeds not by developing a general theory of the corporation but by +finding the particular product strategies or organizational innovations +that work. There have been some business greats who have attempted to +codify what they know, but such attempts have almost always been +disappointing. George Soros’s book told readers very little about how to +be another George Soros; and many people have pointed out that Warren +Buffett does not, in practice, invest the Warren Buffett Way. After all, +a financial wizard makes a fortune not by enunciating general principles +of financial markets but by perceiving particular, highly specific +opportunities a bit faster than anyone else. + +A corporate leader succeeds by finding the right strategies, not by +developing a theory of the corporation. + +Indeed, great business executives often seem to do themselves harm when +they try to formalize what they do, to write it down as a set of +principles. They begin to behave as they think they are supposed to, +whereas their previous success was based on intuition and a willingness +to innovate. One is reminded of the old joke about the centipede who was +asked how he managed to coordinate his 100 legs: He started thinking +about it and could never walk properly again. + +Yet even if a business leader may not be very good at formulating +general theories or at explaining what he or she does, there are still +those who believe that the businessperson’s ability to spot +opportunities and solve problems in his or her own business can be +applied to the national economy. After all, what the president of the +United States needs from his economic advisers is not learned tracts but +sound advice about what to do next. Why isn’t someone who has shown +consistently good judgment in running a business likely to give the +president good advice about running the country? Because, in short, a +country is not a large company. + +Many people have trouble grasping the difference in complexity between +even the largest business and a national economy. The U.S. economy +employs 120 million people, about 200 times as many as General Motors, +the largest employer in the United States. Yet even this 200-to-1 ratio +vastly understates the difference in complexity between the largest +business organization and the national economy. A mathematician will +tell us that the number of potential interactions among a large group of +people is proportional to the square of their number. Without getting +too mystical, it is likely that the U.S. economy is in some sense not +hundreds but tens of thousands of times more complex than the biggest +corporation. + +Moreover, there is a sense in which even very large corporations are not +all that diverse. Most corporations are built around a core competence: +a particular technology or an approach to a particular type of market. +As a result, even a huge corporation that seems to be in many different +businesses tends to be unified by a central theme. + +The U.S. economy, in contrast, is the ultimate nightmare conglomerate, +with tens of thousands of utterly distinct lines of business, unified +only because they happen to be within the nation’s borders. The +experience of a successful wheat farmer offers little insight into what +works in the computer industry, which, in turn, is probably not a very +good guide to successful strategies for a chain of restaurants. + +The U.S. economy is the ultimate conglomerate, with tens of thousands of +distinct lines of business. + +How, then, can such a complex entity be managed? A national economy must +be run on the basis of general principles, not particular strategies. +Consider, for example, the question of tax policy. Responsible +governments do not impose taxes targeted at particular individuals or +corporations or offer them special tax breaks. In fact, it is rarely a +good idea for governments even to design tax policy to encourage or +discourage particular industries. Instead, a good tax system obeys the +broad principles developed by fiscal experts over the years—for example, +neutrality between alternative investments, low marginal rates, and +minimal discrimination between current and future consumption. + +Why is that a problem for businesspeople? After all, there are many +general principles that also underlie the sound management of a +corporation: consistent accounting, clear lines of responsibility, and +so on. But many businesspeople have trouble accepting the relatively +hands-off role of a wise economic policy-maker. Business executives must +be proactive. It is hard for someone used to that role to realize how +much more difficult—and less necessary—this approach is for national +economic policy. + +Consider, for example, the question of promoting key business areas. +Only an irresponsible CEO would not try to determine which new areas +were essential to the company’s future; a CEO who left investment +decisions entirely to individual managers running independent profit +centers would not be doing the job. But should a government decide on a +list of key industries and then actively promote them? Quite aside from +economists’ theoretical arguments against industrial targeting, the +simple fact is that governments have a terrible track record at judging +which industries are likely to be important. At various times, +governments have been convinced that steel, nuclear power, synthetic +fuels, semiconductor memories, and fifth-generation computers were the +wave of the future. Of course, businesses make mistakes, too, but they +do not have the extraordinarily low batting average of government +because great business leaders have a detailed knowledge of and feel for +their industries that nobody—no matter how smart—can have for a system +as complex as a national economy. + +Still, the idea that the best economic management almost always consists +of setting up a good framework and then leaving it alone doesn’t make +sense to businesspeople, whose instinct is, as Ross Perot put it, to +“lift up the hood and get to work on the engine.” + +## Going Back to School + +In the scientific world, the syndrome known as “great man’s disease” +happens when a famous researcher in one field develops strong opinions +about another field that he or she does not understand, such as a +chemist who decides that he is an expert in medicine or a physicist who +decides that he is an expert in cognitive science. The same syndrome is +apparent in some business leaders who have been promoted to economic +advisers: They have trouble accepting that they must go back to school +before they can make pronouncements in a new field. + +The general principles on which an economy must be run are different—not +harder to understand, but different—from those that apply to a business. +An executive who is thoroughly comfortable with business accounting does +not automatically know how to read national income accounts, which +measure different things and use different concepts. Personnel +management and labor law are not the same thing; neither are corporate +financial control and monetary policy. A business leader who wants to +become an economic manager or expert must learn a new vocabulary and set +of concepts, some of them unavoidably mathematical. + +That is hard for a business leader, especially one who has been very +successful, to accept. Imagine a person who has mastered the +complexities of a huge industry, who has run a multibillion-dollar +enterprise. Is such a person, whose advice on economic policy may well +be sought, likely to respond by deciding to spend time reviewing the +kind of material that is covered in freshman economics courses? Or is he +or she more likely to assume that business experience is more than +enough and that the unfamiliar words and concepts economists use are +nothing but pretentious jargon? + +Will a business leader want to review material taught in freshman +economics courses? + +Of course, in spite of the examples I gave earlier, many readers may +still believe that the second response is the more sensible one. Why +does economic analysis require different concepts, a completely +different way of thinking, than running a business? To answer that +question, I must turn to the deeper difference between good business +thinking and good economic analysis. + +The fundamental difference between business strategy and economic +analysis is this: Even the largest business is a very open system; +despite growing world trade, the U.S. economy is largely a closed +system. Businesspeople are not used to thinking about closed systems; +economists are. + +Even the largest business is a very open system; a national economy is a +closed system. + +Let me offer some noneconomic examples to illustrate the difference +between closed and open systems. Consider solid waste. Every year, the +average American generates about half a ton of solid waste that cannot +be recycled or burned. What happens to it? In many communities, it is +sent somewhere else. My town requires that every resident subscribe to a +private disposal service but provides no landfill site; the disposal +service pays a fee to some other community for the right to dump our +garbage. This means that the garbage pickup fees are higher than they +would be if the town set aside a landfill site, but the town government +has made that choice: It is willing to pay so that it won’t have an +unsightly dump within its borders. + +For an individual town, that choice is feasible. But could every town +and county in the United States make the same choice? Could we all +decide to send our garbage somewhere else? Of course not (leaving aside +the possibility of exporting garbage to the Third World). For the United +States as a whole, the principle “garbage in, garbage out” applies +literally. The country can make choices about where to bury its solid +waste but not about whether to bury it at all. That is, in terms of +solid waste disposal, the United States is more or less a closed system, +even though each town is an open system. + +That’s a fairly obvious example. Here is another, perhaps less obvious +one. At one point in my life, I was a “park-and-ride” commuter: Every +morning, I would drive to a large parking garage and then take public +transportation downtown. Unfortunately, the garage was not large enough. +It consistently filled up, forcing late commuters to continue driving +all the way to work. I soon learned, however, that I could always find a +parking space if I arrived by about 8:15. + +In this case, each individual commuter constituted an open system: He or +she could find a parking space by arriving early. But the group of +commuters as a whole could not do the same. If everyone tried to get a +space by arriving earlier, the garage would only fill up sooner\! +Commuters as a group constituted a closed system, at least as far as +parking was concerned. + +What does this have to do with business versus economics? +Businesses—even very large corporations—are generally open systems. +They can, for example, increase employment in all their divisions +simultaneously; they can increase investment across the board; they can +seek a higher share of all their markets. Admittedly, the borders of the +organization are not wide open. A company may find it difficult to +expand rapidly because it cannot attract suitable workers fast enough or +because it is unable to raise enough capital. An organization may find +it even more difficult to contract, because it is reluctant to fire good +employees. But we find nothing remarkable in a corporation whose market +share doubles or halves in just a few years. + +By contrast, a national economy—especially that of a very large country +like the United States—is a closed system. Could all U.S. companies +double their market shares over the next ten years?2 Certainly not, no +matter how much their managements improved. For one thing, in spite of +growing world trade, more than 70% of U.S. employment and value-added is +in industries, such as retail trade, that neither export nor face import +competition. In those industries, one U.S. company can increase its +market share only at the expense of another. + +In industries that do enter into world trade, U.S. companies as a group +can increase their market share, but they must do so by either +increasing exports or driving down imports. Any increase in their market +share would therefore mean a move into trade surplus; and, as we have +already seen, a country that runs a trade surplus is necessarily a +country that exports capital. A little arithmetic tells us that if the +average U.S. company were to expand its share of the world market by as +little as five percentage points, the United States, which is currently +a net importer of capital from the rest of the world, would have to +become a net exporter of capital on a scale never before seen. If you +think this is an implausible scenario, you must also believe that U.S. +companies cannot increase their combined share of the market by more +than a percentage point or two, no matter how well run they are. + +Businesspeople have trouble with economic analysis because they are +accustomed to thinking about open systems. To return to our two +examples, a businessperson looks at the jobs directly created by exports +and sees those as the most important part of the story. He or she may +acknowledge that higher employment leads to higher interest rates, but +this seems an iffy, marginal concern. What the economist sees, however, +is that employment is a closed system: Workers who gain jobs from +increased exports, like park-and-ride commuters who secure parking +spaces by arriving at the garage early, must gain those positions at +someone else’s expense. + +And what about the effect of foreign investment on the trade balance? +Again, the business executive looks at the direct effects of investment +on competition in a particular industry; the effects of capital flows on +exchange rates, prices, and so on do not seem particularly reliable or +important. The economist knows, however, that the balance of payments is +a closed system: The inflow of capital is always matched by the trade +deficit, so any increase in that inflow must lead to an increase in that +deficit. + +## Feedbacks in Business and Economics + +Another way of looking at the difference between companies and economies +may help explain why great business executives are often wrong about +economics and why certain economic ideas are more popular with +businesspeople than others: Open systems like companies typically +experience a different kind of feedback than closed systems like +economies. + +This concept is best explained by hypothetical example. Imagine a +company that has two main lines of business: widgets and gizmos. Suppose +that this company experiences unexpected growth in its sales of widgets. +How will that growth affect the sales of the company as a whole? Will +increased widget sales end up helping or hurting the gizmo business? The +answer in many cases will be that there is not much effect either way. +The widget division will simply hire more workers, the company will +raise more capital, and that will be that. + +The story does not necessarily end here, of course. Expanded widget +sales could either help or hurt the gizmo business in several ways. On +one hand, a profitable widget business could help provide the cash flow +that finances expansion in gizmos; or the experience gained from success +in widgets may be transferable to gizmos; or the growth of the company +may allow R\&D efforts that benefit both divisions. On the other hand, +rapid expansion may strain the company’s resources, so that the growth +of widgets may come to some extent at the gizmo division’s expense. But +such indirect effects of the growth of one part of the company on the +success of the other are both ambiguous in principle and hard to judge +in practice; feedbacks among different lines of business, whether they +involve synergy or competition for resources, are often elusive. + +By contrast, consider a national economy that finds one of its major +exports growing rapidly. If that industry increases employment, it will +typically do so at the expense of other industries. If the country does +not at the same time reduce its inflows of capital, the increase in one +export must be matched by a reduction in other exports or by an increase +in imports because of the balance of payments accounting discussed +earlier. That is, there will most likely be strong negative feedbacks +from the growth of that export to employment and exports in other +industries. Indeed, those negative feedbacks will ordinarily be so +strong that they will more or less completely eliminate any improvements +in overall employment or the trade balance. Why? Because employment and +the balance of payments are closed systems. + +In the open-system world of business, feedbacks are often weak and +almost always uncertain. In the closed-system world of economics, +feedbacks are often very strong and very certain. But that is not the +whole difference. The feedbacks in the business world are often +positive; those in the world of economic policy are usually, though not +always, negative. + +Again, compare the effects of an expanding line of business in a +corporation and in a national economy. Success in one line of business, +which expands the company’s financial, technological, or marketing base, +often helps a company expand in other lines. That is, a company that +does well in one area may end up hiring more people in other areas. But +an economy that produces and sells many goods will normally find +negative feedbacks among economic sectors: Expansion of one industry +pulls resources of capital and labor away from other industries. + +There are, in fact, examples of positive feedbacks in economics. They +are often evident within a particular industry or group of related +industries, especially if those industries are geographically +concentrated. For example, the emergence of London as a financial center +and of Hollywood as an entertainment center are clearly cases of +positive feedback at work. However, such examples are usually limited to +particular regions or industries; at the level of the national economy, +negative feedback generally prevails. The reason should be obvious: An +individual region or industry is a far more open system than the economy +of the United States as a whole, let alone the world economy. An +individual industry or group of industries can attract workers from +other sectors of the economy; so if an individual industry does well, +employment may increase not only in that industry but also in related +industries, which may further reinforce the success of the first +industry, and so on. Thus if one looks at a particular industrial +complex, one may well see positive feedback at work. But for the economy +as a whole, those localized positive feedbacks must be more than matched +by negative feedbacks elsewhere. Extra resources pulled into any one +industry or cluster of industries must come from somewhere, which means +from other industries. + +Businesspeople are not accustomed to or comfortable with the idea of a +system in which there are strong negative feedbacks. In particular, they +are not at all comfortable with the way in which effects that seem weak +and uncertain from the point of view of an individual company or +industry—such as the effect of reduced hiring on average wages or of +increased foreign investment on the exchange rate—become crucially +important when one adds up the impact of policies on the national +economy as a whole. + +## What’s a President to Do? + +In a society that respects business success, political leaders will +inevitably—and rightly—seek the advice of business leaders on many +issues, particularly those that involve money. All we can ask is that +both the advisers and the advisees have a proper sense of what business +success does and does not teach about economic policy. + +In 1930, as the world slid into depression, John Maynard Keynes called +for a massive monetary expansion to alleviate the crisis and pleaded for +a policy based on economic analysis rather than on the advice of bankers +committed to the gold standard or manufacturers who wanted to raise +prices by restricting output. “For—though no one will believe +it—economics is a technical and difficult subject.”3 Had his advice +been followed, the worst ravages of the Depression might have been +avoided. + +Keynes was right: Economics is a difficult and technical subject. It is +no harder to be a good economist than it is to be a good business +executive. (In fact, it is probably easier, because the competition is +less intense.) However, economics and business are not the same subject, +and mastery of one does not ensure comprehension, let alone mastery, of +the other. A successful business leader is no more likely to be an +expert on economics than on military strategy. + +The next time you hear business-people propounding their views about the +economy, ask yourself, Have they taken the time to study this subject? +Have they read what the experts write? If not, never mind how successful +they have been in business. Ignore them, because they probably have no +idea what they are talking about. + +A version of this article appeared in the [January–February +1996](/archive-toc/3961) issue of Harvard Business Review. diff --git a/_stories/1996/14891191.md b/_stories/1996/14891191.md index 8bb28d1..60f4f32 100644 --- a/_stories/1996/14891191.md +++ b/_stories/1996/14891191.md @@ -19,87 +19,65 @@ _tags: objectID: '14891191' --- -[Source](http://www.nytimes.com/1996/05/05/magazine/why-the-best-doesn-t-always-win.html "Permalink to Why the Best Doesn't Always Win - The New York Times") +The most familiar example of path dependence is the triumph of +Matsushita's VHS standard for videocassette recorders over Sony's +Betamax. Betamax was first and, by most accounts, better. But Sony made +two strategic marketing errors. To get the product out the door faster, +it initially sold Betamax machines that played one-hour tapes -- too +short for an entire movie. And to sell more Sony machines, the company +chose not to license Betamax to competitors. -# Why the Best Doesn't Always Win - The New York Times +VHS, introduced a year later, in 1976, played two-hour tapes. And since +Matsushita freely licensed the technology, half a dozen other brand-name +VHS players hit the stores in a matter of months. Sony soon countered +with a two-hour machine, but it was too late. -__NYTimes.com no longer supports Internet Explorer 9 or earlier. Please upgrade your browser. [LEARN MORE »][1] +While VHS versus Betamax makes great fodder for business school +seminars, the outcome hardly made the earth move. The stakes have been +much higher in technologies that are now so entrenched it's hard to +imagine the world without them. Take the automobile engine. At the turn +of the century, gasoline was locked in a three-way race with steam and +electric power. The Stanley Steamer was a technological marvel, setting +a world speed record of 122 miles an hour in 1909. But the manufacturer +priced the car as a luxury, never trying to achieve the economies of +mass production and of "learning by doing" that might have made it the +people's car. -__Sections __ Home __Search [Skip to content][2] [Skip to navigation][3] [View mobile version][4] +Moreover, steam's economic problems were compounded by an outbreak of +hoof-and-mouth disease in 1914 that briefly closed public horse troughs +and denied steam cars a convenient source of water for their perpetually +thirsty boilers. With better technology or simply many more steam cars +on the road, this liability would have evaporated. But car buyers had +little incentive to make a leap of faith when plausible alternatives +were available. One of those alternatives was the electric car, whose +weakness was a driving range limited by the storage capacity of its +batteries. That problem seemed well on its way to solution around 1915. +But innovators in the battery industry were distracted by the more +immediate need to perfect a high-amperage battery to crank the new +electric starters in cars with gasoline engines. -## [ The New York Times ][5] +Apparently all the gasoline engine needed to triumph was a brief period +in which its technological and price edge led to rapidly expanding +sales. This cut production costs, which expanded sales even more -- and +made it more convenient to fuel and service gasoline vehicles. -###### [Magazine][6]|Why the Best Doesn't Always Win +Today, of course, dependence on gasoline engines is a fact of life. +While electric or steam vehicles would reduce air pollution and +dependence on imported oil, it would take an investment of tens or even +hundreds of billions of dollars to leap the technological chasm. Indeed, +California, which has mandated the use of electric cars, is just now +facing the reality that the existing technology is wretchedly inadequate +to the task. -__Search - -Subscribe Now Log In __0 __Settings - -__Close search - -## Site Search Navigation - -Search NYTimes.com - -__Clear this text input - -Go - -## Site Navigation - -## Site Mobile Navigation - -Advertisement - -Supported by - -### [Magazine][6] - -# Why the Best Doesn't Always Win - -By PETER PASSELLMAY 5, 1996 - -[Continue reading the main story][7] Share This Page - -[Continue reading the main story][7] - -APPLE COMPUTER, THE COMPANY THAT BROUGHT YOU THE idiot-friendly Macintosh, is staring at bankruptcy. Meanwhile, the great army of technocrats at Microsoft, which only last year managed to reproduce the look and feel of a 1980's Mac, lumbers on, invincible. - -A bad break for Apple? A rare exception to the Darwinian rules in which the best products win the hearts and dollars of consumers? No. Economists are finally beginning to acknowledge what others have long suspected: the best doesn't always win. Just as biologists are challenging the idea that natural selection drives evolution along "efficient" and predictable paths, economists are discovering the disorder that lurks in the shadows of their simple, elegant models of capitalist progress. Adam Smith's invisible hand, it seems, does not always assure that superior technology will survive the rough-and-tumble of the free market. - -Recent wisdom on this subject dates back to 1985. That's the year Paul David, an economic historian at Stanford University, published an article about QWERTY in The American Economic Review. Q-W-E-R-T-Y, of course, are the first six letters on the upper left of the typewriter keyboard -- the universal standard since the 1890's. But why these? Why not one of half a dozen other keyboard layouts that are said to permit faster typing? - -David's answer is that QWERTY was the solution to a fleeting technological problem, an arrangement that would minimize the jamming of keys in primitive typewriters. While this explanation has since been challenged, what matters is that one keyboard, chosen for reasons long irrelevant, remains the standard. For all their ingenuity, competing designs have made about as much headway against QWERTY as Esperanto has made against English. That's because a standardized layout allows typists to learn just one keyboard in order to use all. Once thousands of people had learned to type using QWERTY's merely adequate layout, the technology was effectively locked in. Keyboard design is thus the classic example of "path dependence," the idea that small, random events at critical moments can determine choices in technology that are extremely difficult and expensive to change. - -Advertisement - -[Continue reading the main story][7] - -In the typical path-dependence scenario, producers or consumers see one technology as slightly superior. This edge quickly snowballs into clear economic advantage: production costs fall with greater experience in manufacturing, and consumer acceptance grows with greater familiarity. And along the way, the weight of numbers makes the leading product more valuable than one based on competing technologies. With more MS-DOS computers around, it pays to write software to the Microsoft standard, which in turn makes it more useful to own an MS-DOS computer. - -[Continue reading the main story][8] - -Advertisement - -[Continue reading the main story][9] - -The most familiar example of path dependence is the triumph of Matsushita's VHS standard for videocassette recorders over Sony's Betamax. Betamax was first and, by most accounts, better. But Sony made two strategic marketing errors. To get the product out the door faster, it initially sold Betamax machines that played one-hour tapes -- too short for an entire movie. And to sell more Sony machines, the company chose not to license Betamax to competitors. - -VHS, introduced a year later, in 1976, played two-hour tapes. And since Matsushita freely licensed the technology, half a dozen other brand-name VHS players hit the stores in a matter of months. Sony soon countered with a two-hour machine, but it was too late. - -While VHS versus Betamax makes great fodder for business school seminars, the outcome hardly made the earth move. The stakes have been much higher in technologies that are now so entrenched it's hard to imagine the world without them. Take the automobile engine. At the turn of the century, gasoline was locked in a three-way race with steam and electric power. The Stanley Steamer was a technological marvel, setting a world speed record of 122 miles an hour in 1909. But the manufacturer priced the car as a luxury, never trying to achieve the economies of mass production and of "learning by doing" that might have made it the people's car. - -Moreover, steam's economic problems were compounded by an outbreak of hoof-and-mouth disease in 1914 that briefly closed public horse troughs and denied steam cars a convenient source of water for their perpetually thirsty boilers. With better technology or simply many more steam cars on the road, this liability would have evaporated. But car buyers had little incentive to make a leap of faith when plausible alternatives were available. One of those alternatives was the electric car, whose weakness was a driving range limited by the storage capacity of its batteries. That problem seemed well on its way to solution around 1915. But innovators in the battery industry were distracted by the more immediate need to perfect a high-amperage battery to crank the new electric starters in cars with gasoline engines. - -Apparently all the gasoline engine needed to triumph was a brief period in which its technological and price edge led to rapidly expanding sales. This cut production costs, which expanded sales even more -- and made it more convenient to fuel and service gasoline vehicles. - -Today, of course, dependence on gasoline engines is a fact of life. While electric or steam vehicles would reduce air pollution and dependence on imported oil, it would take an investment of tens or even hundreds of billions of dollars to leap the technological chasm. Indeed, California, which has mandated the use of electric cars, is just now facing the reality that the existing technology is wretchedly inadequate to the task. - -Robin Cowan of the University of Western Ontario offers a second cautionary tale of path dependence. The world is stuck with another functional, but environmentally problematic, technology: the "light water" nuclear reactor, whose momentary superiority over reactors that use inert gases led to the virtual abandonment of alternatives. +Robin Cowan of the University of Western Ontario offers a second +cautionary tale of path dependence. The world is stuck with another +functional, but environmentally problematic, technology: the "light +water" nuclear reactor, whose momentary superiority over reactors that +use inert gases led to the virtual abandonment of alternatives. ## Newsletter Sign Up -[Continue reading the main story][10] +[Continue reading the main story](#continues-post-newsletter) ### @@ -109,275 +87,93 @@ Invalid email address. Please re-enter. You must select a newsletter to subscribe to. -Sign Up - -You agree to receive occasional updates and special offers for The New York Times's products and services. +You agree to receive occasional updates and special offers for The New +York Times's products and services. ### Thank you for subscribing. ### An error has occurred. Please try again later. -### You are already subscribed to this email. +[View all New York Times newsletters.](/newsletters) -[View all New York Times newsletters.][11] - -* [See Sample][12] -* [Manage Email Preferences][13] -* [Not you?][14] -* [Privacy Policy][15] -* Opt out or [contact us][16] anytime - -In the mid-1950's there was no particular reason to believe that light-water reactors were the cheapest to build and operate. But the Navy invested heavily in light water, which was seen as the most compact and reliable design for submarines and aircraft carriers. When Washington pressed for a quick scale-up to commercial nuclear power after the Soviet Union exploded a nuclear weapon, American manufacturers took the route of least technological resistance. +In the mid-1950's there was no particular reason to believe that +light-water reactors were the cheapest to build and operate. But the +Navy invested heavily in light water, which was seen as the most compact +and reliable design for submarines and aircraft carriers. When +Washington pressed for a quick scale-up to commercial nuclear power +after the Soviet Union exploded a nuclear weapon, American manufacturers +took the route of least technological resistance. Advertisement -[Continue reading the main story][17] +[Continue reading the main story](#story-continues-4) -Later, Washington used subsidies for design and manufacturing to persuade the Europeans to switch to a light-water standard. And once light-water reactors were produced in quantity, the manufacturers learned-by-doing, cutting costs well below those of competing designs. +Later, Washington used subsidies for design and manufacturing to +persuade the Europeans to switch to a light-water standard. And once +light-water reactors were produced in quantity, the manufacturers +learned-by-doing, cutting costs well below those of competing designs. -Perhaps light-water reactors would have prevailed in any event. But there is little doubt that a competing gas-graphite system was safer because it offered greater protection against catastrophic loss of coolant. With global warming now looming, the "lock-in" to atmospherically benign -- but widely feared -- light-water nuclear technology must count as an opportunity lost. +Perhaps light-water reactors would have prevailed in any event. But +there is little doubt that a competing gas-graphite system was safer +because it offered greater protection against catastrophic loss of +coolant. With global warming now looming, the "lock-in" to +atmospherically benign -- but widely feared -- light-water nuclear +technology must count as an opportunity lost. -If path dependence is such a big deal, why are college freshmen unlikely to encounter the idea in Econ. 101? Brian Arthur, a pioneer in the field at Stanford in the early 1980's who now does research at the Santa Fe Institute, blames tradition-bound economists. Put it another way: the "technology" of modern economics is itself path dependent, because economists have so much invested elsewhere. +If path dependence is such a big deal, why are college freshmen unlikely +to encounter the idea in Econ. 101? Brian Arthur, a pioneer in the field +at Stanford in the early 1980's who now does research at the Santa Fe +Institute, blames tradition-bound economists. Put it another way: the +"technology" of modern economics is itself path dependent, because +economists have so much invested elsewhere. -More important, free marketeers fear that path dependence will become a rationale for bigger government -- and is thus the Devil's work. If competitive markets do not guarantee that the best technologies survive, the thinking goes, surely sometime-liberals like Bill Clinton will be more tempted to try to pick winners. +More important, free marketeers fear that path dependence will become a +rationale for bigger government -- and is thus the Devil's work. If +competitive markets do not guarantee that the best technologies survive, +the thinking goes, surely sometime-liberals like Bill Clinton will be +more tempted to try to pick winners. -The twist here is that the perspective of path dependence offers no succor to industrial-policy enthusiasts. It was Washington, after all, that locked in light-water nuclear reactor technology. And it was Tokyo that cursed its manufacturers with a high-definition television that was obsolete before the first receiver was sold. +The twist here is that the perspective of path dependence offers no +succor to industrial-policy enthusiasts. It was Washington, after all, +that locked in light-water nuclear reactor technology. And it was Tokyo +that cursed its manufacturers with a high-definition television that was +obsolete before the first receiver was sold. -But a world haunted by path dependence does cry out for a different sort of intervention. Government as the referee who makes everyone play by the same impartial rules is not quite enough. +But a world haunted by path dependence does cry out for a different sort +of intervention. Government as the referee who makes everyone play by +the same impartial rules is not quite enough. -The first goal is to get government to slow down and think twice before setting hard-to-reverse technological standards. The Federal Communications Commission was criticized for dragging its feet on setting standards for the new high-definition television. Because it dawdled, however, digital technology had a chance to prove itself before the F.C.C. got around to writing the final rules. But the lesson also applies to cases that everyone would rather forget, like Washington's premature decision to back recyclable space shuttles over throwaway rocket launchers. +The first goal is to get government to slow down and think twice before +setting hard-to-reverse technological standards. The Federal +Communications Commission was criticized for dragging its feet on +setting standards for the new high-definition television. Because it +dawdled, however, digital technology had a chance to prove itself before +the F.C.C. got around to writing the final rules. But the lesson also +applies to cases that everyone would rather forget, like Washington's +premature decision to back recyclable space shuttles over throwaway +rocket launchers. -The more controversial issue is antitrust -- think Microsoft. It often pays an individual company to set a standard by flexing its own marketing muscle long before a clear winner has emerged. And the risks of path dependence suggest that Washington would do well to slow such private standard-setting until competitors had a chance to strut their stuff. +The more controversial issue is antitrust -- think Microsoft. It often +pays an individual company to set a standard by flexing its own +marketing muscle long before a clear winner has emerged. And the risks +of path dependence suggest that Washington would do well to slow such +private standard-setting until competitors had a chance to strut their +stuff. -The Government will no doubt be called on to take a stand on some looming path-dependence battles: all-purpose personal computers versus cheaper, appliance-like "network computers" that do one thing well; wireless personal communications versus high-capacity cable; Internet software built around Netscape's browser versus software that piggy-backs on the Microsoft Network. +The Government will no doubt be called on to take a stand on some +looming path-dependence battles: all-purpose personal computers versus +cheaper, appliance-like "network computers" that do one thing well; +wireless personal communications versus high-capacity cable; Internet +software built around Netscape's browser versus software that +piggy-backs on the Microsoft Network. Advertisement -[Continue reading the main story][18] +[Continue reading the main story](#story-continues-5) -Would Adam Smith approve of venturing where the invisible hand doesn't have a clue? Perhaps not. But then the old guy never had to worry about Microsoft's clumsy software chewing up a chapter of "The Wealth of Nations." - -Peter Passell writes about economics for The Times. 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https://www.nytimes.com/ref/membercenter/help/infoservdirectory.html -[87]: http://www.nytco.com/careers -[88]: http://nytmediakit.com/ -[89]: https://www.nytimes.com/content/help/rights/privacy/policy/privacy-policy.html#pp -[90]: https://www.nytimes.com/privacy -[91]: https://www.nytimes.com/ref/membercenter/help/agree.html -[92]: https://www.nytimes.com/content/help/rights/sale/terms-of-sale.html -[93]: http://spiderbites.nytimes.com -[94]: https://www.nytimes.com/membercenter/sitehelp.html -[95]: https://myaccount.nytimes.com/membercenter/feedback.html -[96]: https://www.nytimes.com/subscriptions/Multiproduct/lp5558.html?campaignId=37WXW +Would Adam Smith approve of venturing where the invisible hand doesn't +have a clue? Perhaps not. But then the old guy never had to worry about +Microsoft's clumsy software chewing up a chapter of "The Wealth of +Nations." +[Continue reading the main story](#whats-next) diff --git a/_stories/1996/15635028.md b/_stories/1996/15635028.md index edc4d61..3fc0f2b 100644 --- a/_stories/1996/15635028.md +++ b/_stories/1996/15635028.md @@ -19,6 +19,4102 @@ _tags: objectID: '15635028' --- -[Source](https://www.wired.com/1996/12/ffglass/ "Permalink to ") +**The hacker tourist ventures forth across the wide and wondrous +meatspace of three continents, chronicling the laying of the longest +wire on Earth.** +**In which the hacker tourist ventures forth across the wide and +wondrous meatspace of three continents, acquainting himself with the +customs and dialects of the exotic Manhole Villagers of Thailand, the +U-Turn Tunnelers of the Nile Delta, the Cable Nomads of Lan tao Island, +the Slack Control Wizards of Chelmsford, the Subterranean +Ex-Telegraphers of Cornwall, and other previously unknown and +unchronicled folk; also, biographical sketches of the two long-dead +Supreme Ninja Hacker Mage Lords of global telecommunications, and other +material pertaining to the business and technology of Undersea +Fiber-Optic Cables, as well as an account of the laying of the longest +wire on Earth, which should not be without interest to the readers of +Wired.** +Information moves, or we move to it. Moving to it has rarely been +popular and is growing unfashionable; nowadays we demand that the +information come to us. This can be accomplished in three basic ways: +moving physical media around, broadcasting radiation through space, and +sending signals through wires. This article is about what will, for a +short time anyway, be the biggest and best wire ever made. + +Wires warp cyberspace in the same way wormholes warp physical space: the +two points at opposite ends of a wire are, for informational purposes, +the same point, even if they are on opposite sides of the planet. The +cyberspace-warping power of wires, therefore, changes the geometry of +the world of commerce and politics and ideas that we live in. The +financial districts of New York, London, and Tokyo, linked by thousands +of wires, are much closer to each other than, say, the Bronx is to +Manhattan. + +Today this is all quite familiar, but in the 19th century, when the +first feeble bits struggled down the first undersea cable joining the +Old World to the New, it must have made people's hair stand up on end in +more than just the purely electrical sense - it must have seemed +supernatural. Perhaps this sort of feeling explains why when Samuel +Morse stretched a wire between Washington and Baltimore in 1844, the +first message he sent with his code was "What hath God wrought\!" - +almost as if he needed to reassure himself and others that God, and not +the Devil, was behind it. + +During the decades after Morse's "What hath God wrought\!" a plethora of +different codes, signalling techniques, and sending and receiving +machines were patented. A web of wires was spun across every modern city +on the globe, and longer wires were strung between cities. Some of the +early technologies were, in retrospect, flaky: one early inventor wanted +to use 26-wire cables, one wire for each letter of the alphabet. But it +quickly became evident that it was best to keep the number of individual +wires as low as possible and find clever ways to fit more information +onto them. + +This requires more ingenuity than you might think - wires have never +been perfectly transparent carriers of data; they have always degraded +the information put into them. In general, this gets worse as the wire +gets longer, and so as the early telegraph networks spanned greater +distances, the people building them had to edge away from the +seat-of-the-pants engineering practices that, applied in another field, +gave us so many boiler explosions, and toward the more scientific +approach that is the standard of practice today. + +Still, telegraphy, like many other forms of engineering, retained a +certain barnyard, improvised quality until the Year of Our Lord 1858, +when the terrifyingly high financial stakes and shockingly formidable +technical challenges of the first transatlantic submarine cable brought +certain long-simmering conflicts to a rolling boil, incarnated the old +and new approaches in the persons of Dr. Wildman Whitehouse and +Professor William Thomson, respectively, and brought the conflict +between them into the highest possible relief in the form of an inquiry +and a scandal that rocked the Victorian world. Thomson came out on top, +with a new title and name - Lord Kelvin. + +Everything that has occurred in Silicon Valley in the last couple of +decades also occurred in the 1850s. Anyone who thinks that wild-ass high +tech venture capitalism is a late-20th-century California phenomenon +needs to read about the maniacs who built the first transatlantic cable +projects (I recommend Arthur C. Clarke's book How the World Was One). +The only things that have changed since then are that the stakes have +gotten smaller, the process more bureaucratized, and the personalities +less interesting. + +Those early cables were eventually made to work, albeit not without +founding whole new fields of scientific inquiry and generating many +lucrative patents. Undersea cables, and long-distance communications in +general, became the highest of high tech, with many of the same +connotations as rocket science or nuclear physics or brain surgery would +acquire in later decades. Some countries and companies (the distinction +between countries and companies is hazy in the telco world) became very +good at it, and some didn't. AT\&T acquired a dominance of the field +that largely continues to this day and is only now being seriously +challenged by a project called FLAG: the Fiberoptic Link Around the +Globe. + +\_\_ In which the Hacker Tourist encounters: Penang, a microcosm of the +Internet. Rubber, Penang's chief commodity, and its many uses: +protecting wires from the elements and concupiscent wanderers from +harmful DNA. Advantages of chastity, both for hacker tourists and for +cable layers. Bizarre Spectaclesin the jungles of southern Thailand. +FLAG, its origins and its enemies.\_\_ + +5° 241 24.932' N, 100° 241 19.748' E City of George Town, Island of +Penang, Malaysia + +FLAG, a fiber-optic cable now being built from England to Japan, is a +skinny little cuss (about an inch in diameter), but it is 28,000 +kilometers long, which is long even compared to really big things like +the planet Earth. When it is finished in September 1997, it arguably +will be the longest engineering project in history. Writing about it +necessitates a lot of banging around through meatspace. Over the course +of two months, photographer Alex Tehrani and I hit six countries and +four continents trying to get a grip on this longest, fastest, mother of +all wires. I took a GPS receiver with me so that I could have at least a +general idea of where the hell we were. It gave me the above reading in +front of a Chinese temple around the corner from the Shangri-La Hotel in +Penang, Malaysia, which was only one of 100 peculiar spots around the +globe where I suddenly pulled up short and asked myself, "What the hell +am I doing here?" + +You might well ask yourself the same question before diving into an +article as long as this one. The answer is that we all depend heavily on +wires, but we hardly ever think about them. Before learning about FLAG, +I knew that data packets could get from America to Asia or the Middle +East, but I had no idea how. I knew that it had something to do with +wires across the bottom of the ocean, but I didn't know how many of +those wires existed, how they got there, who controlled them, or how +many bits they could carry. + +According to legend, in 1876 the first sounds transmitted down a wire +were Alexander Graham Bell saying "Mr. Watson, come here. I want you." +Compared with Morse's "What hath God wrought\!'' this is disappointingly +banal - as if Neil Armstrong, setting foot on the moon, had uttered the +words: "Buzz, could you toss me that rock hammer?'' It's as though +during the 32 years following Morse's message, people had become inured +to the amazing powers of wire. + +Today, another 120 years later, we take wires completely for granted. +This is most unwise. People who use the Internet (or for that matter, +who make long-distance phone calls) but who don't know about wires are +just like the millions of complacent motorists who pump gasoline into +their cars without ever considering where it came from or how it found +its way to the corner gas station. That works only until the political +situation in the Middle East gets all screwed up, or an oil tanker runs +aground on a wildlife refuge. In the same way, it behooves wired people +to know a few things about wires - how they work, where they lie, who +owns them, and what sorts of business deals and political machinations +bring them into being. + +In the hopes of learning more about the modern business of really, +really long wires, we spent much of the summer of 1996 in pursuits such +as: being arrested by toothless, shotgun-toting Egyptian cops; getting +pushed around by a drunken smuggler queen on a Thai train; vaulting over +rustic gates to take emergency shits in isolated fields; being kept +awake by groovy Eurotrash backpackers singing songs; blowing Saharan +dust out of cameras; scraping equatorial mold out of fountain pens; +stuffing faded banknotes into the palms of Egyptian service-industry +professionals; trying to persuade non-English-speaking taxi drivers that +we really did want to visit the beach even though it was pouring rain; +and laundering clothes by showering in them. We still missed more than +half the countries FLAG touches. + +Our method was not exactly journalism nor tourism in the normal sense +but what might be thought of as a new field of human endeavor called +hacker tourism: travel to exotic locations in search of sights and +sensations that only would be of interest to a geek. + +I will introduce sections with readings from my trusty GPS in case other +hacker tourists would like to leap over the same rustic gates or get +rained on at the same beaches + +\_\_ 5° 26.325' N, 100° 17.417' E Penang Botanical Gardens\_\_ + +Penang, one of the first sites visited by this hacker tourist partly +because of its little-known historical importance to wires, lies just +off the west coast of the Malay Peninsula. The British acquired it from +the local sultan in the late 1700s, built a pathetic fort above the +harbor, and named it, appropriately, after the hapless General +Cornwallis. They set up a couple of churches and established the kernel +of a judicial system. A vigorous market grew up around them. A few +kilometers away, they built a botanical garden. + +This seems like an odd set of priorities to us today. But gardens were +not mere decorations to the British - they were strategic installations. + +The headquarters was Kew Gardens outside of London. Penang was one of +the forward outposts, and it became incomparably more important than the +nearby fort. In 1876, 70,000 seeds of the rubber tree, painstakingly +collected by botanists in the Amazon rain forest, were brought to Kew +Gardens and planted in a greenhouse. About 2,800 of them germinated and +were shipped to the botanical gardens in Sri Lanka and Penang, where +they propagated explosively and were used to establish rubber +plantations. + +Most of these plantations were on the neighboring Malay Peninsula, a +lumpy, bony tentacle of land that stretches for 1,000 miles from Bangkok +in the north to Singapore in the south, where it grazes the equator. The +landscape is a stalemate between, on one hand, the devastatingly +powerful erosive forces of continual tropical rainstorms and dense plant +life, and, on the other hand, some really, really hard rocks. Anything +with the least propensity to be eroded did so a long time ago and turned +into a paddy. What's left are ridges of stone that rise almost +vertically from the landscape and are still mostly covered with rain +forest, notwithstanding efforts by the locals to cut it all down. The +flat stuff is all used for something - coconuts, date palms, banana +trees, and above all, rubber. + +Until artificial rubber was invented by the colony-impaired Germans, no +modern economy could exist without the natural stuff. All of the +important powers had tropical colonies where rubber was produced. For +the Netherlands, it was Indonesia; for France, it was Indochina; for the +British, it was what they then called Malaya, as well as many other +places. + +Without rubber and another kind of tree resin called gutta-percha, it +would not have been possible to wire the world. Early telegraph lines +were just naked conductors strung from pole to pole, but this worked +poorly, especially in wet conditions, so some kind of flexible but +durable insulation was needed. After much trial and error, rubber became +the standard for terrestrial and aerial wires while gutta-percha (a +natural gum also derived from a tree grown in Malaya) was used for +submarine cables. Gutta-percha is humble-looking stuff, a nondescript +brown crud that surrounds the inner core of old submarine cables to a +thickness of perhaps 1 centimeter, but it was a wonder material back in +those days, and the longer it remained immersed in salt water, the +better it got. + +So far, it was all according to the general plan that the British had in +mind: find some useful DNA in the Americas, stockpile it at Kew Gardens, +propagate it to other botanical gardens around the world, make money off +the proceeds, and grow the economy. Modern-day Penang, however, is a +good example of the notion of unintended consequences. + +As soon as the British had established the rule of law in Penang, +various kinds of Chinese people began to move in and establish +businesses. Most of them were Hokkien Chinese from north of Hong Kong, +though Cantonese, Hakka, and other groups also settled there. Likewise, +Tamils and Sikhs came from across the Bay of Bengal. As rubber trees +began to take over the countryside, a common arrangement was for Chinese +immigrants to establish rubber plantations and hire Indian immigrants +(as well as Malays) as laborers. + +The British involvement, then, was more catalytic than anything else. +They didn't own the rubber plantations. They merely bought the rubber on +an open market from Chinese brokers who in turn bought it from producers +of various ethnicities. The market was just a few square blocks of +George Town where British law was enforced, i.e. where businessmen could +rely on a few basics like property rights, contracts, and a currency. + +During and after World War II, the British lost what presence they had +here. Penang fell to the Japanese and became a base for German U-Boats +patrolling the Indian Ocean. Later, there was a somewhat messy +transition to independence involving a communist insurrection and a war +with Indonesia. Today, Malaysia is one of Asia's economic supernovas and +evidently has decided that it will be second to none when it comes to +the Internet. They are furiously wiring up the place and have +established JARING, which is the Malaysian Internet (this word is a +somewhat tortured English acronym that happens to spell out the Malay +word for the Net). + +If you have a look at JARING's homepage (www.jaring.my/jaring), you will +be confronted by a link that will take you to a page reciting Malaysia's +censorship laws, which, like most censorship laws, are ridiculously +vague and hence sort of creepy and yet, in the context of the Internet, +totally unworkable. + +In a way, the architects of JARING are trying to run the Kew Gardens +experiment all over again. By adopting the Internet protocol for their +national information infrastructure, they have copied the same DNA that, +planted in the deregulated telecom environment of the United States, has +grown like some unstoppable exotic weed. Now they are trying to raise +the same plant inside a hothouse (because they want it to flourish) but +in a pot (because they don't want it to escape into the wild). + +They seem to have misunderstood both their own history and that of the +Internet, which run strangely parallel. Today the streets of George +Town, Penang's main city, are so vivid, crowded, and intensely +multicultural that by comparison they make New York City look like +Colonial Williamsburg. Every block has a mosque or Hindu temple or +Buddhist shrine or Christian church. You can get any kind of food, hear +any language. The place is thronged, but it's affluent, and it works. +It's a lot like the Internet. + +Both Penang and the Internet were established basically for strategic +military reasons. In both cases, what was built by the military was +merely a kernel for a much vaster phenomenon that came along later. This +kernel was really nothing more than a protocol, a set of rules. If you +wanted to follow those rules, you could participate, otherwise you were +free to go elsewhere. Because the protocol laid down a standard way for +people to interact, which was clearly set out and could be understood by +anyone, it attracted smart, adaptable, ambitious people from all over +the place, and at a certain point it flew completely out of control and +turned into something that no one had ever envisioned: something +thriving, colorful, wildly diverse, essentially peaceful, and plagued +only by the congestion of its own success. + +JARING's link to the global Internet is over an undersea cable that +connects it to the United States. This is typical of many Southeast +Asian countries, which are far better connected to the US than they are +to one another. But in late June of 1996, a barge called the Elbe +appeared off the coast of Penang. Divers and boats came ashore, braving +an infestation of sea snakes, and floated in a segment of armored cable +that will become Malaysia's link to FLAG. The capacity of that cable is +theoretically some 5.3 Gbps. Much of this will be used for telephone and +other non-Internet purposes, but it can't help but serve as a major +floodgate between JARING, the censored pseudo-Internet of Malaysia, and +the rest of the Net. After that, it will be interesting to see how long +JARING remains confined to its pot. + +\_\_ FLAG facts\_\_ + +The FLAG system, that mother of all wires, starts at Porthcurno, +England, and proceeds to Estepona, Spain; through the Strait of +Gibraltar to Palermo, Sicily; across the Mediterranean to Alexandria and +Port Said, Egypt; overland from those two cities to Suez, Egypt; down +the Gulf of Suez and the Red Sea, with a potential branching unit to +Jedda, Saudia Arabia; around the Arabian Peninsula to Dubai, site of the +FLAG Network Operations Center; across the Indian Ocean to Bombay; +around the tip of India and across the Bay of Bengal and the Andaman Sea +to Ban Pak Bara, Thailand, with a branch down to Penang, Malaysia; +overland across Thailand to Songkhla; up through the South China Sea to +Lan Tao Island in Hong Kong; up the coast of China to a branch in the +East China Sea where one fork goes to Shanghai and the other to Koje-do +Island in Korea, and finally to two separate landings in Japan - +Ninomiya and Miura, which are owned by rival carriers. + +Phone company people tend to think (and do business) in terms of +circuits. Hacker tourists, by contrast, tend to think in terms of bits +per second. Converting between these two units of measurements is +simple: on any modern phone system, the conversations are transmitted +digitally, and the standard bit rate that is used for this purpose is 64 +kbps. A circuit, then, in telephony jargon, amounts to a datastream of +64 kbps. + +Copper submarine cables of only a few decades ago could carry only a few +dozen circuits - say, about 2,500 kbps total. The first generation of +optical-fiber cables, by contrast, carries more than 1,000 times as much +data - 280 Mbps of data per fiber pair. (Fibers always come in pairs. +This practice seems obvious to a telephony person, who is in the +business of setting up symmetrical two-way circuits, but makes no +particular sense to a hacker tourist who tends to think in terms of +one-way packet transmission. The split between these two ways of +thinking runs very deep and accounts for much tumult in the telecom +world, as will be explained later.) The second generation of +optical-fiber cables carries 560 Mbps per fiber pair. FLAG and other +third-generation systems will carry 5.3 Gbps per pair. Or, in the system +of units typically used by phone company people, they will carry 60,000 +circuits on each fiber pair. + +If you multiply 60,000 circuits times 64 kbps per circuit, you get a bit +rate of only 3.84 Gbps, which leaves 1.46 Gbps unaccounted for. This +bandwidth is devoted to various kinds of overhead, such as frame headers +and error correction. The FLAG cable contains two sets of fiber pairs, +and so its theoretical maximum capacity is 120,000 circuits, or (not +counting the overhead) just under 8 Gbps of actual throughput. + +These numbers really knock 'em dead in the phone industry. To the hacker +tourist, or anyone who spends much time messing around with computer +networks, they seem distinctly underwhelming. All this trouble and +expense for a measly 8 Gbps? You've got to be kidding\! Again, it comes +down to a radical difference in perspective between telephony people and +internet people. + +In defense of telephony people, it must be pointed out that they are the +ones who really know the score when it comes to sending bits across +oceans. Netheads have heard so much puffery about the robust nature of +the Internet and its amazing ability to route around obstacles that they +frequently have a grossly inflated conception of how many routes packets +can take between continents and how much bandwidth those routes can +carry. As of this writing, I have learned that nearly the entire state +of Minnesota was recently cut off from the Internet for 13 hours because +it had only one primary connection to the global Net, and that link went +down. If Minnesota, of all places, is so vulnerable, one can imagine how +tenuous many international links must be. + +Douglas Barnes, an Oakland-based hacker and cypherpunk, looked into this +issue a couple of years ago when, inspired by Bruce Sterling's Islands +in the Net, he was doing background research on a project to set up a +data haven in the Caribbean. "I found out that the idea of the Internet +as a highly distributed, redundant global communications system is a +myth,'' he discovered. "Virtually all communications between countries +take place through a very small number of bottlenecks, and the available +bandwidth simply isn't that great.'' And he cautions: "Even outfits like +FLAG don't really grok the Internet. The undersized cables they are +running reflect their myopic outlook.'' + +So the bad news is that the capacity of modern undersea cables like FLAG +isn't very impressive by Internet standards, but the slightly better +news is that such cables are much better than what we have now.Here's +how they work: Signals are transmitted down the fiber as modulated laser +light with a wavelength of 1,558 nanometers (nm), which is in the +infrared range. These signals begin to fade after they have traveled a +certain distance, so it's necessary to build amplifiers into the cable +every so often. In the case of FLAG, the spacing of these amplifiers +ranges from 45 to 85 kilometers. They work on a strikingly simple and +elegant principle. Each amplifier contains an approximately +10-meter-long piece of special fiber that has been doped with erbium +ions, making it capable of functioning as a laser medium. A separate +semiconductor laser built into the amplifier generates powerful light at +1,480 nm - close to the same frequency as the signal beam, but not close +enough to interfere with it. This light, directed into the doped fiber, +pumps the electrons orbiting around those erbium ions up to a higher +energy level. + +The signal coming down the FLAG cable passes through the doped fiber and +causes it to lase, i.e., the excited electrons drop back down to a lower +energy level, emitting light that is coherent with the incoming signal - +which is to say that it is an exact copy of the incoming signal, except +more powerful. + +The amplifiers need power - up to 10,000 volts DC, at 0.9 amperes. Since +public 10,000-volt outlets are few and far between on the bottom of the +ocean, this power must be delivered down the same cable that carries the +fibers. The cable, therefore, consists of an inner core of four optical +fibers, coated with plastic jackets of different colors so that the +people at opposite ends can tell which is which, plus a thin copper wire +that is used for test purposes. The total thickness of these elements +taken together is comparable to a pencil lead; they are contained within +a transparent plastic tube. Surrounding this tube is a sheath consisting +of three steel segments designed so that they interlock and form a +circular jacket. Around that is a layer of about 20 steel "strength +wires" - each perhaps 2 mm in diameter - that wrap around the core in a +steep helix. Around the strength wires goes a copper tube that serves as +the conductor for the 10,000-volt power feed. Only one conductor is +needed because the ocean serves as the ground wire. This tube also is +watertight and so performs the additional function of protecting the +cable's innards. It then is surrounded by polyethylene insulation to a +total thickness of about an inch. To protect it from the rigors of +shipment and laying, the entire cable is clothed in good old-fashioned +tarred jute, although jute nowadays is made from plastic, not hemp. + +This suffices for the deep-sea portions of the cable. In shallower +waters, additional layers of protection are laid on, beginning with a +steel antishark jacket. As the shore is approached, various other layers +of steel armoring wires are added. + +This more or less describes how all submarine cables are being made as +of 1996. Only a few companies in the world know how to make cables like +this: AT\&T Submarine Systems International (AT\&T-SSI) in the US, +Alcatel in France, and KDD Submarine Cable Systems (KDD-SCS) in Japan, +among others. AT\&T-SSI and KDD-SCS frequently work together on large +projects and are responsible for FLAG. Alcatel, in classic French +fasion, likes to go it alone. + +This basic technology will, by the end of the century, be carrying most +of the information between continents. Copper-based coaxial cable +systems are still in operation in many places around the world, but all +of them will have reached the end of their practical lifetimes within a +few years. Even if they still function, they are not worth the trouble +it takes to operate them. TPC-1 (Trans Pacific Cable \#1), which +connected Japan to Guam and hence to the United States in 1964, is still +in perfect working order, but so commercially worthless that it has been +turned over to a team at Tokyo University, which is using it to carry +out seismic research. The capacity of such cables is so tiny that modern +fiber cables could absorb all of their traffic with barely a hiccup if +the right switches and routers were in place. Likewise, satellites have +failed to match some of the latest leaps in fiber capacity and can no +longer compete with submarine cables, at least until such time as +low-flying constellations such as Iridium and Teledesic begin operating. + +Within the next few years, several huge third-generational optical fiber +systems will be coming online: not only FLAG but a FLAG competitor +called SEA-ME-WE 3 (Southeast Asia-Middle East-Western Europe \#3); +TPC-5 (Trans-Pacific Cable \#5); APCN (Asia-Pacific Cable Network), +which is a web of cables interconnecting Japan, Korea, Hong Kong, +Taiwan, Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia, Singapore, Australia, and the +Philippines; and the latest TAT (Transatlantic) cable. So FLAG is part +of a trend that will soon bring about a vast increase in +intercontinental bandwidth. + +What is unusual about FLAG is not its length (although it will be the +longest cable ever constructed) or its technology (which is shared by +other cables) but how it came into existence. But that's a business +question which will be dealt with later. First, the hacker tourist is +going to travel a short distance up the Malay Peninsula to southern +Thailand, one of the two places where FLAG passes overland. On a world +map this looks about as difficult as throwing an extension cord over a +sandbar, but when you actually get there, it turns out to be a colossal +project + +\_\_ 7° 3.467' N,100° 22.489' EFLAG manhole production site, southern +Thailand\_\_ + +Large portions of this section were written in a hotel in Ban Hat Yai, +Thailand, which is one of the information-transfer capitals of the +planet regardless of whether you think of information transfer as bits +propagating down an optical fiber, profound and complex religious faiths +being transmitted down through countless generations, or genetic +material being interchanged between consenting adults. Male travelers +approaching Ban Hat Yai will have a difficult time convincing travel +agents, railway conductors, and taxi drivers that they are coming only +to look at a big fat wire, but the hacker tourist must get used to being +misunderstood. + +We stayed in a hotel with all the glossy accoutrements of an Asian +business center plus a few perks such as partially used jumbo condom +packages squirreled away on closet shelves, disconcertingly huge love +marks on the sofas, and extraordinarily long, fine, black hairs all over +the bathroom. While writing, I sat before a picture window looking out +over a fine view of: a well-maintained but completely empty swimming +pool, a green Carlsberg Beer billboard written in Thai script, an +industrial-scale whorehouse catering to Japanese "businessmen," a rather +fine Buddhist temple complex, and, behind that, a district of brand-new +high-rise hotels built to cater to the burgeoning information-transfer +industry, almost none of which has anything to do with bits and bytes. +Tropical storms rolled through, lightning flashed, I sucked down +European beers from the minibar and tried to cope with a bad case of +information overload. FLAG is a huge project, bigger and more +complicated than many wars, and to visit even chunks of this cable +operation is to be floored by it. + +We first met Jim Daily and Alan Wall underneath that big Carlsberg sign, +sitting out in a late-afternoon rainstorm under an umbrella, having a +couple of beers - "the only \*ferangs \*here," as Wall told me on the +phone, using the local term for foreign devil. Daily is American, 2 +meters tall, blond, blue-eyed, khaki-and-polo-shirted, gregarious, +absolutely plain-spoken, and almost always seems to be having a great +time. Wall is English, shorter, dark-haired, impeccably suited, cagey, +reticent, and dry. Both are in their 50s. It is of some significance to +this story that, at the end of the day, these two men unwind by sitting +out in the rain and hoisting a beer, paying no attention whatsoever to +the industrial-scale whorehouse next door. Both of them have seen many +young Western men arrive here on business missions and completely lose +control of their sphincters and become impediments to any kind of +organized activity. Daily hired Wall because, like Daily, he is a stable +family man who has his act together. They are the very definition of a +complementary relationship, and they seem to be making excellent +progress toward their goal, which is to run two really expensive wires +across the Malay Peninsula. + +Since these two, and many of the others we will meet on this journey, +have much in common with one another, this is as good a place as any to +write a general description. They tend to come from the US or the +British Commonwealth countries but spend very little time living there. +They are cheerful and outgoing, rudely humorous, and frequently have +long-term marriages to adaptable wives. They tend to be absolutely +straight shooters even when they are talking to a hacker tourist about +whom they know nothing. Their openness would probably be career suicide +in the atmosphere of Byzantine court-eunuch intrigue that is public life +in the United States today. On the other hand, if I had an unlimited +amount of money and woke up tomorrow morning with a burning desire to +see a 2,000-hole golf course erected on the surface of Mars, I would +probably call men like Daily and Wall, do a handshake deal with them, +send them a blank check, and not worry about it. + +Daily works out of Bangkok, the place where banks are headquartered, +contracts are written, and 50-ton cranes are to be had. Alan "the +ferang" Wall lives in Ban Hat Yai, the center of the FLAG operation in +Thailand, cruising the cable routes a couple of times a week, +materializing unpredictably in the heart of the tropical jungle in a +perfectly tailored dark suit to inspect, among other things, FLAG's +chain of manhole-making villages. + +There were seven of these in existence during the summer of 1996, all +lying along one of the two highways that run across the isthmus between +the Andaman and the South China Seas. These highways, incidentally, are +lined with utility poles carrying both power and communications wires. +The tops of the poles are guarded by conical baskets about halfway up. +The baskets prevent rats from scampering up the poles to chew away the +tasty insulation on the wires and poisonous snakes from slithering up to +sun themselves on the crossbars, a practice that has been known to cause +morale problems among line workers. + +The manhole-making village we are visiting on this fine, steamy summer +day has a population of some 130 workers plus an unknown number of +children. The village was founded in the shade of an old, mature rubber +plantation. Along the highway are piles of construction materials +deposited by trucks: bundles of half-inch rebar, piles of sand and +gravel. At one end of the clearing is a double row of shelters made from +shiny new corrugated metal nailed over wooden frames, where the men, +women, and children of the village live. On the end of this is an +open-air office under a lean-to roof, equipped with a whiteboard - just +like any self-respecting high tech company. Chickens strut around +flapping their wings uselessly, looking for stuff to peck out of the +ground. + +When the day begins, the children are bused off to school, and the men +and women go to work. The women cut the rebar to length using an +electric chop saw. The bars are laid out on planks with rows of nails +sticking out of them to form simple templates. Then the pieces of rebar +are wired together to create cages perhaps 2 meters high and 1.5 meters +on a side. Then the carpenters go to work, lining the cage inside and +out with wooden planks. Finally, 13 metric tons of cement are poured +into the forms created by the planks. When the planks are taken away, +the result is a hollow, concrete obelisk with a cylindrical collar +projecting from the top, with an iron manhole cover set into it. Making +a manhole takes three weeks. + +Meanwhile, along the highway, trenches are being dug - quickly scooped +out of the lowland soil with a backhoe, or, in the mountains, +laboriously jackhammered into solid rock. A 50-ton crane comes to the +village, picks up one manhole at a time using lifting loops that the +villagers built into its top, and sets it on a flatbed truck that +transports it to one of the wider excavations that are spaced along the +trench at intervals of 300 to 700 meters. The manholes will allow +workers to climb down to the level of the buried cable, which will +stretch through a conduit running under the ground between the manholes. + +The crane lowers the manhole into the excavation. A couple of +hard-hatted workers get down there with it and push it this way and +that, getting it lined up, while other workers up on the edge of the pit +help out by shoving on it with a big stick. Finally it settles gingerly +into place, atop its prepoured pad. The foreman clambers in, takes a +transparent green disposable lighter from his pocket, and sets it down +sideways on the top of the manhole. The liquid butane inside the lighter +serves as a fluid level, verifying that the manhole is correctly +positioned. + +With a few more hours' work, the conduits have been mated with the tubes +built into the walls of the manhole and the surrounding excavation +filled in so that nothing is left except some disturbed earth and a +manhole cover labeled CAT: Communications Authority of Thailand. The +eventual result of all this work will be two separate chains of manholes +(931 of them all told) running parallel to two different highways, each +chain joined by twin lengths of conduit - one conduit for FLAG and one +for CAT. + +Farther west, another crew is at work, burdened with three enormous +metal spools carrying flexible black plastic conduit having an inside +diameter of an inch. The three spools are set up on stands near a +manhole, the three ducts brought together and tied into a neat bundle by +workers using colorful plastic twine. Meanwhile, others down in the +manhole are wrestling with the world's most powerful peashooter: a +massive metal pipe with a screw jack on its butt end. The muzzle of the +device is inserted into one of the conduits on the manhole wall and the +screw jack is tightened against the opposite wall to hold it horizontal. +Next the peashooter is loaded: a big round sponge with a rope tied to it +is inserted into an opening on its side. The rope comes off a long +spool. Finally, a hefty air compressor is fired up above ground and its +outlet tube thrown down into the manhole and patched into a valve on +this pipe. When the valve is opened, compressed air floods the pipe +behind the round sponge, which shoots forward like a bullet in a gun +barrel, pulling the rope behind it and causing the reel to spin wildly +like deep-sea fishing tackle that has hooked a big tuna. + +"Next manhole\! Next manhole\!" cries the foreman excitedly, and +pedestrians, bicyclists, motor scooters, and (if inspectors or hacker +tourists are present) cars parade down the highway, veering around water +buffaloes and goats and chickens to the next manhole, some half a +kilometer away, where a torrent of water, driven before the sponge, is +blasting out of a conduit and slamming into the opposite wall. One +length of the conduit can hold some 5 cubic meters of water, and the +sponge, ramming down the tube like a piston, forces all of it out. +Finally the sponge pops out of the hole like a pea from a peashooter, +bringing the rope with it. The rope is used to pull through a thicker +rope, which is finally connected to the triple bundle of thin duct at +one end and to a pulling motor at the other. This pulling motor is a +slowly turning drum with several turns of rope around it. + +Now the work gets harder: at the manhole with the reels, some workers +bundle and tie the ducts as they unroll while others, down in the hole, +bend them around a difficult curve and keep them feeding smoothly into +the conduit. At the other end, a man works with the puller, keeping the +tension constant and remaining alert for trouble. Back at the reels, the +thin duct occasionally gets wedged between loose turns on the reel, and +everything has to be stopped. Usually this is communicated to the puller +via walkie-talkie, but when the afternoon rains hit, the walkie-talkies +don't work as well, and a messenger has to buzz back and forth on a +motor scooter. But eventually the triple inner duct is pulled through +both of the conduits, and the whole process can begin again on the next +segment. + +Daily and Wall preside over this operation, which is Western at the top +and pure Thai at the ground level, with a gradual shading of cultures in +between. FLAG has dealings in many countries, and the arrangement is +different in each one. Here, the top level is a 50-50 partnership +between FLAG and Thailand's CAT. They bid the project out to two +different large contractors, each of whom hired subcontractors with +particular specialties who work through sub-sub-contractors who hire the +workers, get them to the site, and make things happen. The incentives +are shaped at each level so that the contractors will get the job done +without having to be micromanaged, and the roads seem to be crawling +with inspectors representing various levels of the project who make sure +that the work is being done according to spec (at the height of this +operation, 50 percent of the traffic on some of these roads was +FLAG-related). + +The top-level contracts are completely formalized with detailed +specifications, bid bonds, and so on, and business at this level is done +in English and in air-conditioned offices. But by the time you get to +the bottom layer, work is being done by people who, although presumably +just as intelligent as the big shots, are fluent only in Thai and not +especially literate in any language, running around in rubber +flip-flops, doing business on a handshake, pulling wads of bills out of +their pockets when necessary to pay for some supplies or get drinks +brought in. Consequently, the way in which the work is performed bears +no resemblance whatsoever to the way it would be done in the United +States or any other developed country. It is done the Thai way. + +Not one but two entirely separate pairs of conduits are being created in +this fashion. Both of them run from the idyllic sandy beach of Ban Pak +Bara on the west to the paradisiacal sandy beach of Songkhla on the east +- both of them are constructed in the same way, to the same +specifications. Both of them run along highways. The southern route +takes the obvious path, paralleling a road that runs in a relatively +straight line between the two endpoints for 170 kilometers. But the +other route jogs sharply northward just out of Ban Pak Bara, runs up the +coast for some distance, turns east, and climbs up over the bony spine +of the peninsula, then turns south again and finally reaches Songkhla +after meandering for some 270 kilometers. Unlike the southern route, +which passes almost exclusively over table-flat paddy land, easily +excavated with a backhoe, the northern route goes for many kilometers +over solid rock, which must be trenched with jackhammers and other heavy +artillery, filled with galvanized steel conduit, and then backfilled +with gravel and concrete. + +This raises questions. The questions turn out to have interesting +answers. I'll summarize them first and then go into detail. Q: Why +bother running two widely separated routes over theMalay Peninsula? + +A: Because Thailand, like everywhere else in the world, is full ofidiots +with backhoes. + +Q: Isn't that a pain in the ass? + +A: You have no idea. + +Q: Why not just go south around Singapore and keep the cable in the +water, then? + +A: Because Singapore is controlled by the enemy. + +Q: Who is the enemy? + +A: FLAG's enemies are legion. + +The reason for the difficult northern route is FLAG's pursuit of +diversity, which in this case is not a politically correct buzzword +(though FLAG also has plenty of that kind of diversity) but refers to +the principle that one should have multiple, redundant paths to make the +system more robust. Diversity is not needed in the deep ocean, but land +crossings are viewed as considerably more risky. So FLAG decided, early +on, to lay two independent cables on two different routes, instead of +one. + +The indefatigable Jim Daily, along with his redoubtable inspector Ruzee, +drove us along every kilometer of both of these routes over the course +of a day and a half. "Let me ask you a naïve question," I said to him, +once I got a load of the big rock ridge he was getting ready to cut a +trench through. "Why not just put one cable on one side of that southern +highway and another cable on the opposite side?" I found it hard to +imagine a backhoe cutting through both sides of the highway at once." + +They just wanted to be sure that there was no conceivable disaster that +could wipe out both routes at the same time," he shrugged. + +FLAG has envisioned every possible paranoid disaster scenario that could +lead to a failure of a cable segment and has laid action plans that will +be implemented if this should happen. For example, it has made deals +with its competitors so that it can buy capacity from them, if it has +to, while it repairs a break (likewise, the competitors might reserve +capacity from FLAG for the same reason). Despite all this, FLAG is +saying in this case: "We are going to cut a trench across a 50-mile-wide +piece of rock because we think it will make our cable infinitesimally +more reliable." Essentially, they have to do it, because otherwise no +one will entrust valuable bits to their cable system. + +Why didn't they keep it in the water? Opinions vary on this: pro-FLAG +people argue that the Straits, with all of their ship traffic, are a +relatively hazardous place to put a submarine cable and that a +terrestrial crossing of the Malay Peninsula is a tactical masterstroke. +FLAG skeptics will tell you that the terrestrial crossing is a necessity +imposed on them because Singapore Telecom made the decision that they +didn't want to be connected to FLAG. + +Instead, Singapore Telecom and France Telecom have been promoting +SEA-ME-WE 3, that Southeast Asia-Middle East-Western Europe 3 cable, a +system whose target date is 1999, two years later than FLAG. SEA-ME-WE 1 +and 2 run from France to Singapore and 3 was originally planned to cover +the same territory, but now its organizers have gotten other telecoms, +such as British Telecom, involved. They hope that SEA-ME-WE 3 will +continue north from Singapore as far as Japan, and north from France to +Great Britain, covering generally the same route as FLAG. FLAG and +SEA-ME-WE 3 are, therefore, direct competitors. + +The competition is not just between two different wires. It is a +competition between two entirely different systems of doing business, +two entirely different visions of how the telecommunications industry +should work. It is a competition, also, between AT\&T (the juggernaut of +the field, and the power behind most telecom-backed systems) and Nynex +(the Baby Bell with an Oedipus complex and the power behind FLAG). Nynex +and AT\&T have their offices a short distance from each other in +Manhattan, but the war between them is being fought in trenches in +Thailand, glass office towers in Tokyo, and dusty government ministries +in Egypt. + +\_\_ The origin of FLAG\_\_ + +Kessler Marketing Intelligence Corp. (KMI) is a Newport, Rhode Island, +company that has developed a specialty in tracking the worldwide +submarine cable system. This is not a trivial job, since there are at +least 320 cable systems in operation around the world, with old ones +being retired and new ones being laid all the time. KMI makes money from +this by selling a document titled "Worldwide Summary of Fiberoptic +Submarine Systems" that will set you back about US$4,500 but that is a +must-read for anyone wanting to operate in that business. Compiling and +maintaining this document gives a rare Olympian perspective on the world +communications system. + +In the late 1980s, as KMI looked at the cables then in existence and the +systems that were slated for the next few years, they noticed an almost +monstrous imbalance. + +The United States would, by the late 1990s, be massively connected to +Europe by some 200,000 circuits across the Atlantic, and just as +massively connected to Asia by a roughly equal number of circuits across +the Pacific. But between Europe and Asia there would be fewer than +20,000 circuits. + +Cables have always been financed and built by telecoms, which until very +recently have always been government-backed monopolies. In the business, +these are variously referred to as PTTs (Post, Telephone, and +Telegraphs) or PTAs (Post and Telecom Authorities) or simply as "the +clubs." The dominant club has long been AT\&T - especially in the years +since World War II, when most of the international telecommunications +system was built. + +Traditionally, the way a cable system gets built is that AT\&T meets +with other PTTs along the proposed route to negotiate terms (although in +the opinion of some informed people who don't work for AT\&T, "dictate" +comes closer to the truth than "negotiate"). The capital needed to +construct the cable system is ponied up by the various PTTs along its +route, which, consequently, end up collectively owning the cable and all +of its capacity. This is a tidy enough arrangement as those telecoms +traditionally "own" all of the customers within their borders and can +charge them whatever it takes to pay for all of those cables. Cables +built this way are now called "club cables." + +Given America's postwar dominance of the world economy and AT\&T's +dominance of the communications system, it becomes much easier to +understand the huge bandwidth imbalance that the analysts at KMI +noticed. Actually, it would be surprising if this imbalance didn't +exist. If the cable industry worked on anything like a free-market +basis, this howling chasm in bandwidth between Europe and Asia would be +an obvious opportunity for entrepreneurs. Since the system was, in fact, +controlled by government monopolies, and since the biggest of those +monopolies had no particular interest in building a cable that entirely +bypassed its territory, nothing was likely to happen. + +But then something did happen. KMI, whose entire business is founded on +knowing and understanding the market, was ideally positioned, not just +to be aware of this situation, but also to crunch the numbers and figure +out whether it constituted a workable business opportunity. In 1989, it +published a study on worldwide undersea fiber-optic systems that +included some such calculations. Based on reasonable assumptions about +the cost of the system, its working lifetime, and the present cost of +communications on similar systems, KMI reckoned that if a +state-of-the-art cable were laid from the United Kingdom to the Middle +East it would pay back its investors in two to five years. Setting aside +for a moment the fact that it went against all the traditions of the +industry, there was no reason in principle why a privately financed +cable could not be constructed to fill this demand. Investors would pool +the capital, just as they would for any other kind of business venture. +They would buy the cable, pay to have it installed, sell the capacity to +local customers, and make money for their shareholders. + +The study was read by Gulf Associates, a group of New York-based moneyed +Iranian expats who are always looking for good investments. Gulf +Associates checked out KMI's prefeasibility study to get an idea of what +the parameters of such a system would be. Based on that, other +companies, such as Dallah Al-Baraka (a Saudi investment company), +Marubeni Corp. (a Tokyo trading company), and Nynex got involved. The +nascent consortium paid KMI to perform a full feasibility study. Neil +Tagare, the former vice president for KMI, visited 25 countries to +determine their level of need for such a cable. The feasibility study +was completed in late 1990 and looked favorable. The consortium grew to +include the Asian Infrastructure Fund of Hong Kong and Telecom Holding +Co. Ltd. of Thailand. The scope of the project grew also, extending not +just to the Middle East but all the way to Tokyo. + +Nynex took on the role of managing sponsor for the FLAG project. A new +company called Nynex Network Systems (Bermuda) Ltd. was formed to serve +as the worldwide sales representative for FLAG, and FLAG's world +headquarters was sited in Bermuda. This might seem a bit peculiar given +that none of the money comes from Bermuda, the cable goes nowhere near +Bermuda, and Nynex is centered in the northeastern United States. But +since FLAG is ultimately owned and controlled by a Bermuda company and +the capacity on the cable is sold out of Bermuda, the invoices all come +out of Bermuda and the money all comes into Bermuda, which by an odd +coincidence happens to be a major corporate tax haven. + +Nynex also has responsibility for building the FLAG cable system. One +might think that a Baby Bell such as Nynex would be a perfect choice for +this kind of work, but, in fact, Nynex owned none of the factories +needed to manufacture cable, none of the ships needed to lay it, and not +enough of the expertise needed to install it. Nynex does know a thing or +two about laying and operating terrestrial cable systems - during the +mid-1990s, for example, it wired large parts of the United Kingdom with +a "cable television" system that is actually a generalized digital +communication network. But transoceanic submarine cables were outside of +its traditional realm. + +On the other hand, during the early '90s, Nynex found itself stymied +from competing in the United States because of regulatory hassles and +began looking overseas for markets in which to expand. By the time FLAG +was conceived, therefore, Nynex had begun to gain experience in the +countless pitfalls of doing business in the worldwide telecommunications +business, making up a little bit of AT\&T's daunting lead. + +FLAG's business arrangements were entirely novel. The entire FLAG +concept was unfeasible unless agreements could be made with so-called +landing parties in each country along the route. The landing party is +the company that owns the station where the cable comes ashore and +operates the equipment that patches it into the local telecommunications +system. The obvious choice for such a role would be a PTT. But many PTTs +were reluctant to participate, partly because this novel arrangement +struck them as dubious and partly because they weren't going to end up +monopolizing the cable. + +Overcoming such opposition was essentially a sales job. John +Mercogliano, a high-intensity New Yorker who is now vice president - +Europe, Nynex Network Systems (Bermuda) Ltd., developed a sales pitch +that he delivers too rapidly for any hacker tourist to write down but +goes something like this: "In the old days AT\&T came in, told you how +much to pay, and you raised the money, assumed all of the risk, and +owned the cable. But now FLAG's coming in with investors who are going +to put in $600 million of their own cash and borrow a billion more +without any guaranteed sales, assuming all of the risk. You buy only as +much capacity on FLAG as you want, and meanwhile you have retained your +capital, which you can use to upgrade your outdated local infrastructure +and provide better service to your customers - now what the hell is +wrong with that?" + +The question hangs in the air provocatively. What the hell is wrong with +it? Put this way, it seems unbeatable. But a lot of local telecoms +turned FLAG down anyway - at least at first. Why? + +The short answer is that I'm not allowed to tell you. The long answer +requires an explanation of how a hacker tourist operates; how his +methods differ from those of an actual journalist; and just how weird +the global telecom business is nowadays. + +Let's take the last one first. The business is so tangled that no pure +competition exists. There are no Coke-versus-Pepsi dichotomies. Most of +the companies mentioned in this story are actually whole families of +companies, and most of those have their fingers in pies in dozens of +countries all around the globe. Any two companies that compete in one +arena are, at the same time, probably in bed with each other on many +other levels. As badly as they might want to slag each other in the +press, they dare not. + +So, like those "high-ranking officials" you're always reading about in +news reports from Washington, they all talk on background. Anyone who +wants to write about this business will come off as either a genius with +an encyclopedic brain or a pathological liar with an axe to grind - +depending on the reader's point of view - because all truly interesting +information is dished out strictly on background. + +Perhaps a real journalist would go into Woodward-and-Bernstein mode, +find a Deep Throat, and lay it all bare. But I'm not a real journalist: +I'm a hacker tourist, and trying to work up an exposé on monopolistic +behavior by big bad telecoms would only get in the way of what are, to +me, the more interesting aspects of this story. + +So I'll just say that a whole lot of important and well-informed people +in the telecom business, all over the planet, are laboring under the +strange impression that AT\&T used its power and influence to discourage +smaller telecoms in other countries from signing deals with FLAG. + +In the old days, this would have prevented FLAG from ever coming into +existence. But these are the new days, telecom deregulation is creeping +slowly across the planet, and many PTTs now have to worry about +competition. So the results of the FLAG sales pitch varied from country +to country. In some places, like Singapore, FLAG never made an agreement +with anyone and had to bypass the country entirely. In other places, the +PTT broke ranks with AT\&T and agreed to land FLAG. In others, the PTT +turned it down but an upstart competitor decided to land FLAG instead, +and in still others, the PTT declined at first, and then got so worried +about the upstart competitor that it changed its mind and decided to +land FLAG after all. + +It would be very easy for you, dear reader, to underestimate what a sea +change this all represents for the clubs. They are not accustomed to +having to worry about competition - it doesn't come naturally to them. +The typical high-ranking telecom executive is more of a government +bureaucrat than a businessperson, and the entire scenario laid out above +is irregular, messy, and disturbing to someone like that. A telecrat's +reflex is to assume, smugly, that new carriers simply don't matter, +because no matter how much financing and business acumen they may have, +no matter how great the demand for their services may be, and no matter +how crappy the existing service is, the old PTT still controls the +cable, which is the only way to get bits out of the country. But in the +FLAG era, if the customers go to another carrier, that carrier will find +a way to get the needed capacity somehow - at which point it is too late +for the PTT. + +The local carriers, therefore, need to stop thinking globally and start +thinking locally. That is, they need to leave long-range cable laying to +the entrepreneurs, to assume that the bandwidth will always somehow be +there, and to concentrate on upgrading the quality of their customer +service - in particular, the so-called last mile, the local loop that +ties customers into the Net. + +By the end of 1994, FLAG's Construction and Maintenance Agreement had +been signed, and the project was for real. Well before this point, it +had become obvious to everyone that FLAG was going to happen in some +form, so companies that initially might have been hostile began looking +for ways to get in on the action. The manufacture of the cable and the +repeaters had been put out to bid in 1993 and had turned into a +competition between two consortia, one consisting of AT\&T Submarine +Systems and KDD Submarine Cable Systems, and the other formed around +Alcatel and Fujitsu. The former group ended up landing the contract. So +AT\&T, which evidently felt threatened by the whole premise of the FLAG +project and according to some people had tried to quash it, ended up +with part of the contract to manufacture the cable. + +\_\_ In which the Hacker Tourist returns (temporarily) to British soil +in the Far East. The (temporary) center of the cable-laying universe. +Hoisting flagons with the élite cable-laying fraternity\_\_ + +at a waterfront establishment. Classic reprise of the ancient +hacker-versus-suit drama.Historical exploits of the famous William +Thomson and the infamous Wildman Whitehouse. Their rivalry, culminating +in the destruction of the first transatlantic cable. Whitehouse +disgraced, Thomson transmogrified into Lord Kelvin .... + +\_\_ 22° 15.745' N, 114° 0.557' ESilvermine Bay, Lan Tao Island,?b\> +Hong Kong\_\_ + +"Today, Lan Tao Island is the center of the cable-laying universe," says +David M. Handley, a 52-year-old Southerner who, like virtually all +cable-laying people, is talkative, endlessly energetic, and gives every +indication of knowing exactly what he's doing. "Tomorrow, it'll be +someplace else." We are chug-a-lugging large bottles of water on a +public beach at Tong Fuk on the southern coast of Lan Tao, which is a +relatively large (25 kilometers long) island an hour's ferry ride west +of Hong Kong Island. Arrayed before us on the bay is a collection of +vessels that, to a layman, wouldn't look like the center of a decent +salvage yard, to say nothing of the cable-laying universe. But remember +that "layman" is just a polite word for "idiot." + +Closest to shore, there are a couple of junks and sampans. Mind you, +these are not picturesque James Clavell junks with red sails or Pearl +Buck sampans with pole-wielding peasants in conical hats. The terms are +now used to describe modern, motorized vessels built vaguely along the +same lines to perform roughly the same functions: a junk is a large, +square-assed vessel, and a sampan is a small utility craft with an +enclosed cabin. Farther out, there are two barges: slabs with cranes and +boxy things on them. Finally, there are several of what Handley calls +LBRBs (Little Bitty Rubber Boats) going back and forth between these +vessels and the beach. Boeing hydrofoils and turbo cats scream back and +forth a few miles out, ferrying passengers among various destinations +around the Pearl Delta region. It's a hot day, and kids are swimming on +the public beach, prudently staying within the line of red buoys marking +the antishark net. Handley remarks, offhandedly, that five people have +been eaten so far this year. A bulletin board, in English and Chinese, +offers advice: "If schooling fish start to congregate in unusually large +numbers, leave the water." + +This bay is the center of the cable-laying universe because cable layers +have congregated here in unusually large numbers and because of those +two barges, which are a damn sight more complicated and expensive than +you would ever guess from looking at them. These men (they are all men) +and equipment have come from all over the world, to land not only FLAG +but also, at the same time, another of those third-generation +fiber-optic cables, APCN (Asia-Pacific Cable Network). + +In contrast to other places we visited, virtually no local labor is +being used on Lan Tao. There is hardly a Chinese face to be seen around +the work site, and when you do see an Asian it tends to be either an +Indonesian member of a barge crew or a Singaporean of Chinese or Indian +ancestry. Most of the people here are blue-eyed and sunburned. A good +half of them have accents that originate from the British Isles. The +remainder are from the States (frequently Dixie), Australia, or New +Zealand, with a smattering from France and Germany. + +Both FLAG and APCN are just passing through Hong Kong, not terminating +here, and so each has to be landed twice (one segment coming in and one +segment going back out). In FLAG's case, one segment goes south to +Songkhla, Thailand, and the other goes north toward Shanghai and Korea. +It wouldn't be safe to land both segments in the same place, so there +are two separate landing sites, with FLAG and APCN cables running side +by side at each one. One of the sites is at the public beach, which is +nice and sandy. The other site is a few hundred meters away on a cobble +beach - a hill of rounded stones, fist- to football-sized, rising up out +of the surf and making musical clinking noises as the waves smash them +up and down the grade. This is a terrible place to land a cable +(Handley: "If it was easy, everybody would do it\!") but, as in +Thailand, diversity is the ultimate trump card. Planted above the hill +of cobbles is a brand-new cable station bearing the Hong Kong Telecom +logo, only one of the spoils soon to be reaped by the People's Republic +of China when all this reverts to its control next year. + +Lan Tao Island, like most other places where cables are landed, is a +peculiar area, long home to smugglers and pirates. Some 30,000 people +live here, mostly concentrated around Silvermine Bay on the island's +eastern end, where the ferries come in every hour or so from Hong Kong's +central district, carrying both islanders and tourists. The beaches are +lovely, except for the sharks, and the interior of the island is mostly +unspoiled parkland, popular among hikers. Hong Kong's new airport is +being built on reclaimed land attached to the north side of the island, +and a monumental chain of bridges and tunnels is being constructed to +connect it with the city. Other than tourist attractions, the island +hosts a few oddities such as a prison, a Trappist monastery, a village +on stilts, and the world's largest outdoor bronze Buddha. + +Cable trash, as these characters affectionately call themselves, shuttle +back and forth between Tong Fuk and Silvermine Bay. They all stay at the +same hotel and tend to spend their off hours at Papa Doc's (no relation +to the Haitian dictator), a beachfront bar run by expats (British) for +expats (Australians, Americans, Brits, you name it). Papa Doc's isn't +just for cable layers. It also meets the exacting specifications of +exhausted hacker tourists. It's the kind of joint that Humphrey Bogart +would be running if he had washed ashore on Lan Tao in the mid-1990s +wearing a nose ring instead of landing in Casablanca in the 1940s +wearing a fedora. + +One evening, after Handley and I had been buying each other drinks at +Papa Doc's for a while, he raised his glass and said, "To good times and +great cable laying\!" This toast, while no doubt uttered with a certain +amount of irony, speaks volumes about cable professionals. + +For most of them, good times and great cable laying are one and the +same. They make their living doing the kind of work that automatically +weeds out losers. Handley, for example, was a founding member of SEAL +Team 2 who spent 59 months fighting in Vietnam, laid cables for the Navy +for a few more years, and has done similar work in the civilian world +ever since. In addition to being an expert diver, he has a master +mariner's license good up to 1,500 tons, which is not an easy thing to +get or maintain. He does all his work on a laptop (he claims that it +replaced 14 employees) and is as computer-literate as anyone I've known +who isn't a coder. + +Handley is unusual in combining all of these qualities into one person +(that's why he's the boss of the Lan Tao Island operation), but the +qualities are as common as tattoos and Tevas around the tables of Papa +Doc's. The crews of the cable barges tend to be jacks-of-all-trades: +ship's masters who also know how to dive using various types of +breathing rigs or who can slam out a report on their laptops, embed a +few digital images in it, and email it to the other side of the world +over a satellite phone, then pick up a welding torch and go to work on +the barge. If these people didn't know what they were doing, there's a +good chance they would be dead by now or would have screwed up a cable +lay somewhere and washed out of the industry. + +Most of the ones here work on what amounts to a freelance basis, either +on their own or as part of small firms. Handley, for example, is +Director of Technical Services for the ITR Corporation, which, among +other functions, serves as a sort of talent agency for cable-layers, +matching supply of expertise to demand and facilitating contracts. Most +of the divers are freelancers, hired temporarily by companies that +likewise move from one job to another. The business is as close to being +a pure meritocracy as anything ever gets in the real world, and it's +only because these guys know they are good that they have the confidence +to call themselves cable trash. + +It was not always thus. Until very recently, cable-laying talent was +monopolized by the clubs. This worked just fine when every cable was a +club cable, created by monopolies for monopolies. In the last couple of +years, however, two changes have occurred at once: FLAG, the first major +privately financed cable, came along; and at the same time, many +experienced cable layers began to go into business for themselves, +either because of voluntary retirement or downsizing. There clearly is a +synergy between these two trends. + +The roster of FLAG's Tong Fuk cable lay contains around 44 people, half +of whom are crew members on either the cable barge Elbe or the +accompanying tug Ocean East. The rest of them are here representing +various contractors involved in the project. It would be safe to assume +that at least that many are working on the APCN side for a grand total +of around 100. + +The size of the fraternity of cable layers is estimated by Handley to be +less than 500, and the number is not increasing. A majority work full +time for one of the clubs. Perhaps a couple of hundred of them are +freelancers, though this fraction gives every indication of rising as +the club employees resign and go to work as contractors, frequently +doing the same work for the same company. "No one can afford to hire +these folks for long periods of time," Handley says. But their pay is +not exceptionally high: benefits, per diem, and expenses plus a daily +rate - but a day might be anything from 0 to 24 hours of work. For a +diver the rate might be $200 per day; for the master of a barge, tug, or +beach $300; and for the experts running the show and repping for +contractors or customers it's in the range of $300 to $400. + +The arrival of a shore-landing operation at a place like Lan Tao Island +must look something like this to the locals: suddenly, it is difficult +to obtain hotel rooms because a plethora of small, unheard-of offshore +corporations have blocked out a couple of dozen rooms for a couple +hundred nights. Sunburned Anglos begin to arrive, wearing T-shirts and +carrying luggage emblazoned with the logos of Alcatel, AT\&T, or Cable & +Wireless. They fly in from all points of the compass, speaking in +Southern drawls or Australian twangs or Scottish burrs and sometimes +bringing their wives or girlfriends, not infrequently Thai or Filipina. +The least important of them has a laptop and a cell phone, but most have +more advanced stuff like portable printers, GPS units, and that ultimate +personal communications device, the satellite telephone, which works +anywhere on the planet, even in the middle of the ocean, by beaming the +call straight up to a satellite. + +Sample conversation at Papa Doc's: + +Envious hacker tourist: "How much does one of those satellite phones +cost, anyway?" + +Leathery, veteran cable layer: "Who gives a shit?" + +Within a day or two, the cable layers have established an official +haunt: preferably a place equipped with a dartboard and a few other +amenities very close to the waterfront so they can keep an eye on +incoming traffic. There they can get a bite to eat or a drink and pay +for it on the spot so that when their satellite phones ring or when a +tugboat chugs into the bay, they can immediately dash off to work. These +men work and play at completely erratic and unpredictable hours. They +wear shorts and sandals and T-shirts and frequently sport tattoos and +hence could easily be mistaken, at a glance, for vacationing sailors. +But if you can get someone to turn down the volume on the jukebox, you +can overhear them learnedly discoursing on flaw propagation in the +crystalline structure of boron silicate glass or on seasonal variation +of currents in the Pearl River estuary, or on what a pain in the ass it +is to helm a large ship through the Suez Canal. Their conversation is +filled with references to places like Tunisia, Diego Garcia, the North +Sea, Porthcurno, and Penang. + +One day a barge appears off the cove, and there is a lot of fussing +around with floats, lots of divers in the water. A backhoe digs a trench +in the cobble beach. A long skinny black thing is wrestled ashore. +Working almost naked in the tropical heat, the men bolt segmented pipes +around it and then bury it. It is never again to be seen by human eyes. +Suddenly, all of these men pay their bills and vanish. Not long +afterward, the phone service gets a hell of a lot better. + +On land, the tools of cable laying are the tools of civil engineers: +backhoes, shovels, cranes. The job is a matter of digging a ditch, +laying duct, planting manholes. The complications are sometimes +geographical but mostly political. In deep water, where the majority of +FLAG is located, the work is done by cable ships and has more in common +with space exploration than with any terrestrial activity. These two +realms could hardly be more different, and yet the transition between +them - the shore landing - is completely distinct from both. + +Shallow water is the most perilous part of a cable's route. Extra +precautions must be taken in the transition from deep water to the +beach, and these precautions get more extreme as the water gets more +shallow. Between 1,000 and 3,000 meters, the cable has a single layer of +armor wires (steel rods about as thick as a pencil) around it. In less +than 1,000 meters of water, it has a second layer of armor around the +first. In the final approach to the shoreline, this double-armored cable +is contained within a massive shell of articulated cast-iron pipe, which +in turn is buried under up to a meter of sand. + +The articulated pipe comes in sections half a meter long, which have to +be manually fit around the cable and bolted together. Each section of +pipe interlocks with the ones on either end of it. The coupling is +designed to bend a certain amount so that the cable can be snaked around +any obstructions to its destination: the beach manhole. It will bend +only so much, however, so that the cable's minimum radius of curvature +will not be violated. + +At the sandy beach this manual work was done out in the surf by a team +of English freelance divers based out of Hong Kong. At the cobble beach, +it was done in a trench by a bikini-underwear-clad Frenchman with a New +Zealand passport living in Singapore, working in Hong Kong, with a +Singaporean wife of Chinese descent. Drenched with sweat and rain and +seawater, he wrestles with the cast-iron pipe sections in a cobblestone +ditch, bolting them patiently together. A Chinese man in a suit picks +his way across the cobbles toward him, carrying an oversized umbrella +emblazoned with the logo of a prominent stock brokerage, followed by a +minion. Although this is all happening in China, this is the first +Chinese person who has appeared on the beach in a couple of days. He is +an executive from the phone company, coming to inspect the work. After a +stiff exchange of pleasantries with the other cable layers on the beach, +he goes to the brink of the trench and begins bossing around the man +with the half-pipes, who, knowing what's good for him, just keeps his +mouth shut while maintaining a certain bearing and dignity beside which +the executive's suit and umbrella seem pathetic and vain. + +To a hacker tourist, the scene is strikingly familiar: it is the ancient +hacker-versus-suit drama, enacted for the millionth time but sticking to +its traditional structure as strictly as a Noh play or, for that matter, +a Dilbert cartoon. Cable layers, like hackers, scorn credentials, +etiquette, and nice clothes. Anyone who can do the work is part of the +club. Nothing else matters. Suits are a bizarre intrusion from an +irrational world. They have undeniable authority, but heaven only knows +how they acquired it. This year, the suits are from Hong Kong, which +means they are probably smarter than the average suit. Pretty soon the +suits will be from Beijing, but Beijing doesn't know how to lay cable +either, so if they ever want to get bits in or out of their country, +they will have to reach an understanding with these guys. + +At Tong Fuk, FLAG is encased in pipe out to a distance of some 300 +meters from the beach manhole. When the divers have got all of that pipe +bolted on, which will take a week or so, they will make their way down +the line with a water jet that works by fluidizing the seabed beneath +it, turning it into quicksand. The pipe sinks into the quicksand, which +eventually compacts, leaving no trace of the buried pipe. + +Beyond 300 meters, the cable must still be buried to protect it from +anchors, tickler chains, and otter boards (more about this later). This +is the job of the two barges we saw off Tong Fuk. One, the Elbe, was +burying FLAG. The other was burying APCN. Elbe did its job in one-third +the time, with one-third the crew, perhaps exemplifying the difference +between FLAG's freelance-based virtual-corporation business model versus +the old club model. The Elbe crew is German, British, Filipino, +Singaporean-of-Indian-ancestry, New Zealander, and also includes a South +African diver. + +In the center of the barge is a tank where the cable is spooled. The +thick, heavy armored cable that the Elbe works with is covered with a +jacket of tarred jute, which gives it an old-fashioned look that belies +its high tech optical-fiber innards. The tar likes to melt and stick the +cable together, so each layer of cable in the tank is separated from its +neighbors by wooden slats, and buckets of talc are slathered over it. +The cable emerges from the open top of the tank and passes through a +series of rollers that curve around, looking very much like a miniature +roller-coaster track - these are built in such a way as to bend the +cable through a particular trajectory without violating its minimum +radius of curvature. They feed it into the top of the injector unit. + +The injector is a huge steel cleaver, 7 meters high and 2 or 3 meters +broad, rigged to the side of the barge so it can slide up and down and +thus be jammed directly into the seabed. But instead of a cutting blade +on its leading edge, it has a row of hardened-steel injector nozzles +that spurt highly pressurized water, piped in from a huge pump buried in +the Elbe's engine room. These nozzles fluidize the seabed and thus make +it possible for the giant blade to penetrate it. Along the trailing edge +of the blade runs a channel for the cable so that as the blade works its +way forward, the cable is gently laid into the bottom of the slit. The +barge carries a set of extensions that can be bolted onto the top of the +injector so it can operate in water as deep as 40 meters, burying the +cable as deep as 9 meters beneath the seabed. This sufficed to lay the +cable out for a distance of 10 kilometers from Tong Fuk. Later, another +barge, the Chinann, will come to continue work out to 100 meters deep +and will bury both legs of the FLAG cable for another 60 kilometers out +to get them through a dangerous anchorage zone. + +The Elbe has its own tugboat, the Ocean East, staffed with an Indonesian +crew. Relations between the two vessels have been a bit tense because +the Indonesians butchered and ate all of the Elbe's laying hens, +terminating the egg supply. But it all seemed to have been patched up +when we were there; no one was fretting about it except for the Elbe's +rooster. When the Elbe is more than half a kilometer from shore, Ocean +East pulls her along by means of a cable. The tug's movements are +controlled from the Elbe's bridge over a radio link. Closer to shore, +the Elbe drops an anchor and then pulls itself along by winching the +line in. She can get more power by using the Harbormaster thruster units +mounted on each of her ends. But the main purpose of these thrusters is +to provide side propulsion so the barge's movements can be finely +controlled. + +The nerve center of the Elbe is a raised, air-conditioned bridge jammed +with the electronic paraphernalia characteristic of modern ships, such +as a satellite phone, a fax machine, a plotter, and a Navtex machine to +receive meteorological updates. Probably the most important equipment is +the differential GPS system that tells the barge's operators exactly +where they are with respect to the all-important Route Position List: a +series of points provided by the surveyors. Their job is to connect +these dots with cable. Elbe's bridge normally sports four different +computers all concerned with navigation and station-keeping functions. +In addition to this complement, during the Tong Fuk cable lay, Dave +Handley was up here with his laptop, taking down data important to FLAG, +while the representatives from AT\&T and Cable & Wireless were also +present with their laptops compiling their own data. + +Hey, wait a minute, the hacker tourist says to himself, I thought AT\&T +was the enemy. What's an AT\&T guy doing on the bridge of the Elbe, +side-by-side with Dave Handley? + +The answer is that the telecom business is an unfathomably complicated +snarl of relationships. Not only did AT\&T (along with KDD) end up with +the contract to supply FLAG's cable, it also ended up landing a great +deal of the installation work. Not that many companies have what it +takes to manage an installation of FLAG's magnitude. AT\&T is one of +them and Nynex isn't. So it frequently happens at FLAG job sites that +AT\&T will be serving as the contractor, making the local contacts and +organizing the work, while FLAG's presence will be limited to one or two +reps whose allegiance is to the investors and whose job it is to make +sure it's all done the FLAG way, as opposed to the AT\&T way. As with +any other construction project from a doghouse on upward, countless +decisions must be made on the site, and here they need to be made the +way a group of private investors would make them - not the way a club +would. + +If FLAG's investors spent any time at all looking into the history of +the cable-laying business, this topic must have given them a few +sleepless nights. The early years of the industry were filled with +decision making that can most charitably be described as colorful. In +those days, there were no experienced old hands. They just made +everything up as they went along, and as often as not, they got it +wrong. + +\_\_ Thomson and Whitehouse\_\_ + +As of 1861, some 17,500 kilometers of submarine cable had been laid in +various places around the world, of which only about 5,000 kilometers +worked. The remaining 12,500 kilometers represented a loss to their +investors, and most of these lost investments were long cables such as +the ones between Britain and the United States and Britain and India +(3,500 and 5,600 kilometers, respectively). Understanding why long +cables failed was not a trivial problem; it defeated eminent scientists +like Rankine and Siemens and was solved, in the end, only by William +Thomson. + +In prospect, it probably looked like it was going to be easy. Insulated +telegraph wires strung from pole to pole worked just as one might +expect, and so, assuming that watertight insulation could be found, +similar wires laid under the ocean should work just as well. The +insulation was soon found in the form of gutta-percha. Very long +gutta-percha-insulated wires were built. They worked fine when laid out +on the factory floor and tested. But when immersed in water they worked +poorly, if at all. + +The problem was that water, unlike air, is an electrical conductor, +which is to say that charged particles are free to move around in it. +When a pulse of electrons moves down an immersed cable, it repels +electrons in the surrounding seawater, creating a positively charged +pulse in the water outside. These two charged regions interact with each +other in such a way as to smear out the original pulse moving down the +wire. The operator at the receiving end sees only a slow upward trend in +electrical charge, instead of a crisp jump. If the sending operator +transmitted the different pulses - the dots and dashes - too close +together, they'd blur as they moved down the wire. + +Unfortunately, that's not the only thing happening in that wire. Long +cables act as antennae, picking up all kinds of stray currents as the +rotation of the Earth, and its revolution around the sun, sweep them +across magnetic fields of terrestrial and celestial origin. At the +Museum of Submarine Telegraphy in Porthcurno, Cornwall (which we'll +visit later), is a graph of the so-called Earth current measured in a +cable that ran from there to Harbor Grace, Newfoundland, decades ago. +Over a period of some 72 hours, the graph showed a variation in the +range of 100 volts. Unfortunately, the amplitude of the telegraph signal +was only 70 volts. So the weak, smeared-out pulses making their way down +the cable would have been almost impossible to hear above the music of +the spheres. + +Finally, leakage in the cable's primitive insulation was inevitable. All +of these influences, added together, meant that early telegraphers could +send anything they wanted into the big wire, but the only thing that +showed up at the other end was noise. + +These problems were known, but poorly understood, in the mid-1850s when +the first transatlantic cable was being planned. They had proved +troublesome but manageable in the early cables that bridged short gaps, +such as between England and Ireland. No one knew, yet, what would happen +in a much longer cable system. The best anyone could do, short of +building one, was to make predictions. + +The Victorian era was an age of superlatives and larger-than-life +characters, and as far as that goes, Dr. Wildman Whitehouse fit right +in: what Victoria was to monarchs, Dickens to novelists, Burton to +explorers, Robert E. Lee to generals, Dr. Wildman Whitehouse was to +assholes. He achieved a level of pure accomplishment in this field that +the Alfonse D'Amatos of our time can only dream of. The only +19th-century figure who even comes close to him in this department is +Custer. In any case, Dr. Edward Orange Wildman Whitehouse fancied +himself something of an expert on electricity. His rival was William +Thomson, 10 years younger, a professor of natural philosophy at Glasgow +University who was infatuated with Fourier analysis, a new and extremely +powerful tool that happened to be perfectly suited to the problem of how +to send electrical pulses down long submarine cables. + +Wildman Whitehouse predicted that sending bits down long undersea cables +was going to be easy (the degradation of the signal would be +proportional to the length of the cable) and William Thomson predicted +that it was going to be hard (proportional to the length of the cable +squared). Naturally, they both ended up working for the same company at +the same time. + +Whitehouse was a medical doctor, hence working in the wrong field, and +probably trailed Thomson by a good 50 or 100 IQ points. But that didn't +stop Whitehouse. In 1856, he published a paper stating that Thomson's +theories concerning the proposed transatlantic cable were balderdash. +The two men got into a public argument, which became extremely important +in 1858 when the Atlantic Telegraph Company laid such a cable from +Ireland to Newfoundland: a copper core sheathed in gutta-percha and +wrapped in iron wires. + +This cable was, to put it mildly, a bad idea, given the state of cable +science and technology at the time. The notion of copper as a conductor +for electricity, as opposed to a downspout material, was still +extraordinary, and it was impossible to obtain the metal in anything +like a pure form. The cable was slapped together so shoddily that in +some places the core could be seen poking out through its gutta-percha +insulation even before it was loaded onto the cable-laying ship. But +venture capitalists back then were a more rugged - not to say crazy - +breed, and there can be no better evidence than that they let Wildman +Whitehouse stay on as the Atlantic Telegraph Company's chief electrician +long after his deficiencies had become conspicuous. + +The physical process of building and laying the cable makes for a wild +tale in and of itself. But to do it justice, I would have to double the +length of this already herniated article. Let's just say that after lots +of excitement, they put a cable in place between Ireland and +Newfoundland. But for all of the reasons mentioned earlier, it hardly +worked at all. Queen Victoria managed to send President Buchanan a +celebratory message, but it took a whole day to send it. On a good day, +the cable could carry something like one word per minute. This fact was +generally hushed up, but the important people knew about it - so the +pressure was on Wildman Whitehouse, whose theories were blatantly +contradicted by the facts. + +Whitehouse convinced himself that the solution to their troubles was +brute force - send the message at extremely high voltages. To that end, +he invented and patented a set of 5-foot-long induction coils capable of +ramming 2,000 volts into the cable. When he hooked them up to the +Ireland end of the system, he soon managed to blast a hole through the +gutta-percha somewhere between there and Newfoundland, turning the +entire system into useless junk. + +Long before this, William Thomson had figured out, by dint of Fourier +analysis, that incoming bits could be detected much faster by a more +sensitive instrument. The problem was that instruments in those days had +to work by physically moving things around, for example, by closing an +electromagnetic relay that would sound a buzzer. Moving things around +requires power, and the bits on a working transatlantic cable embodied +very little power. It was difficult to make a physical object small +enough to be susceptible to such ghostly traces of current. + +Thomson's solution (actually, the first of several solutions) was the +mirror galvanometer, which incorporated a tiny fleck of reflective +material that would twist back and forth in the magnetic field created +by the current in the wire. A beam of light reflecting from the fleck +would swing back and forth like a searchlight, making a dim spot on a +strip of white paper. An observer with good eyesight sitting in a +darkened room could tell which way the current was flowing by watching +which way the spot moved. Current flowing in one direction signified a +Morse code dot, in the other a dash. In fact, the information that had +been transmitted down the cable in the brief few weeks before Wildman +Whitehouse burned it to a crisp had been detected using Thomson's mirror +galvanometer - though Whitehouse denied it. + +After the literal burnout of the first transatlantic cable, Wildman +Whitehouse and Professor Thomson were grilled by a committee of eminent +Victorians who were seriously pissed off at Whitehouse and enthralled +with Thomson, even before they heard any testimony - and they heard a +lot of testimony. +Whitehouse disappeared into ignominy. Thomson ended up being knighted +and later elevated to a baron by Queen Victoria. He became Lord Kelvin +and eventually got an important unit of measurement, an even more +important law of physics, and a refrigerator named after him. + +Eight years after Whitehouse fried the first, a second transatlantic +cable was built to Lord Kelvin's specifications with his patented mirror +galvanometers at either end of it. He bought a 126-ton schooner yacht +with the stupendous amount of money he made from his numerous +cable-related patents, turned the ship into a floating luxury palace and +laboratory for the invention of even more fantastically lucrative +patents. He then spent the rest of his life tooling around the British +Isles, Bay of Biscay, and western Mediterranean, frequently hosting +Dukes and continental savants who all commented on the nerd-lord's +tendency to stop in the middle of polite conversation to scrawl out long +skeins of equations on whatever piece of paper happened to be handy. + +Kelvin went on to design and patent other devices for extracting bits +from the ends of cables, and other engineers went to work on the +problem, too. By the 1920s, the chore of translating electrical pulses +into letters had been largely automated. Now, of course, humans are +completely out of the loop. + +The number of people working in cable landing stations is probably about +the same as it was in Kelvin's day. But now they are merely caretakers +for machines that process bits about as fast as a billion telegraphers +working in parallel. + +\_\_ The Hacker Tourist travels to the Land of the Rising Sun.\_\_ + +Technological wonders of modern cable stations. Why Ugandans could not +place telephone calls to Seattle. Trawlers, tickler chains, teredo +worms, and other hazards to undersea cables. The immense financial +stakes involved - why cable owners do not care for the company of +fishermen,and vice versa. + +\_\_ 35° 17.690' N, 139° 46.328' EKDD Cable Landing Station, Ninomiya, +Japan\_\_ + +Whether they are in Thailand, Egypt, or Japan, modern cable landing +stations have much in common with each other. Shortly after touching +down in Tokyo, we were standing in KDD's landing station in Ninomiya, +Japan. I'll describe it to you. + +A surprising amount of space in the station is devoted to electrical +gear. The station must not lose power, so there are two separate, +redundant emergency generators. There is also likely to be a transformer +to supply power to the cable system. We think of optical fibers as +delicate strands consuming negligible power, but all of those repeaters, +spaced every few dozen kilometers across an ocean, end up consuming a +lot of juice: for a big transoceanic cable, one or two amperes at 7,000 +or so volts, for a total of something like 10,000 watts. The equipment +handling that power makes a hum you can feel in your bones, kicking the +power out not along wires but solid copper bars suspended from the +ceiling, with occasional sections of massive braided metal ribbon so +they won't snap in an earthquake. + +The emergency generators are hooked into a battery farm that fills a +room. The batteries are constantly trickle-charged and exist simply to +provide power during an emergency - after the regular power goes out but +before the generators kick in. Most of the equipment in the cable +station is computer gear that demands a stable temperature, so there are +two separate, redundant air-conditioning plants feeding into a big +system of ventilation ducts. The equipment must not get dirty or get +fried by sparks from the fingers of hacker tourists, so you leave your +shoes by the door and slip into plastic antistatic flip-flops. The +equipment must not get smashed up in earthquakes, so the building is +built like a brick shithouse. + +The station is no more than a few hundred meters from a beach. Sandy +beaches in out-of-the-way areas are preferred. The cable comes in under +the sand until it hits a beach manhole, where it continues through +underground ducts until it comes up out of the floor of the cable +station into a small, well-secured room. The cable is attached to +something big and strong, such as a massive steel grid bolted into the +wall. Early cable technicians were sometimes startled to see their +cables suddenly jerk loose from their moorings inside the station - +yanking the guts out of expensive pieces of equipment - and disappear in +the direction of the ocean, where a passing ship had snagged them. + +From holes in the floor, the cables pass up into boxes where all the +armor and insulation are stripped away from them and where the tubular +power lead surrounding the core is connected to the electrical service +(7,500 volts in the case of FLAG) that powers the repeaters out in the +middle of the ocean. Its innards then con-tinue, typically in some kind +of overhead wiring plenum (a miniature catwalk suspended from the +ceiling) into the Big Room Full of Expensive Stuff. + +The Big Room Full of Expensive Stuff is at least 25 meters on a side and +commonly has a floor made of removable, perforated plates covering +plenums through which wires can be routed, an overhead grid of open +plenums from which wires descend like jungle vines, or both. Most of the +room is occupied by equipment racks arranged in parallel rows (think of +the stacks at a big library). The racks are tall, well over most +people's heads, and their insides are concealed and protected by face +plates bearing corporate logos: AT\&T, Alcatel, Fujitsu. In the case of +an optical cable like FLAG, they contain the Light Terminal: the gear +that converts the 1,558-nanometer signal lasers coming down the fiber +strands into digits within an electrical circuit, and vice versa. The +Light Terminal is contained within a couple of racks that, taken +together, are about the size of a refrigerator. + +All the other racks of gear filling the room cope with the unfathomable +hassles associated with trying to funnel that many bits into and out of +the fiber. In the end, that gear is, of course, connected to the local +telecommunications system in some way. Hence one commonly sees microwave +relay towers on top of these buildings and lots of manholes in the +streets around them. One does not, however, see a lot of employees, +because for the most part this equipment runs itself. Every single +circuit board in every slot of every level of every rack in the whole +place has a pair of copper wires coming out of it to send an alarm +signal in the event that the board fails. Like tiny rivulets joining +together into a mighty river, these come together into bundles as thick +as your leg that snake beneath the floor plates to an alarm center where +they are patched into beautiful rounded clear plastic cases enclosing +grids of interconnect pins. From here they are tied into communications +lines that run all the way to Tokyo so that everything on the premises +can be monitored remotely during nights and weekends. Ninomiya is +staffed with nine employees and Miura, FLAG's other Japanese landing +point, only one. + +With one notable exception, the hacker tourist sees no particular +evidence that any of this has the slightest thing to do with +communications. It might as well be the computer room at a big +university or insurance company. The one exception is a telephone +handset hanging on a hook on one of the equipment racks. The handset is +there, but there's no keypad. Above it is a sign bearing the name of a +city far, far away. "Ha, ha\!" I said, the first time I saw one of +these, "that's for talking to the guy in California, right?" To my +embarrassment, my tour guides nodded yes. Each cable system has +something called the order wire, which enables the technicians at +opposite ends of the cable to talk to each other. At a major landing +station you will see several order wires labeled with the names of +exotic-sounding cities on the opposite side of the nearest large body of +water. + +That is the bare minimum that you will see at any cable station. At +Ninomiya you see a bit more, and therein lies something of a tale. + +Ninomiya is by far the oldest of KDD's seven cable landing stations, +having been built in 1964 to land TPC-1, which connected Japan to Guam +and hence to the United States. Unlike many of FLAG's other landing +sites, which are still torn up by backhoe tracks, it is surrounded by +perfectly maintained gardens marred only by towering gray steel poles +with big red lights on them aimed out toward the sea in an attempt to +dissuade mariners from dropping anchor anywhere nearby. Ninomiya served +as a training ground for Japanese cable talent. Some of the people who +learned the trade there are among the top executives in KDD's hierarchy +today. + +During the 1980s, when Americans started to get freaked out about Japan +again, we heard a great deal about Japanese corporations' patient, +long-term approach to R\&D and how vastly superior it was to American +companies' stupid, short-term approach. Since American news media are at +least as stupid and short-term as the big corporations they like to +bitch about, we have heard very little follow-up to such stories in +recent years, which is kind of disappointing because I was sort of +wondering how it was all going to turn out. But now the formerly +long-term is about to come due. + +By the beginning of the 1980s, the generation of cable-savvy KDD men who +had cut their teeth at Ninomiya had reached the level where they could +begin diverting corporate resources into R\&D programs. Tohru Ohta, who +today is the executive vice president of KDD, managed to pry some money +loose and get it into the hands of a protégé, Dr. Yasuhiko Niiro, who +launched one of those vaunted far-sighted Japanese R\&D programs at +Ninomiya. The terminal building for TPC-1, which had been the center of +the Japanese international telecommunications network in 1964, was +relegated to a laboratory for Niiro. The goal was to make KDD a player +in the optical-fiber submarine cable manufacturing business. + +Such a move was not without controversy in the senior ranks of KDD, who +had devoted themselves to a very different corporate mission. In 1949, +when Japan was still being run by Douglas MacArthur and the country was +trying to dig out from the rubble of the war, Nippon Telephone & +Telegraph (NT\&T) split off its international department into a new +company called Kokusai Denshin Denwa Co., Ltd. (KDD), which means +International Telegraph & Telephone. KDD was much smaller and more +focused than NT\&T, and this was for a reason: Japan's international +communications system was a shambles, and nothing was more important to +the country's economic recovery than that it be rehabilitated as quickly +as possible. The hope was that KDD would be more nimble and agile than +its lumbering parent and get the job done faster. + +This strategy seems to have more or less worked. Obviously, Japan has +succeeded in the world of international business. It is connected to the +United States by numerous transpacific cables; lines to the outside +world are plentiful. Of course, since KDD enjoyed monopoly status for a +long time, the fact that these lines are plentiful has never led to +their being cheap. Still, the system worked. Like much else that worked +in Japan's postwar economy, it succeeded, in those early years, +precisely insofar as it worked hand-in-glove with American companies and +institutions. AT\&T, in other words. + +Unlike the United States or France or Great Britain, Japan was never +much of a player in the submarine cable business back in the prewar +days, and so Ohta's and Niiro's notion of going into head-to-head +competition against AT\&T, its postwar sugar daddy, might have seemed +audacious. KDD had customarily been so close to AT\&T that many Japanese +mocked it cruelly. AT\&T is the sumo champion, they said, and KDD is its +koshi-ginchaku, its belt-holding assistant. The word literally means +waist purse but seems to have rude connotations along the lines of +jockstrap carrier. + +Against all of that, the only thing that Ohta and Niiro had to go on was +the fact that their idea was a really, really good one. Building cables +is just the kind of thing that Japanese industry is good at: a highly +advanced form of manufacturing that requires the very best quality +control. Cables and repeaters have to work for at least 25 years under +some really unpleasant conditions. + +KDD Submarine Cable Systems (KDD-SCS) built its first optical fiber +submarine cable system, TPC-3, in 1989 and will soon have more than +100,000 kilometers of cable in service worldwide. It designs and holds +the patents on the terminal equipment that we saw at Ninomiya, though +the equipment itself is manufactured by electronics giants like Toshiba +and NEC. KDD-SCS is building some of the cable and repeaters that make +up FLAG, and AT\&T-SSI is building the rest. A problem has already +surfaced in the AT\&T repeaters - they switched to a different soldering +technique which turns out to be not such a good idea. Eleven of the +repeaters that AT\&T made for FLAG have this problem, and all of them +are lying on the bottom of oceans with bits running through them - for +now. FLAG and AT\&T are still studying this problem and trying to decide +how to resolve it. Still, everyone in the cable business knows what +happened - it has to be considered a major win for KDD-SCS. + +So when KDD threw some of its resources into one of those famous +far-sighted long-range Japanese R\&D programs, it paid off beautifully. +In the field of submarine cable systems, the lowly assistant has taught +the sumo champion a lesson and sent him reeling back - not quite out of +the ring, but certainly enough to get his attention. How, you might ask, +is the rest of KDD doing? + +The answer is that, like most other PTTs, it's showing its age. Even the +tactful Japanese are willing to admit that they have performed poorly in +the world of international telecommunications compared to other +countries. Non-Japanese will tell you the same thing more +enthusiastically. + +The telco deregulation wars have begun in Japan as they have almost +everywhere else, and KDD now has competitors in the form of +International Digital Communications Inc. (IDC), which owns the Miura +station, the other FLAG landing spot. In order to succeed in this +competition, KDD needs to invest a lot of money, but the very smallness +that made it such a good idea in 1949 puts it at a disadvantage when +large amounts of capital are needed. + +Just as Ninomiya is a generic cable landing, so KDD is something of a +generic PTT, facing many of the same troubles that others do. For +example: the Japanese telecommunications ministry continues to set rates +at an artificially high level. At first blush, this would seem to help +KDD by making it much more difficult for upstarts like IDC to compete +with them. But in fact it has opened the door to an unexpected form of +competition: callback. + +Callback and Kallback are registered trademarks of Seattle-based +International Telcom Ltd. (ITL), but, like band-aid and kleenex, tend to +be used in a generic way by people overseas. The callback concept is +based on the fact that it's much cheaper to call Japan from the US than +it is to call the US from Japan. Subscribers to a callback service are +given a phone number in the US. When they want to make a call, they dial +that number, wait for it to ring once, and then hang up so they won't be +charged for the call. In the jargon of the callback world, this is the +trigger call. A system in the US then calls them back, giving them a +cheap international line, and once that is accomplished, it's an easy +matter to shunt the call elsewhere: to a number in the States or in any +other country in the world. + +Any phone call made between two countries is subject to a so-called +settlement charge, which is assessed on a per-minute basis. The amount +of the settlement charged is fixed by an agreement between the two +countries' PTTs and generally provides a barometer of their relative +size and power. So, for example, when working out the deal with Denmark, +Pakistan might say, "Hey, Danes are rich, and we don't really care +whether they call us or not, and they have no particular leverage over +us - so POW\!" and insist on a high settlement charge - say $4 per +minute. But when negotiating against AT\&T, Pakistan might agree to a +lower settlement charge - say $1 per minute. + +Settlement charges have long been a major source of foreign exchange for +developing countries' PTTs and hence for their governments and any +crooked officials who may be dipping into the money stream. In some +underdeveloped nations, they have been the major - verging on the only - +source of such income. But not for long. + +Nowadays, a Dane who makes lot of international calls will subscribe to +a service such as ITL's Kallback. He makes a trigger call to Kallback's +computer in Seattle, which, since it is an incomplete call, costs him +nothing. The computer phones him back within a few seconds. He then +punches in the number he wants to call in Pakistan, and the computer in +Seattle places the call for him and makes the connection. Since +Pakistan's PTT has no way to know that the call originates in Denmark, +it assesses the lower AT\&T settlement charge. The total settlement +charge ends up being much less than what the Dane would have paid if +he'd dialed Pakistan directly. In other words, two calls from the US, +one to point A and one to point B, are cheaper than one direct call from +point A to point B. + +KDD, like many other PTTs around the world, has tried to crack down on +callback services by compiling lists of the callback numbers and +blocking calls to those numbers. When I talked to Eric Doescher, ITL's +director of marketing, I expected him to be outraged about such attacks. +But it soon became evident that if he ever felt that way, he long ago +got over it and now views all such efforts with jaded amusement. "In +Uganda," he said, "the PTT blocked all calls to the 206 area code. So we +issued numbers from different area codes. In Saudi Arabia, they disabled +touch-tones upon connection so our users were unable to place calls when +the callback arrived - so we instituted a sophisticated voice +recognition system - customer service reps who listened to our customers +speaking the number and keyed it into the system." In Canada, a bizarre +situation developed in which calls from the Yukon and Northwest +Territories to the big southeastern cities like Ottawa and Toronto were +actually cheaper - by a factor of three - when routed through Seattle +than when dialed directly. In response to the flood of Kallback traffic, +Canada's Northern Telecom had human operators monitor phone calls, +listening for the distinctive pattern of a trigger call: one ring +followed by a hang-up. They then blocked calls to those numbers. So ITL +substituted a busy signal for the ringing sound. Northern Telecom, +unwilling to block calls to every phone in the US that was ever busy, +was checkmated. + +In most countries, callback services inhabit a gray area. Saudi Arabia +and Kenya occasionally run ads reminding their people that callback is +illegal, but they don't try to enforce the law. China has better luck +with enforcement because of its system of informants, but it doesn't +bother Western businesspeople, who are the primary users. Singapore has +legalized them on the condition that they don't advertise. In Italy, the +market is so open that ITL is about to market a debit card that enables +people to use the service from any pay phone. + +So settlement charges have backfired on the telcos of many countries. +Originally created to coddle these local monopolies, they've now become +a hazard to their existence. + +KDD carries all the baggage of an old monopoly: it works in conjunction +with a notoriously gray and moribund government agency, it still has the +bad customer-service attitude that is typical of monopolies, and it has +the whole range of monopoly PR troubles too. Any competitive actions +that it takes tend to be construed as part of a sinister world +domination plot. So KDD has managed to get the worst of both worlds: it +is viewed both as a big sinister monopoly and as a cringing sidekick to +the even bigger and more sinister AT\&T. + +Michio Kuroda is a KDD executive who negotiates deals relating to +submarine cables. He tells of a friend of his, a KDD employee who went +to the United States two decades ago to study at a university and went +around proudly announcing to his new American acquaintances that he +worked for a monopoly. Finally, some kind soul took him aside and gently +broke the news to him that, in America, monopoly was an ugly word. + +Now, 20 years later, Kuroda claims that KDD has come around; it agrees +now that monopoly is an ugly word. KDD's detractors will say that this +is self-serving, but it rings true to this reporter. It seems clear that +a decision has been made at the highest levels of KDD that it's time to +stop looking backward and start to compete. As KDD is demonstrating, fat +payrolls can be trimmed. Capital can be raised. Customer service can be +improved, prices cut, bad PR mended. The biggest challenge that KDD +faces now may stem from a mistake that it made several years ago: it +decided not to land FLAG. + +\_\_ 35° 11.535' N, 139° 36.995' EIDC Cable Landing Station, Miura, +Japan\_\_ + +The Miura station of IDC, or International Digital Communications Inc., +looks a good deal like KDD's Ninomiya station on the inside, except that +its equipment is made by Fujitsu instead of KDD-SCS. At first +approximation, you might think of IDC as being the MCI of Japan. +Originally it specialized in data transmission, but now that +deregulation has arrived it is also a long-distance carrier. This, by +the way, is a common pattern in Asian countries where deregulation is +looming: new companies will try to kick out a niche for themselves in +data or cellular markets and hold on by their toenails until the vast +long-distance market opens up to them. Anyone in Japan can dial an +international call over IDC's network by dialing the prefix 0061 instead +of 001 for KDD. The numerical prefixes of various competing +long-distance companies are slapped up all over Tokyo on signs and +across rear windows of taxicabs in a desperate attempt to get a tiny +edge in mindshare. + +Miura's outer surroundings are quite different from Ninomiya's. Ninomiya +is on a bluff in the middle of a town, and the beach below it is a +narrow strip of sand chockablock with giant concrete tetrapods, looking +like vastly magnified skeletons of plankton and intended to keep waves +from washing up onto the busy coastal highway that runs between the +beach and the station. Miura, by contrast, is a resort area with a wide +beach lined with seasonal restaurants. When we were there we even saw a +few surfers, hunting for puny waves under a relentless rain, looking +miserable in black wetsuits. The beach gives way to intensively +cultivated farmland. + +Miura is the Japan end of NPC, the Northern Pacific Cable, which links +it directly to Pacific City, Oregon, with 8,380 kilometers of +second-generation optical fiber (it carries three fiber pairs, each of +which handles 420 Mbps). Miura also lands APC, the Asia-Pacific Cable, +which links it to Hong Kong and Singapore, and by means of a short cable +under Tokyo Bay it is connected to KDD's Chikura station, which is a +major nexus for transpacific and East Asian cables. + +When FLAG first approached KDD with its wild scheme to build a privately +financed cable from England to Japan, there were plenty of reasons for +KDD to turn it down. The US Commerce Department was pressuring KDD to +accept FLAG, but AT\&T was against it. KDD was now caught between two +sumo wrestlers trying to push it opposite ways. Also in the crowded ring +was Japan's telecommunications ministry, which maintained that plenty of +bandwidth already existed and that FLAG would somehow create a glut on +the market. Again, this attitude is probably difficult for the hacker +tourist or any other Net user to comprehend, but it seems to be +ubiquitous among telecrats. + +Finally, KDD saw advantages in the old business model in which cables +are backed, and owned, by carriers - it likes the idea of owning a cable +and reaping profits from it rather than allowing a bunch of outside +investors to make all the money. + +For whatever reasons, KDD declined FLAG's invitation, so FLAG made +overtures to IDC, which readily agreed to land the cable at its Miura +station, where it could be cross-connected with NPC. + +A similar scenario played out in Korea, by the way, where Korea Telecom, +traditionally a loyal member of the AT\&T family, turned FLAG down at +first. FLAG approached a competitor named Dacom, and, faced with that +threat, Korea Telecom changed its mind and decided to break with AT\&T +and land FLAG after all. But in Japan, KDD, perhaps displaying more +loyalty than was good for it, held the line. Miura became FLAG's +Japanese landing station by default - a huge coup for IDC, which could +now route calls to virtually anywhere in the world directly from its +station. + +All of this happened prior to a major FLAG meeting in Singapore in 1992, +which those familiar with the project regard as having been a turning +point. At this meeting it became clear that FLAG was a serious endeavor, +that it really was going to happen. Not long afterward, AT\&T decided to +adopt an "if you can't beat 'em, join 'em'' strategy toward FLAG, which +eventually led to it and KDD Submarine Cable Systems getting the +contract to build FLAG's cable and repeaters. (AT\&T-SSI is supplying 64 +percent of the cable and 59 percent of the repeaters, and KDD-SCS is +supplying the rest.) This was a big piece of good news for KDD-SCS, the +competitive-minded manufacturer, but it put KDD the poky long-distance +company in the awkward, perhaps even absurd situation of supplying the +hardware for a project that it had originally opposed and that would end +up being a cash cow for its toughest competitor. + +So KDD changed its mind and began trying to get in on FLAG. Since FLAG +was already coming ashore at a station owned by IDC, this meant creating +a second landing in Japan, at Ninomiya. In no other country would FLAG +have two landings controlled by two different companies. For arcane +contractual reasons, this meant that all of the other 50-odd carriers +involved in FLAG would have to give unanimous consent to the +arrangement, which meant in practice that IDC had veto power. At a +ceremony opening a new KDD-SCS factory on Ky�ush�u, executives from KDD +and IDC met to discuss the idea. IDC agreed to let KDD in, in exchange +for what people on both sides agree were surprisingly reasonable +conditions. + +At first blush it might seem as though IDC was guilty of valuing harmony +and cooperation over the preservation of shareholder value - a common +charge leveled against Japanese corporations by grasping and peevish +American investors. Perhaps there was some element of this, but the fact +is that IDC did have good reasons for wanting FLAG connected to KDD's +network. KDD's Ninomiya station is scheduled to be the landing site for +TPC-5, a megaproject of the same order of magnitude as FLAG: 25,000 +kilometers of third-generation optical fiber cable swinging in a vast +loop around the Pacific, connecting Japan with the West Coast of the US. +With both FLAG and TPC-5 literally coming into the same room at +Ninomiya, it would be possible to build a cross-connect between the two, +effectively extending FLAG's reach across the Pacific. This would add a +great deal of value to FLAG and hence would be good for IDC. + +In any case, the deal fell through because of a strong anti-FLAG faction +within KDD that could not tolerate the notion of giving any concessions +whatever to IDC. There it stalemated until FLAG managed to cut a deal +with China Telecom to run a full-bore 10.6 Gbps spur straight into +Shanghai. While China has other undersea cable connections, they are +tiny compared with FLAG, which is now set to be the first big cable, as +well as the first modern Internet connection, into China. + +At this point it became obvious that KDD absolutely had to get in on the +FLAG action no matter what the cost, and so it returned to the +bargaining table - but this time, IDC, sensing that it had an +overpoweringly strong hand, wanted much tougher conditions. Eventually, +though, the deal was made, and now jumpsuited workers are preparing +rooms at both Ninomiya and Miura to receive the new equipment racks, +much like expectant parents wallpapering the nursery.= At Ninomiya, an +immense cross-connect will be built between FLAG and TPC-5, and Miura +will house a cross-connect between FLAG and the smaller NPC cable. + +The two companies will end up on an equal footing as far as FLAG is +concerned, but the crucial strategic misstep has already been made by +KDD: by letting IDC be the first to land FLAG, it has given its rival a +chance to acquire a great deal of experience in the business. It is not +unlike the situation that now exists between AT\&T, which used to be the +only company big and experienced enough to put together a major +international cable, and Nynex, which has now managed to get its foot in +that particular door and is rapidly gaining the experience and contacts +needed to compete with AT\&T in the future. + +\_\_ Hazards\_\_ + +Dr. Wildman Whitehouse and his 5-foot-long induction coils were the +first hazard to destroy a submarine cable but hardly the last. It +sometimes seems as though every force of nature, every flaw in the human +character, and every biological organism on the planet is engaged in a +competition to see which can sever the most cables. The Museum of +Submarine Telegraphy in Porthcurno, England, has a display of wrecked +cables bracketed to a slab of wood. Each is labeled with its cause of +failure, some of which sound dramatic, some cryptic, some both: trawler +maul, spewed core, intermittent disconnection, strained core, teredo +worms, crab's nest, perished core, fish bite, even "spliced by +Italians." The teredo worm is like a science fiction creature, a bivalve +with a rasp-edged shell that it uses like a buzz saw to cut through wood +- or through submarine cables. Cable companies learned the hard way, +early on, that it likes to eat gutta-percha, and subsequent cables +received a helical wrapping of copper tape to stop it. + +A modern cable needn't be severed to stop working. More frequently, a +fault in the insulation will allow seawater to leak in and reach the +copper conductor that carries power to the repeaters. The optical fibers +are fine, but the repeater stops working because its power is leaking +into the ocean. The interaction of electricity, seawater, and other +chemical elements present in the cable can produce hydrogen gas that +forces its way down the cable and chemically attacks the fiber or +delicate components in the repeaters. + +Cable failure can be caused by any number of errors in installation or +route selection. Currents, such as those found before the mouths of +rivers, are avoided. If the bottom is hard, currents will chafe the +cable against it - and currents and hard bottoms frequently go together +because currents tend to scour sediments away from the rock. If the +cable is laid with insufficient slack, it may become suspended between +two ridges, and as the suspended part rocks back and forth, the ridges +eventually wear through the insulation. Sand waves move across the +bottom of the ocean like dunes across the desert; these can surface a +cable, where it may be bruised by passing ships. Anchors are a perennial +problem that gets much worse during typhoons, because an anchor that has +dropped well away from a cable may be dragged across it as the ship is +pushed around by the wind. + +In 1870, a new cable was laid between England and France, and Napoleon +III used it to send a congratulatory message to Queen Victoria. Hours +later, a French fisherman hauled the cable up into his boat, identified +it as either the tail of a sea monster or a new species of gold-bearing +seaweed, and cut off a chunk to take home. Thus was inaugurated an +almost incredibly hostile relationship between the cable industry and +fishermen. Almost anyone in the cable business will be glad, even eager, +to tell you that since 1870 the intelligence and civic responsibility of +fisherman have only degraded. Fishermen, for their part, tend to see +everyone in the cable business as hard-hearted bluebloods out to screw +the common man. + +Most of the fishing-related damage is caused by trawlers, which tow big +sacklike nets behind them. Trawlers seem designed for the purpose of +damaging submarine cables. Various types of hardware are attached to the +nets. In some cases, these are otter boards, which act something like +rudders to push the net's mouth open. When bottom fish such as halibut +are the target, a massive bar is placed across the front of the net with +heavy tickler chains dangling from it; these flail against the bottom, +stirring up the fish so they will rise up into the maw of the net. + +Mere impact can be enough to wreck a cable, if it puts a leak in the +insulation. Frequently, though, a net or anchor will snag a cable. If +the ship is small and the cable is big, the cable may survive the +encounter. There is a type of cable, used up until the advent of optical +fiber, called 21-quad, which consists of 21 four-bundle pairs of cable +and a coaxial line. It is 15 centimeters in diameter, and a single meter +of it weighs 46 kilograms. If a passing ship should happen to catch such +a cable with its anchor, it will follow a very simple procedure: abandon +it and go buy a new anchor. + +But modern cables are much smaller and lighter - a mere 0.85 kg per +meter for the unarmored, deep-sea portions of the FLAG cable - and the +ships most apt to snag them, trawlers, are getting bigger and more +powerful. Now that fishermen have massacred most of the fish in +shallower water, they are moving out deeper. Formerly, cable was plowed +into the bottom in water shallower than 1,000 meters, which kept it away +from the trawlers. Because of recent changes in fishing practices, the +figure has been boosted to 2,000 meters. But this means that the old +cables are still vulnerable. + +When a trawler snags a cable, it will pull it up off the seafloor. How +far it gets pulled depends on the weight of the cable, the amount of +slack, and the size and horsepower of the ship. Even if the cable is not +pulled all the way to the surface, it may get kinked - its minimum +bending radius may be violated. If the trawler does succeed in hauling +the cable all the way up out of the water, the only way out of the +situation, or at least the simplest, is to cut the cable. Dave Handley +once did a study of a cable that had been suddenly and mysteriously +severed. Hauling up the cut end, he discovered that someone had sliced +through it with a cutting torch. + +There is also the obvious threat of sabotage by a hostile government, +but, surprisingly, this almost never happens. When cypherpunk Doug +Barnes was researching his Caribbean project, he spent some time looking +into this, because it was exactly the kind of threat he was worried +about in the case of a data haven. Somewhat to his own surprise and +relief, he concluded that it simply wasn't going to happen. "Cutting a +submarine cable," Barnes says, "is like starting a nuclear war. It's +easy to do, the results are devastating, and as soon as one country does +it, all of the others will retaliate. + +"Bert Porter, a Cable & Wireless cable-laying veteran who is now a +freelancer, was beachmaster for the Tong Fuk lay. He was on a ship that +laid a cable from Hong Kong to Singapore during the late 1960s. Along +the way they passed south of Lan Tao Island, and so the view from Tong +Fuk Beach is a trip down memory lane for him. "The repeater spacing was +about 18 miles," he says, "and so the first repeater went into the water +right out there. Then, a few days later, the cable suddenly tested +broken." In other words, the shore station in Hong Kong had lost contact +with the equipment on board Porter's cable ship. In such cases it's easy +to figure out roughly where the break occurred - by measuring the +resistance in the cable's conductors - and they knew it had to be +somewhere in the vicinity of the first repeater. "So we backtracked, +pulling up cable, and when we got right out there," he waves his hand +out over the bay, "we discovered that the repeater had simply been +chopped out." He holds his hands up parallel, like twin blades. +"Apparently the Chinese were curious about our repeaters, so they +thought they'd come out and get one." + +As the capacity of optical fibers climbs, so does the economic damage +caused when the cable is severed. FLAG makes its money by selling +capacity to long-distance carriers, who turn around and resell it to end +users at rates that are increasingly determined by what the market will +bear. If FLAG gets chopped, no calls get through. The carriers' phone +calls get routed to FLAG's competitors (other cables or satellites), and +FLAG loses the revenue represented by those calls until the cable is +repaired. The amount of revenue it loses is a function of how many calls +the cable is physically capable of carrying, how close to capacity the +cable is running, and what prices the market will bear for calls on the +broken cable segment. In other words, a break between Dubai and Bombay +might cost FLAG more in revenue loss than a break between Korea and +Japan if calls between Dubai and Bombay cost more. + +The rule of thumb for calculating revenue loss works like this: for +every penny per minute that the long distance market will bear on a +particular route, the loss of revenue, should FLAG be severed on that +route, is about $3,000 a minute. So if calls on that route are a dime a +minute, the damage is $30,000 a minute, and if calls are a dollar a +minute, the damage is almost a third of a million dollars for every +minute the cable is down. Upcoming advances in fiber bandwidth may push +this figure, for some cables, past the million-dollar-a-minute mark. + +Clearly, submarine cable repair is a good business to be in. Cable +repair ships are standing by in ports all over the world, on 24-hour +call, waiting for a break to happen somewhere in their neighborhood. +They are called agreement ships. Sometimes, when nothing else is going +on, they will go out and pull up old abandoned cables. The stated reason +for this is that the old cables present a hazard to other ships. +However, if you do so much as raise an eyebrow at this explanation, any +cable man will be happy to tell you the real reason: whenever a +fisherman snags his net on anything - a rock, a wreck, or even a figment +of his imagination - he will go out and sue whatever company happens to +have a cable in that general vicinity. The cable companies are waiting +eagerly for the day when a fisherman goes into court claiming to have +snagged his nets on a cable, only to be informed that the cable was +pulled up by an agreement ship years before. + +\_\_ In which the Hacker Tourist delights in Cairo, the Mother of the +World. Alexandria, the former Hacker Headquarters of the planet.\_\_ + +The lighthouse, the libraries, and other haunts of ancient nerds and +geeks. Profound significanceof intersections. Travels on the Desert +Road. Libya's contact with the outside world rudely severed - then +restored\! Engineer Musalamand his planetary information nexus. The +vitally important concept of Slack + +\_\_ 31° 12.841' N, 29° 53.169' ESite of the Pharos lighthouse, +Alexandria, Egypt\_\_ + +Having stood on the beach of Miura watching those miserable-but-plucky +Japanese surfers, the hacker tourist had reached FLAG's easternmost +extreme, and there was nothing to do except turn around and head west. +Next stop: Egypt. + +No visit to Egypt is complete without a stop in Cairo, but that city, +the pinnacle of every normal tourist's traveling career, is strangely +empty from a hacker tourist point of view. Its prime attraction, of +course, is the pyramids. We visited them at five in the morning during a +long and ultimately futile wait for the Egyptian military to give us +permission to rendezvous with FLAG's cable-laying ship in the Gulf of +Suez. To the hacker, the most interesting thing about the Pyramids is +their business plan, which is the simplest and most effective ever +devised: + +(1) Put a rock on top of another rock. +(2) Repeat (1) until gawkers arrive. +(3) Separate them from their valuables by all conceivable means. + +By contrast, normal tourist guidebooks have nothing good to say about +Alexandria; it's as if the writers got so tired of marveling at Cairo +and Upper Egypt that they had to vent their spleen somewhere. Though a +town was here in ancient times, Alexandria per se was founded in 332 BC +by Alexander the Great, which makes it a brand-new city by Egyptian +standards. There is almost no really old stuff in Alexandria at all, but +the mere memory of the landmarks that were here in its heyday suffice to +make it much more important than Cairo from the weirdly distorted +viewpoint of the hacker tourist. These landmarks are, or were, the +lighthouse and the libraries. + +The lighthouse was built on the nearby island of Pharos. Neither the +building nor even the island exists any more. Pharos was eventually +joined to the mainland by a causeway, which fattened out into a +peninsula and became a minuscule bump on the scalp of Africa. The +lighthouse was an immense structure, at some 120 meters the tallest +building in the world for many centuries, and contained as many as 300 +rooms. Somewhere in its upper stories a fire burned all night long, and +its light was reflected out across the Mediterranean by some kind of +rotating mirror or prism. This was a fine bit of ancient hacking in and +of itself, but according to legend, the optics also had magnifying +properties, so that observers peering through it during the daytime +could see ships too distant to be perceived by the naked eye. + +According to legend, this feature made Alexandria immune to naval +assault as long as the lighthouse remained standing. According to +another yarn, a Byzantine emperor spread a rumor that the treasure of +Alexander the Great had been hidden within the lighthouse's foundation, +and the unbelievably fatuous local caliph tore up the works looking for +it, putting Pharos out of commission and leading to a military defeat by +the Byzantine Empire. + +Some combination or other of gullible caliphs, poor maintenance, and +earthquakes eventually did fell the lighthouse. Evidently it toppled +right into the Mediterranean. The bottom of the sea directly before its +foundations is still littered with priceless artifacts, which are being +catalogued and hauled out by French archaeologists using differential +GPS to plot their findings. They work in the shadow of a nondescript +fortress built on the site by a later sultan, Qait Bey, who +pragmatically used a few chunks of lighthouse granite to beef up the +walls - just another splinter under the fingernails of the historical +preservation crowd. + +You can go to the fortress of Qait Bey now and stare out over the ocean +and get much the same view that the builders of the lighthouse enjoyed. +They must have been able to see all kinds of weirdness coming over the +horizon from Europe and western Asia. The Mediterranean may look small +on a world map, but from Pharos its horizon seems just as infinite as +the Pacific seen from Miura. Back then, knowing how much of the human +world was around the Mediterranean, the horizon must have seemed that +much more vast, threatening, and exciting to the Alexandrians. + +Building the lighthouse with its magic lens was a way of enhancing the +city's natural capability for looking to the north, which made it into a +world capital for many centuries. It's when a society plunders its +ability to look over the horizon and into the future in order to get +short-term gain - sometimes illusory gain - that it begins a long slide +nearly impossible to reverse. + +The collapse of the lighthouse must have been astonishing, like watching +the World Trade Center fall over. But it took only a few seconds, and if +you were looking the other way when it happened, you might have missed +it entirely - you'd see nothing but blue breakers rolling in from the +Mediterranean, hiding a field of ruins, quickly forgotten. + +\_\_ 31° 11.738' N, 29° 54.108' EIntersection of El Horreya and El Nabi +Daniel, Alexandria, Egypt\_\_ + +Alexandria is most famous for having been the site of the ancient +library. This was actually two or more different libraries. The first +one dates back to the city's early Ptolemaic rulers, who were +Macedonians, not Egyptians. It was modeled after the Lyceum of +Aristotle, who, between other gigs, tutored Alexander the Great. Back in +the days when people moved to information, instead of vice versa, this +library attracted most of the most famous smart people in the world: the +ultimate hacker, Archimedes; the father of geometry, Euclid; +Eratosthenes, who was the first person to calculate the circumference of +the earth, by looking at the way the sun shone down wells at Alexandria +and Aswan. He also ran the library for a while and took the job +seriously enough that when he started to go blind in his old age, he +starved himself to death. In any event, this library was burned out by +the Romans when they were adding Egypt to their empire. Or maybe it +wasn't. It's inherently difficult to get reliable information about an +event that consisted of the destruction of all recorded information. + +The second library was called the Library of Cleopatra and was built +around a couple of hundred thousand manuscripts that were given to her +by Marc Antony in what was either a magnificent gesture of romantic love +or a shrewd political maneuver. Marc Antony suffered from what we would +today call "poor impulse control," so the former explanation is more +likely. This library was wiped out by Christians in AD 391. Depending on +which version of events you read, its life span may have overlapped with +that of the first library for a few years, a few decades, or not at all. + +Whether or not the two libraries ever existed at the same time, +the fact remains that between about 300 BC and AD 400, Alexandria was by +far the world capital of high-quality information. It must have had much +in common with the MIT campus or Stanford in Palo Alto of more recent +times: lots of hairy smart guys converging from all over the world to +tinker with the lighthouse or to engage in pursuits that must have been +totally incomprehensible to the locals, such as staring down wells at +high noon and raving about the diameter of the earth. + +The main reason that writers of tourist guidebooks are so cheesed off at +Alexandria is that no vestige of the first library remains - not even a +plaque stating "The Library of Alexandria was here." If you want to +visit the site, you have to do a bit of straightforward detective work. +Ancient Alexandria was laid out on a neat, regular grid pattern - just +the kind of thing you would expect of a place populated by people like +Euclid. The main east-west street was called the Canopic Way, and the +main north-south street, running from the waterfront toward the Sahara +Desert, was called the Street of the Soma. The library is thought to +have stood just south of their intersection. + +Though no buildings of that era remain, the streets still do, and so +does their intersection. Currently, the Canopic Way is called El Horreya +Avenue, and the Soma is called El Nabi Daniel Street, though if you +don't hurry, they may be called something else when you arrive. + +We stayed at the Cecil Hotel, where Nabi Daniel hits the waterfront. The +Cecil is one of those British imperial-era hotels fraught with romance +and history, sort of like the entire J. Peterman catalog rolled into one +building. British Intelligence was headquartered there during the war, +and there the Battle of El Alamein was planned. + +Living as they do, however, in a country choked with old stuff, the +Egyptians have adopted a philosophy toward architecture that is best +summed up by the phrase: "What have you done for me lately?'' From this +point of view, the Cecil is just another old building, and it's not even +particularly old. As if to emphasize this, the side of the hotel where +we stayed was covered with a rude scaffolding (sticks lashed together +with hemp) aswarm with workers armed with sledgehammers, crowbars, +chisels, and the like, who spent all day, every day, bellowing +cheerfully at each other (demolition workers are the jolliest men in +every country), bashing huge chunks of masonry off the top floor and +simply dropping them - occasionally crushing an air conditioner on some +guest's balcony. It was a useful reminder that Egyptians feel no great +compulsion to tailor their cities to the specifications of guidebook +writers. + +This fact can be further driven home by walking south on Nabi Daniel and +looking for the site of the Library of Alexandria. It is now occupied by +office buildings probably not more than 100, nor less than 50, years +old. Their openings are covered with roll-up steel doors, and their +walls decorated with faded signs. One of them advertises courses in DOS, +Lotus, dBase, COBOL, and others. Not far away is a movie theater showing +Forbidden Arsenal: In the Line of Duty 6, starring Cynthia Khan. + +The largest and nicest building in the area is used by an insurance +company and surrounded by an iron fence. The narrow sidewalk out front +is blocked by a few street vendors who have set up their wares in such a +way as to force pedestrians out into the street. One of them is selling +pictures of adorable kittens tangled up in yarn, and another is peddling +used books. This is the closest thing to a library that remains here, so +I spent a while examining his wares: a promising volume called Bit by +Bit turned out to be an English primer. There were quite a few medical +textbooks, as if a doctor had just passed away, and Agatha Christie and +Mickey Mouse books presumably left behind by tourists. The closest thing +I saw to a classic was a worn-out copy of Oliver Twist. + +\_\_ 31° 10.916' N29° 53.784' EPompey's Pillar\_\_ + +The site of Cleopatra's library, precisely 1 mile away by my GPS, is +viewed with cautious approval by guidebook writers because it is an +actual ruin with a wall around it, a ticket booth, old stuff, and +guides. It is right next to an active Muslim cemetery, so it is +difficult to reach the place without excusing your way past crowds of +women in voluminous black garments, wailing and sobbing heartrendingly, +which all goes to make the Western tourist feel like even more of a +penis than usual. + +The site used to be the city's acropolis. It is a rounded hill of +extremely modest altitude with a huge granite pillar on the top. To +quote Shelley's "Ozymandias": "Nothing beside remains." A few sphinxes +are scattered around the place, but they were obviously dragged in to +give tourists something to look at. Several brutally impoverished gray +concrete apartment buildings loom up on the other side of the wall, +festooned with washing, crammed with children who entertain themselves +by raining catcalls down upon the few tourists who straggle out this +far. The granite pillar honors the Roman emperor Diocletian, who was a +very bad emperor, a major Christian-killer, but who gave Alexandria a +big tax break. The citizenry, apparently just as dimwitted as modern day +Americans, decided that he was a great guy and erected this pillar. +Originally there was a statue of Diocletian himself on the top, riding a +horse, which is why the Egyptians call it, in Arabic, The man on +horseback. The statue is gone now, which makes this a completely +mystifying name. Westerners call it Pompey's Pillar because that's the +moniker the clueless Crusaders slapped on it; of course, it has +absolutely nothing to do with Pompey. + +The hacker tourist does not bother with the pillar but rather with what +is underneath it: a network of artificial caves, carved into the +sandstone, resembling nothing so much as a D & D player's first dungeon. +Because it's a hill and this is Egypt, the caverns are nice and dry and +(with a little baksheesh in the right hands) can be well lit too - +electrical conduit has been run in and light fixtures bolted to the +ceiling. The walls of these caves have niches that are just the right +size and shape to contain piles of scrolls, so this is thought to be the +site of the Library of Cleopatra. This complex was called the Sarapeum, +or Temple of Sarapis, who was a conflation of Osiris and Apis admired by +the locals and loathed by monotheists, which explains why the whole +complex was sacked and burned by Christians in 391. + +It is all rather discouraging, when you use your imagination (which you +must do constantly in Alexandria) and think of the brilliance that was +here for a while. As convenient as it is for information to come to us, +libraries do have a valuable side effect: they force all of the smart +people to come together in one place where they can interact with one +another. When the information goes up in flames, those people go their +separate ways. The synergy that joined them - that created the +lighthouse, for example - dies. The world loses something. + +So the second library is some holes in a wall, and the first is an +intersection. Holes and intersections are both absences, empty places, +disappointing to tourists of both the regular and the hacker variety. +But one can argue that the intersection's continued presence is arguably +more interesting than some old pile that has been walled off and +embalmed by a historical society. How can an intersection remain in one +place for 2,500 years? Simply, both the roads that run through it must +remain open and active. The intersection will cease to exist if sand +drifts across it because it's never used, or if someone puts up a +building there. In Egypt, where yesterday's wonders of the world are +today's building materials, nothing is more obvious than that people +have been avidly putting up buildings everywhere they possibly can for +5,000 years, so it is remarkable that no such thing has happened here. +It means that every time some opportunist has gone out and tried to dig +up the street or to start putting up a wall, he has been flattened by +traffic, arrested by cops, chased away by outraged donkey-cart drivers, +or otherwise put out of action. The existence of this intersection is +proof that a certain pattern of human activity has endured in this exact +place for 2,500 years. + +When the hacker tourist has tired of contemplating the profound +significance of intersections (which, frankly, doesn't take very long) +he must turn his attention to - you guessed it - cable routes. This +turns out to be a much richer vein. + +\_\_ 30° 58.319' N, 29° 49.531' EAlexandria Tollbooth, the Desert Road, +Sahara Desert, Egypt\_\_ + +As we speed across the Saharan night, the topic of conversation turns to +Hong Kong. Our Egyptian driver, relaxed and content after stopping at a +roadside rest area for a hubbly-bubbly session (smoking sweetened +tobacco in a Middle Eastern bong), smacks the steering wheel gleefully. +"Ha, ha, ha\!" he roars. "Miserable Hong Kong people\!" + +Alexandria and Cairo are joined by two separate, roughly parallel +highways called the Desert Road and the Agricultural Road. The latter +runs through cultivated parts of the Nile Delta. The Desert Road is a +rather new, four-lane highway with a tollbooth at each end - tollbooths +in the middle not being necessary, because if you get off in the middle +you will die. It is lined for its entire length with billboards +advertising tires, sunglasses, tires, tires, tires, bottled water, +sunglasses, tires, and tires. + +Perhaps because it is supported by tolls, the Desert Highway is a +first-rate road all the way. This means not merely that the pavement is +good but also that it has a system of ducts and manholes buried under +its median strip, so that anyone wishing to run a cable from one end of +the highway to the other - tollbooth to tollbooth - need only obtain a +"permit" and ream out the ducts a little. Or at least that's what the +Egyptians say. The Lan Tao Island crowd, who are quite discriminating +when it comes to ducts and who share an abhorrence of all things +Egyptian, claim that cheap PVC pipe was used and that the whole system +is a tangled mess. + +They would both agree, however, that beyond the tollbooths the duct +situation is worse. The Alexandria Tollbooth is some 37 kilometers +outside of the city center; you get there by driving along a free +highway that has no ducts at all. + +This problem is being remedied by FLAG, which has struck a deal with +ARENTO (Arab Republic of Egypt National Telecommunications Organization +- the PTT) that is roughly analogous to the one it made with the +Communications Authority of Thailand. FLAG has no choice but to go +overland across Egypt, just as in Thailand. The reasons for doing so +here are entirely different, though. + +By a freak of geography and global politics, Egypt possesses the same +sort of choke point on Europe-to-Asia telecommunications as the Suez +canal gives it in the shipping industry. Anyone who wants to run a cable +from Europe to East Asia has severely limited choices. You can go south +around Africa, but it's much too far. You can go overland across all of +Russia, as U S West has recently talked about doing, but if even a +170-kilometers terrestrial route across Thailand gets your customers +fumbling for their smelling salts, what will they say about one all the +way across Russia? You could attempt a shorter terrestrial route from +the Levant to the Indian Ocean, but given the countries it would have to +pass through (Lebanon and Iraq, to name two), it would have about as +much chance of survival as a strand of gossamer stretched across a +kick-boxing ring. And you can't lay a cable down the Suez Canal, partly +because it would catch hell from anchors and dredgers, and partly +because cable-laying ships move very slowly and would create an enormous +traffic jam. + +The only solution that is even remotely acceptable is to land the cable +on Egypt's Mediterranean coast (which in practice means either +Alexandria or Port Said) and then go overland to Suez, where the canal +joins the Gulf of Suez, which in turn joins the Red Sea. The Red Sea is +so shallow and so heavily trafficked, by the way, that all cables +running through it must be plowed into the seafloor, which is a hassle, +but obviously preferable to running a terrestrial route through the +likes of Sudan and Somalia, which border it. + +In keeping with its practice of running two parallel routes on +terrestrial sections, FLAG is landing at both Alexandria and Port Said. +From these cities the cables converge on Suez. Alexandria is far more +important than Port Said as a cable nexus for the simple reason that it +is at the westernmost extreme of the Nile Delta, so you can reach it +from Europe without having to contend with the Nile. European cables +running to Port Said, by contrast, must pass across the mouths of the +Nile, where they are subjected to currents. + +Engineer Mustafa Musalam, general manager of transmission for ARENTO's +Alexandria office, is a stocky, affable, silver-haired gent. Egypt is +one of those places where Engineer is used as a title, like Doctor or +Professor, and Engineer Musalam bears the title well. In his personality +and bearing he has at least as much in common with other highly +competent engineers around the world as he does with other Egyptians. In +defiance of ARENTO rules, he drives himself around in his own vehicle, a +tiny, beat-up, but perfectly functional subcompact. An engineer of his +stature is supposed to be chauffeured around in a company car. Most +Egyptian service-industry professionals are masters at laying +passive-aggressive head trips on their employers. Half the time, when +you compensate them, they make it clear that you have embarrassed them, +and yourself, by grossly overdoing it - you have just gotten it totally +wrong, really pissed down your leg, and placed them in a terribly +awkward situation. The other half of the time, you have insulted them by +being miserly. You never get it right. But Engineer Musalam, a logical +and practical-minded sort, cannot abide the idea of a driver spending +his entire day, every day, sitting in a car waiting for the boss to go +somewhere. So he eventually threw up his hands and unleashed his driver +on the job market. + +Charitably, Engineer Musalam takes the view that the completion of the +Asw�an High Dam tamed the Nile's current to the point where no one need +worry about running cables to Port Said anymore. FLAG's surveyors +obviously agree with him, because they chose Port Said as one of their +landing points. On the other hand, FLAG's archenemy, SEA-ME-WE 3, will +land only at Alexandria, because France Telecom's engineers refuse to +lay cable across the Nile. SEA-ME-WE 3's redundant routes will run, +instead, along the Desert Road and the Agricultural Road. Bandwidth +buyers trying to choose between the two cables can presumably look +forward to lurid sales presentations from FLAG marketers detailing the +insane recklessness of SEA-ME-WE 3's approach, and vice versa. + +At the dirt-and-duct level, the operation in Egypt is much like the one +in Thailand. The work is being done by Consolidated Contractors, which +is a fairly interesting multinational contracting firm that is based and +funded in the Middle East but works all over the globe. Here it is +laying six 100-mm ducts (10 inside Alexandria proper) as compared with +only two in Thailand. These ducts are all PVC pipe, but FLAG's duct is +made of a higher grade of PVC than the others - even than President +Mubarak's duct. + +That's right - in a nicely Pharaonic touch, one of the six ducts going +into the ground here is the sole property of President Hosni Mubarak, or +(presumably) whoever succeeds him as head of state. It is hard to +envision why a head of state would want or need his own private tube +full of air running underneath the Sahara. The obvious guess is that the +duct might be used to create a secure communications system, independent +of the civilian and military systems (the Egyptian military will own one +of the six ducts, and ARENTO will own three). This, in and of itself, +says something about the relationship between the military and the +government in Egypt. It is hardly surprising when you consider that +Mubarak's predecessor was murdered by the military during a parade. + +Inside the city, where ten rather than six ducts are being prepared, +they must occasionally sprout up out of the ground and run along the +undersides of bridges and flyovers. In these sections it is easy to +identify FLAG's duct because, unlike the others, it is galvanized steel +instead of PVC. FLAG undoubtedly specified steel for its far greater +protective value, but in so doing posed a challenge for Engineer +Musalam, who knew that thieves would attack the system wherever they +could reach it - not to take the cable but to get their hands on that +tempting steel pipe. So, wherever the undersides of these bridges and +flyovers are within 2 or 3 meters of ground level, Engineer Musalam has +built in special measures to make it virtually impossible for thieves to +get their hands on FLAG's pipe. + +For the most part, the duct installation is a simple cut-and-cover +operation, right down the median strip. But the median is crossed +frequently by nicely paved, heavily trafficked U-turn routes. To cut or +block one of these would be unthinkable, since no journey in Egypt is +complete without numerous U-turns. It is therefore necessary to bore a +horizontal tunnel under each one, run a 600-mm steel pipe down the +tunnel, and finally thread the ducts through it. The tunnels are bored +by laborers operating big manually powered augers. Under a sign reading +Civil Works: Fiberoptic Link around the Globe, the men had left their +street clothes carefully wrapped up in plastic bags, on the shoulder of +the road. They had kicked off their shoes and changed into the +traditional, loose, ankle-length garment. One by one, they disappeared +into a tunnel barely big enough to lie down in, carrying empty baskets, +then returned a few minutes later with baskets full of dirt, looking +like extras in some new Hollywood costume drama: The Ten Commandments +Meets the Great Escape. + +We blundered across Engineer Musalam's path one afternoon. This was +sheer luck, but also kind of inevitable: other than ditch diggers, the +only people in the median strip of this highway are hacker tourists and +ARENTO engineers. He was here because one of the crews working on FLAG +had, while enlarging a manhole excavation, plunged the blade of their +backhoe right through the main communications cable connecting Egypt to +Libya - a 960-circuit coaxial line buried, sans conduit, in the same +median. Libya had dropped off the net for a while until Mu'ammar +Gadhafi's eastbound traffic could be shunted to a microwave relay chain +and an ARENTO repair crew had been mobilized. The quality of such an +operation is not measured by how frequently cables get broken (usually +they are broken by other people) but by how quickly they get fixed +afterward, and by this standard Engineer Musalam runs a tight ship. The +mishap occurred on a Friday afternoon - the Muslim sabbath - the first +day of a three-day weekend and a national holiday to boot - 40 years to +the day after the Suez Canal was handed over to Egypt. Nevertheless, the +entire hierarchy was gathered around the manhole excavation, from ditch +diggers hastily imported from another nearby site all the way up to +Engineer Musalam. + +The ditch diggers made the hole even larger, whittling out a place for +one of the splicing technicians to sit. The technicians stood on the +brink of the pit offering directions, and eventually they jumped into it +and grabbed shovels; their toolboxes were lowered in after them on +ropes, and their black dress trousers and crisp white shirts rapidly +converged on the same color as the dust covered them. In the lee of an +unburied concrete manhole nearby, a couple of men established a little +refreshment center: one hubbly-bubbly and one portable stove, shooting +flames like a miniature oil well fire, where they cranked out glass +after glass of heavily sweetened tea. This struck me as more efficient +than the American technique of sending a gofer down to the 7-Eleven for +a brace of Super Big Gulps. Traffic swirled around the adjacent U-turn; +motorists rolled their windows down and asked for directions, which were +cheerfully given. Egyptian males are not afraid to hold hands with each +other or to ask for directions, which does not mean that they should be +confused with sensitive New Age males. + +The mangled ends of the cable were cleanly hacksawed and stripped, and a +2-meter-long segment of the same type of cable was wrestled out of a car +and brought into the pit. Two lengths of lead pipe were threaded onto +it, later to serve as protective bandages for the splices, and then the +splicing began, one conductor at a time. Engineer Musalam watched +attentively while I badgered him with nerdy questions.He brought me up +to speed on the latest submarine cable gossip. During the previous +month, in mid-June, SEA-ME-WE 2 had been cut twice between Djibouti and +India. Two cable ships, Restorer and Enterprise, had been sent to fix +the breaks. But fire had broken out in the engine room of the Enterprise +(maybe a problem with the dilithium crystals), putting it into repairs +for four weeks. So Restorer had to fix both breaks. But because of bad +weather, only one of the faults had been repaired as of July 26. In the +meantime, all of SEA-ME-WE 2's traffic had been shunted to a satellite +link reserved as a backup. + +Satellite links have enough bandwidth to fill in for a second-generation +optical cable like SEA-ME-WE 2 but not enough to replace a +third-generation one like FLAG or SEA-ME-WE 3. The cable industry is +therefore venturing into new and somewhat unexplored territory with the +current generation of cables. It is out of the question to run such a +system without having elaborate backup plans, and if satellites can't +hack it anymore, the only possible backup is on another cable - almost +by definition, a competing cable. So as intensely as rival companies may +compete with each other for customers, they are probably cooperating at +the same time by reserving capacity on each other's systems. This +presumably accounts for the fact that they are eager to spread nasty +information about each other but will never do so on the record. + +I didn't know the exact route of SEA-ME-WE 3 and was intrigued to learn +that it will be passing through the same building in Alexandria as +SEA-ME-WE 1 and 2, which is also the same building that will be used by +FLAG. In addition, there is a new submarine cable called Africa 1 that +is going to completely encircle that continent, it being much easier to +circumnavigate Africa with a cable-laying ship than to run ducts and +cables across it (though I would like to see Alan Wall have a go at it). +Africa 1 will also pass through Engineer Musalam's building in +Alexandria, which will therefore serve as the cross-connect among +essentially all the traffic of Africa, Europe, and Asia. + +Though Engineer Musalam is not the type who would come out and say it, +the fact is that in a couple of years he's going to be running what is +arguably the most important information nexus on the planet. + +As the sun dropped behind the western Sahara (I imagined Mu'ammar +Gadhafi out there somewhere, picking up his telephone to hear a fast +busy signal), Engineer Musalam drove me into Alexandria in his humble +subcompact to see this planetary nexus. + +It is an immense neoclassical pile constructed in 1933 by the British to +house their PTT operations. Since then, it has changed very little +except for the addition of a window air conditioner in Engineer +Musalam's office. The building faces Alexandria's railway station across +an asphalt square crowded with cars, trucks, donkey carts, and +pedestrians. + +I do not think any other hacker tourist will ever make it inside this +building. If you do so much as raise a camera to your face in its +vicinity, an angry man in a uniform will charge up to you and let you +get a very good look at the bayonet fixed to the end of his automatic +weapon. So let me try to convey what it is like: + +The adjective Blade-Runneresque means much to those who have seen the +movie. (For those who haven't, just keep reading.) I will, however, +never again be able to watch Blade Runner, because all of the buildings +that looked so cool, so exquisitely art-directed in the movie, will now, +to me, look like feeble efforts to capture a few traces of ARENTO's +Alexandria station at night. + +The building is a titanic structure that goes completely dark at night +and becomes a maze of black corridors that appear to stretch on into +infinity. Some illumination, and a great deal of generalized din, sifts +in from the nearby square through broken windows. It has received very +limited maintenance in the last half-century but will probably stand as +long as the Pyramids. The urinals alone look like something out of +Luxor. The building's cavernous stairwells consist of profoundly worn +white marble steps winding around a central shaft that is occupied by an +old-fashioned wrought-iron elevator with all of the guts exposed: rails, +cables, counterweights, and so on. Litter and debris have accumulated at +the bottom of these pits. At the top, nocturnal birds have found their +way in through open or broken windows and now tear around in the +blackness like Stealth fighters, hunting for insects and making eerie +keening noises - not the twitter of songbirds but the alien screech of +movie pterodactyls. Gaunt cats prowl soundlessly up and down the stairs. +A big microwave relay tower has been planted on the roof, and the red +aircraft warning lights hang in the sky like fat planets. They shed a +vague illumination back into the building, casting faint cyan shadows. +Looking into the building's courtyards you may see, for a moment, a +human figure silhouetted in a doorway by blue fluorescent light. A chair +sits next to a dust-fogged window that has been cracked open to let in +cool night air. Down in the square, people are buying and selling, young +men strolling hand in hand through a shambolic market scene. In the +windows of apartment buildings across the street, women sit in their +colorful but demure garments holding tumblers of sweet tea. + +In the midst of all this, then, you walk through a door into a vast +room, and there it is: the cable station, rack after rack after rack of +gleaming Alcatel and Siemens equipment, black phone handsets for the +order wires, labeled Palermo and Tripoli and Cairo. Taped to a pillar is +an Arabic prayer and faded photograph of the faithful circling the +Ka'aba. The equipment here is of a slightly older vintage than what we +saw in Japan, but only because the cables are older; when FLAG and +SEA-ME-WE 3 and Africa 1 come through, Engineer Musalam will have one of +the building's numerous unused rooms scrubbed out and filled with +state-of-the-art gear. + +A few engineers pad through the place. The setup is instantly +recognizable; you can see the same thing anywhere nerds are performing +the kinds of technical hacks that keep modern governments alive. The +Manhattan Project, Bletchley Park, the National Security Agency, and, I +would guess, Saddam Hussein's weapons labs are all built on the same +plan: a big space ringed by anxious, ignorant, heavily armed men, +looking outward. Inside that perimeter, a surprisingly small number of +hackers wander around through untidy offices making the world run. + +If you turn your back on the equipment through which the world's bits +are swirling, open one of the windows, wind up, and throw a stone pretty +hard, you can just about bonk that used book peddler on the head. +Because this place, soon to be the most important data nexus on the +planet, happens to be constructed virtually on top of the ruins of the +Great Library of Alexandria. + +\_\_ The Lalla Rookh\_\_ + +When William Thomson became Lord Kelvin and entered the second phase of +his life - tooling around on his yacht, the Lalla Rookh - he appeared to +lose interest in telegraphy and got sidetracked into topics that, on +first reading, seem unrelated to his earlier interests - disappointingly +mundane. One of these was depth sounding, and the other was the nautical +compass. + +At the time, depths were sounded by heaving a lead-weighted rope over +the side of the ship and letting it pay out until it hit bottom. So far, +so easy, but hauling thousands of meters of soggy rope, plus a lead +weight, back onto the ship required the efforts of several sailors and +took a long time. The US Navy ameliorated the problem by rigging it so +that the weight could be detached and simply discarded on the bottom, +but this only replaced one problem with another one in that a separate +weight had to be carried for each sounding. Either way, the job was a +mess and could be done only rarely. This probably explains why ships +were constantly running aground in those days, leading to a relentless, +ongoing massacre of crew and passengers compared to which today's +problem of bombs and airliners is like a Sunday stroll through Disney +World. + +In keeping with his general practice of using subtlety where moronic +brute force had failed, Kelvin replaced the soggy rope with a piano +wire, which in turn enabled him to replace the heavy weight with a much +smaller one. This idea might seem obvious to us now, but it was +apparently quite the brainstorm. The tension in the wire was so light +that a single sailor could reel it in by turning a spoked wooden wheel. + +The first time Kelvin tried this, the wheel began to groan after a while +and finally imploded. Dental hygienists, or people who floss the way +they do (using extravagantly long pieces of floss and wrapping the used +part around a fingertip) will already know why. The first turn of floss +exerts only light pressure on the finger, but the second turn doubles +it, and so on, until, as you are coming to the end of the process, your +fingertip has turned a gangrenous purple. In the same way, the tension +on Kelvin's piano wire, though small enough to be managed by one man, +became enormous after a few hundred turns. No reasonable wheel could +endure such stress. + +Chagrined and embarrassed, Kelvin invented a stress-relief mechanism. On +one side of it the wire was tight, on the other side it was slack and +could be taken up by the wheel without compressing the hub. Once this +was out of the way, the challenge became how to translate the length of +piano wire that had been paid out into an accurate depth reading. One +could never assume that the wire ran straight down to the bottom. +Usually the vessel was moving, so the lead weight would trail behind it. +Furthermore, a line stretched between two points in this way forms a +curve known to mathematicians as a catenary, and of course the curve is +longer than a straight line between the same two points. Kelvin had to +figure out what sorts of catenary curves his piano wire would assume +under various conditions of vessel speed and ocean depth - an +essentially tedious problem that seems well beneath the abilities of the +father of thermodynamics. + +In any case, he figured it out and patented everything. Once again he +made a ton of money. At the same time, he revolutionized the field of +bathymetry and probably saved a large number of lives by making it +easier for mariners to take frequent depth soundings. At the same time, +he invented a vastly improved form of ship's compass which was as big an +improvement over the older models as his depth-sounding equipment was +over the soggy rope. Attentive readers will not be surprised to learn +that he patented this device and made a ton of money from it. + +Kelvin had revolutionized the art of finding one's way on the ocean, +both in the vertical (depth) dimension and in the horizontal (compass) +dimensions. He had made several fortunes in the process and spent a +great deal of his intellectual gifts on pursuits that, I thought at +first, could hardly have been less relevant to his earlier work on +undersea cables. But that was my problem, not his. I didn't figure out +what he was up to until very close to the ragged end of my hacker +tourism binge + +\_\_ Slack\_\_ + +The first time a cable-savvy person uses the word slack in your +presence, you'll be tempted to assume he is using it in the loose, +figurative way - as a layperson uses it. After the eightieth or +ninetieth time, and after the cable guy has spent a while talking about +the seemingly paradoxical notion of slack control and extolling the +sophistication of his ship's slack control systems and his computer's +slack numerical-simulation software, you begin to understand that slack +plays as pivotal a role in a cable lay as, say, thrust does in a moon +mission. + +He who masters slack in all of its fiendish complexity stands astride +the cable world like a colossus; he who is clueless about slack either +snaps his cable in the middle of the ocean or piles it in a snarl on the +ocean floor - which is precisely what early 19th-century cable layers +spent most of their time doing. + +The basic problem of slack is akin to a famous question underlying the +mathematical field of fractals: How long is the coastline of Great +Britain? If I take a wall map of the isle and measure it with a ruler +and multiply by the map's scale, I'll get one figure. If I do the same +thing using a set of large-scale ordnance survey maps, I'll get a much +higher figure because those maps will show zigs and zags in the +coastline that are polished to straight lines on the wall map. But if I +went all the way around the coast with a tape measure, I'd pick up even +smaller variations and get an even larger number. If I did it with +calipers, the number would be larger still. This process can be repeated +more or less indefinitely, and so it is impossible to answer the +original question straightforwardly. The length of the coastline of +Great Britain must be defined in terms of fractal geometry. + +A cross-section of the seafloor has the same property. The route between +the landing station at Songkhla, Thailand, and the one at Lan Tao +Island, Hong Kong, might have a certain length when measured on a map, +say 2,500 kilometers. But if you attach a 2,500-kilometer cable to +Songkhla and, wearing a diving suit, begin manually unrolling it across +the seafloor, you will run out of cable before you reach the public +beach at Tong Fuk. The reason is that the cable follows the bumpy +topography of the seafloor, which ends up being a longer distance than +it would be if the seafloor were mirror-flat. + +Over long (intercontinental) distances, the difference averages out to +about 1 percent, so you might need a 2,525-kilometer cable to go from +Songkhla to Lan Tao. The extra 1 percent is slack, in the sense that if +you grabbed the ends and pulled the cable infinitely tight (bar tight, +as they say in the business), it would theoretically straighten out and +you would have an extra 25 kilometers. This slack is ideally molded into +the contour of the seafloor as tightly as a shadow, running straight and +true along the surveyed course. As little slack as possible is employed, +partly because cable costs a lot of money (for the FLAG cable, $16,000 +to $28,000 per kilometer, depending on the amount of armoring) and +partly because loose coils are just asking for trouble from trawlers and +other hazards. In fact, there is so little slack (in the layperson's +sense of the word) in a well-laid cable that it cannot be grappled and +hauled to the surface without snapping it. + +This raises two questions, one simple and one nauseatingly difficult and +complex. First, how does one repair a cable if it's too tight to haul +up? + +The answer is that it must first be pulled slightly off the seafloor by +a detrenching grapnel, which is a device, meant to be towed behind a +ship, that rolls across the bottom of the ocean on two fat tractor +tires. Centered between those tires is a stout, wicked-looking, C-shaped +hook, curving forward at the bottom like a stinger. It carves its way +through the muck and eventually gets under the cable and lifts it up and +holds it steady just above the seafloor. At this point its tow rope is +released and buoyed off. + +The ship now deploys another towed device called a cutter, which, seen +from above, is shaped like a manta ray. On the top and bottom surfaces +it carries V-shaped blades. As the ship makes another pass over the +detrenching grapnel, one of these blades catches the cable and severs +it. + +It is now possible to get hold of the cut ends, using other grapnels. A +cable repair ship carries many different kinds of grapnels and other +hardware, and keeping track of them and their names (like "long prong +Sam") is sort of like taking a course in exotic marine zoology. One of +the ends is hauled up on board ship, and a new length of cable is +spliced onto it solely to provide excess slack. Only now can both ends +of the cable be brought aboard the ship at the same time and the final +splice made. + +But now the cable has way too much slack. It can't just be dumped +overboard, because it would form an untidy heap on the bottom, easily +snagged. Worse, its precise location would not be known, which is +suicide from a legal point of view. As long as a cable's position is +precisely known and marked on charts, avoiding it is the responsibility +of every mariner who comes that way. If it's out of place, any snags are +the responsibility of the cable's owners. + +So the loose loop of cable must be carefully lowered to the bottom on +the end of a rope and arranged into a sideways bight that lies alongside +the original route of the cable something like an oxbow lake beside a +river channel. The geometry of this bight is carefully recorded with +sidescan sonar so that the information can be forwarded to the people +who update the world's nautical charts. + +One problem: now you have a rope between your ship's winch and the +recently laid cable. It looks like an old-fashioned, hairy, organic jute +rope, but it has a core of steel. It is a badass rope, extremely strong +and heavy and expensive. You could cut it off and drop it, but this +would waste money and leave a wild rope trailing across the seafloor, +inviting more snags. + +So at this point you deploy your submersible remotely operated vehicle +(ROV) on the end of an umbilical. It rolls across the seabed on its tank +tracks, finds the rope, and cuts it with its terrifying hydraulic +guillotine. + +Sad to say, that was the answer to the easy question. The hard one goes +like this: You are the master of a cable ship just off Songkhla, and you +have taken on 2,525 kilometers of cable which you are about to lay along +the 2500-kilometer route between there and Tong Fuk Beach on Lan Tao +Island. You have the 1 percent of slack required. But 1 percent is just +an average figure for the whole route. In some places the seafloor is +rugged and may need 5 percent slack; in others it is perfectly flat and +the cable may be laid straight as a rod. Here's the question: How do you +ensure that the extra 25 kilometers ends up where it's supposed to? + +Remember that you are on a ship moving up and down on the waves and that +you will be stretching the cable out across a distance of several +kilometers between the ship and the contact point on the ocean floor, +sometimes through undersea currents. If you get it wrong, you'll get +suspensions in the cable, which will eventually develop into faults, or +you'll get loops, which will be snagged by trawlers. Worse yet, you +might actually snap the cable. All of these, and many more entertaining +things, happened during the colorful early years of the cable business. + +The answer has to do with slack control. And most of what is known about +slack control is known by Cable & Wireless Marine. AT\&T presumably +knows about slack control too, but Cable & Wireless Marine has twice as +many ships and dominates the deep-sea cable-laying industry. The +Japanese can lay cable in shallow water and can repair it anywhere. But +the reality is that when you want to slam a few thousand kilometers of +state-of-the-art optical fiber across a major ocean, you call Cable & +Wireless Marine, based in England. That is pretty much what FLAG did +several years ago. + +\_\_ In which the Hacker Tourist treks to Land's end, the haunt of +Druids, Pirates, and Telegraphers.\_\_ + +An idyllic hike to the tiny Cornish town of Porthcurno. More flagon +hoisting at the Cable Station. Lord Kelvin's handiwork examined and +explained. Early bits. The surveyors of the oceans in Chelmsford, and +how computers play an essential part in their work. Alexander Graham +Bell, the second Supreme Ninja Hacker Mage Lord, and his misguided +analog detour. Legacy of Kelvin, Bell, and FLAG to the wired world. + +\_\_ 50° 3.965' N, 5° 42.745 WLand's End, Cornwall, England\_\_ + +As anyone can see from a map of England, Cornwall is a good jumping-off +place for cables across the Atlantic, whether they are laid westward to +the Americas or southward to Spain or the Azores. A cable from this +corner of the island needs to traverse neither the English Channel nor +the Irish Sea, both of which are shallow and fraught with shipping. +Cornwall also possesses the other necessary prerequisite of a cable +landing site in that it is an ancient haunt of pirates and smugglers and +is littered with ceremonial ruins left behind by shadowy occult figures. +The cable station here is called Porthcurno. + +Not knowing exactly where Porthcurno is (it is variously marked on maps, +if marked at all), the hacker tourist can find it by starting at Land's +End, which is unambiguously located (go to England; walk west until the +land ends). He can then walk counterclockwise around the coastline. The +old fractal question of "How long is the coastline of Great Britain" +thus becomes more than a purely abstract exercise. The answer is that in +Cornwall it is much longer than it looks, because the fractal dimension +of the place is high - Cornwall is bumpy. All of the English people I +talked to before getting here told me that the place was rugged and wild +and beautiful, but I snidely assumed that they meant "by the standards +of England." As it turns out, Cornwall is rugged and wild and beautiful +even by the standards of, say, Northern California. In America we assume +that any place where humans have lived for more than a generation has +been pretty thoroughly screwed up, so it is startling to come to a place +where 2,000-year-old ruins are all over the place and find that it is +still virtually a wilderness. + +From Land's End you can reach Porthcurno in two or three hours, +depending on how much time you spend gawking at views, clambering up and +down cliffs, exploring caves, and taking dips at small perfect beaches +that can be found wedged into clefts in the rock. + +Cables almost never land in industrial zones, first because such areas +are heavily traveled and frequently dredged, second because of pure +geography. Industry likes rivers, which bring currents, which are bad +for cables. Cities like flat land. But flat land above the tide line +implies a correspondingly gentle slope below the water, meaning that the +cable will pass for a greater distance through the treacherous shallows. +Three to thirty meters is the range of depth where most of the ocean +dynamics are and where cable must be armored. But in wild places like +Porthcurno or Lan Tao Island, rivers are few and small, and the land +bursts almost vertically from the sea. The same geography, of course, +favors pirates and smugglers. + +The company that laid the first part of it was called the Falmouth, +Gibraltar and Malta Telegraph Company, which is odd because the cable +never went to Falmouth - a major port some 50 kilometers from +Porthcurno. Enough anchors had hooked cables, even by that point, that +"major port" and "submarine cable station" were seen to be incompatible, +so the landing site was moved to Porthcurno.That was just the beginning: +the company (later called the Eastern Cable Company, after all the +segments between Porthcurno and Darwin merged) was every bit as +conscious of the importance of redundancy as today's Internet architects +- probably more so, given the unreliability of early cables. They ran +another cable from Porthcurno to the Azores and then to Ascension +Island, where it forked: one side headed to South America while the +other went to Cape Town and then across the Indian Ocean. Subsequent +transatlantic cables terminated at Porthcurno as well. + +Many of the features that made Cornwall attractive to cable operators +also made it a suitable place to conduct transatlantic radio +experiments, and so in 1900 Guglielmo Marconi himself established a +laboratory on Lizard Point, which is directly across the bay from +Porthcurno, some 30 kilometers distant. Marconi had another station on +the Isle of Wight, a few hundred kilometers to the east, and when he +succeeded in sending messages between the two, he constructed a more +powerful transmitter at the Lizard station and began trying to send +messages to a receiver in Newfoundland. The competitive threat to the +cable industry could hardly have been more obvious, and so the Eastern +Telegraph Company raised a 60-meter mast above its Porthcurno site, +hoisted an antenna, and began eavesdropping on Marconi's transmissions. +A couple of decades later, after the Italian had worked the bugs out of +the system, the government stepped in and arranged a merger between his +company and the submarine cable companies to create a new, fully +integrated communications monopoly called Cable & Wireless. + +\_\_ 50° 2.602' N5° 39.054' WMuseum of Submarine Telegraphy, Porthcurno, +Cornwall\_\_ + +On a sunny summer day, Porthcurno Beach was crowded with holiday makers. +The vast majority of these were scantily clad and tended to face toward +the sun and the sea. The fully clothed and heavily shod tourists with +their backs to the water were the hacker tourists; they were headed for +a tiny, windowless cement blockhouse, scarcely big enough to serve as a +one-car garage, planted at the apex of the beach. There was a sign on +the wall identifying it as the Museum of Submarine Telegraphy and +stating that it is open only on Wednesday and Friday. + +This was appalling news. We arrived on a Monday morning, and our +maniacal schedule would not brook a two-day wait. Stunned, heartbroken, +we walked around the thing a couple of times, which occupied about 30 +seconds. The lifeguard watched us uneasily. We admired the brand-new +manhole cover set into the ground in front of the hut, stamped with the +year '96, which strongly suggested a connection with FLAG. We wandered +up the valley for a couple of hundred meters until it opened up into a +parking lot for beach-goers, surrounded by older white masonry +buildings. These were well-maintained but did not seem to be used for +much. We peered at a couple of these and speculated (wrongly, as it +turned out) that they were the landing station for FLAG. + +Tantalizing hints were everywhere: the inevitable plethora of manholes, +networked to one another by long straight strips of new pavement set +into the parking lot and the road. Nearby, a small junkheap containing +several lengths of what to the casual visitor might look like old, dirty +pipe but which on closer examination proved to be hunks of discarded +coaxial cable. But all the buildings were locked and empty, and no one +was around. + +Our journey seemed to have culminated in failure. We then noticed that +one of the white buildings had a sign on the door identifying it as The +Cable Station - Free House. The sign was adorned with a painting of a +Victorian shore landing in progress - a line of small boats supporting a +heavy cable being payed out from a sailing ship anchored in Porthcurno +Bay. + +After coming all this way, it seemed criminal not to have a drink in +this pub. By hacker tourist standards, a manhole cover counts as a major +attraction, and so it was almost surreal to have stumbled across a place +that had seemingly been conceived and built specifically for us. Indeed, +we were the only customers in the place. We admired the photographs and +paintings on the walls, which all had something or other to do with +cables. We made friends with Sally the Dog, chatted with the +proprietress, grabbed a pint, and went out into the beer garden to drown +our sorrows. + +Somewhat later, we unburdened ourselves to the proprietress, who looked +a bit startled to learn of our strange mission, and said, "Oh, the +fellows who run the museum are inside just now." + +Faster than a bit speeding down an optical fiber we were back inside the +pub where we discovered half a dozen distinguished gentlemen sitting +around a table, finishing up their lunches. One of them, a tall, +handsome, craggy sort, apologized for having ink on his fingers. We made +some feeble effort to explain the concept of Wired magazine (never +easy), and they jumped up from their seats, pulled key chains out of +their pockets, and took us across the parking lot, through the gate, and +into the museum proper. We made friends with Minnie the Cable Dog and +got the tour. Our primary guides were Ron Werngren (the gent with ink on +his fingers, which I will explain in a minute) and John Worrall, who is +the cheerful, energetic, talkative sort who seems to be an obligatory +feature of any cable-related site. + +All of these men are retired Cable & Wireless employees. They sketched +in for us the history of this strange compound of white buildings. Like +any old-time cable station, it housed the equipment for receiving and +transmitting messages as well as lodgings and support services for the +telegraphers who manned it. But in addition it served as the campus of a +school where Cable & Wireless foreign service staff were trained, +complete with dormitories, faculty housing, gymnasium, and dining hall. + +The whole campus has been shut down since 1970. In recent years, though, +the gentlemen we met in the pub, with the assistance of a local +historical trust, have been building and operating the Museum of +Submarine Telegraphy here. These men are of a generation that trained on +the campus shortly after World War II, and between them they have lived +and worked in just as many exotic places as the latter-day cable guys we +met on Lan Tao Island: Buenos Aires, Ascension Island, Cyprus, Jordan, +the West Indies, Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Trinidad, Dubai. + +Fortunately, the tiny hut above the beach is not the museum. It's just +the place where the cables are terminated. FLAG and other modern cables +bypass it and terminate in a modern station up at the head of the +valley, so +all of the cables in this hut are old and out of service. They are +labeled with the names of the cities where they terminate: Faial in the +Azores, Brest in France, Bilbao in Spain, Gibraltar 1, Saint John's in +Newfoundland, the Isles of Scilly, two cables to Carcavelos in Portugal, +Vigo in Spain, Gibraltar 2 and 3. From this hut, the wires proceed up +the valley a couple hundred meters to the cable station proper, which is +encased in solid rock. + +During World War II, the Porthcurno cable nexus was such a painfully +obvious target for a Nazi attack that a detachment of Cornish miners +were brought in to carve a big tunnel out of a rock hill that rises +above the campus. This turned out to be so wet that it was necessary to +then construct a house inside the tunnel, complete with pitched roof, +gutters, and downspouts to carry away the eternal drizzle of +groundwater. The strategically important parts of the cable station were +moved inside. Porthcurno Bay and the Cable & Wireless campus were laced +with additional defensive measures, like a fuel-filled pipe underneath +the water to cremate incoming Huns. + +Now the house in the tunnel is the home of the museum. It is sealed from +the outside world by two blast doors, each of which consists of a +foot-thick box welded together from inch-thick steel plate. The inner +door has a gasket to keep out poison gas. Inside, the building is clean +and almost cozy, and except for the lack of windows, one is not +conscious of being underground. + +Practically the first thing we saw upon entering was a fully functional +Kelvin mirror galvanometer - the exquisitely sensitive detector that +sent Wildman Whitehouse into ignominy, made the first transatlantic +cable useful, and earned William Thomson his first major fortune. Most +of its delicate innards are concealed within a metal case. The beam of +light that reflects off its tiny twisting mirror shines against a long +horizontal screen of paper, marked and numbered like a yardstick, +extending about 10 inches on either side of a central zero point. The +light forms a spot on this screen about the size and shape of a dime cut +in half. It is so sensitive that merely touching the machine's case - +grounding it - causes the spot of light to swing wildly to one end of +the scale. + +At Porthcurno this device was used for more than one purpose. One of the +most important activities at a cable station is pinpointing the +locations of faults, which is done by measuring the resistance in the +cable. Since the resistance per unit of length is a known quantity, a +precise measurement of resistance gives the distance to the fault. +Measuring resistance was done by use of a device called a Wheatstone +bridge. The museum has a beautiful one, built in a walnut box with big +brass knobs for dialing in resistances. Use of the Wheatstone bridge +relies on achieving a null current with the highest attainable level of +precision, and for this purpose, no instrument on earth was better +suited than the Kelvin mirror galvanometer. Locating a mid-ocean fault +in a cable therefore was reduced to a problem of twiddling the dials on +the Wheatstone bridge until the galvanometer's spot of light was +centered on the zero mark. + +The reason for the ink on Ron Werngren's fingers became evident when we +moved to another room and beheld a genuine Kelvin siphon recorder, which +he was in the process of debugging. This machine represented the first +step in the removal of humans from the global communications loop that +has culminated in the machine room at cable landing stations like +Ninomiya. + +After Kelvin's mirror galvanometer became standard equipment throughout +the wired world, every message coming down the cables had to pass, +briefly, through the minds of human operators such as the ones who were +schooled at the Porthcurno campus. These were highly trained young men +in slicked hair and starched collars, working in teams of two or three: +one to watch the moving spot of light and divine the letters, a second +to write them down, and, if the message were being relayed down another +cable, a third to key it in again. + +It was clear from the very beginning that this was an error-prone +process, and when the young men in the starched collars began getting +into fistfights, it also became clear that it was a job full of stress. +The stress derived from the fact that if the man watching the spot of +light let his attention wander for one moment, information would be +forever lost. What was needed was some mechanical way to make a record +of the signals coming down the cable. But because of the weakness of +these signals, this was no easy job. + +Lord Kelvin, never one to rest on his laurels, solved the problem with +the siphon recorder. For all its historical importance, and for all the +money it made Kelvin, it is a flaky-looking piece of business. There is +a reel of paper tape which is drawn steadily through the machine by a +motor. Mounted above it is a small reservoir containing perhaps a +tablespoon of ink. What looks like a gossamer strand emerges from the +ink and bends around through some delicate metal fittings so that its +other end caresses the surface of the moving tape. This strand is +actually an extremely thin glass tube that siphons the ink from the +reservoir onto the paper. The idea is that the current in the cable, by +passing through an electromechanical device, will cause this tube to +move slightly to one side or the other, just like the spot of light in +the mirror galvanometer. But the current in the old cables was so feeble +that even the infinitesimal contact point between the glass tube and the +tape still induced too much friction, so Kelvin invented a remarkable +kludge: he built a vibrator into the system that causes the glass tube +to thrum like a guitar string so that its point of contact on the paper +is always in slight motion. + +Dynamic friction (between moving objects) is always less than static +friction (between objects that are at rest with respect to each other). +The vibration in the glass siphon tube reduced the friction against the +paper tape to the point where even the weak currents in a submarine +cable could move it back and forth. Movement to one side of the tape +represented a dot, to the other side a dash. We prevailed upon Werngren +to tap out the message Get Wired.The result is on the cover of this +magazine, and if you know Morse code you can pick the letters out +easily. + +The question naturally arises: How does one go about manufacturing a +hollow glass tube thinner than a hair? More to the point, how did they +do it 100 years ago? After all, as Worrall pointed out, they needed to +be able to repair these machines when they were posted out on Ascension +Island. The answer is straightforward and technically sweet: you take a +much thicker glass tube, heat it over a Bunsen burner until it glows and +softens, and then pull sharply on both ends. It forms a long, thin +tendril, like a string of melted cheese stretching away from a piece of +pizza. Amazingly, it does not close up into a solid glass fiber, but +remains a tube no matter how thin it gets. + +Exactly the same trick is used to create the glass fibers that run down +the center of FLAG and other modern submarine cables: an ingot of very +pure glass is heated until it glows, and then it is stretched. The only +difference is that these are solid fibers rather than tubes, and, of +course, it's all done using machines that assure a consistent result. + +Moving down the room, we saw a couple of large tabletops devoted to a +complete, functioning reproduction of a submarine cable system as it +might have looked in the 1930s. The only difference is that the +thousands of miles of intervening cable are replaced with short jumper +wires so that transmitter, repeaters, and receiver are contained within +a single room. + +All the equipment is built the way they don't build things anymore: +polished wooden cabinets with glass tops protecting gleaming brass +machinery that whirrs and rattles and spins. Relays clack and things +jiggle up and down. At one end of the table is an autotransmitter that +reads characters off a paper tape, translates them into Morse code or +cable code, and sends its output, in the form of a stream of electrical +pulses, to a regenerator/retransmitter unit. In this case the unit is +only a few feet away, but in practice it would have been on the other +end of a long submarine cable, say in the Azores. This +regenerator/retransmitter unit sends its output to a twin siphon-tube +recorder which draws both the incoming signal (say, from London) and the +outgoing signal as regenerated by this machine on the same paper tape at +the same time. The two lines should be identical. If the machine is not +functioning correctly, it will be obvious from a glance at the tape. + +The regenerated signal goes down the table (or down another submarine +cable) to a machine that records the message as a pattern of holes +punched in tape. It also goes to a direct printer that hammers out the +words of the message in capital letters on another moving strip of +paper. The final step is a gummer that spreads stickum on the back of +the tape so that it may be stuck onto a telegraph form. (They tried to +use pregummed tape, but in the tropics it only coated the machinery with +glue.) + +Each piece of equipment on this tabletop is built around a motor that +turns over at the same precise frequency. None of it would work - no +device could communicate with any other device - unless all of those +motors were spinning in lockstep with one another. The transmitter, +regenerator/retransmitter, and printer all had to be in sync even though +they were thousands of miles apart. + +This feat is achieved by means of a collection of extremely precise +analog machinery. The heart of the system is another polished box that +contains a vibrating reed, electromagnetically driven, thrumming along +at 30 cycles per second, generating the clock pulses that keep all the +other machines turning over at the right pace. The reed is as precise as +such a thing can be, but over time it is bound to drift and get out of +sync with the other vibrating reeds in the other stations. + +In order to control this tendency, a pair of identical pendulum clocks +hang next to each other on the wall above. These clocks feed steady, +one-second timing pulses into the box housing the reed. The reed, in +turn, is driving a motor that is geared so that it should turn over at +one revolution per second, generating a pulse with each revolution. If +the frequency of the reed's vibration begins to drift, the motor's speed +will drift along with it, and the pulse will come a bit too early or a +bit too late. But these pulses are being compared with the steady +one-second pulses generated by the double pendulum clock, and any +difference between them is detected by a feedback system that can +slightly speed up or slow down the vibration of the reed in order to +correct the error. The result is a clock so steady that once one of them +is set up in, say, London, and another is set up in, say, Cape Town, the +machinery in those two cities will remain synched with each other +indefinitely. + +This is precisely the same function that is performed by the quartz +clock chip at the heart of any modern computing device. The job +performed by the regenerator/retransmitter is also perfectly +recognizable to any modern digitally minded hacker tourist: it is an +analog-to-digital converter. The analog voltages come down the cable +into the device, the circuitry in the box decides whether the signal is +a dot or a dash (or if you prefer, a 1 or a 0), and then an +electromagnet physically moves one way or the other, depending on +whether it's a dot or a dash. At that moment, the device is strictly +digital. The electromagnet, by moving, then closes a switch that +generates a new pulse of analog voltage that moves on down the cable. +The hacker tourist, who has spent much of his life messing around with +invisible, ineffable bits, can hardly fail to be fascinated when staring +into the guts of a machine built in 1927, steadily hammering out bits +through an electromechanical process that can be seen and even touched. + +As I started to realize, and as John Worrall and many other +cable-industry professionals subsequently told me, there have been new +technologies but no new ideas since the turn of the century. Alas for +Internet chauvinists who sneer at older, "analog" technology, this rule +applies to the transmission of digital bits down wires, across long +distances. We've been doing it ever since Morse sent "What hath God +wrought\!" from Washington to Baltimore. + +\_\_ (Latitude & longitude unknown)Cable & Wireless MarineChelmsford, +England\_\_ + +\[Note: I left my GPS receiver on a train in Bristol and had to do +without it for a couple of weeks until Mr. Gallagher, station supervisor +at Preston, Lancashire, miraculously found it and sent it back to me. +Chelmsford is a half-hour train ride northeast of London.\] + +When last we saw our hypothetical cable-ship captain, sitting off of +Songkhla with 2,525 kilometers of very expensive cable, we had put him +in a difficult spot by asking the question of how he could ensure that +his 25 kilometers of slack ended up in exactly the right place. +Essentially the same question was raised a few years ago when FLAG +approached Cable & Wireless Marine and said, in effect: "We are going to +buy 28,000 kilometers of fancy cable from AT\&T and KDD, and we would +like to have it go from England to Spain to Italy to Egypt to Dubai to +India to Thailand to Hong Kong to China to Korea to Japan. We would like +to pay for as little slack as possible, because the cable is expensive. +What little slack we do buy needs to go in exactly the right place, +please. What should we do next?" + +So it was that Captain Stuart Evans's telephone rang. At the time +(September 1992), he was working for a company called Worldwide Ocean +Surveying, but by the time we met him, that company had been bought out +by Cable & Wireless Marine, of which he is now general manager - survey. +Evans is a thoroughly pleasant middle-aged fellow, a former merchant +marine captain, who seemed just a bit taken aback that anyone would care +about the minute details of what he and his staff do for a living. A +large part of being a hacker tourist is convincing people that you are +really interested in the nitty-gritty and not just looking for a quick, +painless sound bite or two; once this is accomplished, they always warm +to the task, and Captain Evans was no exception.Evans's mission was to +help FLAG select the most economical and secure route. The initial +stages of the process are straightforward: choose the landing sites and +then search existing data concerning the routes joining those sites. +This is referred to as a desk search, with mild but unmistakable +condescension. Evans and his staff came up with a proposed route, did +the desk search, and sent it to FLAG for approval. When FLAG signed off +on this, it was time to go out and perform the real survey. This process +ran from January to September 1994. + +Each country uses the same landing sites over and over again for each +new cable, so you might think that the routes from, say, Porthcurno to +Spain would be well known by now. In fact, every new cable passes over +some virgin territory, so a survey is always necessary. Furthermore, the +territory does not remain static. There are always new wrecks, mobile +sand waves, changes in anchorage patterns, and other late-breaking news. + +To lay a cable competently you must have a detailed survey of a corridor +surrounding the intended route. In shallow water, you have relatively +precise control over where the cable ends up, but the bottom can be very +irregular, and the cable is likely to be buried into the seabed. So you +want a narrow (1 kilometer wide) corridor with high resolution. In +deeper water, you have less lateral control over the descending cable, +but at the same time the phenomena you're looking at are bigger, so you +want a survey corridor whose width is 2 to 3 times the ocean depth but +with a coarser resolution. A resolution of 0.5 percent of the depth +might be considered a minimum standard, though the FLAG survey has it +down to 0.25 percent in most places. So, for example, in water 5,000 +meters deep, which would be a somewhat typical value away from the +continental shelf, the survey corridor would be 10 to 15 kilometers in +width, and a good vertical resolution would be 12 meters. + +The survey process is almost entirely digital. The data is collected by +a survey ship carrying a sonar rig that fires 81 beams spreading down +and out from the hull in a fan pattern. At a depth of 5,000 meters, the +result, approximately speaking, is to divide the 10-kilometer-wide +corridor into grid squares 120 meters wide and 175 meters long and get +the depth of each one to a precision of some 12 meters. + +The raw data goes to an onboard SPARCstation that performs data +assessment in real time as a sort of quality assurance check, then +streams the numbers onto DAT cassettes. The survey team is keeping an +eye on the results, watching for any formations through which cable +cannot be run. These are found more frequently in the Indian than in the +Atlantic Ocean, mostly because the Atlantic has been charted more +thoroughly. + +Steep slopes are out. A cable that traverses a steep slope will always +want to slide down it sideways, secretly rendering every nautical chart +in the world obsolete while imposing unknown stresses on the cable. This +and other constraints may throw an impassable barrier across the +proposed route of the cable. When this happens, the survey ship has to +backtrack, move sideways, and survey other corridors parallel and +adjacent to the first one, gradually building a map of a broader area, +until a way around the obstruction is found. The proposed route is +redrafted, and the survey ship proceeds. + +The result is a shitload of DAT tapes and a good deal of other data as +well. For example, in water less than 1,200 meters deep, they also use +sidescan sonar to generate analog pictures of the bottom - these look +something like black-and-white photographs taken with a point light +source, with the exception that shadows are white instead of black. It +is possible to scan the same area from several different directions and +then digitally combine the images to make something that looks just like +a photo. This may provide crucial information that would never show up +on the survey - for example, a dense pattern of anchor scars indicates +that this is not a good place to lay a cable. The survey ship can also +drop a flowmeter that will provide information about currents in the +ocean. + +The result of all this, in the case of the FLAG survey, was about a +billion data points for the bathymetric survey alone, plus a mass of +sidescan sonar plots and other documentation. The tapes and the plots +filled a room about 5 meters square all the way to the ceiling. The +quantity of data involved was so vast that to manage it on paper, while +it might have been theoretically possible given unlimited resources, was +practically impossible given that FLAG is run by mortals and actually +has to make money. FLAG is truly an undertaking of the digital age in +that it simply couldn't have been accomplished without the use of +computers to manage the data.Evans's mission was to present FLAG with a +final survey report. If he had done it the old-fashioned way, the report +would have occupied some 52 linear feet of shelf space, plus several +hefty cabinets full of charts, and the inefficiency of dealing with so +much paper would have made it nearly impossible for FLAG's decision +makers }to grasp everything. + +Instead, Evans bought FLAG a PC and a plotter. During the summer of +1994, while the survey data was still being gathered, he had some +developers write browsing software. Keeping in mind that FLAG's +investors were mostly high-finance types with little technical or +nautical background, they gave the browser a familiar, easy-to-use +graphical user interface. The billion data points and the sidescan sonar +imagery were boiled down into a form that would fit onto 5 CD-ROMs, and +in that form the final report was presented to FLAG at the end of 1994. +When FLAG's decision makers wanted to check out a particular part of the +route, they could zoom in on it by clicking on a map, picking a small +square of ocean, and blowing it up to reveal sev-eral different kinds of +plots: a topographic map of the seafloor, information abstracted from +the sidescan sonar images, a depth profile along the route, and another +profile showing the consistency of the bot-tom - whether muck, gravel, +sand, or hard rock. All of these could be plotted out on meterwide +sheets of paper that provided a much higher-resolution view than is +afforded by the computer screen. + +This represents a noteworthy virtuous circle - a self-amplifying trend. +The development of graphical user interfaces has led to rapid growth in +personal computer use over the last decade, and the coupling of that +technology with the Internet has caused explosive growth in the use of +the World Wide Web, generating enormous demand for bandwidth. That (in +combination, of course, with other demands) creates a demand for +submarine cables much longer and more ambitious than ever before, which +gets investors excited - but the resulting project is so complex that +the only way they can wrap their minds around it and make intelligent +decisions is by using a computer with a graphical user interface. + +\_\_ Hacking wires\_\_ + +As you may have figured out by this point, submarine cables are an +incredible pain in the ass to build, install, and operate. Hooking stuff +up to the ends of them is easy by comparison. So it has always been the +case that cables get laid first and then people begin trying to think of +new ways to use them. Once a cable is in place, it tends to be treated +not as a technological artifact but almost as if it were some naturally +occurring mineral formation that might be exploited in any number of +different ways. + +This was true from the beginning. The telegraphy equipment of 1857 +didn't work when it was hooked up to the first transatlantic cable. +Kelvin had to invent the mirror galvanometer, and later the siphon +recorder, to make use of it. Needless to say, there were many other +Victorian hackers trying to patent inventions that would enable more +money to be extracted from cables. One of these was a +Scottish-Canadian-American elocutionist named Alexander Graham Bell, who +worked out of a laboratory in Boston. + +Bell was one of a few researchers pursuing a hack based on the +phenomenon of resonance. If you open the lid of a grand piano, step on +the sustain pedal, and sing a note into it, such as a middle C, the +strings for the piano's C keys will vibrate sympathetically, while the D +strings will remain still. If you sing a D, the D strings vibrate and +the C strings don't. Each string resonates only at the frequency to +which it has been tuned and is deaf to other frequencies. + +If you were to hum out a Morse code pattern of dots and dashes, all at +middle C, a deaf observer watching the strings would notice a +corresponding pattern of vibrations. If, at the same time, a second +person was standing next to you humming an entirely different sequence +of dots and dashes, but all on the musical tone of D, then a second deaf +observer, watching the D strings, would be able to read that message, +and so on for all the other tones on the scale. There would be no +interference between the messages; each would come through as clearly as +if it were the only message being sent. But anyone who wasn't deaf would +hear a cacophony of noise as all the message senders sang in different +rhythms, on different notes. If you took this to an extreme, built a +special piano with strings tuned as close to each other as possible, and +trained the message senders to hum Morse code as fast as possible, the +sound would merge into an insane roar of white noise. + +Electrical oscillations in a wire follow the same rules as acoustical +ones in the air, so a wire can carry exactly the same kind of cacophony, +with the same results. Instead of using piano strings, Bell and others +were using a set of metal reeds like the ones in a harmonica, each tuned +to vibrate at a different frequency. They electrified the reeds in such +a way that they generated not only acoustical vibrations but +corresponding electrical ones. They sought to combine the electrical +vibrations of all these reeds into one complicated waveform and feed it +into one end of a cable. At the far end of the cable, they would feed +the signal into an identical set of reeds. Each reed would vibrate in +sympathy only with its counterpart on the other end of the wire, and by +recording the pattern of vibrations exhibited by that reed, one could +extract a Morse code message independent of the other messages being +transmitted on the other reeds. For the price of one wire, you could +send many simultaneous coded messages and have them all sort themselves +out on the other end. + +To make a long story short, it didn't work. But it did raise an +interesting question. If you could take vibrations at one frequency and +combine them with vibrations at another frequency, and another, and +another, to make a complicated waveform, and if that waveform could be +transmitted to the other end of a submarine cable intact, then there was +no reason in principle why the complex waveform known as the human voice +couldn't be transmitted in the same way. The only difference would be +that the waves in this case were merely literal representations of sound +waves, rather than Morse code sequences transmitted at different +frequencies. It was, in other words, an analog hack on a digital +technology. + +We have all been raised to think of the telephone as a vast improvement +on the telegraph, as the steamship was to the sailing ship or the +electric lightbulb to the candle, but from a hacker tourist's point of +view, it begins to seem like a lamentable wrong turn. Until Bell, all +telegraphy was digital. The multiplexing system he worked on was purely +digital in concept even if it did make use of some analog properties of +matter (as indeed all digital equipment does). But when his multiplexing +scheme went sour, he suddenly went analog on us. + +Fortunately, the story has a happy ending, though it took a century to +come about. Because analog telephony did not require expertise in Morse +code, anyone could take advantage of it. It became enormously popular +and generated staggering quantities of revenue that underwrote the +creation of a fantastically immense communications web reaching into +every nook and cranny of every developed country. + +Then modems came along and turned the tables. Modems are a digital hack +on an analog technology, of course; they take the digits from your +computer and convert them into a complicated analog waveform that can be +transmitted down existing wires. The roar of white noise that you hear +when you listen in on a modem transmission is exactly what Bell was +originally aiming for with his reeds. Modems, and everything that has +ensued from them, like the World Wide Web, are just the latest example +of a pattern that was established by Kelvin 140 years ago, namely, +hacking existing wires by inventing new stuff to put on the ends of +them. + +It is natural, then, to ask what effect FLAG is going to have on the +latest and greatest cable hack: the Internet. Or perhaps it's better to +ask whether the Internet affected FLAG. The explosion of the Web +happened after FLAG was planned. Taketo Furuhata, president and CEO of +IDC, which runs the Miura station, says: "I don't know whether Nynex +management foresaw the burst of demand related to the Internet a few +years ago - I don't think so. Nobody - not even AT\&T people - foresaw +this. But the demand for Internet transmission is so huge that FLAG will +certainly become a very important pipe to transmit such requirements." + +John Mercogliano, vice president - Europe, Nynex Network Systems +(Bermuda) Ltd., says that during the early 1990s when FLAG was getting +organized, Nynex executives felt in their guts that something big was +going to happen involving broadband multimedia transmission over cables. +They had a media lab that was giving demos of medical imaging and other +such applications. "We knew the Internet was coming - we just didn't +know it was going to be called the Internet," he says. + +FLAG may, in fact, be the last big cable system that was planned in the +days when people didn't know about the Internet. Those days were a lot +calmer in the global telecom industry. Everything was controlled by +monopolies, and cable construction was based on sober, scientific +forecasts, analogous, in some ways, to the actuarial tables on which +insurance companies predicate their policies. + +When you talk on the phone, your words are converted into bits that are +sent down a wire. When you surf the Web, your computer sends out bits +that ask for yet more bits to be sent back. When you go to the store and +buy a Japanese VCR or an article of clothing with a Made in Thailand +label, you're touching off a cascade of information flows that +eventually leads to transpacific faxes, phone calls, and money +transfers. + +If you get a fast busy signal when you dial your phone, or if your Web +browser stalls, or if the electronics store is always low on inventory +because the distribution system is balled up somewhere, then it means +that someone, somewhere, is suffering pain. Eventually this pain gets +taken out on a fairly small number of meek, mild-mannered statisticians +- telecom traffic forecasters - who are supposed to see these problems +coming. + +Like many other telephony-related technologies, traffic forecasting was +developed to a fine art a long time ago and rarely screwed up. Usually +the telcos knew when the capacity of their systems was going to be +stretched past acceptable limits. Then they went shopping for bandwidth. +Cables got built. + +That is all past history. "The telecoms aren't forecasting now," +Mercogliano says. "They're reacting." + +This is a big problem for a few different reasons. One is that cables +take a few years to build, and, once built, last for a quarter of a +century. It's not a nimble industry in that way. A PTT thinking about +investing in a club cable is making a 25-year commitment to a piece of +equipment that will almost certainly be obsolete long before it reaches +the end of its working life. Not only are they risking lots of money, +but they are putting it into an exceptionally long-term investment. +Long-term investments are great if you have reliable long-term +forecasts, but when your entire forecasting system gets blown out of the +water by something like the Internet, the situation gets awfully +complicated. + +The Internet poses another problem for telcos by being asymmetrical. +Imagine you are running an international telecom company in Japan. +Everything you've ever done, since TPC-1 came into Ninomiya in '64, has +been predicated on circuits. Circuits are the basic unit you buy and +sell - they are to you what cars are to a Cadillac dealership. A +circuit, by definition, is symmetrical. It consists of an equal amount +of bandwidth in each direction - since most phone conversations, on +average, entail both parties talking about the same amount. A circuit +between Japan and the United States is something that enables data to be +sent from Japan to the US, and from the US to Japan, at the same rate - +the same bandwidth. In order to get your hands on a circuit, you cut a +deal with a company in the States. This deal is called a correspondent +agreement. + +One day, you see an ad in a magazine for a newfangled thing called a +modem. You hook one end up to a computer and the other end to a phone +line, and it enables the computer to grab a circuit and exchange data +with some other computer with a modem. So far, so good. As a cable-savvy +type, you know that people have been hacking cables in this fashion +since Kelvin. As long as the thing works on the basis of circuits, you +don't care - any more than a car salesman would care if someone bought +Cadillacs, tore out the seats, and used them to haul gravel. + +A few years later, you hear about some modem-related nonsense called the +World Wide Web. And a year after that, everyone seems to be talking +about it. About the same time, all of your traffic forecasts go down the +toilet. Nothing's working the way it used to. Everything is screwed up. + +Why? Because the Web is asymmetrical. All of your Japanese Web customers +are using it to access sites in the States, because that's where all the +sites are located. When one of them clicks on a button on an American +Web page, a request is sent over the cable to the US. The request is +infinitesimal, just a few bytes. The site in the States promptly +responds by trying to send back a high-resolution, 24-bit color image of +Cindy Crawford, or an MPEG film of a space shuttle mission. Millions of +bytes. Your pipe gets jammed solid with incoming packets. + +You're a businessperson. You want to make your customers happy. You want +them to get their millions of bytes from the States in some reasonable +amount of time. The only way to make this happen is to purchase more +circuits on the cables linking Japan to the States. But if you do this, +only half of each circuit is going to be used - the incoming half. The +outgoing half will carry a miserable trickle of packets. Its bandwidth +will be wasted. The correspondent agreement relationship, which has been +the basis of the international telecom business ever since the first +cables were laid, doesn't work anymore. + +This, in combination with the havoc increasingly being wrought by +callback services, is weird, bad, hairy news for the telecom monopolies. +Mercogliano believes that the solution lies in some sort of bandwidth +arbitrage scheme, but talking about that to an old-time telecrat is like +describing derivative investments to an old codger who keeps his money +under his mattress. "The club system is breaking down," Mercogliano +says. + +\_\_ Somewhere between50° 54.20062' N, 1° 26.87229 W and50° 54.20675' N, +1° 26.95470 WCable Ship Monarch, Southampton, England\_\_ + +John Mercogliano, if this is conceivable, logs even more frequent-flier +miles, to even more parts of the planet, than the cable layers we met on +Lan Tao Island. He lives in London, his office is in Amsterdam, his +territory is Europe, he works for a company headquartered in Bermuda +that has many ties to the New York metropolitan area and that does +business everywhere from Porthcurno to Miura. He is trim, young-looking, +and vigorous, but even so the schedule occasionally takes its toll on +him, and he feels the need to just get away from his job for a few days +and think about something - anything - other than submarine cables. The +last time this feeling came over him, he made inquiries with a tourist +bureau in Ireland that referred him to a quiet, out-of-the-way place on +the coast: a stately home that had been converted to a seaside inn, an +ideal place for him to go to get his mind off his work. Mercogliano flew +to Ireland and made his way overland to the place, checked into his +room, and began ambling through the building. The first thing he saw was +a display case containing samples of various types of 19th-century +submarine cables. It turned out that the former owner of this mansion +had been the captain of the Great Eastern, the first of the great +deep-sea cable-laying ships. + +The Great Eastern got that job because it was by a long chalk the +largest ship on the planet at the time - so large that its utter +uselessness had made it a laughingstock, the Spruce Goose of its day. +The second generation of long-range submarine cables, designed to Lord +Kelvin's specifications after the debacle of 1857, were thick and heavy. +Splicing segments together in mid-ocean had turned out to be +problematical, so there were good reasons for wanting to make the cable +in one huge piece and simply laying the whole thing in one go. + +It is easier to splice cables now and getting easier all the time. +Coaxial cables of the last few decades took some 36 to 48 hours to +splice, partly because it was necessary to mold a jacket around them. +Modern cables can be spliced in more like 12 hours, depending on the +number of fibers they contain. So modern cable ships needn't be quite as +great as the Great Eastern. + +Other than the tank that contains the cable, which is literally nothing +more than a big round hole in the middle of the ship, a cable ship is +different from other ships in two ways. One, it comes with a complement +of bow and stern thrusters coupled to exquisitely sensitive navigation +gear on the bridge, which give it unsurpassed precision-maneuvering and +station-keeping powers. In the case of Monarch, a smaller cable repair +ship that we visited in Southampton, England, there are at least two +differential GPS receivers, one for the bow and one for the stern - +hence the two readings given at the head of this section. Each one of +them reads out to five decimal places, which implies a resolution of +about 1 centimeter. + +Second, a cable ship has two winches on board. But this does not do +justice to them, as they are so enormous, so powerful, and yet so nimble +that it would almost be more accurate to say that a cable ship is two +floating winches. Nearly everything that a cable ship does reduces, +eventually, to winching. Laying a cable is a matter of paying cable out +of a winch, and repairing it, as already described, involves a much more +complicated series of winch-related activities. + +As Kelvin figured out the hard way, whenever you are reeling in a long +line, you must first relieve all tension on it or else your reel will be +crushed. The same problem is posed in reverse by the cable-laying +process, where thousands of meters of cable, weighing many tons, may be +stretched tight between the ship and the contact point on the seafloor, +but the rest of the cable stored on board the ship must be coiled +loosely in the tanks with no tension on them at all. In both cases, the +cable must be perfectly slack on the ship end and very tight on the +watery end of the winching machinery. Not surprisingly, then, the same +machinery is used for both outgoing and incoming winch work. + +At one end of the ship is a huge iron drum some 3 meters in diameter +with a few turns of cable around it. As you can verify by wrapping a few +turns of rope around a pipe and tugging, this is a very simple way to +relieve tension on a line. It is not, however, very precise, and here, +precise control is very important. That is provided by something called +a linear engine, which consists of several pairs of tires mounted with a +narrow gap between them (for you baseball fans, it is much like a +pitching machine). The cable is threaded through this gap so that it is +gripped on both sides by the tires. Monarch's linear engine contains 16 +pairs of tires which, taken together, can provide up to 10 tons of +holdback force. Augmented by the drums, which can be driven by power +from the ship's main engines, the ultimate capacity of Monarch's cable +engines is 30 tons. + +The art of laying a submarine cable is the art of using all the special +features of such a ship: the linear engines, the maneuvering thrusters, +and the differential GPS equipment, to put the cable exactly where it is +supposed to go. Though the survey team has examined a corridor many +thousands of meters wide, the target corridor for the cable lay is 200 +meters wide, and the masters of these ships take pride in not straying +more than 10 meters from the charted route. This must be accomplished +through the judicious manipulation of only a few variables: the ship's +position and speed (which are controlled by the engines, thrusters, and +rudder) andthe cable's tension and rate of payout (which are controlled +by the cable engine). + +One cannot merely pay the cable out at the same speed as the ship moves +forward. If the bottom is sloping down and away from the ship as the +ship proceeds, it is necessary to pay the cable out faster. If the +bottom is sloping up toward the ship, the cable must come out more +slowly . Such calculations are greatly complicated by the fact that the +cable is stretched out far behind the ship - the distance between the +ship and the cable's contact point on the bottom of the ocean can be +more than 30 kilometers, and the maximum depth at which (for example) +KDD cable can be laid is 8,000 meters. Insofar as the shape of the +bottom affects what the ship ought to be doing, it's not the shape of +the bottom directly below the ship that is relevant, but the shape of +the bottom wherever the contact point happens to be located, which is by +no means a straightforward calculation. Of course, the ship is heaving +up and down on the ocean and probably being shoved around by wind and +currents while all this is happening, and there is also the possibility +of ocean currents that may move the cable to and fro during its descent. + +It is not, in other words, a seat-of-the-pants kind of deal; the skipper +can't just sit up on the bridge, eyeballing a chart, and twiddling a few +controls according to his intuition. In practice, the only way to ensure +that the cable ends up where it is supposed to is to calculate the whole +thing ahead of time. Just as aeronautical engineers create numerical +simulations of hypothetical airplanes to test their coefficient of drag, +so do the slack control wizards of Cable & Wireless Marine use numerical +simulation techniques to model the catenary curve adopted by the cable +as it stretches between ship and contact point. In combination with +their detailed data on the shape of the ocean floor, this enables them +to figure out, in advance, exactly what the ship should do when. All of +it is boiled down into a set of instructions that is turned over to the +master of the cable ship: at such and such a point, increase speed to x +knots and reduce cable tension to y tons and change payout speed to z +meters per second, and so on and so forth, all the way from Porthcurno +to Miura." + +It sounds like it would make a good videogame," I said to Captain Stuart +Evans after he had laid all of this out for me. I was envisioning +something called SimCable. "It would make a good videogame," he agreed, +"but it also makes a great job, because it's a combination of art and +science and technique - and it's not an art you learn overnight. It's +definitely a black art." + +Cable & Wireless's Marine Survey department has nailed the slack control +problem. That, in combination with the company's fleet of cable-laying +ships and its human capital, makes it dominant in the submarine +cable-laying world. + +By "human capital" I mean their ability to dispatch weather-beaten +operatives such as the Lan Tao Island crowd to difficult places like +Suez and have them know their asses from their elbows. As we discovered +on our little jaunt to Egypt, where we tried to rendezvous with a cable +ship in the Gulf of Suez and were turned back by the Egyptian military, +one doesn't just waltz into places like that on short notice and get +stuff to happen. + +In each country between England and Japan, there are hoops that must be +jumped through, cultural differences that must be understood, palms that +must be greased, unwritten rules that must be respected. The only way to +learn that stuff is to devote a career to it. Cable & Wireless has an +institutional memory stretching all the way back to 1870, when it laid +the first cable from Porthcurno to Australia, and the British maritime +industry as a whole possesses a vast fund of practical experience that +is the legacy of the Empire. + +One can argue that, in the end, the British Empire did Britain +surprisingly little good. Other European countries that had pathetic or +nonexistent empires, such as Italy, have recently surpassed England in +standard of living and other measures of economic well-being. Scholars +of economic history have worked up numbers suggesting that Britain spent +more on maintaining its empire than it gained from exploiting it. +Whether or not this is the case, it is quite obvious from looking at the +cable-laying industry that the Victorian practice of sending British +people all over the planet is now paying them back handsomely. + +The current position of AT\&T versus Cable & Wireless reflects the shape +of America versus the shape of the British Empire. America is a big, +contiguous mass, easy to defend, immensely wealthy, and basically +insular. No one comes close to it in developing new technologies, and +AT\&T has always been one of America's technological leaders. By +contrast, the British Empire was spread out all over the place, and +though it controlled a few big areas (such as India and Australia), it +was basically an archipelago of outposts, let us say a network, +completely dependent on shipping and communications to stay alive. Its +dominance was always more economic than military - even at the height of +the Victorian era, its army was smaller than the Prussian police force. +It could coerce the natives, but only so far - in the end, it had to +co-opt them, give them some incentive to play along. Even though the +Empire has been dissolving itself for half a century, British people and +British institutions still know how to get things done everywhere. + +It is not difficult to work out how all of this has informed the +development of the submarine cable industry. AT\&T makes really, really +good cables; it has the pure technology nailed, though if it doesn't +stay on its toes, it'll be flattened by the Japanese. Cable & Wireless +doesn't even try to make cables, but it installs them better than anyone +else. + +\_\_ The legacy\_\_ + +Kelvin founded the cable industry by understanding the science, and +developing the technology, that made it work. His legacy is the ongoing +domination of the cable-laying industry by the British, and his monument +is concealed beneath the waves: the ever growing web of submarine cables +joining continents together. + +Bell founded the telephone industry. His legacy was the Bell System, and +his monument was strung up on poles for all to see: the network of +telephone wires that eventually found its way into virtually every +building in the developed world. Bell founded New England Telephone +Company, which eventually was absorbed into the Bell System. It never +completely lost its identity, though, and it never forgot its connection +to Alexander Graham Bell - it even moved Bell's laboratory into its +corporate headquarters in Boston. + +After the breakup of the Bell System in the early 1980s, New England +Telephone and its sibling Baby Bell, New York Telephone, joined together +to form a new company called Nynex, whose loyal soldiers are eager to +make it clear that they see themselves as the true heirs of Bell's +legacy. +Now, Nynex and Cable & Wireless, the brainchildren of Bell and Kelvin, +the two supreme ninja hacker mage lords of global telecommunications, +have formed an alliance to challenge AT\&T and all the other old +monopolies. + +We know how the first two acts of the story are going to go: In late +1997, with the completion of FLAG, Luke ("Nynex") Skywalker, backed up +on his Oedipal quest by the heavy shipping iron of Han ("Cable & +Wireless") Solo, will drop a bomb down the Death Star's ventilation +shaft. In 1999, with the completion of SEA-ME-WE 3, the Empire will +Strike Back. There is talk of a FLAG 2, which might represent some kind +of a Return of the Jedi scenario. + +But once the first FLAG has been built, everyone's going to get into the +act - it's going to lead to a general rebellion. "FLAG will change the +way things are done. They are setting a benchmark," says Dave Handley, +the cable layer. And Mercogliano makes a persuasive case that national +telecom monopolies will be so preoccupied, over the next decade, with +building the "last mile" and getting their acts together in a +competitive environment that they'll have no choice but to leave cable +laying to the entrepreneurs. + +That's the simple view of what FLAG represents. It is important to +remember, though, that companies like Cable & Wireless and Nynex are not +really heroic antimonopolists. A victory for FLAG doesn't lead to a pat +ending like in Star Wars - it does not get us into an idealized free +market. "One thing to bear in mind is that Cable & Wireless is a club +and they are rigorously anticompetitive wherever they have the +opportunity," said Doug Barnes, the cypherpunk. "Nynex and the other +Baby Bells are self-righteously trying to crack open other companies' +monopolies while simultaneously trying to hold onto their domestic ones. +The FLAG folks are merely clubs with a smidgin more vision, enough +business sense to properly reward talent, and a profound desire to make +a great pile of money.'' + +There has been a lot of fuss in the last few years concerning the 50th +anniversary of the invention of the computer. Debates have raged over +who invented the computer: Atanasoff or Mauchly or Turing? The only +thing that has been demonstrated is that, depending on how you define +computer, any one of the above, and several others besides, can be said +to have invented it. + +Oddly enough, this debate comes at a time when stand-alone computers are +seeming less and less significant and the Internet more so. Whether or +not you agree that "the network is the computer," a phrase Scott McNealy +of Sun Microsystems recently coined, you can't dispute that moving +information around seems to have much broader appeal than processing it. +Many more people are interested in email and the Web than were +interested in databases and spreadsheets. + +Yet little attention has been paid to the historical antecedents of the +Internet - perhaps partly because these cable technologies are much +older and less accessible and partly because many Net people want so +badly to believe that the Net is fundamentally new and unique. Analog is +seen as old and bad, and so many people assume that the communications +systems of old were strictly analog and have just now been upgraded to +digital. + +This overlooks much history and totally misconstrues the technology. The +first cables carried telegraphy, which is as purely digital as anything +that goes on inside your computer. The cables were designed that way +because the hackers of a century and a half ago understood perfectly +well why digital was better. A single bit of code passing down a wire +from Porthcurno to the Azores was apt to be in sorry shape by the time +it arrived, but precisely because it was a bit, it could easily be +abstracted from the noise, then recognized, regenerated, and transmitted +anew. + +The world has actually been wired together by digital communications +systems for a century and a half. Nothing that has happened during that +time compares in its impact to the first exchange of messages between +Queen Victoria and President Buchanan in 1858. That was so impressive +that a mob of celebrants poured into the streets of New York and set +fire to City Hall. + +It's tempting to observe that, so far, no one has gotten sufficiently +excited over a hot new Web page to go out and burn down a major +building. But this is a little too glib. True, that mob in the streets +of New York in 1858 was celebrating the ability to send messages quickly +across the Atlantic. But, if the network is the computer, then in +retrospect, those torch-bearing New Yorkers could be seen as celebrating +the joining of the small and primitive computer that was the North +American telegraph system to the small and primitive computer that was +the European system, to form The Computer, with a capital C. + +At that time, the most important components of these Computers - the +CPUs, as it were - were tense young men in starched collars. Whenever +one of them stepped out to relieve himself, The Computer went down. As +good as they were at their jobs, they could process bits only so fast, +so The Computer was very slow. But The Computer has done nothing since +then but get faster, become more automated, and expand. By 1870, it +stretched all the way to Australia. The advent of analog telephony +plunged The Computer into a long dormant phase during which it grew +immensely but lost many of its computerlike characteristics. + +But now The Computer is fully digital once again, fully automatic, and +faster than hell. Most of it is in the United States, because the United +States is large, free, and made of dirt. Largeness eliminates +troublesome borders. Freeness means that anyone is allowed to patch new +circuits onto The Computer. Dirt makes it possible for anyone with a +backhoe to get in on the game. The Computer is striving mightily to grow +beyond the borders of the United States, into a world that promises even +vaster economies of scale - but most of that world isn't made of dirt, +and most of it isn't free. The lack of freedom stems both from bad laws, +which are grudgingly giving way to deregulation, and from monopolies +willing to do all manner of unsavory things in order to protect their +turf. + +Even though FLAG's bandwidth isn't that great by 1996 Internet +standards, and even though some of the companies involved in it are, in +other arenas, guilty of monopolistic behavior, FLAG really is going to +help blow open bandwidth and weaken the telecom monopolies. + +In many ways it hearkens back to the wild early days of the cable +business. The first transatlantic cables, after all, were constructed by +private investors who, like FLAG's investors, just went out and built +cable because it seemed like a good idea. After FLAG, building new +high-bandwidth, third-generation fiber-optic cable is going to seem like +a good idea to a lot of other investors. And unlike the ones who built +FLAG, they will have the benefit of knowing about the Internet, and +perhaps of understanding, at some level, that they are not merely +stringing fancy telephone lines but laying down new traces on the +circuit board of The Computer. That understanding may lead them to +create vast amounts of bandwidth that would blow the minds of the +entrenched telecrats and to adopt business models designed around +packet-switching instead of the circuits that the telecrats are stuck +on. + +If the network is The Computer, then its motherboard is the crust of +Planet Earth. This may be the single biggest drag on the growth of The +Computer, because Mother Earth was not designed to be a motherboard. +There is too much water and not enough dirt. Water favors a few +companies that know how to lay cable and have the ships to do it. Those +companies are about to make a whole lot of money. + +Eventually, though, new ships will be built. The art of slack control +will become common knowledge - after all, it comes down to a numerical +simulation problem, which should not be a big chore for the +ever-expanding Computer. The floors of the oceans will be surveyed and +sidescanned down to every last sand ripple and anchor scar. The physical +challenges, in other words, will only get easier. + +The one challenge that will then stand in the way of The Computer will +be the cultural barriers that have always hindered cooperation between +different peoples. As the globe-trotting cable layers in Papa Doc's +demonstrate, there will always be a niche for people who have gone out +and traveled the world and learned a thing or two about its ways. + +Hackers with ambitions of getting involved in the future expansion of +The Computer could do a lot worse than to power down their PCs, buy GPS +receivers, place calls to their favorite travel agents, and devote some +time to the pursuit of hacker tourism. + +The motherboard awaits. diff --git a/_stories/1996/5261676.md b/_stories/1996/5261676.md index 00e5be4..c28d7ce 100644 --- a/_stories/1996/5261676.md +++ b/_stories/1996/5261676.md @@ -19,77 +19,23 @@ _tags: objectID: '5261676' --- -[Source](http://www.nytimes.com/1996/07/14/magazine/the-net-is-a-waste-of-time.html "Permalink to The Net Is a Waste of Time - The New York Times") +In the age of wooden television in the South where I grew up, leisure +involved sitting on screened porches, smoking cigarettes, drinking iced +tea, engaging in conversation and staring into space. It might also +involve fishing. -# The Net Is a Waste of Time - The New York Times - -__NYTimes.com no longer supports Internet Explorer 9 or earlier. Please upgrade your browser. [LEARN MORE »][1] - -__Sections __ Home __Search [Skip to content][2] [Skip to navigation][3] [View mobile version][4] - -## [ The New York Times ][5] - -###### [Magazine][6]|The Net Is a Waste of Time - -__Search - -Subscribe Now Log In __0 __Settings - -__Close search - -## Site Search Navigation - -Search NYTimes.com - -__Clear this text input - -Go - -## Site Navigation - -## Site Mobile Navigation - -Advertisement - -Supported by - -### [Magazine][6] - -# The Net Is a Waste of Time - -By WILLIAM GIBSONJULY 14, 1996 - -[Continue reading the main story][7] Share This Page - -[Continue reading the main story][7] - -I COINED THE WORD "CYBERSPACE" IN 1981 IN ONE OF MY first science fiction stories and subsequently used it to describe something that people insist on seeing as a sort of literary forerunner of the Internet. This being so, some think it remarkable that I do not use E-mail. In all truth, I have avoided it because I am lazy and enjoy staring blankly into space (which is also the space where novels come from) and because unanswered mail, E- or otherwise, is a source of discomfort. - -But I have recently become an avid browser of the World Wide Web. Some people find this odd. My wife finds it positively perverse. I, however, scent big changes afoot, possibilities that were never quite as manifest in earlier incarnations of the Net. - -I was born in 1948. I can't recall a world before television, but I know I must have experienced one. I do, dimly, recall the arrival of a piece of brown wooden furniture with sturdy Bakelite knobs and a screen no larger than the screen on this Powerbook. - -Initially there was nothing on it but "snow," and then the nightly advent of a targetlike device called "the test pattern," which people actually gathered to watch. - -Advertisement - -[Continue reading the main story][7] - -Today I think about the test pattern as I surf the Web. I imagine that the World Wide Web and its modest wonders are no more than the test pattern for whatever the 21st century will regard as its equivalent medium. Not that I can even remotely imagine what that medium might actually be. - -[Continue reading the main story][8] - -Advertisement - -[Continue reading the main story][9] - -In the age of wooden television in the South where I grew up, leisure involved sitting on screened porches, smoking cigarettes, drinking iced tea, engaging in conversation and staring into space. It might also involve fishing. - -Sometimes the Web does remind me of fishing. It never reminds me of conversation, although it can feel a lot like staring into space. "Surfing the Web" (as dubious a metaphor as "the information highway") is, as a friend of mind has it, "like reading magazines with the pages stuck together." My wife shakes her head in dismay as I patiently await the downloading of some Japanese Beatles fan's personal catalogue of bootlegs. "But it's from Japan!" She isn't moved. She goes out to enjoy the flowers in her garden. +Sometimes the Web does remind me of fishing. It never reminds me of +conversation, although it can feel a lot like staring into space. +"Surfing the Web" (as dubious a metaphor as "the information highway") +is, as a friend of mind has it, "like reading magazines with the pages +stuck together." My wife shakes her head in dismay as I patiently await +the downloading of some Japanese Beatles fan's personal catalogue of +bootlegs. "But it's from Japan\!" She isn't moved. She goes out to enjoy +the flowers in her garden. ## Newsletter Sign Up -[Continue reading the main story][10] +[Continue reading the main story](#continues-post-newsletter) ### @@ -99,255 +45,77 @@ Invalid email address. Please re-enter. You must select a newsletter to subscribe to. -Sign Up - -You agree to receive occasional updates and special offers for The New York Times's products and services. +You agree to receive occasional updates and special offers for The New +York Times's products and services. ### Thank you for subscribing. ### An error has occurred. Please try again later. -### You are already subscribed to this email. +[View all New York Times newsletters.](/newsletters) -[View all New York Times newsletters.][11] +I stay in. Hooked. Is this leisure -- this browsing, randomly linking my +way through these small patches of virtual real-estate -- or do I +somehow imagine that I am performing some more dynamic function? The +content of the Web aspires to absolute variety. One might find anything +there. It is like rummaging in the forefront of the collective global +mind. Somewhere, surely, there is a site that contains . . . everything +we have lost? -* [See Sample][12] -* [Manage Email Preferences][13] -* [Not you?][14] -* [Privacy Policy][15] -* Opt out or [contact us][16] anytime +The finest and most secret pleasure afforded new users of the Web rests +in submitting to the search engine of Alta Vista the names of people we +may not have spoken aloud in years. Will she be here? Has he survived +unto this age? (She isn't there. Someone with his name has recently +posted to a news group concerned with gossip about soap stars.) What is +this casting of the nets of identity? Do we engage here in something of +a tragic seriousness? -I stay in. Hooked. Is this leisure -- this browsing, randomly linking my way through these small patches of virtual real-estate -- or do I somehow imagine that I am performing some more dynamic function? The content of the Web aspires to absolute variety. One might find anything there. It is like rummaging in the forefront of the collective global mind. Somewhere, surely, there is a site that contains . . . everything we have lost? +In the age of wooden television, media were there to entertain, to sell +an advertiser's product, perhaps to inform. Watching television, then, +could indeed be considered a leisure activity. In our hypermediated age, +we have come to suspect that watching television constitutes a species +of work. Post-industrial creatures of an information economy, we +increasingly sense that accessing media is what we do. We have become +terminally self-conscious. There is no such thing as simple +entertainment. We watch ourselves watching. We watch ourselves watching +Beavis and Butt-head, who are watching rock videos. Simply to watch, +without the buffer of irony in place, might reveal a fatal naivete. -The finest and most secret pleasure afforded new users of the Web rests in submitting to the search engine of Alta Vista the names of people we may not have spoken aloud in years. Will she be here? Has he survived unto this age? (She isn't there. Someone with his name has recently posted to a news group concerned with gossip about soap stars.) What is this casting of the nets of identity? Do we engage here in something of a tragic seriousness? +But that is our response to aging media like film and television, +survivors from the age of wood. The Web is new, and our response to it +has not yet hardened. That is a large part of its appeal. It is +something half-formed, growing. Larval. It is not what it was six months +ago; in another six months it will be something else again. It was not +planned; it simply happened, is happening. It is happening the way +cities happened. It is a city. -In the age of wooden television, media were there to entertain, to sell an advertiser's product, perhaps to inform. Watching television, then, could indeed be considered a leisure activity. In our hypermediated age, we have come to suspect that watching television constitutes a species of work. Post-industrial creatures of an information economy, we increasingly sense that accessing media is what we do. We have become terminally self-conscious. There is no such thing as simple entertainment. We watch ourselves watching. We watch ourselves watching Beavis and Butt-head, who are watching rock videos. Simply to watch, without the buffer of irony in place, might reveal a fatal naivete. +Toward the end of the age of wooden televisions the futurists of the +Sunday supplements announced the advent of the "leisure society." +Technology would leave us less and less to do in the Marxian sense of +yanking the levers of production. The challenge, then, would be to fill +our days with meaningful, healthful, satisfying activity. As with most +products of an earlier era's futurism, we find it difficult today to +imagine the exact coordinates from which this vision came. In any case, +our world does not offer us a surplus of leisure. The word itself has +grown somehow suspect, as quaint and vaguely melancholy as the battered +leather valise in a Ralph Lauren window display. Only the very old or +the economically disadvantaged (provided they are not chained to the +schedules of their environment's more demanding addictions) have a great +deal of time on their hands. To be successful, apparently, is to be +chronically busy. As new technologies search out and lace over every +interstice in the net of global communication, we find ourselves with +increasingly less excuse for . . . slack. -But that is our response to aging media like film and television, survivors from the age of wood. The Web is new, and our response to it has not yet hardened. That is a large part of its appeal. It is something half-formed, growing. Larval. It is not what it was six months ago; in another six months it will be something else again. It was not planned; it simply happened, is happening. It is happening the way cities happened. It is a city. - -Toward the end of the age of wooden televisions the futurists of the Sunday supplements announced the advent of the "leisure society." Technology would leave us less and less to do in the Marxian sense of yanking the levers of production. The challenge, then, would be to fill our days with meaningful, healthful, satisfying activity. As with most products of an earlier era's futurism, we find it difficult today to imagine the exact coordinates from which this vision came. In any case, our world does not offer us a surplus of leisure. The word itself has grown somehow suspect, as quaint and vaguely melancholy as the battered leather valise in a Ralph Lauren window display. Only the very old or the economically disadvantaged (provided they are not chained to the schedules of their environment's more demanding addictions) have a great deal of time on their hands. To be successful, apparently, is to be chronically busy. As new technologies search out and lace over every interstice in the net of global communication, we find ourselves with increasingly less excuse for . . . slack. - -And that, I would argue, is what the World Wide Web, the test pattern for whatever will become the dominant global medium, offers us. Today, in its clumsy, larval, curiously innocent way, it offers us the opportunity to waste time, to wander aimlessly, to daydream about the countless other lives, the other people, on the far sides of however many monitors in that postgeographical meta-country we increasingly call home. It will probably evolve into something considerably less random, and less fun -- we seem to have a knack for that -- but in the meantime, in its gloriously unsorted Global Ham Television Postcard Universes phase, surfing the Web is a procrastinator's dream. And people who see you doing it might even imagine you're working. - -William Gibson's latest novel - -[Continue reading the main story][17] - -[ - -We’re interested in your feedback on this page. **Tell us what you think.** - -][18] - -## - -* * * * ## What's Next - -Loading... - -[Go to Home Page »][19] - -## Site Index [ The New York Times ][19] - -## Site Index Navigation - -### News - -* [World][20] -* [U.S.][21] -* [Politics][22] -* [N.Y.][23] -* [Business][24] -* [Tech][25] -* [Science][26] -* [Health][27] -* [Sports][28] -* [Education][29] -* [Obituaries][30] -* [Today's Paper][31] -* [Corrections][32] - -### Opinion - -* [Today's Opinion][33] -* [Op-Ed Columnists][34] -* [Editorials][35] -* [Op-Ed Contributors][36] -* [Letters][37] -* [Sunday Review][38] -* [Video: Opinion][39] - -### Arts - -* [Today's Arts][40] -* [Art & Design][41] -* [Books][42] -* [Dance][43] -* [Movies][44] -* [Music][45] -* [N.Y.C. 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https://www.nytimes.com/content/help/rights/privacy/policy/privacy-policy.html#pp -[88]: https://www.nytimes.com/privacy -[89]: https://www.nytimes.com/ref/membercenter/help/agree.html -[90]: https://www.nytimes.com/content/help/rights/sale/terms-of-sale.html -[91]: http://spiderbites.nytimes.com -[92]: https://www.nytimes.com/membercenter/sitehelp.html -[93]: https://myaccount.nytimes.com/membercenter/feedback.html -[94]: https://www.nytimes.com/subscriptions/Multiproduct/lp5558.html?campaignId=37WXW +And that, I would argue, is what the World Wide Web, the test pattern +for whatever will become the dominant global medium, offers us. Today, +in its clumsy, larval, curiously innocent way, it offers us the +opportunity to waste time, to wander aimlessly, to daydream about the +countless other lives, the other people, on the far sides of however +many monitors in that postgeographical meta-country we increasingly call +home. It will probably evolve into something considerably less random, +and less fun -- we seem to have a knack for that -- but in the meantime, +in its gloriously unsorted Global Ham Television Postcard Universes +phase, surfing the Web is a procrastinator's dream. And people who see +you doing it might even imagine you're working. +[Continue reading the main story](#whats-next) diff --git a/_stories/1996/5658681.md b/_stories/1996/5658681.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..22e6efd --- /dev/null +++ b/_stories/1996/5658681.md @@ -0,0 +1,1561 @@ +--- +created_at: '2013-05-05T15:52:08.000Z' +title: 'Hearts, Clubs, Diamonds, Spades: Players Who Suit MUDs (1996)' +url: http://www.mud.co.uk/richard/hcds.htm +author: kens +points: 48 +story_text: '' +comment_text: +num_comments: 39 +story_id: +story_title: +story_url: +parent_id: +created_at_i: 1367769128 +_tags: +- story +- author_kens +- story_5658681 +objectID: '5658681' + +--- +![](russian.gif)A translation of this article into Russian is available +[here](http://dtf.ru/articles/read.php?id=44593). ![](chinese.gif)A +translation of this article into Chinese is available +[here](http://www.joynb.net/resource/hcdsc.htm). + +# HEARTS, CLUBS, DIAMONDS, SPADES: PLAYERS WHO SUIT MUDS + + +Richard Bartle[\[1\]](#1) +MUSE Ltd, Colchester, Essex. +United Kingdom. + + +# ABSTRACT + +Four approaches to playing MUDs are identified and described. These +approaches may arise from the inter-relationship of two dimensions of +playing style: action versus interaction, and world-oriented versus +player-oriented. An account of the dynamics of player populations is +given in terms of these dimensions, with particular attention to how to +promote balance or equilibrium. This analysis also offers an explanation +for the labelling of MUDs as being either "social" or "gamelike". + +# PREFACE + +Most MUDs can trace their lineage directly back to Trubshaw's 1978 game +([Bartle, 1990b](#Bartle,%201990b); [Burka, 1995](#Burka,%201995)) and, +perhaps because of this heritage, the vast majority are regarded as +"games" by their "players". For the convenience of its readers, this +paper continues to view MUDs in this tradition; however, it should be +noted that MUDs can be of considerable value in non-game (ie. "serious") +applications ([Bruckman, 1994a](#Bruckman,%201994a); [Kort, +1991](#Kort,%201991); [Bruckman & Resnick, +1993](#Bruckman%20&%20Resnick,%201993); [Curtis & Nichols, +1993](#Curtis%20&%20Nichols,%201993); [Evard, 1993](#Evard,%201993); +[Fanderclai, 1995](#Fanderclai,%201995); [Riner & Clodius, +1995](#Riner%20&%20Clodius,%201995); [Moock, 1996](#Moock,%201996)). +Indeed, the thrust of this paper emphasises those factors which should +be borne in mind when attempting to create a stable MUD in general, +whatever the application; it is only the terminology which is that of +"fun" MUDs, not the subject matter. In any case, even those MUDs which +are built, from the ground up, to be absolutely straight are still +treated by users as if they were games in some respects, eg. by choosing +whimsical names rather than using their real ones ([Roush, +1993](#Roush,%201993)). + +It is worthwhile considering for a moment whether MUDs (as they are +generally played) really are games, or whether they're something else. +People have many recreational activities available to them, and perhaps +MUDs fit some other category better? Looking up the word "game" in a +dictionary of synonyms ([Urdang & Manser, +1980](#Urdang%20&%20Manser,%201980)) elicits three related nouns: +"pastime", "sport" and "entertainment" (a fourth, "amusement", is the +general class of which the others are all examples). So it might be +useful to ask: + +Are MUDs + + - games? Like chess, tennis, AD\&D? + - pastimes? Like reading, gardening, cooking? + - sports? Like huntin', shootin', fishin'? + - entertainments? Like nightclubs, TV, concerts? + +Or are they a combination of all four? Perhaps individual players even +see the same MUD differently from each another? + +These questions will be returned to at the end of this paper, along with +some proposed answers. + +# A SIMPLE TAXONOMY + +This work grew out of a long, heated discussion which ran from November +1989 to May 1990 between the wizzes (ie. highly experienced players, of +rank wizard or witch) on one particular commercial MUD in the UK +([Bartle, 1985](#Bartle,%201985)). The debate was sparked by the +question "What do people want out of a MUD?", and comprised several +hundred bulletin-board postings, some of considerable length, typically +concerning what the players liked, what they didn't like, why they +played, and changes they would like to see to "improve" the game. Some +15 individuals took a major part, with perhaps another 15 adding their +comments from time to time; this comprised almost the entire set of +active wizzes during that period. Although at times the debate became +quite intense, never did it lapse into the flaming which typically ends +most open-ended, multi-speaker, online discussions. + +The fact that the people contributing to this argument were the most +advanced players in a MUD which allowed player-killing might, on the +face of it, be taken as evidence that they would probably prefer more +"gamelike" aspects over "social" ones. However, this was not the case: +the MUD in question had players of all types in it, even at wiz level. +(Later in this paper, an analysis is given as to how such a MUD can come +to be). + +When the participants had finally run out of new things to say, it +became time for me (as senior administrator) to summarise. Abstracting +the various points that had been raised, a pattern emerged; people +habitually found the same kinds of thing about the game "fun", but there +were several (four, in fact) sub-groupings into which opinion divided. +Most players leaned at least a little to all four, but each tended to +have some particular overall preference. The summary was generally well +received by those who had participated in the debate. + +Note that although this MUD was one in which player-killing was allowed, +the taxonomy which is about to be described does (as will be explained +later) apply equally to "social" MUDs. The advice concerning changes +which can be made to affect the player make-up of a MUD is, however, +less useful to social MUDs, or to ones with a heavy role-playing +component. Also, the original discussion concerned only +non-administrative aspects of MUDding; people who might play MUDs to +learn object-oriented programming, for example, are therefore not +addressed by this paper. + +The four things that people typically enjoyed personally about MUDs +were: + +i) Achievement within the game context. + +Players give themselves game-related goals, and vigorously set out to +achieve them. This usually means accumulating and disposing of large +quantities of high-value treasure, or cutting a swathe through hordes of +mobiles (ie. monsters built in to the virtual world). + +ii) Exploration of the game. + +Players try to find out as much as they can about the virtual world. +Although initially this means mapping its topology (ie. exploring the +MUD's breadth), later it advances to experimentation with its physics +(ie. exploring the MUD's depth). + +iii) Socialising with others. + +Players use the game's communicative facilities, and apply the +role-playing that these engender, as a context in which to converse (and +otherwise interact) with their fellow players. + +iv) Imposition upon others. + +Players use the tools provided by the game to cause distress to (or, in +rare circumstances, to help) other players. Where permitted, this +usually involves acquiring some weapon and applying it enthusiastically +to the persona of another player in the game world. + +So, labelling the four player types abstracted, we get: achievers, +explorers, socialisers and killers. An easy way to remember these is to +consider suits in a conventional pack of cards: achievers are Diamonds +(they're always seeking treasure); explorers are Spades (they dig around +for information); socialisers are Hearts (they empathise with other +players); killers are Clubs (they hit people with them). + +Naturally, these areas cross over, and players will often drift between +all four, depending on their mood or current playing style. However, my +experience having observed players in the light of this research +suggests that many (if not most) players do have a primary style, and +will only switch to other styles as a (deliberate or subconscious) means +to advance their main interest. + +Looking at each player type in more detail, then: + +i) Achievers regard points-gathering and rising in levels as their main +goal, and all is ultimately subserviant to this. Exploration is +necessary only to find new sources of treasure, or improved ways of +wringing points from it. Socialising is a relaxing method of discovering +what other players know about the business of accumulating points, that +their knowledge can be applied to the task of gaining riches. Killing is +only necessary to eliminate rivals or people who get in the way, or to +gain vast amounts of points (if points are awarded for killing other +players). + +Achievers say things like: + +``` + "I'm busy." + "Sure, I'll help you. What do I get?" + "So how do YOU kill the dragon, then?" + "Only 4211 points to go!" +``` + +ii) Explorers delight in having the game expose its internal +machinations to them. They try progressively esoteric actions in wild, +out-of-the-way places, looking for interesting features (ie. bugs) and +figuring out how things work. Scoring points may be necessary to enter +some next phase of exploration, but it's tedious, and anyone with half a +brain can do it. Killing is quicker, and might be a constructive +exercise in its own right, but it causes too much hassle in the long run +if the deceased return to seek retribution. Socialising can be +informative as a source of new ideas to try out, but most of what people +say is irrelevant or old hat. The real fun comes only from discovery, +and making the most complete set of maps in existence. + +Explorers say things like: + +``` + "Hmm..." + "You mean you don't know the shortest route from to ?" + "I haven't tried that one, what's it do?" + "Why is it that if you carry the uranium you get radiation + sickness, and if you put it in a bag you still get it, but if + you put it in a bag and drop it then wait 20 seconds and pick it + up again, you don't?" +``` + +iii) Socialisers are interested in people, and what they have to say. +The game is merely a backdrop, a common ground where things happen to +players. Inter-player relationships are important: empathising with +people, sympathising, joking, entertaining, listening; even merely +observing people play can be rewarding - seeing them grow as +individuals, maturing over time. Some exploration may be necessary so as +to understand what everyone else is talking about, and points-scoring +could be required to gain access to neat communicative spells available +only to higher levels (as well as to obtain a certain status in the +community). Killing, however, is something only ever to be excused if +it's a futile, impulsive act of revenge, perpetrated upon someone who +has caused intolerable pain to a dear friend. The only ultimately +fulfilling thing is not how to rise levels or kill hapless drips; it's +getting to know people, to undertand them, and to form beautiful, +lasting relationships. + +Socialisers say things like: + +``` + "Hi!" + "Yeah, well, I'm having trouble with my boyfriend." + "What happened? I missed it, I was talking." + "Really? Oh no! Gee, that's terrible! Are you sure? Awful, just + awful!" +``` + +iv) Killers get their kicks from imposing themselves on others. This may +be "nice", ie. busybody do-gooding, but few people practice such an +approach because the rewards (a warm, cosy inner glow, apparently) +aren't very substantial. Much more commonly, people attack other players +with a view to killing off their personae (hence the name for this style +of play). The more massive the distress caused, the greater the killer's +joy at having caused it. Normal points-scoring is usually required so as +to become powerful enough to begin causing havoc in earnest, and +exploration of a kind is necessary to discover new and ingenious ways to +kill people. Even socialising is sometimes worthwhile beyond taunting a +recent victim, for example in finding out someone's playing habits, or +discussing tactics with fellow killers. They're all just means to an +end, though; only in the knowledge that a real person, somewhere, is +very upset by what you've just done, yet can themselves do nothing about +it, is there any true adrenalin-shooting, juicy fun. + +Killers says things like: + +``` + "Ha!" + "Coward!" + "Die!" + "Die! Die! Die!" +``` + +(Killers are people of few words). + +How many players typically fall within each area depends on the MUD. If, +however, too many gravitate to one particular style, the effect can be +to cause players of other persuasions to leave, which in turn may feed +back and reduce the numbers in the first category. For example, too many +killers will drive away the achievers who form their main prey; this in +turn will mean that killers will stop playing, as they'll have no +worthwhile victims (players considered by killers to be explorers +generally don't care about death, and players considered to be +socialisers are too easy to pose much of a challenge). These direct +relationships are discussed in more detail towards the end of this +paper. + +For the most part, though, the inter-relationships between the various +playing styles are more subtle: a sharp reduction in the number of +explorers for whatever reason could mean a gradual reduction in +achievers, who get bored if they're not occasionally told of different +hoops they can jump through for points; this could affect the number of +socialisers (the fewer players there are, the less there is to talk +about), and it would certainly lower the killer population (due to a +general lack of suitable victims). + +Making sure that a game doesn't veer off in the wrong direction and lose +players can be difficult; administrators need to maintain a balanced +relationship between the different types of player, so as to guarantee +their MUD's "feel". Note that I am not advocating any particular form of +equalibrium: it is up to the game administrators themseles to decide +what atmosphere they want their MUD to have, and thus define the point +at which it is "balanced" (although the effort required to maintain this +desired state could be substantial). Later, this paper considers means +by which a MUD can be pushed in different directions, either to restore +an earlier balance between the player types, to define a new target set +of relationships between the player types, or to cause the interplay +between the player types to break down entirely. However, first a means +is required of formally linking the four principal playing styles into +aspects of a unified whole; this helps account for different degrees of +adherence to particular styles, and aids visualisation of what "altering +the balance" of a MUD might actually mean. + +# INTEREST GRAPH + +Consider the following abstract graph: + +``` + ACTING + Killers | Achievers + | + | + | + | + | + PLAYERS -------------------+------------------- WORLD + | + | + | + | + | + Socialisers | Explorers + INTERACTING +``` + +The axes of the graph represent the source of players' interest in a +MUD. The x-axis goes from an emphasis on players (left) to an emphasis +on the environment (right); the y-axis goes from acting with (bottom) to +acting on (top). The four extreme corners of the graph show the four +typical playing preferences associated with each quadrant. To see how +the graph works, it is appropriate to consider each of the four styles +in detail: + +i) Achievers are interested in doing things to the game, ie. in ACTING +on the WORLD. It's the fact that the game environment is a fully-fledged +world in which they can immerse themselves that they find compelling; +its being shared with other people merely adds a little authenticity, +and perhaps a competitive element. The point of playing is to master the +game, and make it do what you want it to do; there's nothing +intrinsically worthwhile in rooting out irrelevant details that will +never be of use, or in idling away your life with gossip. + +Achievers are proud of their formal status in the game's built-in level +hierarchy, and of how short a time they took to reach it. + +ii) Explorers are interested in having the game surprise them, ie. in +INTERACTING with the WORLD. It's the sense of wonder which the virtual +world imbues that they crave for; other players add depth to the game, +but they aren't essential components of it, except perhaps as sources of +new areas to visit. Scoring points all the time is a worthless +occupation, because it defies the very open-endedness that makes a world +live and breathe. Most accomplished explorers could easily rack up +sufficient points to reach the top, but such one-dimensional behaviour +is the sign of a limited intellect. + +Explorers are proud of their knowledge of the game's finer points, +especially if new players treat them as founts of all knowledge. + +iii) Socialisers are interested in INTERACTING with other PLAYERS. This +usually means talking, but it can extend to more exotic behaviour. +Finding out about people and getting to know them is far more worthy +than treating them as fodder to be bossed around. The game world is just +a setting; it's the characters that make it so compelling. + +Socialisers are proud of their friendships, their contacts and their +influence. + +iv) Killers are interested in doing things to people, ie. in ACTING on +other PLAYERS. Normally, this is not with the consent of these "other +players" (even if, objectively, the interference in their play might +appear "helpful"), but killers don't care; they wish only to demonstrate +their superiority over fellow humans, preferably in a world which serves +to legitimise actions that could mean imprisonment in real life. +Accumulated knowledge is useless unless it can be applied; even when it +is applied, there's no fun unless it can affect a real person instead of +an emotionless, computerised entity. + +Killers are proud of their reputation and of their oft-practiced +fighting skills. + +The "interest graph" is a representational structure which can chart +what players find of interest in a MUD. The axes can be assigned a +relative scale reflecting the ratio of an individual's interest between +the two extremes that it admits. Thus, for example, someone who thinks +that the people who are in the world are maybe twice as important as the +the world itself would lie on a vertical line intersecting the x-axis at +a point 1/6 of the distance from the origin to the left edge; if they +had little interest in bending the game to their will, preferring their +actions to have some give and take, then they would also lie on a +horizontal line at the bottom of the y-axis. The interesection of the +two lines would put them in the socialiser quadrant, with leanings to +explorer. + +It is, of course, possible to analyse the behaviour of individual +players quantitatively by processing transcripts of their games. +Unfortunately, this is very difficult to do except for very limited +domains (eg. forms of communication ([Cherny, 1995a](#Cherny,%201995a); +[Cherny, 1995b](#Cherny,%201995b))). An alternative approach might +simply be to ask the players what they themselves like about a +particular MUD: even a short questionnaire, completed anonymously, can +give a fair indication of what players find enjoyable ([Emert, +1993](#Emert,%201993)). Such information can then be used to determine +the make-up of the MUD's player base, so that in times of falling player +numbers the current composition could be compared against some earlier +ideal, and remedial action taken to redress the imbalance. This "ideal" +configuration would, however, be specific to that particular MUD, and +its precise form is therefore not addressed here. Instead, the more +general issue of how to alter the balance between player types is +considered, along with the gross effects that can be expected to follow +from having done so. + +# CHANGING THE PLAYER TYPE BALANCE + +A stable MUD is one in which the four principal styles of player are in +equilibrium. This doesn't imply that there are the same number of +players exhibiting each style; rather, it means that over time the +proportion of players for each style remains roughly constant, so that +the balance between the the various types remains the same. Other +factors are important, to do with the rate at which new players arrive +and overall player numbers, but their consideration is not within the +brief of this paper; the interaction between players of different types +is within its brief, however, and is discussed in some detail later. + +The actual point of balance (ie. whereabouts in the interest graph the +centre of gravity of the individual players' points lies) can vary quite +enormously; it is up to individual administrators to determine where +they want it to lie, and to make any programming or design changes +necessary to ensure that this is where it actually does. What kind of +strategies, though, can be employed to achieve this task? + +In order to answer this question, consider the interest graph. If it is +regarded as a plane in equilibrium, it can be tilted in a number of ways +to favour different areas. Usually, this will be at the expense of some +other (opposite) area, but not necessarily. Although tilting can in +theory occur along any line in the plane, it makes sense (at least +initially) to look at what happens when the tilt lines coincide with the +x and y axes if the graph. + +What follows, then, is a brief examination of means by which a MUD can +be adjusted so as to favour the various extremes of the interest graph, +and what would happen if each approach were taken to the limit: + +## PLAYERS + +Putting the emphasis on players rather than the game is easy - you just +provide the system with lots of communication commands and precious +little else. The more the scales are tipped towards players, though, the +less of a MUD you have and the more of a CB-style chatline. Beyond a +certain point, the game can't provide a context for communication, and +it ceases to be a viable virtual world: it's just a comms channel for +the real world. At this stage, when all sense of elsewhere-presence is +lost, you no longer have a MUD. + +## WORLD + +Tilting the game towards the world rather than its inhabitants is also +easy: you simply make it so big and awkward to traverse that no-one ever +meets anyone in it; alternatively, you can ensure that if they do meet +up, then there are very few ways in which they an interact. Although +this can result in some nice simulations, there's a loss of motivation +implicit within it: anyone can rack up points given time, but there's +not the same sense of achievement as when it's done under pressure from +competing players. And what use is creating beautifully-crafted areas +anyway, if you can't show them to people? Perhaps if computer-run +personae had more AI a MUD could go further in this direction ([Mauldin, +1994](#Mauldin,%201994)), but it couldn't (yet) go all the way (as +authors of single-player games have found ([Caspian-Kaufman, +1995](#Caspian-Kaufman,%201995))). Sometimes, you just do want to tell +people real-world things - you have a new baby, or a new job, or your +cat has died. If there's no-one to tell, or no way to tell them, you +don't have a MUD. + +## INTERACTING + +Putting the emphasis on interaction rather than action can also go a +long way. Restricting the freedom of players to choose different courses +of action is the mechanism for implementing it, so they can only follow +a narrow or predetermined development path. Essentially, it's +MUD-as-theatre: you sit there being entertained, but not actually +participating much. You may feel like you're in a world, but it's one in +which you're paralysed. If the bias is only slight, it can make a MUD +more "nannyish", which newcomers seem to enjoy, but pushing it all the +way turns it into a radio set. Knowledge may be intrinsically +interesting (ie. trivia), but it's meaningless unless it can be applied. +If players can't play, it's not a MUD. + +## ACTING + +If the graph is redrawn to favour doing-to over doing-with, the game +quickly becomes boring. Tasks are executed repeatedly, by rote. There's +always monotony, never anything new, or, if these is something new, it's +of the "man versus random number generator" variety. People do need to +be able to put into practice what they've learned, but they also need to +be able to learn it in the first place\! Unless the one leads to the +other, it's only a matter of time before patience is exhausted and the +players give up. Without depth, you have no MUD. + +From the above list of ways to tilt the interest graph, a set of +strategems can be composed to help MUD administrators shift the focus of +their games in whatever particular direction they choose. Some of these +strategems are simply a question of management: if you don't tell people +what communication commands there are, for example, people will be less +likely to use them all. Although such approaches are good for small +shifts in the way a MUD is played, the more powerful and absolute method +is to consider programming changes (programming being the "nature" of a +MUD, and administration being the "nurture"). + +Here, then, are the programming changes which administrators might wish +to consider in order to shape their MUD: + +Ways to emphasise PLAYERS over WORLD: + + - add more communication facilities + - add more player-on-player commands (eg. transitive ones like TICKLE + or CONGRATULATE, or commands to form and maintain closed groups of + personae) + - make communication facilities easy and intuitive + - decrease the size of the world + - increase the connectivity between rooms + - maximise the number of simultaneous players + - restrict building privileges to a select few + - cut down on the number of mobiles + +Ways to emphasise WORLD over PLAYERS: + + - have only basic communication facilities + - have few ways that players can do things to other players + - make building facilities easy and intuitive + - maximise the size of the world (ie. add breadth) + - use only "rational" room connections in most cases + - grant building privileges to many + - have lots of mobiles + +Ways to emphasise INTERACTING over ACTING: + + - make help facilities produce vague information + - produce cryptic hints when players appear stuck + - maximise the effects of commands (ie. add depth) + - lower the rewards for achievement + - have only a shallow level/class system + - produce amusing responses for amusing commands + - edit all room descriptions for consistent atmosphere + - limit the number of commands available in any one area + - have lots of small puzzles that can be solved easily + - allow builders to add completely new commands + +Ways to emphasise ACTING over INTERACTING: + + - provide a game manual + - include auto-map facilities + - include auto-log facilities + - raise the rewards for achievement + - have an extensive level/class system + - make commands be applicable wherever they might reasonably have + meaning + - have large puzzles, that take over an hour to complete + - have many commands relating to fights + - only allow building by top-quality builders + +These strategies can be combined to encourage or discourage different +styles of play. To appeal to achievers, for example, one approach might +be to introduce an extensive level/class system (so as to provide plenty +of opportunity to reward investment of time) and to maximise the size of +the world (so there is more for them to achieve). Note that the "feel" +of a MUD is derived from the position on the interest graph of the MUD's +players, from which a "centre of gravity" can be approximated. It is +therefore sometimes possible to make two changes simultaneously which +have "opposite" effects, altering how some individuals experience the +MUD but not changing how the MUD feels overall. For example, adding +large puzzles (to emphasise ACTING) and adding small puzzles (to +emphasise INTERACTING) would encourage both pro-ACTING and +pro-INTERACTING players, thereby keeping the MUD's centre of gravity in +the same place while tending to increase total player numbers. In +general, though, these strategems should not be used as a means to +attract new players; strategems should only be selected from one set per +axis. + +The effects of the presence (or lack of it) of other types of player are +also very important, and can be used as a different way to control +relative population sizes. The easiest (but, sadly, most tedious) way to +discuss the interactions which pertain between the various player types +is to enumerate the possible combinations and consider them +independently; this is the approach adopted by this paper. + +First, however, it is pertinent to discuss the ways that players +generally categorise MUDs today. + +# THE SOCIAL VERSUS GAMELIKE DEBATE + +Following the introduction of TinyMUD ([Aspnes, 1989](#Aspnes,%201989)), +in which combat wasn't even implemented, players now tend to categorise +individual MUDs as either "social" or "gamelike" ([Carton, +1995](#Carton,%201995)). In terms of the preceding discussion, "social" +means that the games are heavily weighted to the area below the x-axis, +but whether "gamelike" means the games are weighted heavily above the +x-axis, or merely balanced on it, is a moot point. Players of social +MUDs might suggest that "gamelike" means a definite bias on and above +the x-axis, because from their perspective any explicit element of +competitiveness is "too much". Some (but not most) players of gamelike +MUDs could disagree, pointing out that their MUDs enjoy rich social +interactions between the players despite the fact that combat is +allowed. + +So strongly is this distinction felt, particularly among social MUDders, +that many of their newer participants don't regard themselves as playing +"MUDs" at all, insisting that this term refers only to combat-oriented +games, with which they don't wish to be associated. The rule-of-thumb +applied is server type, so, for example, LPMUD =\> gamelike, MOO =\> +social; this is despite the fact that each of these systems is of +sufficient power and flexibility that it could probably be used to +implement an interpreter for the other one\! + +Consequently, there are general Internet-related books with chapter +titles like "Interactive Multiuser Realities: MUDs, MOOs, MUCKs and +MUSHes" ([Poirier, 1994](#Poirier,%201994)) and "MUDs, MUSHes, and Other +Role-Playing Games" ([Eddy, 1994](#Eddy,%201994)). This fertile ground +is where the term "MU\*" ([Norrish, 1995](#Norrish,%201995)) originates +- as an attempt to fill the void left by assigning the word "MUD" to +gamelike (or "player-killing") MUDs; its deliberate use can therefore +reasonably be described as a political act ([Bruckman, +1992](#Bruckman,%201992)). + +This attitude misses the point, however. Although social MUDs may be a +major branch on the MUD family tree, they are, nevertheless, still on +it, and are therefore still MUDs. If another overarching term is used, +then it will only be a matter of time before someone writes a +combat-oriented surver called "KillerMU\*" or whatever, and cause the +wound to reopen. Denial of history is not, in general, a wise thing to +do. + +Besides, social MUDs do have their killers (ie. people who fall into +that area of the interest graph). Simply because explicit combat is +prohibited, there is nevertheless plenty of opportunity to cause +distress in other ways. To list a few: virtual rape ([Dibbell, +1993](#Dibbell,%201993); [Reid, 1994](#Reid,%201994)); general sexual +harrassment ([Rosenberg, 1992](#Rosenberg,%201992)); deliberate +fracturing of the community ([Whitlock, 1994](#Whitlock,%201994)a); +vexatious litigancy ([Whitlock, 1994](#Whitlock,%201994)b). Indeed, +proper management of a MUD insists that contingency plans and procedures +are already in place such that antisocial behaviour can be dealt with +promptly when it occurs ([Bruckman, 1994b](#Bruckman,%201994b)). + +Social MUDs do have their achievers, too: people who regard building as +a competitive act, and can vie to have the "best" rooms in the MUD +([Clodius, 1994](#Clodius,%201994)), or who seek to acquire a large +quota for creating ever-more objects (Farmer, Morningstar & Crockford, +1994). The fact that a MUD might not itself reward such behaviour +should, of course, naturally foster a community of players who are +primarily interested in talking and listening, but there nevertheless +will still be killers and achievers around - in the same way that there +will be socialisers and explorers in even the most bloodthirsty of MUDs. + +Researchers have tended to use a more precise distinction than the +players, in terms of a MUD's similarity to (single-user) adventure +games. Amy Bruckman's observation that: + +``` + "there are two basic types [of MUD]: those which are like + adventure games, and those which are not" + (Bruckman, 1992) +``` + +is the most succinct and unarguable expression of this dichotomy. +However, in his influential paper on MUDs, Pavel Curtis states: + +``` + "Three major factors distinguish a MUD from an Adventure- + style computer game, though: + o A MUD is not goal-oriented; it has no beginning or + end, no 'score', and no notion of 'winning' or 'success'. + In short, even though users of MUDs are commonly called + players, a MUD isn't really a game at all. + o A MUD is extensible from within; a user can add new objects + to the database such as rooms, exits, 'things', and notes. + [...] + o A MUD generally has more than one user connected at a time. + All of the connected users are browsing and manipulating + the same database and can encounter the new objects created + by others. The multiple users on a MUD can communicate with + each other in real time." + (Curtis, 1992) +``` + +This definition explicitly rules out MUDs as adventure games - indeed, +it claims that they are not games at all. This is perhaps too tight a +definition, since the very first MUD was most definitely programmed to +be a game (I know, because I programmed it to be one\!). The second +point, which states that MUDs must involve building, is also untrue of +many MUDs; in particular, commercial MUDs often aim for a high level of +narrative consistency (which isn't conducive to letting players add +things unchecked), and, if they have a graphical front-end, it is also +inconvenient if new objects appear that generate no images. However, the +fact that Curtis comes down on the side of "social" MUDs to bear the +name "MUD" at least recognises that these programs are MUDs, which is +more than many "MU\*" advocates are prepared to admit. + +This issue of "social or gamelike" will be returned to presently, with +an explanation of exactly why players of certain MUDs which are dubbed +"gamelike" might find a binary distinction counter-intuitive. + +# PLAYER INTERACTIONS + +What follows is a brief explanation of how players predominantly of one +type view those other players whom they perceive to be predominantly of +one type. Warning: these notes concern stereotypical players, and are +not to be assumed to be true of any individual player who might +otherwise exhibit the common traits of one or more of the player +classes. + +The effects of increasing and decreasing the various populations is also +discussed, but this does not take into account physical limitations on +the amount of players involved. Thus, for example, if the number of +socialisers is stated to have "no effect" on the number of achievers, +that disregards the fact that there may be an absolute maximum number of +players that the MUD can comfortably hold, and the socialisers may be +taking up slots which achievers could otherwise have filled. Also, the +knock-on effects of other interactions are not discussed at this stage: +a game with fewer socialisers means the killers will seek out more +achievers, for example, so there is a secondary effect of having fewer +achievers even though there is no primary effect. This propogation of +influences is, however, examined in detail afterwards, when the +first-level dynamics have been laid bare. + +## ACHIEVERS V. ACHIEVERS + +Achievers regard other achievers as competition to be beaten (although +this is typically friendly in nature, rather than cut-throat). Respect +is given to those other achievers who obviously are extraordinarily +good, but typically achievers will cite bad luck or lack of time as +reasons for not being as far advanced in the game as their +contemporaries. + +That said, achievers do often co-operate with one another, usually to +perform some difficult collective goal, and from these shared +experiences can grow deep, enduring friendships which may surpass in +intensity those commonly found among individuals other groups. This is +perhaps analagous to the difference between the bond that soldiers under +fire share and the bond that friends in a bar share. + +Achievers do not need the presence of any other type of player in order +to be encouraged to join a MUD: they would be quite happy if the game +were empty but for them, assuming it remained a challenge (although some +do feel a need to describe their exploits to anyone who will listen). +Because of this, a MUD can't have too many achievers, physical +limitations excepted. + +## ACHIEVERS V. EXPLORERS + +Achievers tend to regard explorers as losers: people who have had to +resort to tinkering with the game mechanics because they can't cut it as +a player. Exceptionally good explorers may be elevated to the level of +eccentric, in much the same way that certain individuals come to be +regarded as gurus by users of large computer installations: what they do +is pointless, but they're useful to have around when you need to know +something obscure, fast. They can be irritating, and they rarely tell +the whole truth (perhaps because they don't know it?), but they do have +a place in the world. + +The overall number of explorers has only a marginal effect on the +population of achievers. In essence, more explorers will mean that fewer +of the really powerful objects will be around around for the achievers +to use, the explorers having used their arcane skills to obtain them +first so as to use them in their diabolical experiments... This can +cause achievers to become frustrated, and leave. More importantly, +perhaps, the number of explorers affects the rate of advancement of +achievers, because it determines whether or not they have to work out +all those tiresome puzzles themselves. Thus, more explorers will lead to +a quicker rise through the ranks for achievers, which will tend to +encourage them (if not overdone). + +## ACHIEVERS V. SOCIALISERS + +Achievers merely tolerate socialisers. Although they are good sources of +general hearsay on the comings and goings of competitors, they're +nevertheless pretty much a waste of space as far as achievers are +concerned. Typically, achievers will regard socialisers with a mixture +of contempt, disdain, irritation and pity, and will speak to them in +either a sharp or patronising manner. Occasionally, flame wars between +different cliques of socialisers and achievers may break out, and these +can be among the worst to stop: the achievers don't want to lose the +argument, and the socialisers don't want to stop talking\! + +Changing the number of socialisers in a MUD has no effect on the number +of achievers. + +## ACHIEVERS V. KILLERS + +Achievers don't particularly like killers. They realise that killers as +a concept are necessary in order to make achievement meaningful and +worthwhile (there being no way to "lose" the game if any fool can "win" +just by plodding slowly unchallenged), however they don't pesonally like +being attacked unless it's obvious from the outset that they'll win. +They also object to being interrupted in the middle of some grand scheme +to accumulate points, and they don't like having to arm themselves +against surprise attacks every time they start to play. Achievers will, +occasionally, resort to killing tactics themselves, in order to cause +trouble for a rival or to reap whatever rewards the game itself offers +for success, however the risks are usually too high for them to pursue +such options very often. + +Increasing the number of killers will reduce the number of achievers; +reducing the killer population will increase the achiever population. +Note, however, that those general MUDs which nevertheless allow +player-killing tend to do so in the belief that in small measure it is +good for the game: it promotes cameraderie, excitement and intensity of +experience (and it's the only method that players will accept to ensure +that complete idiots don't plod inexorably through the ranks to acquire +a degree of power which they aren't really qualified to wield). As a +consequence, reducing the number of killers too much will be perceived +as cheapening the game, making high achievement commonplace, and it will +put off those achievers who are alarmed at the way any fool can "do +well" just by playing poorly for long enough. + +## EXPLORERS V. ACHIEVERS + +Explorers look on achievers as nascent explorers, who haven't yet +figured out that there's more to life than pursuing meaningless goals. +They are therefore willing to furnish them with information, although, +like all experts, they will rarely tell the full story when they can +legitimately give cryptic clues instead. Apart from the fact that they +sometimes get in the way, and won't usually hand over objects that are +needed for experiments, achievers can live alongside explorers without +much friction. + +Explorers' numbers aren't affected by the presence of achievers. + +## EXPLORERS V. EXPLORERS + +Explorers hold good explorers in great respect, but are merciless to bad +ones. One of the worst things a fellow explorer can do is to give out +incorrect information, believing it to be true. Other than that, +explorers thrive on telling one another their latest discoveries, and +generally get along very well. Outwardly, they will usually claim to +have the skill necessary to follow the achievement path to glory, but +have other reasons for not doing so (eg. time, tedium, or having proven +themselves already with a different persona). There are often +suspicions, though, that explorers are too theoretical in most cases, +and wouldn't be able to put their ideas into practice on a day-to-day +basis if they were to recast themselves in the achiever or killer mould. + +Explorers enjoy the company of other explorers, and they will play more +often if they have people around them to whom they can relate. +Unfortunately, not many people have the type of personality which finds +single-minded exploring a riveting subject, so numbers are notoriously +difficult to increase. If you have explorers in a game, hold on to +them\! + +## EXPLORERS V. SOCIALISERS + +Explorers consider socialisers to be people whom they can impress, but +who are otherwise pretty well unimportant. Unless they can appreciate +the explorer's talents, they're not really worth spending time with. +There are some explorers who treat conversation as their specialist +explorer subject, but these are very rare indeed; most will be polite +and attentive, but they'll find some diversion if the conversation isn't +MUD-related or if their fellow interlocutor is clearly way below them in +the game-understanding stakes. + +The explorer population is not directly affected by the size of the +socialiser population. + +## EXPLORERS V. KILLERS + +Explorers often have a grudging respect for killers, but they do find +their behaviour wearisome. It's just so annoying to be close to +finishing setting up something when a killer comes along and attacks +you. On the other hand, many killers do know their trade well, and are +quite prepared to discuss the finer details of it with explorers. +Sometimes, an explorer may try attacking other players as an exercise, +and they can be extremely effective at it. Explorers who are +particularly riled by a killer may even decide to "do something about +it" themselves. If they make such a decision, then it can be seriously +bad news for the killer concerned: being jumped and trashed by a +low-level (in terms of game rank) explorer can have a devastating effect +on a killer's reputation, and turn them into a laughing stock overnight. +Explorers do not, however, tend to have the venom or malice that true +killers possess, nor will they continue the practice to the extent that +they acquire a reputation of their own for killing. + +The affect of killers on the explorer population is fairly muted, +because most explorers don't particularly care if they get killed (or at +least they profess not not). However, if it happens too often then they +will become disgruntled, and play less frequently. + +## SOCIALISERS V. ACHIEVERS + +Socialisers like achievers, because they provide the running soap opera +about which the socialisers can converse. Without such a framework, +there is no uniting cause to bring socialisers together (at least not +initially). Note that socialisers don't particularly enjoy talking to +achievers (not unless they can get them to open up, which is very +difficult); they do, however, enjoy talking about them. A cynic might +suggest that the relationship between socialisers and achievers is +similar to that between women and men... + +Increasing the achiever/socialiser ratio has only a subtle effect: +socialisers may come to feel that the MUD is "all about" scoring points +and killing mobiles, and some of them may therefore leave before matters +"get worse". Decreasing it has little effect unless the number of active +achievers drops to near zero, in which case new socialisers might find +it difficult to break into established conversational groups, and thus +decide to take their play elsewhere. + +Note: although earlier it was stated that this paper does not address +people who play MUDs for meta-reasons, eg. to learn how to program, I +believe that their empirical behaviour with regard to the actions of +other players is sufficiently similar to that of socialisers for the two +groups to be safely bundled together when considering population +dynamics. + +## SOCIALISERS V. EXPLORERS + +Socialisers generally consider explorers to be sad characters who are +desperately in need of a life. Both groups like to talk, but rarely +about the same things, and if they do get together it's usually because +the explorer wants to sound erudite and the socialiser has nothing +better to do at the time. + +The number of explorers in a MUD has no effect on the number of +socialisers. + +## SOCIALISERS V. SOCIALISERS + +A case of positive feedback: socialisers can talk to one another on any +subject for hours on end, and come back later for more. The key factor +is whether there is an open topic of conversation: in a game-like +environment, the MUD itself provides the context for discussion, whether +it be the goings-on of other players or the feeble attempts of a +socialiser to try playing it; in a non-game environment, some other +subject is usually required to structure conversations, either within +the software of the MUD itself (eg. building) or without it (eg. "This +is a support MUD for the victims of cancer"). Note that this kind of +subject-setting is only required as a form of ice-breaker: once +socialisers have acquired friends, they'll invariably find other things +that they can talk about. + +The more socialisers there are in a game, the more new ones will be +attracted to it. + +## SOCIALISERS V. KILLERS + +This is perhaps the most fractious relationship between player group +types. The hatred that some socialisers bear for killers admits no +bounds. Partly, this is the killers' own fault: they go out of their way +to rid MUDs of namby-pamby socialisers who wouldn't know a weapon if one +came up and hit them (an activity that killers are only too happy to +demonstrate), and they will generally hassle socialisers at every +opportunity simply because it's so easy to get them annoyed. However, +the main reason that socialisers tend to despise killers is that they +have completely antisocial motives, whereas socialisers have (or like to +think they have) a much more friendly and helpful attitude to life. The +fact that many socialisers take attacks on their personae personally +only compounds their distaste for killers. + +It could be argued that killers do have a positive role to play from the +point of view of socialisers. There are generally two defences made for +their existence: 1) without killers, socialisers would have little to +talk about; 2) without evil as a contrast, there is no good. The former +is patently untrue, as socialisers will happily talk about anything and +everything; it may be that it helps provide a catalyst for long +conversations, but only if it isn't an everyday occurrence. The second +argument is more difficult to defend against (being roughly equivalent +to the reason why God allows the devil to exist), however it presupposes +that those who attack other players are the only example of nasty people +in a MUD. In fact, there is plenty of opportunity for players of all +persuasions to behave obnoxiously to one another; killers merely do it +more openly, and (if allowed) in the context of the game world. + +Increasing the number of killers will decrease the number of socialisers +by a much greater degree. Decreasing the number of killers will likewise +greatly encourage (or, rather, fail to discourage) socialisers to play +the MUD. + +## KILLERS V. ACHIEVERS + +Killers regard achievers as their natural prey. Achievers are good +fighters (because they've learned the necessary skills against mobiles), +but they're not quite as good as killers, who are more specialised. This +gives the "thrill of the chase" which many killers enjoy - an achiever +may actually be able to escape, but will usually succumb at some stage, +assuming they don't see sense and quit first. Achievers also dislike +being attacked, which makes the experience of attacking them all the +more fun; furthermore, it is unlikely that they will stop playing after +being set back by a killer, and thus they can be "fed upon" again, +later. The main disadvantage of pursuing achievers, however, is that an +achiever can get so incensed at being attacked that they decide to take +revenge. A killer may thus innocently enter a game only to find a +heavily-armed achiever lying in wait, which rather puts the boot on the +other foot... + +Note that there is a certain sub-class of killers, generally run by +wiz-level players, who have a more ethical point to their actions. In +particular, their aim is to "test" players for their "suitability" to +advance to the higher levels themselves. In general, such personae +should not be regarded as falling into the killer category, although in +some instances the ethical aspect is merely an excuse to indulge in +killing sprees without fear of sanction. Rather, these killers tend to +be run by people in either the achievement category (protecting their +own investment) or the explorer category (trying to teach their victims +how to defend themselves against real killers). + +Increasing the number of achievers will, over time, increase the number +of killers in a typically Malthusian fashion. + +## KILLERS V. EXPLORERS + +Killers tend to leave explorers alone. Not only can explorers be +formidable fighters (with many obscure, unexpected tactics at their +disposal), but they often don't fret about being attacked - a fact which +is very frustrating for killers. Sometimes, particularly annoying +explorers will simply ignore a killer's attack, and make no attempt +whatsoever to defend against it; this is the ultimate in cruelty to +killers. For more long-term effects, though, a killer's being beaten by +an explorer has more impact on the game: the killer will feel shame, +their reputation will suffer, and the explorer will pass on survival +tactics to everyone else. In general, then, killers will steer well +clear of even half-decent explorers, except when they have emptied a +game of everyone else and are so desperate for a fix that even an +explorer looks tempting... + +Increasing the number of explorers will slightly decrease the number of +killers. + +## KILLERS V. SOCIALISERS + +Killers regard socialisers with undisguised glee. It's not that +socialisers are in any way a challenge, as usually they will be +pushovers in combat; rather, socialisers feel a dreadful hurt when +attacked (especially if it results in the loss of their persona), and it +is this which killers enjoy about it. Besides, killers tend to like to +have a bad reputation, and if there's one way to get people to talk +about you, it's to attack a prominent socialiser... + +Increasing the number of socialisers will increase the number of +killers, although of course the number of socialisers wouldn't remain +increased for very long if that happened. + +## KILLERS V. KILLERS + +Killers try not to cross the paths of other killers, except in +pre-organised challenge matches. Part of the psychology of killers seems +to be that they wish to be viewed as somehow superior to other players; +being killed by a killer in open play would undermine their reputation, +and therefore they avoid risking it (compare Killers v Explorers). This +means that nascent or wannabe killers are often put off their chosen +particular career path because they themselves are attacked by more +experienced killers and soundly thrashed. For this reason, it can take a +very long time to increase the killer population in a MUD, even if all +the conditions are right for them to thrive; killer numbers rise +grindingly slowly, unless competent killers are imported from another +MUD to swell the numbers artificially. + +Killers will occasionally work in teams, but only as a short-term +exercise; they will usually revert to stalking their victims solo in the +next session they play. + +There are two cases where killers might be attacked by players who, +superficially, look like other killers. One of these is the "killer +killer", usually run by wiz-level players, which has been discussed +earlier. The other is in the true hack-and-slash type of MUD, where the +whole aim of the game is to kill other personae, and no-one particularly +minds being killed because they weren't expecting to last very long +anyway. This type of play does not appeal to "real" killers, because it +doesn't cause people emotional distress when their personae are deleted +(indeed, socialisers prefer it more than killers do). However, it's +better than nothing. + +The only effect that killers have on other killers is in reducing the +number of potential victims available. This, in theory, should keep the +number of killers down, however in practice killers will simply attack +less attractive victims instead. It takes a very drastic reduction in +the number of players before established killers will decide to stop +playing a MUD and move elsewhere, by which time it is usually too late +to save the MUD concerned. + +# DYNAMICS + +From the discussion in the previous section, it is possible to summarise +the interactions between player types as follows: + +To increase the number of achievers: + + - reduce the number of killers, but not by too much. + - if killer numbers are high, increase the number of + explorers. + +To decrease the number of achievers: + + - increase the number of killers. + - if killer numbers are low, reduce the number of + explorers. + +To increase the number of explorers: + + - increase the number of explorers. + +To decrease the number of explorers: + + - massively increase the number of killers. + +To increase the number of socialisers: + + - slightly decrease the number of killers. + - increase the number of socialisers. + +To decrease the number of socialisers: + + - slightly increase the number of killers. + - massively increase the number of achievers. + - massively decrease the number of achievers. + - decrease the number of socialisers. + +To increase the number of killers: + + - increase the number of achievers. + - massively decrease the number of explorers. + - increase the number of socialisers. + +To decrease the number of killers + + - decrease the number of achievers. + - massively increase the number of explorers. + - decrease the number of socialisers. + +What are the dynamics of this model? In other words, if players of each +type were to trickle into a system, how would it affect the overall +make-up of the player population? + +The following diagram illustrates the flow of influence. Each arrow +shows a relationship, from the blunt end to the pointed end. Ends are +marked with a plus or minus to show an increase or decrease +respectively; the symbols are doubled up to indicate a massive increase +or decrease. Example: the line + +killers + ------------\> - achievers + +means that increasing the number of killers will decrease the number of +achievers. + +``` + + <------------ + + - <------------ - + killers + ------------> - achievers + - + + - - ------------> + + ^ ^ | | - + ++ ++ -- + | | | | ^ ^ \ / / + | | | | | \ \ / / + | | | | \ \ X / + | | | | \ \/ X + | | | | \ / \/ \ + | | | | / \ / \ \ + | | | | / / \ \ \ + | | | | / / \ \ \ + | | | | | / \ \ | + | | v v v v \ | v + - + --++ - - ++ -- - + socialisers explorers + + - - + + + + ^ ^ | | ^ | + | | | | | | + \ \___/ / \___/ + \___/ +``` + +A graphical version of the figure appears at the end of the paper. + +From this, it can be seen that the numbers of killers and achievers is +basically an equilibrium: increasing the number of achievers will +increase the number of killers, which will in turn dampen down the +increase in the number of achievers and thereby reduce the number of +excess killers. + +The explorer population is almost inert: only huge numbers of killers +will reduce it. It should be noted, however, that massively increasing +the number of explorers is the only way to reduce the number of killers +without also reducing the player numbers in other groups. Because +increasing the number of explorers in a MUD generally encourages others +to join (and non-explorers to experiment with exploration), this gives a +positive feedback which will eventually reduce the killer population +(although recall the earlier point concerning how few people are, by +nature, explorers). + +The most volatile group of people is that of the socialisers. Not only +is it highly sensitive to the number of killers, but it has both +positive and negative feedback on itself, which amplifies any changes. +An increase in the number of socialisers will lead to yet more +socialisers, but it will also increase the number of killers; this, in +turn, will reduce the number of socialisers drastically, which will feed +back into a yet greater reduction. It is possible for new socialisers to +arrive in large enough quantities for a downward spiral in numbers not +to be inevitable, but it is unlikely that such a system could remain +viable in over a long period of time. + +This analysis of the dynamics of the relationships between players leads +naturally to a consideration of what configurations could be considered +stable. There are four: + +1\) Killers and achievers in equilibrium. If the number of killers gets +too high, then the achievers will be driven off, which will cause the +number of killers to fall also (through lack of victims). If there +aren't enough killers, then achievers feel the MUD isn't a sufficient +challenge (there being no way to "lose" in it), and they will gradually +leave; new killers could appear, attracted by the glut of potential +prey, however this happens so slowly that its impact is less than that +of the disaffection among achievers. Socialisers who venture out of +whatever safe rooms are available eventually fall prey to killers, and +leave the game. Those who stay find that there aren't many interesting +(to them) people around with whom to talk, and they too drift off. +Explorers potter around, but are not a sufficient presence to affect the +number of killers. + +2\) A MUD dominated by socialisers. Software changes to the MUD are made +which prevent (or at least seriously discourage) killers from practising +their craft on socialisers; incoming socialisers are encouraged by those +already there, and a chain reaction starts. There are still achievers +and explorers, but they are swamped by the sheer volume of socialisers. +The number of socialisers is limited only by external factors, or the +presence of killers masquerading as socialisers. If the population of +socialisers drops below a certain critical level, then the chain +reaction reverses and almost all the players will leave, however only +events outside the MUD would cause that to happen once the critical mass +had been reached. + +3\) A MUD where all groups have a similar influence (although not +necessarily similar numbers). By nurturing explorers using software +means (ie. giving the game great depth or "mystique", or encouraging +non-explorers to dabble for a while by regularly adding new areas and +features), the overall population of explorers will gradually rise, and +the killer population will be held in check by them. The killers who +remain do exert an influence on the number of socialisers, sufficient to +stop them from going into fast-breeder mode, but insufficient to +initiate an exodus. Achievers are set upon by killers often enough to +feel that their achievements in the game have meaning. This is perhaps +the most balanced form of MUD, since players can change their position +on the interest graph far more freely: achievers can become explorers, +explorers can become socialisers, socialisers can become achievers - all +without sacrificing stability. However, actually attaining that +stability in the first place is very difficult indeed; it requires not +only a level of game design beyond what most MUDs can draw on, but time +and player management skills that aren't usually available to MUD +administrators. Furthermore, the administrators need to recognise that +they are aiming for a player mix of this kind in advance, because the +chances of its occurring accidentally are slim. + +4\) A MUD with no players. The killers have killed/frightened off +everyone else, and left to find some other MUD in which to ply their +trade. Alternatively, a MUD structured expressly for socialisers never +managed to acquire a critical mass of them. + +Other types could conceivably exist, but they are very rare if they do. +The dynamics model is, however, imprecise: it takes no account of +outside factors which may influence player types or the relationships +between then. It is thus possible that some of the more regimented MUDs +(eg. role-playing MUDs, educational MUDs, group therapy MUDs) have an +external dynamic (eg. fandom interest in a subject, instructions from a +teacher/trainer, tolerance of others as a means to advance the self) +which adds to their cohesion, and that this could make an otherwise +flaky configuration hold together. So other stable MUD forms may, +therefore, still be out there. + +It might be argued that "role-playing" MUDs form a separate category, on +a par with "gamelike" and "social" MUDs. However, I personally favour +the view that role-playing is merely a strong framework within which the +four types of player still operate: some people will role-play to +increase their power over the game (achievers); others will do so to +explore the wonder of the game world (explorers); others will do so +because they enjoy interacting and co-operating within the context that +the role-playing environment offers (socialisers); others will do it +because it gives them a legitimate excuse to hurt other players +(killers). I have not, however, undertaken a study of role-playing MUDs, +and it could well be that there is a configuration of player types +peculiar to many of them which would be unstable were it not for the +order imposed by enforcing role-play. It certainly seems likely that +robust role-playing rules could make it easier for a MUD to achieve type +3) stability, whatever. + +At this point, we return to the social/gamelike MUD debate. + +Ignoring the fourth (null) case from the above, it is now much easier to +see why there is a schism. Left to market forces, a MUD will either +gravitate towards type 1) ("gamelike") or type 2) ("social"), depending +on its administrators' line on player-killing (more precisely: how much +being "killed" annoys socialisers). However, the existence of type 3) +MUDs, albeit in smaller numbers because of the difficulty of reaching +the steady state, does show that it is possible to have both socialisers +and achievers co-existing in significant numbers in the same MUD. + +It's very easy to label a MUD as either "hack-and-slash" or +"slack-and-hash", depending on whether or not player-killing is allowed. +However, using player-killing as the only defining factor in any +distinction is an over-generalisation, as it groups together type 1) and +type 3) MUDs. These two types of MUD should not be considered as +identical forms: the socialising which occurs in a type 3) MUD simply +isn't possible in a type 1), and as a result the sense of community in +type 3)s is very strong. It is no accident that type 3) MUDs are the +ones preferred commercially, because they can hold onto their players +for far longer than the other two forms. A type 1) MUD is only viable +commercially if there is a sufficiently large well of potential players +to draw upon, because of the much greater churn rate these games have. +Type 2)s have a similarly high turnover; indeed, when TinyMUD first +arrived on the scene it was almost slash-and-burn, with games lasting +around six months on university computers before a combination of +management breakdown (brought on by player boredom) and resource hogging +would force them to close down - with no other MUDs permitted on the +site for perhaps years afterwards. + +This explains why some MUDs perceived by socialisers to be "gamelike" +can actually be warm, friendly places, while others are nasty and +vicious: the former are type 3), and the latter are type 1). Players who +enter the type 3)s, expecting them to be type 1)s, may be pleasantly +surprised ([Bruckman, 1993](#Bruckman,%201993)). However, it should be +noted that this initial warm behaviour is sometimes the approach used by +administrators to ensure a new player's further participation in their +particular MUD, and that, once hooked, a player may find that attitudes +undergo a subtle change ([Epperson, 1995](#Epperson,%201995)). + +As mentioned earlier, this paper is not intended to promote any one +particular style of MUD. Whether administrators aim for type 1), 2) or +3) is up to them - they're all MUDs, and they address different needs. +However, the fact that they are all MUDs, and not "MU\*s" (or any other +abbreviation-of-the-day), really should be emphasised. + +To summarise: "gamelike" MUDs are the ones in which the killer-achiever +equilibrium has been reached, ie. type 1); "social" MUDs are the ones in +which the pure-social stability point has been reached, ie. type 2), and +this is the basis upon which they differ. There is a type 3) "all round" +(my term) MUD, which exhibits both social and gamelike traits, however +such MUDs are scarce because the conditions necessary to reach the +stable point are difficult or time-consuming to arrange. + +# OVERBALANCING A MUD + +Earlier, the effect of taking each axis on the interest graph to its +extremes was used to give an indication of what would happen if a MUD +was pushed so far that it lost its MUDness. It was noted, though, that +along the axes was not the only way a MUD could be tilted. + +What would happen if, in an effort to appeal to certain types of player, +a MUD was overcompensated in their favour? + +Tilting a MUD towards achievers would make it obsessed with gameplay. +Players would spend their time looking for tactics to improve their +position, and the presence of other players would become unnecessary. +The result would be effectively a single-player adventure game (SUD?). + +Tilting towards explorers would add depth and interest, but remove much +of the activity. Spectacle would dominate over action, and again there +would be no need for other players. The result of this is basically an +online book. + +Tilting towards socialisers removes all gameplay, and centres on +communication. Eventually, all sense of the virtual world is lost, and a +chatline or IRC-style CB program results. + +Tilting towards killers is more difficult, because this type of player +is parasitic on the other three types. The emphasis on causing grief has +to be sacrificed in favour of the thrill of the chase, and bolstered by +the use of quick-thinking and skill to overcome adversity in clever (but +violent) ways. In other words, this becomes an arcade ("shoot 'em up") +type of game. + +It's a question of balance: if something is added to a MUD to tilt the +graph one way, other mechanisms will need to be in place to +counterbalance it (preferably automatically). Otherwise, what results is +a SUD, book, chatline or arcade game. It's the combination that makes +MUDs unique - and special. It is legitimate to say that anything which +goes too far in any direction is not a MUD; it is not legitimate to say +that something which doesn't go far enough in any direction is not a +MUD. So long as a system is a (text-based) multi-user virtual world, +that's enough. + +# SUMMARY + +To answer the questions posed in the preface: + +Are MUDs + + - games? Like chess, tennis, D\&D? + Yes - to achievers. + - pastimes? Like reading, gardening, cooking? + Yes - to explorers. + - sports? Like huntin', shooting', fishin'? + Yes - to killers. + - entertainments? Like nightclubs, TV, concerts? + Yes - to socialisers. + +# ENDNOTES + +[\[1\]](#ret1) This paper is an April 1996 extension of an earlier +article, "Who Plays MUAs" ([Bartle, 1990a](#Bartle,%201990a)). As a +result of this, and of the fact that I am not a trained psychologist, do +not expect a conventionally rigorous approach to the subject matter. + +Permission to redistribute freely for academic purposes is granted +provided that no material changes are made to the text. [\[2\]](#ret2) +In the figure below, green indicates increasing numbers and red +indicates decreasing numbers. A red line with a green arrowhead means +that decreasing numbers of the box pointed from lead to increasing +numbers of the box pointed to; a red line with a red arrowhead would +mean that a decrease in one leads to a decrease in the other, and so on. +The thickness of the line shows the strength of the effect: thin lines +mean there's only a small effect; medium lines mean there's an effect +involving roughly equal numbers of players from both boxes; thick lines +means there's a great effect, magnifying the influence of the origin +box. + +![\[ Graphical Figure \]](hcds.gif) + +# REFERENCES + +[Aspnes, J.](#rAspnes,%201989) (1989). TinyMUD \[C\] + + +[Bartle, R. A.](#rBartle,%201985) (1985). MUD2 \[MUDDLE\] MUSE Ltd, +Colchester, Essex, UK. + +[Bartle, R. A.](#rBartle,%201990a) (1990a). Who Plays MUAs? Comms +Plus\!, October/November 1990 18-19. + +[Bartle, R. A.](#rBartle,%201990b) (1990b). Interactive Multi-Player +Computer Games. MUSE Ltd, Colchester, Essex, UK + + +[Bruckman, A. S.](#rBruckman,%201992) (1992). Identity Workshop: +Emergent Social and Psychological Phenomena in Text-Based Virtual +Reality. MIT Media Laboratory, Cambridge, Massachusetts. + + +[Bruckman, A. S.](#rBruckman,%201993) (1993). Gender Swapping on the +Internet Proc. INET-93 + + +[Bruckman, A. S. & Resnick, M.](#rBruckman%20&%20Resnick,%201993) +(1993). Virtual Professional Community: Results from the MediaMOO +Project. MIT Media Laboratory, Cambridge, Massachusetts. + + +[Bruckman, A. S.](#rBruckman,%201994a) (1994a). Workshop: "Serious" Uses +of MUDs? Proc. DIAC-94 + + +[Bruckman, A. S.](#rBruckman,%201994b) (1994b). Approaches to Managing +Deviant Behaviour in Virtual Communities. MIT Media Laboratory, +Cambridge, Massachusetts. + + +[Burka, L. P.](#rBurka,%201995) (1995). The MUDline. + + +[Carton, S.](#rCarton,%201995) (1995). Internet Virtual Worlds Quick +Tour: MUDs, MOOs and MUSHes: Interactive games, Conferences and Forums +Ventana Press, Chapel Hill, North Carolina. + +[Caspian-Kaufman, J.](#rCaspian-Kaufman,%201995) (1995). Sid Meier's +CivNET: Instruction Manual Microprose, Hunt Valley, Maryland. + +[Cherny, L.](#rCherny,%201995a) (1995a). The Modal Complexity of Speech +Events in a Social MUD. Electronic Journal of Communication, Summer +1995. + +[Cherny, L.](#rCherny,%201995b) (1995b). The Situated Behaviour of MUD +Back Channels. Dept. Linguistics, Stanford University, California. + + +[Clodius, J. A.](#rClodius,%201994) (1994). Concepts of Space in a +Virtual Community. + +[Curtis, P.](#rCurtis,%201992) (1992). Mudding: Social Phenomena in +Text-Based Virtual Realities. Proc. DIAC-92 + + +[Curtis, P. & Nichols, D. A.](#rCurtis%20&%20Nichols,%201993) (1993). +MUDs Grow Up: Social Virtual Reality in the Real World. Xerox PARC, Palo +Alto, California. + + +[Dibbell, J.](#rDibbell,%201993) (1993). A Rape in Cyberspace. The +Village Voice, December 21, 1993. + + +[Emert, H. G.](#rEmert,%201993) (1993). "X" Marks the Spot. East +Stroudsburg University, Pennsylvania. + + +[Eddy, A.](#rEddy,%201994) (1994). Internet After Hours Prima, Rocklin, +California. + +[Epperson, H. L.](#rEpperson,%201995) (1995). Patterns of Social +Behaviour in Computer-Mediated Communications. Dept. Sociology, Rice +University. +web\_social\_behaviour.paper + +[Evard, R.](#rEvard,%201993) (1993). Collaborative Networked +Communication: MUDs as System Tools. Proc. LISA-93 + + +[Fanderclai, T. F.](#rFanderclai,%201995) (1995). MUDs in Education: New +Environments, New Pedagogies. Computer-Mediated Communication Magazine, +2(1), 8. + +[Farmer, F. R., Morningstar, C. & Crockford, +D.](#rFarmer,%20Morningstar,%20&%20Crockford,%201994) (1994). From +Habitat to Global Cyberspace. Proc. CompCon-94, IEEE + + +[Kort, B.](#rKort,%201991) (1991). The MUSE as an Educational Medium BBN +Labs, Cambridge, Massachusetts. + +[Mauldin, M. L.](#rMauldin,%201994) (1994). Chatterbots, TinyMUDs and +the Turing Test: Entering the Loebner Prize Competition. Proc. AAAI-94 + + +[Moock, C.](#rMoock,%201996) (1996). Virtual Campus at the University of +Waterloo. + +[Norrish, J.](#rNorrish,%201995) (1995). MU\*s. + + +[Poirier, J. R.](#rPoirier,%201994) (1994). Interactive Multiuser +Realities: MUDs, MOOs, MUCKs, and MUSHes. The Internet Unleashed, +1192-1127. SAMS Publishing, Indianapolis, Indiana. + +[Reid, E.](#rReid,%201994) (1994). Cultural Formations in Text-Based +Virtual Realities. Dept. English, University of Melbourne, Australia. + + +[Riner, R. D. & Clodius, J. A.](#rRiner%20&%20Clodius,%201995) (1995). +Simulating Future Histories: The NAU Solar System Simulation and Mars +Settlement. Anthropology & Education Quarterly 26(1):95-104. + + +[Rosenberg, M. S.](#rRosenberg,%201992) (1992). Virtual Reality: +Reflections of Life, Dreams and Technology. An Ethnography of a Computer +Society. + +[Roush, W.](#rRoush,%201993) (1993). The Virtual STS Centre on MediaMOO: +Issues and Challenges as Non-Technical Users Enter Social Virtual +Spaces. MIT Media Laboratory, Cambridge, Massachusetts. + + +[Urdang, L. & Manser, M.](#rUrdang%20&%20Manser,%201980) (1980). The Pan +Dictionary of Synonyms and Antonyms Pan Reference, London, UK. + +[Whitlock, T. D.](#rWhitlock,%201994) (1994). Fuck Art, Let's Kill\!: +Towards a Post Modern Community. + + +[Whitlock, T. D.](#rWhitlock,%201994b) (1994b). Technological Hierarchy +in MOO: Reflections on Power in Cyberspace + diff --git a/_stories/1996/9268000.md b/_stories/1996/9268000.md index d0825ff..e25d79e 100644 --- a/_stories/1996/9268000.md +++ b/_stories/1996/9268000.md @@ -19,7 +19,277 @@ _tags: objectID: '9268000' --- -[Source](https://marc.info/?l=best-of-security&m=96843702620513&w=2 "Permalink to ") - - - + [prev in list] [next in list] [prev in thread] [next in thread] + + List: best-of-security + Subject: BoS: NSA is monitoring key internet routers - Puzzle Palace Author + From: Julian Assange + Date: 1996-06-12 10:18:43 + [Download message RAW] + + + The National Security Administration is Poised to Control the Internet + + The oppressive atmosphere of Orwell's 1984 arises from the omnipresence of + Big Brother, the symbol of the government's concern for the individual. Big + Brother controls the language, outlawing words he dislikes and creating new + words for his favorite concepts. He can see and hear nearly everything - + public or private. Thus he enforces a rigid code of speech and action that + erodes the potential for resistance and reduces the need for force. As Noam + Chomsky says, propaganda is to democracy what violence is to + totalitarianism. Control thoughts, and you can easily control behavior. + + U.S. history affords a prime example in the era named after Senator Joseph + McCarthy, though he had many supporters in his attack on freedom of thought + and speech. Perhaps his most powerful friend was J. Edgar Hoover, who fed + him material from FBI files (some of it true) which he used to attack + individuals for their supposed political leanings. By the time of + Watergate, the CIA had become at least as notorious as the FBI, due largely + to its assassinations of foreign leaders and support for military coups + around the world. + + Now its the 90's. A computer revolution seems to be happening and with it a + dramatic increase in people using the Internet, as well as people watching + what the people use it for. Ever heard of the NSA? This could very well be + the NSA decade for the Internet. Conspiracy, power struggles and + survellience of the citizenry may be what is remembered about the NSA + during this period of time. I used to think democracy meant people keeping + a watchful eye on its government, not its government keeping a watchful eye + on its people. Today we can now see comparisons being drawn between the FBI + of the 50s and the CIA of the 60s, the obvious government corruption in the + 70s, Reagan in the 80s (sorry - that was just incompetence), and the + emerging role of the NSA in the 90s. + + Is NSA Sniffing the Internet? Do they have the jurisdiction? Lets take a + look back and see what they are all about and make an educated hypothesis. + + Budgetary authority for the National Security Agency (NSA) apparently comes + from the Central Intelligence Act of 1949. This act provides the basis for + the secret spending program known as the black budget by allowing any arm + of the government to transfer money to the CIA "without regard to any + provisions of the law," and allowing the CIA to spend its funds as it sees + fit, with no need to account for them. + + Congress passed the C.I.A. Act despite the fact that only the ranking + members of the Senate and House Armed Services Committees knew anything + about its contents; the remaining members of Congress were told that open + discussion, or even clear explanation, of the bill would be + counterproductive. There were complaints about the secrecy; but in the end + the bill passed the House by a vote of 348-4, and the Senate by a majority + voice vote. Hmmmm, it seems several legislative disasters have occurred by + landslides. Anyone remember the Telecommunication Attack of 1996? + + The NSA's estimated $10 billion annual allocation (as of 1990) is funded + entirely through the black budget. Thus Congress appropriates funds for the + NSA not only without information on the agency's plans, but without even a + clear idea of the amount it appropriates; and it receives no accounting of + the uses to which the funds were put. This naturally precludes any debate + about the direction or management of such agencies, effectively avoiding + public oversight while spending public funds. Weiner notes the analogy to + "Taxation without representation." In any respect, it seems to be + unconstitutional - a major point that has failed to stop them. + + "The NSA has also spent a great deal of time and money spying on American + citizens. For 21 years after its inception it tracked every telegram and + telex in and out of the United States, and monitored the telephone + conversations of the politically suspect." (Weiner, Blank Check) + + Due to its unique ability to monitor communications within the U.S. without + a warrant, which the FBI and CIA cannot legally do, NSA becomes the center + of attempts to spy on U.S. citizens. Nominally this involves only + communications in which at least one terminal is outside the U.S., but in + practice target lists have often grown to include communications between + U.S. citizens within the country. And political considerations have + sometimes become important. Oh yeah, I forgot to mention that in the NSA's + Charter they claim to be unable to spy on US citizens. Apparently, the real + charter is as elusive as what they do with taxpayer money. + + The Huston Plan, formally known as "Domestic Intelligence Gathering Plan: + Analysis and Strategy," was submitted in July 1970 to President Nixon. The + goal of the plan was to relax some restrictions on intelligence gathering, + apparently those of NSCID No. 6. Some parts of the intelligence community + felt that these relaxations would assist their efforts. + + Like most intelligence agencies, the NSA uses words such as "interrupt" and + "target" in a technical sense with a precise but often classified + definition. This specialized language makes it difficult to legislate or + oversee the activities involved. For instance, in NSA terms a conversation + that is captured, decoded if necessary, and distributed to the requesting + agency is not considered to be the product of eavesdropping unless one of + the parties to the conversation is explicitly targeted. However, the NSA + does not depend on semantic defences; it can also produce some legal + arguments for exempting itself from normal requirements. How convenient. + + For those who feel your lives are too flawless to be affected, or for those + of you who actually vote Republican or Democrat thinking the change will + come from within (nice try), and for the lowest common denominator - + dittoheads, this is not a good thing. Complete control over a secret agency + with at least 60,000 direct employees, a $10 billion budget, direct command + of some military units, and the ability to read all communications would be + an enormous weapon with which to maintain tyranny were it to arise. A + President with a Napoleonic or Stalinistic delusion would find the perfect + tool for the constant supervision of the individual by the state in the + NSA; not unlike scenarios depicted in novels such as Orwell's 1984. + + ==================================== + 1) NSA Homepage + http://www.nsa.gov:8080/ + + 2) NSA Can Break PGP Encryption + http://www.quadralay.com/www/Crypt/NSA/break-pgp.html + + 3) Houston Chronicle Interview + http://www.quadralay.com/www/Crypt/NSA/letter.html + + 4) Original Charter of the National Security Agency + http://www.quadralay.com/www/Crypt/NSA/charter.html + + 5) CFP'92 - Who Holds the Keys? + http://www.cpsr.org/dox/conferences/cfp92/denning.html + + ==================================== + + Americans would not have any privacy left, such is the capability to + monitor everything: telephone conversations, telegrams, or in our case + email, it doesn't matter. There would be no place to hide. If this + government ever became a tyranny, if a dictator ever took charge in this + country, the technological capacity that the intelligence community has + given the government could enable it to impose total tyranny. There would + be no way to fight back because the most careful effort to combine together + in resistance to the government, no matter how privately it was done, is, + and would continue to be, within the reach of the government to know. Such + is the capability of this technology ... + + I don't want to see this country ever go across the bridge. I know the + capability that is there to make tyranny total in America, and we must see + to it that this agency and all agencies that possess this technology + operate within the law and under proper supervision, so that we never cross + over that abyss. That is the abyss from which there is no return... + + So, is the NSA 'sniffing' on the Internet? Does their reputation seem + worthy of our trust and respect? Lets take a look at some of their recent + plans for Internet communication. Then you can decide for yourself if you + want to watch the magic act....the "now you see it....now you don't" act + starring Freedom, of course. + + Puzzle Palace co-author Wayne Madsen, in an article written for the June + 1995 issue of Computer Fraud & Security Bulletin (Elsevier Advanced + Technology Publications), wrote that "according to well-placed sources + within the Federal Government and the Internet service provider industry, + the National Security Agency (NSA) is actively sniffing several key + Internet router and gateway hosts." + + Madsen says the NSA concentrates its surveillance on destination and + origination hosts, as well as "sniffing" for specific key words and + phrases. He claims his sources have confirmed that the NSA has contracted + with an unnamed private company to develop the software needed to capture + Internet data of interest to the agency. + + According to Madsen, the NSA monitors traffic primarily at two Internet + routers controlled by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration + (NASA), one in College Park, MD (dubbed "Fix East") and another at NASA + Ames Research Center in Sunnyvale, CA ("Fix West"). + + Other NSA Internet sniffers, he said, operate at busy routers known as Mae + East (an East Coast hub), Mae West (a West Coast hub), CIX reportedly based + in San Jose), and SWAB (a northern Virginia router operated by Bell + Atlantic). + + Madsen continues on to say the NSA may also be monitoring traffic at + network access points (NAPs), the large Internet gateways operated by + regional and long-distance service providers. The NAPs allegedly under + surveillance are in Pennsauken, NJ (operated by Sprint), Chicago (run by + AmeriTech and Bell Communications Research), and San Francisco (Pacific + Bell). + + Madsen claims the NSA has deals with Microsoft, Lotus, and Netscape to + prevent anonymous email. "One senior Federal Government source has reported + that NSA has been particularly successful in convincing key members of the + US software industry to cooperate with it in producing software that makes + Internet messages easier for NSA to intercept, and if they are encrypted, + to decode," Madsen wrote. "A knowledgeable government source claims that + the NSA has concluded agreements with Microsoft, Lotus and Netscape to + permit the introduction of the means to prevent the anonymity of Internet + electronic mail, the use of cryptographic key-escrow, as well as software + industry acceptance of the NSA-developed Digital Signature Standard (DSS)." + + Similarly, according to reports in several trade magazines, the Defense + Messaging System (DMS) developed by the Pentagon is nearly ready for + implementation, but prospective users are threatening to shun the universal + e-mail platform unless Pentagon officials eliminate cumbersome security + procedures designed by the NSA. + + DOD designed DMS a decade ago to replace the aging AUTODIN message system + and to serve as the armed services' global e-mail infrastructure. Officials + familiar with DMS' security features, which rely on the National Security + Agency's Fortezza encryption card, said the system's slowness is likely to + alienate users who send mostly unclassified messages over commercial e-mail + systems. Users of wireless systems are also complaining about the high + overhead. + + The DMS adopted the Fortezza card and is expected to implement over 450,000 + cards in the next few years. Inside sources note that the NSA is using the + DMS as a justification for paying companies such as Microsoft and Netscape + to adopt the Fortezza card as a standard for their products. NSA has pushed + agencies such as the CIA, NASA, IRS and the Federal Reserve to adopt + Fortezza without success. + + Cost is also a major factor. Fortezza's PCMCIA cards cost nearly $100 each + and all computers must be equipped with a card reader that costs an + additional $150. (Would you like to have to buy a modem or pre-assembled + computer system that would make it easier for the NSA to monitor your + communications? Not me!) + + Is the NSA really snooping on the Net? If they are, would that violate the + agency's charter, which specifically prohibits it from spying within the + US? "Well, Net traffic is routed from God knows where to God knows where + around the world," says George Washington University Professor Lance + Hoffman, a professor of Communications and Telecommunications Systems + Policy at George Washington University. "So if the NSA is doing this, they + could say they are not violating their charter not to spy in the US. That's + the thing. Intelligent routers send stuff any which way." + + What can be done? - you say. There is a solution. Encryption. Next issue + will discuss trap doors and your right to encryption as strong as you can + make it. + + ==================================== + 6) The Agency That Came in from the Cold + http://www.ams.org/committee/profession/shaker.html + + 7) The Codex Surveillance & Privacy Page + http://www.thecodex.com/ + + 8) Profiles of the U.S. Intelligence Community + http://www.kimsoft.com/korea/usintel.txt + + 9) Intelligence and CounterIntelligence + http://www.kimsoft.com/kim-spy.htm + + 10) The National Security Administration + http://hops.cs.jhu.edu/~arvi/nsa.html + + *** proteios@indirect.com PLEASE send us any other relevant URLs you may + find *** + ==================================== + + ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- + NorthStar is an Internet Distribution List provided by the Internet Users + Consortium + a fiercely independent Grass Roots organization founded by Martin Thompson + and Kenneth Koldys, Jr, to inform and coordinate Internet Users concerning + political and government actions against the complete self-actualization + of the Internet and our Constitutional Rights in Cyberspace. + ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- + Past issues of NorthStar are archived at the NorthStar Archive + http://www.iuc.org/www/proteios/northstar.html + on the Internet Users Consortium WWW site + ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- + ***Please feel free to distribute NorthStar to as many people and relevant + forums as possible. That is one way to inform, educate and take action. + All we ask is that you keep NorthStar intact. It is concise for that very + reason. + ***If you wish to submit an article to NorthStar, please send your + article to proteios@iuc.org + + [prev in list] [next in list] [prev in thread] [next in thread] diff --git a/_stories/1997/11034007.md b/_stories/1997/11034007.md index 3739d66..de242e9 100644 --- a/_stories/1997/11034007.md +++ b/_stories/1997/11034007.md @@ -19,7 +19,601 @@ _tags: objectID: '11034007' --- -[Source](https://www.nickbostrom.com/superintelligence.html "Permalink to ") - - - +> This is if we take the retina simulation as a model. As the present, +> however, not enough is known about the neocortex to allow us to +> simulate it in such an optimized way. But the knowledge might be +> available by 2004 to 2008 (as we shall see in the next section). What +> is required, if we are to get human-level AI with hardware power at +> this lower bound, is the ability to simulate 1000-neuron aggregates in +> a highly efficient way. +> +> The extreme alternative, which is what we assumed in the derivation of +> the upper bound, is to simulate each neuron individually. The number +> of clock cycles that neuroscientists can expend simulating the +> processes of a single neuron knows of no limits, but that is because +> their aim is to model the detailed chemical and electrodynamic +> processes in the nerve cell rather than to just do the minimal amount +> of computation necessary to replicate those features of its response +> function which are relevant for the total performance of the neural +> net. It is not known how much of the detail that is contingent and +> inessential and how much needs to be preserved in order for the +> simulation to replicate the performance of the whole. It seems like a +> good bet though, at least to the author, that the nodes could be +> strongly simplified and replaced with simple standardized elements. It +> appears perfectly feasible to have an intelligent neural network with +> any of a large variety of neuronal output functions and time delays. +> +> It does look plausible, however, that by the time when we know how to +> simulate an idealized neuron and know enough about the brain's +> synaptic structure that we can put the artificial neurons together in +> a way that functionally mirrors how it is done in the brain, then we +> will also be able to replace whole 1000-neuron modules with something +> that requires less computational power to simulate than it does to +> simulate all the neuron in the module individually. We might well get +> all the way down to a mere 1000 instructions per neuron and second, as +> is implied by Moravec's estimate (10^14 ops / 10^11 neurons = 1000 +> operations per second and neuron). But unless we can build these +> modules without first building a whole brain then this optimization +> will only be possible after we have already developed human-equivalent +> artificial intelligence. +> +> If we assume the upper bound on the computational power needed to +> simulate the human brain, i.e. if we assume enough power to simulate +> each neuron individually (10^17 ops), then Moore's law says that we +> will have to wait until about 2015 or 2024 (for doubling times of 12 +> and 18 months, respectively) before supercomputers with the requisite +> performance are at hand. But if by then we know how to do the +> simulation on the level of individual neurons, we will presumably also +> have figured out how to make at least some optimizations, so we could +> probably adjust these upper bounds a bit downwards. +> +> So far I have been talking only of processor speed, but computers need +> a great deal of memory too if they are to replicate the brain's +> performance. Throughout the history of computers, the ratio between +> memory and speed has remained more or less constant at about 1 +> byte/ops. Since a signal is transmitted along a synapse, on average, +> with a frequency of about 100 Hz and since its memory capacity is +> probably less than 100 bytes (1 byte looks like a more reasonable +> estimate), it seems that speed rather than memory would be the +> bottleneck in brain simulations on the neuronal level. (If we instead +> assume that we can achieve a thousand-fold leverage in our simulation +> speed as assumed in Moravec's estimate, then that would bring the +> requirement of speed down, perhaps, one order of magnitude below the +> memory requirement. But if we can optimize away three orders of +> magnitude on speed by simulating 1000-neuron aggregates, we will +> probably be able to cut away at least one order of magnitude of the +> memory requirement. Thus the difficulty of building enough memory may +> be significantly smaller, and is almost certainly not significantly +> greater, than the difficulty of building a processor that is fast +> enough. We can therefore focus on speed as the critical parameter on +> the hardware front.) +> +> This paper does not discuss the possibility that quantum phenomena are +> irreducibly involved in human cognition. [Hameroff and +> Penrose](http://psyche.cs.monash.edu.au/psyche-index-v2.html) and +> others have suggested that coherent quantum states may exist in the +> microtubules, and that the brain utilizes these phenomena to perform +> high-level cognitive feats. The author's opinion is that this is +> implausible. The controversy surrounding this issue won't be entered +> into here; it will simply be assumed, throughout this paper, that +> quantum phenomena are not functionally relevant to high-level brain +> modelling. +> +> In conclusion we can say that the hardware capacity for +> human-equivalent artificial intelligence will likely exist before the +> end of the first quater of the next century, and may be reached as +> early as 2004. A corresponding capacity should be available to leading +> AI labs within ten years thereafter (or sooner if the potential of +> human-level AI and superintelligence is by then better appreciated by +> funding agencies). +> +> Notes +> +> \ It is possible to nit-pick on this estimate. For example, there +> is some evidence that some limited amount of communication between +> nerve cells is possible without synaptic transmission. And we have the +> regulatory mechanisms consisting neurotransmitters and their sources, +> receptors and re-uptake channels. While neurotransmitter balances are +> crucially important for the proper functioning of the human brain, +> they have an insignificant information content compared to the +> synaptic structure. Perhaps a more serious point is that that neurons +> often have rather complex time-integration properties (Koch 1997). +> Whether a specific set of synaptic inputs result in the firing of a +> neuron depends on their exact timing. The authors' opinion is that +> except possibly for a small number of special applications such as +> auditory stereo perception, the temporal properties of the neurons can +> easily be accommodated with a time resolution of the simulation on the +> order of 1 ms. In an unoptimized simulation this would add an order of +> magnitude to the estimate given above, where we assumed a temporal +> resolution of 10 ms, corresponding to an average firing rate of 100 +> Hz. However, the other values on which the estimate was based appear +> to be too high rather than too low , so we should not change the +> estimate much to allow for possible fine-grained time-integration +> effects in a neuron's dendritic tree. (Note that even if we were to +> adjust our estimate upward by an order of magnitude, this would merely +> add three to five years to the predicted upper bound on when +> human-equivalent hardware arrives. The lower bound, which is based on +> Moravec's estimate, would remain unchanged.) +> +>   +> +> **Software via the bottom-up approach** +> +> Superintelligence requires software as well as hardware. There are +> several approaches to the software problem, varying in the amount of +> top-down direction they require. At the one extreme we have systems +> like CYC which is a very large encyclopedia-like knowledge-base and +> inference-engine. It has been spoon-fed facts, rules of thumb and +> heuristics for over a decade by a team of human knowledge enterers. +> While systems like CYC might be good for certain practical tasks, this +> hardly seems like an approach that will convince AI-skeptics that +> superintelligence might well happen in the foreseeable future. We have +> to look at paradigms that require less human input, ones that make +> more use of bottom-up methods. +> +> Given sufficient hardware and the right sort of programming, we could +> make the machines learn in the same way a child does, i.e. by +> interacting with human adults and other objects in the environment. +> The learning mechanisms used by the brain are currently not completely +> understood. Artificial neural networks in real-world applications +> today are usually trained through some variant of the Backpropagation +> algorithm (which is known to be biologically unrealistic). The +> Backpropagation algorithm works fine for smallish networks (of up to a +> few thousand neurons) but it doesn't scale well. The time it takes to +> train a network tends to increase dramatically with the number of +> neurons it contains. Another limitation of backpropagation is that it +> is a form of supervised learning, requiring that signed error terms +> for each output neuron are specified during learning. It's not clear +> how such detailed performance feedback on the level of individual +> neurons could be provided in real-world situations except for certain +> well-defined specialized tasks. +> +> A biologically more realistic learning mode is the Hebbian algorithm. +> Hebbian learning is unsupervised and it might also have better scaling +> properties than Backpropagation. However, it has yet to be explained +> how Hebbian learning by itself could produce all the forms of learning +> and adaptation of which the human brain is capable (such the storage +> of structured representation in long-term memory - +> [Bostrom 1996](http://www.nickbostrom.com/cortical.htm)). Presumably, +> Hebb's rule would at least need to be supplemented with reward-induced +> learning (Morillo 1992) and maybe with other learning modes that are +> yet to be discovered. It does seems plausible, though, to assume that +> only a very limited set of different learning rules (maybe as few as +> two or three) are operating in the human brain. And we are not very +> far from knowing what these rules are. +> +> Creating superintelligence through imitating the functioning of the +> human brain requires two more things in addition to appropriate +> learning rules (and sufficiently powerful hardware): it requires +> having an adequate initial architecture and providing a rich flux of +> sensory input. +> +> The latter prerequisite is easily provided even with present +> technology. Using video cameras, microphones and tactile sensors, it +> is possible to ensure a steady flow of real-world information to the +> artificial neural network. An interactive element could be arranged by +> connecting the system to robot limbs and a speaker. +> +> Developing an adequate initial network structure is a more serious +> problem. It might turn out to be necessary to do a considerable amount +> of hand-coding in order to get the cortical architecture right. In +> biological organisms, the brain does not start out at birth as a +> homogenous tabula rasa; it has an initial structure that is coded +> genetically. Neuroscience cannot, at its present stage, say exactly +> what this structure is or how much of it needs be preserved in a +> simulation that is eventually to match the cognitive competencies of a +> human adult. One way for it to be unexpectedly difficult to achieve +> human-level AI through the neural network approach would be if it +> turned out that the human brain relies on a colossal amount of genetic +> hardwiring, so that each cognitive function depends on a unique and +> hopelessly complicated inborn architecture, acquired over aeons in the +> evolutionary learning process of our species. +> +> Is this the case? A number of considerations that suggest otherwise. +> We have to contend ourselves with a very brief review here. For a more +> comprehensive discussion, the reader may consult Phillips & Singer +> (1997). +> +> Quartz & Sejnowski (1997) argue from recent neurobiological data that +> the developing human cortex is largely free of domain-specific +> structures. The representational properties of the specialized +> circuits that we find in the mature cortex are not generally +> genetically prespecified. Rather, they are developed through +> interaction with the problem domains on which the circuits operate. +> There are genetically coded tendencies for certain brain areas to +> specialize on certain tasks (for example primary visual processing is +> usually performed in the primary visual cortex) but this does not mean +> that other cortical areas couldn't have learnt to perform the same +> function. In fact, the human neocortex seems to start out as a fairly +> flexible and general-purpose mechanism; specific modules arise later +> through self-organizing and through interacting with the environment. +> +> Strongly supporting this view is the fact that cortical lesions, even +> sizeable ones, can often be compensated for if they occur at an early +> age. Other cortical areas take over the functions that would normally +> have been developed in the destroyed region. In one study, sensitivity +> to visual features was developed in the auditory cortex of neonatal +> ferrets, after that region's normal auditory input channel had been +> replaced by visual projections (Sur et al. 1988). Similarly, it has +> been shown that the visual cortex can take over functions normally +> performed by the somatosensory cortex (Schlaggar & O'Leary 1991). A +> recent experiment (Cohen et al. 1997) showed that people who have been +> blind from an early age can use their visual cortex to process tactile +> stimulation when reading Braille. +> +> There are some more primitive regions of the brain whose functions +> cannot be taken over by any other area. For example, people who have +> their hippocampus removed, lose their ability to learn new episodic or +> semantic facts. But the neocortex tends to be highly plastic and that +> is where most of the high-level processing is executed that makes us +> intellectually superior to other animals. (It would be interesting to +> examine in more detail to what extent this holds true for all of +> neocortex. Are there small neocortical regions such that, if excised +> at birth, the subject will never obtain certain high-level +> competencies, not even to a limited degree?) +> +> Another consideration that seems to indicate that innate architectural +> differentiation plays a relatively small part in accounting for the +> performance of the mature brain is the that neocortical architecture, +> especially in infants, is remarkably homogeneous over different +> cortical regions and even over different species: +> +> > Laminations and vertical connections between lamina are hallmarks of +> > all cortical systems, the morphological and physiological +> > characteristics of cortical neurons are equivalent in different +> > species, as are the kinds of synaptic interactions involving +> > cortical neurons. This similarity in the organization of the +> > cerebral cortex extends even to the specific details of cortical +> > circuitry. (White 1989, p. 179). +> +> One might object that at this point that cetaceans have much bigger +> corticies than humans and yet they don't have human-level abstract +> understanding and language \. A large cortex, apparently, is not +> sufficient for human intelligence. However, one can easily imagine +> that some very simple difference between human and cetacean brains can +> account for why we have abstract language and understanding that they +> lack. It could be something as trivial as that our cortex is provided +> with a low-level "drive" to learn about abstract relationships whereas +> dolphins and whales are programmed not to care about or pay much +> attention to such things (which might be totally irrelevant to them in +> their natural environment). More likely, there are some structural +> developments in the human cortex that other animals lack and that are +> necessary for advanced abstract thinking. But these uniquely human +> developments may well be the result of relatively simple changes in +> just a few basic parameters. They do not require a large amount of +> genetic hardwiring. Indeed, given that brain evolution that allowed +> Homo Sapiens to intellectually outclass other animals took place under +> a relatively brief period of time, evolution cannot have embedded very +> much content-specific information in these additional cortical +> structures that give us our intellectual edge over our humanoid or +> ape-like ancestors. +> +> These considerations (especially the one of cortical plasticity) +> suggest that the amount of neuroscientific information needed for the +> bottom-up approach to succeed may be very limited. (Notice that they +> do not argue against the modularization of adult human brains. They +> only indicate that the greatest part of the information that goes into +> the modularization results from self-organization and perceptual input +> rather than from an immensely complicated genetic look-up table.) +> +> Further advances in neuroscience are probably needed before we can +> construct a human-level (or even higher animal-level) artificial +> intelligence by means of this radically bottom-up approach. While it +> is true that neuroscience has advanced very rapidly in recent years, +> it is difficult to estimate how long it will take before enough is +> known about the brain's neuronal architecture and its learning +> algorithms to make it possible to replicate these in a computer of +> sufficient computational power. A wild guess: something like fifteen +> years. This is not a prediction about how far we are from a complete +> understanding of all important phenomena in the brain. The estimate +> refers to the time when we might be expected to know enough about the +> basic principles of how the brain works to be able to implement these +> computational paradigms on a computer, without necessarily modelling +> the brain in any biologically realistic way. +> +> The estimate might seem to some to underestimate the difficulties, and +> perhaps it does. But consider how much has happened in the past +> fifteen years. The discipline of computational neuroscience did hardly +> even exist back in 1982. And future progress will occur not only +> because research with today's instrumentation will continue to produce +> illuminating findings, but also because new experimental tools and +> techniques become available. Large-scale multi-electrode recordings +> should be feasible within the near future. Neuro/chip interfaces are +> in development. More powerful hardware is being made available to +> neuroscientists to do computation-intensive simulations. +> Neuropharmacologists design drugs with higher specificity, allowing +> researches to selectively target given receptor subtypes. Present +> scanning techniques are improved and new ones are under development. +> The list could be continued. All these innovations will give +> neuroscientists very powerful new tools that will facilitate their +> research. +> +> This section has discussed the software problem. It was argued that it +> can be solved through a bottom-up approach by using present equipment +> to supply the input and output channels, and by continuing to study +> the human brain in order to find out about what learning algorithm it +> uses and about the initial neuronal structure in new-born infants. +> Considering how large strides computational neuroscience has taken in +> the last decade, and the new experimental instrumentation that is +> under development, it seems reasonable to suppose that the required +> neuroscientific knowledge might be obtained in perhaps fifteen years +> from now, i.e. by year 2012. +> +> Notes +> +> \ That dolphins don't have abstract language was recently +> established in a very elegant experiment. A pool is divided into two +> halves by a net. Dolphin A is released into one end of the pool where +> there is a mechanism. After a while, the dolphin figures out how to +> operate the mechanism which causes dead fish to be released into both +> ends of the pool. Then A is transferred to the other end of the pool +> and a dolphin B is released into the end of the pool that has the +> mechanism. The idea is that if the dolphins had a language, then A +> would tell B to operate the mechanism. However, it was found that the +> average time for B to operate the mechanism was the same as for A. +> +>   +> +> **Why the past failure of AI is no argument against its future +> success** +> +> In the seventies and eighties the AI field suffered some stagnation as +> the exaggerated expectations from the early heydays failed to +> materialize and progress nearly ground to a halt. The lesson to draw +> from this episode is not that strong AI is dead and that +> superintelligent machines will never be built. It shows that AI is +> more difficult than some of the early pioneers might have thought, but +> it goes no way towards showing that AI will forever remain unfeasible. +> +> In retrospect we know that the AI project couldn't possibly have +> succeeded at that stage. The hardware was simply not powerful enough. +> It seems that at least about 100 Tops is required for human-like +> performance, and possibly as much as 10^17 ops is needed. The +> computers in the seventies had a computing power comparable to that of +> insects. They also achieved approximately insect-level intelligence. +> Now, on the other hand, we can foresee the arrival of human-equivalent +> hardware, so the cause of AI's past failure will then no longer be +> present. +> +> There is also an explanation for the relative absence even of +> noticeable progress during this period. As Hans Moravec points out: +> +> > \[F\]or several decades the computing power found in advanced +> > Artificial Intelligence and Robotics systems has been stuck at +> > insect brain power of 1 MIPS. While computer power per dollar fell +> > \[should be: rose\] rapidly during this period, the money available +> > fell just as fast. The earliest days of AI, in the mid 1960s, were +> > fuelled by lavish post-Sputnik defence funding, which gave access to +> > $10,000,000 supercomputers of the time. In the post Vietnam war days +> > of the 1970s, funding declined and only $1,000,000 machines were +> > available. By the early 1980s, AI research had to settle for +> > $100,000 minicomputers. In the late 1980s, the available machines +> > were $10,000 workstations. By the 1990s, much work was done on +> > personal computers costing only a few thousand dollars. Since then +> > AI and robot brain power has risen with improvements in computer +> > efficiency. By 1993 personal computers provided 10 MIPS, by 1995 it +> > was 30 MIPS, and in 1997 it is over 100 MIPS. Suddenly machines are +> > reading text, recognizing speech, and robots are driving themselves +> > cross country. +> > ([Moravec 1997](http://www.frc.ri.cmu.edu/~hpm/book97/book97.index.html)) +> +> In general, there seems to be a new-found sense of optimism and +> excitement among people working in AI, especially among those taking a +> bottom-up approach, such as researchers in genetic algorithms, +> neuromorphic engineering and in neural networks hardware +> implementations. Many experts who have been around, though, are wary +> not again to underestimate the difficulties ahead. +> +>   +> +> **Once there is human-level AI there will soon be superintelligence** +> +> Once artificial intelligence reaches human level, there will be a +> positive feedback loop that will give the development a further boost. +> AIs would help constructing better AIs, which in turn would help +> building better AIs, and so forth. +> +> Even if no further software development took place and the AIs did not +> accumulate new skills through self-learning, the AIs would still get +> smarter if processor speed continued to increase. If after 18 months +> the hardware were upgraded to double the speed, we would have an AI +> that could think twice as fast as its original implementation. After a +> few more doublings this would directly lead to what has been called +> "weak superintelligence", i.e. an intellect that has about the same +> abilities as a human brain but is much faster. +> +> Also, the marginal utility of improvements in AI when AI reaches +> human-level would also seem to skyrocket, causing funding to increase. +> We can therefore make the prediction that once there is human-level +> artificial intelligence then it will not be long before +> superintelligence is technologically feasible. +> +> A further point can be made in support of this prediction. In contrast +> to what's possible for biological intellects, it might be possible to +> copy skills or cognitive modules from one artificial intellect to +> another. If one AI has achieved eminence in some field, then +> subsequent AIs can upload the pioneer's program or synaptic +> weight-matrix and immediately achieve the same level of performance. +> It would not be necessary to again go through the training process. +> Whether it will also be possible to copy the best parts of several AIs +> and combine them into one will depend on details of implementation and +> the degree to which the AIs are modularized in a standardized fashion. +> But as a general rule, the intellectual achievements of artificial +> intellects are additive in a way that human achievements are not, or +> only to a much less degree. +> +>   +> +> **The demand for superintelligence** +> +> Given that superintelligence will one day be technologically feasible, +> will people choose to develop it? This question can pretty confidently +> be answered in the affirmative. Associated with every step along the +> road to superintelligence are enormous economic payoffs. The computer +> industry invests huge sums in the next generation of hardware and +> software, and it will continue doing so as long as there is a +> competitive pressure and profits to be made. People want better +> computers and smarter software, and they want the benefits these +> machines can help produce. Better medical drugs; relief for humans +> from the need to perform boring or dangerous jobs; entertainment -- +> there is no end to the list of consumer-benefits. There is also a +> strong military motive to develop artificial intelligence. And nowhere +> on the path is there any natural stopping point where technofobics +> could plausibly argue "hither but not further". +> +> It therefore seems that up to human-equivalence, the driving-forces +> behind improvements in AI will easily overpower whatever resistance +> might be present. When the question is about human-level or greater +> intelligence then it is conceivable that there might be strong +> political forces opposing further development. Superintelligence might +> be seen to pose a threat to the supremacy, and even to the survival, +> of the human species. Whether by suitable programming we can arrange +> the motivation systems of the superintelligences in such a way as to +> guarantee perpetual obedience and subservience, or at least +> non-harmfulness, to humans is a contentious topic. If future +> policy-makers can be sure that AIs would not endanger human interests +> then the development of artificial intelligence will continue. If they +> can't be sure that there would be no danger, then the development +> might well continue anyway, either because people don't regard the +> gradual displacement of biological humans with machines as necessarily +> a bad outcome, or because such strong forces (motivated by short-term +> profit, curiosity, ideology, or desire for the capabilities that +> superintelligences might bring to its creators) are active that a +> collective decision to ban new research in this field can not be +> reached and successfully implemented. +> +>   +> +> **Conclusion** +> +> Depending on degree of optimization assumed, human-level intelligence +> probably requires between 10^14 and 10^17 ops. It seems quite possible +> that very advanced optimization could reduce this figure further, but +> the entrance level would probably not be less than about 10^14 ops. If +> Moore's law continues to hold then the lower bound will be reached +> sometime between 2004 and 2008, and the upper bound between 2015 and +> 2024. The past success of Moore's law gives some inductive reason to +> believe that it will hold another ten, fifteen years or so; and this +> prediction is supported by the fact that there are many promising new +> technologies currently under development which hold great potential to +> increase procurable computing power. There is no direct reason to +> suppose that Moore's law will not hold longer than 15 years. It thus +> seems likely that the requisite hardware for human-level artificial +> intelligence will be assembled in the first quarter of the next +> century, possibly within the first few years. +> +> There are several approaches to developing the software. One is to +> emulate the basic principles of biological brains. It is not +> implausible to suppose that these principles will be well enough known +> within 15 years for this approach to succeed, given adequate hardware. +> +> The stagnation of AI during the seventies and eighties does not have +> much bearing on the likelihood of AI to succeed in the future since we +> know that the cause responsible for the stagnation (namely, that the +> hardware available to AI researchers was stuck at about 10^6 ops) is +> no longer present. +> +> There will be a strong and increasing pressure to improve AI up to +> human-level. If there is a way of guaranteeing that superior +> artificial intellects will never harm human beings then such +> intellects will be created. If there is no way to have such a +> guarantee then they will probably be created nevertheless. +> +> . +> +> Postscript I +> +> (25 October, 1998) +> +> The U.S. Department of Energy has ordered a new supercomputer from +> IBM, to be installed in the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory in +> the year 2000. It will cost $85 million and will perform 10 Tops. This +> development is in accordance with Moore's law, or possibly slightly +> more rapid than an extrapolation would have predicted. +> +> Many steps forward that have been taken during the past year. An +> especially nifty one is the new chip-making techniques being developed +> at Irvine Sensors Corporation (ISC). They have found a way to stack +> chips directly on top of each other in a way that will not only save +> space but, more importantly, allow a larger number of interconnections +> between neigboring chips. Since the number of interconnections have +> been a bottleneck in neural network hardware implementations, this +> breakthrough could prove very important. In principle, it should allow +> you to have an arbitrarily large cube of neural network modules with +> high local connectivity and moderate non-local connectivity. +> +> Postscript II +> +> (28 August, 2000) +> +> Is progress still on schedule? - In fact, things seem to be moving +> somewhat faster than expected, at least on the hardware front. +> (Software progress is more difficult to quantify.) IBM is currently +> working on a next-generation supercomputer, Blue Gene, which will +> perform over 10^15 ops. This computer, which is designed to tackle the +> protein folding problem, is expected to be ready around 2005. It will +> achieve its enormous power through massive parallelism rather than +> through dramatically faster processors. Considering the increasing +> emphasis on parallel computing, and the steadily increasing Internet +> bandwidth, it becomes important to interpret Moore's law as a +> statement about how much computing power can be bought for a given sum +> of (inflation adjusted) money. This measure has historically been +> growing at the same pace as processor speed or chip density, but the +> measures may come apart in the future. It is how much computing power +> that can be bought for, say, 100 million dollars that is relevant when +> we are trying to guess when superintelligence will be developed, +> rather than how fast individual processors are. +> +> Postscript III +> +> (30 October, 2005) +> +> The fastest supercomputer today is IBM's Blue Gene/L, which has +> attained 260 Tops (2.6\*10^14 ops). The Moravec estimate of the human +> brain's processing power (10^14 ops) has thus now been exceeded. +> +> The 'Blue Brain' project was launched by the Brain Mind Institute, +> EPFL, Switzerland and IBM, USA in May, 2005. It aims to build an +> accurate software replica of the neocortical column within 2-3 years. +> The column will consist of 10,000 morphologically complex neurons with +> active ionic channels. The neurons will be interconnected in a +> 3-dimensional space with 10^7 -10^8 dynamic synapses. This project +> will thus use a level of simulation that attempts to capture the +> functionality of individual neurons at a very detailed level. The +> simulation is intended to run in real time on a computer preforming +> 22.8\*10^12 flops. Simulating the entire brain in real time at this +> level of detail (which the researchers indicate as a goal for later +> stages of the project) would correspond to circa 2\*10^19 ops, five +> orders of magnitude above the current supercomputer record. This is +> two orders of magnitude greater than the estimate of neural-level +> simulation given in the original paper above, which assumes a cruder +> level of simulation of neurons. If the 'Blue Brain' project succeeds, +> it will give us hard evidence of an upper bound on the computing power +> needed to achieve human intelligence. +> +> Functional replication of the functionality of early auditory +> processing (which is quite well understood) has yielded an estimate +> that agrees with Moravec's assessment based on signal processing in +> the retina (i.e. 10^14 ops for whole-brain equivalent replication). +> +> No dramatic breakthrough in general artificial intelligence seems to +> have occurred in recent years. Neuroscience and neuromorphic +> engineering are proceeding at a rapid clip, however. Much of the paper +> could now be rewritten and updated to take into account information +> that has become available in the past 8 years. +> +> Molecular nanotechnology, a technology that in its mature form could +> enable mind uploading (an extreme version of the bottom-up method, in +> which a detailed 3-dimensional map is constructed of a particular +> human brain and then emulated in a computer), has begun to pick up +> steam, receiving increasing funding and attention. An upload running +> on a fast computer would be weakly superintelligent -- it would +> initially be functionally identical to the original organic brain, but +> it could run at a much higher speed. Once such an upload existed, it +> might be possible to enhance its architecture to create strong +> superintelligence that was not only faster but functionally superior +> to human intelligence. +> +> Postscript IV +> +> (12 March, 2008) diff --git a/_stories/1997/11324202.md b/_stories/1997/11324202.md index cb541fd..b209974 100644 --- a/_stories/1997/11324202.md +++ b/_stories/1997/11324202.md @@ -19,109 +19,76 @@ _tags: objectID: '11324202' --- -[Source](http://www.nytimes.com/1997/07/29/science/to-test-a-powerful-computer-play-an-ancient-game.html "Permalink to To Test a Powerful Computer, Play an Ancient Game - The New York Times") +Deep Blue defeated the world chess champion by leveraging a moderate +amount of chess knowledge with a huge amount of blind, high-speed +searching power. -# To Test a Powerful Computer, Play an Ancient Game - The New York Times +But this roughshod approach is powerless against the intricacies of Go, +leaving computers at a distinct disadvantage. ''Brute-force searching is +completely and utterly worthless for Go,'' said David Fotland, a +computer engineer for Hewlett-Packard who is the author of one of the +strongest programs, called The Many Faces of Go. ''You have to make a +program play smart like a person.'' -__NYTimes.com no longer supports Internet Explorer 9 or earlier. Please upgrade your browser. [LEARN MORE »][1] +To play a decent game of Go, a computer must be endowed with the ability +to recognize subtle, complex patterns and to draw on the kind of +intuitive knowledge that is the hallmark of human intelligence. -__Sections __ Home __Search [Skip to content][2] [Skip to navigation][3] [View mobile version][4] +''It may be a hundred years before a computer beats humans at Go -- +maybe even longer,'' said Dr. Piet Hut, an astrophysicist at the +Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, N.J., and a fan of the game. +''If a reasonably intelligent person learned to play Go, in a few months +he could beat all existing computer programs. You don't have to be a +Kasparov.'' -## [ The New York Times ][5] +When or if a computer defeats a human Go champion, it will be a sign +that artificial intelligence is truly beginning to become as good as the +real thing. -###### [Science][6]|To Test a Powerful Computer, Play an Ancient Game +''Go is the highest intellectual game,'' said Dr. Chen Zhixing, a +retired chemistry professor at Zhongshan University, in Guangzhou, +China. -__Search - -Subscribe Now Log In __0 __Settings - -__Close search - -## Site Search Navigation - -Search NYTimes.com - -__Clear this text input - -Go - -1. Loading... - -See next articles - -See previous articles - -## Site Navigation - -## Site Mobile Navigation +Dr. Zhixing has spent the last six years perfecting Handtalk, the winner +of several recent international competitions. In Go, he said, the mind +is dazzled by the beauty of the patterns unfolding on the board, and a +sequence of moves can be as mesmerizing as a melody. The trick is to get +a computer to compose and understand this visual music. Advertisement -Supported by +[Continue reading the main story](#story-continues-4) -### [Science][6] +On its surface, Go seems simple compared with chess. A chess match +begins with two facing armies of 16 pieces, ranking from pawn to king, +on a 64-square board. Each of the six kinds of pieces is allowed to move +only in certain ways -- bishops diagonally; knights in L-shaped paths. -# To Test a Powerful Computer, Play an Ancient Game +In Go there are few such complications. All of a player's stones are +identical. A game begins with a blank 19-by-19 grid (sometimes smaller +ones are used), and the two contestants take turns placing their stones +(black for one side, white for the other) on any of the unoccupied +intersections. -By [GEORGE JOHNSON][7]JULY 29, 1997 +A player can capture a group of an opponent's stones by surrounding it +and then removing the cluster from the board. The object of the game is +to build complex fence-like structures enclosing as much territory as +possible. -[Continue reading the main story][8] Share This Page +''In chess you start with everything you have on the board,'' said Tim +Klinger, a graduate student in computer science at New York University +who is studying computer Go. ''In Go you start from nothing and build.'' -[Continue reading the main story][8] - -**Correction Appended** - -DEEP BLUE's recent trouncing of Garry Kasparov sent shock waves through the Western world. In much of the Orient, however, the news that a computer had beaten a chess champion was likely to have been met with a yawn. - -While there are avid chess players in Japan, China, Korea and throughout the East, far more popular is the deceptively simple game of Go, in which black and white pieces called stones are used to form intricate, interlocking patterns that sprawl across the board. So subtle and beautiful is this ancient game that, to hear aficionados describe it, Go is to chess what Asian martial arts like aikido are to a boxing match. - -And, Go fans proudly note, a computer has not come close to mastering what remains a uniquely human game. - -Over the last decade, inspired in part by a $1.4 million prize offered by a Taiwanese organization for a computer program that can beat a champion human player, designers have been coming up with better and better Go-playing machines. Later this year, about $25,000 in prizes will be given to the best programs in two annual international contests in Japan and the United States. - -Advertisement - -[Continue reading the main story][8] - -As impressive as the winners of these tournaments have been, they can still be defeated by even an amateur player with perhaps a year's experience. - -[Continue reading the main story][9] - -Advertisement - -[Continue reading the main story][10] - -Deep Blue defeated the world chess champion by leveraging a moderate amount of chess knowledge with a huge amount of blind, high-speed searching power. - -But this roughshod approach is powerless against the intricacies of Go, leaving computers at a distinct disadvantage. ''Brute-force searching is completely and utterly worthless for Go,'' said David Fotland, a computer engineer for Hewlett-Packard who is the author of one of the strongest programs, called The Many Faces of Go. ''You have to make a program play smart like a person.'' - -To play a decent game of Go, a computer must be endowed with the ability to recognize subtle, complex patterns and to draw on the kind of intuitive knowledge that is the hallmark of human intelligence. - -''It may be a hundred years before a computer beats humans at Go -- maybe even longer,'' said Dr. Piet Hut, an astrophysicist at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, N.J., and a fan of the game. ''If a reasonably intelligent person learned to play Go, in a few months he could beat all existing computer programs. You don't have to be a Kasparov.'' - -When or if a computer defeats a human Go champion, it will be a sign that artificial intelligence is truly beginning to become as good as the real thing. - -''Go is the highest intellectual game,'' said Dr. Chen Zhixing, a retired chemistry professor at Zhongshan University, in Guangzhou, China. - -Dr. Zhixing has spent the last six years perfecting Handtalk, the winner of several recent international competitions. In Go, he said, the mind is dazzled by the beauty of the patterns unfolding on the board, and a sequence of moves can be as mesmerizing as a melody. The trick is to get a computer to compose and understand this visual music. - -Advertisement - -[Continue reading the main story][11] - -On its surface, Go seems simple compared with chess. A chess match begins with two facing armies of 16 pieces, ranking from pawn to king, on a 64-square board. Each of the six kinds of pieces is allowed to move only in certain ways -- bishops diagonally; knights in L-shaped paths. - -In Go there are few such complications. All of a player's stones are identical. A game begins with a blank 19-by-19 grid (sometimes smaller ones are used), and the two contestants take turns placing their stones (black for one side, white for the other) on any of the unoccupied intersections. - -A player can capture a group of an opponent's stones by surrounding it and then removing the cluster from the board. The object of the game is to build complex fence-like structures enclosing as much territory as possible. - -''In chess you start with everything you have on the board,'' said Tim Klinger, a graduate student in computer science at New York University who is studying computer Go. ''In Go you start from nothing and build.'' - -Stone by stone, you try to construct enclaves, engulfing those of your opponent, who is all the time trying to engulf your own. Adding to the complications, there are usually several skirmishes going on simultaneously in different corners of the board. If chess is like a medieval battle, it is sometimes said, Go is more like a world war. And it can be maddeningly difficult to determine who is ahead. +Stone by stone, you try to construct enclaves, engulfing those of your +opponent, who is all the time trying to engulf your own. Adding to the +complications, there are usually several skirmishes going on +simultaneously in different corners of the board. If chess is like a +medieval battle, it is sometimes said, Go is more like a world war. And +it can be maddeningly difficult to determine who is ahead. ## Newsletter Sign Up -[Continue reading the main story][12] +[Continue reading the main story](#continues-post-newsletter) ### @@ -131,285 +98,154 @@ Invalid email address. Please re-enter. You must select a newsletter to subscribe to. -Sign Up - -You agree to receive occasional updates and special offers for The New York Times's products and services. +You agree to receive occasional updates and special offers for The New +York Times's products and services. ### Thank you for subscribing. ### An error has occurred. Please try again later. -### You are already subscribed to this email. +[View all New York Times newsletters.](/newsletters) -[View all New York Times newsletters.][13] +''In chess, if a player loses even a single pawn at world champion +level, it can decide the game maybe 99 percent of the time,'' said Dr. +Hans Berliner, a computer scientist at Carnegie-Mellon University in +Pittsburgh who is an expert on computer chess. ''In Go, you keep hearing +people say that you can lose a life-and-death battle along the edge of +the board, but that is far from deciding the outcome. You can go on to +other battles. It's a very different kind of game.'' -* [See Sample][14] -* [Manage Email Preferences][15] -* [Not you?][16] -* [Privacy Policy][17] -* Opt out or [contact us][18] anytime +From the point of view of a computer, the difference could not be more +profound. Because of the tight constraints in how chess pieces can be +moved, a player is faced with an average of only about 35 legal moves to +consider with each turn. Computer programs like Deep Blue analyze these +moves, considering the opponent's possible countermoves, and then the +countermoves to the countermoves. In computer chess terminology, each +move and its response is called a ply. The fastest chess programs look +ahead seven or eight plies into the game. -''In chess, if a player loses even a single pawn at world champion level, it can decide the game maybe 99 percent of the time,'' said Dr. Hans Berliner, a computer scientist at Carnegie-Mellon University in Pittsburgh who is an expert on computer chess. ''In Go, you keep hearing people say that you can lose a life-and-death battle along the edge of the board, but that is far from deciding the outcome. You can go on to other battles. It's a very different kind of game.'' +The result is a densely proliferating tree of possibilities with the +branches and twigs representing all the different ways the game could +unfold. Looking ahead just seven plies (14 individual chess moves) +requires examining 3514 (more than a billion trillion) leaves +representing all the various outcomes. -From the point of view of a computer, the difference could not be more profound. Because of the tight constraints in how chess pieces can be moved, a player is faced with an average of only about 35 legal moves to consider with each turn. Computer programs like Deep Blue analyze these moves, considering the opponent's possible countermoves, and then the countermoves to the countermoves. In computer chess terminology, each move and its response is called a ply. The fastest chess programs look ahead seven or eight plies into the game. - -The result is a densely proliferating tree of possibilities with the branches and twigs representing all the different ways the game could unfold. Looking ahead just seven plies (14 individual chess moves) requires examining 3514 (more than a billion trillion) leaves representing all the various outcomes. - -As the computer tries to look deeper, the number of possibilities explodes. Programmers have learned clever ways to ''prune'' the trees, so that all but a fraction of the paths can be discarded without plumbing them all the way to the bottom. Even so, a chess-playing computer looking ahead seven plies might consider as many as 50 or 60 billion scenarios each time its turn comes around. +As the computer tries to look deeper, the number of possibilities +explodes. Programmers have learned clever ways to ''prune'' the trees, +so that all but a fraction of the paths can be discarded without +plumbing them all the way to the bottom. Even so, a chess-playing +computer looking ahead seven plies might consider as many as 50 or 60 +billion scenarios each time its turn comes around. Advertisement -[Continue reading the main story][19] +[Continue reading the main story](#story-continues-5) -As bad as that sounds, in Go the situation is drastically worse. The tree of possible moves is so broad and dense that not even the fastest computer can negotiate it. The first player can put a stone in any of 361 places; the opponent can respond by placing a stone on any of 360 places, and so on. As the game continues, there are steadily fewer possible places to play. But, on average, a player is faced with about 200 possible moves, compared with just 35 in chess. +As bad as that sounds, in Go the situation is drastically worse. The +tree of possible moves is so broad and dense that not even the fastest +computer can negotiate it. The first player can put a stone in any of +361 places; the opponent can respond by placing a stone on any of 360 +places, and so on. As the game continues, there are steadily fewer +possible places to play. But, on average, a player is faced with about +200 possible moves, compared with just 35 in chess. -As a computer scientist would put it, the branching factor is much higher for Go than for chess. In chess the approximate number of possible board positions after only four moves is typically 35x35x35x35= 1,500,625. For Go, the number is 200x200x200x200=1,600,000,000 -- and far more toward the beginning of a game. Search one ply deeper and the numbers rapidly diverge: about 1.8 billion possible outcomes for chess and 64 trillion for Go. +As a computer scientist would put it, the branching factor is much +higher for Go than for chess. In chess the approximate number of +possible board positions after only four moves is typically 35x35x35x35= +1,500,625. For Go, the number is 200x200x200x200=1,600,000,000 -- and +far more toward the beginning of a game. Search one ply deeper and the +numbers rapidly diverge: about 1.8 billion possible outcomes for chess +and 64 trillion for Go. -Looking ahead 14 moves, or seven plies, in Go creates a search tree not with a mere 3514 leaves, as for chess, but with more than 20014 leaves. Pruning techniques cut this down to about ten thousand trillion possibilities to consider. Still, a Go computer as fast as Deep Blue (which analyzed some 200 million chess positions per second) would take a year and a half to mull over a single move. +Looking ahead 14 moves, or seven plies, in Go creates a search tree not +with a mere 3514 leaves, as for chess, but with more than 20014 leaves. +Pruning techniques cut this down to about ten thousand trillion +possibilities to consider. Still, a Go computer as fast as Deep Blue +(which analyzed some 200 million chess positions per second) would take +a year and a half to mull over a single move. -Even worse, performing so laborious a search would give the computer no significant advantage over its human opponent. After sifting through the myriad possibilities, a chess-playing computer tries to choose the move that will leave it in the strongest position. It determines this by using fairly simple formulas called evaluation functions. Each piece can be assigned a number indicating its rank (pawns are worth 1, knights and bishops 3, rooks 5, queens 9). This figure can be multiplied by another number indicating the strength of the piece's position on the board. Other formulas quantify concepts like ''king safety,'' or how wellprotected that piece is. These rules, called heuristics, are hardly infallible, but they give the computer a rough sense of the state of the game and a basis on which to make its decisions. +Even worse, performing so laborious a search would give the computer no +significant advantage over its human opponent. After sifting through the +myriad possibilities, a chess-playing computer tries to choose the move +that will leave it in the strongest position. It determines this by +using fairly simple formulas called evaluation functions. Each piece can +be assigned a number indicating its rank (pawns are worth 1, knights and +bishops 3, rooks 5, queens 9). This figure can be multiplied by another +number indicating the strength of the piece's position on the board. +Other formulas quantify concepts like ''king safety,'' or how +wellprotected that piece is. These rules, called heuristics, are hardly +infallible, but they give the computer a rough sense of the state of the +game and a basis on which to make its decisions. -Go does not succumb to such simple analysis. There is no single piece, like a king, whose loss decides the game. Even counting the amount of territory each player has captured is not very revealing. With the placement of a single stone, a seeming underdog might surround the grand structure his opponent has been assiduously building and turn it -- jujitsu-like -- into his own. ''You're stringing all these stones together, and if you don't watch out the whole collection becomes dinner for your opponent,'' Mr. Klinger said. +Go does not succumb to such simple analysis. There is no single piece, +like a king, whose loss decides the game. Even counting the amount of +territory each player has captured is not very revealing. With the +placement of a single stone, a seeming underdog might surround the grand +structure his opponent has been assiduously building and turn it -- +jujitsu-like -- into his own. ''You're stringing all these stones +together, and if you don't watch out the whole collection becomes dinner +for your opponent,'' Mr. Klinger said. -Expert Go players evaluate the state of the board by using their skills at pattern recognition, and these are very hard to capture in an algorithm. After years of experience, they can look at a complex configuration and sense whether it is ''alive,'' meaning that it is constructed in such a way that it cannot be captured, or ''dead,'' so that no amount of reinforcement can save it. Learning to sense life and death is crucial. A player does not want to waste stones attacking a group that is invulnerable, or defending one that is doomed. Sometimes there are fairly obvious clues: if a group of stones contains two configurations called eyes, it can fend off any attempt to capture it. But often the difference between life and death is difficult to perceive, hinging on a single stone. +Expert Go players evaluate the state of the board by using their skills +at pattern recognition, and these are very hard to capture in an +algorithm. After years of experience, they can look at a complex +configuration and sense whether it is ''alive,'' meaning that it is +constructed in such a way that it cannot be captured, or ''dead,'' so +that no amount of reinforcement can save it. Learning to sense life and +death is crucial. A player does not want to waste stones attacking a +group that is invulnerable, or defending one that is doomed. Sometimes +there are fairly obvious clues: if a group of stones contains two +configurations called eyes, it can fend off any attempt to capture it. +But often the difference between life and death is difficult to +perceive, hinging on a single stone. -Go masters can also sense whether several unconnected stones might be slowly joined to form a group, or whether two smaller groups might be combined into a larger, stronger whole. +Go masters can also sense whether several unconnected stones might be +slowly joined to form a group, or whether two smaller groups might be +combined into a larger, stronger whole. -To get a computer to do this kind of analysis, programmers must confront fundamental problems in artificial intelligence. Mr. Fotland armed his program, The Many Faces of Go, with basic concepts like territory and connectivity (whether several stones are in adjacent positions). It can also recognize some 1,100 different patterns, each of which sets off a sequence of suggested moves, and it has access to about 200 higher-level strategic notions like ''attack a weak group'' or ''expand into a potential territory'' or ''if behind, make unreasonable invasions that you don't expect to work.'' Like Deep Blue, the program draws on a library of standard openings and other commonly used plays. Drawing on this knowledge, it will consider only about 5 or 10 of the approximately 200 possible moves available to it in a typical turn. +To get a computer to do this kind of analysis, programmers must confront +fundamental problems in artificial intelligence. Mr. Fotland armed his +program, The Many Faces of Go, with basic concepts like territory and +connectivity (whether several stones are in adjacent positions). It can +also recognize some 1,100 different patterns, each of which sets off a +sequence of suggested moves, and it has access to about 200 higher-level +strategic notions like ''attack a weak group'' or ''expand into a +potential territory'' or ''if behind, make unreasonable invasions that +you don't expect to work.'' Like Deep Blue, the program draws on a +library of standard openings and other commonly used plays. Drawing on +this knowledge, it will consider only about 5 or 10 of the approximately +200 possible moves available to it in a typical turn. Advertisement -[Continue reading the main story][20] +[Continue reading the main story](#story-continues-6) -But programming this kind of knowledge is extremely difficult. ''People are so good at dealing with fuzzy concepts,'' said David Mechner, a doctoral student in neural science at New York University who is a top-ranked amateur Go player. But how do you tell a computer that several stones might end up being connected, but not necessarily? Mr. Mechner and Mr. Klinger are studying these kinds of problems and fine-tuning an algorithm for recognizing life and death. They hope to soon join the handful of programmers competing to make the best Go program. +But programming this kind of knowledge is extremely difficult. ''People +are so good at dealing with fuzzy concepts,'' said David Mechner, a +doctoral student in neural science at New York University who is a +top-ranked amateur Go player. But how do you tell a computer that +several stones might end up being connected, but not necessarily? Mr. +Mechner and Mr. Klinger are studying these kinds of problems and +fine-tuning an algorithm for recognizing life and death. They hope to +soon join the handful of programmers competing to make the best Go +program. -The winner of the FOST Cup, sponsored by the Japanese Fusion of Science and Technology organization and held in Nagoya next month as part of the International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence, will get about $17,000. The contest for the $7,000 Ing Cup, sponsored by the Ing Chang-ki Wei-Chi Educational Foundation in Taipei, will be held in November in the San Francisco Bay Area. (The winner will have the opportunity to challenge three young Go players for additional prizes). +The winner of the FOST Cup, sponsored by the Japanese Fusion of Science +and Technology organization and held in Nagoya next month as part of the +International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence, will get +about $17,000. The contest for the $7,000 Ing Cup, sponsored by the Ing +Chang-ki Wei-Chi Educational Foundation in Taipei, will be held in +November in the San Francisco Bay Area. (The winner will have the +opportunity to challenge three young Go players for additional prizes). -But winning the $1.4 million prize promised by the Ing foundation to a program that beats a human champion may be an impossible dream. The offer expires in the year 2000. Go programmers are hoping it will be extended for another century or two. +But winning the $1.4 million prize promised by the Ing foundation to a +program that beats a human champion may be an impossible dream. The +offer expires in the year 2000. Go programmers are hoping it will be +extended for another century or two. -_**Correction:** August 11, 1997, Monday An article in Science Times on July 29 about computers that play the game of Go included an incorrect definition for the term ''ply,'' as used in computer chess. 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incorrect +definition for the term ''ply,'' as used in computer chess. It is an +individual move by one player, not a move and its response.* +[Continue reading the main story](#whats-next) diff --git a/_stories/1997/13100910.md b/_stories/1997/13100910.md index 95ad34d..93c4d67 100644 --- a/_stories/1997/13100910.md +++ b/_stories/1997/13100910.md @@ -19,7 +19,45 @@ _tags: objectID: '13100910' --- -[Source](https://mars.nasa.gov/MPF/index0.html "Permalink to ") +[![Skip Navigation: Avoid going through Home page links and jump +straight to content](skip.gif)](#content) +Here is an [all text](mpf/alltext.html) version of this +page. +### What do the Mars Pathfinder spacecraft and the landing site look like in 3-D? [Virtual Reality models and animations galore\!](vrml/vrml.html) +### Join our friends at the National Space Society for ["Mars Madness\!"](http://www.nss.org/mars/) + +### Subscribe to the [Mars Pathfinder Mission Status](mpf/subscribe.html) mailing list\! Or, if you just need a list of past and present [Mars Pathfinder Mission Status reports](mpf/status/statuslist.html)... + +### For a Project Status Report by telephone, please call 1-800-391-6654 and follow the instructions. + +**Live pictures of the [MarsRoom and Mars Pathfinder Mission Operations +Area](webcams/marsroom.html) at JPL\!** + +**Some [Frequently Asked Questions](mpf/faqs.html) and Their Answers\!** + +**Get [Mars Pathfinder merchandise](http://www.jplerc.org/store.htm) +on-line from the JPL Employee Recreation +Club\!** + +## Related Mars Missions + +### Our sister ship, [Mars Global Surveyor](http://mgswww.arc.nasa.gov/index.html)\! + +### Web Interface for Telescience, [Plan and simulate your own rover mission](http://mars.graham.com/wits/index.html)\! + +![JPL](mpfwwwimages/jplred.gif) +JET PROPULSION LABORATORY +CALIFORNIA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY +NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION +PASADENA, CALIF. 91109 +TELEPHONE (818) 354-5011 + +**All information on this website, including text and images describing +the Mars Pathfinder mission, is copyright © 1997, Jet Propulsion +Laboratory, California Institute of Technology and National Aeronautics +and Space Administration.** + +This document was last updated on: 25 July 1997 diff --git a/_stories/1997/14897512.md b/_stories/1997/14897512.md index 56b4724..2d3767f 100644 --- a/_stories/1997/14897512.md +++ b/_stories/1997/14897512.md @@ -19,7 +19,73 @@ _tags: objectID: '14897512' --- -[Source](https://github.com/jagregory/abrash-black-book "Permalink to ") +# [](#michael-abrashs-graphics-programming-black-book)Michael Abrash's Graphics Programming Black Book +This is the source for an ebook version of Michael Abrash's Black Book +of Graphics Programming (Special Edition), originally published in 1997 +and [released online for free +in 2001](http://www.drdobbs.com/parallel/graphics-programming-black-book/184404919). +Reproduced with blessing of Michael Abrash, converted and maintained by +[James Gregory](mailto:james@jagregory.com). +The [Github releases +list](https://github.com/jagregory/abrash-black-book/releases) has an +Epub and Mobi version available for download, and you can find a mirror +of the HTML version at +[www.jagregory.com/abrash-black-book](http://www.jagregory.com/abrash-black-book/). + +## [](#how-does-this-differ-from-the-previously-released-versions)How does this differ from the previously released versions? + +The book is now out of print, and hard to come by. Last time I checked, +it was going for over $200 on ebay. + +The version which Michael and Dr. Dobbs released in 2001 was a +collection of PDF files. That version is [still +available](http://www.drdobbs.com/parallel/graphics-programming-black-book/184404919). +However, the structure (multiple files) and the format (PDF) result in a +poor user experience on an ebook reader or other mobile device. + +This version has been thoroughly cleaned of artifacts and condensed into +something which can easily be converted into an ebook-friendly format. +You can read this version online at Github, or download any of the Epub +or Mobi releases. You can clone the repository and generate your own +version with [pandoc](http://johnmacfarlane.net/pandoc/) if necessary. + +## [](#contributing)Contributing + +Changes are welcome, especially conversion-related ones. If you spot any +problems while reading, please [submit an +issue](https://github.com/jagregory/abrash-black-book/issues) and I'll +correct it. Pull Requests are always welcome. + +Some larger changes could be made to improve the content. I'd love to +see some of the images converted to a vector representation so we can +provide higher-resolution versions. Formulas and equations could be +typeset with [MathJax](http://www.mathjax.org/). + +## [](#generating-your-own-ebook)Generating your own ebook + +You need to have the following software installed and on your `PATH` +before you begin: + + - [pandoc](http://johnmacfarlane.net/pandoc/) for Markdown to HTML and + Epub conversion. + - [kindlegen](http://www.amazon.com/gp/feature.html?docId=1000765211) + for Epub to Mobi conversion. + +To generate an e-reader friendly version of the book, you can use `make` +with one of the following options: + + - `html` - build a HTML5 single-page version of the book + - `epub` - build an Epub3 ebook + - `mobi` - build a Kindle-friendly Mobi + - `all` - do all of the above + +Once complete, there'll be an `out` directory with a `black-book.epub`, +a `black-book.mobi` and a `html` directory with a `black-book.html` +file. + +> Note: Generating a mobi requires an epub to already exist. Also, mobi +> generation can be slow because of compression. If you want a quick +> mobi conversion you can just run `kindlegen out/black-book.epub`. diff --git a/_stories/1997/15455252.md b/_stories/1997/15455252.md index 0c0d2ee..377dc8e 100644 --- a/_stories/1997/15455252.md +++ b/_stories/1997/15455252.md @@ -19,7 +19,226 @@ _tags: objectID: '15455252' --- -[Source](https://games.greggman.com/game/gex/ "Permalink to ") +GEX was one of those projects from Hell. When I was interviewing at +Crystal I was told that Gex was to be the next Sonic. It was to be a +huge hit, the newest mascot, one of those titles that inspires all kinds +of merchandising like toys and cartoons, pens, pencils, notebooks, +underroos, ... Just go into your local Toys R Us and look at all the +stuff with Sonic or Mario on it and you can see why I was very excited +at the opportunity to work on such a product. +When I started on the project there were 4 people on the team. Mira Ross +(Lead artist), Suzanne Dougherty (Artist), Lyle Hall (Producer) and +myself (Lead Programmer). A few months later Justin Knorr was hired as +Lead Designer. +The design to that point was heavily influenced by marketing. The game +was about Gecko X, a Hollywood stuntman (stunt Gecko). The studio he +worked for was in financial trouble and helping it fail were the enemies +Karl Chameleon and his henchmen like Guido Gila. Each level would be +themed around a Hollywood action movie genre. For example the Western. +The level intro would show stock footage of old Hollywood western movies +(for some reason marketing thought this was the greatest idea ever) and +then the level would have Gex going through it doing "stunts". The +better he did the more money the 'Movie' made and therefore the better +the studio did. +One level was designed using that theme and it was just awful. One of +the problems of choosing a real world theme like Western Cowboy Movie is +that you can't make any game play structure you want and still have it +make any sense. For example you can't have floating platforms in the sky +in the a western style town because, well things don't float in the sky +in the old west. If on the otherhand you choose a make-believe or +fantasy theme you can justify any structure you want because well it's +fantasy. For a platform character game, I believe this is a very +important decision. Most of the best games in the category use a fantasy +setting. Mario, Sonic even Earthworm Jim are in completely fantasy +settings and therefore anything that appears in them needs no +explanation. + +Sooo, after seeing the Western Town level design I strongly suggested we +change the design. One to get rid of the incredibly lame concepts of +Stuntman/Hollywood Studio.... and the other to change to a fantasy +setting where any idea we came up with would not need justification. The +change was that Gex would get sucked into 'TV Land' run by some villain. +A place where the villain could make anything happen. This villain had +sucked in many other characters and Gex would rescue all of them while +trying to escape himself. Gex would need to find TV remotes that would +allow him to 'change the channel' (go to new levels) and in each world +when Gex defeated a boss the boss would turn out to be someone that had +been pulled into TV land against his will and then turned into this big +boss by the main villain. This would give that character a chance to +advance the story. + +This new idea was quickly accepted by the team. The main character was +named Rezull by Dan Arey and he had his video warriors (other characters +that were made of TV static) We designed 6 worlds each with 3 sets of +art. One example would be 'horror world' where we had a graveyard art +set, a haunted house art set and a something we called a mode 2 art set. +Mode 2 was supposed to be very similar to the Sega arcade games 'Rail +Chase' and 'Jurassic Park' where the level proceeds into the screen +instead of horizontally scrolling. + +Mira had already been working on the graveyard art set and it became +clear that 32bit art was a much harder process than 16bit art. Here's an +example why. On a Super Nintendo or Sega Genesis, most side scrolling +games use 1000 8x8 pixel cels or less. 1000 8x8 pixel cels all will fit +on one 320x200 pixel screen. In other words, go into any paint program, +make a 320x200 pixel document. Fill it with graphics. You're done\! +You've just drawn all the graphics you can have in one level of a 16 bit +game. Now go to a 32 bit system. We now have memory for 6 to 12 320x200 +screens of graphics per level and we have a CD so we could have even +more graphics per level if we loaded graphics from the CD or at least we +could make each level use a different 6 screens of graphics.. In simple +terms that means each level has at least 6 times the work of an 16bit +level. The graphics for the first level of Gex had taken 2 months so far +so we calculated it out. 6 worlds 3 art sets 2 months per art set = 36 +months of art. It was Sept 93 and the company wanted the game done by +June 94. That's 9 months so 36 / 9 months = 4 artists. Plus we needed +art for the main character and all the enemies and all the glue screens +(title screen, options screen, ..) plus all the maps (6 world maps) plus +the video (title, ending and other videos between levels to advance the +story.) It was clear we needed a much larger team. Unfortunately the +company didn't want to hear it. They wanted a 32bit game that would be +the next Sonic but they were not willing to put the resources into it +that would be required to do it. They had come from a 16 bit world and +still thought they only needed a 16bit size team. + +Another problem was that the first two games, Crash N' Burn and Total +Eclipse, didn't require large art teams. The reason is in the nature of +their design. Take Total Eclipse, there are 5 outdoor art sets and 5 +indoor (tunnel) art sets. An outdoor art set consists of 3 basic title +types. Example: A snowy mountain range takes 1 tile that looks like +snow, 1 tile that looks like dirt and one tile that looks like water +(for lakes). A tile is 32x32 pixels. Then you have to make 9 tiles that +form the transition between snow and dirt and the 9 tiles that make the +transition from dirt to water and you're done. That's all you need for +one level. Something that could be done in a couple of days. Of course +you still have enemies, ships, glue screens, video and stuff like that +but it's clear that art for one level of Total Eclipse is vastly less +art than one level of Gex. Crash N' Burn has a similarly small art +requirement per level. Therefore the company's experience told them that +two artists was enough for one game. + +The company did start hiring a few more artists. They hired an paper +animator and an inexperienced artist to work as a team to make the +enemies. That went on for several months but it didn't work out. Steve +Kongsle (from Crash N' Burn) was asked to do the main character and +accepted. They contracted some artist from Hungary that also failed to +produce any useable art. They contracted with Kirk Henderson who did +work out (he did much of Planet X, all the Jungle, and all the world +maps) By June we had decided to get rid of Mode 2 and make each world +have only one art set so for example the Horror world dropped the +Haunted House art set and became just the graveyard. Done by that time +were the graveyard art set, cartoon and sci-fi and almost no enemies. It +was around that time that Silicon Knights (creators of Legacy of Kain) +were asked to do some enemies for Gex. They cranked out about 26 enemies +in about 1 month. Also Steve Suhy was hired and was asked to do many of +the enemies. + +Since it was now June and the project was not even 50% finished, the +company decided to cut the sci-fi levels since none had been done and +since they didn't like the art. That brought the game down to five +worlds and they hoped would get the game done by Sept in time for +Christmas. 3 Scriptors were added to the team to script (program) the +enemies for the game. 3 more designers were added to help layout levels +and one more programmer was added because until that time I was the only +programmer on the team. One other programmer had been working on the +level layout tool for the game but she was officially part of the tools +department and not the Gex team. That changed when she got the tool +working and she also became part of the programming team. + +In September we didn't have any sounds yet. We had some music and we had +no voiceovers. The des igners didn't have any idea what a theme for a +level was. Most of the levels they had built were huge and used as many +different things they could cram into them. This is not good design and +it also meant that the levels took too much memory or didn't leave +enough space for sounds so when sounds were finally added all the levels +had to be redone to use a theme. Pick 2 or 3 enemies and theme the level +around them. + +By Winter of 95 it was clear there were still a few more months. The +Lead Designer had basically tuned out and was only working 10 to 6 while +the rest of the team worked 12 to 16 hour days. To save our sanity a few +of us on the team decided to take the Sci-fi art that had been cut from +the game and make secret levels. Danny Chan (programming) and Evan Wells +(designer) did most of the work. We recruited several people not on the +team to help make some of these new levels. Evan had programmed a +shooter for his Senior project at Stanford (he was finishing his degree +at Stanford and working on this nightmare project and competing in +National gymnastics) and we decided to stick that shooter in the game as +a bonus. Susan Michelle (scriptor) decided she wanted to make a simple +game too so we put that in too. I recruited our music guy to make some +music and asked on the net for some submissions. We also got some +artwork off the net for backdrops and 3D models for the shooter. All of +this was done in secret without the knowledge of the company, 3 of the 4 +designers and the producer of the game. The problem was we needed these +levels to be play tested and so we had to let playtesting in on what we +had done. Eventually the rest of the company knew. + +As for the ending. Originally the credits were supposed to have pictures +of the team. Lyle Hall was put in charge of getting everything for the +credits organized and after a month without getting them done Madeline +(head of product development) ordered us to just put in text based +credits. The 'secret' team had a great idea. We decided to make a +special ending that if a player played all our secret sci-fi levels and +then finished the game they'd get our special ending. Dan Arey wrote the +ending text which you can see during the special ending. It's about 7 +minutes long. Then I scanned in a ton of paper art, sketches and +storyboards from Mira and put them all in the game. About 7 minutes +worth. I then got everybody to supply the pictures we had requested for +the original credits and Mei yu put it all together into an ending that +lasts almost 18 minutes\! + +This was also going to remain a secret but then something happened. +Justin Knorr, the Lead Designer, who had been only working 10 to 6 came +in one day and found that one of his levels had been edited without his +permission. Since he didn't usually show up on weekends and since we +where trying to ship the game, someone was ordered to edit the level to +fix a few problems and make it a little easier. Justin was very +frustrated because many things that he had wanted in the game were +getting cancelled so as to let the game ship sooner. This editing of his +level was the final straw and so we went into his office and did a big +no-no. A few days later his edits were discovered by playtest. + +We had programmed the ability to put any message in the game just by +placing a 'question mark' object and typing the text you want to appear. +Also, we had a level select screen that selected from over 80 levels +(even though there are only 28 real levels in the game). There was a +cheat code that would get you to that level select screen. Justin put in +one of his levels in the Kung Fu world a secret message that he hoped +the company would not find. It told of the secret level select screen +cheat code and asked the player to choose a certain level. That level +was the original version of the same Kung Fu level with several parts +that he was told to remove because they were buggy and it was decided to +remove them and ship the game rather than try to fix them and delay the +game even farther. (The game was 8-9 months late at this point). At the +end of this level were 3 more messages. They said in so many words, +something like. "Didn't you think this level had some cool shit in it? +This level was cut because the company didn't put you, the customer, +first but just wanted to make money. Call Madeline Canepa at +415-555-1212 and give her a piece of your mind and my mind too." It did +have her real phone number. Well, playtest found the message and when it +came out Justin was immediately fired because the company pointed out +that Mitsushita (Panasonic) would not take kindly to finding such a +message in a game they were going to bundle with the 3DO in Japan and +America and that Justin's action had not only personally upset people +but had possibly threatened the company's relationship with Panasonic. + +Well at that point the company wanted to know what else was in the game +that they didn't know about so we decided that we had to show them the +18 minute ending incase they felt that something in it would upset +Panasonic. Fortunately the really liked the long ending and so it +remained in the game. + +The game was finally released in mid March 95. Most of the people on the +team were not happy with it. We had worked for 21 months of Hell with +too few resources, too many things cut and all the other unforeseen +problems that had plagued the product. But, the public and the press +really liked the game and so I guess that made us feel alot better at +all our hard +work. + +[![](/pageparts/heads/face11.gif)](/pageparts/ifyou.htm) + +![](/gexweb/video%20game%20advisor%20cover%20small.JPG)![](/gexweb/gexspacer.gif)![](/gexweb/gamefan%20cover%20small.JPG)![](/gexweb/gexspacer.gif)![](/gexweb/game%20informer%20cover%20small.JPG)![](/gexweb/gexspacer.gif)![](/gexweb/video%20games%20cover%20small.JPG) diff --git a/_stories/1997/3086218.md b/_stories/1997/3086218.md index 71b2b7f..6659128 100644 --- a/_stories/1997/3086218.md +++ b/_stories/1997/3086218.md @@ -19,121 +19,115 @@ _tags: objectID: '3086218' --- -[Source](http://www.nytimes.com/1997/09/01/business/an-unknown-co-founder-leaves-after-20-years-of-glory-and-turmoil.html?pagewanted=all&src=pm "Permalink to An 'Unknown' Co-Founder Leaves After 20 Years of Glory and Turmoil - The New York Times") +''I know the board gets criticized for its decisions after the fact, and +that's as it should be,'' he said. ''But the good decisions never get +written about. There were a lot of good decisions made by Sculley, +Spindler and Amelio.'' -# An 'Unknown' Co-Founder Leaves After 20 Years of Glory and Turmoil - The New York Times +If Mr. Markkula's executive assessment of the managerial legacies of +John Sculley, Michael Spindler and the recently ousted Gilbert F. Amelio +do not jibe with the public's perception, it may be because the public +perception of Mike Markkula has never quite jibed with his own view of +his Apple role. -__NYTimes.com no longer supports Internet Explorer 9 or earlier. Please upgrade your browser. [LEARN MORE »][1] +Mr. Markkula, who is 54, said he did have regrets about the management +errors of recent years. But he is also optimistic that, under the +temporary direction of another Apple founder, Steven P. Jobs, Apple will +re-emerge as a viable company. But whether Apple lives or dies, the +company's quixotic nature, and thus its strengths and its weaknesses, +has much to do with Mr. Markkula's personality and his passions. -__Sections __ Home __Search [Skip to content][2] [Skip to navigation][3] [View mobile version][4] +It is Mr. Jobs, a bearded and barefoot visionary toiling in his parents' +garage in the late 1970's, who is still the most publicized Apple +founder. And it is Mr. Jobs's buddy, Stephen Wozniak, amiable but +sometimes enigmatic, who gets credit as the hacker-genius founder. -## [ The New York Times ][5] +But invariably, the founding role of Mr. Markkula, 12 years senior to +Mr. Jobs, is described as little more than the experienced executive who +brought ''adult supervision'' to the fledgling Apple Computer. -###### [Business Day][6]|An 'Unknown' Co-Founder Leaves After 20 Years of Glory and Turmoil +True, as a former Intel product- marketing manager who had already made +a small fortune on his stock options and retired early, Mr. Markkula was +a corporate veteran compared with the younger men. The three were +brought together by a pair of seasoned Silicon Valley executives, Regis +McKenna and Don Valentine, who correctly guessed that Mr. Markkula might +be willing to invest some money and management time in the Jobs-Wozniak +effort to build and market a new kind of personal computer. -__Search - -Subscribe Now Log In __0 __Settings - -__Close search - -## Site Search Navigation - -Search NYTimes.com - -__Clear this text input - -Go - -1. Loading... - -See next articles - -See previous articles - -## Site Navigation - -## Site Mobile Navigation +But less well known is that Mr. Markkula, besides playing president and +camp counselor, is also himself a hands-on hacker. Advertisement -Supported by +[Continue reading the main story](#story-continues-4) -### [Business Day][6] | The Apple World According to Markkula +It was Mr. Markkula, for example, who instructed Mr. Wozniak to design +the floppy disk drive for the Apple II, after discovering that a +checkbook balancing program he himself had written took far too long to +load into the machine from the computer's original tape drive. The +floppy disk, a new approach, helped Apple differentiate its early +computer from competitors' machines. -# An 'Unknown' Co-Founder Leaves After 20 Years of Glory and Turmoil +And it was Mr. Markkula who wrote several of the early software programs +for the Apple II -- and freely distributed them -- under the pen name +Johnny Appleseed. -By [JOHN MARKOFF][7]SEPT. 1, 1997 +And later, this engineer with a hobbyist's passion for personal +computing became Apple's best product tester, often finding dozens of +flaws in hardware or software that was supposedly ready to ship, +according to early Apple employees. -[Continue reading the main story][8] Share This Page +The point is that rather than being the executive's executive, as he has +so often been described, Mr. Markkula was really more the engineer's +engineer. And that may help explain some of the management turmoil over +the years at Apple, for which Mr. Markkula has shouldered much of the +blame. -[Continue reading the main story][8] +For despite serving at various times as chairman, president, board +member and vice chairman in his two decades at the company, Mr. Markkula +may have been less suited to the formal management-expert role into +which he was originally cast than to the informal hacker-entrepreneurial +roles that were his earliest, and perhaps best, contributions to Apple +Computer. -The steady stream of cyclists who roll by the big steel gate here each weekend may scarcely have time to glance through the bars at the baronial estate inside as they pedal to the hills overlooking Silicon Valley. +Some recent news reports have suggested that Mr. Markkula was driven +from Apple by Mr. Jobs as an act of revenge, retribution for the bitter +dispute that had led Mr. Jobs himself to quit Apple in 1985. But as Mr. +Markkula tells it, after being the perceived power behind the throne at +Apple for so long, he himself had already decided it was time to move on +-- and to leave to others the struggle to revive Apple. -But behind that gate is an explanation -- or an interpretation, at least -- of the early glory and recent perils of the valley's most storied company. +''I was ready to leave two years earlier,'' said Mr. Markkula, as he +paused near the site of the new 7,000-square-foot home he is building on +his estate. But because of Apple's financial difficulties, Mr. Markkula +said he continued to delay his departure, eventually deciding that +January 1997, his 20th anniversary with the company, would be a fitting +time to step down. -For here in this 50-acre domain atop the San Andreas Fault, with its groves of stately redwood trees, lives Armas Clifford (Mike) Markkula Jr., the third and perhaps least understood co-founder of Apple Computer Inc. - -More than 20 years after Apple's creation and less than a month after he left the company as vice chairman in a board room overhaul on Aug. 6, Mr. Markkula strolls the grounds and, in a rare interview, offers his version of the company's rise and near-fall. +But then, during a January meeting of Apple's board, it became evident +that directors were so unhappy with Mr. Amelio's leadership after less +than a year that they began discussing the need to find a successor. For +Mr. Markkula, the crisis made it impossible to leave until after Mr. +Amelio was dismissed and Mr. Jobs could be persuaded to rejoin the board +in August. By then, rightly or not, Mr. Markkula's departure carried the +taint of disgrace. Advertisement -[Continue reading the main story][8] - -Mr. Markkula and the Apple board have been widely criticized for having three different chief executives in a four-year span preside over cumulative losses of $1.7 billion. - -[Continue reading the main story][9] - -Advertisement - -[Continue reading the main story][10] - -''I know the board gets criticized for its decisions after the fact, and that's as it should be,'' he said. ''But the good decisions never get written about. There were a lot of good decisions made by Sculley, Spindler and Amelio.'' - -If Mr. Markkula's executive assessment of the managerial legacies of John Sculley, Michael Spindler and the recently ousted Gilbert F. Amelio do not jibe with the public's perception, it may be because the public perception of Mike Markkula has never quite jibed with his own view of his Apple role. - -Mr. Markkula, who is 54, said he did have regrets about the management errors of recent years. But he is also optimistic that, under the temporary direction of another Apple founder, Steven P. Jobs, Apple will re-emerge as a viable company. But whether Apple lives or dies, the company's quixotic nature, and thus its strengths and its weaknesses, has much to do with Mr. Markkula's personality and his passions. - -It is Mr. Jobs, a bearded and barefoot visionary toiling in his parents' garage in the late 1970's, who is still the most publicized Apple founder. And it is Mr. Jobs's buddy, Stephen Wozniak, amiable but sometimes enigmatic, who gets credit as the hacker-genius founder. - -But invariably, the founding role of Mr. Markkula, 12 years senior to Mr. Jobs, is described as little more than the experienced executive who brought ''adult supervision'' to the fledgling Apple Computer. - -True, as a former Intel product- marketing manager who had already made a small fortune on his stock options and retired early, Mr. Markkula was a corporate veteran compared with the younger men. The three were brought together by a pair of seasoned Silicon Valley executives, Regis McKenna and Don Valentine, who correctly guessed that Mr. Markkula might be willing to invest some money and management time in the Jobs-Wozniak effort to build and market a new kind of personal computer. - -But less well known is that Mr. Markkula, besides playing president and camp counselor, is also himself a hands-on hacker. - -Advertisement - -[Continue reading the main story][11] - -It was Mr. Markkula, for example, who instructed Mr. Wozniak to design the floppy disk drive for the Apple II, after discovering that a checkbook balancing program he himself had written took far too long to load into the machine from the computer's original tape drive. The floppy disk, a new approach, helped Apple differentiate its early computer from competitors' machines. - -And it was Mr. Markkula who wrote several of the early software programs for the Apple II -- and freely distributed them -- under the pen name Johnny Appleseed. - -And later, this engineer with a hobbyist's passion for personal computing became Apple's best product tester, often finding dozens of flaws in hardware or software that was supposedly ready to ship, according to early Apple employees. - -The point is that rather than being the executive's executive, as he has so often been described, Mr. Markkula was really more the engineer's engineer. And that may help explain some of the management turmoil over the years at Apple, for which Mr. Markkula has shouldered much of the blame. - -For despite serving at various times as chairman, president, board member and vice chairman in his two decades at the company, Mr. Markkula may have been less suited to the formal management-expert role into which he was originally cast than to the informal hacker-entrepreneurial roles that were his earliest, and perhaps best, contributions to Apple Computer. - -Some recent news reports have suggested that Mr. Markkula was driven from Apple by Mr. Jobs as an act of revenge, retribution for the bitter dispute that had led Mr. Jobs himself to quit Apple in 1985. But as Mr. Markkula tells it, after being the perceived power behind the throne at Apple for so long, he himself had already decided it was time to move on -- and to leave to others the struggle to revive Apple. - -''I was ready to leave two years earlier,'' said Mr. Markkula, as he paused near the site of the new 7,000-square-foot home he is building on his estate. But because of Apple's financial difficulties, Mr. Markkula said he continued to delay his departure, eventually deciding that January 1997, his 20th anniversary with the company, would be a fitting time to step down. - -But then, during a January meeting of Apple's board, it became evident that directors were so unhappy with Mr. Amelio's leadership after less than a year that they began discussing the need to find a successor. For Mr. Markkula, the crisis made it impossible to leave until after Mr. Amelio was dismissed and Mr. Jobs could be persuaded to rejoin the board in August. By then, rightly or not, Mr. Markkula's departure carried the taint of disgrace. - -Advertisement - -[Continue reading the main story][12] +[Continue reading the main story](#story-continues-5) How different the dynamic had been back in 1977. -In the beginning, Mr. Markkula considered Apple a temporary avocation and he promised his wife, Linda, that he would spend no more than four years at the start-up. But he soon discovered within himself a remarkable aptitude for the details needed to build a high technology company. It was indeed Mr. Markkula who served as Mr. Jobs's management mentor at Apple, teaching him how to run a business. +In the beginning, Mr. Markkula considered Apple a temporary avocation +and he promised his wife, Linda, that he would spend no more than four +years at the start-up. But he soon discovered within himself a +remarkable aptitude for the details needed to build a high technology +company. It was indeed Mr. Markkula who served as Mr. Jobs's management +mentor at Apple, teaching him how to run a business. ## Newsletter Sign Up -[Continue reading the main story][13] +[Continue reading the main story](#continues-post-newsletter) ### @@ -143,296 +137,126 @@ Invalid email address. Please re-enter. You must select a newsletter to subscribe to. -Sign Up - -You agree to receive occasional updates and special offers for The New York Times's products and services. +You agree to receive occasional updates and special offers for The New +York Times's products and services. ### Thank you for subscribing. ### An error has occurred. Please try again later. -### You are already subscribed to this email. +[View all New York Times newsletters.](/newsletters) -[View all New York Times newsletters.][14] +Floyd Kvamme, an early Apple marketing executive, recalls the Markkula +method. On Mr. Kvamme's first day at the company, Mr. Markkula told him +to go out and buy an Apple Computer, then take it home and set it up, to +better understand the customer's needs. -* [See Sample][15] -* [Manage Email Preferences][16] -* [Not you?][17] -* [Privacy Policy][18] -* Opt out or [contact us][19] anytime +''Mike was a tremendous contributor,'' said Mr. Kvamme, who is now a +venture capitalist. ''But he didn't like the public eye. He liked +worrying about products.'' -Floyd Kvamme, an early Apple marketing executive, recalls the Markkula method. On Mr. Kvamme's first day at the company, Mr. Markkula told him to go out and buy an Apple Computer, then take it home and set it up, to better understand the customer's needs. +Mr. Markkula, serving one of his stints as Apple's chairman, was the one +who originally gave the computer scientist Jef Raskin the go-ahead to +start designing the Macintosh computer in 1979. And it was Mr. Markkula +subsequently who prevented Mr. Jobs, then heading the rival Lisa +computer development effort, from killing the Macintosh project. -''Mike was a tremendous contributor,'' said Mr. Kvamme, who is now a venture capitalist. ''But he didn't like the public eye. He liked worrying about products.'' +Only later, when he realized that the Lisa would fail, did Mr. Jobs take +over the Macintosh effort, pushing Mr. Raskin aside with Mr. Markkula's +acquiescence. -Mr. Markkula, serving one of his stints as Apple's chairman, was the one who originally gave the computer scientist Jef Raskin the go-ahead to start designing the Macintosh computer in 1979. And it was Mr. Markkula subsequently who prevented Mr. Jobs, then heading the rival Lisa computer development effort, from killing the Macintosh project. +At times, Mr. Markkula seemed to have little ego, filling in wherever he +saw the most gaping need. When the company dismissed its first +president, Michael Scott, in 1981, for example, Mr. Markkula, agreed to +cede the title of chairman to Mr. Jobs and become Apple's president -- +but only until a permanent chief executive could be hired. That took two +years, but when Mr. Jobs hired John Sculley in 1983, Mr. Markkula +quickly stepped aside, though he remained on the Apple board. -Only later, when he realized that the Lisa would fail, did Mr. Jobs take over the Macintosh effort, pushing Mr. Raskin aside with Mr. Markkula's acquiescence. +But Mr. Markkula was no pushover. Tensions eventually developed between +Mr. Sculley and Mr. Jobs, who clashed frequently over corporate +strategy. And in the ultimate showdown, Mr. Markkula sided with Mr. +Sculley, prompting Mr. Jobs's highly publicized resignation from Apple. -At times, Mr. Markkula seemed to have little ego, filling in wherever he saw the most gaping need. When the company dismissed its first president, Michael Scott, in 1981, for example, Mr. Markkula, agreed to cede the title of chairman to Mr. Jobs and become Apple's president -- but only until a permanent chief executive could be hired. That took two years, but when Mr. Jobs hired John Sculley in 1983, Mr. Markkula quickly stepped aside, though he remained on the Apple board. +The wound that was opened between the two founders has never fully +healed. -But Mr. Markkula was no pushover. Tensions eventually developed between Mr. Sculley and Mr. Jobs, who clashed frequently over corporate strategy. And in the ultimate showdown, Mr. Markkula sided with Mr. Sculley, prompting Mr. Jobs's highly publicized resignation from Apple. +''I felt betrayed by Mike,'' Mr. Jobs said in an interview, declining to +discuss Mr. Markkula's performance at Apple in the subsequent years. +''But I still have a very warm spot in my heart for him.'' -The wound that was opened between the two founders has never fully healed. - -''I felt betrayed by Mike,'' Mr. Jobs said in an interview, declining to discuss Mr. Markkula's performance at Apple in the subsequent years. ''But I still have a very warm spot in my heart for him.'' - -Mr. Markkula expresses similar ambivalence. ''I thought the way Steve left was at best ungentlemanly,'' he said, referring to Mr. Jobs's year at the company, when as an increasingly less engaged chairman, he began setting up his own new company, Next Computer Inc. +Mr. Markkula expresses similar ambivalence. ''I thought the way Steve +left was at best ungentlemanly,'' he said, referring to Mr. Jobs's year +at the company, when as an increasingly less engaged chairman, he began +setting up his own new company, Next Computer Inc. Advertisement -[Continue reading the main story][20] +[Continue reading the main story](#story-continues-6) -Apple's board, seeing Next as a potential rival, filed a lawsuit against Mr. Jobs that was eventually settled out of court. Yet, today, Mr. Markkula defends Mr. Jobs's decision to start Next -- the company that Apple itself acquired early this year for more than $400 million. ''I didn't want him to leave Apple, but he had chosen to leave the company,'' Mr. Markkula said. ''Why stand in his way?'' +Apple's board, seeing Next as a potential rival, filed a lawsuit against +Mr. Jobs that was eventually settled out of court. Yet, today, Mr. +Markkula defends Mr. Jobs's decision to start Next -- the company that +Apple itself acquired early this year for more than $400 million. ''I +didn't want him to leave Apple, but he had chosen to leave the +company,'' Mr. Markkula said. ''Why stand in his way?'' -Stephen Wozniak had drifted away from Apple in the early 1980's. So after Mr. Jobs's departure, it was left to Mr. Markkula to continue the founders' legacy. For under Mr. Sculley, Apple began to drift in the early 90's and then endured the embarrassment of the widely ridiculed Newton hand-held computer. +Stephen Wozniak had drifted away from Apple in the early 1980's. So +after Mr. Jobs's departure, it was left to Mr. Markkula to continue the +founders' legacy. For under Mr. Sculley, Apple began to drift in the +early 90's and then endured the embarrassment of the widely ridiculed +Newton hand-held computer. -''John Sculley did a great job the first five years,'' Mr. Markkula said. ''Then, for some reason, he took his eye off the ball. I'm still not sure why.'' +''John Sculley did a great job the first five years,'' Mr. Markkula +said. ''Then, for some reason, he took his eye off the ball. I'm still +not sure why.'' -Mr. Markkula was instrumental in the board's decision to force out Mr. Sculley in 1993. But despite the unsuccesful tenures of Mr. Sculley's two successors, Mr. Markkula rejects criticism suggesting Apple's current woes can be pinned on the board. +Mr. Markkula was instrumental in the board's decision to force out Mr. +Sculley in 1993. But despite the unsuccesful tenures of Mr. Sculley's +two successors, Mr. Markkula rejects criticism suggesting Apple's +current woes can be pinned on the board. -But he does acknowledge some board mistakes over the years. One of them, he said, was the company's decision about four years ago to reject a purchase offer by I.B.M. that was reported to be $40 a share. Later, with Apple's stock trading well below that level, the company tried to rekindle I.B.M.'s interest. +But he does acknowledge some board mistakes over the years. One of them, +he said, was the company's decision about four years ago to reject a +purchase offer by I.B.M. that was reported to be $40 a share. Later, +with Apple's stock trading well below that level, the company tried to +rekindle I.B.M.'s interest. -Instead, I.B.M. acquired the software company Lotus Development in mid-1995, a move that Mr. Markkula still views as a mistake. +Instead, I.B.M. acquired the software company Lotus Development in +mid-1995, a move that Mr. Markkula still views as a mistake. -''I.B.M. needed Apple's spirit,'' he said. ''It would have been right for both companies.'' +''I.B.M. needed Apple's spirit,'' he said. ''It would have been right +for both companies.'' -In the end, it was Mr. Jobs who uttered the epitaph for Mr. Markkula's Apple career. From the stage at the Boston Macworld conference in August where he announced a virtually new lineup of directors. Mr. Jobs referred to the company's departing board members -- and by inference Mr. Markkula -- as ''decent people.'' In Mr. Jobs's worldview, where people are either brilliant or bozos, such a statement is faint praise. +In the end, it was Mr. Jobs who uttered the epitaph for Mr. Markkula's +Apple career. From the stage at the Boston Macworld conference in August +where he announced a virtually new lineup of directors. Mr. Jobs +referred to the company's departing board members -- and by inference +Mr. Markkula -- as ''decent people.'' In Mr. Jobs's worldview, where +people are either brilliant or bozos, such a statement is faint praise. -Mr. Markkula describes his current relationship with Mr. Jobs as ''not unfriendly,'' noting that even after the recent board shake-up, he sat with his old colleague for many hours at a picnic table in one of his redwood groves, where the two mean discussed the future of the company they founded. +Mr. Markkula describes his current relationship with Mr. Jobs as ''not +unfriendly,'' noting that even after the recent board shake-up, he sat +with his old colleague for many hours at a picnic table in one of his +redwood groves, where the two mean discussed the future of the company +they founded. Advertisement -[Continue reading the main story][21] +[Continue reading the main story](#story-continues-7) -Although Mr. Markkula is no longer the company's largest stockholder -- that honor now goes to Prince Walid bin Talal of Saudia Arabia -- he still holds several million shares. And he said he was optimistic that the Mr. Jobs could help restore the value of the stock and the company. +Although Mr. Markkula is no longer the company's largest stockholder -- +that honor now goes to Prince Walid bin Talal of Saudia Arabia -- he +still holds several million shares. And he said he was optimistic that +the Mr. Jobs could help restore the value of the stock and the company. -But Mr. Markkula is now spending much of his own time in the small engineering laboratory he has set up on his estate. Since leaving Apple's board he has taught himself to program in a new computer language known as GDL, used for computer-aided design work. +But Mr. Markkula is now spending much of his own time in the small +engineering laboratory he has set up on his estate. Since leaving +Apple's board he has taught himself to program in a new computer +language known as GDL, used for computer-aided design work. -''I stay awake at night thinking about engineering problems,'' he said, sounding not like a board room executive but instead like an engineer's engineer. 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engineer's +engineer. ''I love to think about this stuff.'' +[Continue reading the main story](#whats-next) diff --git a/_stories/1997/4977935.md b/_stories/1997/4977935.md index 797f7e9..194ae3d 100644 --- a/_stories/1997/4977935.md +++ b/_stories/1997/4977935.md @@ -19,7 +19,476 @@ _tags: objectID: '4977935' --- -[Source](https://www.outsideonline.com/outdoor-adventure/As-Freezing-Persons-Recollect-the-Snow--First-Chill--Then-Stupor--Then-the-Letting-Go.html?page=all "Permalink to ") +When your Jeep spins lazily off the mountain road and slams backward +into a snowbank, you don’t worry immediately about the cold. Your first +thought is that you’ve just dented your bumper. Your second is that +you’ve failed to bring a shovel. Your third is that you’ll be late for +dinner. Friends are expecting you at their cabin around eight for a +moonlight ski, a late dinner, a sauna. Nothing can keep you from +that. +![Headphones](/sites/all/themes/outside/images/icons/headphones.svg)**Listen +to the Frozen Alive Podcast to Go Behind the Story with the Author** +Driving out of town, defroster roaring, you barely noted the bank +thermometer on the town square: minus 27 degrees at 6:36. The radio +weather report warned of a deep mass of arctic air settling over the +region. The man who took your money at the Conoco station shook his head +at the register and said he wouldn’t be going anywhere tonight if he +were you. You smiled. A little chill never hurt anybody with enough +fleece and a good four-wheel-drive. +But now you’re stuck. Jamming the gearshift into low, you try to muscle +out of the drift. The tires whine on ice-slicked snow as headlights +dance on the curtain of frosted firs across the road. Shoving the lever +back into park, you shoulder open the door and step from your heated +capsule. Cold slaps your naked face, squeezes tears from your +eyes. + +![Headphones](/sites/all/themes/outside/images/icons/headphones.svg)**Listen +to the Frozen Alive Podcast to Go Behind the Story with the Author** + +You check your watch: 7:18. You consult your map: A thin, switchbacking +line snakes up the mountain to the penciled square that marks the cabin. + +Breath rolls from you in short frosted puffs. The Jeep lies cocked +sideways in the snowbank like an empty turtle shell. You think of +firelight and saunas and warm food and wine. You look again at the map. +It’s maybe five or six miles more to that penciled square. You run that +far every day before breakfast. You’ll just put on your skis. No +problem. + +There is no precise core temperature at which the human body perishes +from cold. At Dachau’s cold-water immersion baths, Nazi doctors +calculated death to arrive at around 77 degrees Fahrenheit. The lowest +recorded core temperature in a surviving adult is 60.8 degrees. For a +child it’s lower: In 1994, a two-year-old girl in Saskatchewan wandered +out of her house into a minus-40 night. She was found near her doorstep +the next morning, limbs frozen solid, her core temperature 57 degrees. +She lived. + +Others are less fortunate, even in much milder conditions. One of +Europe’s worst weather disasters occurred during a 1964 competitive +walk on a windy, rainy English moor; three of the racers died from +hypothermia, though temperatures never fell below freezing and ranged as +high as 45. + +But for all scientists and statisticians now know of freezing and its +physiology, no one can yet predict exactly how quickly and in whom +hypothermia will strike—and whether it will kill when it does. The cold +remains a mystery, more prone to fell men than women, more lethal to the +thin and well muscled than to those with avoirdupois, and least +forgiving to the arrogant and the unaware. + +The process begins even before you leave the car, when you remove your +gloves to squeeze a loose bail back into one of your ski bindings. The +freezing metal bites your flesh. Your skin temperature drops. + +Within a few seconds, the palms of your hands are a chilly, painful 60 +degrees. Instinctively, the web of surface capillaries on your hands +constrict, sending blood coursing away from your skin and deeper into +your torso. Your body is allowing your fingers to chill in order to keep +its vital organs warm. + +You replace your gloves, noticing only that your fingers have numbed +slightly. Then you kick boots into bindings and start up the road. + +Were you a Norwegian fisherman or Inuit hunter, both of whom frequently +work gloveless in the cold, your chilled hands would open their surface +capillaries periodically to allow surges of warm blood to pass into them +and maintain their flexibility. This phenomenon, known as the hunter’s +response, can elevate a 35-degree skin temperature to 50 degrees within +seven or eight minutes. + +Other human adaptations to the cold are more mysterious. Tibetan +Buddhist monks can raise the skin temperature of their hands and feet by +15 degrees through meditation. Australian aborigines, who once slept on +the ground, unclothed, on near-freezing nights, would slip into a light +hypothermic state, suppressing shivering until the rising sun rewarmed +them. + +You have no such defenses, having spent your days at a keyboard in a +climate-controlled office. Only after about ten minutes of hard +climbing, as your body temperature rises, does blood start seeping back +into your fingers. Sweat trickles down your sternum and spine. + +By now you’ve left the road and decided to shortcut up the forested +mountainside to the road’s next switchback. Treading slowly through +deep, soft snow as the full moon hefts over a spiny ridgetop, throwing +silvery bands of moonlight and shadow, you think your friends were +right: It’s a beautiful night for skiing—though you admit, feeling the +minus-30 air bite at your face, it’s also cold. + +After an hour, there’s still no sign of the switchback, and you’ve begun +to worry. You pause to check the map. At this moment, your core +temperature reaches its high: 100.8. Climbing in deep snow, you’ve +generated nearly ten times as much body heat as you do when you are +resting. + +As you step around to orient map to forest, you hear a metallic pop. You +look down. The loose bail has disappeared from your binding. You lift +your foot and your ski falls from your boot. + +You twist on your flashlight, and its cold-weakened batteries throw a +yellowish circle in the snow. It’s right around here somewhere, you +think, as you sift the snow through gloved fingers. Focused so intently +on finding the bail, you hardly notice the frigid air pressing against +your tired body and sweat-soaked clothes. + +The exertion that warmed you on the way uphill now works against you: +Your exercise-dilated capillaries carry the excess heat of your core to +your skin, and your wet clothing dispels it rapidly into the night. The +lack of insulating fat over your muscles allows the cold to creep that +much closer to your warm blood. + +Your temperature begins to plummet. Within 17 minutes it reaches the +normal 98.6. Then it slips below. + +At 97 degrees, hunched over in your slow search, the muscles along your +neck and shoulders tighten in what’s known as pre-shivering muscle tone. +Sensors have signaled the temperature control center in your +hypothalamus, which in turn has ordered the constriction of the entire +web of surface capillaries. Your hands and feet begin to ache with cold. +Ignoring the pain, you dig carefully through the snow; another ten +minutes pass. Without the bail you know you’re in deep trouble. + +Finally, nearly 45 minutes later, you find the bail. You even manage to +pop it back into its socket and clamp your boot into the binding. But +the clammy chill that started around your skin has now wrapped deep into +your body’s core. + +At 95, you’ve entered the zone of mild hypothermia. You’re now trembling +violently as your body attains its maximum shivering response, an +involuntary condition in which your muscles contract rapidly to generate +additional body heat. + +It was a mistake, you realize, to come out on a night this cold. You +should turn back. Fishing into the front pocket of your shell parka, you +fumble out the map. You consulted it to get here; it should be able to +guide you back to the warm car. It doesn’t occur to you in your +increasingly clouded and panicky mental state that you could simply +follow your tracks down the way you came. + +And after this long stop, the skiing itself has become more difficult. +By the time you push off downhill, your muscles have cooled and +tightened so dramatically that they no longer contract easily, and once +contracted, they won’t relax. You’re locked into an ungainly, +spread-armed, weak-kneed snowplow. + +Still, you manage to maneuver between stands of fir, swishing down +through silvery light and pools of shadow. You’re too cold to think of +the beautiful night or of the friends you had meant to see. You think +only of the warm Jeep that waits for you somewhere at the bottom of the +hill. Its gleaming shell is centered in your mind’s eye as you come over +the crest of a small knoll. You hear the sudden whistle of wind in your +ears as you gain speed. Then, before your mind can quite process what +the sight means, you notice a lump in the snow ahead. + +Recognizing, slowly, the danger that you are in, you try to jam your +skis to a stop. But in your panic, your balance and judgment are poor. +Moments later, your ski tips plow into the buried log and you sail +headfirst through the air and bellyflop into the snow. + +You lie still. There’s a dead silence in the forest, broken by the +pumping of blood in your ears. Your ankle is throbbing with pain and +you’ve hit your head. You’ve also lost your hat and a glove. Scratchy +snow is packed down your shirt. Meltwater trickles down your neck and +spine, joined soon by a thin line of blood from a small cut on your +head. + +This situation, you realize with an immediate sense of panic, is +serious. Scrambling to rise, you collapse in pain, your ankle crumpling +beneath you. + +As you sink back into the snow, shaken, your heat begins to drain away +at an alarming rate, your head alone accounting for 50 percent of the +loss. The pain of the cold soon pierces your ears so sharply that you +root about in the snow until you find your hat and mash it back onto +your head. + +But even that little activity has been exhausting. You know you should +find your glove as well, and yet you’re becoming too weary to feel any +urgency. You decide to have a short rest before going on. + +An hour passes. at one point, a stray thought says you should start +being scared, but fear is a concept that floats somewhere beyond your +immediate reach, like that numb hand lying naked in the snow. You’ve +slid into the temperature range at which cold renders the enzymes in +your brain less efficient. With every one-degree drop in body +temperature below 95, your cerebral metabolic rate falls off by 3 to 5 +percent. When your core temperature reaches 93, amnesia nibbles at your +consciousness. You check your watch: 12:58. Maybe someone will come +looking for you soon. Moments later, you check again. You can’t keep the +numbers in your head. You’ll remember little of what happens next. + +Your head drops back. The snow crunches softly in your ear. In the +minus-35-degree air, your core temperature falls about one degree every +30 to 40 minutes, your body heat leaching out into the soft, enveloping +snow. Apathy at 91 degrees. Stupor at 90. + +You’ve now crossed the boundary into profound hypothermia. By the time +your core temperature has fallen to 88 degrees, your body has abandoned +the urge to warm itself by shivering. Your blood is thickening like +crankcase oil in a cold engine. Your oxygen consumption, a measure of +your metabolic rate, has fallen by more than a quarter. Your kidneys, +however, work overtime to process the fluid overload that occurred when +the blood vessels in your extremities constricted and squeezed fluids +toward your center. You feel a powerful urge to urinate, the only thing +you feel at all. + +By 87 degrees you’ve lost the ability to recognize a familiar face, +should one suddenly appear from the woods. + +At 86 degrees, your heart, its electrical impulses hampered by chilled +nerve tissues, becomes arrhythmic. It now pumps less than two-thirds the +normal amount of blood. The lack of oxygen and the slowing metabolism of +your brain, meanwhile, begin to trigger visual and auditory +hallucinations. + +You hear jingle bells. Lifting your face from your snow pillow, you +realize with a surge of gladness that they’re not sleigh bells; they’re +welcoming bells hanging from the door of your friends’ cabin. You knew +it had to be close by. The jingling is the sound of the cabin door +opening, just through the fir trees. + +Attempting to stand, you collapse in a tangle of skis and poles. That’s +OK. You can crawl. It’s so close. + +Hours later, or maybe it’s minutes, you realize the cabin still sits +beyond the grove of trees. You’ve crawled only a few feet. The light on +your wristwatch pulses in the darkness: 5:20. Exhausted, you decide to +rest your head for a moment. + +When you lift it again, you’re inside, lying on the floor before the +woodstove. The fire throws off a red glow. First it’s warm; then it’s +hot; then it’s searing your flesh. Your clothing has caught fire. + +At 85 degrees, those freezing to death, in a strange, anguished +paroxysm, often rip off their clothes. This phenomenon, known as +paradoxical undressing, is common enough that urban hypothermia victims +are sometimes initially diagnosed as victims of sexual assault. Though +researchers are uncertain of the cause, the most logical explanation is +that shortly before loss of consciousness, the constricted blood vessels +near the body’s surface suddenly dilate and produce a sensation of +extreme heat against the skin. + +All you know is that you’re burning. You claw off your shell and pile +sweater and fling them away. + +But then, in a final moment of clarity, you realize there’s no stove, no +cabin, no friends. You’re lying alone in the bitter cold, naked from the +waist up. You grasp your terrible misunderstanding, a whole series of +misunderstandings, like a dream ratcheting into wrongness. You’ve shed +your clothes, your car, your oil-heated house in town. Without this +ingenious technology you’re simply a delicate, tropical organism whose +range is restricted to a narrow sunlit band that girds the earth at the +equator. + +And you’ve now ventured way beyond it. + +There’s an adage about hypothermia: “You aren’t dead until you’re warm +and dead.” + +At about 6:00 the next morning, his friends, having discovered the +stalled Jeep, find him, still huddled inches from the buried log, his +gloveless hand shoved into his armpit. The flesh of his limbs is waxy +and stiff as old putty, his pulse nonexistent, his pupils unresponsive +to light. Dead. + +But those who understand cold know that even as it deadens, it offers +perverse salvation. Heat is a presence: the rapid vibrating of +molecules. Cold is an absence: the damping of the vibrations. At +absolute zero, minus 459.67 degrees Fahrenheit, molecular motion ceases +altogether. It is this slowing that converts gases to liquids, liquids +to solids, and renders solids harder. It slows bacterial growth and +chemical reactions. In the human body, cold shuts down metabolism. The +lungs take in less oxygen, the heart pumps less blood. Under normal +temperatures, this would produce brain damage. But the chilled brain, +having slowed its own metabolism, needs far less oxygen-rich blood and +can, under the right circumstances, survive intact. + +Setting her ear to his chest, one of his rescuers listens intently. +Seconds pass. Then, faintly, she hears a tiny sound—a single thump, so +slight that it might be the sound of her own blood. She presses her ear +harder to the cold flesh. Another faint thump, then another. + +The slowing that accompanies freezing is, in its way, so beneficial that +it is even induced at times. Cardiologists today often use deep chilling +to slow a patient’s metabolism in preparation for heart or brain +surgery. In this state of near suspension, the patient’s blood flows +slowly, his heart rarely beats—or in the case of those on heart-lung +machines, doesn’t beat at all; death seems near. But carefully +monitored, a patient can remain in this cold stasis, undamaged, for +hours. + +The rescuers quickly wrap their friend’s naked torso with a spare parka, +his hands with mittens, his entire body with a bivy sack. They brush +snow from his pasty, frozen face. Then one snakes down through the +forest to the nearest cabin. The others, left in the pre-dawn darkness, +huddle against him as silence closes around them. For a moment, the +woman imagines she can hear the scurrying, breathing, snoring of a world +of creatures that have taken cover this frigid night beneath the thick +quilt of snow. + +With a “one, two, three,” the doctor and nurses slide the man’s stiff, +curled form onto a table fitted with a mattress filled with warm water +which will be regularly reheated. They’d been warned that they had a +profound hypothermia case coming in. Usually such victims can be +straightened from their tortured fetal positions. This one can’t. + +Technicians scissor with stainless-steel shears at the man’s +urine-soaked long underwear and shell pants, frozen together like +corrugated cardboard. They attach heart-monitor electrodes to his chest +and insert a low-temperature electronic thermometer into his rectum. +Digital readings flash: 24 beats per minute and a core temperature of +79.2 degrees. + +The doctor shakes his head. He can’t remember seeing numbers so low. +He’s not quite sure how to revive this man without killing him. + +In fact, many hypothermia victims die each year in the process of being +rescued. In “rewarming shock,” the constricted capillaries reopen almost +all at once, causing a sudden drop in blood pressure. The slightest +movement can send a victim’s heart muscle into wild spasms of +ventricular fibrillation. In 1980, 16 shipwrecked Danish fishermen were +hauled to safety after an hour and a half in the frigid North Sea. They +then walked across the deck of the rescue ship, stepped below for a hot +drink, and dropped dead, all 16 of them. + +“78.9,” a technician calls out. “That’s three-tenths down.” + +The patient is now experiencing “afterdrop,” in which residual cold +close to the body’s surface continues to cool the core even after the +victim is removed from the outdoors. + +The doctor rapidly issues orders to his staff: intravenous +administration of warm saline, the bag first heated in the microwave to +110 degrees. Elevating the core temperature of an average-size male one +degree requires adding about 60 kilocalories of heat. A kilocalorie is +the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of one liter of water +one degree Celsius. Since a quart of hot soup at 140 degrees offers +about 30 kilocalories, the patient curled on the table would need to +consume 40 quarts of chicken broth to push his core temperature up to +normal. Even the warm saline, infused directly into his blood, will add +only 30 kilocalories. + +Ideally, the doctor would have access to a cardiopulmonary bypass +machine, with which he could pump out the victim’s blood, rewarm and +oxygenate it, and pump it back in again, safely raising the core +temperature as much as one degree every three minutes. But such machines +are rarely available outside major urban hospitals. Here, without such +equipment, the doctor must rely on other options. + +“Let’s scrub for surgery,” he calls out. + +Moments later, he’s sliding a large catheter into an incision in the +man’s abdominal cavity. Warm fluid begins to flow from a suspended +bag, washing through his abdomen, and draining out through another +catheter placed in another incision. Prosaically, this lavage operates +much like a car radiator in reverse: The solution warms the internal +organs, and the warm blood in the organs is then pumped by the heart +throughout the body. + +The patient’s stiff limbs begin to relax. His pulse edges up. But even +so the jagged line of his heartbeat flashing across the EKG screen shows +the curious dip known as a J wave, common to hypothermia patients. + +“Be ready to defibrillate,” the doctor warns the EMTs. + +For another hour, nurses and EMTs hover around the edges of the table +where the patient lies centered in a warm pool of light, as if offered +up to the sun god. They check his heart. They check the heat of the +mattress beneath him. They whisper to one another about the foolishness +of having gone out alone tonight. + +And slowly the patient responds. Another liter of saline is added to the +IV. The man’s blood pressure remains far too low, brought down by the +blood flowing out to the fast-opening capillaries of his limbs. Fluid +lost through perspiration and urination has reduced his blood volume. +But every 15 or 20 minutes, his temperature rises another degree. The +immediate danger of cardiac fibrillation lessens, as the heart and +thinning blood warms. Frostbite could still cost him fingers or an +earlobe. But he appears to have beaten back the worst of the frigidity. + +For the next half hour, an EMT quietly calls the readouts of the +thermometer, a mantra that marks the progress of this cold-blooded +proto-organism toward a state of warmer, higher consciousness. + +“90.4... +“92.2...” + +From somewhere far away in the immense, cold darkness, you hear a faint, +insistent hum. Quickly it mushrooms into a ball of sound, like a planet +rushing toward you, and then it becomes a stream of words. + +A voice is calling your name. + +You don’t want to open your eyes. You sense heat and light playing +against your eyelids, but beneath their warm dance a chill wells up +inside you from the sunless ocean bottoms and the farthest depths of +space. You are too tired even to shiver. You want only to sleep. + +“Can you hear me?” + +You force open your eyes. Lights glare overhead. Around the lights faces +hover atop uniformed bodies. You try to think: You’ve been away a very +long time, but where have you been? + +“You’re at the hospital. You got caught in the cold.” + +You try to nod. Your neck muscles feel rusted shut, unused for years. +They respond to your command with only a slight twitch. + +“You’ll probably have amnesia,” the voice says. + +You remember the moon rising over the spiky ridgetop and skiing up +toward it, toward someplace warm beneath the frozen moon. After that, +nothing—only that immense coldness lodged inside you. + +“We’re trying to get a little warmth back into you,” the voice says. + +You’d nod if you could. But you can’t move. All you can feel is +throbbing discomfort everywhere. Glancing down to where the pain is most +biting, you notice blisters filled with clear fluid dotting your +fingers, once gloveless in the snow. During the long, cold hours the +tissue froze and ice crystals formed in the tiny spaces between your +cells, sucking water from them, blocking the blood supply. You stare at +them absently. + +“I think they’ll be fine,” a voice from overhead says. “The damage looks +superficial. We expect that the blisters will break in a week or so, and +the tissue should revive after that.” + +If not, you know that your fingers will eventually turn black, the color +of bloodless, dead tissue. And then they will be amputated. + +But worry slips from you as another wave of exhaustion sweeps in. Slowly +you drift off, dreaming of warmth, of tropical ocean wavelets breaking +across your chest, of warm sand beneath you. + +Hours later, still logy and numb, you surface, as if from deep under +water. A warm tide seems to be flooding your midsection. Focusing your +eyes down there with difficulty, you see tubes running into you, their +heat mingling with your abdomen’s depthless cold like a churned-up +river. You follow the tubes to the bag that hangs suspended beneath the +electric light. + +And with a lurch that would be a sob if you could make a sound, you +begin to understand: The bag contains all that you had so nearly lost. +These people huddled around you have brought you sunlight and warmth, +things you once so cavalierly dismissed as constant, available, yours, +summoned by the simple twisting of a knob or tossing on of a layer. + +But in the hours since you last believed that, you’ve traveled to a +place where there is no sun. You’ve seen that in the infinite reaches of +the universe, heat is as glorious and ephemeral as the light of the +stars. Heat exists only where matter exists, where particles can vibrate +and jump. In the infinite winter of space, heat is tiny; it is the cold +that is huge. + +Someone speaks. Your eyes move from bright lights to shadowy forms in +the dim outer reaches of the room. You recognize the voice of one of the +friends you set out to visit, so long ago now. She’s smiling down at you +crookedly. + +“It’s cold out there,” she says. “Isn’t it?” diff --git a/_stories/1997/6236473.md b/_stories/1997/6236473.md index 9576e45..d73ba48 100644 --- a/_stories/1997/6236473.md +++ b/_stories/1997/6236473.md @@ -19,7 +19,344 @@ _tags: objectID: '6236473' --- -[Source](https://gist.github.com/badboy/6267743 "Permalink to ") +Original link: +[http://www.concentric.net/~Ttwang/tech/inthash.htm](http://www.concentric.net/%7ETtwang/tech/inthash.htm) +Taken from: +[http://web.archive.org/web/20071223173210/http://www.concentric.net/~Ttwang/tech/inthash.htm](http://web.archive.org/web/20071223173210/http://www.concentric.net/%7ETtwang/tech/inthash.htm) +Reformatted using pandoc +# [](#integer-hash-function)Integer Hash Function +Thomas Wang, Jan 1997 +last update Mar 2007 + +Version 3.1 + +## [](#abstract)Abstract + +An integer hash function accepts an integer hash key, and returns an +integer hash result with uniform distribution. In this article, we will +be discussing the construction of integer hash functions. + +## [](#introduction)Introduction + +Hash table is an important data structure. All elementary data structure +text books contain some algorithms of hash table. However, all too often +the treatment of hash function is discussed as an after-thought. Thus +examples abound in systems where the poor choice of the hash function +resulted in inferior performance. + +Certainly the integer hash function is the most basic form of the hash +function. The integer hash function transforms an integer hash key into +an integer hash result. For a hash function, the distribution should be +uniform. This implies when the hash result is used to calculate hash +bucket address, all buckets are equally likely to be picked. In +addition, similar hash keys should be hashed to very different hash +results. Ideally, a single bit change in the hash key should influence +all bits of the hash +result. + +## [](#hash-function-construction-principles)Hash Function Construction Principles + +A good mixing function must be reversible. A hash function has form h(x) +-\> y. If the input word size and the output word size are identical, +and in addition the operations in h() are reversible, then the following +properties are true. + +1. If h(x1) == y1, then there is an inverse function h\_inverse(y1) == + x1 +2. Because the inverse function exists, there cannot be a value x2 such + that x1 \!= x2, and h(x2) == y1. + +The case of h(x1) == y1, and h(x2) == y1 is called a collision. Using +only reversible operations in a hash function makes collisions +impossible. There is an one-to-one mapping between the input and the +output of the mixing function. + +Beside reversibility, the operations must use a chain of computations to +achieve avalanche. Avalanche means that a single bit of difference in +the input will make about 1/2 of the output bits be different. At a +point in the chain, a new result is obtained by a computation involving +earlier results. + +For example, the operation a = a + b is reversible if we know the value +of 'b', and the after value of 'a'. The before value of 'a' is obtained +by subtracting the after value of 'a' with the value of 'b'. + +## [](#knuths-multiplicative-method)Knuth's Multiplicative Method + +In Knuth's "The Art of Computer Programming", section 6.4, a +multiplicative hashing scheme is introduced as a way to write hash +function. The key is multiplied by the golden ratio of 2^32 (2654435761) +to produce a hash result. + +Since 2654435761 and 2^32 has no common factors in common, the +multiplication produces a complete mapping of the key to hash result +with no overlap. This method works pretty well if the keys have small +values. Bad hash results are produced if the keys vary in the upper +bits. As is true in all multiplications, variations of upper digits do +not influence the lower digits of the multiplication +result. + +## [](#robert-jenkins-96-bit-mix-function)Robert Jenkins' 96 bit Mix Function + +[Robert +Jenkins](/web/20071223173210/http://www.burtleburtle.net/bob/hash/doobs.html) +has developed a hash function based on a sequence of subtraction, +exclusive-or, and bit shift. + +All the sources in this article are written as Java methods, where the +operator '\>\>\>' represents the concept of unsigned right shift. If the +source were to be translated to C, then the Java 'int' data type should +be replaced with C 'uint32\_t' data type, and the Java 'long' data type +should be replaced with C 'uint64\_t' data type. + +The following source is the mixing part of the hash function. + + int mix(int a, int b, int c) + { + a=a-b; a=a-c; a=a^(c >>> 13); + b=b-c; b=b-a; b=b^(a << 8); + c=c-a; c=c-b; c=c^(b >>> 13); + a=a-b; a=a-c; a=a^(c >>> 12); + b=b-c; b=b-a; b=b^(a << 16); + c=c-a; c=c-b; c=c^(b >>> 5); + a=a-b; a=a-c; a=a^(c >>> 3); + b=b-c; b=b-a; b=b^(a << 10); + c=c-a; c=c-b; c=c^(b >>> 15); + return c; + } + +Variable 'c' contains the input key. When the mixing is complete, +variable 'c' also contains the hash result. Variable 'a', and 'b' +contain initialized random bits. Notice the total number of internal +state is 96 bits, much larger than the final output of 32 bits. Also +notice the sequence of subtractions rolls through variable 'a' to +variable 'c' three times. Each row will act on one variable, mixing in +information from the other two variables, followed by a shift operation. + +Subtraction is similar to multiplication in that changes in upper bits +of the key do not influence lower bits of the addition. The 9 bit shift +operations in Robert Jenkins' mixing algorithm shifts the key to the +right 61 bits in total, and shifts the key to the left 34 bits in total. +As the calculation is chained, each exclusive-or doubles the number of +states. There are at least 2^9 different combined versions of the +original key, shifted by various amounts. That is why a single bit +change in the key can influence widely apart bits in the hash result. + +The uniform distribution of the hash function can be determined from the +nature of the subtraction operation. Look at a single bit subtraction +operation between a key, and a random bit. If the random bit is 0, then +the key remains unchanged. If the random bit is 1, then the key will be +flipped. A carry will occur in the case where both the key bit and the +random bit are 1. Subtracting the random bits will cause about half of +the key bits to be flipped. So even if the key is not uniform, +subtracting the random bits will result in uniform distribution. + +## [](#32-bit-mix-functions)32 bit Mix Functions + +Based on an original suggestion on Robert Jenkin's part in 1997, I have +done some research for a version of the integer hash function. This is +my latest version as of January 2007. The specific value of the bit +shifts are obtained from running the accompanied search program. + + public int hash32shift(int key) + { + key = ~key + (key << 15); // key = (key << 15) - key - 1; + key = key ^ (key >>> 12); + key = key + (key << 2); + key = key ^ (key >>> 4); + key = key * 2057; // key = (key + (key << 3)) + (key << 11); + key = key ^ (key >>> 16); + return key; + } + +(~x) + y is equivalent to y - x - 1 in two's complement representation. + +By taking advantages of the native instructions such as 'add +complement', and 'shift & add', the above hash function runs in 11 +machine cycles on HP 9000 workstations. + +Having more rounds will strengthen the hash function by making the +result more random looking, but performance will be slowed down +accordingly. Simulation seems to prefer small shift amounts for inner +rounds, and large shift amounts for outer +rounds. + +## [](#robert-jenkins-32-bit-integer-hash-function)Robert Jenkins' 32 bit integer hash function + + uint32_t hash( uint32_t a) + { + a = (a+0x7ed55d16) + (a<<12); + a = (a^0xc761c23c) ^ (a>>19); + a = (a+0x165667b1) + (a<<5); + a = (a+0xd3a2646c) ^ (a<<9); + a = (a+0xfd7046c5) + (a<<3); + a = (a^0xb55a4f09) ^ (a>>16); + return a; + } + +This version of integer hash function uses operations with integer +constants to help producing a hash value. I suspect the actual values of +the magic constants are not very important. Even using 16 bit constants +may still work pretty well. + +These magic constants open up the construction of perfect integer hash +functions. A test program can vary the magic constants until a set of +perfect hashes are found. + +## [](#using-multiplication-for-hashing)Using Multiplication for Hashing + +Using multiplication requires a mechanism to transport changes from high +bit positions to low bit positions. Bit reversal is best, but is slow to +implement. A viable alternative is left shifts. + +Using multiplication presents some sort of dilemma. Certain machine +platforms supports integer multiplication in hardware, and an integer +multiplication can be completed in 4 or less cycles. But on some other +platforms an integer multiplication could take 8 or more cycles to +complete. On the other hand, integer hash functions implemented with bit +shifts perform equally well on all platforms. + +A compromise is to multiply the key with a 'sparse' bit pattern, where +on machines without fast integer multiplier they can be replaced with a +'shift & add' sequence. An example is to multiply the key with (4096 + 8 + + - 1), with an equivalent expression of (key + (key \<\< 3)) + (key + \<\< 12). + +On most machines a bit shift of 3 bits or less, following by an addition +can be performed in one cycle. For example, Pentium's 'lea' instruction +can be used to good effect to compute a 'shift & add' in one cycle. + +Function hash32shiftmult() uses a combination of bit shifts and integer +multiplication to hash the input key. + + public int hash32shiftmult(int key) + { + int c2=0x27d4eb2d; // a prime or an odd constant + key = (key ^ 61) ^ (key >>> 16); + key = key + (key << 3); + key = key ^ (key >>> 4); + key = key * c2; + key = key ^ (key >>> 15); + return key; + } + +## [](#64-bit-mix-functions)64 bit Mix Functions + + public long hash64shift(long key) + { + key = (~key) + (key << 21); // key = (key << 21) - key - 1; + key = key ^ (key >>> 24); + key = (key + (key << 3)) + (key << 8); // key * 265 + key = key ^ (key >>> 14); + key = (key + (key << 2)) + (key << 4); // key * 21 + key = key ^ (key >>> 28); + key = key + (key << 31); + return key; + } + +The longer width of 64 bits require more mixing than the 32 bit version. + +## [](#64-bit-to-32-bit-hash-functions)64 bit to 32 bit Hash Functions + +One such use for this kind of hash function is to hash a 64 bit virtual +address to a hash table index. Because the output of the hash function +is narrower than the input, the result is no longer one-to-one. + +Another usage is to hash two 32 bit integers into one hash value. + + public int hash6432shift(long key) + { + key = (~key) + (key << 18); // key = (key << 18) - key - 1; + key = key ^ (key >>> 31); + key = key * 21; // key = (key + (key << 2)) + (key << 4); + key = key ^ (key >>> 11); + key = key + (key << 6); + key = key ^ (key >>> 22); + return (int) key; + } + +## [](#parallel-operations)Parallel Operations + +If a CPU can dispatch multiple instructions in the same clock cycle, one +can consider adding more parallelism in the formula. + +For example, for the following formula, the two shift operations can be +performed in parallel. On certain platforms where there are multiple +ALUs but a single shifter unit, this idea does not offer a speed +increase. + + key ^= (key << 17) | (key >>> 16); + +For 32 bit word operations, only certain pairs of shift amounts will be +reversible. The valid pairs include: (17,16) (16,17) (14,19) (19,14) +(13,20) (20,13) (10,23) (23,10) (8,25) (25,8) + +Multiplication can be computed in parallel. Any multiplication with odd +number is reversible. + + key += (key << 3) + (key << 9); // key = key * (1 + 8 + 512) + +On certain machines, bit rotation can be performed in one cycle. Any odd +number bits rotation can be made reversible when exclusive-or is applied +to the un-rotated key with one particular bit set to 1 or 0. + + key = (key | 64) ^ ((key >>> 15) | (key << 17)); + +However, on certain machine and compiler combinations, this code +sequence can run as slow as 4 cycles. 2 cycles: a win, 3 cycles: tie, +more than 3 cycles: a loss. + +## [](#pseudo-random-usages)Pseudo Random Usages + +There has been queries whether these mix functions can be used for +pseudo random purposes. Although the out does look random to the naked +eye, the official recommendation is to use a real pseudo random number +generator instead, such as the [Mercenne +Twister](/web/20071223173210/http://www.math.sci.hiroshima-u.ac.jp/%7Em-mat/MT/emt.html). + +The hash functions listed in this article were only tested for hashing +purpose. No tests of randomness were performed. + +## [](#test-program)Test Program + +This is a [test +program](/web/20071223173210/http://www.concentric.net/%7ETtwang/tech/testchange.java) +testing the choices of the shift amounts with regard to the resulting +avalanche property. The program detects if a certain bit position has +both changes and no changes, based on a single bit flip. Promising +candidates are further tested to verify the percentage chance of bit +flip is sufficiently close to 50% for all input and output bit pairs. + +The test program prints out the name of the algorithm under test, +followed by the list of shift amounts that pass the avalanche test. + +## [](#power-of-2-hash-table-size)Power of 2 Hash Table Size + +Programmer uses hash table size that is power of 2 because address +calculation can be performed very quickly. The integer hash function can +be used to post condition the output of a marginal quality hash function +before the final address calculation is done. + + addr = inthash(marginal_hash_value) & (tablesize - 1); + +Using the inlined version of the integer hash function is faster than +doing a remaindering operation with a prime number\! An integer +remainder operation may take up to 18 cycles or longer to complete, +depending on machine architecture. + +## [](#conclusions)Conclusions + +In this article, we have examined a number of hash function construction +algorithms. Knuth's multiplicative method is the simplest, but has some +known defects. Robert Jenkins' 96 bit mix function can be used as an +integer hash function, but is more suitable for hashing long keys. A +dedicated hash function is well suited for hashing an integer number. + +We have also presented an application of the integer hash function to +improve the quality of a hash value. + +Give feedbacks to diff --git a/_stories/1997/7538908.md b/_stories/1997/7538908.md index 4596b90..aebdf91 100644 --- a/_stories/1997/7538908.md +++ b/_stories/1997/7538908.md @@ -19,7 +19,20 @@ _tags: objectID: '7538908' --- -[Source](https://eprints.eemcs.utwente.nl/1077/ "Permalink to ") +@book{3a44f2aa731c4ef99cd98ab9083ea9bd, +title = "Functional C", +keywords = "IR-64251, EWI-1077", +author = "Hartel, {Pieter H.} and Henk Muller", + +note = "Please read this first http://eprints.eemcs.utwente.nl/747/", + +year = "1997", + +isbn = "0-201-41950-5", + +publisher = "Addison Wesley Longman", + +} diff --git a/_stories/1997/8032713.md b/_stories/1997/8032713.md deleted file mode 100644 index 003b36a..0000000 --- a/_stories/1997/8032713.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,25 +0,0 @@ ---- -created_at: '2014-07-14T19:29:48.000Z' -title: The God Protocols (1997) -url: http://szabo.best.vwh.net/msc.html -author: markmassie -points: 67 -story_text: '' -comment_text: -num_comments: 4 -story_id: -story_title: -story_url: -parent_id: -created_at_i: 1405366188 -_tags: -- story -- author_markmassie -- story_8032713 -objectID: '8032713' - ---- -[Source](http://szabo.best.vwh.net/msc.html "Permalink to ") - - - diff --git a/_stories/1997/8868597.md b/_stories/1997/8868597.md deleted file mode 100644 index eaa6f6c..0000000 --- a/_stories/1997/8868597.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,25 +0,0 @@ ---- -created_at: '2015-01-11T00:53:01.000Z' -title: Prolog Programming Language (1997) -url: http://groups.engin.umd.umich.edu/CIS/course.des/cis400/prolog/prolog.html -author: bencevans -points: 61 -story_text: '' -comment_text: -num_comments: 45 -story_id: -story_title: -story_url: -parent_id: -created_at_i: 1420937581 -_tags: -- story -- author_bencevans -- story_8868597 -objectID: '8868597' - ---- -[Source](http://groups.engin.umd.umich.edu/CIS/course.des/cis400/prolog/prolog.html "Permalink to ") - - - diff --git a/_stories/1998/1137669.md b/_stories/1998/1137669.md index 3f8dadc..d50cfba 100644 --- a/_stories/1998/1137669.md +++ b/_stories/1998/1137669.md @@ -19,109 +19,87 @@ _tags: objectID: '1137669' --- -[Source](http://www.nytimes.com/1998/04/27/business/how-a-tax-law-helps-insure-a-scarcity-of-programmers.html?pagewanted=1 "Permalink to How a Tax Law Helps Insure a Scarcity of Programmers - The New York Times") +Everywhere Mrs. Johnson went in the suburbs of the nation's capital, she +said, she was offered work fixing and customizing software -- but only +if she would close her business and become an employee. -# How a Tax Law Helps Insure a Scarcity of Programmers - The New York Times +''They were afraid to do business with my company,'' Mrs. Johnson said. +Two months ago, her bank account empty and creditors at the door, Mrs. +Johnson gave up and took a job as a programmer, paying $69,000. -__NYTimes.com no longer supports Internet Explorer 9 or earlier. Please upgrade your browser. [LEARN MORE »][1] +Mrs. Johnson and thousands of other computer programmers who want to +work for themselves instead of being employees have run afoul of a 1986 +law in which Congress decreed that most individual programmers cannot be +entrepreneurs. -__Sections __ Home __Search [Skip to content][2] [Skip to navigation][3] [View mobile version][4] +The law generally excludes programmers from statutes giving employers +some flexibility to use independent contractors. Critics say that the +I.R.S. has recently stepped up its enforcement of the law in a way that +effectively kills start-up programming businesses if their only employee +is the founder. -## [ The New York Times ][5] +The law, which was introduced by Senator Daniel Patrick Moynihan, +Democrat of New York, was estimated to raise $60 million over five +years, a figure based on a belief by a staff member of the Congressional +Joint Committee on Taxation that employees cheat less on their taxes +than independent contractors do. That was enough money to pay for a tax +break, approved with Mr. Moynihan's support, that was sought by I.B.M. +for its overseas operations. Under the Gramm-Rudman deficit control act +of the previous year, Congress was required to pay for any tax cuts with +comparable revenue increases or spending cuts. -###### [Business Day][6]|How a Tax Law Helps Insure a Scarcity of Programmers +A year after the law regarding contractors was enacted, the Senator +tried to repeal it, but his bill died. In 1994, Senator William V. Roth, +Republican of Delaware, the sponsor of this week's hearings, wrote Mr. +Moynihan saying the programmers should get relief. More than 60 other +senators have written similar letters since 1994, but they have not +voted to change the law. -__Search - -Subscribe Now Log In __0 __Settings - -__Close search - -## Site Search Navigation - -Search NYTimes.com - -__Clear this text input - -Go - -1. Loading... - -See next articles - -See previous articles - -## Site Navigation - -## Site Mobile Navigation +Ginny Flynn, a spokeswoman for Mr. Roth, said that while the Senator +believed that the law was unfair, he was not currently moving to change +it because ''despite the fact the programmers are treated differently +from other people, this opens a Pandora's box of other independent +contractor issues.'' Advertisement -Supported by +[Continue reading the main story](#story-continues-4) -### [Business Day][6] +Programmers and their lawyers say that as a result of inaction by +Congress, many corporations have revised their policies to explicitly +forbid the hiring of programmers who are independent contractors. -# How a Tax Law Helps Insure a Scarcity of Programmers +In response, some people, like Mrs. Johnson, incorporated. They reasoned +that if they were employees of their own corporations they would be +treated by the I.R.S. the way that many doctors and others are and could +expand their enterprises. -By [DAVID CAY JOHNSTON][7]APRIL 27, 1998 +But internal I.R.S. documents show that in Alaska, California, Ohio, +Minnesota, New York and New Jersey, I.R.S. auditors as recently as last +year hunted for corporations created by computer programmers. They found +scores of such companies and then disallowed them for tax purposes. The +papers show that they were disallowed because they were less than a year +old and had only one employee, the programmer who created the +corporation. -[Continue reading the main story][8] Share This Page +Across the country, officials of high-technology temporary-help +companies said the I.R.S. audit tactic had caused many corporations to +refuse to hire programmers unless they become employees, like Mrs. +Johnson, or were employees of such temporary-help agencies. -[Continue reading the main story][8] +Mary E. Oppenheimer, an I.R.S. assistant chief counsel, said there was +no national directive for auditors to hunt for incorporated programmers. +However, she noted, Congress has directed the I.R.S. to look at the +economic substance of tax matters, not just their legal form. -The Senate holds hearings this week on complaints of taxpayer abuse by the Internal Revenue Service, but the agenda does not include the role of Congress itself in creating taxpayer woes, particularly for tens of thousands of computer programmers. - -But just ask Midge Johnson, a would-be programming entrepreneur, about a long-standing tax law that is pointed specifically at software professionals and prevents many of them from setting up freelance businesses. Lately, the I.R.S. has been aggressively enforcing that law -- even as computer programmers are in such short supply that the Clinton Administration is pouring millions of dollars into Federal initiatives to train more of them. - -It appears to be public policy in conflict with itself and it is making work life difficult for a category of citizens crucial to the digital economy. - -''Why does Congress say that I can't go out and pursue the American dream and give my kids and grandkids things I couldn't have?'' asked Mrs. Johnson, who did not find out about the law until two years ago, after quitting her job with the consulting firm of Booz Allen & Hamilton in hopes of starting her own software programming business. ''And why,'' she asked, ''is the I.R.S. so busy enforcing this law that keeps me from being an independent contractor?'' - -Advertisement - -[Continue reading the main story][8] - -Mrs. Johnson, of Lanham, Md., knows that programmers are in such short supply that they can earn up to several hundred dollars an hour writing code for hire, and many in Congress want to let tens of thousands of foreign programmers migrate to the United States. She calculated that if she were in business for herself she could double her income. - -[Continue reading the main story][9] - -Advertisement - -[Continue reading the main story][10] - -Everywhere Mrs. Johnson went in the suburbs of the nation's capital, she said, she was offered work fixing and customizing software -- but only if she would close her business and become an employee. - -''They were afraid to do business with my company,'' Mrs. Johnson said. Two months ago, her bank account empty and creditors at the door, Mrs. Johnson gave up and took a job as a programmer, paying $69,000. - -Mrs. Johnson and thousands of other computer programmers who want to work for themselves instead of being employees have run afoul of a 1986 law in which Congress decreed that most individual programmers cannot be entrepreneurs. - -The law generally excludes programmers from statutes giving employers some flexibility to use independent contractors. Critics say that the I.R.S. has recently stepped up its enforcement of the law in a way that effectively kills start-up programming businesses if their only employee is the founder. - -The law, which was introduced by Senator Daniel Patrick Moynihan, Democrat of New York, was estimated to raise $60 million over five years, a figure based on a belief by a staff member of the Congressional Joint Committee on Taxation that employees cheat less on their taxes than independent contractors do. That was enough money to pay for a tax break, approved with Mr. Moynihan's support, that was sought by I.B.M. for its overseas operations. Under the Gramm-Rudman deficit control act of the previous year, Congress was required to pay for any tax cuts with comparable revenue increases or spending cuts. - -A year after the law regarding contractors was enacted, the Senator tried to repeal it, but his bill died. In 1994, Senator William V. Roth, Republican of Delaware, the sponsor of this week's hearings, wrote Mr. Moynihan saying the programmers should get relief. More than 60 other senators have written similar letters since 1994, but they have not voted to change the law. - -Ginny Flynn, a spokeswoman for Mr. Roth, said that while the Senator believed that the law was unfair, he was not currently moving to change it because ''despite the fact the programmers are treated differently from other people, this opens a Pandora's box of other independent contractor issues.'' - -Advertisement - -[Continue reading the main story][11] - -Programmers and their lawyers say that as a result of inaction by Congress, many corporations have revised their policies to explicitly forbid the hiring of programmers who are independent contractors. - -In response, some people, like Mrs. Johnson, incorporated. They reasoned that if they were employees of their own corporations they would be treated by the I.R.S. the way that many doctors and others are and could expand their enterprises. - -But internal I.R.S. documents show that in Alaska, California, Ohio, Minnesota, New York and New Jersey, I.R.S. auditors as recently as last year hunted for corporations created by computer programmers. They found scores of such companies and then disallowed them for tax purposes. The papers show that they were disallowed because they were less than a year old and had only one employee, the programmer who created the corporation. - -Across the country, officials of high-technology temporary-help companies said the I.R.S. audit tactic had caused many corporations to refuse to hire programmers unless they become employees, like Mrs. Johnson, or were employees of such temporary-help agencies. - -Mary E. Oppenheimer, an I.R.S. assistant chief counsel, said there was no national directive for auditors to hunt for incorporated programmers. However, she noted, Congress has directed the I.R.S. to look at the economic substance of tax matters, not just their legal form. - -In an earlier interview, Tom Burger, the director of employment taxes for the I.R.S., said one of the agency's difficulties ''is that, and I need to pick my words carefully, Congress passes laws, often without asking us about them, and then tells us to enforce them.'' +In an earlier interview, Tom Burger, the director of employment taxes +for the I.R.S., said one of the agency's difficulties ''is that, and I +need to pick my words carefully, Congress passes laws, often without +asking us about them, and then tells us to enforce them.'' ## Newsletter Sign Up -[Continue reading the main story][12] +[Continue reading the main story](#continues-post-newsletter) ### @@ -131,287 +109,108 @@ Invalid email address. Please re-enter. You must select a newsletter to subscribe to. -Sign Up - -You agree to receive occasional updates and special offers for The New York Times's products and services. +You agree to receive occasional updates and special offers for The New +York Times's products and services. ### Thank you for subscribing. ### An error has occurred. Please try again later. -### You are already subscribed to this email. +[View all New York Times newsletters.](/newsletters) -[View all New York Times newsletters.][13] +The immediate effect of these audits is to force individual programmers +like Mrs. Johnson to abandon their dreams of getting rich off their +high-technology skills. But the broader impact is that small businesses +started by one entrepreneur do not have a chance to grow into mighty +enterprises that can create jobs and generate more taxes. ''Who do you +know who would hire someone who will bring with them trouble from the +I.R.S.?'' asked Harvey J. Shulman, the Washington lawyer for the +National Association of Computer Consultant Businesses, who made the +audit documents available. -* [See Sample][14] -* [Manage Email Preferences][15] -* [Not you?][16] -* [Privacy Policy][17] -* Opt out or [contact us][18] anytime +Mr. Shulman has challenged 52 such audits. ''I prevailed in 50 cases and +partially in another, but at a cost to clients of $50,000 or more, and +that is just ridiculous,'' he said. -The immediate effect of these audits is to force individual programmers like Mrs. Johnson to abandon their dreams of getting rich off their high-technology skills. But the broader impact is that small businesses started by one entrepreneur do not have a chance to grow into mighty enterprises that can create jobs and generate more taxes. ''Who do you know who would hire someone who will bring with them trouble from the I.R.S.?'' asked Harvey J. Shulman, the Washington lawyer for the National Association of Computer Consultant Businesses, who made the audit documents available. - -Mr. Shulman has challenged 52 such audits. ''I prevailed in 50 cases and partially in another, but at a cost to clients of $50,000 or more, and that is just ridiculous,'' he said. - -The association's 400 members, who had more than $5 billion of revenues last year, are mostly high-technology temporary-help agencies that hire programmers as employees and send them to companies on short-term assignments. They want the same flexibility to use contractors and individuals who have incorporated as other businesses do. +The association's 400 members, who had more than $5 billion of revenues +last year, are mostly high-technology temporary-help agencies that hire +programmers as employees and send them to companies on short-term +assignments. They want the same flexibility to use contractors and +individuals who have incorporated as other businesses do. Advertisement -[Continue reading the main story][19] +[Continue reading the main story](#story-continues-5) -Don McLaurin, president of the Computer Consulting Group in Columbia, S.C., which hires programmers as employees and farms them out to companies for short-term projects, said the law and its enforcement ''are having a devastating impact on the computer industry.'' +Don McLaurin, president of the Computer Consulting Group in Columbia, +S.C., which hires programmers as employees and farms them out to +companies for short-term projects, said the law and its enforcement +''are having a devastating impact on the computer industry.'' -He said his business and his clients would benefit if he could use some independent contractors and some incorporated programmers. +He said his business and his clients would benefit if he could use some +independent contractors and some incorporated programmers. -''This is Catch-22,'' he said. ''If you are not legitimate because you start out as a one-person corporation and you haven't been in business for a year, then how do you ever start your business? It is nonsensical.'' +''This is Catch-22,'' he said. ''If you are not legitimate because you +start out as a one-person corporation and you haven't been in business +for a year, then how do you ever start your business? It is +nonsensical.'' -Ed Myers, president of a company in El Segundo, Calif., that provides programmers to corporations, said that when his company was audited he and Mr. Shulman were able to defend the status of all but 3 of 50 workers as independent contractors. +Ed Myers, president of a company in El Segundo, Calif., that provides +programmers to corporations, said that when his company was audited he +and Mr. Shulman were able to defend the status of all but 3 of 50 +workers as independent contractors. -''The auditor then said I had to give him two more people and I said, 'what do you mean?' and he said he had to have five people he could reclassify as employees because that was what his boss demanded and that if I would give him two more names he would close the audit. +''The auditor then said I had to give him two more people and I said, +'what do you mean?' and he said he had to have five people he could +reclassify as employees because that was what his boss demanded and that +if I would give him two more names he would close the audit. -''My first reaction was 'hell no,' because they are not truly employees,'' Mr. Myers said. ''But my second reaction was that it makes no economic sense for me to fight this because it would cost another $50,000 or more, so I gave him two names.'' +''My first reaction was 'hell no,' because they are not truly +employees,'' Mr. Myers said. ''But my second reaction was that it makes +no economic sense for me to fight this because it would cost another +$50,000 or more, so I gave him two names.'' The two programmers, he said, no longer speak to him. -Mr. Shulman said the association ''is not asking for a special privilege in repealing this law; we are just asking that programmers and other technical-services workers be treated the same as every other worker in America instead of being singled out for discriminatory treatment.'' +Mr. Shulman said the association ''is not asking for a special privilege +in repealing this law; we are just asking that programmers and other +technical-services workers be treated the same as every other worker in +America instead of being singled out for discriminatory treatment.'' -Donna Steele Flynn, a former member of the House Ways and Means Committee staff who is now a tax specialist with Ernst & Young, said, ''The only reason this hasn't gotten fixed is because the official Joint Tax Committee estimate in the past was that repeal of Section 1706 would cost a billion dollars in tax revenue over five years. +Donna Steele Flynn, a former member of the House Ways and Means +Committee staff who is now a tax specialist with Ernst & Young, said, +''The only reason this hasn't gotten fixed is because the official Joint +Tax Committee estimate in the past was that repeal of Section 1706 would +cost a billion dollars in tax revenue over five years. Advertisement -[Continue reading the main story][20] +[Continue reading the main story](#story-continues-6) -''There is a political will on both sides of the aisle, but in terms of importance and number of people, a billion dollars is a lot of money for a relatively small number of people.'' +''There is a political will on both sides of the aisle, but in terms of +importance and number of people, a billion dollars is a lot of money for +a relatively small number of people.'' -However, Ms. Flynn added, the official estimate seems wildly inflated. She noted that when legislation was considered last year that would allow employers broad discretion over whether to treat workers in any industry as employees or independent contractors, the tax revenue loss for the entire economy was estimated at the same $1 billion over five years. +However, Ms. Flynn added, the official estimate seems wildly inflated. +She noted that when legislation was considered last year that would +allow employers broad discretion over whether to treat workers in any +industry as employees or independent contractors, the tax revenue loss +for the entire economy was estimated at the same $1 billion over five +years. -The I.R.S. estimates that it collects 99.5 percent of taxes due from employees, but far less from those who work as independent contractors. +The I.R.S. estimates that it collects 99.5 percent of taxes due from +employees, but far less from those who work as independent contractors. -''Whether people cheat is a separate issue,'' Mr. Shulman said. He pointed to a Treasury Department study that found that programmers were more compliant taxpayers than other independent contractors. +''Whether people cheat is a separate issue,'' Mr. Shulman said. He +pointed to a Treasury Department study that found that programmers were +more compliant taxpayers than other independent contractors. -''The I.R.S. wants people to be employees because it is easier to collect revenue, but the revenue they are collecting from employees is less than the revenue they would collect from independent contractors -- even if they cheat a little -- because they can make so much more,'' he said. ''Basically the I.R.S. is saying it would rather collect less revenue with less cheating than collect more revenue with more cheating. 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+less than the revenue they would collect from independent contractors -- +even if they cheat a little -- because they can make so much more,'' he +said. ''Basically the I.R.S. is saying it would rather collect less +revenue with less cheating than collect more revenue with more cheating. +Does that make economic sense?'' +[Continue reading the main story](#whats-next) diff --git a/_stories/1998/12758176.md b/_stories/1998/12758176.md index e5211d2..cd226ef 100644 --- a/_stories/1998/12758176.md +++ b/_stories/1998/12758176.md @@ -19,7 +19,155 @@ _tags: objectID: '12758176' --- -[Source](https://xlinux.nist.gov/dads/ "Permalink to ") +# Dictionary of Algorithms and Data Structures +This web site is hosted by the [Software and Systems +Division](https://www.nist.gov/itl/ssd), [Information Technology +Laboratory](https://www.nist.gov/itl), [NIST](https://www.nist.gov/). +Development of this dictionary started in 1998 under the editorship of +Paul E. Black. +This is a dictionary of algorithms, algorithmic techniques, data +structures, archetypal problems, and related definitions. Algorithms +include common functions, such as [Ackermann's +function](HTML/ackermann.html). Problems include [traveling +salesman](HTML/travelingSalesman.html) and [Byzantine +generals](HTML/byzantine.html). Some entries have links to +[implementations](termsImpl.html) and more information. Index pages list +entries by [area](termsArea.html) and by [type](termsType.html). The +[two-level index](terms2.html) has a total download 1/20 as big as this +page. +Don't use this site to cheat. Teachers, contact us if we can help. + +Currently we do not include algorithms particular to business data +processing, communications, operating systems or distributed algorithms, +programming languages, AI, graphics, or numerical analysis: it is tough +enough covering "general" algorithms and data structures. If you have +suggestions, corrections, or comments, please get in touch with [Paul +Black](mailto:paul.black@nist.gov). + +Some terms with a leading variable, such as n-way, m-dimensional, or +p-branching, are under [k-](#K). You may find useful entries in [A +Glossary of Computer Oriented Abbreviations and +Acronyms](http://www.arcelect.com/babel99.htm). + +To look up words or phrases, enter them in the box, then click the +button. + +[![Google](http://www.google.com/logos/Google_Safe.gif)](http://www.google.com/webhp?safe=vss) +Web DADS + +We thank [those who contributed definitions](Other/contrib.html) as well +as many others who offered suggestions and corrections. + +After more than a decade of service as editor of DADS, Paul Black was +joined by Vreda Pieterse of the [FASTAR group](http://fastar.org/) at +Stellenbosch University (South Africa), University of Pretoria, and +Eindhoven University (Netherlands) as co-editor. The URL +https://www.nist.gov/dads/ is an alias which should continue to refer to +DADS. We regret any inconvenience this may cause. + +Here are some references on algorithms and data structures. + +The [Stony Brook Algorithm +Repository](http://www3.cs.stonybrook.edu/~algorith/), which has +algorithms organized by type, succinct, illustrated definitions, and +ratings of sites with implementations. + +[Data Structures and +Algorithms](http://www.cs.auckland.ac.nz/software/AlgAnim/ds_ToC.html) +is a wonderful site with illustrations, explanations, analysis, and code +taking the student from arrays and lists through trees, graphs, and +intractable problems. + +Eric Weisstein's [World of Mathematics](http://mathworld.wolfram.com/) +or MathWorld. + +The [Sphere online judge](http://www.spoj.com/) (SPOJ) has about 6600 +small programming tasks or puzzles and 900 contests. Even nicer it +automatically assesses your programs written in 40 languages. + +The [Computing Research Repository](https://arxiv.org/corr/home) (CoRR). + +Eighth International Conference on [Fun With +Algorithms](http://www2.idsia.ch/cms/fun16/) (FUN 2016). The conference +"is dedicated to the use, design, and analysis of algorithms and data +structures, focusing on results that provide amusing, witty but +nonetheless original and scientifically profound contributions to the +area." + +## Bibliography + +\[AS98\] **Pankaj K. Agarwal** and **Micha Sharir**, Efficient +Algorithms for Geometric Optimization, ACM Computing Surveys, +30(4):412-458, December 1998. + +\[ATCH99\] Algorithms and Theory of Computation Handbook, **Mikhail J. +Atallah**, ed., CRC Press LLC, 1999. + +\[CLR90\] **Thomas H. Cormen, Charles E. Leiserson**, and **Ronald L. +Rivest**, Introduction to Algorithms, MIT Press, 1990. + +\[GBY91\] **Gaston H. Gonnet** and **Ricardo Baeza-Yates**, Handbook of +Algorithms and Data Structures -- in Pascal and C, 2nd edition, +Addison-Wesley, 1991. + +\[GCG92\] **P. Gupta, P. P. Chakrabarti**, and **S. Ghose**, The Towers +of Hanoi: Generalizations, Specializations, and Algorithms, Intern. J. +Computer Math., 46:149-161, Gordon and Breach Science Publishers S.A., +1992. + +\[GG98\] **Volker Gaede** and **Oliver Günther**, Multidimensional +Access Methods, ACM Computing Surveys, 30(2):170-231, June 1998. + +\[GT97\] **Michael T. Goodrich** and **Roberto Tamassia**, Data +Structures and Algorithms in Java, 2nd edition, John Wiley & Sons, 1997. + +\[Graef06\] **Goetz Graefe**, Implementing Sorting in Database Systems, +ACM Computing Surveys, 38(3), Article 10, September 2006. + +\[Hirv01\] **Mika Hirvensalo**, Quantum Computing, Springer-Verlag, +2001. + +\[HS83\] **Ellis Horowitz** and **Sartaj Sahni**, Fundamentals of Data +Structures, Computer Science Press, 1983. + +\[Knuth97\] **Donald E. Knuth**, The Art of Computer Programming, +Addison-Wesley, volumes 1 and 2, 2nd edition, 1997. + +\[Knuth98\] **Donald E. Knuth**, The Art of Computer Programming, +Addison-Wesley, volume 3, 2nd edition, 1998. + +\[Leda98\] [LEDA](http://www.algorithmic-solutions.com/enleda.htm) +(accessed 4 December 2002). + +\[Sedge97\] **Robert Sedgewick**, Algorithms in C, Addison-Wesley, 1997. + +\[Stand98\] **Thomas Standish**, Data Structures in Java, +Addison-Wesley, 1998. + +\[Sund98\] **Daniel M. Sunday**, A Very Fast Substring Search Algorithm, +Communications of the ACM, 33(8):132-142, August 1998. + +\[Vitt01\] **Jeffrey Scott Vitter**, External Memory Algorithms and Data +Structures: Dealing with Massive Data, ACM Computing Surveys, +33(2):209-271, June 2001. + +\[Wier98\] **Roel Wieringa**, A Survey of Structured and Object-Oriented +Software Specification Methods and Techniques, ACM Computing Surveys, +30(4):459-527, December 1998. + +Here are [citation examples and an explanation of +credit](Other/creditNotice.html). + +Robots, please index [all term pages, including spelling +variants](ui.html). + +[![Viewable With Any +Browser](Images/anybrowser4.gif)](http://www.anybrowser.org/campaign/) + +Created Fri Sep 4 16:39:23 1998 This Trailer Updated Mon Sep 18 10:12:55 +2017 + +This page's URL is diff --git a/_stories/1998/13315746.md b/_stories/1998/13315746.md index 03231f4..4080b17 100644 --- a/_stories/1998/13315746.md +++ b/_stories/1998/13315746.md @@ -19,334 +19,546 @@ _tags: objectID: '13315746' --- -[Source](http://www.lrb.co.uk/v20/n02/derek-parfit/why-anything-why-this "Permalink to Derek Parfit · Why anything? Why this? Part 1 · LRB 22 January 1998") - -# Derek Parfit · Why anything? Why this? Part 1 · LRB 22 January 1998 - -* [skip navigation][1] -* [London Review of Books home page][2] -* [from the latest issue][3] -* [site map][4] -* [site search][5] -* [about the LRB][6] -* [terms & conditions][7] -* [contact information][8] -* [accessibility and view options][9] - -[Log In][10] [Register for Online Access][11]   - -![London Review of Books][12] - -* [Latest][2] -* [Archive][13] -* [Bookshop][14] -* [Contact Us][8] -* [About the LRB][6] -* [Subscribe][15] -* [Introduction][13] -* [Back Issues][16] -* [Contributors][17] -* [Categories][18] -* [Letters][19] -* [Audio][20] -* [Video][21] - -![LRB Cover][22] - -[**Derek Parfit][23]** - -* * * - -## [MORE BY THIS CONTRIBUTOR][23] - -* [Why anything? Why this?][24] -Part 2 - -* * * - -## RELATED ARTICLES - -6 February 2014 - -### [David Kaiser -The Future of the Universe][25] - -17 February 2011 - -### [David Kaiser -Going Supernova][26] - -21 September 2006 - -### [Jerry Fodor -Who ate the salted peanuts?][27] - -26 January 2006 - -### [George Ellis -The mathematical universe][28] - -22 September 2005 - -### [J.L. Heilbron -A Copernican monomaniac][29] - -1 September 2005 - -### [Steven Shapin -The banality of moon-talk][30] - -18 August 2005 - -### [Thomas Jones -When is a planet not a planet?][31] - -* * * - -## RELATED CATEGORIES - -[Science, technology and mathematics][32], [Physics][33], [Cosmology][34] - -* * * - -[Vol. 20 No. 2 · 22 January 1998][35] -pages 24-27 | 5728 words - -* * * - -# Why anything? Why this? - -## Derek Parfit - -Why does the Universe exist? There are two questions here. First, why is there a Universe at all? It might have been true that nothing ever existed: no living beings, no stars, no atoms, not even space or time. When we think about this possibility, it can seem astonishing that anything exists. Second, why does _this_ Universe exist? Things might have been, in countless ways, different. So why is the Universe as it is? - -These questions, some believe, may have causal answers. Suppose first that the Universe has always existed. Some believe that, if all events were caused by earlier events, everything would be explained. That, however, is not so. Even an infinite series of events cannot explain itself. We could ask why this series occurred, rather than some other series, or no series. Of the supporters of the Steady State Theory, some welcomed what they took to be this theory's atheistic implications. They assumed that, if the Universe had no beginning, there would be nothing for a Creator to explain. But there would still be an eternal Universe to explain. - -Suppose next that the Universe is not eternal, since nothing preceded the Big Bang. That first event, some physicists suggest, may have obeyed the laws of quantum mechanics, by being a random fluctuation in a vacuum. This would causally explain, they say, how the Universe came into existence out of nothing. But what physicists call a vacuum isn't really nothing. We can ask why it exists, and has the potentialities it does. In Hawking's phrase, 'What breathes fire into the equations?' - -Similar remarks apply to all suggestions of these kinds. There could not be a causal explanation of why the Universe exists, why there are any laws of nature, or why these laws are as they are. Nor would it make a difference if there is a God, who caused the rest of the Universe to exist. There could not be a causal explanation of why God exists. - -Many people have assumed that, since these questions cannot have causal answers, they cannot have any answers. Some therefore dismiss these questions, thinking them not worth considering. Others conclude that they do not make sense. They assume that, as Wittgenstein wrote, 'doubt can exist only where there is a question; and a question only where there is an answer.' - -These assumptions are all, I believe, mistaken. Even if these questions could not have answers, they would still make sense, and they would still be worth considering. I am reminded here of the aesthetic category of the sublime, as applied to the highest mountains, raging oceans, the night sky, the interiors of some cathedrals, and other things that are superhuman, awesome, limitless. No question is more sublime than why there is a Universe: why there is anything rather than nothing. Nor should we assume that answers to this question must be causal. And, even if reality cannot be fully explained, we may still make progress, since what is inexplicable may become less baffling than it now seems. - -One apparent fact about reality has recently been much discussed. Many physicists believe that, for life to be possible, various features of the Universe must be almost precisely as they are. As one example, we can take the initial conditions in the Big Bang. If these conditions had been more than very slightly different, these physicists claim, the Universe would not have had the complexity that allows living beings to exist. Why were these conditions so precisely right?[[*]][36] - -Some say: 'If they had not been right, we couldn't even ask this question.' But that is no answer. It could be baffling how we survived some crash even though, if we hadn't, we could not be baffled. - -Others say: 'There had to be some initial conditions, and the conditions that make life possible were as likely as any others. So there is nothing to be explained.' To see what is wrong with this reply, we must distinguish two kinds of case. Suppose first that, when some radio telescope is aimed at most points in space, it records a random sequence of incoming waves. There might be nothing here that needed to be explained. Suppose next that, when the telescope is aimed in one direction, it records a sequence of waves whose pulses match the number π, in binary notation, to the first ten thousand digits. That particular number is, in one sense, just as likely as any other. But there _would_ be something here that needed to be explained. Though each long number is unique, only a very few are, like π, mathematically special. What would need to be explained is why this sequence of waves exactly matched such a special number. Though this matching might be a coincidence, which had been randomly produced, that would be most unlikely. We could be almost certain that these waves had been produced by some kind of intelligence. - -On the view that we are now considering, since any sequence of waves is as likely as any other, there would be nothing to be explained. If we accepted this view, intelligent beings elsewhere in space would not be able to communicate with us, since we would ignore their messages. Nor could God reveal himself. Suppose that, with an optical telescope, we saw a distant pattern of stars which spelled out in Hebrew script the first chapter of Genesis. According to this view, this pattern of stars would not need to be explained. That is clearly false. - -Here is another analogy. Suppose first that, of a thousand people facing death, only one can be rescued. If there is a lottery to pick this one survivor, and I win, I would be very lucky. But there might be nothing here that needed to be explained. Someone had to win, and why not me? Consider next another lottery. Unless my gaoler picks the longest of a thousand straws, I shall be shot. If my gaoler picks that straw, there would be something to be explained. It would not be enough to say, 'This result was as likely as any other.' In the first lottery, nothing special happened: whatever the result, someone's life would be saved. In this second lottery, the result _was_ special, since, of the thousand possible results, only one would save a life. Why was this special result _also_ what happened? Though this might be a coincidence, the chance of that is only one in a thousand. I could be almost certain that, like Dostoevsky's mock execution, this lottery was rigged. - -The Big Bang, it seems, was like this second lottery. For life to be possible, the initial conditions had to be selected with great accuracy. This _appearance of fine-tuning_, as some call it, also needs to be explained. - -It may be objected that, in regarding conditions as special if they allow for life, we unjustifiably assume our own importance. But life is special, if only because of its complexity. An earthworm's brain is more complicated than a lifeless galaxy. Nor is it only life that requires this fine-tuning. If the Big Bang's initial conditions had not been almost precisely as they were, the Universe would have either almost instantly recollapsed, or expanded so fast, and with particles so thinly spread, that not even stars or heavy elements could have formed. That is enough to make these conditions very special. - -It may next be objected that these conditions cannot be claimed to be improbable, since such a claim requires a statistical basis, and there is only one Universe. If we were considering all conceivable Universes, it would indeed be implausible to make judgments of statistical probability. But our question is much narrower. We are asking what would have happened if, with the same laws of nature, the initial conditions had been different. That provides the basis for a statistical judgment. There is a range of values that these conditions might have had, and physicists can work out in what proportion of this range the resulting Universe could have contained stars, heavy elements and life. - -This proportion, it is claimed, is extremely small. Of the range of possible initial conditions, fewer than one in a billion billion would have produced a Universe with the complexity that allows for life. If this claim is true, as I shall here assume, there is something that cries out to be explained. Why was one of this tiny set also the one that actually obtained? - -On one view, this was a mere coincidence. That is conceivable, since coincidences happen. But this view is hard to believe, since, if it were true, the chance of this coincidence occurring would be below one in a billion billion. - -Others say: 'The Big Bang _was_ fine-tuned. In creating the Universe, God chose to make life possible.' Atheists may reject this answer, thinking it improbable that God exists. But this probability cannot be as low as one in a billion billion. So even atheists should admit that, of these two answers to our question, the one that invokes God is more likely to be true. - -This reasoning revives one of the traditional arguments for belief in God. In its strongest form, this argument appealed to the many features of animals, such as eyes or wings, that look as if they have been designed. Paley's appeal to such features much impressed Darwin when he was young. Darwin later undermined this form of the argument, since evolution can explain this appearance of design. But evolution cannot explain the appearance of fine-tuning in the Big Bang. - -This argument's appeal to probabilities can be challenged in a different way. In claiming it to be most improbable that this fine-tuning was a coincidence, the argument assumes that, of the possible initial conditions in the Big Bang, each was equally likely to obtain. That assumption may be mistaken. The conditions that allow for complexity and life may have been, compared with all the others, much more likely to obtain. Perhaps they were even certain to obtain. - -To answer this objection, we must broaden this argument's conclusion. If these life-allowing conditions were either very likely or certain to obtain, then – as the argument claims – it would be no coincidence that the Universe allows for complexity and life. But this fine-tuning might have been the work, not of some existing being, but of some impersonal force, or fundamental law. That is what some theists believe God to be. - -A stronger challenge to this argument comes from a different way of explaining the appearance of fine-tuning. Consider first a similar question. For life to be possible on Earth, many of Earth's features have to be close to being as they are. The Earth's having such features, it might be claimed, is unlikely to be a coincidence, and should therefore be regarded as God's work. But such an argument would be weak. The Universe, we can reasonably believe, contains many planets, with varying conditions. We should expect that, on a few of these planets, conditions would be just right for life. Nor is it surprising that we live on one of these few. - -Things are different, we may assume, with the appearance of fine-tuning in the Big Bang. While there are likely to be many other planets, there is only one Universe. But this difference may be less than it seems. Some physicists suggest that the observable Universe is only one out of many different worlds, which are all equally parts of reality. According to one such view, the other worlds are related to ours in a way that solves some of the mysteries of quantum physics. On the different and simpler view that is relevant here, the other worlds have the same fundamental laws of nature as our world, and they are produced by Big Bangs that are broadly similar, except in having different initial conditions. - -On this _Many Worlds Hypothesis_, there is no need for fine-tuning. If there were enough Big Bangs, we should expect that, in a few of them, conditions would be just right to allow for complexity and life; and it would be no surprise that our Big Bang was one of these few. To illustrate this point, we can revise my second lottery. Suppose my gaoler picks a straw, not once but many times. That would explain his managing, once, to pick the longest straw, without that's being an extreme coincidence, or this lottery's being rigged. - -On most versions of the Many Worlds Hypothesis, these many worlds are not, except through their origins, causally related. Some object that, since our world could not be causally affected by such other worlds, we can have no evidence for their existence, and can therefore have no reason to believe in them. But we do have such a reason, since their existence would explain an otherwise puzzling feature of our world: the appearance of fine-tuning. - -Of these two ways to explain this appearance, which is better? Compared with belief in God, the Many Worlds Hypothesis is more cautious, since its claim is merely that there is more of the kind of reality that we can observe around us. But God's existence has been claimed to be intrinsically more probable. According to most theists, God is a being who is omnipotent, omniscient and wholly good. The uncaused existence of such a being has been claimed to be simpler, and less arbitrary, than the uncaused existence of many highly complicated worlds. And simpler hypotheses, many scientists assume, are more likely to be true. - -If such a God exists, however, other features of our world become hard to explain. It may not be surprising that God chose to make life possible. But the laws of nature could have been different, so there are many possible worlds that would have contained life. It is hard to understand why, out of all these possibilities, God chose to create our world. What is most baffling is the problem of evil. There appears to be suffering which any good person, knowing the truth, would have prevented if he could. If there is such suffering, there cannot be a God who is omnipotent, omniscient and wholly good. - -To this problem, theists have proposed several solutions. Some suggest that God is not omnipotent, or not wholly good. Others suggest that undeserved suffering is not, as it seems, bad, or that God could not prevent such suffering without making the Universe, as a whole, less good. - -We must ignore these suggestions here, since we have larger questions to consider. I began by asking why things are as they are. Before returning to that question, we should ask _how_ things are. There is much about our world that we have not discovered. And, just as there may be other worlds that are like ours, there may be worlds that are very different. - -It will help to distinguish two kinds of possibility. _Cosmic_ possibilities cover everything that ever exists, and are the different ways that the whole of reality might be. Only one such possibility can be actual, or the one that obtains. _Local_ possibilities are the different ways that some part of reality, or local world, might be. If some local world exists, that leaves it open whether other worlds exist. - -One cosmic possibility is, roughly, that every possible local world exists. This we can call the _All Worlds Hypothesis_. Another possibility, which might have obtained, is that nothing ever exists. This we can call the _Null Possibility_. In each of the remaining possibilities, the number of worlds that exist is between none and all. There are countless of these possibilities, since there are countless combinations of particular possible local worlds. - -Of these different cosmic possibilities, one must obtain, and only one can obtain. So we have two questions: which obtains, and why? These questions are connected. If some possibility would be easier to explain, we have more reason to believe that this possibility obtains. This is how, rather than believing in only one Big Bang, we have more reason to believe in many. Whether we believe in one or many, we have the question why any Big Bang has occurred. Though this question is hard, the occurrence of many Big Bangs is not more puzzling than the occurrence of only one. Most kinds of thing, or event, have many instances. We also have the question why, in the Big Bang that produced our world, the initial conditions allowed for complexity and life. If there has been only one Big Bang, this fact is also hard to explain, since it is most unlikely that these conditions merely happened to be right. If, instead, there have been many Big Bangs, this fact is easy to explain, since it is like the fact that, among countless planets, there are some whose conditions allow for life. Since belief in many Big Bangs leaves less that is unexplained, it is the better view. - -If some cosmic possibilities would be less puzzling than others, because their obtaining would leave less to be explained, is there some possibility whose obtaining would be in no way puzzling? - -Consider first the Null Possibility, in which nothing ever exists. To imagine this possibility, it may help to suppose first, that all that ever existed was a single atom. We then imagine that even this atom never existed. - -Some have claimed that, if there had never been anything, there wouldn't have been anything to be explained. But that is not so. When we imagine how things would have been if nothing had ever existed, what we should imagine away are such things as living beings, stars and atoms. There would still have been various truths, such as the truth that there were no stars or atoms, or that 9 is divisible by 3. We can ask why these things would have been true. And such questions may have answers. Thus we can explain why, even if nothing had ever existed, 9 would still have been divisible by 3. There is no conceivable alternative. And we can explain why there would have been no such things as immaterial matter, or spherical cubes. Such things are logically impossible. But why would _nothing_ have existed? Why would there have been no stars or atoms, no philosophers or bluebell woods? - -We should not claim that, if nothing had ever existed, there would have been nothing to be explained. But we can claim something less. Of all the global possibilities, the Null Possibility would have needed the least explanation. As Leibniz pointed out, it is much the simplest, and the least arbitrary. And it is the easiest to understand. It can seem mysterious, for example, how things could exist without their existence having some cause, but there cannot be a causal explanation of why the whole Universe, or God, exists. The Null Possibility raises no such problem. If nothing had ever existed, that state of affairs would not have needed to be caused. - -Reality, however, does not take its least puzzling form. In some way or other, a Universe has managed to exist. That is what can take one's breath away. As Wittgenstein wrote, 'not how the world is, is the mystical, but _that_ it is.' Or, in the words of a thinker as unmystical as Jack Smart: 'That anything should exist at all does seem to me a matter for the deepest awe.' - -Consider next the All Worlds Hypothesis, in which every possible local world exists. Unlike the Null Possibility, this may be how things are. And it may be the next least puzzling possibility. This hypothesis is not the same as – though it includes – the Many Worlds Hypothesis. On that more cautious view, many other worlds have the same elements as our world, and the same fundamental laws, and differ only in such features as their constants and initial conditions. The All Worlds Hypothesis covers every conceivable kind of world, and most of these other worlds would have very different elements and laws. - -If all these worlds exist, we can ask why they do. But, compared with most other cosmic possibilities, the All Worlds Hypothesis may leave less that is unexplained. For example, whatever the number of possible worlds that exist, we have the question, 'Why that number?' This question would have been least puzzling if the number that existed were none, and the next least arbitrary possibility seems to be that _all_ these worlds exist. With every other cosmic possibility, we have a further question. If ours is the only world, we can ask: 'Out of all the possible worlds, why is this the one that exists?' On any version of the Many Worlds Hypothesis, we have a similar question: 'Why do just these worlds exist, with these elements and laws?' But, if _all_ these worlds exist, there is no such further question. - -It may be objected that, even if all possible local worlds exist, that does not explain why our world is as it is. But that is a mistake. If all these worlds exist, each world is as it is in the way in which each number is as it is. We cannot sensibly ask why 9 is 9. Nor should we ask why our world is the one it is: why it is _this_ world. That would be like asking, 'Why are we who we are?', or 'Why is it now the time that it is?' Those are not good questions. - -Though the All Worlds Hypothesis avoids certain questions, it is not as simple, or un-arbitrary, as the Null Possibility. There may be no sharp distinction between worlds that are and are not possible. It is unclear what counts as a kind of world. And, if there are infinitely many kinds, there is a choice between different kinds of infinity. - -Whichever cosmic possibility obtains, we can ask why it obtains. All that I have claimed so far is that, with some possibilities, this question would be less puzzling. Let us now ask: could this question have an answer? Might there be a theory that leaves nothing unexplained? - -It is sometimes claimed that God, or the Universe, make themselves exist. But this cannot be true, since these entities cannot do anything unless they exist. - -On a more intelligible view, it is logically necessary that God, or the Universe, exist, since the claim that they might not have existed leads to a contradiction. On such a view, though it may seem conceivable that there might never have been anything, that is not really logically possible. Some people even claim that there may be only one coherent cosmic possibility. Thus Einstein suggested that, if God created our world, he might have had no choice about which world to create. If such a view were true, everything might be explained. Reality might be the way it is because there was no conceivable alternative. But, for reasons that have been often given, we can reject such views. - -Consider next a quite different view. According to Plato, Plotinus and others, the Universe exists because its existence is good. Even if we are confident that we should reject this view, it is worth asking whether it makes sense. If it does, that may suggest other possibilities. - -This _Axiarchic View_ can take a theistic form. It can claim that God exists because his existence is good, and that the rest of the Universe exists because God caused it to exist. But in that explanation God, qua Creator, is redundant. If God can exist because his existence is good, so can the whole Universe. This may be why some theists reject the Axiarchic View, and insist that God's existence is a brute fact, with no explanation. - -In its simplest form, this view makes three claims: '(1) It would be best if reality were a certain way. (2) Reality is that way. (3) (1) explains (2).' (1) is an ordinary evaluative claim, like the claim that it would be better if there was less suffering. The Axiarchic View assumes, I believe rightly, that such claims can be in a strong sense true. (2) is an ordinary empirical or scientific claim, though of a sweeping kind. What is distinctive in this view is claim (3), according to which (1) explains (2). - -Can we understand this third claim? To focus on this question, we should briefly ignore the world's evils, and suspend our other doubts about claims (1) and (2). We should suppose that, as Leibniz claimed, the best possible Universe exists. Would it then make sense to claim that this Universe exists _because_ it is the best? - -That use of 'because', Axiarchists should admit, cannot be easily explained. But even ordinary causation is mysterious. At the most fundamental level, we have no idea why some events cause others; and it is hard to explain what causation is. There are, moreover, non-causal senses of 'because' and 'why', as in the claim that God exists because his existence is logically necessary. We can understand that claim, even if we think it false. The Axiarchic View is harder to understand. But that is not surprising. If there is some explanation of the whole of reality, we should not expect this explanation to fit neatly into some familiar category. This extra-ordinary question may have an extra-ordinary answer. We should reject suggested answers which make no sense; but we should also try to see what might make sense. - -Axiarchy might be expressed as follows. We are now supposing that, of all the countless ways that the whole of reality might be, one is both the very best, and is the way that reality is. On the Axiarchic View, _that is no coincidence_. This claim, I believe, makes sense. And, if it were no coincidence that the best way for reality to be is also the way that reality is, that might support the further claim that this was why reality was this way. - -This view has one advantage over the more familiar theistic view. An appeal to God cannot explain why the Universe exists, since God would himself be part of the Universe, or one of the things that exist. Some theists argue that, since nothing can exist without a cause, God, who is the First Cause, must exist. As Schopenhauer objected, this argument's premise is not like some cabdriver whom theists are free to dismiss once they have reached their destination. The Axiarchic View appeals, not to an existing entity, but to an explanatory law. Since such a law would not itself be part of the Universe, it might explain why the Universe exists, and is as good as it could be. If such a law governed reality, we could still ask why it did, or why the Axiarchic View was true. But, in discovering this law, we would have made some progress. - -It is hard, however, to believe the Axiarchic View. If, as it seems, there is much pointless suffering, our world cannot be part of the best possible Universe. - -Some Axiarchists claim that, if we reject their view, we must regard our world's existence as a brute fact, since no other explanation could make sense. But that, I believe, is not so. If we abstract from the optimism of the Axiarchic View, its claims are these: 'Of the countless cosmic possibilities, one both has a very special feature, and is the possibility that obtains. That is no coincidence. This possibility obtains because it has this feature.' Other views can make such claims. This special feature need not be that of being best. Thus, on the All Worlds Hypothesis, reality is maximal, or as full as it could be. Similarly, if nothing had ever existed, reality would have been minimal, or as empty as it could be. If the possibility that obtained were either maximal or minimal, that fact, we might claim, would be most unlikely to be a coincidence. And that might support the further claim that this possibility's having this feature would be why it obtained. - -Let us now look more closely at that last step. When it is no coincidence that two things are both true, there is something that explains why, given the truth of one, the other is also true. The truth of either might make the other true. Or both might be explained by some third truth, as when two facts are the joint effects of a common cause. - -Suppose next that, of the cosmic possibilities, one is both very special and is the one that obtains. If that is no coincidence, what might explain why these things are both true? On the reasoning that we are now considering, the first truth explains the second, since this possibility obtains because it has this special feature. Given the kind of truths these are, such an explanation could not go the other way. This possibility could not have this feature because it obtains. If some possibility has some feature, it could not fail to have this feature, so it would have this feature whether or not it obtains. The All Worlds Hypothesis, for example, could not fail to describe the fullest way for reality to be. - -While it is necessary that our imagined possibility has its special feature, it is not necessary that this possibility obtains. This difference, I believe, justifies the reasoning that we are now considering. Since this possibility must have this feature, but might not have obtained, it cannot have this feature because it obtains, nor could some third truth explain why it both has this feature and obtains. So, if these facts are no coincidence, this possibility must obtain _because_ it has this feature. - -When some possibility obtains because it has some feature, its having this feature may be why some agent, or process of natural selection, made it obtain. These we can call the _intentional_ and _evolutionary_ ways in which some feature of some possibility may explain why it obtains. - -Our world, theists claim, can be explained in the first of these ways. If reality were as good as it could be, it would indeed make sense to claim that this was partly God's work. But, since God's own existence could not be God's work, there could be no intentional explanation of why the whole of reality was as good as it could be. So we could reasonably conclude that this way's being the best explained directly why reality was this way. Even if God exists, the intentional explanation could not compete with the different and bolder explanation offered by the Axiarchic View. - -Return now to other explanations of this kind. Consider first the Null Possibility. This, we know, does not obtain; but, since we are asking what makes sense, that does not matter. If there had never been anything, would that have had to be a brute fact, which had no explanation? The answer, I suggest, is No. It might have been no coincidence that, of all the countless cosmic possibilities, what obtained was the simplest, and least arbitrary, and the only possibility in which nothing ever exists. And, if these facts had been no coincidence, this possibility would have obtained because – or partly because – it had one or more of these special features. This explanation, moreover, could not have taken an intentional or evolutionary form. If nothing had ever existed, there could not have been some agent, or process of selection, who or which made this possibility obtain. Its being the simplest or least arbitrary possibility would have been, directly, why it obtained. - -Consider next the All Worlds Hypothesis, which may obtain. If reality is as full as it could be, is that a coincidence? Does it merely happen to be true that, of all the cosmic possibilities, the one that obtains is at this extreme? As before, that is conceivable, but this coincidence would be too great to be credible. We can reasonably assume that, if this possibility obtains, that is because it is maximal, or at this extreme. On this _Maximalist View_, it is a fundamental truth that being possible, and part of the fullest way that reality could be, is sufficient for being actual. That is the highest law governing reality. As before, if such a law governed reality, we could still ask why it did. But, in discovering this law, we would have made some progress. - -Here is another special feature. Perhaps reality is the way it is because its fundamental laws are, on some criterion, as mathematically beautiful as they could be. That is what some physicists are inclined to believe. - -As these remarks suggest, there is no clear boundary here between philosophy and science. If there is such a highest law governing reality, this law is of the same kind as those that physicists are trying to discover. When we appeal to natural laws to explain some features of reality, such as the relations between light, gravity, space and time, we are not giving causal explanations, since we are not claiming that one part of reality caused another part to be some way. What such laws explain, or partly explain, are the deeper facts about reality that causal explanations take for granted. In the second half of this essay, I shall ask how deep such explanations could go. - -[[*]][37] I am here merely summarising, and oversimplifying, what others have claimed. See, for example, John Leslie, _Universes_ (1989). - -* * * - -[Vol. 20 No. 2 · 22 January 1998][35] » [Derek Parfit][23] » [Why anything? Why this?][38] -pages 24-27 | 5728 words - -* * * - -[Contact us][8] for rights and issues inquiries. - -* * * - -## Letters - -[Vol. 20 No. 4 · 19 February 1998][39] - -Why does a literary magazine exist at all? It might have been the case that no magazine existed: no cover, no list of contributors, no contents. We have to go on and ask why we have the magazine we do have. Consider the Null Possibility. There could have been a journal with nothing in it. Consider next the All Worlds Hypothesis, in which our periodical would contain every possible kind of article. Somewhere in between is the publication we buy. Perhaps the Brute Fact View applies and we have to put up with what we get between the covers and not ask questions. On the other hand, there may be a Selector or a set of partial Selectors which determines what kind of magazine we experience. I am trying to get round, of course, to asking the 'Selectors' what was going on when they decided to publish Derek Parfit's two-part article on the meaning of the universe ([_LRB_, 22 January][38])? The world we live in is unfair enough, with the _LRB_ appearing only fortnightly, and that terrible gap after Christmas, the deepest abyss in the year. To surrender two and a half pages in each of two issues to this meticulous but rather pontifical philosophical analysis is enough to make us cry out 'Why?' to the heavens. - -**Leonard Pepper** -Oxford - -Following contemporary cosmology, Derek Parfit writes of the sheer statistical unlikeliness of our existence ([_LRB_, 22 January][38]): 'Of the range of initial conditions, fewer than one in a billion billion would have produced a Universe with the complexity that allows for life. If this claim is true, as I shall here assume, there is something that cries out to be explained. Why was one of this tiny set also the one that actually obtained?' Parfit seems to think that the probability that God exists is greater than one in a billion billion, so that the existence of God is more likely to be true than the accidental existence of a life-supporting universe. But his stipulation that he's _assuming_ that the claims of current cosmology are true gives the game away. For even if you think that the odds that God exists are greater than one in a billion billion, it's dizzyingly more probable that cosmology has it wrong. (After all, similar sorts of error are not unprecedented in the history of physics.) In fact, Parfit's argument ought to embarrass cosmologists, not atheists. To paraphrase Parfit: cosmologists may reject this answer, thinking it improbable that their theory is wrong. But this probability cannot be as low as one in a billion billion. So even cosmologists should admit that, of these two answers to our question, the one that invokes scientific error is more likely to be true. - -**William Flesch** -Brandeis University -Waltham, Massachusetts - -* [More from this issue][35] » -* [More by this contributor][23] » -* [Current Issue][2] -* [Blog][40] -* [Archive][13] -* [Audio and Video][41] -* [Search][5] -* [About][6] -* [Terms and Conditions][7] -* [Copyright][42] -* [Privacy][43] -* [Accessibility][9] -* [Subscribe][15] -* [Contact][8] -* [Newsletters][44] -* [FAQs][45] -* [Librarians][46] -* [Back to the top][47] -* Follow the LRB -![Facebook][48] ![Twitter][49] ![Google Plus][50] -* © LRB Limited 2018 -* ISSN 0260-9592 -* [Send Us Feedback][51] -* [Mobile website][52] - -ISSN 0260-9592 [Copyright][42] © LRB Limited 2018 - -^ [Top][47] - -[1]: http://www.lrb.co.uk#bodycontent -[2]: http://www.lrb.co.uk/ -[3]: http://www.lrb.co.uk/contents -[4]: http://www.lrb.co.uk/sitemap -[5]: http://www.lrb.co.uk/search -[6]: http://www.lrb.co.uk/about -[7]: http://www.lrb.co.uk/terms -[8]: http://www.lrb.co.uk/contacts -[9]: http://www.lrb.co.uk/accessibility -[10]: http://www.lrb.co.uk/login?href=%2Fv20%2Fn02%2Fderek-parfit%2Fwhy-anything-why-this -[11]: http://www.lrb.co.uk/activate -[12]: https://cdn.lrb.co.uk/assets/images/lrb_logo_big.gif -[13]: http://www.lrb.co.uk/archive -[14]: http://www.lrb.co.uk/bookshop -[15]: http://www.lrb.co.uk/subscribe -[16]: http://www.lrb.co.uk/v40/n03/contents -[17]: http://www.lrb.co.uk/contributors -[18]: http://www.lrb.co.uk/categories -[19]: http://www.lrb.co.uk/v40/n03/letters -[20]: http://www.lrb.co.uk/audio -[21]: http://www.lrb.co.uk/video -[22]: https://cdn.lrb.co.uk/assets/covers/m/cov2002.jpg -[23]: http://www.lrb.co.uk/contributors/derek-parfit -[24]: http://www.lrb.co.uk/v20/n03/derek-parfit/why-anything-why-this -[25]: http://www.lrb.co.uk/v36/n03/david-kaiser/cosmic-inflation -[26]: http://www.lrb.co.uk/v33/n04/david-kaiser/going-supernova -[27]: http://www.lrb.co.uk/v28/n18/jerry-fodor/who-ate-the-salted-peanuts -[28]: http://www.lrb.co.uk/v28/n02/george-ellis/miracles-arent-enough -[29]: http://www.lrb.co.uk/v27/n18/jl-heilbron/careful-readers -[30]: http://www.lrb.co.uk/v27/n17/steven-shapin/what-did-you-expect -[31]: http://www.lrb.co.uk/v27/n16/thomas-jones/short-cuts -[32]: http://www.lrb.co.uk/search?subject=Science,+technology+and+mathematics -[33]: http://www.lrb.co.uk/search?subject=Science,+technology+and+mathematics//Physics -[34]: http://www.lrb.co.uk/search?subject=Science,+technology+and+mathematics//Physics//Cosmology -[35]: http://www.lrb.co.uk/v20/n02/contents -[36]: http://www.lrb.co.uk#fn-asterisk -[37]: http://www.lrb.co.uk#fn-ref-asterisk -[38]: http://www.lrb.co.uk/v20/n02/derek-parfit/why-anything-why-this -[39]: http://www.lrb.co.uk/v20/n04/letters#letter5 -[40]: http://www.lrb.co.uk/blog/ -[41]: http://www.lrb.co.uk/audio-and-video -[42]: http://www.lrb.co.uk/copyright -[43]: http://www.lrb.co.uk/privacy -[44]: http://www.lrb.co.uk/newsletter -[45]: http://www.lrb.co.uk/subscribe/faq -[46]: http://www.lrb.co.uk/librarian -[47]: http://www.lrb.co.uk#pagetop -[48]: https://cdn.lrb.co.uk/assets/sm-icons/footer/facebook.svg -[49]: https://cdn.lrb.co.uk/assets/sm-icons/footer/twitter.svg -[50]: https://cdn.lrb.co.uk/assets/sm-icons/footer/google-plus.svg -[51]: http://www.lrb.co.uk/feedbackform -[52]: - +Why does the Universe exist? There are two questions here. First, why is +there a Universe at all? It might have been true that nothing ever +existed: no living beings, no stars, no atoms, not even space or time. +When we think about this possibility, it can seem astonishing that +anything exists. Second, why does this Universe exist? Things might have +been, in countless ways, different. So why is the Universe as it is? + +These questions, some believe, may have causal answers. Suppose first +that the Universe has always existed. Some believe that, if all events +were caused by earlier events, everything would be explained. That, +however, is not so. Even an infinite series of events cannot explain +itself. We could ask why this series occurred, rather than some other +series, or no series. Of the supporters of the Steady State Theory, some +welcomed what they took to be this theory’s atheistic implications. They +assumed that, if the Universe had no beginning, there would be nothing +for a Creator to explain. But there would still be an eternal Universe +to explain. + +Suppose next that the Universe is not eternal, since nothing preceded +the Big Bang. That first event, some physicists suggest, may have obeyed +the laws of quantum mechanics, by being a random fluctuation in a +vacuum. This would causally explain, they say, how the Universe came +into existence out of nothing. But what physicists call a vacuum isn’t +really nothing. We can ask why it exists, and has the potentialities it +does. In Hawking’s phrase, ‘What breathes fire into the equations?’ + +Similar remarks apply to all suggestions of these kinds. There could not +be a causal explanation of why the Universe exists, why there are any +laws of nature, or why these laws are as they are. Nor would it make a +difference if there is a God, who caused the rest of the Universe to +exist. There could not be a causal explanation of why God exists. + +Many people have assumed that, since these questions cannot have causal +answers, they cannot have any answers. Some therefore dismiss these +questions, thinking them not worth considering. Others conclude that +they do not make sense. They assume that, as Wittgenstein wrote, ‘doubt +can exist only where there is a question; and a question only where +there is an answer.’ + +These assumptions are all, I believe, mistaken. Even if these questions +could not have answers, they would still make sense, and they would +still be worth considering. I am reminded here of the aesthetic category +of the sublime, as applied to the highest mountains, raging oceans, the +night sky, the interiors of some cathedrals, and other things that are +superhuman, awesome, limitless. No question is more sublime than why +there is a Universe: why there is anything rather than nothing. Nor +should we assume that answers to this question must be causal. And, even +if reality cannot be fully explained, we may still make progress, since +what is inexplicable may become less baffling than it now seems. + +One apparent fact about reality has recently been much discussed. Many +physicists believe that, for life to be possible, various features of +the Universe must be almost precisely as they are. As one example, we +can take the initial conditions in the Big Bang. If these conditions had +been more than very slightly different, these physicists claim, the +Universe would not have had the complexity that allows living beings to +exist. Why were these conditions so precisely +right?[\[\*\]](#fn-asterisk) + +Some say: ‘If they had not been right, we couldn’t even ask this +question.’ But that is no answer. It could be baffling how we survived +some crash even though, if we hadn’t, we could not be baffled. + +Others say: ‘There had to be some initial conditions, and the conditions +that make life possible were as likely as any others. So there is +nothing to be explained.’ To see what is wrong with this reply, we must +distinguish two kinds of case. Suppose first that, when some radio +telescope is aimed at most points in space, it records a random sequence +of incoming waves. There might be nothing here that needed to be +explained. Suppose next that, when the telescope is aimed in one +direction, it records a sequence of waves whose pulses match the number +π, in binary notation, to the first ten thousand digits. That +particular number is, in one sense, just as likely as any other. But +there would be something here that needed to be explained. Though each +long number is unique, only a very few are, like π, mathematically +special. What would need to be explained is why this sequence of waves +exactly matched such a special number. Though this matching might be a +coincidence, which had been randomly produced, that would be most +unlikely. We could be almost certain that these waves had been produced +by some kind of intelligence. + +On the view that we are now considering, since any sequence of waves is +as likely as any other, there would be nothing to be explained. If we +accepted this view, intelligent beings elsewhere in space would not be +able to communicate with us, since we would ignore their messages. Nor +could God reveal himself. Suppose that, with an optical telescope, we +saw a distant pattern of stars which spelled out in Hebrew script the +first chapter of Genesis. According to this view, this pattern of stars +would not need to be explained. That is clearly false. + +Here is another analogy. Suppose first that, of a thousand people facing +death, only one can be rescued. If there is a lottery to pick this one +survivor, and I win, I would be very lucky. But there might be nothing +here that needed to be explained. Someone had to win, and why not me? +Consider next another lottery. Unless my gaoler picks the longest of a +thousand straws, I shall be shot. If my gaoler picks that straw, there +would be something to be explained. It would not be enough to say, ‘This +result was as likely as any other.’ In the first lottery, nothing +special happened: whatever the result, someone’s life would be saved. In +this second lottery, the result was special, since, of the thousand +possible results, only one would save a life. Why was this special +result also what happened? Though this might be a coincidence, the +chance of that is only one in a thousand. I could be almost certain +that, like Dostoevsky’s mock execution, this lottery was rigged. + +The Big Bang, it seems, was like this second lottery. For life to be +possible, the initial conditions had to be selected with great accuracy. +This appearance of fine-tuning, as some call it, also needs to be +explained. + +It may be objected that, in regarding conditions as special if they +allow for life, we unjustifiably assume our own importance. But life is +special, if only because of its complexity. An earthworm’s brain is more +complicated than a lifeless galaxy. Nor is it only life that requires +this fine-tuning. If the Big Bang’s initial conditions had not been +almost precisely as they were, the Universe would have either almost +instantly recollapsed, or expanded so fast, and with particles so thinly +spread, that not even stars or heavy elements could have formed. That is +enough to make these conditions very special. + +It may next be objected that these conditions cannot be claimed to be +improbable, since such a claim requires a statistical basis, and there +is only one Universe. If we were considering all conceivable Universes, +it would indeed be implausible to make judgments of statistical +probability. But our question is much narrower. We are asking what would +have happened if, with the same laws of nature, the initial conditions +had been different. That provides the basis for a statistical judgment. +There is a range of values that these conditions might have had, and +physicists can work out in what proportion of this range the resulting +Universe could have contained stars, heavy elements and life. + +This proportion, it is claimed, is extremely small. Of the range of +possible initial conditions, fewer than one in a billion billion would +have produced a Universe with the complexity that allows for life. If +this claim is true, as I shall here assume, there is something that +cries out to be explained. Why was one of this tiny set also the one +that actually obtained? + +On one view, this was a mere coincidence. That is conceivable, since +coincidences happen. But this view is hard to believe, since, if it were +true, the chance of this coincidence occurring would be below one in a +billion billion. + +Others say: ‘The Big Bang was fine-tuned. In creating the Universe, God +chose to make life possible.’ Atheists may reject this answer, thinking +it improbable that God exists. But this probability cannot be as low as +one in a billion billion. So even atheists should admit that, of these +two answers to our question, the one that invokes God is more likely to +be true. + +This reasoning revives one of the traditional arguments for belief in +God. In its strongest form, this argument appealed to the many features +of animals, such as eyes or wings, that look as if they have been +designed. Paley’s appeal to such features much impressed Darwin when he +was young. Darwin later undermined this form of the argument, since +evolution can explain this appearance of design. But evolution cannot +explain the appearance of fine-tuning in the Big Bang. + +This argument’s appeal to probabilities can be challenged in a different +way. In claiming it to be most improbable that this fine-tuning was a +coincidence, the argument assumes that, of the possible initial +conditions in the Big Bang, each was equally likely to obtain. That +assumption may be mistaken. The conditions that allow for complexity and +life may have been, compared with all the others, much more likely to +obtain. Perhaps they were even certain to obtain. + +To answer this objection, we must broaden this argument’s conclusion. If +these life-allowing conditions were either very likely or certain to +obtain, then – as the argument claims – it would be no coincidence that +the Universe allows for complexity and life. But this fine-tuning might +have been the work, not of some existing being, but of some impersonal +force, or fundamental law. That is what some theists believe God to be. + +A stronger challenge to this argument comes from a different way of +explaining the appearance of fine-tuning. Consider first a similar +question. For life to be possible on Earth, many of Earth’s features +have to be close to being as they are. The Earth’s having such features, +it might be claimed, is unlikely to be a coincidence, and should +therefore be regarded as God’s work. But such an argument would be weak. +The Universe, we can reasonably believe, contains many planets, with +varying conditions. We should expect that, on a few of these planets, +conditions would be just right for life. Nor is it surprising that we +live on one of these few. + +Things are different, we may assume, with the appearance of fine-tuning +in the Big Bang. While there are likely to be many other planets, there +is only one Universe. But this difference may be less than it seems. +Some physicists suggest that the observable Universe is only one out of +many different worlds, which are all equally parts of reality. According +to one such view, the other worlds are related to ours in a way that +solves some of the mysteries of quantum physics. On the different and +simpler view that is relevant here, the other worlds have the same +fundamental laws of nature as our world, and they are produced by Big +Bangs that are broadly similar, except in having different initial +conditions. + +On this Many Worlds Hypothesis, there is no need for fine-tuning. If +there were enough Big Bangs, we should expect that, in a few of them, +conditions would be just right to allow for complexity and life; and it +would be no surprise that our Big Bang was one of these few. To +illustrate this point, we can revise my second lottery. Suppose my +gaoler picks a straw, not once but many times. That would explain his +managing, once, to pick the longest straw, without that’s being an +extreme coincidence, or this lottery’s being rigged. + +On most versions of the Many Worlds Hypothesis, these many worlds are +not, except through their origins, causally related. Some object that, +since our world could not be causally affected by such other worlds, we +can have no evidence for their existence, and can therefore have no +reason to believe in them. But we do have such a reason, since their +existence would explain an otherwise puzzling feature of our world: the +appearance of fine-tuning. + +Of these two ways to explain this appearance, which is better? Compared +with belief in God, the Many Worlds Hypothesis is more cautious, since +its claim is merely that there is more of the kind of reality that we +can observe around us. But God’s existence has been claimed to be +intrinsically more probable. According to most theists, God is a being +who is omnipotent, omniscient and wholly good. The uncaused existence of +such a being has been claimed to be simpler, and less arbitrary, than +the uncaused existence of many highly complicated worlds. And simpler +hypotheses, many scientists assume, are more likely to be true. + +If such a God exists, however, other features of our world become hard +to explain. It may not be surprising that God chose to make life +possible. But the laws of nature could have been different, so there are +many possible worlds that would have contained life. It is hard to +understand why, out of all these possibilities, God chose to create our +world. What is most baffling is the problem of evil. There appears to be +suffering which any good person, knowing the truth, would have prevented +if he could. If there is such suffering, there cannot be a God who is +omnipotent, omniscient and wholly good. + +To this problem, theists have proposed several solutions. Some suggest +that God is not omnipotent, or not wholly good. Others suggest that +undeserved suffering is not, as it seems, bad, or that God could not +prevent such suffering without making the Universe, as a whole, less +good. + +We must ignore these suggestions here, since we have larger questions to +consider. I began by asking why things are as they are. Before returning +to that question, we should ask how things are. There is much about our +world that we have not discovered. And, just as there may be other +worlds that are like ours, there may be worlds that are very different. + +It will help to distinguish two kinds of possibility. Cosmic +possibilities cover everything that ever exists, and are the different +ways that the whole of reality might be. Only one such possibility can +be actual, or the one that obtains. Local possibilities are the +different ways that some part of reality, or local world, might be. If +some local world exists, that leaves it open whether other worlds exist. + +One cosmic possibility is, roughly, that every possible local world +exists. This we can call the All Worlds Hypothesis. Another possibility, +which might have obtained, is that nothing ever exists. This we can call +the Null Possibility. In each of the remaining possibilities, the number +of worlds that exist is between none and all. There are countless of +these possibilities, since there are countless combinations of +particular possible local worlds. + +Of these different cosmic possibilities, one must obtain, and only one +can obtain. So we have two questions: which obtains, and why? These +questions are connected. If some possibility would be easier to explain, +we have more reason to believe that this possibility obtains. This is +how, rather than believing in only one Big Bang, we have more reason to +believe in many. Whether we believe in one or many, we have the question +why any Big Bang has occurred. Though this question is hard, the +occurrence of many Big Bangs is not more puzzling than the occurrence of +only one. Most kinds of thing, or event, have many instances. We also +have the question why, in the Big Bang that produced our world, the +initial conditions allowed for complexity and life. If there has been +only one Big Bang, this fact is also hard to explain, since it is most +unlikely that these conditions merely happened to be right. If, instead, +there have been many Big Bangs, this fact is easy to explain, since it +is like the fact that, among countless planets, there are some whose +conditions allow for life. Since belief in many Big Bangs leaves less +that is unexplained, it is the better view. + +If some cosmic possibilities would be less puzzling than others, because +their obtaining would leave less to be explained, is there some +possibility whose obtaining would be in no way puzzling? + +Consider first the Null Possibility, in which nothing ever exists. To +imagine this possibility, it may help to suppose first, that all that +ever existed was a single atom. We then imagine that even this atom +never existed. + +Some have claimed that, if there had never been anything, there wouldn’t +have been anything to be explained. But that is not so. When we imagine +how things would have been if nothing had ever existed, what we should +imagine away are such things as living beings, stars and atoms. There +would still have been various truths, such as the truth that there were +no stars or atoms, or that 9 is divisible by 3. We can ask why these +things would have been true. And such questions may have answers. Thus +we can explain why, even if nothing had ever existed, 9 would still have +been divisible by 3. There is no conceivable alternative. And we can +explain why there would have been no such things as immaterial matter, +or spherical cubes. Such things are logically impossible. But why would +nothing have existed? Why would there have been no stars or atoms, no +philosophers or bluebell woods? + +We should not claim that, if nothing had ever existed, there would have +been nothing to be explained. But we can claim something less. Of all +the global possibilities, the Null Possibility would have needed the +least explanation. As Leibniz pointed out, it is much the simplest, and +the least arbitrary. And it is the easiest to understand. It can seem +mysterious, for example, how things could exist without their existence +having some cause, but there cannot be a causal explanation of why the +whole Universe, or God, exists. The Null Possibility raises no such +problem. If nothing had ever existed, that state of affairs would not +have needed to be caused. + +Reality, however, does not take its least puzzling form. In some way or +other, a Universe has managed to exist. That is what can take one’s +breath away. As Wittgenstein wrote, ‘not how the world is, is the +mystical, but that it is.’ Or, in the words of a thinker as unmystical +as Jack Smart: ‘That anything should exist at all does seem to me a +matter for the deepest awe.’ + +Consider next the All Worlds Hypothesis, in which every possible local +world exists. Unlike the Null Possibility, this may be how things are. +And it may be the next least puzzling possibility. This hypothesis is +not the same as – though it includes – the Many Worlds Hypothesis. On +that more cautious view, many other worlds have the same elements as our +world, and the same fundamental laws, and differ only in such features +as their constants and initial conditions. The All Worlds Hypothesis +covers every conceivable kind of world, and most of these other worlds +would have very different elements and laws. + +If all these worlds exist, we can ask why they do. But, compared with +most other cosmic possibilities, the All Worlds Hypothesis may leave +less that is unexplained. For example, whatever the number of possible +worlds that exist, we have the question, ‘Why that number?’ This +question would have been least puzzling if the number that existed were +none, and the next least arbitrary possibility seems to be that all +these worlds exist. With every other cosmic possibility, we have a +further question. If ours is the only world, we can ask: ‘Out of all the +possible worlds, why is this the one that exists?’ On any version of the +Many Worlds Hypothesis, we have a similar question: ‘Why do just these +worlds exist, with these elements and laws?’ But, if all these worlds +exist, there is no such further question. + +It may be objected that, even if all possible local worlds exist, that +does not explain why our world is as it is. But that is a mistake. If +all these worlds exist, each world is as it is in the way in which each +number is as it is. We cannot sensibly ask why 9 is 9. Nor should we ask +why our world is the one it is: why it is this world. That would be like +asking, ‘Why are we who we are?’, or ‘Why is it now the time that it +is?’ Those are not good questions. + +Though the All Worlds Hypothesis avoids certain questions, it is not as +simple, or un-arbitrary, as the Null Possibility. There may be no sharp +distinction between worlds that are and are not possible. It is unclear +what counts as a kind of world. And, if there are infinitely many kinds, +there is a choice between different kinds of infinity. + +Whichever cosmic possibility obtains, we can ask why it obtains. All +that I have claimed so far is that, with some possibilities, this +question would be less puzzling. Let us now ask: could this question +have an answer? Might there be a theory that leaves nothing unexplained? + +It is sometimes claimed that God, or the Universe, make themselves +exist. But this cannot be true, since these entities cannot do anything +unless they exist. + +On a more intelligible view, it is logically necessary that God, or the +Universe, exist, since the claim that they might not have existed leads +to a contradiction. On such a view, though it may seem conceivable that +there might never have been anything, that is not really logically +possible. Some people even claim that there may be only one coherent +cosmic possibility. Thus Einstein suggested that, if God created our +world, he might have had no choice about which world to create. If such +a view were true, everything might be explained. Reality might be the +way it is because there was no conceivable alternative. But, for reasons +that have been often given, we can reject such views. + +Consider next a quite different view. According to Plato, Plotinus and +others, the Universe exists because its existence is good. Even if we +are confident that we should reject this view, it is worth asking +whether it makes sense. If it does, that may suggest other +possibilities. + +This Axiarchic View can take a theistic form. It can claim that God +exists because his existence is good, and that the rest of the Universe +exists because God caused it to exist. But in that explanation God, qua +Creator, is redundant. If God can exist because his existence is good, +so can the whole Universe. This may be why some theists reject the +Axiarchic View, and insist that God’s existence is a brute fact, with no +explanation. + +In its simplest form, this view makes three claims: ‘(1) It would be +best if reality were a certain way. (2) Reality is that way. (3) (1) +explains (2).’ (1) is an ordinary evaluative claim, like the claim that +it would be better if there was less suffering. The Axiarchic View +assumes, I believe rightly, that such claims can be in a strong sense +true. (2) is an ordinary empirical or scientific claim, though of a +sweeping kind. What is distinctive in this view is claim (3), according +to which (1) explains (2). + +Can we understand this third claim? To focus on this question, we should +briefly ignore the world’s evils, and suspend our other doubts about +claims (1) and (2). We should suppose that, as Leibniz claimed, the best +possible Universe exists. Would it then make sense to claim that this +Universe exists because it is the best? + +That use of ‘because’, Axiarchists should admit, cannot be easily +explained. But even ordinary causation is mysterious. At the most +fundamental level, we have no idea why some events cause others; and it +is hard to explain what causation is. There are, moreover, non-causal +senses of ‘because’ and ‘why’, as in the claim that God exists because +his existence is logically necessary. We can understand that claim, even +if we think it false. The Axiarchic View is harder to understand. But +that is not surprising. If there is some explanation of the whole of +reality, we should not expect this explanation to fit neatly into some +familiar category. This extra-ordinary question may have an +extra-ordinary answer. We should reject suggested answers which make no +sense; but we should also try to see what might make sense. + +Axiarchy might be expressed as follows. We are now supposing that, of +all the countless ways that the whole of reality might be, one is both +the very best, and is the way that reality is. On the Axiarchic View, +that is no coincidence. This claim, I believe, makes sense. And, if it +were no coincidence that the best way for reality to be is also the way +that reality is, that might support the further claim that this was why +reality was this way. + +This view has one advantage over the more familiar theistic view. An +appeal to God cannot explain why the Universe exists, since God would +himself be part of the Universe, or one of the things that exist. Some +theists argue that, since nothing can exist without a cause, God, who is +the First Cause, must exist. As Schopenhauer objected, this argument’s +premise is not like some cabdriver whom theists are free to dismiss once +they have reached their destination. The Axiarchic View appeals, not to +an existing entity, but to an explanatory law. Since such a law would +not itself be part of the Universe, it might explain why the Universe +exists, and is as good as it could be. If such a law governed reality, +we could still ask why it did, or why the Axiarchic View was true. But, +in discovering this law, we would have made some progress. + +It is hard, however, to believe the Axiarchic View. If, as it seems, +there is much pointless suffering, our world cannot be part of the best +possible Universe. + +Some Axiarchists claim that, if we reject their view, we must regard our +world’s existence as a brute fact, since no other explanation could make +sense. But that, I believe, is not so. If we abstract from the optimism +of the Axiarchic View, its claims are these: ‘Of the countless cosmic +possibilities, one both has a very special feature, and is the +possibility that obtains. That is no coincidence. This possibility +obtains because it has this feature.’ Other views can make such claims. +This special feature need not be that of being best. Thus, on the All +Worlds Hypothesis, reality is maximal, or as full as it could be. +Similarly, if nothing had ever existed, reality would have been minimal, +or as empty as it could be. If the possibility that obtained were either +maximal or minimal, that fact, we might claim, would be most unlikely to +be a coincidence. And that might support the further claim that this +possibility’s having this feature would be why it obtained. + +Let us now look more closely at that last step. When it is no +coincidence that two things are both true, there is something that +explains why, given the truth of one, the other is also true. The truth +of either might make the other true. Or both might be explained by some +third truth, as when two facts are the joint effects of a common cause. + +Suppose next that, of the cosmic possibilities, one is both very special +and is the one that obtains. If that is no coincidence, what might +explain why these things are both true? On the reasoning that we are now +considering, the first truth explains the second, since this possibility +obtains because it has this special feature. Given the kind of truths +these are, such an explanation could not go the other way. This +possibility could not have this feature because it obtains. If some +possibility has some feature, it could not fail to have this feature, so +it would have this feature whether or not it obtains. The All Worlds +Hypothesis, for example, could not fail to describe the fullest way for +reality to be. + +While it is necessary that our imagined possibility has its special +feature, it is not necessary that this possibility obtains. This +difference, I believe, justifies the reasoning that we are now +considering. Since this possibility must have this feature, but might +not have obtained, it cannot have this feature because it obtains, nor +could some third truth explain why it both has this feature and obtains. +So, if these facts are no coincidence, this possibility must obtain +because it has this feature. + +When some possibility obtains because it has some feature, its having +this feature may be why some agent, or process of natural selection, +made it obtain. These we can call the intentional and evolutionary ways +in which some feature of some possibility may explain why it obtains. + +Our world, theists claim, can be explained in the first of these ways. +If reality were as good as it could be, it would indeed make sense to +claim that this was partly God’s work. But, since God’s own existence +could not be God’s work, there could be no intentional explanation of +why the whole of reality was as good as it could be. So we could +reasonably conclude that this way’s being the best explained directly +why reality was this way. Even if God exists, the intentional +explanation could not compete with the different and bolder explanation +offered by the Axiarchic View. + +Return now to other explanations of this kind. Consider first the Null +Possibility. This, we know, does not obtain; but, since we are asking +what makes sense, that does not matter. If there had never been +anything, would that have had to be a brute fact, which had no +explanation? The answer, I suggest, is No. It might have been no +coincidence that, of all the countless cosmic possibilities, what +obtained was the simplest, and least arbitrary, and the only possibility +in which nothing ever exists. And, if these facts had been no +coincidence, this possibility would have obtained because – or partly +because – it had one or more of these special features. This +explanation, moreover, could not have taken an intentional or +evolutionary form. If nothing had ever existed, there could not have +been some agent, or process of selection, who or which made this +possibility obtain. Its being the simplest or least arbitrary +possibility would have been, directly, why it obtained. + +Consider next the All Worlds Hypothesis, which may obtain. If reality is +as full as it could be, is that a coincidence? Does it merely happen to +be true that, of all the cosmic possibilities, the one that obtains is +at this extreme? As before, that is conceivable, but this coincidence +would be too great to be credible. We can reasonably assume that, if +this possibility obtains, that is because it is maximal, or at this +extreme. On this Maximalist View, it is a fundamental truth that being +possible, and part of the fullest way that reality could be, is +sufficient for being actual. That is the highest law governing reality. +As before, if such a law governed reality, we could still ask why it +did. But, in discovering this law, we would have made some progress. + +Here is another special feature. Perhaps reality is the way it is +because its fundamental laws are, on some criterion, as mathematically +beautiful as they could be. That is what some physicists are inclined to +believe. + +As these remarks suggest, there is no clear boundary here between +philosophy and science. If there is such a highest law governing +reality, this law is of the same kind as those that physicists are +trying to discover. When we appeal to natural laws to explain some +features of reality, such as the relations between light, gravity, space +and time, we are not giving causal explanations, since we are not +claiming that one part of reality caused another part to be some way. +What such laws explain, or partly explain, are the deeper facts about +reality that causal explanations take for granted. In the second half of +this essay, I shall ask how deep such explanations could go. diff --git a/_stories/1998/1895886.md b/_stories/1998/1895886.md deleted file mode 100644 index 944c4bc..0000000 --- a/_stories/1998/1895886.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,25 +0,0 @@ ---- -created_at: '2010-11-11T23:54:15.000Z' -title: The dumbing-down of programming (1998) -url: http://www.salon.com/21st/feature/1998/05/cov_12feature.html -author: silentbicycle -points: 52 -story_text: '' -comment_text: -num_comments: 35 -story_id: -story_title: -story_url: -parent_id: -created_at_i: 1289519655 -_tags: -- story -- author_silentbicycle -- story_1895886 -objectID: '1895886' - ---- -[Source](https://www.salon.com/21st/feature/1998/05/cov_12feature.html "Permalink to ") - - - diff --git a/_stories/1998/5738969.md b/_stories/1998/5738969.md index ca909f4..75c0556 100644 --- a/_stories/1998/5738969.md +++ b/_stories/1998/5738969.md @@ -19,286 +19,35 @@ _tags: objectID: '5738969' --- -[Source](http://news.cnet.com/Yahoo-buys-Viaweb-for-49-million/2100-1001_3-212001.html "Permalink to Page Not Found - CNET ") +[Yahoo](http://www.yahoo.com/) is doing some e-purchasing to move deeper +into the e-commerce industry. -# Page Not Found - CNET +The Net portal firm today plopped down $49 million for Cambridge, +Massachusetts-based [Viaweb](http://www.viaweb.com/), a maker of tools +for building and operating Internet commerce Web sites. -![][1] ![][1] +Yahoo executives said the acquisition is meant to bolster the company's +push into the e-commerce services industry. 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http://www.linkedin.com/today/news.cnet.com -[113]: http://cnet.tumblr.com/ -[114]: http://pinterest.com/cnet -[115]: http://www.cnet.com/newsletters/ -[116]: http://www.cnet.com/rss/ +Yahoo already offers promotional and marketing services to businesses. +With the Viaweb purchase, it hopes to up its offering to include set-up +and design services, hosting, and promotional services through [Yahoo +Store.](http://store.yahoo.com/) +The acquisition is expected to be completed in June pending stockholder +and regulatory approval. Yahoo executives said the purchase will result +in a $45 million one-time hit in its second quarter. diff --git a/_stories/1998/5976316.md b/_stories/1998/5976316.md index 411cd9a..ec7a7a6 100644 --- a/_stories/1998/5976316.md +++ b/_stories/1998/5976316.md @@ -19,7 +19,28 @@ _tags: objectID: '5976316' --- -[Source](https://www.salon.com/1998/12/21/straight_44/ "Permalink to ") - +I'm not an Internet investor myself, and I don't care much whether Wall +Street's love affair with portals is consummated in a bath of riches or +sours in some imminent bubble-bursting market correction. But I am an +Internet user. And I resent that today's portals are so obsessed with +fine-tuning their demographics and matching every dubious feature their +competitors offer that they are doing virtually nothing to improve the +service at the heart of all their businesses: helping us all find stuff +on the Web. +Most of the portals have the eyeballs -- the site traffic -- that make +them potentially successful businesses because they started as search +engines. But in the three years or so of the commercial Web's evolution, +during which the number of indexable Web pages has mushroomed, these +search engines have made only the smallest improvements to their +technology. +When you conduct a general search on a broad term like, say, "President +Clinton," you never know whether you'll actually find the White House +Web site -- or some homely page chronicling an eighth-grade class trip +to D.C. (Infoseek does a decent job returning the Oval Office site at +the top of the list, but Excite sends you to an impeachment poll on +Tripod and the Paula Jones Legal Defense Fund -- the president's page +doesn't even make it into the first 10 results. Hotbot's top result is a +site called Tempting Teens -- "All the Kinky Things that make our +Government what it is.") diff --git a/_stories/1998/610649.md b/_stories/1998/610649.md deleted file mode 100644 index 0fa7b9a..0000000 --- a/_stories/1998/610649.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,25 +0,0 @@ ---- -created_at: '2009-05-15T14:35:36.000Z' -title: The dumbing-down of programming (1998) -url: http://archive.salon.com/21st/feature/1998/05/cov_12feature.html -author: io -points: 55 -story_text: '' -comment_text: -num_comments: 33 -story_id: -story_title: -story_url: -parent_id: -created_at_i: 1242398136 -_tags: -- story -- author_io -- story_610649 -objectID: '610649' - ---- -[Source](https://www.salon.com/21st/feature/1998/05/cov_12feature.html "Permalink to ") - - - diff --git a/_stories/1998/7279965.md b/_stories/1998/7279965.md index 1e1d761..f58596d 100644 --- a/_stories/1998/7279965.md +++ b/_stories/1998/7279965.md @@ -19,87 +19,33 @@ _tags: objectID: '7279965' --- -[Source](http://www.nytimes.com/1998/06/09/business/america-online-to-buy-internet-chat-service-for-287-million.html "Permalink to America Online to Buy Internet Chat Service for $287 Million - The New York Times") +Moreover, he said, ICQ users spend an average of 75 minutes a day on the +service, compared with fewer than 10 minutes a day for highly touted +search and directory services such as Yahoo and Lycos. -# America Online to Buy Internet Chat Service for $287 Million - The New York Times +Many Internet stock analysts praised the deal as an inexpensive way for +America Online to increase its customer relationships. The company's +shares rose $1.50 yesterday, to $84.75. But there is some skepticism +that chat services, no matter how popular, will turn into big money +makers. -__NYTimes.com no longer supports Internet Explorer 9 or earlier. Please upgrade your browser. [LEARN MORE »][1] +''E-mail, chat and instant messaging are not good advertising +platforms,'' said Bo Peabody, the chief executive of Tripod, an on-line +community service recently bought by Lycos. ''When you chat, you look at +what you are writing, not what other people are writing,'' he said. +Moreover, advertisers worry that their advertisements will be associated +with content that they do not control and may be embarrassing. As a +result, chat services that do take ads receive the lowest rates of any +type of Internet service. -__Sections __ Home __Search [Skip to content][2] [Skip to navigation][3] [View mobile version][4] - -## [ The New York Times ][5] - -###### [Business Day][6]|America Online to Buy Internet Chat Service for $287 Million - -__Search - -Subscribe Now Log In __0 __Settings - -__Close search - -## Site Search Navigation - -Search NYTimes.com - -__Clear this text input - -Go - -1. Loading... - -See next articles - -See previous articles - -## Site Navigation - -## Site Mobile Navigation - -Advertisement - -Supported by - -### [Business Day][6] - -# America Online to Buy Internet Chat Service for $287 Million - -By [SAUL HANSELL][7]JUNE 9, 1998 - -[Continue reading the main story][8] Share This Page - -[Continue reading the main story][8] - -With all the frenzy over the Internet, entrepreneurs have been able to create and sell companies for huge sums without ever earning a dime. But in what may be a record of financial weightlessness, America Online said yesterday that it would pay at least $287 million for a company that has never taken in a penny in revenue and has no plans to start charging money. - -What the company, an Israeli concern called Mirabilis Ltd., does have is users, 12 million of them who spend an average of more than an hour a day on its Internet chat service. Ultimately, America Online hopes to put advertising on the chat service and sell its members products and services. ''When you talk about making money on the Internet, no one is doing more than America Online,'' said Robert W. Pittman, the company's president. - -He compared the Internet today to the early days of cable television. MTV, which Mr. Pittman helped start, took in only $500,000 in revenue its first year. - -Mirabilis is highly regarded among savvy Internet users for its chat service, known as ICQ (shorthand for ''I seek you''), which enables them to detect when fellow users are on line and to communicate instantly with them. With no promotion other than word of mouth, it has already achieved something of a cult status, growing at more than 50,000 subscribers a day. - -Advertisement - -[Continue reading the main story][8] - -ICQ is attractive to America Online because it appeals to a much younger and more technologically sophisticated audience than the mainstream America Online brand. ''If this were 1980, think underground album-oriented rock radio,'' Mr. Pittman said. - -[Continue reading the main story][9] - -Advertisement - -[Continue reading the main story][10] - -Moreover, he said, ICQ users spend an average of 75 minutes a day on the service, compared with fewer than 10 minutes a day for highly touted search and directory services such as Yahoo and Lycos. - -Many Internet stock analysts praised the deal as an inexpensive way for America Online to increase its customer relationships. The company's shares rose $1.50 yesterday, to $84.75. But there is some skepticism that chat services, no matter how popular, will turn into big money makers. - -''E-mail, chat and instant messaging are not good advertising platforms,'' said Bo Peabody, the chief executive of Tripod, an on-line community service recently bought by Lycos. ''When you chat, you look at what you are writing, not what other people are writing,'' he said. Moreover, advertisers worry that their advertisements will be associated with content that they do not control and may be embarrassing. As a result, chat services that do take ads receive the lowest rates of any type of Internet service. - -That has not stopped other companies from buying similar services. Most notably, Microsoft paid a reported $400 million for Hotmail, which offers free E-mail services. (Unlike ICQ, Hotmail had started to sell advertisements.) +That has not stopped other companies from buying similar services. Most +notably, Microsoft paid a reported $400 million for Hotmail, which +offers free E-mail services. (Unlike ICQ, Hotmail had started to sell +advertisements.) ## Newsletter Sign Up -[Continue reading the main story][11] +[Continue reading the main story](#continues-post-newsletter) ### @@ -109,263 +55,56 @@ Invalid email address. Please re-enter. You must select a newsletter to subscribe to. -Sign Up - -You agree to receive occasional updates and special offers for The New York Times's products and services. +You agree to receive occasional updates and special offers for The New +York Times's products and services. ### Thank you for subscribing. ### An error has occurred. Please try again later. -### You are already subscribed to this email. +[View all New York Times newsletters.](/newsletters) -[View all New York Times newsletters.][12] +Mirabilis also helps America Online's efforts to expand overseas. About +40 percent of ICQ's members are in the United States, 40 percent are in +Europe and the rest are spread elsewhere. -* [See Sample][13] -* [Manage Email Preferences][14] -* [Not you?][15] -* [Privacy Policy][16] -* Opt out or [contact us][17] anytime +Mirabilis was founded two years ago by four Israelis in their early +20's. With a few million dollars in backing from local investors, it has +built one of the most popular services on the Internet. -Mirabilis also helps America Online's efforts to expand overseas. About 40 percent of ICQ's members are in the United States, 40 percent are in Europe and the rest are spread elsewhere. +Yossi Vardi, the Mirabilis chairman, said the company had been in +discussions with a number of suitors since last August. But they were +initially put off by the price the company wanted. ''People were quite +amazed with our growth and it took them a while to come to grips with +that,'' he said. -Mirabilis was founded two years ago by four Israelis in their early 20's. With a few million dollars in backing from local investors, it has built one of the most popular services on the Internet. - -Yossi Vardi, the Mirabilis chairman, said the company had been in discussions with a number of suitors since last August. But they were initially put off by the price the company wanted. ''People were quite amazed with our growth and it took them a while to come to grips with that,'' he said. - -America Online agreed to pay $287 million in cash up front and up to $120 million in additional payments starting in 2001, depending on the performance of Mirabilis, which will continue to be run as a separate subsidiary in Tel Aviv. +America Online agreed to pay $287 million in cash up front and up to +$120 million in additional payments starting in 2001, depending on the +performance of Mirabilis, which will continue to be run as a separate +subsidiary in Tel Aviv. Advertisement -[Continue reading the main story][18] +[Continue reading the main story](#story-continues-4) -America Online's own Internet chat service, AOL Instant Messenger, will continue to be a separate product mainly to allow Internet users to communicate with those on America Online's service. America Online will also provide some technical support to Mirabilis. +America Online's own Internet chat service, AOL Instant Messenger, will +continue to be a separate product mainly to allow Internet users to +communicate with those on America Online's service. America Online will +also provide some technical support to Mirabilis. -Mr. Peabody of Tripod said that since America Online now controlled the two largest chat services it should embrace an open standard that would allow the user of any chat service to send an instant message to a user of a competing service, much as electronic mail works now. +Mr. Peabody of Tripod said that since America Online now controlled the +two largest chat services it should embrace an open standard that would +allow the user of any chat service to send an instant message to a user +of a competing service, much as electronic mail works now. -''Now that AOL has a monopoly on the instant messenger space, I'm hopeful they will open the market to everyone,'' he said. Tripod hopes to offer its own message service and such a standard would help it break into the existing market. +''Now that AOL has a monopoly on the instant messenger space, I'm +hopeful they will open the market to everyone,'' he said. Tripod hopes +to offer its own message service and such a standard would help it break +into the existing market. -Tricia Primrose, a spokeswoman for America Online, said that there were no standards for instant messages now, but that ''historically AOL supports open standards that gain critical mass and acceptance by consumers.'' - -[Continue reading the main story][19] - -[ - -We’re interested in your feedback on this page. **Tell us what you think.** - -][20] - -## - -* * * * ## What's Next - -Loading... - -[Go to Home Page »][5] - -## Site Index [ The New York Times ][5] - -## Site Index Navigation - -### News - -* [World][21] -* [U.S.][22] -* [Politics][23] -* [N.Y.][24] -* [Business][25] -* [Tech][26] -* [Science][27] -* [Health][28] -* [Sports][29] -* [Education][30] -* [Obituaries][31] -* [Today's Paper][32] -* [Corrections][33] - -### Opinion - -* [Today's Opinion][34] -* [Op-Ed Columnists][35] -* [Editorials][36] -* [Op-Ed Contributors][37] -* [Letters][38] -* [Sunday Review][39] -* [Video: Opinion][40] - -### Arts - -* [Today's Arts][41] -* [Art & Design][42] -* [Books][43] -* [Dance][44] -* [Movies][45] -* [Music][46] -* [N.Y.C. 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+supports open standards that gain critical mass and acceptance by +consumers.'' +[Continue reading the main story](#whats-next) diff --git a/_stories/1998/8166701.md b/_stories/1998/8166701.md deleted file mode 100644 index e04c65f..0000000 --- a/_stories/1998/8166701.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,25 +0,0 @@ ---- -created_at: '2014-08-12T05:58:35.000Z' -title: 'Set Up to Fail: How Bosses Create Their Own Poor Performers (1998) [pdf]' -url: http://www.insead.edu/facultyresearch/research/doc.cfm?did=46698 -author: deathtrader666 -points: 187 -story_text: '' -comment_text: -num_comments: 60 -story_id: -story_title: -story_url: -parent_id: -created_at_i: 1407823115 -_tags: -- story -- author_deathtrader666 -- story_8166701 -objectID: '8166701' - ---- -[Source](https://sites.insead.edu/facultyresearch/research/doc.cfm?did=46698 "Permalink to ") - - - diff --git a/_stories/1998/9400739.md b/_stories/1998/9400739.md deleted file mode 100644 index 51e4cb7..0000000 --- a/_stories/1998/9400739.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,25 +0,0 @@ ---- -created_at: '2015-04-18T19:41:18.000Z' -title: Medical Emergencies In Space (1998) -url: http://chapters.marssociety.org/usa/oh/aero5.htm -author: ColinWright -points: 67 -story_text: '' -comment_text: -num_comments: 6 -story_id: -story_title: -story_url: -parent_id: -created_at_i: 1429386078 -_tags: -- story -- author_ColinWright -- story_9400739 -objectID: '9400739' - ---- -[Source](http://ohio.marssociety.orgaero5.htm "Permalink to ") - - - diff --git a/_stories/1999/10581971.md b/_stories/1999/10581971.md index 070e940..8940db7 100644 --- a/_stories/1999/10581971.md +++ b/_stories/1999/10581971.md @@ -19,7 +19,214 @@ _tags: objectID: '10581971' --- -[Source](https://www.philzimmermann.com/EN/essays/WhyIWrotePGP.html "Permalink to ") +![](../../images/pixel.gif) ![Picture of +Phil](../../images/photos/prz.jpg) +## Why I Wrote PGP +*Part of the Original 1991 PGP User's Guide (updated in 1999) +* +*"Whatever you do will be insignificant, but it is very important that +you do it." -Mahatma Gandhi* + +It's personal. It's private. And it's no one's business but yours. You +may be planning a political campaign, discussing your taxes, or having a +secret romance. Or you may be communicating with a political dissident +in a repressive country. Whatever it is, you don't want your private +electronic mail (email) or confidential documents read by anyone else. +There's nothing wrong with asserting your privacy. Privacy is as +apple-pie as the Constitution. + +The right to privacy is spread implicitly throughout the Bill of Rights. +But when the United States Constitution was framed, the Founding Fathers +saw no need to explicitly spell out the right to a private conversation. +That would have been silly. Two hundred years ago, all conversations +were private. If someone else was within earshot, you could just go out +behind the barn and have your conversation there. No one could listen in +without your knowledge. The right to a private conversation was a +natural right, not just in a philosophical sense, but in a +law-of-physics sense, given the technology of the time. + +But with the coming of the information age, starting with the invention +of the telephone, all that has changed. Now most of our conversations +are conducted electronically. This allows our most intimate +conversations to be exposed without our knowledge. Cellular phone calls +may be monitored by anyone with a radio. Electronic mail, sent across +the Internet, is no more secure than cellular phone calls. Email is +rapidly replacing postal mail, becoming the norm for everyone, not the +novelty it was in the past. + +Until recently, if the government wanted to violate the privacy of +ordinary citizens, they had to expend a certain amount of expense and +labor to intercept and steam open and read paper mail. Or they had to +listen to and possibly transcribe spoken telephone conversation, at +least before automatic voice recognition technology became available. +This kind of labor-intensive monitoring was not practical on a large +scale. It was only done in important cases when it seemed worthwhile. +This is like catching one fish at a time, with a hook and line. Today, +email can be routinely and automatically scanned for interesting +keywords, on a vast scale, without detection. This is like driftnet +fishing. And exponential growth in computer power is making the same +thing possible with voice traffic. + +Perhaps you think your email is legitimate enough that encryption is +unwarranted. If you really are a law-abiding citizen with nothing to +hide, then why don't you always send your paper mail on postcards? Why +not submit to drug testing on demand? Why require a warrant for police +searches of your house? Are you trying to hide something? If you hide +your mail inside envelopes, does that mean you must be a subversive or a +drug dealer, or maybe a paranoid nut? Do law-abiding citizens have any +need to encrypt their email? + +What if everyone believed that law-abiding citizens should use postcards +for their mail? If a nonconformist tried to assert his privacy by using +an envelope for his mail, it would draw suspicion. Perhaps the +authorities would open his mail to see what he's hiding. Fortunately, we +don't live in that kind of world, because everyone protects most of +their mail with envelopes. So no one draws suspicion by asserting their +privacy with an envelope. There's safety in numbers. Analogously, it +would be nice if everyone routinely used encryption for all their email, +innocent or not, so that no one drew suspicion by asserting their email +privacy with encryption. Think of it as a form of solidarity. + +Senate Bill 266, a 1991 omnibus anticrime bill, had an unsettling +measure buried in it. If this non-binding resolution had become real +law, it would have forced manufacturers of secure communications +equipment to insert special "trap doors" in their products, so that the +government could read anyone's encrypted messages. It reads, "It is the +sense of Congress that providers of electronic communications services +and manufacturers of electronic communications service equipment shall +ensure that communications systems permit the government to obtain the +plain text contents of voice, data, and other communications when +appropriately authorized by law." It was this bill that led me to +publish PGP electronically for free that year, shortly before the +measure was defeated after vigorous protest by civil libertarians and +industry groups. + +The 1994 Communications Assistance for Law Enforcement Act (CALEA) +mandated that phone companies install remote wiretapping ports into +their central office digital switches, creating a new technology +infrastructure for "point-and-click" wiretapping, so that federal agents +no longer have to go out and attach alligator clips to phone lines. Now +they will be able to sit in their headquarters in Washington and listen +in on your phone calls. Of course, the law still requires a court order +for a wiretap. But while technology infrastructures can persist for +generations, laws and policies can change overnight. Once a +communications infrastructure optimized for surveillance becomes +entrenched, a shift in political conditions may lead to abuse of this +new-found power. Political conditions may shift with the election of a +new government, or perhaps more abruptly from the bombing of a federal +building. + +A year after the CALEA passed, the FBI disclosed plans to require the +phone companies to build into their infrastructure the capacity to +simultaneously wiretap 1 percent of all phone calls in all major U.S. +cities. This would represent more than a thousandfold increase over +previous levels in the number of phones that could be wiretapped. In +previous years, there were only about a thousand court-ordered wiretaps +in the United States per year, at the federal, state, and local levels +combined. It's hard to see how the government could even employ enough +judges to sign enough wiretap orders to wiretap 1 percent of all our +phone calls, much less hire enough federal agents to sit and listen to +all that traffic in real time. The only plausible way of processing that +amount of traffic is a massive Orwellian application of automated voice +recognition technology to sift through it all, searching for interesting +keywords or searching for a particular speaker's voice. If the +government doesn't find the target in the first 1 percent sample, the +wiretaps can be shifted over to a different 1 percent until the target +is found, or until everyone's phone line has been checked for subversive +traffic. The FBI said they need this capacity to plan for the future. +This plan sparked such outrage that it was defeated in Congress. But the +mere fact that the FBI even asked for these broad powers is revealing of +their agenda. + +Advances in technology will not permit the maintenance of the status +quo, as far as privacy is concerned. The status quo is unstable. If we +do nothing, new technologies will give the government new automatic +surveillance capabilities that Stalin could never have dreamed of. The +only way to hold the line on privacy in the information age is strong +cryptography. + +You don't have to distrust the government to want to use cryptography. +Your business can be wiretapped by business rivals, organized crime, or +foreign governments. Several foreign governments, for example, admit to +using their signals intelligence against companies from other countries +to give their own corporations a competitive edge. Ironically, the +United States government's restrictions on cryptography in the 1990's +have weakened U.S. corporate defenses against foreign intelligence and +organized crime. + +The government knows what a pivotal role cryptography is destined to +play in the power relationship with its people. In April 1993, the +Clinton administration unveiled a bold new encryption policy initiative, +which had been under development at the National Security Agency (NSA) +since the start of the Bush administration. The centerpiece of this +initiative was a government-built encryption device, called the Clipper +chip, containing a new classified NSA encryption algorithm. The +government tried to encourage private industry to design it into all +their secure communication products, such as secure phones, secure +faxes, and so on. AT\&T put Clipper into its secure voice products. The +catch: At the time of manufacture, each Clipper chip is loaded with its +own unique key, and the government gets to keep a copy, placed in +escrow. Not to worry, though–the government promises that they will use +these keys to read your traffic only "when duly authorized by law." Of +course, to make Clipper completely effective, the next logical step +would be to outlaw other forms of cryptography. + +The government initially claimed that using Clipper would be voluntary, +that no one would be forced to use it instead of other types of +cryptography. But the public reaction against the Clipper chip was +strong, stronger than the government anticipated. The computer industry +monolithically proclaimed its opposition to using Clipper. FBI director +Louis Freeh responded to a question in a press conference in 1994 by +saying that if Clipper failed to gain public support, and FBI wiretaps +were shut out by non-government-controlled cryptography, his office +would have no choice but to seek legislative relief. Later, in the +aftermath of the Oklahoma City tragedy, Mr. Freeh testified before the +Senate Judiciary Committee that public availability of strong +cryptography must be curtailed by the government (although no one had +suggested that cryptography was used by the bombers). + +The government has a track record that does not inspire confidence that +they will never abuse our civil liberties. The FBI's COINTELPRO program +targeted groups that opposed government policies. They spied on the +antiwar movement and the civil rights movement. They wiretapped the +phone of Martin Luther King. Nixon had his enemies list. Then there was +the Watergate mess. More recently, Congress has either attempted to or +succeeded in passing laws curtailing our civil liberties on the +Internet. Some elements of the Clinton White House collected +confidential FBI files on Republican civil servants, conceivably for +political exploitation. And some overzealous prosecutors have shown a +willingness to go to the ends of the Earth in pursuit of exposing sexual +indiscretions of political enemies. At no time in the past century has +public distrust of the government been so broadly distributed across the +political spectrum, as it is today. + +Throughout the 1990s, I figured that if we want to resist this +unsettling trend in the government to outlaw cryptography, one measure +we can apply is to use cryptography as much as we can now while it's +still legal. When use of strong cryptography becomes popular, it's +harder for the government to criminalize it. Therefore, using PGP is +good for preserving democracy. If privacy is outlawed, only outlaws will +have privacy. + +It appears that the deployment of PGP must have worked, along with years +of steady public outcry and industry pressure to relax the export +controls. In the closing months of 1999, the Clinton administration +announced a radical shift in export policy for crypto technology. They +essentially threw out the whole export control regime. Now, we are +finally able to export strong cryptography, with no upper limits on +strength. It has been a long struggle, but we have finally won, at least +on the export control front in the US. Now we must continue our efforts +to deploy strong crypto, to blunt the effects increasing surveillance +efforts on the Internet by various governments. And we still need to +entrench our right to use it domestically over the objections of the +FBI. + +PGP empowers people to take their privacy into their own hands. There +has been a growing social need for it. That's why I wrote it. + +**Philip R. Zimmermann** +Boulder, Colorado +June 1991 (updated 1999) diff --git a/_stories/1999/11378019.md b/_stories/1999/11378019.md index 81652cb..b31633c 100644 --- a/_stories/1999/11378019.md +++ b/_stories/1999/11378019.md @@ -19,111 +19,72 @@ _tags: objectID: '11378019' --- -[Source](http://www.nytimes.com/1999/10/26/science/conversation-with-arthur-c-clarke-author-s-space-odyssey-his-stay-chelsea.html?pagewanted=all "Permalink to A CONVERSATION WITH/ARTHUR C. CLARKE; An Author's Space Odyssey and His Stay at the Chelsea - The New York Times") +They took a nerve biopsy. I have some obscure neuropathy. All of a +sudden, my legs get numb. Mainly, I have post-polio syndrome, which is +why I can't walk anymore. I was told I had Lou Gehrig's disease, +originally. -# A CONVERSATION WITH/ARTHUR C. CLARKE; An Author's Space Odyssey and His Stay at the Chelsea - The New York Times +As far as I know, Stephen Hawking is the only man who's survived that +for very long, so this (laughs) is a considerable improvement. -__NYTimes.com no longer supports Internet Explorer 9 or earlier. Please upgrade your browser. [LEARN MORE »][1] +Q. We heard that the astronaut Buzz Aldrin made a visit to you at +Hopkins. -__Sections __ Home __Search [Skip to content][2] [Skip to navigation][3] [View mobile version][4] - -## [ The New York Times ][5] - -###### [Science][6]|A CONVERSATION WITH/ARTHUR C. CLARKE; An Author's Space Odyssey and His Stay at the Chelsea - -__Search - -Subscribe Now Log In __0 __Settings - -__Close search - -## Site Search Navigation - -Search NYTimes.com - -__Clear this text input - -Go - -1. Loading... - -See next articles - -See previous articles - -## Site Navigation - -## Site Mobile Navigation - -Advertisement - -Supported by - -### [Science][6] | A CONVERSATION WITH/ARTHUR C. CLARKE - -# A CONVERSATION WITH/ARTHUR C. CLARKE; An Author's Space Odyssey and His Stay at the Chelsea - -By [CLAUDIA DREIFUS][7]OCT. 26, 1999 - -[Continue reading the main story][8] Share This Page - -[Continue reading the main story][8] - -On a recent autumn morning in a suite at his beloved Chelsea Hotel, legendary New York City home of hipsters and artists, Sir Arthur C. Clarke, 81, the author of more than a hundred books of essays and science fiction, co-writer with Stanley Kubrick of the film, ''2001: A Space Odyssey,'' and the dreamer who in 1945 came up with the idea of the ''comsat,'' or communications satellite, held court in a wheelchair tended by his two Sri Lankan valets, Hector and Lenin. - -The author, who lives in Colombo, Sri Lanka, had stopped off to see old friends and admirers on his way home from a round of medical tests at Johns Hopkins Medical Center in Baltimore. - -Q. Is it true that you and Stanley Kubrick wrote the screenplay for ''2001: A Space Odyssey,'' right here at the Chelsea Hotel? - -A. Absolutely. This place is my spiritual home. Everyone is surprised that I come to this hardly five-star hotel. - -Advertisement - -[Continue reading the main story][8] - -In fact, the Sri Lankan ambassador was horrified. Before coming here, I had been at Johns Hopkins for more than a week. - -[Continue reading the main story][9] - -Advertisement - -[Continue reading the main story][10] - -They took a nerve biopsy. I have some obscure neuropathy. All of a sudden, my legs get numb. Mainly, I have post-polio syndrome, which is why I can't walk anymore. I was told I had Lou Gehrig's disease, originally. - -As far as I know, Stephen Hawking is the only man who's survived that for very long, so this (laughs) is a considerable improvement. - -Q. We heard that the astronaut Buzz Aldrin made a visit to you at Hopkins. - -A. Yes, he dropped in to see me in the hospital and he kept making the point: we've got to get NASA out of the space business. He believes it should be private enterprise. There are a lot of people now who are trying to develop relatively cheap nonbureaucratic access to space. How successful they'll be, I don't know. I think the rocket will end up doing for space travel what the balloon did for air travel: it got us there, but soon was superseded by something better. +A. Yes, he dropped in to see me in the hospital and he kept making the +point: we've got to get NASA out of the space business. He believes it +should be private enterprise. There are a lot of people now who are +trying to develop relatively cheap nonbureaucratic access to space. How +successful they'll be, I don't know. I think the rocket will end up +doing for space travel what the balloon did for air travel: it got us +there, but soon was superseded by something better. Q. Are you as critical of NASA as Buzz Aldrin is? A. I won't criticize NASA because it's the slave of Congress. -Actually, NASA has now set up an Institute for Advanced Concepts. It is looking at all sorts of crazy ideas, including my favorite one, the space elevator. It's such a delightfully simple idea: build an elevator from the Equator to a geostationary satellite. You move payloads up and down by electricity. +Actually, NASA has now set up an Institute for Advanced Concepts. It is +looking at all sorts of crazy ideas, including my favorite one, the +space elevator. It's such a delightfully simple idea: build an elevator +from the Equator to a geostationary satellite. You move payloads up and +down by electricity. -When I wrote my book ''The Fountains of Paradise'' in 1979, about the building of the space elevator from a country which is 90 percent Sri Lanka, the only material that could be strong enough to build a space elevator was diamond. And that, unfortunately was not available in the megaton qualities needed for such a project. +When I wrote my book ''The Fountains of Paradise'' in 1979, about the +building of the space elevator from a country which is 90 percent Sri +Lanka, the only material that could be strong enough to build a space +elevator was diamond. And that, unfortunately was not available in the +megaton qualities needed for such a project. -Interestingly, when I later recorded a 12-inch L.P. of ''The Fountains of Paradise,'' the cover notes and illustration were by Buckminster Fuller. +Interestingly, when I later recorded a 12-inch L.P. of ''The Fountains +of Paradise,'' the cover notes and illustration were by Buckminster +Fuller. Advertisement -[Continue reading the main story][11] +[Continue reading the main story](#story-continues-4) -And now, we have the material to make it: C-60 nanotubes, which are hundreds of times stronger than steel. +And now, we have the material to make it: C-60 nanotubes, which are +hundreds of times stronger than steel. -The Rice University scientists who were co-discoverers of C-60 have named it Buckminsterfullerene. If C-60 can be mass produced, it will revolutionize space travel, as well as everyday life. You could lift your car with one hand. +The Rice University scientists who were co-discoverers of C-60 have +named it Buckminsterfullerene. If C-60 can be mass produced, it will +revolutionize space travel, as well as everyday life. You could lift +your car with one hand. -The point of the space elevator is that it makes space travel cost just pennies. The cost in electricity of lifting you to space is about $200. The cost for a round trip is about $40 because you get most of your energy back on the downward trip. I've said many times that the main cost of space travel in the future is going to be for catering and in flight movies, not for fuel. +The point of the space elevator is that it makes space travel cost just +pennies. The cost in electricity of lifting you to space is about $200. +The cost for a round trip is about $40 because you get most of your +energy back on the downward trip. I've said many times that the main +cost of space travel in the future is going to be for catering and in +flight movies, not for fuel. -And of course the considerable interest on the trillion or so that it costs to build the thing. +And of course the considerable interest on the trillion or so that it +costs to build the thing. Q. One reason you advocate space travel is fear of asteroids? ## Newsletter Sign Up -[Continue reading the main story][12] +[Continue reading the main story](#continues-post-newsletter) ### @@ -133,282 +94,104 @@ Invalid email address. Please re-enter. You must select a newsletter to subscribe to. -Sign Up - -You agree to receive occasional updates and special offers for The New York Times's products and services. +You agree to receive occasional updates and special offers for The New +York Times's products and services. ### Thank you for subscribing. ### An error has occurred. Please try again later. -### You are already subscribed to this email. +[View all New York Times newsletters.](/newsletters) -[View all New York Times newsletters.][13] +A. I'm always quoting the science fiction writer Larry Nivens that ''the +dinosaurs became extinct because they didn't have a space program.'' +Yes, I think a serious asteroid impact is inevitable. In any case, even +without them, we have all our eggs in one basket here. By the way, I'm +an absentee landlord of a hundred square miles of some rather rugged +territory near the orbit of Mars. I have an asteroid named after me. +Isaac Asimov's got one too. It's smaller and more eccentric. -* [See Sample][14] -* [Manage Email Preferences][15] -* [Not you?][16] -* [Privacy Policy][17] -* Opt out or [contact us][18] anytime +Q. In the news is word that the world's population has hit six billion. +What do you feel when you see a headline like that? -A. I'm always quoting the science fiction writer Larry Nivens that ''the dinosaurs became extinct because they didn't have a space program.'' Yes, I think a serious asteroid impact is inevitable. In any case, even without them, we have all our eggs in one basket here. By the way, I'm an absentee landlord of a hundred square miles of some rather rugged territory near the orbit of Mars. I have an asteroid named after me. Isaac Asimov's got one too. It's smaller and more eccentric. +A. Well, I feel rather depressed, but then there are so many times when +I'm an optimist. I think we have a 51 percent chance of survival. I +would say the next decade is perhaps one of the most crucial in human +history, though many people have felt that in the past. But it's real +now. There are so many things coming to a head simultaneously. The +population. The environment. The energy crunch. And, of course, the +dangers of nuclear warfare. I am often asked to predict things and I'm +described as a prophet, but I deny that. I'm just an extrapolator. I can +envision a whole spectrum of futures, very few of which are desirable. -Q. In the news is word that the world's population has hit six billion. What do you feel when you see a headline like that? +But I do feel that we science-fiction writers do serve as an early +warning system, by showing what may happen, what could happen, and +simply what should happen. I've often said one reason why I'm an +optimist is that then you have a chance of creating a self-fulfilling +prophesy -- and ditto if you're a pessimist -- it's more cheerful. -A. Well, I feel rather depressed, but then there are so many times when I'm an optimist. I think we have a 51 percent chance of survival. I would say the next decade is perhaps one of the most crucial in human history, though many people have felt that in the past. But it's real now. There are so many things coming to a head simultaneously. The population. The environment. The energy crunch. And, of course, the dangers of nuclear warfare. I am often asked to predict things and I'm described as a prophet, but I deny that. I'm just an extrapolator. I can envision a whole spectrum of futures, very few of which are desirable. - -But I do feel that we science-fiction writers do serve as an early warning system, by showing what may happen, what could happen, and simply what should happen. I've often said one reason why I'm an optimist is that then you have a chance of creating a self-fulfilling prophesy -- and ditto if you're a pessimist -- it's more cheerful. - -Q. Can you think of something that you predicted might have happened that doesn't look like it will? +Q. Can you think of something that you predicted might have happened +that doesn't look like it will? A. Well, there won't be a Hilton in orbit by 2001. Advertisement -[Continue reading the main story][19] +[Continue reading the main story](#story-continues-5) -Q. Was it your idea or Kubrick's to make a computer, HAL, the villain of film? +Q. Was it your idea or Kubrick's to make a computer, HAL, the villain of +film? -A. Villain? HAL's a nice guy. No, I cannot now say who did what. The only thing I'm completely sure of is that the idea of HAL lip reading, which I thought was rather unlikely, was Stanley's. Now, of course, they've succeeded in getting a fair degree of accuracy with lip reading in computers. The way we wrote it, we just brainstormed. We sat in this apartment and brainstormed. +A. Villain? HAL's a nice guy. No, I cannot now say who did what. The +only thing I'm completely sure of is that the idea of HAL lip reading, +which I thought was rather unlikely, was Stanley's. Now, of course, +they've succeeded in getting a fair degree of accuracy with lip reading +in computers. The way we wrote it, we just brainstormed. We sat in this +apartment and brainstormed. -Stanley said, ''I want to do a good science-fiction film.'' So we went through all my short stories to see what would make a good film. We had about six. One by one, we threw away stories. Eventually, we just had two of them. One was ''The Sentinel,'' and the other was ''Encounter in the Dawn,'' in which a space ship lands before man existed and the travelers meet man-apes. We were originally going to call the film, ''How The Solar System Was Won.'' +Stanley said, ''I want to do a good science-fiction film.'' So we went +through all my short stories to see what would make a good film. We had +about six. One by one, we threw away stories. Eventually, we just had +two of them. One was ''The Sentinel,'' and the other was ''Encounter in +the Dawn,'' in which a space ship lands before man existed and the +travelers meet man-apes. We were originally going to call the film, +''How The Solar System Was Won.'' -Q. One of the legends about you is that you came up with the idea for Comsat in an article you wrote in 1945 and that you never patented the idea. +Q. One of the legends about you is that you came up with the idea for +Comsat in an article you wrote in 1945 and that you never patented the +idea. -A. Oh, so you want to ask me about how I lost a billion dollars in my spare time? Well, you see when I wrote my ''comsat'' paper, it was 1945. The war was still on. No one could even imagine what peace would be like. And I didn't think that satellites could be launched until the end of the century. So I didn't give the matter of a patent any thought at all. I just wrote this article and sent it off and got $:15 for it. Which was real money in 1945. I don't regret it because I think a patent would have expired anyway before the first comsats were launched. Until the technology reaches some level, you can't patent anything. Besides, who was it that said, ''The patent is merely a license to be sued?'' +A. Oh, so you want to ask me about how I lost a billion dollars in my +spare time? Well, you see when I wrote my ''comsat'' paper, it was 1945. +The war was still on. No one could even imagine what peace would be +like. And I didn't think that satellites could be launched until the end +of the century. So I didn't give the matter of a patent any thought at +all. I just wrote this article and sent it off and got $:15 for it. +Which was real money in 1945. I don't regret it because I think a patent +would have expired anyway before the first comsats were launched. Until +the technology reaches some level, you can't patent anything. Besides, +who was it that said, ''The patent is merely a license to be sued?'' -Q. Surely you must sometimes fantasize about what your life would have been if you had? +Q. Surely you must sometimes fantasize about what your life would have +been if you had? -A. O.K., what I should have done is to try to copyright the word ''comsat.'' If I'd done that. . . . +A. O.K., what I should have done is to try to copyright the word +''comsat.'' If I'd done that. . . . -Q. You've written somewhere near 100 books of science fact and fiction. How fast do you write, and think? +Q. You've written somewhere near 100 books of science fact and fiction. +How fast do you write, and think? -A. Not as fast as I used to. I have difficulty remembering names. But I feel as long as I can spell ''Alzheimer,'' I'm in good shape. I don't know if I've ever written more than 3,000 words a day. Isaac Asimov could do that in a minute and a half. And mostly on a manual typewriter, too. +A. Not as fast as I used to. I have difficulty remembering names. But I +feel as long as I can spell ''Alzheimer,'' I'm in good shape. I don't +know if I've ever written more than 3,000 words a day. Isaac Asimov +could do that in a minute and a half. And mostly on a manual typewriter, +too. -Q. There are plaques mounted in front of the Chelsea Hotel dedicated to deceased artists who once lived here: Thomas Wolfe, Brendan Behan, Virgil Thomson. Will there be one for you one day? +Q. There are plaques mounted in front of the Chelsea Hotel dedicated to +deceased artists who once lived here: Thomas Wolfe, Brendan Behan, +Virgil Thomson. Will there be one for you one day? -A. Oh, I hope so, but not for a long time. 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Oh, I hope so, but not for a long time. However, I don't mind if they +put one up right now. +[Continue reading the main story](#whats-next) diff --git a/_stories/1999/12533079.md b/_stories/1999/12533079.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d9aac73 --- /dev/null +++ b/_stories/1999/12533079.md @@ -0,0 +1,251 @@ +--- +created_at: '2016-09-19T17:29:08.000Z' +title: Why Should I Care What Color the Bikeshed Is? (1999) +url: http://bikeshed.org/ +author: shockwavecs +points: 106 +story_text: +comment_text: +num_comments: 52 +story_id: +story_title: +story_url: +parent_id: +created_at_i: 1474306148 +_tags: +- story +- author_shockwavecs +- story_12533079 +objectID: '12533079' + +--- +# Why Should I Care What Color the Bikeshed Is? + +[![](bikeshed.png)](/) + +From +[freebsd.org/doc/en\_US.ISO8859-1/books/faq/misc.html\#bikeshed-painting](http://www.freebsd.org/doc/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/faq/misc.html#bikeshed-painting); +see also +[phk.freebsd.dk/sagas/bikeshed.html](http://phk.freebsd.dk/sagas/bikeshed.html) +for historical background. + +> "The really, really short answer is that you should not. The somewhat +> longer answer is that just because you are capable of building a +> bikeshed does not mean you should stop others from building one just +> because you do not like the color they plan to paint it. This is a +> metaphor indicating that you need not argue about every little feature +> just because you know enough to do so. Some people have commented that +> the amount of noise generated by a change is inversely proportional to +> the complexity of the change." + +(If you don't like the way we painted this bikeshed, try +[bikeshedding.io](http://bikeshedding.io/), or the minimalist +[shed.bike](https://shed.bike/). Or set up your own? That's the +spirit\!) + + Subject: A bike shed (any colour will do) on greener grass... + From: Poul-Henning Kamp + Date: Sat, 02 Oct 1999 16:14:10 +0200 + Message-ID: <18238.938873650@critter.freebsd.dk> + Sender: phk@critter.freebsd.dk + Bcc: Blind Distribution List: ; + MIME-Version: 1.0 + + + [bcc'ed to committers, hackers] + + My last pamphlet was sufficiently well received that I was not + scared away from sending another one, and today I have the time + and inclination to do so. + + I've had a little trouble with deciding on the right distribution + of this kind of stuff, this time it is bcc'ed to committers and + hackers, that is probably the best I can do. I'm not subscribed + to hackers myself but more on that later. + + The thing which have triggered me this time is the "sleep(1) should + do fractional seconds" thread, which have pestered our lives for + many days now, it's probably already a couple of weeks, I can't + even be bothered to check. + + To those of you who have missed this particular thread: Congratulations. + + It was a proposal to make sleep(1) DTRT if given a non-integer + argument that set this particular grass-fire off. I'm not going + to say anymore about it than that, because it is a much smaller + item than one would expect from the length of the thread, and it + has already received far more attention than some of the *problems* + we have around here. + + The sleep(1) saga is the most blatant example of a bike shed + discussion we have had ever in FreeBSD. The proposal was well + thought out, we would gain compatibility with OpenBSD and NetBSD, + and still be fully compatible with any code anyone ever wrote. + + Yet so many objections, proposals and changes were raised and + launched that one would think the change would have plugged all + the holes in swiss cheese or changed the taste of Coca Cola or + something similar serious. + + "What is it about this bike shed ?" Some of you have asked me. + + It's a long story, or rather it's an old story, but it is quite + short actually. C. Northcote Parkinson wrote a book in the early + 1960'ies, called "Parkinson's Law", which contains a lot of insight + into the dynamics of management. + + You can find it on Amazon, and maybe also in your dads book-shelf, + it is well worth its price and the time to read it either way, + if you like Dilbert, you'll like Parkinson. + + Somebody recently told me that he had read it and found that only + about 50% of it applied these days. That is pretty darn good I + would say, many of the modern management books have hit-rates a + lot lower than that, and this one is 35+ years old. + + In the specific example involving the bike shed, the other vital + component is an atomic power-plant, I guess that illustrates the + age of the book. + + Parkinson shows how you can go in to the board of directors and + get approval for building a multi-million or even billion dollar + atomic power plant, but if you want to build a bike shed you will + be tangled up in endless discussions. + + Parkinson explains that this is because an atomic plant is so vast, + so expensive and so complicated that people cannot grasp it, and + rather than try, they fall back on the assumption that somebody + else checked all the details before it got this far. Richard P. + Feynmann gives a couple of interesting, and very much to the point, + examples relating to Los Alamos in his books. + + A bike shed on the other hand. Anyone can build one of those over + a weekend, and still have time to watch the game on TV. So no + matter how well prepared, no matter how reasonable you are with + your proposal, somebody will seize the chance to show that he is + doing his job, that he is paying attention, that he is *here*. + + In Denmark we call it "setting your fingerprint". It is about + personal pride and prestige, it is about being able to point + somewhere and say "There! *I* did that." It is a strong trait in + politicians, but present in most people given the chance. Just + think about footsteps in wet cement. + + I bow my head in respect to the original proposer because he stuck + to his guns through this carpet blanking from the peanut gallery, + and the change is in our tree today. I would have turned my back + and walked away after less than a handful of messages in that + thread. + + And that brings me, as I promised earlier, to why I am not subscribed + to -hackers: + + I un-subscribed from -hackers several years ago, because I could + not keep up with the email load. Since then I have dropped off + several other lists as well for the very same reason. + + And I still get a lot of email. A lot of it gets routed to /dev/null + by filters: People like Brett Glass will never make it onto my + screen, commits to documents in languages I don't understand + likewise, commits to ports as such. All these things and more go + the winter way without me ever even knowing about it. + + But despite these sharp teeth under my mailbox I still get too much + email. + + This is where the greener grass comes into the picture: + + I wish we could reduce the amount of noise in our lists and I wish + we could let people build a bike shed every so often, and I don't + really care what colour they paint it. + + The first of these wishes is about being civil, sensitive and + intelligent in our use of email. + + If I could concisely and precisely define a set of criteria for + when one should and when one should not reply to an email so that + everybody would agree and abide by it, I would be a happy man, but + I am too wise to even attempt that. + + But let me suggest a few pop-up windows I would like to see + mail-programs implement whenever people send or reply to email + to the lists they want me to subscribe to: + + +------------------------------------------------------------+ + | Your email is about to be sent to several hundred thousand | + | people, who will have to spend at least 10 seconds reading | + | it before they can decide if it is interesting. At least | + | two man-weeks will be spent reading your email. Many of | + | the recipients will have to pay to download your email. | + | | + | Are you absolutely sure that your email is of sufficient | + | importance to bother all these people ? | + | | + | [YES] [REVISE] [CANCEL] | + +------------------------------------------------------------+ + + +------------------------------------------------------------+ + | Warning: You have not read all emails in this thread yet. | + | Somebody else may already have said what you are about to | + | say in your reply. Please read the entire thread before | + | replying to any email in it. | + | | + | [CANCEL] | + +------------------------------------------------------------+ + + +------------------------------------------------------------+ + | Warning: Your mail program have not even shown you the | + | entire message yet. Logically it follows that you cannot | + | possibly have read it all and understood it. | + | | + | It is not polite to reply to an email until you have | + | read it all and thought about it. | + | | + | A cool off timer for this thread will prevent you from | + | replying to any email in this thread for the next one hour | + | | + | [Cancel] | + +------------------------------------------------------------+ + + +------------------------------------------------------------+ + | You composed this email at a rate of more than N.NN cps | + | It is generally not possible to think and type at a rate | + | faster than A.AA cps, and therefore you reply is likely to | + | incoherent, badly thought out and/or emotional. | + | | + | A cool off timer will prevent you from sending any email | + | for the next one hour. | + | | + | [Cancel] | + +------------------------------------------------------------+ + + The second part of my wish is more emotional. Obviously, the + capacities we had manning the unfriendly fire in the sleep(1) + thread, despite their many years with the project, never cared + enough to do this tiny deed, so why are they suddenly so enflamed + by somebody else so much their junior doing it ? + + I wish I knew. + + I do know that reasoning will have no power to stop such "reactionaire + conservatism". It may be that these people are frustrated about + their own lack of tangible contribution lately or it may be a bad + case of "we're old and grumpy, WE know how youth should behave". + + Either way it is very unproductive for the project, but I have no + suggestions for how to stop it. The best I can suggest is to refrain + from fuelling the monsters that lurk in the mailing lists: Ignore + them, don't answer them, forget they're there. + + I hope we can get a stronger and broader base of contributors in + FreeBSD, and I hope we together can prevent the grumpy old men + and the Brett Glasses of the world from chewing them up, spitting + them out and scaring them away before they ever get a leg to the + ground. + + For the people who have been lurking out there, scared away from + participating by the gargoyles: I can only apologise and encourage + you to try anyway, this is not the way I want the environment in + the project to be. + + Poul-Henning diff --git a/_stories/1999/13047576.md b/_stories/1999/13047576.md index abf3d1a..8a1ef08 100644 --- a/_stories/1999/13047576.md +++ b/_stories/1999/13047576.md @@ -19,7 +19,1020 @@ _tags: objectID: '13047576' --- -[Source](https://www.supermemo.com/en/articles/20rules "Permalink to ") +1. **Do not learn if you do not understand** + + Trying to learn things you do not understand may seem like an utmost + nonsense. Still, an amazing proportion of students commit the + offence of learning without comprehension. Very often they have no + other choice\! The quality of many textbooks or lecture scripts is + deplorable while examination deadlines are unmovable. + + If you are not a speaker of German, it is still possible to learn a + history textbook in German. The book can be crammed word for word. + However, the time needed for such "blind learning" is astronomical. + Even more important: The value of such knowledge is negligible. If + you cram a German book on history, you will still know nothing of + history. + + The German history book example is an extreme. However, the + materials you learn may often seem well structured and you may tend + to blame yourself for lack of comprehension. Soon you may pollute + your learning process with a great deal of useless material that + treacherously makes you believe "it will be useful some day".   +2. **Learn before you memorize** + + Before you proceed with memorizing individual facts and rules, you + need to **build an overall picture of the learned knowledge**. Only + when individual pieces fit to build a single coherent structure, + will you be able to dramatically reduce the learning time. This is + closely related to the problem comprehension mentioned in [Rule 1: + Do not learn if you do not + understand](#Do%20not%20learn%20if%20you%20do%20not%20understand). A + single separated piece of your picture is like a single German word + in the textbook of history. + + Do not start from memorizing loosely related facts\! First read a + chapter in your book that puts them together (e.g. the principles of + the internal combustion engine). Only then proceed with learning + using individual questions and answers (e.g. What moves the pistons + in the internal combustion engine?), etc. +3. **Build upon the basics** + + The picture of the learned whole (as discussed in [Rule 2: Learn + before you memorize](#Learn%20before%20you%20memorize)) does not + have to be complete to the last detail. Just the opposite, the + simpler the picture the better. The shorter the initial chapter of + your book the better. Simple models are easier to comprehend and + encompass. You can always build upon them later on. + + Do not neglect the basics. Memorizing seemingly obvious things is + not a waste of time\! Basics may also appear volatile and the cost + of memorizing easy things is little. Better err on the safe side. + Remember that usually you spend 50% of your time repeating just 3-5% + of the learned material \[[source](../../articles/theory.htm)\]\! + Basics are usually easy to retain and take a microscopic proportion + of your time. However, each memory lapse on basics can cost you + dearly\! +4. **Stick to the minimum information principle** + + The material you learn must be formulated in as simple way as it is + + - **Simple is easy** + By definition, simple material is easy to remember. This comes + from the fact that its simplicity makes is easy for the brain to + process it always in the same way. Imagine a labyrinth. When + making a repetition of a piece of material, your brain is + running through a labyrinth (you can view a neural network as a + tangle of paths). While running through the labyrinth, the brain + leaves a track on the walls. If it can run in only one unique + way, the path is continuous and easy to follow. If there are + many combinations, each run may leave a different trace that + will interfere with other traces making it difficult to find the + exit. The same happens on the cellular level with different + synaptic connections being activated at each repetition of + complex material + + + + - **Repetitions of simple items are easier to schedule** + I assume you will make repetitions of the learned material using + optimum inter-repetition intervals (as in + [SuperMemo](../../english/smintro.htm)). If you consider an item + that is composed of two sub-items, you will need to make + repetitions that are frequent enough to keep the more difficult + item in memory. If you split the complex item into sub-items, + each can be repeated at its own pace saving your time. Very + often, inexperienced students create items that could easily be + split into **ten or more** simpler sub-items\! Although the + number of items increases, the number of repetitions of each + item will usually be small enough to greatly outweigh the cost + of (1) forgetting the complex item again and again, (2) + repeating it in excessively short intervals or (3) actually + remembering it only in part\! + + Here is a striking example: + + **Ill-formulated knowledge - Complex and wordy** + + Q: What are the characteristics of the Dead Sea? + + A: Salt lake located on the border between Israel and Jordan. Its + shoreline is the lowest point on the Earth's surface, averaging 396 + m below sea level. It is 74 km long. It is seven times as salty (30% + by volume) as the ocean. Its density keeps swimmers afloat. Only + simple organisms can live in its saline waters + + **Well-formulated knowledge - Simple and specific** + + Q: Where is the Dead Sea located? + A: **on the border between Israel and Jordan** + + Q: What is the lowest point on the Earth's surface? + A: **The Dead Sea shoreline** + + Q: What is the average level on which the Dead Sea is located? + A: **400 meters** (below sea level) + + Q: How long is the Dead Sea? + A: **70 km** + + Q: How much saltier is the Dead Sea than the oceans? + A: **7 times** + + Q: What is the volume content of salt in the Dead Sea? + A: **30%** + + Q: Why can the Dead Sea keep swimmers afloat? + A: **due to high salt content** + + Q: Why is the Dead Sea called Dead? + A: **because only simple organisms can live in it** + + Q: Why only simple organisms can live in the Dead Sea? + A: **because of high salt content** + + You might want to experiment and try to learn two subjects using the + two above approaches and see for yourself what advantage is brought + by minimum information principle. This is particularly visible in + the long perspective, i.e. **the longer the time you need to + remember knowledge, the more you benefit from simplifying your + items**\! + + Note in the example above how short the questions are. Note also + that the answers are even shorter\! We want a minimum amount of + information to be retrieved from memory in a single repetition\! + **We want answer to be as short as imaginably possible**\! + + You will notice that the knowledge learned in the ill-structured + example is not entirely equivalent to the well-structured + formulation. For example, although you will remember why the Dead + Sea can keep swimmers afloat, you may forget that it at all has such + a characteristic in the first place\! Additionally, rounding 396 to + 400 and 74 to 70 produces some loss of information. These can be + remedied by adding more questions or making the present ones more + precise. + + You will also lose the ability to fluently recite the description of + the Dead Sea when called up to the blackboard by your teachers. I + bet, however, that shining in front of the class is not your + ultimate goal in learning. To see how to cope with recitations and + poems, read further (section devoted to + [enumerations](#Enumerations)) + +5. **Cloze deletion is easy and effective** + + Cloze deletion is a sentence with its parts missing and replaced by + three dots. Cloze deletion exercise is an exercise that uses cloze + deletion to ask the student to fill in the gaps marked with the + three dots. For example, Bill ...\[name\] was the second US + president to go through impeachment. + + If you are a beginner and if you find it difficult to stick to the + minimum information principle, use cloze deletion\! If you are an + advanced user, you will also like cloze deletion. It is a quick and + effective method of converting textbook knowledge into knowledge + that can be subject to learning based on spaced repetition. Cloze + deletion makes the core of the fast reading and learning technique + called [*incremental reading*](../../help/read.htm). + + **Ill-formulated knowledge - Complex and wordy** + + Q: What was the history of the Kaleida company? + + A: Kaleida, funded to the tune of $40 million by Apple Computer and + IBM in 1991. Hyped as a red-hot startup, Kaleida's mission was to + create a multimedia programming language It finally produced one, + called Script X. But it took three years. Meanwhile, companies such + as Macromedia and Asymetrix had snapped up all the business. Kaleida + closed in 1995 + + **Well-formulated knowledge - Simple cloze deletion** + + Q: Kaleida was funded to the tune of ...(amount) by Apple Computer + and IBM in 1991 + A: $40 million + + Q: Kaleida was funded to the tune of $40 million by ...(companies) + in 1991 + A: Apple and IBM + + Q: Kaleida was funded to the tune of $40 million by Apple Computer + and IBM in ... (year) + A: 1991 + + Q: ...(company) mission was to create a multimedia programming + language. It finally produced one, called Script X. But it took + three years + A: Kaleida's + + Q: Kaleida's mission was to create a ... It finally produced one, + called Script X. But it took three years + A: multimedia programming language + + Q: Kaleida's mission was to create a multimedia programming + language. It finally produced one, called ... But it took three + years + A: Script X + + Q: Kaleida's mission was to create a multimedia programming + language. It finally produced one, called Script X. But it took + ...(time) + A: three years + + Q: Kaleida's mission was to create a multimedia programming + language: Script X. But it took three years. Meanwhile, companies + such as ... had snapped up all the business + A: Macromedia/Asymetrix + + Q: Kaleida's mission was to create Script X. But it took three + years. Meanwhile, companies such as Macromedia and Asymetrix had + snapped up all the business. Kaleida closed in ...(year) + A: 1995 + +   + + **Optional: SuperMemo Recipe:** + + **SuperMemo 2002** + + **[SuperMemo 2000](/articles/soft/sm10.htm)** + + **[SuperMemo 98/99](../../archive/1998/sm98.htm)** + + Creating *cloze deletions* in new SuperMemos: + + select the keyword that is to be replaced with tree dots and press + *Alt+Z* + + Generating a cloze deletions from texts placed in the clipboard in + SuperMemo 2000: + + 1. Press *Ctrl+Alt+N* to paste the text to SuperMemo  + + 2. Select the part that is to be replaced with three dots + + 3. Right-click to open the [component + menu](../../help/compmenu.htm) and select **Reading : Remember + cloze** (or click one of cloze icons on the reading toolbar) + +   + + Cloze deletions in SuperMemo 98/99: + + 1. Press Ctrl+A to add a standard question-and-answer item + 2. Paste the text into the question field. This will create the + outline of your items + 3. Press Ctrl+Alt+U to **Duplicate** the element + 4. Select the part that is to be replaced with three dots + 5. Cut the selection to the clipboard (e.g. with Shift+Del) + 6. Type in three dots (optionally, add the explanation in + parentheses as in above examples) + 7. Press Ctrl+T to save the question field and move to the answer + field + 8. Paste the text cut in Step 5 (e.g. with Shift+Ins or Ctrl+V). + Your first item is ready + 9. Press PgUp **** to go back to the outline item created in Step 2 + 10. Goto Step 3 and continue adding new items + +6. **Use imagery** + + Visual cortex is that part of the brain in which visual stimuli are + interpreted. It has been very well developed in the course of + evolution and that is why we say one picture is worth a thousand + words. Indeed if you look at the number of details kept in a picture + and the easiness with which your memory can retain them, you will + notice that our verbal processing power is greatly inferior as + compared with the visual processing power. The same refers to + memory. A graphic representation of information is usually far less + volatile. + + Usually it takes much less time to formulate a simple + question-and-answer pair than to find or produce a neat graphic + image. This is why you will probably always have to weigh up cost + and profits in using graphics in your learning material. + Well-employed images will greatly reduce your learning time in areas + such as anatomy, geography, geometry, chemistry, history, and many + more. + + The power of imagery explains why the concept of Tony Buzan's mind + maps is so popular. A mind map is an abstract picture in which + connections between its components reflect the logical connections + between individual concepts. + + **Less beneficial formulation** + + Q: What African country is located between Kenya, Zambia and + Mozambique? + + A: Tanzania + + **More effective formulation** + + Q: What African country is marked white on the map? + + ![Tanzania](http://supermemo.com/images/tanzania.gif) + + A: Tanzania + +7. **Use mnemonic techniques** + + Mnemonic techniques are various techniques that make remembering + easier. They are often amazingly effective. For most students, a + picture of a 10-year-old memorizing a sequence of 50 playing cards + verges on discovering a young genius. It is very surprising then to + find out how easy it is to learn the techniques that make it + possible with a dose of training. These techniques are available to + everyone and do not require any special skills\! + + Before you start believing that mastering such techniques will + provide you with an eternal solution to the problem of forgetting, + be warned that the true bottleneck towards long-lasting and useful + memories is not in quickly memorizing knowledge\! This is indeed the + easier part. The bottleneck lies in retaining memories for months, + years or for lifetime\! To accomplish the latter you will need + [SuperMemo](../../english/smintro.htm) and the compliance with the + 20 rules presented herein. + + There have been dozens of books written about mnemonic techniques. + Probably those written by Tony Buzan are most popular and respected. + You can search the web for keywords such as: mind maps, peg lists, + mnemonic techniques, etc. + + Experience shows that with a dose of training you will need to + consciously apply mnemonic techniques in only 1-5% of your items. + With time, using mnemonic techniques will become automatic\! + + Exemplary mind map: + + ![](http://supermemo.com/images/mindmap.jpg) + + (Six Steps mind map generated in [Mind + Manager 3.5](http://www.mindman.com), imported to SuperMemo 2004, + courtesy of John England, [TeamLink + Australia](http://www.team-link.org)) + +8. **Graphic deletion is as good as cloze deletion** + + Graphic deletion works like [cloze deletion](#Cloze%20deletion) but + instead of a missing phrase it uses a missing image component. For + example, when learning anatomy, you might present a complex + illustration. Only a small part of it would be missing. The + student's job is to name the missing area. The same illustration can + be used to formulate 10-20 items\! Each item can ask about a + specific subcomponent of the image. Graphic deletion works great in + learning geography\! + + Exemplary graphic deletion: + + ![](http://supermemo.com/images/element.jpg) + + **[SuperMemo 2000/2002](/articles/soft/sm10.htm)** **SuperMemo 99** + This is how you can quickly generate graphic deletion using a + picture from the clipboard: + + 1. Press *Shift+Ins* to paste the picture to SuperMemo + 2. Press *Ctrl+Shift+M* and choose *Occlusion* template to apply + graphic deletion template + 3. SuperMemo 2000 only: Choose *Ctrl+Shift+F2* to impose and detach + the *Occlusion* template + 4. Fill out the fields and place the occlusion rectangle to cover + the appropriate part of the picture (use *Alt+click* twice to + set the rectangle in the dragging mode) + + In SuperMemo 99 you will need a few more steps: + + 1. Create an item containing the following components: + - question text: What is the name of the area covered with the + red rectangle? + - empty answer text (click + [**Answer**](../../help/compmenu.htm) on the [component + menu](../../help/compmenu.htm)) + - your illustration (use [**Import + file**](../../help/compmenu.htm#Import_file) on the image + component menu) + - red rectangle component (choose red color with + **[Color](../../help/compmenu.htm#Color)** on the rectangle + component menu) + 2. Choose [**Duplicate**](../../help/elmenu.htm#Duplicate) on the + element menu (e.g. by pressing + [Ctrl+Alt+U](../../help/shortcuts.htm)) + 3. Ctrl+click the rectangle component twice to place it in the + dragging mode + 4. Drag and size the red rectangle to cover the area in question + 5. Type in the answer in the answer field + 6. Press PgUp to go back to the original element created in Step 1 + 7. Go to Step 2 to add generate more graphic deletions + + Note that you could also paint covering rectangles or circles on the + original image but this would greatly increase the size of your + collection. The above method makes sure that you reuse the same + image many times in all items of the same template. For example, the + collection Brain Anatomy available from \> SuperMemo Library and on + *SuperMemo MegaMix* CD-ROM uses the above technique + + A more detailed recipe for creating occlusion tests is presented in: + [Flow of knowledge](/articles/flow.htm) + +9. **Avoid sets** + + A [set](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Set) is a collection of + objects. For example, a set of fruits might be an apple, a pear and + a peach. A classic example of an item that is difficult to learn is + an item that asks for the list of the members of a set. For example: + What countries belong to the European Union? You should avoid such + items whenever possible due to the high cost of retaining memories + based on sets. If sets are absolutely necessary, you should always + try to convert them into [enumerations](#Enumerations). Enumerations + are ordered lists of members (for example, the alphabetical list of + the members of the EU). Enumerations are also hard to remember and + should be avoided. However, the great advantage of enumerations over + sets is that they are ordered and they force the brain to list them + always in the same order. An ordered list of countries contains more + information than the set of countries that can be listed in any + order. Paradoxically, despite containing more information, + enumerations are easier to remember. The reason for this has been + discussed earlier in the context of the [minimum information + principle](#minimum%20information%20principle): **you should always + try to make sure your brain works in the exactly same way at each + repetition**. In the case of sets, listing members in varying order + at each repetition has a disastrous effect on memory. It is nearly + impossible to memorize sets containing more than five members + without the use of mnemonic techniques, enumeration, grouping, etc. + Despite this claim, you will often succeed due to subconsciously + mastered techniques that help you go around this problem. Those + techniques, however, will fail you all too often. For that reason: + **Avoid sets\!** If you need them badly, convert them into + enumerations and use [techniques for dealing with + enumerations](#Enumerations) + + **Ill-formulated knowledge - Sets are unacceptable\!** + + Q:What countries belong to the European Union (2002)? + + A: Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, + Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, + Sweden, and the United Kingdom + + **Well-formulated knowledge - Converting a set into a meaningful + listing** + + Q: Which country hosted a meeting to consider the creation of a + European Community of Defence in 1951? + A: France  + + Q: Which countries apart from France joined the European Coal and + Steel Community in 1952? + A: Germany, Italy and the Benelux + + Q: What countries make up the Benelux? + A: Belgium, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands + + Q: Whose membership did Charles de Gaulle oppose in the 1960s? + A: that of UK + + Q: Which countries joined the EEC along the UK in 1973? + A: Ireland and Denmark + + Q: Which country joined the EEC in 1981? + A: Greece + + Q: Which countries joined the EEC in 1986? + A: Spain and Portugal + + Q: Which countries joined the EU in 1995? + A: Austria, Sweden and Finland + + Q: What was the historic course of expansion of the European Union + membership? + A: (1) France and (2) Germany, Italy and the Benelux, (3) UK and (4) + Ireland and Denmark, (5) Greece, (6) Spain and Portugal and (7) + Austria, Sweden and Finland + + Note that in the example above, we converted a 15-member set into 9 + items, five of which are 2-3 member sets, and one is a six member + enumeration. Put it to your SuperMemo, and see how easy it is to + generate the list of the European Union members using the historic + timeline\! Note the tricks used with France and the UK. They joined + the union in the company of others but have been listed as separate + items to simplify the learning process. Note also that the sum of + information included in this well-formulated approach is far greater + than that of the original set. Thus along simplicity, we gained some + useful knowledge. All individual items effectively comply with the + [minimum information + principle](#minimum%20information%20principle)\! You could go + further by trying to split the Germany-Italy-Benelux set or using + mnemonic techniques to memorize the final seven-member enumeration + (i.e. the last of the questions above). However, you should take + those steps only if you have any problems with retaining the + proposed set in memory. + +10. **Avoid enumerations** + + Enumerations are also an example of classic items that are hard to + learn. They are still far more acceptable than sets. Avoid + enumerations wherever you can. If you cannot avoid them, deal with + them using [cloze deletions](#Cloze%20deletion) (overlapping cloze + deletions if possible). Learning the alphabet can be a good example + of an overlapping cloze deletion: + + **Hard to learn item** + + Q: What is the sequence of letters in the alphabet? + + A: abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz + + **Easy to learn items** + + Q: What three letters does the alphabet begin with? + A: ABC + + Q: Fill out the missing letters of the alphabet A ... ... ... E + A: B, C, D + + Q: Fill out the missing letters of the alphabet B ... ... ... F + A: C, D, E + + Q: Fill out the missing letters of the alphabet C ... ... ... G + A: D, E, F + + The above items will make learning the alphabet much faster. The + greatest advantage of the above approach is that is it easier for + psychological reasons: the student does not have to stop repetitions + to recite the whole sequence and can only focus on a small part of + the learned material. Still it is recommended that he recite the + whole alphabet **after** making the repetition. However, once all + individual pieces are well remembered, reciting the whole should be + a pleasant and speedy action that produces little frustration. + The cloze deletion used above is an overlapping cloze deletion, i.e. + the same parts of the enumeration are strengthened in memory using + different items (for example, the sequence C-D will be needed to + recall the second and the third item). This redundancy does not + contradict the [minimum information + principle](#minimum%20information%20principle) because **the extra + information is added in extra items**. + + You can also deal with enumerations by using grouping like in the + case of sets (see the [European Union example](#EEC)) but cloze + deletions should be simpler and should suffice in most cases. + Learning poems is an example of learning enumerations (all words and + sentences have to be uttered in a predefined sequence); however, due + to strong semantic connections, the rhyme and the rhythm, it may + often be possible to effectively remember poems without using cloze + deletion and without the frustration of forgetting small + subcomponents again and again. However, once you notice you stumble + with your poem, you should dismember it using cloze deletion and + thus make sure that the learning is fast, easy, effective and + pleasurable + + **A poem that is hard to remember** + + Q: The credit belongs ... ([Teddy + Roosevelt](http://www.dropbears.com/b/broughsbooks/qtroosevelt.htm)) + + A: The credit belongs to the man who's actually in the arena, whose + face is marred by dust and sweat; a man who knows the great + enthusiasm and the great devotions, who spends himself in a worthy + cause, who in the end knows the triumph of high achievement, so that + his place shall never be with those cold and timid souls who know + neither victory nor defeat  + + **A poem split into easy items** + + Q: The credit belongs ... ([Teddy + Roosevelt](http://www.dropbears.com/b/broughsbooks/qtroosevelt.htm)) + A: to the man who's actually in the arena + + Q: The credit belongs to the man who's actually in the arena ... + A: whose face is marred by dust and sweat (a man who knows the great + enthusiasm) + + Q: whose face is marred by dust and sweat ... (The credit belongs) + A: a man who knows the great enthusiasm and the great devotions (who + spends himself in a worthy cause) + + Q: a man who knows the great enthusiasm and the great devotions ... + (The credit belongs) + A: who spends himself in a worthy cause (who in the end knows the + triumph of high achievement) + + Q: who spends himself in a worthy cause ... (The credit belongs) + A: who in the end knows the triumph of high achievement (so that his + place shall never be), etc. etc. + + Does it all sound artificial? It does\! But you will never know how + effective this approach is until you try it by yourself\! + +11. **Combat interference** + + When you learn about similar things you often confuse them. For + example, you may have problems distinguishing between the meanings + of the words historic and historical. This will even be more visible + if you memorize lots of numbers, e.g. optimum dosages of drugs in + pharmacotherapy. If knowledge of one item makes it harder to + remember another item, we have a case of **memory interference**. + You can often remember an item for years with straight excellent + grades until ... you memorize another item that makes it nearly + impossible to remember either\! For example, if you learn geography + and you memorize that the country located between Venezuela, + Suriname and Brazil is Guyana, you are likely to easily recall this + fact for years with just a couple of repetitions. However, once you + add similar items asking about the location of all these countries, + and French Guyana, and Colombia and more, you will suddenly notice + strong memory interference and you may experience unexpected + forgetting. In simple terms: you will get confused about what is + what. + + Interference is probably the single greatest cause of forgetting in + collections of an experienced user of SuperMemo. You can never be + sure when it strikes, and the only hermetic procedure against it is + to **detect and eliminate**. In other words, in many cases it may be + impossible to predict interference at the moment of formulating + knowledge. Interference can also occur between remotely related + items like Guyana, Guyard and Guyenne, as well as Guyana, kayman and + ... aspirin. It may work differently for you and for your colleague. + It very hard to predict. + + Still you should do your best to prevent interference before it + takes its toll. This will make your learning process less stressful + and mentally bearable. Here are some tips: + + - make items as unambiguous as possible + + - stick to the [minimum information + principle](#minimum%20information%20principle) (many of the + remaining rules in this text are based on avoiding + interference\!) + + - eliminate interference as soon as you spot it, i.e. before it + becomes your obsession (e.g. as soon as you see the word + **inept** you think "I know the meanings of **inept** and + **inapt** but I will never know which is which\!") + + - **[View](../../help/view.htm) : **Other browsers :** + [Leeches](../../help/leech.htm)** (*Shift+*F3) to regularly + review and **eliminate** most difficult items + + in SuperMemo useF3) to regularly review andmost difficult items + + - read more: [Memory + interference](../../english/ol/ks.htm#Univocality) + +12. **Optimize wording** + + The wording of your items must be optimized to make sure that in + minimum time the right bulb in your brain lights up. This will + reduce error rates, increase specificity, reduce response time, and + help your concentration. + + **Less optimum item: cloze deletion that is too wordy** + + Q: Aldus invented desktop publishing in 1985 with PageMaker. Aldus + had little competition for years, and so failed to improve. Then + Denver-based ... blew past. PageMaker, now owned by Adobe, remains + No. 2 + A: Quark + + **Better item: fewer words will speed up learning** + + Q: Aldus invented desktop publishing in 1985 with PageMaker but + failed to improve. Then ... blew past (PageMaker remains No. 2) + A: Quark + + **Or better:** + + Q: Aldus invented desktop publishing with PageMaker but failed to + improve. It was soon outdistanced by ... + A: Quark + + **Or better:** + + Q: PageMaker failed to improve and was outdistanced by ... + A: Quark + + **Or better:** + + Q: PageMaker lost ground to ... + A: Quark + + Note that the loss of information content in this item is + inconsequential. During repetition you are only supposed to learn + the name: Quark. You should not hope that the trailing messages on + the ownership of PageMaker and the year of its development will + somehow trickle to your memory as a side effect. You should decide + if the other pieces of information are important to you and if so, + store them in separate items (perhaps reusing the above text, + employing cloze deletion again and optimizing the wording in a new + way). Otherwise the redundant information will only slow down your + learning process\! + +13. **Refer to other memories** + + Referring to other memories can place your item in a better context, + simplify wording, and reduce interference. In the example below, + using the words humble and supplicant helps the student focus on the + word shamelessly and thus strengthen the correct semantics. Better + focus helps eliminating interference. Secondly, the use of the words + humble and supplicant makes it possible to avoid interference of + cringing with these words themselves. Finally, the proposed wording + is shorter and more specific. Naturally, the rules + [basics-to-details](#Build%20upon%20the%20basics) and [do not learn + what you do not + understand](#Do%20not%20learn%20if%20you%20do%20not%20understand) + require that the words humble and supplicant be learned beforehand + (or at least at the same time) + + **Item subject to strong interference** + + Q: derog: adj: shamelessly conscious of one's failings and asking in + a begging way + A: cringing + + **Item that uses interfering memories to amplify the correct + meaning** + + Q: derog: adj: shamelessly humble and supplicant + A: cringing + +14. **Personalize and provide examples** + + One of the most effective ways of enhancing memories is to provide + them with a link to your personal life. In the example below you + will save time if you use a personal reference rather than trying to + paint a picture that would aptly illustrate the question + + **Harder item** + + Q: What is the name of a soft bed without arms or back? + A: divan + + **Easier item** + + Q: What is the name of a soft bed without arms or back? (like the + one at Robert's parents) + A: divan + + If you remember exactly what kind of soft bed can be found in + Robert's parents' apartment you will save time by not having to dig + exactly into the semantics of the definition and/or looking for an + appropriate graphic illustration for the piece of furniture in + question. Personalized examples are very resistant to + [interference](#Interference) and can greatly reduce your learning + time + +15. **Rely on emotional states** + + If you can illustrate your items with examples that are vivid or + even shocking, you are likely to enhance retrieval (as long as you + do not overuse same tools and fall victim of interference\!). Your + items may assume bizarre form; however, as long as they are produced + for your private consumption, the end justifies the means. Use + objects that evoke very specific and strong emotions: love, sex, + war, your late relative, object of your infatuation, Linda Tripp, + Nelson Mandela, etc. It is well known that emotional states can + facilitate recall; however, you should make sure that you are not + deprived of the said emotional clues at the moment when you need to + retrieve a given memory in a real-life situation + + **Harder item** + + Q: a light and joking conversation + A: banter + + **Easier item** + + Q: a light and joking conversation (e.g. Mandela and de Klerk in + 1992) + A: banter + + If you have vivid and positive memories related to the meetings + between Nelson Mandela and F.W. de Klerk, you are likely to quickly + grasp the meaning of the definition of banter. Without the example + you might struggle with interference from words such as badinage or + even chat. There is no risk of irrelevant emotional state in this + example as the state helps to define the semantics of the learned + concept\! A well-thought example can often reduce your learning time + several times\! I have recorded examples in which an item without an + example was forgotten 20 times within one year, while the same item + with a subtle interference-busting example was not forgotten even + once in ten repetitions spread over five years. This is roughly + equivalent to **25-fold saving in time in the period of 20 years**\! + Such examples are not rare\! They are most effectively handled with + the all the preceding rules targeted on + [simplicity](#minimum%20information%20principle) and against the + [interference](#Interference) + +16. **Context cuessimplify wording** + + You can use [categories](../../help/categs.htm) in [SuperMemo + 2000/2002](/articles/soft/sm10.htm), provide different branches of + knowledge with a different look (different + [template](../../help/templates.htm)), use reference labels (*Title, + Author, Date,* etc.) and clearly label subcategories (e.g. with + strings such as chem for chemistry, math for mathematics, etc.). + This will help you simplify the wording of your items as you will be + relieved from the need to specify the context of your question. In + the example below, the well-defined prefix bioch: saves you a lot of + typing and a lot of reading while still making sure you do not + confuse the abbreviation GRE with Graduate Record Examination. Note + that in the recommended case, you process the item starting from the + label bioch which puts your brain immediately in the right context. + While processing the lesser optimum case, you will waste precious + milliseconds on flashing the standard meaning of GRE and ... what is + worse ... you will light up the wrong areas of your brain that will + now perhaps be prone to interference\! + + **Wordy item can cause accidental lapses through interference** + + Q: What does GRE stand for in biochemistry? + A: glucocorticoid response element + + **Context-labeled items increase success rate** + + Q: bioch: GRE + A: glucocorticoid response element + +17. **Redundancydoes not contradict minimum information principle** + + **Redundancy** in simple terms is more information than needed or + duplicate information, etc. Redundancy does not have to contradict + the [minimum information + principle](#minimum%20information%20principle) and may even be + welcome. The problem of redundancy is too wide for this short text. + Here are some examples that are only to illustrate that minimum + information principle cannot be understood as minimum number of + characters or bits in your collections or even items: + + - **passive and active approach**: if you learn a foreign + language, e.g. Esperanto, you will often build word pairs such + as phone-telefono, language-lingvo, hope-esperanto, etc. These + pairs require active recall of the foreign word. Active recall + does not, however, guarantee passive recognition and you may + fail with telefono-phone, lingvo-language, or esperanto-hope. + Adding new elements with swapped questions and answers may in + some cases be redundant but it does not contradict the minimum + information principle\! Your items are still as simple as + possible. You just get more of them**Duplicate** (Ctrl+Alt+D) + and **Swap** (Ctrl+Shift+S) + + In [SuperMemo 2000/2002](/articles/soft/sm10.htm) , you can + quickly generate swapped word-pair items with(Ctrl+Alt+D) + and(Ctrl+Shift+S) + + - **reasoning cues**: you will often want to boost your reasoning + ability by asking about a solution to the problem. Instead of + just memorizing the answer you would like to quickly follow the + reasoning steps (e.g. solve a simple mathematical equation) and + generate the answer. In such a case, providing the hint on the + reasoning steps in the answer will only serve helping you always + follow the right path at repetitions + + - **derivation steps**: in more complex problems to solve, + memorizing individual derivation steps is always highly + recommended (e.g. solving complex mathematical problems). It is + not cramming\! It is making sure that the brain can always + follow the fastest path while solving the problem. For more on + boosting creativity and intelligence read: [Roots of genius and + creativity](http://supermemo.com/articles/genius.htm), as well + as more specific: [Derivation, reasoning and + intelligence](../../english/ol/ks.htm#Intelligence) + + - **multiple semantic representation**: very often the same + knowledge can be represented and viewed from different angles. + Memorizing different representations of the same fact or rule is + recommended in cases where a given memory is of high value. This + will increase the expected recall rate (beyond that specified + with the [forgetting index](../../help/fi.htm))\! + + - **flexible repetition**: if there are many valid responses to + the same question make sure that your representation makes it + possible to identify the equivalence and reward you with good + grades by providing just one of the equivalent choices. For + example, if you learn a language, it rarely make sense to learn + all synonyms that meet a definition of a concept. It is more + adequate to consider a single synonym as the sufficient answer + (e.g. a mark made by ink spilt on sth = blot/blob/blotch) + + - [more](../../english/ol/ks.htm#Redundancy) + +18. **Provide sources** + + Except for well-tested and proven knowledge (such as 2+2=4), it is + highly recommended that you include sources from which you have + gathered your knowledge. In real-life situation you will often be + confronted with challenges to your knowledge. Sources can come to + your rescue. You will also find that facts and figures differ + depending on the source. You can really be surprised how frivolously + reputable information agencies publish figures that are drastically + different from other equally reputable sources. Without SuperMemo, + those discrepancies are often difficult to notice: before you + encounter the new fact, the old one is often long forgotten. With + sources provided, you will be able to make more educated choices on + which pieces of information are more reliable. Adding reliability + labels may also be helpful (e.g. *Watch out\!, Other sources + differ\!*, etc.). Sources should accompany your items but should not + be part of the learned knowledge (unless it is critical for you to + be able to recall the source whenever asked). + +19. **Provide** + + Knowledge can be relatively stable (basic math, anatomy, taxonomy, + physical geography, etc.) and highly volatile (economic indicators, + high-tech knowledge, personal statistics, etc.). It is important + that you provide your items with time stamping or other tags + indicating the degree of obsolescence. In case of statistical + figures, you might stamp them with the year they have been + collected. When learning software applications, it is enough you + stamp the item with the software version. Once you have newer + figures you can update your items. Unfortunately, in most cases you + will have to re-memorize knowledge that became outdated. Date + stamping is useful in editing and verifying your knowledge; however, + you will rarely want to memorize stamping itself. If you would like + to remember the changes of a given figure in time (e.g. GNP figures + over a number of years), the date stamping becomes the learned + knowledge itself. + +20. **Prioritize** + + You will always face far more knowledge that you will be able to + master. That is why prioritizing is critical for building quality + knowledge in the long-term. The way you prioritize will affect the + way your knowledge slots in. This will also affect the speed of + learning (e.g. see: [learn basics + first](#Build%20upon%20the%20basics)). There are many stages at + which prioritizing will take place; only few are relevant to + knowledge representation, but all are important: + + 1. **Prioritizing sources** - there will always be a number of + sources of your knowledge. If you are still at student years: + these will most likely be books and notes pertaining to + different subjects. Otherwise you will probably rely more on + journals, Internet, TV, newspapers, encyclopedias, dictionaries, + etc. It is always worth being aware what is the optimum + proportion of time devoted to those varied sources. As you + progress with learning, you will quickly develop a good sense of + which learning slots bring better results and which might be + extended at the cost of others + 2. **Extracting knowledge** - unless you are about to pass an + important exam, it nearly never makes sense to memorize whole + books or whole articles. You will need to extract those parts + that are most likely to impact the quality of your knowledge. + You can do it by (1) marking paragraphs in a book or journal, + (2) pasting relevant web pages to SuperMemo, (3) pasting + relevant passages to SuperMemo, (4) typing facts and figures + directly to SuperMemo notes, etc. You will need some experience + before you can accurately measure how much knowledge you can + indeed transfer to your brain and what degree of detail you can + feasibly master. Your best way to prioritize the flow of + knowledge into your memory is to use [incremental + reading](../../help/read.htm) tools + 3. **Transferring knowledge to SuperMemo** - you may try to stick + with the 20 rules of formulating knowledge at the moment of + introducing your material to SuperMemo. However, you can also + literally transfer your notes or import whole files and later + use the mechanisms provided by SuperMemo to determine the order + of processing the imported material. Probably the best criterion + for choosing between formulating or just importing is the time + needed for accurately formulating the item or items. If + formulation requires more knowledge, more time, comparing with + other sources, etc. you can just import. Otherwise, if you + believe that formulating an accurate item is a matter of + seconds, formulate it + 4. **Formulating items** - make sure that explanatory or optional + components of the answer are placed in the parentheses so that + your attention is focused on the most important part of the + item. The parts in the parentheses can be read after the + repetition to strengthen the memory in its context + 5. **Using forgetting index** - you can use the [forgetting + index](../../help/fi.htm) to prioritize pending items. The + sequence of repetitions will naturally be determined by + SuperMemo; however, you can request higher retention level for + items that are more important and lower retention level for + items of lower priority + 6. **Learning** - the process of prioritizing does not end with the + onset of repetitions. Here are the tools you can use to continue + setting your priorities while the learning process is under way: + 1. **Remember** (Ctrl+M) - re-memorize items of high priority + that have changed or which are extremely important to your + knowledge at a given moment. If you choose + [Ctrl+M](../../help/shortcuts.htm) you will be able to + determine the next interval for the currently reviewed item + (its repetition counter will be reset to zero). It is + recommended that you always re-memorize items whose content + has changed significantly + 2. **Reschedule** (*Ctrl+J*) - manually schedule the date of + the next repetition + 3. **Execute repetition** (*Ctrl+Shift+R*) - manually execute a + repetition even before the repetition's due date (e.g. when + reviewing particularly important material) + 4. **Forget** (Ctrl+R) - remove the current item from the + learning process and place it at the end of the [pending + queue](../../help/g.htm#pending_queue) + 5. **Dismiss** (Ctrl+D) **** - ignore the current item in the + learning process altogether + 6. **Delete** (Ctrl+Shift+Del) - remove the current item from + your collection + 7. Change the forgetting index of memorized items or change the + ordinal of pending items (Ctrl+Shift+P) diff --git a/_stories/1999/13147805.md b/_stories/1999/13147805.md index d27003a..a846836 100644 --- a/_stories/1999/13147805.md +++ b/_stories/1999/13147805.md @@ -19,7 +19,175 @@ _tags: objectID: '13147805' --- -[Source](https://alumni.stanford.edu/get/page/magazine/article/?article_id=41260 "Permalink to ") +He wanted to be the king of condom key chains. But there are some things +they don't teach you at the Business School. +By Robert L. Strauss +There was no doubt about it: I had discovered The Next Big Thing. Like +Edison and the lightbulb, like Gates and the pc operating system, I +would launch a revolution that would transform society while bringing me +wealth and fame. I was about to become the first person in America to +sell condom key chains. +I first encountered the condom key chain while working in Bangkok. Faced +with a warehouse full of soon-to-expire condoms, the ingenious leaders +of a Thai community development organization took the aging +prophylactics, sealed them in plastic and attached a key ring with a +tongue-in-cheek logo: "In Case of Emergency, Break Glass." They couldn't +sell them fast enough. + +My belief that the condom key chain would quickly eclipse the legendary +success of the Pet Rock was confirmed by a simple market survey. I +showed one to my mother. "Robert," she said, "these are the funniest +things I've ever seen\! Get me 50. I'm going to give them to all my +friends." Mom loved it. She thought all her friends would love it. +America would love it. What more did I need to know? + +Plenty, as it happened. Though I had a Stanford MBA and regularly +consulted on multimillion-dollar projects, I didn't know the first thing +about starting a business. When I asked a successful classmate how to +invoice a customer, he suggested I go to one of the large +business-supply warehouses. "They sell 'Business in a Box,' " he told +me. "It's got everything you need." I didn't realize he was joking until +I asked a clerk for one at Office Depot. While there, I bought a copy of +How to Form Your Own California Corporation. I spent $30 on a special +seal for all the important documents I would have to emboss. I +registered a "doing business as" name. Finally, in anticipation of huge +sales, I linked my marketing database with the word processor on my +personal computer and invested $10,000 in my venture. + +My order of 10,000 key chains was scheduled to arrive from Thailand just +in time for the San Francisco International Gift Show. When the shipment +came in, I raced to the airport. + +"Where are your papers?" the clerk asked. + +"What papers?" I asked. + +"Customs clearance," he told me. + +"Customs clearance?" I said. "I've got 10,000 condom key chains to get +to the Gift Show by tomorrow." + +"Well, Mr. Strauss, I guess this is where the rubber meets the road," he +said, breaking himself up. + +Hours later, with papers finally in hand, I backed up to the loading +dock. My 10,000 key chains had been shipped in two cardboard boxes. +Lifting them from the dock, I noticed that the bottoms of both boxes +were discolored with large greasy stains, like the blotches beneath +leftover pizza. With the Gift Show starting in less than 24 hours, there +was no time to complain about mishandling. Once home, I ripped the boxes +open like a kid at Christmas. + +I had written a series of clever slogans to supplement the original "In +Case of Emergency, Break Glass." There were 2,000 marked "Slippery When +Wet" and 2,000 marked "Merging Traffic Ahead" adorned with little yellow +yield signs. For Pac-10 schools, I had 2,000 "Beat the Trojans" key +chains. How could this miss? + +I reached into the boxes to fondle these jewels of schlock +merchandising. My hands came away covered with light, clear oil. The key +chains were all stuck together; my entire shipment was covered with goo. +It didn't take long to realize what had happened. + +The outdated, lubricated condoms had been sealed in plastic, and the +change of air pressure during shipment had forced the lubricant out +through the seams. With the Gift Show beginning the next day, my elbows +deep in slimy key chains and my $5,000 payment deposited in Bangkok, I +began to panic. I filled the bathtub with hot soapy water, dumped in my +10,000 key chains and began scrubbing. + +My love affair with my product soon began to fade. The key chains would +not come clean. No matter how much I scrubbed, they still felt as though +a posse of banana slugs had just oozed over them. Two weeks later, a +friend of mine flew to Thailand on vacation. Back with her went my key +chains. A single American woman entering Thailand with 10,000 condoms. +She said the customs officials were very accommodating. + +The replacement shipment was slime-free. I soon began sales calls on +buyers ranging from novelty shops and porno stores to gay rights groups +and Planned Parenthood clinics—customers conspicuously absent from the +cases I had studied at the Graduate School of Business. It became all +too apparent that the condom key chain was no Pet Rock. My gross profit +margin was tremendous, but overhead had driven me $13,000 in a hole that +was getting deeper and darker. Retailers told me that what the customer +really wanted was a key chain with a usable condom. Soon I had new key +chains flying in from Thailand, each capable of holding a single condom. +All I needed were 10,000 good prophylactics. + +But most manufacturers weren't used to getting orders that large from a +single individual. After being turned down by every supplier in the +country, I began to have nightmares: I was endlessly in line at +Walgreen's buying hundreds of Trojan "family packs." I would wake up +wishing that I had followed my classmates into something simple and +easy, like investment banking. + +Finally, one small-scale manufacturer agreed to sell me the condoms I +needed. Fame and fortune were, once again, within reach. Or so I +thought. + +Then came the fine-print details. According to the Food and Drug +Administration, I needed to include a "how to use" guide with each key +chain. I realized I needed insurance in case some fool inadvertently +Bobbittized himself with my product during a drunken tryst. My +conversations with countless insurance agents are among my more +forgettable experiences in the business. + +"I need product liability insurance," I would say. + +"Sure," the agent would reply. "What's your product?" + +"Condom key chains," I would answer. + +"New market penetration?" the agent would say. This was funny, maybe, +the first 10 times. + +At long last I had insurance, instruction cards, adhesive logos and +10,000 condoms and key chains. I sat down at the dining room table to +put them all together. Two hours later, with my fingers cut and +bleeding, fewer than 100 key chains were ready for sale. As I sat there +sinking deeper into debt and depression, the only thing I couldn't stop +calculating was exactly how big an idiot I was. + +Eventually, though, business picked up. People began buying my key +chains. Small gift shops in small towns bought dozens and dozens and +regularly reordered. I sold thousands to Planned Parenthood +clinics—until I received their corporate counsel's certified letter +ordering me to "cease and desist" using their "PP" logo or face +immediate legal action. I called my friend. + +"Congratulations," he said. + +"Congratulations?" I said. "What are you talking about?" + +"Hey\!" he said. "You're not in business until somebody sues you." + +Other customers were satisfied to a fault. There was the account in +Houston that bought lots of minimum orders for cash. After several +months they increased their order tenfold and asked for 30 days' credit. +I sent the shipment and never heard from them again. I tried to recover +my money and ultimately spent more than they owed me without collecting +a dime. + +A Bay Area gift shop used a similar technique on me just before +Christmas. Desperate for sales, I sent the order. On December 26, the +owner simply closed up shop and disappeared. + +I learned a few other lessons during my two years as the king of condom +key chains. One was that it's tough to get rich quick with a single +item. I learned that a markup of 150 percent doesn't mean much when +you're only making 75 cents per item. It took a lot of key chains bought +at 50 cents and sold for $1.25 just to pay the phone bill. After selling +more than 50,000 pieces, I was $10,000 poorer than when I began. When my +inventory dropped below 500, I took the remainder to a local advocacy +group for prostitutes. + +"Do you think you could use these?" I said to the receptionist, who told +me her name was Dark Star. + +"Sure, baby," she said. "These are hilarious. You gonna give these to +us? I bet you could sell thousands of them." + +Robert L. Strauss, MA '84, MBA '84, is a writer based in San Francisco. diff --git a/_stories/1999/14506879.md b/_stories/1999/14506879.md index 06bfb82..fd85a3e 100644 --- a/_stories/1999/14506879.md +++ b/_stories/1999/14506879.md @@ -19,7 +19,375 @@ _tags: objectID: '14506879' --- -[Source](https://www.nytimes.com/1999/07/11/magazine/instant-company.html "Permalink to ") +In 12 weeks, the amount of time it might take an average person to +decide what kind of hedge to plant in the backyard, they built a company +from scratch. An instant company, or what is being called in Silicon +Valley a ''second-generation Web company.'' +Not so long ago, it seemed incredible that a Web company could be born +in a mere two years. But rather than going back to normal, the pace of +creation in Silicon Valley now seems to be speeding up even more. Any +Web company that starts out today and takes two years to get up and +running is likely to be left in the dust. +In first-generation Internet companies, the founder and a few college +buddies moved into a garage that they decorated with Nerf guns and green +army men. In second-generation Internet companies, the staff coalesces +not from friendships but from respect for mutually complementary skill +sets. They skip the garage phase, engage two real-estate brokers and +make simultaneous bids on three office spaces, hoping one comes through. +They move in over the weekend and by Monday have it decorated with Nerf +guns and green army men. +In first-generation Internet companies, the staff resigned from +monolithic software corporations or took leave of business school or +jumped ship on brand-manager positions at Procter & Gamble. Nobody had +Internet experience; they learned by making mistakes, of which there +were many. The purpose of the Internet was unclear. Now, companies are +being formed by staff members who have years of know-how. And they see +the Internet, above all, as a place to buy things. Some $301 billion was +generated by the Internet economy in 1998, with an annual growth rate +over the past four years of 174 percent. + +Because of the way high-tech employees are compensated, there are likely +to be a great number of second-generation start-ups in the next year. +The notorious stock options that add up to so much paper wealth usually +take four years to fully vest. For the early movers on the Internet, the +four years are coming up. And the golden handcuffs are coming off. + +This particular second-generation internet company has managed to +recruit top people who were still handcuffed -- what people in the +Valley call ''the unhirables.'' Naval Ravikant walked away from what at +the time was $4 million worth of unvested @Home stock options. +Ramanathan Guha walked away from probably more than $4 million (a figure +he is contractually forbidden to confirm) at America Online, which had +acquired Netscape. Sabrina Berry's previous employer, CommTouch +Software, was planning to go public. Berry walked away from all of her +shares in that company. For Lou Montulli to join, he resigned from a +hot, well-financed start-up called Geocast Network Systems. At the time +Nirav Tolia left Yahoo\!, the unvested options he left on the table were +worth $10 million. + +But, he insisted, it didn't matter to him if it was $20 or $20 million +-- he has a dream to pursue. + +''People are going to think I'm nuts,'' said Tolia, rolling his eyes. + +Advertisement + +[Continue reading the main story](#story-continues-4) + +''Can we not talk about this anymore?'' said Guha. ''It's painful to +dwell on.'' + +Six weeks ago, the engineering team walked to In-N-Out Burger for lunch. +They crossed an overpass above Highway 101 and paused at the rail. +''This team has been responsible for many of the key features of +Netscape Navigator,'' Guha said. ''These guys can point to any of these +cars passing underneath and say: 'That driver has almost certainly used +my code. And that driver. And that one.' We want to build something that +has that kind of influence. We want to build a site that everyone will +use.'' + +So what's the idea that is inspiring so many to jump? Until this week, +they've kept everything secret, operating under the code name ''Round +One.'' In fact, not even people who come in to interview for a position +learn the idea their first day. Several hours of vague conversation seem +to be leading up to the grand presentation, but alas, the applicant is +sent home with a preliminary offer, setting out salary and options and +title -- and no clear sense of what the company will do. If the +candidate is sold on the team, then she or he comes back for a second +round. Only at the end of that next day does she sit down in front of a +whiteboard with Ravikant and Tolia and hear something like this: + +As the Web becomes an infinite supply of goods and services, goes the +pitch, people crave guidance on what and where to buy. So far, the great +number of on-line shopping guides present quantitative, machine-sorted +and machine-generated data: comparisons of product prices and +specifications. But what consumers need (Ravikant and Tolia contend) is +a recommendation that gets beyond that: the advice of someone they +trust, someone just like them. + +Their solution is a Web site, Epinions.com, which they envision as a +sort of Zagat-for-everything, a site consisting entirely of consumer +opinions or reviews of anything you can buy. Epinions.com itself will +sell nothing at all -- it has no warehouse, no trucks on the back end. +The money would come from deals Epinions.com cuts with companies that do +sell things: every time an ''E-pinion'' prompts a reader to click +''Buy,'' the company will earn a tiny commission on the resulting sale. + +At the start, the E-pinions on Epinions.com will be culled from existing +sources, guiding users through aggregations of expertise from the four +corners of the Web. But the key to the whole idea is to make +Epinions.com participatory, taking advantage of what I call the Tom +Sawyer model. Write and post a short review of any product on +Epinions.com, and you can earn a few pennies every time the review is +read by another user. By letting readers rate the usefulness of the +E-pinions, the most trusted ones will float to the top of every +category. As Ebay is a marketplace for products, Epinions.com seeks to +be a marketplace for ideas. If it catches on, like Ebay, then everything +snowballs, and these hobbyist-reviewers function as sliver-time virtual +employees who do all the work for you. ''Everybody is an expert at +something,'' they kept repeating around the Epinions.com office; they +hope their site will be the place where everyone shares their expertise. + +Similar logic has been welling up in the collective unconscious of +Silicon Valley, and most E-commerce sites are already adding some form +of E-pinion to their Web pages. Productopia, Deja.com, Cnet, Amazon.com +-- everyone's hiring editors and bringing back the old-fashioned, +well-trusted written word. Of course, sites that both sell goods and +review them are subject to criticisms of bias. Epinions.com.com would be +the first company to start up doing E-pinions and only E-pinions, hoping +to be as Jell-o is to flavored gelatin. + +And that's it. Then again, what was Yahoo\! at the start but just a +Yellow Pages to the Web? The point is that job recruits with +demonstrable talent are buying in to give it a go. And they know that in +the short and unpredictable history of Internet businesses, success has +often come down to getting the details right, fast. + +''We don't need any more strategists,'' says Mike Speiser, a McKinsey +consulting alumnus who learned to curtail his own inclination to heady +analysis. This was 10 weeks ago. + +''We need closers,'' agrees Nirav Tolia. ''We need bulldogs.'' + +''We need engineers who are execution machines,'' says Guha. ''This is +not a strategy play. This is an execution play.'' + +Advertisement + +[Continue reading the main story](#story-continues-5) + +First-generation start-ups raise small seed rounds to develop a +''proof-of-concept version,'' at which point the start-up has to go back +to dog-and-pony shows, negotiating for more money. Again the second +generation is different, faster. Prototypes, demos, alphas -- the +language of the hustle -- those words aren't even in the Epinions.com +vocabulary. Every minute spent dancing for investors is a minute stolen +from the finished product. Ravikant and Tolia's business plan (which +consisted of 16 sparse slides) had no financial projections and no +budget. They negotiated for $8 million, enough that they wouldn't have +to go back for more until well after launch. They had no idea what it +would cost to pull together the E-pinions they would need to stock the +site, but they budgeted $5 million, just to be safe. + +The group's biggest fear was the wrath of prominent venture capitalists +who did not get an opportunity for a cut of the deal. A slightly rattled +Tolia played me several phone messages left on his answering machine by +furious V.C.'s. One of the advantages of combining August Capital and +Benchmark is that they occupy the same two-story building. When the +terms of the valuation were set with August, Ravikant and Tolia walked +upstairs to Bill Gurley's office at Benchmark. Gurley had joined +Benchmark only a month before, and Epinions.com would be one of his +first big plays for his new employer. + +''I need to know if you're in,'' Tolia said. + +Gurley was calm. He recounted some of the internal discussion among the +Benchmark partners. One partner, Gurley offered, had scored the idea a +6.5 and the team a 9.5 on a scale of 1 to 10. But he wouldn't tell them +details of how the final vote was scored. + +''So where does that leave us?'' Tolia asked. + +''Don't worry, it's done,'' said Gurley. + +''Should I contact your lawyer or something? Draw up term sheets?'' + +## Newsletter Sign Up + +[Continue reading the main story](#continues-post-newsletter) + +### + +Please verify you're not a robot by clicking the box. + +Invalid email address. Please re-enter. + +You must select a newsletter to subscribe to. + +You agree to receive occasional updates and special offers for The New +York Times's products and services. + +### Thank you for subscribing. + +### An error has occurred. Please try again later. + +[View all New York Times newsletters.](/newsletters) + +''We don't do term sheets here,'' Gurley responded, offering his palm. +''We do handshakes.'' + +In those first crucial weeks, the Benchmark investment was like having a +Hertz Club Gold pass. Every service provider is overbooked in Silicon +Valley -- realtors, phone-system installers, furniture suppliers, +headhunters. Dropping the Benchmark name was the way to impress vendors +without sharing the idea. Everyone wants to do business with what may +become the next Ebay, dreaming they'll be rewarded with +friends-and-family shares when the time comes. + +Of course, they can't do everything. There was that first weekend in +their new digs, when the parts for their desks arrived from Home Depot +-- 25 solid wood doors, 100 4-by-4 legs and 400 metal braces. Despite +this formidable team of engineering talent, in eight hours of off-and-on +tinkering they couldn't correctly assemble any desks. Finally they +called a carpenter who had done this before, and he started building two +desks an hour. + +Fortunately, what they don't know about desks, they do know about code. +Hiring staff with seasoned Internet experience has allowed Epinions.com +to delegate like crazy. ''We need to be told what to do but not how to +do it,'' said Luke Knowland, who had done it before at Wired Digital. + +''It would take four very bright first-generation engineers a full year +to program this site,'' Guha estimated. ''But because we've done it +before, we can write most of the code in six weeks.'' + +Everything is faster. Zero drag is optimal. For a while, new applicants +would jokingly be asked about their ''drag coefficient.'' Since the +office is a full hour's commute from San Francisco, an apartment in the +city was a full unit of drag. A spouse? Drag coefficient of one. Kids? A +half point per. Then they recognized that such talk, even in jest, could +be taken as discriminatory in a hiring situation. + +Advertisement + +[Continue reading the main story](#story-continues-6) + +On the business-development side, ''I no longer have to waste months +evangelizing,'' says Dion Lim, who has been cutting deals to aggregate +opinion material from existing Web sites. A couple of years ago, the +process would have been slow and painful. ''Now, I just call, and they +have a syndication rate scale and a preferred data-feed format,'' he +says. + +Meanwhile, Epinions.com has kept up constant reconnaissance on the +competitors it will be jockeying with this fall, despite those +competitors' best efforts to keep their strategies secret. The Valley +has what it calls the ''whisper circuit,'' which is not so much wild +gossip as the ability to call in old favors and threaten to pull +people's teeth. A lot of whisper-circuit surveillance leaks out the back +door of companies through their engineers, who often refuse to lie on +principle or are very bad at it when they try. + +Through the whisper circuit the company learned that one potential +competitor was trying to wiggle out of a partnership so that it could +overhaul its product toward something like Epinions.com. The team +learned that a top job applicant, on the verge of accepting its offer, +had been grilled so hard by another venture capitalist that he cracked +and spilled the Epinions.com idea. (The offer was retracted.) Another +V.C. was trying to discredit Epinions.com by telling people he'd turned +down its deal, which he'd never seen. + +And it was on the whisper circuit that the Epinions.com team learned +that Amazon.com had started flying writers and editors to Seattle and +offering them positions as category editors to cover a wide range of +products -- food, video games and so on. The whispering was specific -- +that Amazon.com was offering a $65,000 salary, a 10-percent signing +bonus and options that could be worth $1 million in four years. (Amazon +declines to confirm or deny those details.) The entrance of Amazon.com +onto the scene seemed like bad news for Epinions.com. Everyone lost +sleep that night. + +But their exuberance returned with dawn. ''Amazon is supersmart,'' said +Naval, marching out of Benchmark Capital's Sand Hill Road offices with +his teammates in tow. ''But we're a start-up. We've got focus. Nobody +will be able to move as fast as us. I pity the fools\!'' + +''Other than that first night with Amazon, I haven't lost a single +hour's sleep over our competition,'' Nirav Tolia said four weeks ago, +when he was only rationing himself four hours a night anyway. ''All the +sleep I've lost has been over our internal conflicts.'' + +Indeed. By hiring so many bulldogs and execution machines who were all +used to being No. 1, Tolia feared the competition between employees +would tear the company apart. For the first month, without a product to +obsess about, they focused on their responsibilities, and the closest +proxy for their responsibilities was their title. That they had given up +so much money to be here made them a little testy -- they wanted +constant assurance that their career decision wasn't a mistake. + +Everyone kept demanding an org chart, preferably with his or her name in +a box near the top. In first-generation Web companies, the premise was +that no task was beneath you: you did whatever it took to succeed. This +wisdom seems not to have been passed down. ''How do we go from a team of +champions to a championship team?'' Tolia kept asking. + +Advertisement + +[Continue reading the main story](#story-continues-7) + +Bill Gurley had turned Naval Ravikant on to complexity theory. ''Truly +alive systems exist only at what is called 'the edge of chaos,''' +Ravikant said in one meeting. So though it was causing him to lose hair, +he was running the company on the edge of chaos, rallying people to risk +making mistakes. ''I don't want to be a company that plays it safe.'' He +gave his employees an org chart, and then another one every week. Their +titles became vague, more fungible. + +Going through the start-up experience usually bonds a team together. +There are those occasional ''Breakfast Club''-like days when workers' +inner lives get revealed to each other. This bedrock of goodwill gets +the team through hard times later. Going through it at second-generation +speed only allows brief bonding moments. Mike Speiser covered Internet +companies as an investment-banking research analyst, but he hadn't +worked at one before Epinions.com. A few weeks ago he said: ''You know +what I miss? I miss those good old days, when we had the run of the +place at August Capital, hanging out and brainstorming.'' Those halcyon +days, six weeks earlier. + +Nirav Tolia came up with what he thought would be a solution to distract +the champions from their fiefdoms. At the all-hands meeting five weeks +ago, Tolia announced that he would shave his head if the company met its +offical launch date. This is a guy whose E-mail was +''the-face@yahoo.com'' for a good reason -- a hair is never out of place +on his head. ''When you're wondering why you're here at 2 in the +morning, think about my cue ball,'' he said. + +Everybody howled with laughter. Then Aleksander Totic went over to his +computer and pulled up an ancient Web page, from way back in 1994. +Digital photographs were posted from the period when the original +Netscape engineers shipped Navigator 1.0. There at the top of the page +was a picture of Lou Montulli -- who is even more of a sharp dresser +than Tolia -- with his head completely shaved. Then everyone really +laughed. + +''If we're going to be a second-generation Web company, Nirav's going to +have to come up with something better,'' Totic chuckled. + +Watching an instant company get built has been slightly disorienting. +Silicon Valley is sustained by the myth that you can come here from +anywhere with sheer smarts and a firm handshake and make good. +Second-generation Internet companies seem to seriously tip the favor to +those already here. Four weeks ago on the whisper circuit, Tolia learned +that an entrepreneur from Arizona was in town to shop a business plan +for a company, called Publicopinion.com, with some of the same basic +concepts, like rating reviews. Tolia took the challenge seriously -- +Publicopinion.com already had a prototype on line and needed financing +to take the next step. But the truth is that if the guy from Arizona is +only now trying to get an audience with venture capitalists, he probably +doesn't have a chance to catch up. + +After Ravikant left @Home, he would still see old colleagues at parties. +The comment he heard from them time and time again was: ''It's amazing +you walked away from all that money. I wish I was brave enough to take +the chance.'' + +So why did they walk away from all that money? Take it as a given that +they all believe in the commercial viability of the idea, but beyond +that, their comments are all over the map. One guy talked blatantly +about wanting ''plane money,'' and how you weren't even a player in the +Valley with less than $100 million. A few plead that they just want to +live the start-up experience, and the money they've earned has bought +them the unconditional freedom to pursue that dream. + +Now they are at the takeoff point, and their first-generation experience +can't help them. The next 12 weeks will be an even greater challenge: +the goal now is to turn a brand-new site into a hive, one that has 80 +percent of all E-commerce categories covered well in advance of the +crucial Christmas buying season. They are blindly gambling that they +have the right incentives and the right filtering mechanisms in place. +Ready. Fire. Aim. + +[Continue reading the main story](#whats-next) diff --git a/_stories/1999/15997072.md b/_stories/1999/15997072.md index c31d5de..3dbc564 100644 --- a/_stories/1999/15997072.md +++ b/_stories/1999/15997072.md @@ -19,7 +19,180 @@ _tags: objectID: '15997072' --- -[Source](https://www.theguardian.com/technology/1999/nov/04/onlinesupplement "Permalink to ") +He is the darling of Wall Street, credited with engineering America's +longest post war economic expansion. But the man who holds the future of +the world economy in his hands, Alan Greenspan, the head of the US +central bank, is under threat. +New technology has already changed the face of high street banking: +branches have closed as customers have moved to telephone banking +services and now the internet. The next internet revolution will put +central bankers like Greenspan and Britain's Eddie George out of +business. And the P45 may not be that far away. +Forget the euro, the pound in your pocket could soon be replaced by +virtual currencies and digital payment systems. Once money moves online, +it moves out of the control of central banks, crippling their ability to +run the economy. Greenspan and George will no longer be able to conquer +inflation by putting up interest rates because holders of virtual money +will be unaffected by changes in the cost of borrowing in the real +economy. +George's deputy, Mervyn King, has already seen the future. At a +gathering of the world's top central bankers in Wyoming this August, he +warned his colleagues that once they lost their monopoly over printing +money, "the successors to Bill Gates would have put the successors to +Alan Greenspan out of business." + +Online, the revolution has already started. Cyber loyalty schemes like +[Beenz]('http://www.beenz.com'), [ipoints]('http://www.ipoints.co.uk') +and [Flooz]('http://www.flooz.com') pay customers who visit internet +sites in credits which can be spent online. Air miles, the original +shopping loyalty scheme, is branching out from flights to other rewards. +One [Canadian site]('http://www.airmiles.ca/english') offers everything +from propane stoves to copper pans to collectors of its reward points. +The British founder of Beenz.com, Charles Cohen, admits his brainchild +isn't really money yet. It can't be downloaded or spent in the +non-electronic economy and its purchasing power is limited by the number +of sites which will accept it. + +But he foresees a world in which private electronic money becomes more +popular than official money issued by central banks. "It will be less +than a decade before private companies start issuing their own +currencies," says Cohen. The consequences will be profound. "I wouldn't +want to be working for the Inland Revenue when it happens." + +Technology is already making notes and coins redundant. We pay our bills +over the phone or by direct debit. Plastic is replacing cash and cheques +- cumbersome and expensive means of payment. But plastic money is still +under control of the conventional banking system - at the end of the +month when the bills arrive, we settle them through a transfer from a +bank account. + +The real revolution will occur, according to King, when companies no +longer need to use the banking system to settle their bills with each +other. At the moment, when firms make big financial transactions, they +settle them through the banking system. Because central banks set the +rules for high street banks - how much money they need to have in their +own bank accounts with the Fed or the Bank of England in relation to +their outstanding liabilities - Greenspan and George have leverage over +the whole financial system. + +When inflation threatens, central bankers react by making credit harder +to get which slows the economy down. They raise the interest rates on +loans to high street banks which pass on the increased costs to their +customers. This has a knock-on effect throughout the rest of the +economy, even though the reserves held with central banks are a very +small part of the total money supply. + +But when companies can settle their bills with each other +electronically, without needing to use the banking system, then central +banks no longer control the levers of the economy. Digital payments +systems will allow companies to instantly transfer wealth, without the +risk of default. Once there is no need to use the conventional banking +system, there is no need to use national currencies either. + +Imagine a world where Microsoft has its own currency - called Bills +perhaps - backed by the wealth of the company. Companies trading with +Microsoft could decide whether to invoice in Bills or dollars. +Individuals might prefer to be paid in Bills if they think that +Microsoft money will be less inflation-prone than the pound or the +dollar. Using existing smart card technology, Bills could be downloaded +into electronic wallets, which would allow them to be used in the real +economy instead of cash or cheques. + +For the libertarian right, private money is a long-held dream which the +internet may finally provide the technology to fulfill. "Money does not +have to be created legal tender by governments. Like law, language and +morals, it can emerge spontaneously. Such private money has often been +preferred to government money, but government has usually soon +suppressed it," wrote Frederich Hayek, 50 years ago. + +Legal tender - government control over printing money - is a fairly +recent development in most countries. In the US, private banks issued +money until the creation of the Federal Reserve in 1913. The Bank of +England has held a monopoly over printing notes and coins since 1921, +but the government did not control the money supply until Threadneedle +Street was nationalised by the post-war Labour government. + +For libertarians, the monopoly of central banks has been a disaster. It +simply allows governments to cheat their citizens by eroding the value +of their savings through bouts of inflation. If there were different +types of money in circulation, consumers could choose which they thought +was least likely to loose its value over time. + +"Ultimately, the competition for the standard of value should be no +different to the competitive market of multiple providers we see for +toothpaste or for shoes," writes Jon W Mantonis, author of Digital Cash +And Monetary Freedom. + +The internet offers the chance for individuals to escape from the +government's monopoly. Developers of e-cash can issue it easily to a +wide number of people, encryption technology is moving on to allow +privacy and security, and, as e-commerce grows, the spread of the +digital currencies will be guaranteed. The internet is an international +network, so it makes sense for someone to develop a global currency to +use on it, which would protect consumers buying across national +boundaries from swings in national currencies. + +The time for e-cash has come, according to Mantonis. "Neither the US +dollar, nor any other governmental unit has gained a foothold in this +new economy. The monetary landscape is ripe and wide open and private +currencies should infiltrate now." + +So far, Hayek's dream has yet to be translated into reality. Most sites +advertising e-cash or digital money are encrypted credit card schemes of +various descriptions which offer consumers a chance to pay securely +using existing national currencies. Beenz and Flooz are more truly +e-currencies but are too limited in circulation to compete with money. + +The real revolution will come when a big firm with global brand +recognition decides to establish a currency. A firm like American +Express which already has a money substitute - travellers cheques - +would be a natural starting point, according to Mantonis. By running its +own currency - an Amex - it could charge lower fees to merchants +accepting its cards. "American Express will gain clout from the name +association and brand identification that accompanies a pricing system," +writes Mantonis. + +Amexes could even come to replace existing currencies in countries prone +to hyperinflation. This is not as far-fetched as it sounds. Several +Latin American countries are considering abandoning their own +inflation-ridden currencies for the comparative stability of the US +dollar. Only the colonialist overtones of adopting the greenback as +their national currency are holding back countries like Argentina. There +would be no such hangups about adopting a credible private currency. + +Private currencies threaten not only to overturn the rules for managing +the economy, but also to transform the face of government. Once payments +go digital, it becomes more and more difficult for states to trace them +and extract taxes from individuals. + +As the tax base shrinks, it will be harder for governments to pay for +the services we take for granted, from health care to defence. To +persuade people to pay their taxes, governments may have to make the +connections more obvious between what we pay the state and what we +receive in return. + +There are huge hurdles to be overcome before e-cash becomes a reality. +What will companies use to back their currencies and who will determine +the exchange rate between new currencies and existing ones? Will the +advantages of the new currencies really outweigh the complexities of a +having more type of money in circulation? Will they be more inflation +proof than government money or will companies succumb to the temptation +to "borrow" from their customers by increasing the supply and eroding +its value? + +The chief danger of private currencies will be that companies can go +bankrupt, while governments rarely do. + +Tim Congdon, chief economist at Lombard Street says he finds the theory +that national currencies are in danger of extinction rather implausible. +"There is effectively a government guarantee on deposits with a central +bank. If you leave your spare cash with a big company you don't have +that guarantee," he says. + +But the prospects for Greenspan and George look a little uncertain. As +King told his colleagues in Wyoming, central banks may be at the peak of +their power. "Societies have managed without central banks in the past. +They may well do so in the future." diff --git a/_stories/1999/2469580.md b/_stories/1999/2469580.md index 3dded7b..7c420c8 100644 --- a/_stories/1999/2469580.md +++ b/_stories/1999/2469580.md @@ -19,83 +19,21 @@ _tags: objectID: '2469580' --- -[Source](http://www.nytimes.com/1999/02/26/opinion/foreign-affairs-amazonyou.html?pagewanted=all&src=pm "Permalink to Foreign Affairs; Amazon.you - The New York Times") +The other accouterments were just as cheap: He pays an Internet service +provider, ACES, $30 a month to house his very colorful Web site, and $30 +a month to Americart to enable people to charge books on their credit +cards over a secure server line. He pays his bank $50 a month to manage +the credit card transactions, and has $40 a month printing costs, +largely for his own monthly book newsletter. -# Foreign Affairs; Amazon.you - The New York Times - -__NYTimes.com no longer supports Internet Explorer 9 or earlier. Please upgrade your browser. [LEARN MORE »][1] - -__Sections __ Home __Search [Skip to content][2] [Skip to navigation][3] [View mobile version][4] - -## [ The New York Times ][5] - -###### [Opinion][6]|Foreign Affairs; Amazon.you - -__Search - -Subscribe Now Log In __0 __Settings - -__Close search - -## Site Search Navigation - -Search NYTimes.com - -__Clear this text input - -Go - -1. Loading... - -See next articles - -See previous articles - -## Site Navigation - -## Site Mobile Navigation - -Advertisement - -Supported by - -### [Opinion][6] - -# Foreign Affairs; Amazon.you - -By [THOMAS L. FRIEDMAN][7]FEB. 26, 1999 - -[Continue reading the main story][8] Share This Page - -[Continue reading the main story][8] - -Testifying before Congress Tuesday, Alan Greenspan wouldn't exactly come out and say that there was a little irrational exuberance behind some of the Internet stocks, but he said these share prices had reached levels that gave him ''concerns.'' - -Well, if you really want to be ''concerned'' about the levels of some of these profitless Internet stocks, such as Amazon.com, you should pay less attention to Mr. Greenspan and more attention to what's going on in a small house in Cedar Falls, Iowa. - -There, a single Iowa family, headed by Lyle Bowlin, is re-creating Amazon.com in a spare bedroom. I tell you this not because they're an immediate threat to Amazon.com, but to underscore just how easy it is to compete against Amazon.com, and why therefore I'm dubious that Amazon and many other Internet retailers will ever generate the huge profits that their stock prices suggest. - -Lyle Bowlin is the director of the Small Business Development Center at the University of Northern Iowa. He is also a book lover. But having grown up in small Iowa towns, he has always regretted that he never had access to a good independent bookstore, with lots of titles. When the Internet and Amazon.com came along, said Mr. Bowlin, ''I realized that in my spare time I could create a virtual independent bookstore.'' - -Advertisement - -[Continue reading the main story][8] - -So first he set up a commercial Web site -- www.positively-you.com. Then he contacted the very same book wholesalers that Amazon.com uses and discovered something interesting -- that to get virtually the same volume discounts that Amazon.com gets, all he needed to do was order five copies of any particular book. - -[Continue reading the main story][9] - -Advertisement - -[Continue reading the main story][10] - -The other accouterments were just as cheap: He pays an Internet service provider, ACES, $30 a month to house his very colorful Web site, and $30 a month to Americart to enable people to charge books on their credit cards over a secure server line. He pays his bank $50 a month to manage the credit card transactions, and has $40 a month printing costs, largely for his own monthly book newsletter. - -''I have no employees,'' says Mr. Bowlin. ''My daughter does the accounting, I maintain the Web site and my wife does the shipping. Altogether, I only need to generate $150 a month in profits to cover all my expenses, and the rest is cream.'' +''I have no employees,'' says Mr. Bowlin. ''My daughter does the +accounting, I maintain the Web site and my wife does the shipping. +Altogether, I only need to generate $150 a month in profits to cover all +my expenses, and the rest is cream.'' ## Newsletter Sign Up -[Continue reading the main story][11] +[Continue reading the main story](#continues-post-newsletter) ### @@ -105,253 +43,50 @@ Invalid email address. Please re-enter. You must select a newsletter to subscribe to. -Sign Up - -You agree to receive occasional updates and special offers for The New York Times's products and services. +You agree to receive occasional updates and special offers for The New +York Times's products and services. ### Thank you for subscribing. ### An error has occurred. Please try again later. -### You are already subscribed to this email. +[View all New York Times newsletters.](/newsletters) -[View all New York Times newsletters.][12] +Once he was set up for business, Mr. Bowlin just spread the word among +his neighbors, colleagues and friends that not only could he offer them +everything Amazon.com did, but he could do it cheaper and make a profit +from day one. He now has customers from 23 states and Canada. It is +funny to go to his Web site and see it offering ''Millions Of Books At +Great Prices,'' knowing that it is all being done out of his spare +bedroom -- as a hobby\! -* [See Sample][13] -* [Manage Email Preferences][14] -* [Not you?][15] -* [Privacy Policy][16] -* Opt out or [contact us][17] anytime +Here's the deal: Amazon.com offers ''The Testament,'' by John Grisham, +for 30 percent off retail ($19.57), plus $3.95 shipping and handling. +Mr. Bowlin sells it for 35 percent off ($18.17) and $2.75 shipping and +handling -- $2.60 less. How? Like Amazon, Mr. Bowlin buys ''The +Testament'' from the wholesaler for 44 percent off retail, but since he +has no overhead or advertising budget he can sell it for 35 percent off. +He can deliver the book through the U.S. Postal Service within three +days for only $1.63, so he makes $1.12 more on shipping for each sale. +Total profit: $3.65 per book. Plus, says Mr. Bowlin, ''when you charge a +book, I collect your money within a few days from Visa, but I don't have +to pay my wholesaler for that book for 30 days, so I have a free loan +which I earn interest on -- just like Amazon.'' -Once he was set up for business, Mr. Bowlin just spread the word among his neighbors, colleagues and friends that not only could he offer them everything Amazon.com did, but he could do it cheaper and make a profit from day one. He now has customers from 23 states and Canada. It is funny to go to his Web site and see it offering ''Millions Of Books At Great Prices,'' knowing that it is all being done out of his spare bedroom -- as a hobby! +Because his profit margins are razor-thin, Mr. Bowlin, like Amazon, +needs repeat buyers. Amazon gets them by offering useful information +about books. Mr. Bowlin does it by offering any government-certified +nonprofit organization a donation of 10 percent of the purchase price of +any book that any nonprofit or its members buy through him. -Here's the deal: Amazon.com offers ''The Testament,'' by John Grisham, for 30 percent off retail ($19.57), plus $3.95 shipping and handling. Mr. Bowlin sells it for 35 percent off ($18.17) and $2.75 shipping and handling -- $2.60 less. How? Like Amazon, Mr. Bowlin buys ''The Testament'' from the wholesaler for 44 percent off retail, but since he has no overhead or advertising budget he can sell it for 35 percent off. He can deliver the book through the U.S. Postal Service within three days for only $1.63, so he makes $1.12 more on shipping for each sale. Total profit: $3.65 per book. Plus, says Mr. Bowlin, ''when you charge a book, I collect your money within a few days from Visa, but I don't have to pay my wholesaler for that book for 30 days, so I have a free loan which I earn interest on -- just like Amazon.'' +So the next time your broker tells you that this or that Internet +retailing stock is actually worth some crazy multiples, just think for a +moment about how many Lyle Bowlins there already are out there, and how +many more there will be, to eat away at the profit margins of whatever +Internet retailer you can imagine. It only costs them $150 a month and +they can do it as a hobby\! -Because his profit margins are razor-thin, Mr. Bowlin, like Amazon, needs repeat buyers. Amazon gets them by offering useful information about books. Mr. Bowlin does it by offering any government-certified nonprofit organization a donation of 10 percent of the purchase price of any book that any nonprofit or its members buy through him. - -So the next time your broker tells you that this or that Internet retailing stock is actually worth some crazy multiples, just think for a moment about how many Lyle Bowlins there already are out there, and how many more there will be, to eat away at the profit margins of whatever Internet retailer you can imagine. It only costs them $150 a month and they can do it as a hobby! - -Or think about it like this: For about the cost of one share of Amazon.com, you can be Amazon.com. - -A. M. 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story](#whats-next) diff --git a/_stories/1999/2620872.md b/_stories/1999/2620872.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6d4e664 --- /dev/null +++ b/_stories/1999/2620872.md @@ -0,0 +1,456 @@ +--- +created_at: '2011-06-05T00:32:25.000Z' +title: 'Tom Duff: Reading Code From Top to Bottom (1999)' +url: http://iq0.com/notes/deep.nesting.html +author: gnosis +points: 56 +story_text: '' +comment_text: +num_comments: 22 +story_id: +story_title: +story_url: +parent_id: +created_at_i: 1307233945 +_tags: +- story +- author_gnosis +- story_2620872 +objectID: '2620872' + +--- +### Reading Code From Top to Bottom + +This is a particularly simple example of a style of code that I often +see (this example is a piece of *prman*, sanitized to hide the function +of the code it comes from): + + int + match(struct table *tab, char *arg) + { + int i, found = 0; + + if (tab != NULL) { + for(i=0; initems; ++i) + if (tab->item[i].name == arg) + break; + found = (i < tab->nitems); + } + return found; + } + +This function determines whether `tab` points to a table containing an +item whose name is `arg`. + +I would write the above like this: + + int match(struct table *tab, char *arg){ + int i; + + if(tab==NULL) return 0; + for(i=0;i!=tab->nitems;i++) + if(tab->item[i].name==arg) + return 1; + return 0; + } + +This avoids deep nesting. (The original wasn't *very* deep, but it's +only a simple example.) It avoids re-testing the loop condition after +the loop finishes. It avoids scattering multiple assignments to `found` +throughout the code. It makes the lifetime of the loop index be just the +loop. (Maybe I'm an old fart for this habit, which I cling to from my +Fortran days \[early 1970's\], but limiting the lifetimes of variables +makes things easier for register allocators and for people reading your +code.) + +Most important, it reads from top to bottom, by which I mean that each +step follows from the preceding step, and the code stops (that is, +returns) as soon as it knows the answer. It tells a simple story: + +> If you want to find an element of `tab->item` with `name==arg`, +> +> - First check that `tab` points to something. +> - Then check each element of the pointed-to array, returning if you +> find a match. +> - If you didn't find it, it's not there. + +The old version of the story is extremely roundabout: + +> If you want to find an element of `tab->item` with `name==arg`, +> +> - First, assume its not there. +> - Then check that `tab` points somewhere. If so +> - go through the array until you see what you're after. +> - When you're done looking, you found a match if and only if you +> didn't go through the whole array. +> - Having done all that, inform the caller about what you determined. + +During the Structured Programming Era, programmers were often taught a +style very much like the old version. The language they were trained in +was normally Pascal, which only allowed a single return from a +procedure, more or less mandating that the return value appear in a +variable. Furthermore, teachers, influenced by Bohm and Jacopini (*Flow +Diagrams, Turing Machines and Languages with only two formation rules*, +Comm. ACM 9\#5, 1966, pp 366-371), often advocated reifying control +structure into Boolean variables as a way of assuring that programs had +reducible flowgraphs. + +But reducible flowgraphs can still be deeply nested and therefore hard +to read. Long chains of reasoning or long sequences of actions are not a +particular problem to understand, especially for people of a +mathematical or otherwise analytic bent. Sequences that branch, so that +a particular step may have multiple antecedents, all but one of which +will be far from it on the page are a different matter. Reading them +requires keeping in the mind a list of suspended options while paying +attention to something else, a combination of mental activities that +people are notoriously bad at. You should try as much as possible to +structure your programs so that they proceed step-by-step. Whenever +nesting gets deep, or code refers to results computed more than a few +steps previously, you're headed for trouble. + +A common indicator of trouble with excessive nesting is narrow tab +stops. Deeply nested code, at eight spaces per tab (as is usual on UNIX) +quickly migrates over to the right margin. The easy way to fix this is +to indent four spaces at a time (or even two\!). The right way is to +rewrite it so that it proceeds from top to bottom, not from outside to +inside, left to right. + +A similar phenomenon happens in mathematical proofs. Most proofs involve +a chain of implications, each usually following from its immediate +prececessor. When the proof requires a step that follows from some +non-immediate predecessor, we are brought up short -- violation of the +orderly step-by-step progress of the proof disturbs the narrative rhythm +of the proof, and is a likely signal of a difficulty, either in the +proof or in the reader's understanding. Mathematicians routinely hide +these narrative anomalies in lemmas -- proof subroutines. + +In fact, there is evidence that mathematicians choose the theorems that +they work on to be amenable to proof using simple structures. For +example, when Doug McIlroy investigated the problem of automatically +proving theorems of Euclidean geometry (personal communication, 1984 -- +I don't believe this work was ever published) he discovered that when +theorems are rewritten as systems of simultaneous equations (sometimes +inequalities are required as well) the systems are usually \`triangular' +(they're not generally linear, so they're not strictly triangular, but +you know what I mean) and the proofs mostly proceed immediately by +back-subsititution. + +### *Else* Considered Harmful + +It is often useful to eschew the *else* clause of the *if* statement. +Instead of writing + + int f(int x){ + int v; + + if(b(x)) v=f1(x); + else v=f2(x); + return v; + } + +it usually pays to write + + int f(int x){ + if(b(x)) return f1(x); + return f2(x); + } + +Even in a simple function like this, the increase in clarity is obvious +to me. In a more complicated situation, where `v=f1(x)` is replaced by a +more complicated computation with more nested ifs, the reduction in +nesting can be dramatic. Using the single-tailed if gives you some extra +freedom in wording your code to read top-to-bottom. As an extreme +example, the following + + int g(int x){ + if(b1(x)){ + if(b2(x)){ + if(b3(x)){ + if(b4(x)){ + if(b5(x))return g1(x); + return g2(x); + } + return g3(x); + } + return g4(x); + } + return g5(x); + } + return g6(x); + } + +should be rewritten as + + int g(int x){ + if(!b1(x)) return g6(x); + if(!b2(x)) return g5(x); + if(!b3(x)) return g4(x); + if(!b4(x)) return g3(x); + if(!b5(x)) return g2(x); + return g1(x); + } + +If this function had involved two-tailed rather than one-tailed ifs, +reversing the sense of the tests would not change the depth to which the +code was nested, and there would likely be no net change in readability. + +### Another Example + +Right now (Oct 7, 1998) I'm working on an interpreter for a programming +language that looks a lot like C, but lacks a few features. (Most of the +restrictions are inspired by concerns discussed in this note.) To test +its call and return mechanisms I thought I'd try running Ackerman's +function. I have a C version sitting around that just parrots the usual +lambda-calculus definition: + + int a(int i, int j){ + return i?a(i-1, j?a(i, j-1):1):j+1; + } + int ackerman(int i){ + return a(i, i); + } + +The language I'm testing is missing the `?:` conditional expression, so +I had to reword function `a` using ordinary if statements. Doing this +mechanically, you get + + int a(int i, int j){ + if(i){ + if(j) return a(i-1, a(i, j-1)); + return a(i-1, 1); + } + return j+1; + } + +Of course I thought this read awkwardly and reversed the tests, yielding + + int a(int i, int j){ + if(i==0) return j+1; + if(j==0) return a(i-1, 1); + return a(i-1, a(i, j-1)); + } + +*Much* better. + +### An Aesthetic Conundrum + +I don't like side effects in conditionals (or embedded in most +expressions, but let's just think about conditionals for now.) Code +almost always reads better if you separate the side effects from the +tests. For example, I write + +``` + do + c=getchar(); + while(strchr(" \t\n", c)); +``` + +in preference to + +``` + while(strchr(" \t\n", c=getchar())); +``` + +although many people prefer the latter. This is justifiable as reading +top-to-bottom instead of inside-out. + +Nevertheless, today (Sep 4, 1998) I found myself writing a function that +read like this: + + char *skip(char *s, int c){ + while(*s!='\0' && *s++!=c); + return s; + } + +This function just skips past the first occurrence of `c` in `s`, +stopping also if it finds a *nul*. + +I did this after examining several alternatives, like + + char *skip(char *s, int c){ + while(*s!='\0' && *s!=c) s++; + if(*s==c) s++; + return s; + } + +and + + char *skip(char *s, int c){ + for(;*s!='\0';s++) if(*s==c) return s+1; + return s; + } + +Neither of the last two satisfied me, the first because it retests +`*s==c` after the loop and the second because the two halves of the test +are unnaturally separated. + +I wound up using the first version in spite of the side effect in the +test because it struck me as less infelicitous than the others -- that +doesn't mean I'm happy with it. + +### Another Problematic Fragment + +Yesterday (Feb 21, 1999) I rewrote my *com* command (because I was +working on a un-networked machine at home, and I was too lazy to get up +and transfer it on a floppy\!) The [original](../duffgram/com.lic) +contains this code (omitting some error handling), which looks for the +sequence `/*%` in a file: + +``` + for(;;){ + c=getc(f); + if(c==EOF){ /* error code goes here */ } + if(c=='/'){ + if((c=getc(f))=='*' && (c=getc(f))=='%') break; + ungetc(c, f); /* might be another slash! */ + } + } +``` + +Today, I wouldn't write it that way -- I'd avoid the `if` with +side-effects. The first version I wrote yesterday looked something like +this: + +``` + while((c=getc(f))!=EOF){ + if(c=='/'){ + c=getc(f); + if(c=='*'){ + c=getc(f); + if(c=='%'){ + /* code that reacts to finding /*% */ + } + else ungetc(c, f); + } + else ungetc(c, f); + } + } + /* error code goes here */ +``` + +Several things struck me about this: + + - It's obviously written inside out -- the code reads horizontally, + not vertically. + - I deliberately avoided side effects in the `if` tests, but in a + moment of weakness retained `while((c=getc(f))!=EOF)`. + - I don't like that it behaves oddly if `ungetc(EOF, f)` does the + wrong thing. The standard says that it has no effect -- a buggy + `stdio` might push `EOF&0xff` back. + - Besides, `ungetc` is a silly thing to do with a character that's + just going to reappear in `c` immediately. + +Keeping in mind the shallow-nesting and top-to-bottom-reading ideas that +I've been writing about, I redid it like this: + +``` + for(;;){ + c=getc(f); + MightBeSlash: + if(c==EOF){ /* error code goes here */ } + if(c!='/') continue; + c=getc(f); + if(c!='*') goto MightBeSlash; + c=getc(f); + if(c!='%') goto MightBeSlash; + break; + } +``` + +Now it reads top to bottom and, to me at least, says what it means. It's +a net improvement over the other version. + +But surely this is no good. The `goto`s are fairly benign, but still +grate. Most egregious is the loop whose last statement is `break;`\! + +I let this code sit for an hour (it was lunch time) and then rewrote it. +I can't remember what I eventually used, but it was not very satisfying. +Looking at the various versions today, the one that strikes me as best +is the original, with all of its calls to `getc` inside the tests. (Of +course, if I were writing this code professionally, I'd probably call +`fgets` and `strstr` rather than paw through the file byte by byte.) + +What does that say about all my preaching? Only that truly general +principals are hard to come by, and ultimately every case is a different +case. Now that I have two examples of side effects inside conditionals +that I think read better than the alternatives, maybe I'd better think +harder about what principles are involved. + +### What About `goto`? + +*If you want to go somewhere, +goto is the best way to get there.* +\-Ken Thompson + +How can I say that a program with two `goto`s is \`a net improvement' +over one with none? The problem with `goto` is that it promotes +spaghetti -- when you're trying to understand a program, every time you +see a label, you must look at the code at each `goto` that targets the +label to see what the sequence of operations might be. This is the same +problem that deep nesting causes -- code at any number of far away +places might immediately precede the code at a label, and it is often +difficult to keep in mind all the things that might have occurred when +you reach the label. + +During the structured programming era, `goto` was a major bugaboo, so +much so that most programmers today, with little or no experience +thinking about code that uses `goto`, nevertheless recoil in revulsion +at its use. + +The whole structured programming debate was started by [Edsger W. +Dijkstra's essay](http://www.acm.org/classics/oct95/) *Go To Statement +Considered Harmful*, Communications of the ACM, Vol. 11, No. 3, March +1968, pp. 147-148. One of the oft-cited bolsters of the argument to +eschew the `goto` was that it appeared to be very difficult to describe +`goto` in terms of C. A. R. Hoare's system of axiomatic semantics. +Hoare's system involved specifying a predicate that gives the initial +assumptions (pre-conditions) about a program. For each statement type +there is a rule of inference that describes how to derive a +post-condition from the statement's pre-condition. For example, let's +think about the statment `while(B)S`, where `B` is an arbitrary Boolean +(with no side effects\!) and `S` is any statement (that doesn't transfer +control out of the loop\!). Hoare writes `P{S}Q` to mean that if +proposition `P` is true before `S` is executed, then you can infer that +`Q` is true afterwards. So, Hoare's rule for the `while` statement is: + +All this says is that If executing `S` doesn't falsify `P` whenever `B` +is also initially true, then executing the loop `while(B) S` preserves +`P` and guarantees that `B` becomes false. (`P` is usually called the +*loop invariant*.) As far as Hoare's semantics is concerned, this is the +meaning of a while loop. + +As I said, people were fond of pointing out that `goto` was +\`\`obviously'' hard to formulate in terms of Hoare's semantics. So +imagine everyone's surprise when Hoare discovered the following simple +rule: + +First, for each label `L` in the program, we attach a predicate `PL` +that is to be true whenever we reach `L`. Then, the `goto` rule is + +All this says is that if some proposition is true before you execute a +`goto` then it's also true after you get there and furthermore, you +can't fall through the `goto`, because `false` is true if you do. + +We also need a rule that says what happens at a label. This is just + +That is, a statement still does the same thing if you put a label on it. + +For me, the Hoare semantics is a good way of thinking about `goto`: a +`goto` is a way of getting to somewhere that you can do the same things +as where you are now. The main practical consequences of this view are +that I think very carefully about whether the points at the label and at +the `goto` are really semantically equivalent, and that I try to +carefully choose labels to say what the corresponding predicate is. For +example, in the loop in the previous section, the label `MightBeSlash` +suggests that that we've read a character into `c`, but have not yet +been checked to see whether or not it's a slash. (Of course, if you look +at the code, you see that another possibility is that it might be an +EOF, but I took the view that `MightBeSlashOrEOF` was an awfully long +name for a label that's never mentioned more than 6 lines away from its +definition. Maybe I should have called it `ExamineNewCharacter` or +something like that.) + +The best reference on programming in a disciplined way using `goto` is +still D. E. Knuth's paper Structured Programming with go to Statements, +ACM Computing Surveys, Vol. 6, No. 4, December 1974, pp. 261-302. I +think that everything I have to say about `goto` is in his paper. diff --git a/_stories/1999/4581415.md b/_stories/1999/4581415.md index a0550f3..a2d238c 100644 --- a/_stories/1999/4581415.md +++ b/_stories/1999/4581415.md @@ -19,7 +19,23 @@ _tags: objectID: '4581415' --- -[Source](https://www.salon.com/1999/10/28/internet_2/ "Permalink to ") - - - +My best friend who died of AIDS moved to San Francisco in 1976. It was +through his then-girlfriend that I met him back in Wisconsin, for he was +still living as straight. He moved to San Francisco in part because I +was around --- and in part, I now realize, because he needed to come +out, and San Francisco was where he knew he'd be able to do it. I +remember the day we were trying to decide which apartment on Russian +Hill he should pick -- the studio or the one-bedroom with the views of +Treasure Island and the Bay Bridge and the kitchen with the +black-and-white tiles, for the slightly more expensive price of $300 per +month. We had time to decide; I urged him to go for the beauty one. And +until he moved back to Madison to die there he remained, in the place +where he could sit in his director's chair and brood out the window for +hours, drink bad white wine and, when the spirit moved him, paint good +pictures and make room-enhancing sculptures. All supported through +groveling at tables less than 30 hours a week, which gave him the free +time to explore San Francisco --- which in his case meant both its art +worlds (he took me to the first performance piece where I saw people +wearing black) and its gay worlds (it was at a diner in the Haight where +over dinner he finally came out to me because he had finally toppled for +someone). diff --git a/_stories/1999/530311.md b/_stories/1999/530311.md index 3dcee2f..9e95d72 100644 --- a/_stories/1999/530311.md +++ b/_stories/1999/530311.md @@ -19,107 +19,87 @@ _tags: objectID: '530311' --- -[Source](http://www.nytimes.com/1999/11/05/business/congress-passes-wide-ranging-bill-easing-bank-laws.html?sec=&spon=&pagewanted=1&emc=eta1 "Permalink to CONGRESS PASSES WIDE-RANGING BILL EASING BANK LAWS - The New York Times") +Administration officials and many Republicans and Democrats said the +measure would save consumers billions of dollars and was necessary to +keep up with trends in both domestic and international banking. Some +institutions, like Citigroup, already have banking, insurance and +securities arms but could have been forced to divest their insurance +underwriting under existing law. Many foreign banks already enjoy the +ability to enter the securities and insurance industries. -# CONGRESS PASSES WIDE-RANGING BILL EASING BANK LAWS - The New York Times +''The world changes, and we have to change with it,'' said Senator Phil +Gramm of Texas, who wrote the law that will bear his name along with the +two other main Republican sponsors, Representative Jim Leach of Iowa and +Representative Thomas J. Bliley Jr. of Virginia. ''We have a new century +coming, and we have an opportunity to dominate that century the same way +we dominated this century. Glass-Steagall, in the midst of the Great +Depression, came at a time when the thinking was that the government was +the answer. In this era of economic prosperity, we have decided that +freedom is the answer.'' -__NYTimes.com no longer supports Internet Explorer 9 or earlier. Please upgrade your browser. [LEARN MORE »][1] +In the House debate, Mr. Leach said, ''This is a historic day. The +landscape for delivery of financial services will now surely shift.'' -__Sections __ Home __Search [Skip to content][2] [Skip to navigation][3] [View mobile version][4] +But consumer groups and civil rights advocates criticized the +legislation for being a sop to the nation's biggest financial +institutions. They say that it fails to protect the privacy interests of +consumers and community lending standards for the disadvantaged and that +it will create more problems than it solves. -## [ The New York Times ][5] +The opponents of the measure gloomily predicted that by unshackling +banks and enabling them to move more freely into new kinds of financial +activities, the new law could lead to an economic crisis down the road +when the marketplace is no longer growing briskly. -###### [Business Day][6]|CONGRESS PASSES WIDE-RANGING BILL EASING BANK LAWS +''I think we will look back in 10 years' time and say we should not have +done this but we did because we forgot the lessons of the past, and that +that which is true in the 1930's is true in 2010,'' said Senator Byron +L. Dorgan, Democrat of North Dakota. ''I wasn't around during the 1930's +or the debate over Glass-Steagall. But I was here in the early 1980's +when it was decided to allow the expansion of savings and loans. We have +now decided in the name of modernization to forget the lessons of the +past, of safety and of soundness.'' -__Search - -Subscribe Now Log In __0 __Settings - -__Close search - -## Site Search Navigation - -Search NYTimes.com - -__Clear this text input - -Go - -1. Loading... - -See next articles - -See previous articles - -## Site Navigation - -## Site Mobile Navigation +Senator Paul Wellstone, Democrat of Minnesota, said that Congress had +''seemed determined to unlearn the lessons from our past mistakes.'' Advertisement -Supported by +[Continue reading the main story](#story-continues-4) -### [Business Day][6] +''Scores of banks failed in the Great Depression as a result of unsound +banking practices, and their failure only deepened the crisis,'' Mr. +Wellstone said. ''Glass-Steagall was intended to protect our financial +system by insulating commercial banking from other forms of risk. It was +one of several stabilizers designed to keep a similar tragedy from +recurring. Now Congress is about to repeal that economic stabilizer +without putting any comparable safeguard in its place.'' -# CONGRESS PASSES WIDE-RANGING BILL EASING BANK LAWS +Supporters of the legislation rejected those arguments. They responded +that historians and economists have concluded that the Glass-Steagall +Act was not the correct response to the banking crisis because it was +the failure of the Federal Reserve in carrying out monetary policy, not +speculation in the stock market, that caused the collapse of 11,000 +banks. If anything, the supporters said, the new law will give financial +companies the ability to diversify and therefore reduce their risks. The +new law, they said, will also give regulators new tools to supervise +shaky institutions. -By [STEPHEN LABATON][7]NOV. 5, 1999 +''The concerns that we will have a meltdown like 1929 are dramatically +overblown,'' said Senator Bob Kerrey, Democrat of Nebraska. -[Continue reading the main story][8] Share This Page +Others said the legislation was essential for the future leadership of +the American banking system. -[Continue reading the main story][8] - -Congress approved landmark legislation today that opens the door for a new era on Wall Street in which commercial banks, securities houses and insurers will find it easier and cheaper to enter one another's businesses. - -The measure, considered by many the most important banking legislation in 66 years, was approved in the Senate by a vote of 90 to 8 and in the House tonight by 362 to 57. The bill will now be sent to the president, who is expected to sign it, aides said. It would become one of the most significant achievements this year by the White House and the Republicans leading the 106th Congress. - -''Today Congress voted to update the rules that have governed financial services since the Great Depression and replace them with a system for the 21st century,'' Treasury Secretary Lawrence H. Summers said. ''This historic legislation will better enable American companies to compete in the new economy.'' - -The decision to repeal the Glass-Steagall Act of 1933 provoked dire warnings from a handful of dissenters that the deregulation of Wall Street would someday wreak havoc on the nation's financial system. The original idea behind Glass-Steagall was that separation between bankers and brokers would reduce the potential conflicts of interest that were thought to have contributed to the speculative stock frenzy before the Depression. - -Advertisement - -[Continue reading the main story][8] - -Today's action followed a rich Congressional debate about the history of finance in America in this century, the causes of the banking crisis of the 1930's, the globalization of banking and the future of the nation's economy. - -[Continue reading the main story][9] - -Advertisement - -[Continue reading the main story][10] - -Administration officials and many Republicans and Democrats said the measure would save consumers billions of dollars and was necessary to keep up with trends in both domestic and international banking. Some institutions, like Citigroup, already have banking, insurance and securities arms but could have been forced to divest their insurance underwriting under existing law. Many foreign banks already enjoy the ability to enter the securities and insurance industries. - -''The world changes, and we have to change with it,'' said Senator Phil Gramm of Texas, who wrote the law that will bear his name along with the two other main Republican sponsors, Representative Jim Leach of Iowa and Representative Thomas J. Bliley Jr. of Virginia. ''We have a new century coming, and we have an opportunity to dominate that century the same way we dominated this century. Glass-Steagall, in the midst of the Great Depression, came at a time when the thinking was that the government was the answer. In this era of economic prosperity, we have decided that freedom is the answer.'' - -In the House debate, Mr. Leach said, ''This is a historic day. The landscape for delivery of financial services will now surely shift.'' - -But consumer groups and civil rights advocates criticized the legislation for being a sop to the nation's biggest financial institutions. They say that it fails to protect the privacy interests of consumers and community lending standards for the disadvantaged and that it will create more problems than it solves. - -The opponents of the measure gloomily predicted that by unshackling banks and enabling them to move more freely into new kinds of financial activities, the new law could lead to an economic crisis down the road when the marketplace is no longer growing briskly. - -''I think we will look back in 10 years' time and say we should not have done this but we did because we forgot the lessons of the past, and that that which is true in the 1930's is true in 2010,'' said Senator Byron L. Dorgan, Democrat of North Dakota. ''I wasn't around during the 1930's or the debate over Glass-Steagall. But I was here in the early 1980's when it was decided to allow the expansion of savings and loans. We have now decided in the name of modernization to forget the lessons of the past, of safety and of soundness.'' - -Senator Paul Wellstone, Democrat of Minnesota, said that Congress had ''seemed determined to unlearn the lessons from our past mistakes.'' - -Advertisement - -[Continue reading the main story][11] - -''Scores of banks failed in the Great Depression as a result of unsound banking practices, and their failure only deepened the crisis,'' Mr. Wellstone said. ''Glass-Steagall was intended to protect our financial system by insulating commercial banking from other forms of risk. It was one of several stabilizers designed to keep a similar tragedy from recurring. Now Congress is about to repeal that economic stabilizer without putting any comparable safeguard in its place.'' - -Supporters of the legislation rejected those arguments. They responded that historians and economists have concluded that the Glass-Steagall Act was not the correct response to the banking crisis because it was the failure of the Federal Reserve in carrying out monetary policy, not speculation in the stock market, that caused the collapse of 11,000 banks. If anything, the supporters said, the new law will give financial companies the ability to diversify and therefore reduce their risks. The new law, they said, will also give regulators new tools to supervise shaky institutions. - -''The concerns that we will have a meltdown like 1929 are dramatically overblown,'' said Senator Bob Kerrey, Democrat of Nebraska. - -Others said the legislation was essential for the future leadership of the American banking system. - -''If we don't pass this bill, we could find London or Frankfurt or years down the road Shanghai becoming the financial capital of the world,'' said Senator Charles E. Schumer, Democrat of New York. ''There are many reasons for this bill, but first and foremost is to ensure that U.S. financial firms remain competitive.'' +''If we don't pass this bill, we could find London or Frankfurt or years +down the road Shanghai becoming the financial capital of the world,'' +said Senator Charles E. Schumer, Democrat of New York. ''There are many +reasons for this bill, but first and foremost is to ensure that U.S. +financial firms remain competitive.'' ## Newsletter Sign Up -[Continue reading the main story][12] +[Continue reading the main story](#continues-post-newsletter) ### @@ -129,278 +109,96 @@ Invalid email address. Please re-enter. You must select a newsletter to subscribe to. -Sign Up - -You agree to receive occasional updates and special offers for The New York Times's products and services. +You agree to receive occasional updates and special offers for The New +York Times's products and services. ### Thank you for subscribing. ### An error has occurred. Please try again later. -### You are already subscribed to this email. +[View all New York Times newsletters.](/newsletters) -[View all New York Times newsletters.][13] +But other lawmakers criticized the provisions of the legislation aimed +at discouraging community groups from pressing banks to make more loans +to the disadvantaged. Representative Maxine Waters, Democrat of +California, said during the House debate that the legislation was +''mean-spirited in the way it had tried to undermine the Community +Reinvestment Act.'' And Representative Barney Frank, Democrat of +Massachusetts, said it was ironic that while the legislation was +deregulating financial services, it had begun a new system of onerous +regulation on community advocates. -* [See Sample][14] -* [Manage Email Preferences][15] -* [Not you?][16] -* [Privacy Policy][17] -* Opt out or [contact us][18] anytime +Many experts predict that, even though the legislation has been trailing +market trends that have begun to see the cross-ownership of banks, +securities firms and insurers, the new law is certain to lead to a wave +of large financial mergers. -But other lawmakers criticized the provisions of the legislation aimed at discouraging community groups from pressing banks to make more loans to the disadvantaged. Representative Maxine Waters, Democrat of California, said during the House debate that the legislation was ''mean-spirited in the way it had tried to undermine the Community Reinvestment Act.'' And Representative Barney Frank, Democrat of Massachusetts, said it was ironic that while the legislation was deregulating financial services, it had begun a new system of onerous regulation on community advocates. +The White House has estimated the legislation could save consumers as +much as $18 billion a year as new financial conglomerates gain economies +of scale and cut costs. -Many experts predict that, even though the legislation has been trailing market trends that have begun to see the cross-ownership of banks, securities firms and insurers, the new law is certain to lead to a wave of large financial mergers. - -The White House has estimated the legislation could save consumers as much as $18 billion a year as new financial conglomerates gain economies of scale and cut costs. - -Other experts have disputed those estimates as overly optimistic, and said that the bulk of any profits seen from the deregulation of financial services would be returned not to customers but to shareholders. +Other experts have disputed those estimates as overly optimistic, and +said that the bulk of any profits seen from the deregulation of +financial services would be returned not to customers but to +shareholders. These are some of the key provisions of the legislation: -*Banks will be able to affiliate with insurance companies and securities concerns with far fewer restrictions than in the past. +\*Banks will be able to affiliate with insurance companies and +securities concerns with far fewer restrictions than in the past. Advertisement -[Continue reading the main story][19] +[Continue reading the main story](#story-continues-5) -*The legislation preserves the regulatory structure in Washington and gives the Federal Reserve and the Office of Comptroller of the Currency roles in regulating new financial conglomerates. The Securities and Exchange Commission will oversee securities operations at any bank, and the states will continue to regulate insurance. +\*The legislation preserves the regulatory structure in Washington and +gives the Federal Reserve and the Office of Comptroller of the Currency +roles in regulating new financial conglomerates. The Securities and +Exchange Commission will oversee securities operations at any bank, and +the states will continue to regulate insurance. -*It will be more difficult for industrial companies to control a bank. The measure closes a loophole that had permitted a number of commercial enterprises to open savings associations known as unitary thrifts. +\*It will be more difficult for industrial companies to control a bank. +The measure closes a loophole that had permitted a number of commercial +enterprises to open savings associations known as unitary thrifts. -One Republican Senator, Richard C. Shelby of Alabama, voted against the legislation. He was joined by seven Democrats: Barbara Boxer of California, Richard H. Bryan of Nevada, Russell D. Feingold of Wisconsin, Tom Harkin of Iowa, Barbara A. Mikulski of Maryland, Mr. Dorgan and Mr. Wellstone. +One Republican Senator, Richard C. Shelby of Alabama, voted against the +legislation. He was joined by seven Democrats: Barbara Boxer of +California, Richard H. Bryan of Nevada, Russell D. Feingold of +Wisconsin, Tom Harkin of Iowa, Barbara A. Mikulski of Maryland, Mr. +Dorgan and Mr. Wellstone. -In the House, 155 Democrats and 207 Republicans voted for the measure, while 51 Democrats, 5 Republicans and 1 independent opposed it. Fifteen members did not vote. +In the House, 155 Democrats and 207 Republicans voted for the measure, +while 51 Democrats, 5 Republicans and 1 independent opposed it. Fifteen +members did not vote. -Tucked away in the legislation is a provision that some experts today warned could cost insurance policyholders as much as $50 billion. The provision would allow mutual insurance companies to move to other states to avoid payments they would otherwise owe policyholders as they reorganize their corporate structure. Many states, including New York and New Jersey, do not allow such relocations without the consent of the insurer's domicile state. But the legislation before Congress would pre-empt the states. +Tucked away in the legislation is a provision that some experts today +warned could cost insurance policyholders as much as $50 billion. The +provision would allow mutual insurance companies to move to other states +to avoid payments they would otherwise owe policyholders as they +reorganize their corporate structure. Many states, including New York +and New Jersey, do not allow such relocations without the consent of the +insurer's domicile state. But the legislation before Congress would +pre-empt the states. -Both the Metropolitan Life Insurance Company and the Prudential Life Insurance Company are in the midst of reorganizing into stock-based corporations that are requiring them to pay billions of dollars to policyholders from years of accumulated surplus. In exchange, the policyholders give up their ownership in the mutual insurance company. +Both the Metropolitan Life Insurance Company and the Prudential Life +Insurance Company are in the midst of reorganizing into stock-based +corporations that are requiring them to pay billions of dollars to +policyholders from years of accumulated surplus. In exchange, the +policyholders give up their ownership in the mutual insurance company. -The legislation would permit any mutual insurance company to avoid making surplus payments to policyholders by simply moving to states with more permissive laws and setting up a hybrid corporate structure known as a mutual holding company. +The legislation would permit any mutual insurance company to avoid +making surplus payments to policyholders by simply moving to states with +more permissive laws and setting up a hybrid corporate structure known +as a mutual holding company. -The provision was inserted by Representative Bliley at the urging of a trade association. It attracted little opposition because it was attached to a provision that forbids insurers from discriminating against domestic-violence victims. +The provision was inserted by Representative Bliley at the urging of a +trade association. It attracted little opposition because it was +attached to a provision that forbids insurers from discriminating +against domestic-violence victims. -In a letter sent to Congress this week, Mr. Summers said that the provision ''could allow insurance companies to avoid state law protecting policyholders, enriching insiders at the expense of consumers.'' - -[Continue reading the main story][20] - -[ - -We’re interested in your feedback on this page. **Tell us what you think.** - -][21] - -## - -* * * * ## What's Next - -Loading... - -[Go to Home Page »][5] - -## Site Index [ The New York Times ][5] - -## Site Index Navigation - -### News - -* [World][22] -* [U.S.][23] -* [Politics][24] -* [N.Y.][25] -* [Business][26] -* [Tech][27] -* [Science][28] -* [Health][29] -* [Sports][30] -* [Education][31] -* [Obituaries][32] -* [Today's Paper][33] -* [Corrections][34] - -### Opinion - -* [Today's Opinion][35] -* [Op-Ed Columnists][36] -* [Editorials][37] -* [Op-Ed Contributors][38] -* [Letters][39] -* [Sunday Review][40] -* [Video: Opinion][41] - -### Arts - -* [Today's Arts][42] -* [Art & Design][43] -* [Books][44] -* [Dance][45] -* [Movies][46] -* [Music][47] -* [N.Y.C. 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+protecting policyholders, enriching insiders at the expense of +consumers.'' +[Continue reading the main story](#whats-next) diff --git a/_stories/1999/6188408.md b/_stories/1999/6188408.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..0feb4d3 --- /dev/null +++ b/_stories/1999/6188408.md @@ -0,0 +1,251 @@ +--- +created_at: '2013-08-09T20:53:32.000Z' +title: Why Should I Care What Color the Bikeshed Is? (1999) +url: http://white.bikeshed.com/ +author: aaronbrethorst +points: 46 +story_text: '' +comment_text: +num_comments: 31 +story_id: +story_title: +story_url: +parent_id: +created_at_i: 1376081612 +_tags: +- story +- author_aaronbrethorst +- story_6188408 +objectID: '6188408' + +--- +# Why Should I Care What Color the Bikeshed Is? + +[![](bikeshed.png)](/) + +From +[freebsd.org/doc/en\_US.ISO8859-1/books/faq/misc.html\#bikeshed-painting](http://www.freebsd.org/doc/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/faq/misc.html#bikeshed-painting); +see also +[phk.freebsd.dk/sagas/bikeshed.html](http://phk.freebsd.dk/sagas/bikeshed.html) +for historical background. + +> "The really, really short answer is that you should not. The somewhat +> longer answer is that just because you are capable of building a +> bikeshed does not mean you should stop others from building one just +> because you do not like the color they plan to paint it. This is a +> metaphor indicating that you need not argue about every little feature +> just because you know enough to do so. Some people have commented that +> the amount of noise generated by a change is inversely proportional to +> the complexity of the change." + +(If you don't like the way we painted this bikeshed, try +[bikeshedding.io](http://bikeshedding.io/), or the minimalist +[shed.bike](https://shed.bike/). Or set up your own? That's the +spirit\!) + + Subject: A bike shed (any colour will do) on greener grass... + From: Poul-Henning Kamp + Date: Sat, 02 Oct 1999 16:14:10 +0200 + Message-ID: <18238.938873650@critter.freebsd.dk> + Sender: phk@critter.freebsd.dk + Bcc: Blind Distribution List: ; + MIME-Version: 1.0 + + + [bcc'ed to committers, hackers] + + My last pamphlet was sufficiently well received that I was not + scared away from sending another one, and today I have the time + and inclination to do so. + + I've had a little trouble with deciding on the right distribution + of this kind of stuff, this time it is bcc'ed to committers and + hackers, that is probably the best I can do. I'm not subscribed + to hackers myself but more on that later. + + The thing which have triggered me this time is the "sleep(1) should + do fractional seconds" thread, which have pestered our lives for + many days now, it's probably already a couple of weeks, I can't + even be bothered to check. + + To those of you who have missed this particular thread: Congratulations. + + It was a proposal to make sleep(1) DTRT if given a non-integer + argument that set this particular grass-fire off. I'm not going + to say anymore about it than that, because it is a much smaller + item than one would expect from the length of the thread, and it + has already received far more attention than some of the *problems* + we have around here. + + The sleep(1) saga is the most blatant example of a bike shed + discussion we have had ever in FreeBSD. The proposal was well + thought out, we would gain compatibility with OpenBSD and NetBSD, + and still be fully compatible with any code anyone ever wrote. + + Yet so many objections, proposals and changes were raised and + launched that one would think the change would have plugged all + the holes in swiss cheese or changed the taste of Coca Cola or + something similar serious. + + "What is it about this bike shed ?" Some of you have asked me. + + It's a long story, or rather it's an old story, but it is quite + short actually. C. Northcote Parkinson wrote a book in the early + 1960'ies, called "Parkinson's Law", which contains a lot of insight + into the dynamics of management. + + You can find it on Amazon, and maybe also in your dads book-shelf, + it is well worth its price and the time to read it either way, + if you like Dilbert, you'll like Parkinson. + + Somebody recently told me that he had read it and found that only + about 50% of it applied these days. That is pretty darn good I + would say, many of the modern management books have hit-rates a + lot lower than that, and this one is 35+ years old. + + In the specific example involving the bike shed, the other vital + component is an atomic power-plant, I guess that illustrates the + age of the book. + + Parkinson shows how you can go in to the board of directors and + get approval for building a multi-million or even billion dollar + atomic power plant, but if you want to build a bike shed you will + be tangled up in endless discussions. + + Parkinson explains that this is because an atomic plant is so vast, + so expensive and so complicated that people cannot grasp it, and + rather than try, they fall back on the assumption that somebody + else checked all the details before it got this far. Richard P. + Feynmann gives a couple of interesting, and very much to the point, + examples relating to Los Alamos in his books. + + A bike shed on the other hand. Anyone can build one of those over + a weekend, and still have time to watch the game on TV. So no + matter how well prepared, no matter how reasonable you are with + your proposal, somebody will seize the chance to show that he is + doing his job, that he is paying attention, that he is *here*. + + In Denmark we call it "setting your fingerprint". It is about + personal pride and prestige, it is about being able to point + somewhere and say "There! *I* did that." It is a strong trait in + politicians, but present in most people given the chance. Just + think about footsteps in wet cement. + + I bow my head in respect to the original proposer because he stuck + to his guns through this carpet blanking from the peanut gallery, + and the change is in our tree today. I would have turned my back + and walked away after less than a handful of messages in that + thread. + + And that brings me, as I promised earlier, to why I am not subscribed + to -hackers: + + I un-subscribed from -hackers several years ago, because I could + not keep up with the email load. Since then I have dropped off + several other lists as well for the very same reason. + + And I still get a lot of email. A lot of it gets routed to /dev/null + by filters: People like Brett Glass will never make it onto my + screen, commits to documents in languages I don't understand + likewise, commits to ports as such. All these things and more go + the winter way without me ever even knowing about it. + + But despite these sharp teeth under my mailbox I still get too much + email. + + This is where the greener grass comes into the picture: + + I wish we could reduce the amount of noise in our lists and I wish + we could let people build a bike shed every so often, and I don't + really care what colour they paint it. + + The first of these wishes is about being civil, sensitive and + intelligent in our use of email. + + If I could concisely and precisely define a set of criteria for + when one should and when one should not reply to an email so that + everybody would agree and abide by it, I would be a happy man, but + I am too wise to even attempt that. + + But let me suggest a few pop-up windows I would like to see + mail-programs implement whenever people send or reply to email + to the lists they want me to subscribe to: + + +------------------------------------------------------------+ + | Your email is about to be sent to several hundred thousand | + | people, who will have to spend at least 10 seconds reading | + | it before they can decide if it is interesting. At least | + | two man-weeks will be spent reading your email. Many of | + | the recipients will have to pay to download your email. | + | | + | Are you absolutely sure that your email is of sufficient | + | importance to bother all these people ? | + | | + | [YES] [REVISE] [CANCEL] | + +------------------------------------------------------------+ + + +------------------------------------------------------------+ + | Warning: You have not read all emails in this thread yet. | + | Somebody else may already have said what you are about to | + | say in your reply. Please read the entire thread before | + | replying to any email in it. | + | | + | [CANCEL] | + +------------------------------------------------------------+ + + +------------------------------------------------------------+ + | Warning: Your mail program have not even shown you the | + | entire message yet. Logically it follows that you cannot | + | possibly have read it all and understood it. | + | | + | It is not polite to reply to an email until you have | + | read it all and thought about it. | + | | + | A cool off timer for this thread will prevent you from | + | replying to any email in this thread for the next one hour | + | | + | [Cancel] | + +------------------------------------------------------------+ + + +------------------------------------------------------------+ + | You composed this email at a rate of more than N.NN cps | + | It is generally not possible to think and type at a rate | + | faster than A.AA cps, and therefore you reply is likely to | + | incoherent, badly thought out and/or emotional. | + | | + | A cool off timer will prevent you from sending any email | + | for the next one hour. | + | | + | [Cancel] | + +------------------------------------------------------------+ + + The second part of my wish is more emotional. Obviously, the + capacities we had manning the unfriendly fire in the sleep(1) + thread, despite their many years with the project, never cared + enough to do this tiny deed, so why are they suddenly so enflamed + by somebody else so much their junior doing it ? + + I wish I knew. + + I do know that reasoning will have no power to stop such "reactionaire + conservatism". It may be that these people are frustrated about + their own lack of tangible contribution lately or it may be a bad + case of "we're old and grumpy, WE know how youth should behave". + + Either way it is very unproductive for the project, but I have no + suggestions for how to stop it. The best I can suggest is to refrain + from fuelling the monsters that lurk in the mailing lists: Ignore + them, don't answer them, forget they're there. + + I hope we can get a stronger and broader base of contributors in + FreeBSD, and I hope we together can prevent the grumpy old men + and the Brett Glasses of the world from chewing them up, spitting + them out and scaring them away before they ever get a leg to the + ground. + + For the people who have been lurking out there, scared away from + participating by the gargoyles: I can only apologise and encourage + you to try anyway, this is not the way I want the environment in + the project to be. + + Poul-Henning diff --git a/_stories/1999/698823.md b/_stories/1999/698823.md index da5b36d..7e2bf46 100644 --- a/_stories/1999/698823.md +++ b/_stories/1999/698823.md @@ -19,7 +19,165 @@ _tags: objectID: '698823' --- -[Source](https://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/chronicle/archive/1999/11/23/DD78283.DTL "Permalink to ") +# The Spiritual Center Of the Earth +ONE MORNING SEVERAL years ago, at a bus stop in front of the [American +Embassy](/search/?action=search&channel=entertainment&inlineLink=1&searchindex=solr&query=%22American+Embassy%22) +in New Delhi, an Indian man wearing a turban and rubber flip-flops (plus +what might once have been someone's draperies) asked me where I was +from. +"Oh, how lucky you are\!" he fairly sang, when I told him I was from San +Francisco. "Everyone knows that San Francisco is the spiritual center of +the world." +Really? This assertion would jolt any American who'd drifted to India +seeking, well -- something better. + +"Oh, yes-yes," the Indian man said. "The earth's spiritual center shifts +every few hundred years or thousand, maybe. It used to be in India, but +now it is San Francisco. All our gurus are moving there to open +ashrams." + +## Latest entertainment videos + +Now + Playing: + + - [](/news/media/Justin-Theroux-Breaks-His-Social-Media-Silence-1204152.php) + + Now Playing + + Justin Theroux Breaks His Social Media Silence After Announcing His + Split From Jennifer Aniston, And More + News + + MarieClaire + + - [](/news/media/Jeff-Daniels-stars-in-new-Hulu-series-about-1205375.php) + + Jeff Daniels stars in new 'Hulu' series about events leading up to + 9/11 + + Associated + Press + + - [](/news/media/How-Jimmi-Simpson-Accidentally-Discovered-the-1204142.php) + + How Jimmi Simpson Accidentally Discovered the Fate of His + 'Westworld' Character + + Entertainment Weekly + + - [](/news/media/Vikander-Angelina-Jolie-is-inspiring-1203017.php) + + Vikander: 'Angelina Jolie is inspiring' + + Associated + Press + + - [](/news/media/Ta-Nehisi-Coates-Writing-New-Captain-America-1203593.php) + + Ta-Nehisi Coates Writing New Captain America Comic for + Marvel + + Wibbitz + + - [](/news/media/Jennifer-Lawrence-Officially-Denies-Having-An-1204150.php) + + Jennifer Lawrence Officially Denies Having An Affair With Chris + Pratt On The Set Of ‘Passengers’, And More + News + + MarieClaire + + - [](/news/media/Kim-Kardashian-Shuts-Down-Fans-Who-Accused-Her-Of-1204316.php) + + Kim Kardashian Shuts Down Fans Who Accused Her Of Lying About Her + Pink Hair, And More + News + + MarieClaire + + - [](/news/media/Emma-Thompson-says-Kenneth-Branagh-s-Infidelity-1203215.php) + + Emma Thompson says Kenneth Branagh’s Infidelity Fueled 'Love + Actually' Performance + + Entertainment + Weekly + + - [](/news/media/Once-Upon-a-Time-Bosses-Drop-Major-Detail-About-1205286.php) + + 'Once Upon a Time' Bosses Drop Major Detail About Series Finale + + Entertainment + Weekly + + - [](/news/media/Barbra-Streisand-admits-to-cloning-her-dog-twice-1203634.php) + + Barbra Streisand admits to cloning her dog twice + + Fox5DC + +The arrival of my bus cut short our talk, but during the next couple of +months I ran the man's thesis past several other Indians I met. +Surprisingly, every one of them regarded my conversational tidbit as old +news. All unquestioningly accepted San Francisco -- not India, not +Tibet, not Mecca or Jerusalem or Rome -- as humankind's new spiritual +center. + +You are scoffing right now, of course, and so did I -- initially. But +that first night, when I asked the desk clerk at my hotel in New Delhi +to define "spiritual center of the world," his response wiped the smirk +right off my face. + +"Oh," he said, as matter of factly as if I'd asked directions to a chai +shop, "that is simply the place where new ideas meet the least amount of +resistance." + +Voila\! I have circled the globe four times, and if there is some place +where new ideas meet less resistance than they do in San Francisco, I +have neither seen nor heard of it. If you can't be what you want in San +Francisco, you don't have a chance elsewhere. + +MY INDIAN FRIENDS had differing ideas on the boundaries of the earth's +spiritual center. Some said it was limited to the area burned by the +post-quake fire of 1906 -- the purifying flames having left behind an +environment as fertile as the field in which Jack grew beanstalks. Most, +however, included the entire Bay Area in their spiritual maps -- +although one woman in Calcutta drew hers from the tip of Baja to the tip +of the Aleutians. Regardless, all agreed that spiritual San Francisco +did not follow trends, but -- like the San Andreas Fault -- unleashed +movements. Harry Bridges seized the waterfront and galvanized the labor +movement. The first television was invented at the base of Telegraph +Hill, unleashing whatever you call that. The United Nations convention +was held and its charter was signed in [Herbst +Theatre](/search/?action=search&channel=entertainment&inlineLink=1&searchindex=solr&query=%22Herbst+Theatre%22). +The beats, the hippies and the Free Speech Movement burst from the hills +and the bay as though they couldn't help themselves. When [Jack +Kerouac](/search/?action=search&channel=entertainment&inlineLink=1&searchindex=solr&query=%22Jack+Kerouac%22) +hit the road, a nation of readers took it as a given that he would wind +up in North Beach. + +THE MUSIC BLASTING out of San Francisco -- the Jefferson Airplane, the +[Grateful +Dead](/search/?action=search&channel=entertainment&inlineLink=1&searchindex=solr&query=%22Grateful+Dead%22), +[Janis +Joplin](/search/?action=search&channel=entertainment&inlineLink=1&searchindex=solr&query=%22Janis+Joplin%22) +-- forever changed the world -- with help from Owsley's LSD. Harvey +Milk, the "Mayor of Castro Street," became America's first openly gay +elected official. The American Indians scored their biggest victory +(since Custer, and before casinos) on Alcatraz. Oakland's [Black +Panthers](/search/?action=search&channel=entertainment&inlineLink=1&searchindex=solr&query=%22Black+Panthers%22) +awoke a complacent nation -- some say two. And the human potential +movement leaped naked and quivering from the hot tubs at Esalen. Now the +world's economic engine throbs in Silicon Valley, while the creative +heart of the Internet beats south of Market Street. North of Market, +Charles Schwab leads a brokerage assault that rocks Wall Street and +mints millionaires at a rate not seen since the first Gold Rush. + +India had its run -- giving civilization the zero, infinity and the [Taj +Mahal](/search/?action=search&channel=entertainment&inlineLink=1&searchindex=solr&query=%22Taj+Mahal%22). +Now it's San Francisco's turn. That shaky ground under your feet may be +as good as ground gets. Throw down the best you've got, and stand back\! diff --git a/_stories/1999/7085980.md b/_stories/1999/7085980.md index eba5129..0d71a4b 100644 --- a/_stories/1999/7085980.md +++ b/_stories/1999/7085980.md @@ -19,7 +19,23 @@ _tags: objectID: '7085980' --- -[Source](https://www.salon.com/1999/10/28/internet_2/ "Permalink to ") - - - +My best friend who died of AIDS moved to San Francisco in 1976. It was +through his then-girlfriend that I met him back in Wisconsin, for he was +still living as straight. He moved to San Francisco in part because I +was around --- and in part, I now realize, because he needed to come +out, and San Francisco was where he knew he'd be able to do it. I +remember the day we were trying to decide which apartment on Russian +Hill he should pick -- the studio or the one-bedroom with the views of +Treasure Island and the Bay Bridge and the kitchen with the +black-and-white tiles, for the slightly more expensive price of $300 per +month. We had time to decide; I urged him to go for the beauty one. And +until he moved back to Madison to die there he remained, in the place +where he could sit in his director's chair and brood out the window for +hours, drink bad white wine and, when the spirit moved him, paint good +pictures and make room-enhancing sculptures. All supported through +groveling at tables less than 30 hours a week, which gave him the free +time to explore San Francisco --- which in his case meant both its art +worlds (he took me to the first performance piece where I saw people +wearing black) and its gay worlds (it was at a diner in the Haight where +over dinner he finally came out to me because he had finally toppled for +someone). diff --git a/_stories/1999/7327319.md b/_stories/1999/7327319.md deleted file mode 100644 index 3502d6d..0000000 --- a/_stories/1999/7327319.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,25 +0,0 @@ ---- -created_at: '2014-03-02T02:05:59.000Z' -title: A bike shed (any colour will do) on greener grass (1999) -url: http://docs.freebsd.org/cgi/getmsg.cgi?fetch=506636+517178+/usr/local/www/db/text/1999/freebsd-hackers/19991003.freebsd-hackers -author: thealphanerd -points: 71 -story_text: '' -comment_text: -num_comments: 15 -story_id: -story_title: -story_url: -parent_id: -created_at_i: 1393725959 -_tags: -- story -- author_thealphanerd -- story_7327319 -objectID: '7327319' - ---- -[Source](https://docs.freebsd.org/cgi/getmsg.cgi?fetch=506636 517178 /usr/local/www/db/text/1999/freebsd-hackers/19991003.freebsd-hackers "Permalink to ") - - - diff --git a/_stories/1999/7761030.md b/_stories/1999/7761030.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..248d624 --- /dev/null +++ b/_stories/1999/7761030.md @@ -0,0 +1,128 @@ +--- +created_at: '2014-05-17T20:53:05.000Z' +title: Valve’s Design Process For Creating Half-Life (1999) +url: http://www.gamasutra.com/view/feature/3408/the_cabal_valves_design_process_.php +author: danso +points: 142 +story_text: '' +comment_text: +num_comments: 25 +story_id: +story_title: +story_url: +parent_id: +created_at_i: 1400359985 +_tags: +- story +- author_danso +- story_7761030 +objectID: '7761030' + +--- +  + +![](https://www.gamasutra.com/features/19991210/half.gif) While +Half-Life has seen resounding critical and financial success (winning +over 50 Game of the Year awards and selling more than a million copies +worldwide), few people realize that it didn’t start out a winner — in +fact, Valve’s first attempt at the game had to be scrapped. It was +mediocre at best, and suffered from the typical problems that plague far +too many games. This article is about the teamwork – or "Cabal process" +— that turned our initial, less than impressive version of Half-Life +into a groundbreaking success. + +**Paving the Way with Good Intentions** + +Our initial target release date was November 1997 — a year before the +game actually shipped. This date would have given Valve a year to +develop what was in essence a fancy Quake TC (Total Conversion — all new +artwork, all new levels). By late September 1997, nearing the end of our +original schedule, a whole lot of work had been done, but there was one +major problem — the game wasn’t any fun. + +Yes, we had some cool monsters, but if you didn’t fight them exactly the +way we had planned they did really stupid things. We had some cool +levels, but they didn’t fit together well. We had some cool technology, +but for the most part it only showed up in one or two spots. So you +couldn’t play the game all the way through, none of the levels tied +together well, and there were serious technical problems with most of +the game. There were some really wonderful individual pieces, but as a +whole the game just wasn’t working. + +The obvious answer was to work a few more months, gloss over the worst +of the problems and ship what we had. For companies who live and die at +the whim of their publishers, this is usually the route taken — with +predictable results. Since Valve is fairly independent, and since none +of us believed that we were getting any closer to making a game we could +all like, we couldn’t see how a month or two would make any significant +difference. At this point we had to make a very painful decision — we +decided to start over and rework every stage of the game. + +![](https://www.gamasutra.com/features/19991210/birdwell_01.gif) + +**Many of our scripted sequences were +designed to give the player game-play clues as +well as provide moments of sheer terror.** + +Fortunately, the game had some things in it we liked. We set up a small +group of people to take every silly idea, every cool trick, everything +interesting that existed in any kind of working state somewhere in the +game and put them into a single prototype level. When the level started +to get fun, they added more variations of the fun things. If an idea +wasn’t fun, they cut it. When they needed a software feature, they +simplified it until it was something that could be written in a few +days. They all worked together on this one small level for a month while +the rest of us basically did nothing. When they were done, we all played +it. It was great. It was Die Hard meets Evil Dead. It was the vision. It +was going to be our game. It was huge and scary and going to take a lot +of work, but after seeing it we weren’t going to be satisfied with +anything less. All that we needed to do was to create about 100 more +levels that were just as fun. No problem. + +**So, Tell Me About Your Childhood** + +The second step in the pre-cabal process was to analyze what was fun +about our prototype level. The first theory we came up with was the +theory of "experiential density" — the amount of "things" that happen to +and are done by the player per unit of time and area of a map. Our goal +was that, once active, the player never had to wait too long before the +next stimulus, be it monster, special effect, plot point, action +sequence, and so on. Since we couldn’t really bring all these +experiences to the player (a relentless series of them would just get +tedious), all content is distance based, not time based, and no +activities are started outside the player’s control. If the players are +in the mood for more action, all they need to do is move forward and +within a few seconds something will happen. + +![](https://www.gamasutra.com/features/19991210/birdwell_02.gif) + +**Conceptual artwork for +ceiling-mounted monster +that was dangerous to both +the player and the player's enemies** + +The second theory we came up with is the theory of player +acknowledgment. This means that the game world must acknowledge players +every time they perform an action. For example, if they shoot their gun, +the world needs to acknowledge it with something more permanent than +just a sound — there should be some visual evidence that they’ve just +fired their gun. We would have liked to put a hole through the wall, but +for technical and game flow reasons we really couldn’t do it. Instead we +decided on "decals" — bullet nicks and explosion marks on all the +surfaces, which serve as permanent records of the action. This also +means that if the player pushes on something that should be pushable, +the object shouldn’t ignore them, it should move. If they whack on +something with their crowbar that looks like it should break, it had +better break. If they walk into a room with other characters, those +characters should acknowledge them by at least looking at them, if not +calling out their name. Our basic theory was that if the world ignores +the player, the player won’t care about the world. + +A final theory was that the players should always blame themselves for +failure. If the game kills them off with no warning, then players blame +the game and start to dislike it. But if the game hints that danger is +imminent, show players a way out and they die anyway, then they’ll +consider it a failure on their part; they’ve let the game down and they +need to try a little harder. When they succeed, and the game rewards +them with a little treat — scripted sequence, special effect, and so on +— they’ll feel good about themselves and about the game. diff --git a/_stories/1999/8213374.md b/_stories/1999/8213374.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..b252eaa --- /dev/null +++ b/_stories/1999/8213374.md @@ -0,0 +1,42 @@ +--- +created_at: '2014-08-22T18:44:27.000Z' +title: The Evolution of Roller Coaster Tycoon (1999) +url: http://www.nicscorner.com/evo_of_rct.htm +author: Snail_Commando +points: 125 +story_text: '' +comment_text: +num_comments: 16 +story_id: +story_title: +story_url: +parent_id: +created_at_i: 1408733067 +_tags: +- story +- author_Snail_Commando +- story_8213374 +objectID: '8213374' + +--- +**GAME INFO** +**THE EVOLUTION OF ROLLERCOASTER TYCOON +(aka The Editing Room Floor)** + +**PART 1** +Most people know about the burger stalls and the Panda-costumed +entertainers, the corkscrew ride and the simple interface, but very few +have seen the items that *didn't* make it into the game. + +RollerCoaster Tycoon has so many great elements that it's easy to forget +that all games evolve from the early concepts into something else at the +project's end. Many elements make it through without being altered at +all but others are altered, updated, merged or dropped completely. + +So, read on in the first part of our RollerCoaster Tycoon feature, where +we see how the game changed and developed over its two year development +period. You'll see what got left out and, in some cases, we think you'll +understand why. + +*Note: Please be aware that the contents of this article must not be +copied/reproduced/published elsewhere without permission.* diff --git a/_stories/1999/8430096.md b/_stories/1999/8430096.md index e6efcc5..48db184 100644 --- a/_stories/1999/8430096.md +++ b/_stories/1999/8430096.md @@ -19,357 +19,160 @@ _tags: objectID: '8430096' --- -[Source](http://www.zdnet.com/article/can-googles-search-engine-find-profits/ "Permalink to Can Google's search engine find profits? | ZDNet") +**Google.com seems to have it all. The nascent search engine sports an +intriguing technology that has excited some of Silicon Valley's biggest +investors. And last week, those investors pulled up their dumptrucks of +cash to shovel some $25 million on the startup. But one thing Google +doesn't seem to have -- or at least isn't answering questions about -- +is a business plan.** -# Can Google's search engine find profits? | ZDNet +When asked how the company plans to make money, Google CEO and +co-founder Larry Page would only say what they won't do. They don't want +to become a portal. No content. And they want to avoid competing with +other search engines to be the browser of choice for existing portals. +In fact, Page said [Google](http://www.google.com/) doesn't have any +real competitors at all, which may be why they don't intend to do much +marketing. -This web site uses cookies to improve your experience. By viewing our content, you are accepting the use of cookies. To find out more and change your cookie settings, please [view our cookie policy][1]. +But even Internet companies, which are almost expected to lose gobs of +money, need at least a revenue stream, don't they? -* Edition: - * Asia - * Australia - * Europe - * India - * United Kingdom - * United States - * ZDNet around the globe: - * [ ZDNet China ][2] - * [ ZDNet France ][3] - * [ ZDNet Germany ][4] - * [ ZDNet Korea ][5] - * [ ZDNet Japan ][6] +"We have other ways of making money," said Page. "You'll see." -[ ][7] +And Google's investors are equally mum about how they plan to reap +returns on their capital. At a June 3 press conference, Google announced +the $25 million investment came primarily from a unique pairing of +sources. -Search - -Go - -* [ Videos ][8] -* [ Smart Cities ][9] -* [ Windows 10 ][10] -* [ Cloud ][11] -* [ Innovation ][12] -* [ Security ][13] -* [ Tech Pro ][14] -* more - * [ ZDNet Academy ][15] - * [ Digital Transformation ][16] - * [ Microsoft ][17] - * [ Mobility ][18] - * [ IoT ][19] - * [ Hardware ][20] - * [ Best VPN Services ][21] - * [ See All Topics ][22] - * [ White Papers ][23] - * [ Downloads ][24] - * [ Reviews ][25] - * [ Galleries ][26] - * [ Videos ][8] -* [Newsletters][27] -* [All Writers][28] -* * [Log In to ZDNET][29] - * [Join ZDNet][30] - * [About ZDNet][31] - * [Preferences][32] - * [Community][33] - * [Newsletters][34] - * [Log Out][35] -* [ ][7] -* * Go -* Menu - * [ Videos ][8] - * [ Smart Cities ][9] - * [ Windows 10 ][10] - * [ Cloud ][11] - * [ Innovation ][12] - * [ Security ][13] - * [ Tech Pro ][14] - * [ ZDNet Academy ][15] - * [ Digital Transformation ][16] - * [ Microsoft ][17] - * [ Mobility ][18] - * [ IoT ][19] - * [ Hardware ][20] - * [ Best VPN Services ][21] - * [ See All Topics ][22] - * [ White Papers ][23] - * [ Downloads ][24] - * [ Reviews ][25] - * [ Galleries ][26] - * [ Videos ][8] -* * * [Log In to ZDNET][29] - * [Join ZDNet][30] - * [About ZDNet][31] - * [Preferences][32] - * [Community][33] - * [Newsletters][34] - * [Log Out][35] -* us - - * Asia - * Australia - * Europe - * India - * United Kingdom - * United States - * ZDNet around the globe: - * [ ZDNet China ][2] - * [ ZDNet France ][3] - * [ ZDNet Germany ][4] - * [ ZDNet Korea ][5] - * [ ZDNet Japan ][6] - -# Can Google's search engine find profits? - -Some of the Net's heaviest hitters are backing the new search engine. But why? - -[ ![Elliot Zaret][36] ][37] - -By [Elliot Zaret][37] | June 14, 1999 -- 00:00 GMT (17:00 PDT) | Topic: [Google][38] -* [ 0 ][39] -* * * * **Google.com seems to have it all. The nascent search engine sports an intriguing technology that has excited some of Silicon Valley's biggest investors. And last week, those investors pulled up their dumptrucks of cash to shovel some $25 million on the startup. But one thing Google doesn't seem to have -- or at least isn't answering questions about -- is a business plan. ** - -When asked how the company plans to make money, Google CEO and co-founder Larry Page would only say what they won't do. They don't want to become a portal. No content. And they want to avoid competing with other search engines to be the browser of choice for existing portals. In fact, Page said [Google][40] doesn't have any real competitors at all, which may be why they don't intend to do much marketing. - -But even Internet companies, which are almost expected to lose gobs of money, need at least a revenue stream, don't they? - -"We have other ways of making money," said Page. "You'll see." - -And Google's investors are equally mum about how they plan to reap returns on their capital. At a June 3 press conference, Google announced the $25 million investment came primarily from a unique pairing of sources. - -John Doerr of Kleiner Perkins Caufield and Byers, a founder of [@Home][41] (Nasdaq:[ATHM][42]) who was an early investor in [Amazon.com][43] (Nasdaq:[AMZN][44]), and Michael Moritz of Sequoia Capital, who brought [Yahoo][45]! (Nasdaq:[YHOO][46]) to market, split the lions' share of the funding. The two big spenders share reputations as powerhouses in Silicon Valley -- so they must expect big returns from Google, right? +John Doerr of Kleiner Perkins Caufield and Byers, a founder of +[@Home](http://xlink.zdnet.com/cgi-bin/texis/cofinder/cofinder/CoDetail.html?CoId=C0002357) +(Nasdaq:[ATHM](http://www.zdii.com/industry_list_new.asp?mode=news&ticker=athm)) +who was an early investor in +[Amazon.com](http://xlink.zdnet.com/cgi-bin/texis/cofinder/cofinder/CoDetail.html?CoId=C0007803) +(Nasdaq:[AMZN](http://www.zdii.com/industry_list_new.asp?mode=news&ticker=amzn)), +and Michael Moritz of Sequoia Capital, who brought +[Yahoo](http://xlink.zdnet.com/cgi-bin/texis/cofinder/cofinder/CoDetail.html?CoId=C0002565)\! +(Nasdaq:[YHOO](http://www.zdii.com/industry_list_new.asp?mode=news&ticker=yhoo)) +to market, split the lions' share of the funding. The two big spenders +share reputations as powerhouses in Silicon Valley -- so they must +expect big returns from Google, right? **Query not found: Google business plan** -"We are not saying a lot about Google's business plan," said Kleiner Perkins' Russ Siegleman, who worked with Doerr on the deal. "We think it's the best search engine right now on the Internet. Obviously, we're going to build an interesting business about it." +"We are not saying a lot about Google's business plan," said Kleiner +Perkins' Russ Siegleman, who worked with Doerr on the deal. "We think +it's the best search engine right now on the Internet. Obviously, we're +going to build an interesting business about it." -And [Sun Microsystems][47] (Nasdaq:[SUNW][48]) co-founder Andy Bechtolsheim, now a vice president at [Cisco Systems][49] (Nasdaq:[CSCO][50]), was an early investor in Google. But Bechtolsheim would shed little light on the company's plans. +And [Sun +Microsystems](http://xlink.zdnet.com/cgi-bin/texis/cofinder/cofinder/CoDetail.html?CoId=C0001836) +(Nasdaq:[SUNW](http://www.zdii.com/industry_list_new.asp?mode=news&ticker=sunw)) +co-founder Andy Bechtolsheim, now a vice president at [Cisco +Systems](http://xlink.zdnet.com/cgi-bin/texis/cofinder/cofinder/CoDetail.html?CoId=C0000437) +(Nasdaq:[CSCO](http://www.zdii.com/industry_list_new.asp?mode=news&ticker=CSCO)), +was an early investor in Google. But Bechtolsheim would shed little +light on the company's plans. -"That would be up to the company to communicate," he said. +"That would be up to the company to communicate," he said. -But Bechtolsheim did reiterate that the company would avoid jumping into the content and portal business, which has been the path of choice of nearly every early search site, such as Yahoo!, [Lycos][51] (Nasdaq:[LCOS][52]), and [Excite][53] (Nasdaq:[XCIT][54]). +But Bechtolsheim did reiterate that the company would avoid jumping into +the content and portal business, which has been the path of choice of +nearly every early search site, such as Yahoo\!, +[Lycos](http://xlink.zdnet.com/cgi-bin/texis/cofinder/cofinder/CoDetail.html?CoId=C0002379) +(Nasdaq:[LCOS](http://www.zdii.com/industry_list_new.asp?mode=news&ticker=lcos)), +and +[Excite](http://xlink.zdnet.com/cgi-bin/texis/cofinder/cofinder/CoDetail.html?CoId=C0002363) +(Nasdaq:[XCIT](http://www.zdii.com/industry_list_new.asp?mode=news&ticker=xcit)). -"What people thought of as search and now as portals are really media companies," Bechtolsheim said. "This is really a search company." Few who have looked at Google, doubt that it does search well. Page and co-founder Sergey Brin began developing Google three years ago while Ph.D. students at Stanford University. Unsatisfied with current search engines -- which often give thousands of bad results -- the two looked for a way to make search smarter. +"What people thought of as search and now as portals are really media +companies," Bechtolsheim said. "This is really a search company." Few +who have looked at Google, doubt that it does search well. Page and +co-founder Sergey Brin began developing Google three years ago while +Ph.D. students at Stanford University. Unsatisfied with current search +engines -- which often give thousands of bad results -- the two looked +for a way to make search smarter. **Searching the entire Web** -They didn't get their degrees, but in Sept. 1998, Page and Brin turned their dissertation project into a company. It works like this: The entire Web is constantly downloaded onto Google's computers, where it is aggregated, indexed and prepared for searches. When a user types in a search, Google performs a complex computation -- solving an equation that has 500 million variables and 2 billion terms -- to determine the best results on the "most important" sites. That equation takes into account many factors including how close the search terms are to each other, and whether other "important" Web sites point to the site the terms are on. +They didn't get their degrees, but in Sept. 1998, Page and Brin turned +their dissertation project into a company. It works like this: The +entire Web is constantly downloaded onto Google's computers, where it is +aggregated, indexed and prepared for searches. When a user types in a +search, Google performs a complex computation -- solving an equation +that has 500 million variables and 2 billion terms -- to determine the +best results on the "most important" sites. That equation takes into +account many factors including how close the search terms are to each +other, and whether other "important" Web sites point to the site the +terms are on. -"You're asking the whole Web who's the greatest site to ask about this subject," said Page. +"You're asking the whole Web who's the greatest site to ask about this +subject," said Page. -In order to do the computation, Google splits up the work on hundreds -- and perhaps thousands -- of low-cost PCs running the free Linux operating system, linked together in a parallel and redundant network. The system turns the low-end PCs into a supercomputer at a fraction of the price, Page said. +In order to do the computation, Google splits up the work on hundreds -- +and perhaps thousands -- of low-cost PCs running the free Linux +operating system, linked together in a parallel and redundant network. +The system turns the low-end PCs into a supercomputer at a fraction of +the price, Page said. -Page said he plans to use the $25 million to beef up the company's infrastructure and technology. Google plans to more than quadruple its staff from 23 to 100 by years' end, and has been buying PCs for its network in shipments of 80 at a time, though the company wouldn't disclose exactly how many computers it has. +Page said he plans to use the $25 million to beef up the company's +infrastructure and technology. Google plans to more than quadruple its +staff from 23 to 100 by years' end, and has been buying PCs for its +network in shipments of 80 at a time, though the company wouldn't +disclose exactly how many computers it has. -**You gotta sell it!** -But John Hagen, an analyst with Forrester Research, said all the technology in the world won't generate revenue without good marketing and a business plan. +**You gotta sell it\!** +But John Hagen, an analyst with Forrester Research, said all the +technology in the world won't generate revenue without good marketing +and a business plan. -"Right now there are weak technologies that have great marketing and are making great progress" said Hagen. "The space moves too quickly and at some point, you have to make money." +"Right now there are weak technologies that have great marketing and are +making great progress" said Hagen. "The space moves too quickly and at +some point, you have to make money." -Hagen said Google is reaping the benefits of the speculative nature of the Internet, which is still in a Wild West stage. +Hagen said Google is reaping the benefits of the speculative nature of +the Internet, which is still in a Wild West stage. -"We're in an unreal world now where the concept can get you $25 million -- where revenues and business plans, you don't need to have those," said Hagen. "But that blip's got to end at some point." +"We're in an unreal world now where the concept can get you $25 million +-- where revenues and business plans, you don't need to have those," +said Hagen. "But that blip's got to end at some point." -There are a finite number of ways of making money with search engines, Hagen said. You can build a portal around it like Lycos and Yahoo! did and make money with advertising and e-commerce. But Google said they won't do that. Another way is to partner with the portals and be paid for the searches they generate -- that's something [Inktomi][55] (Nasdaq:[INKT][56]) and [Infoseek][57] (Nasdaq:[SEEK][58]) do. But Google also indicated that wasn't on the table. +There are a finite number of ways of making money with search engines, +Hagen said. You can build a portal around it like Lycos and Yahoo\! did +and make money with advertising and e-commerce. But Google said they +won't do that. Another way is to partner with the portals and be paid +for the searches they generate -- that's something +[Inktomi](http://xlink.zdnet.com/cgi-bin/texis/cofinder/cofinder/CoDetail.html?CoId=C0004081) +(Nasdaq:[INKT](http://www.zdii.com/industry_list_new.asp?mode=news&ticker=inkt)) +and +[Infoseek](http://xlink.zdnet.com/cgi-bin/texis/cofinder/cofinder/CoDetail.html?CoId=C0000804) +(Nasdaq:[SEEK](http://www.zdii.com/industry_list_new.asp?mode=news&ticker=seek)) +do. But Google also indicated that wasn't on the table. **Build it and wait?** -A third way to profit is to license the technology to other sites who can tailor it for their own needs, but Hagen doesn't think that would suit Google. The company could also build its technology and wait for a big company like [AOL][59] (NYSE:[AOL][60]) or Amazon to purchase them. Amazon might even be likely because Amazon vice president Ram Shriram is on the Google board, and Amazon CEO Jeff Bezos is widely rumored to be an investor in Google. +A third way to profit is to license the technology to other sites who +can tailor it for their own needs, but Hagen doesn't think that would +suit Google. The company could also build its technology and wait for a +big company like +[AOL](http://xlink.zdnet.com/cgi-bin/texis/cofinder/cofinder/CoDetail.html?CoId=C0000262) +(NYSE:[AOL](http://www.zdii.com/industry_list_new.asp?mode=news&ticker=aol)) +or Amazon to purchase them. Amazon might even be likely because Amazon +vice president Ram Shriram is on the Google board, and Amazon CEO Jeff +Bezos is widely rumored to be an investor in Google. -But Hagen doesn't think that the large companies -- especially the portals -- would be interested in buying Google. +But Hagen doesn't think that the large companies -- especially the +portals -- would be interested in buying Google. -"My sense is those guys are more interested in licensing the 'best of brand,' " Hagen said. "If they buy Google they have to develop the technology. They're publishers really -- they're no longer technology companies." +"My sense is those guys are more interested in licensing the 'best of +brand,' " Hagen said. "If they buy Google they have to develop the +technology. They're publishers really -- they're no longer technology +companies." -But companies that have worked with Google think the company must have something up its sleeve. [Red Hat][61] has chosen Google as the browser on its home page and has worked with Google to make a search specifically for Linux-related sites. Red Hat Chief Technology Officer Marc Ewing said he's taking a wait and see approach. - -"I don't know exactly how they're going to do it," said Ewing. "They're not idiots over there. They must have some sort of plan. They're just not sharing it." - -### Related Topics: - -[ Amazon ][62] [ Cloud ][11] [ Mobility ][18] [ Enterprise Software ][63] [ Artificial Intelligence ][64] [ Hardware ][20] - -* [ 0 ][39] -* * * * [LOG IN TO COMMENT][65] -* [My Profile][32] -* [Log Out][35] - -| [Community Guidelines][66] - -### Join Discussion - -[Add Your Comment][65] - -[Add Your Comment][39] - -## Related Stories - -* [ ![Noble calls time on Google Australia stint][67] ][68] - -CXO - -[Noble calls time on Google Australia stint][69] - -* [ ![Google adds businesses to RCS messaging platform][70] ][71] - -Mobility - -[Google adds businesses to RCS messaging platform][72] - -* [ ![The internet devalues everything it touches: The case against the online giants][67] ][73] - -Google - -[The internet devalues everything it touches: The case against the online giants][74] - -* [ ![Where iPhones can't go: Rugged Cat S61 enhances thermal imaging, adds laser measuring, air quality sensor][75] ][76] - -Mobility - -[Where iPhones can't go: Rugged Cat S61 enhances thermal imaging, adds laser measuring, air quality sensor][77] - -× - -#### Thank You - -## Please review our terms of service to complete your newsletter subscription. - -By registering you become a member of the CBS Interactive family of sites and you have read and agree to the [Terms of Use][78], [Privacy Policy][79] and [Video Services Policy][80]. 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http://www.zdnet.com/article/there-is-a-case-against-google-and-others-but-it-is-way-too-late/ -[75]: https://zdnet1.cbsistatic.com/hub/i/r/2018/02/22/da5c4b54-2ee1-4cb5-8c3a-84b53072f644/thumbnail/170x128/a945a0208f9b7f4b581c0435853d6421/cats61-workbench.jpg -[76]: http://www.zdnet.com/article/mwc-cat-s61-rugged-flagship-announced-with-enhanced-thermal-imaging-laser-distance-measuring-and-air/ "Where iPhones can't go: Rugged Cat S61 enhances thermal imaging, adds laser measuring, air quality sensor" -[77]: http://www.zdnet.com/article/mwc-cat-s61-rugged-flagship-announced-with-enhanced-thermal-imaging-laser-distance-measuring-and-air/ -[78]: http://www.cbsinteractive.com/legal/cbsi/terms-of-use -[79]: https://cbsi.secure.force.com/CBSi/articles/FAQ/Privacy-Policy?categories=CBS_Interactive%3AmPrivacy&template=template_mobilePrivacy&referer=mobileprivacy.com&data=&cfs=default -[80]: https://cbsi.secure.force.com/CBSi/articles/FAQ/mThird-Party-Social-Networking-Services?template=template_mobilepp&referer=mobilepp.com&data=&cfs=default -[81]: http://www.zdnet.com/ -[82]: https://www.facebook.com/pages/ZDNet/5953112932 -[83]: http://twitter.com/zdnet -[84]: https://www.linkedin.com/company/zdnet-com -[85]: http://legalterms.cbsinteractive.com/privacy -[86]: http://legalterms.cbsinteractive.com/adchoice -[87]: http://www.zdnet.com/advertise/ -[88]: http://legalterms.cbsinteractive.com/terms-of-use -[89]: http://legalterms.cbsinteractive.com/eula -[90]: http://narratives.zdnet.com/ -[91]: http://www.zdnet.com/sitemap/ -[92]: http://www.zdnet.com/rssfeeds/ -[93]: http://www.zdnet.com/reprints/ -[94]: https://secure.zdnet.com/members/ -[95]: https://cbsi.secure.force.com/CBSi/knowledgehome?referer=zdnet.com +But companies that have worked with Google think the company must have +something up its sleeve. [Red +Hat](http://xlink.zdnet.com/cgi-bin/texis/cofinder/cofinder/CoDetail.html?CoId=C0007658) +has chosen Google as the browser on its home page and has worked with +Google to make a search specifically for Linux-related sites. Red Hat +Chief Technology Officer Marc Ewing said he's taking a wait and see +approach. +"I don't know exactly how they're going to do it," said Ewing. "They're +not idiots over there. They must have some sort of plan. They're just +not sharing it." diff --git a/_stories/1999/9251218.md b/_stories/1999/9251218.md deleted file mode 100644 index 74d9978..0000000 --- a/_stories/1999/9251218.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,25 +0,0 @@ ---- -created_at: '2015-03-23T14:51:05.000Z' -title: F***ing Learn to Code Again (1999) -url: http://blog.kebby.org/?p=47 -author: jeffreyrogers -points: 144 -story_text: -comment_text: -num_comments: 64 -story_id: -story_title: -story_url: -parent_id: -created_at_i: 1427122265 -_tags: -- story -- author_jeffreyrogers -- story_9251218 -objectID: '9251218' - ---- -[Source](http://blog.kebby.org/?p=47 "Permalink to ") - - - diff --git a/_stories/1999/9914607.md b/_stories/1999/9914607.md deleted file mode 100644 index 3e14872..0000000 --- a/_stories/1999/9914607.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,25 +0,0 @@ ---- -created_at: '2015-07-20T08:10:56.000Z' -title: 'How We Learned to Cheat at Online Poker: A Study in Software Security (1999)' -url: https://www.cigital.com/papers/download/developer_gambling.php -author: sytelus -points: 56 -story_text: '' -comment_text: -num_comments: 13 -story_id: -story_title: -story_url: -parent_id: -created_at_i: 1437379856 -_tags: -- story -- author_sytelus -- story_9914607 -objectID: '9914607' - ---- -[Source](https://www.cigital.com/papers/download/developer_gambling.php "Permalink to ") - - - diff --git a/_stories/2000/10058486.md b/_stories/2000/10058486.md deleted file mode 100644 index 77fb340..0000000 --- a/_stories/2000/10058486.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,25 +0,0 @@ ---- -created_at: '2015-08-14T03:27:04.000Z' -title: Oberon – The Overlooked Jewel (2000) [pdf] -url: http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.90.7173&rep=rep1&type=pdf -author: marsmxm -points: 78 -story_text: -comment_text: -num_comments: 23 -story_id: -story_title: -story_url: -parent_id: -created_at_i: 1439522824 -_tags: -- story -- author_marsmxm -- story_10058486 -objectID: '10058486' - ---- -[Source](http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.90.7173&rep=rep1&type=pdf "Permalink to ") - - - diff --git a/_stories/2000/10188193.md b/_stories/2000/10188193.md index 1758433..4fe82b9 100644 --- a/_stories/2000/10188193.md +++ b/_stories/2000/10188193.md @@ -19,7 +19,715 @@ _tags: objectID: '10188193' --- -[Source](https://www.usenix.org/legacy/publications/library/proceedings/lisa2000/full_papers/gilfix/gilfix_html/index.html?_ "Permalink to ") +[![Check out the new USENIX Web +site.](/graphics/new_usenix.jpg)](http://www.usenix.org) +# Peep (The Network Auralizer): Monitoring Your Network With Sound +*Michael Gilfix & Prof. Alva Couch* - Tufts University +# Abstract + +Activities in complex networks are often both too important to ignore +and too tedious to watch. We created a network monitoring system, Peep, +that replaces visual monitoring with a sonic \`ecology' of natural +sounds, where each kind of sound represents a specific kind of network +event. This system combines network state information from multiple data +sources, by mixing audio signals into a single audio stream in real +time. Using Peep, one can easily detect common network problems such as +high load, excessive traffic, and email spam, by comparing sounds being +played with those of a normally functioning network. This allows the +system administrator to concentrate on more important things while +monitoring the network via peripheral hearing. + +This work was supported in part by a USENIX student software project +grant. + +# Introduction + +Are your systems and network functioning correctly? Can you be sure at +this moment? Every administrator has some need to be able to answer +these or similar questions on an ongoing basis. + +Current approaches to live monitoring of network behavior (such as +Swatch \[10\], mon \[4\], and their many relatives) can send email or +page responsible people when things seem to go wrong. These tools are +both visual and intrusive; operators must either be interrupted by +alerts or periodically suspend other work to check on network status. +Furthermore, these approaches are highly *problem-centered* and provide +mainly *negative reinforcement*; the monitor notifies an operator only +when problems occur. It does not, as a rule, regularly inform one when +things are going well. + +We created a tool Peep that represents the operational state of a system +or network with a *sonic environment*. The flavor, texture, and +frequency of sounds played are used to represent both proper and +improper network performances, while the \`feel' of the sounds provides +the listener with an approximation of network state. This environment +plays in the background while the operator continues other tasks. +Without looking anywhere and without interrupting other pressing +activities, the operator can hear *peripherally* whether action is +required. + +# Auralization + +The idea of auralizing network behavior by playing network sounds is not +new. Joan Francioni and Mark Brown \[3, 5\] represented parallel +computer performance using a synthesizer driven by a MIDI interface. The +strength of this approach, however, was also its main limitation. For +music to remain pleasant, one must limit one's representations to a +limited number of relatively pleasing harmonic combinations. This +greatly limits what one can represent with this technique. *Earcons* +\[2\] are the sonic equivalent of icons; sounds that are naturally +associated with particular events. For example, most people associate a +car horn with impatience or alert and a doorbell with someone entering a +house. + +Both of these approaches define the meanings of specific sounds or +particular combinations in isolation. Combining sounds is difficult +unless they are consonant either musically or environmentally, that is, +that the sounds naturally occur together and \`sound right' in +combination. Natural sounds have an advantage over music; they sound +normal and pleasing in almost any combination similar to that of nature. +For example, birds and frogs in wetlands can sing with virtually no +coordination, and the result is still pleasing. + +# The Psychology of Audio Notification + +What makes Peep possible is that events in networks have easily +recognized natural sound counterparts. Moreover, numerous natural sounds +can be played in combination while the result stays pleasing to the ear. +If each sound represents some part of network function, and all are +played together, the result is a *sonic ecology* in which the current +state of the network can be determined moment by moment. + +Peep exploits human instinct: our ability to notice a deviation from the +norm with little effort, to determine what sounds right, and to discern +singular important sounds from a collection of many sounds. We do these +tasks with little or no conscious effort. Since computer interfaces +mainly require the visual senses (and some motor skills), the audio +senses are left available to perform this unconscious processing. + +Furthermore, Peep takes advantage of our ability to do abstract +processing. Instead of attempting the difficult and sensitive problem of +determining when a network crisis has occurred or is about to occur, +Peep provides contextual, continuous sound information and leaves +interpretation to the listener. Decisions are based not only on the +quantitative measure of things, but the relative amount and absence of +things. A musician friend has often expressed to me his philosophy: +\`\`Anybody can play drums, but the great drummer concentrates as much +on the feel of the notes as on the space, or absence of sound, between +them.'' Similarly, information that is lacking from Peep's sound +ambiance is just as important as the amount of information conferred and +the relative magnitude is left to the judgement of the listener. + +# Representational Techniques + +Sound representation in Peep is divided into three basic categories: +*Events* in networks are things that occur once, naturally represented +by a single peep or chirp. Network *states* represent ongoing events by +changing the type, volume, or stereo position of an ongoing background +sound while *heartbeats* represent the existence or frequency of +occurrence of an ongoing network state by playing a sound at varying +intervals, such as by changing the frequency of cricket chirps. + +Peep represents discrete events by playing a single natural sound every +time the event occurs, such as a bird chirp or a woodpecker's peck. The +sounds we chose are short and staccato in nature and easily +distinguishable by the listener. Additionally, we noted that certain +events tend to occur together and found it convenient to assign them +complementary sounds. While monitoring incoming and outgoing email on +our network, we noticed that the two events were often grouped together, +since both types of email were usually transferred in a single session +between mail servers. To better represent this coupling between incoming +and outgoing email events and make the representation sound more +natural, we used the sounds of two conversing birds. Thus, a flood of +incoming and outgoing email sounds like a sequence of call and response, +making the sound \`imagery' both more faithful to our network's +behavior, as well as more pleasing to the ear. + +State sounds correspond to measurements or weights describing the +magnitude of something, such as the load average or the number of users +on a given machine. Unlike events, which are only played when Peep is +notified of them, Peep plays state information constantly and need only +be signaled when state sounds should change. Peep represents a state +with a continuous stream of background sounds, like a waterfall or wind. +Each state is internally identified as a single number measurement, +scaled to vary from extremely quiet to loud and obnoxious. Background +sounds should be soothing while the network is functioning normally. +However, when the administrator is annoyed, he will know that action is +required. + +Heartbeats are sounds that occur at constant intervals, analogous to +crickets chirping at night. A common folk tale is that one can tell the +temperature from the frequency of cricket chirps; likewise we can +represent network load as a similar function. Intermittent chirps might +mean low load, while a chorus might mean high load. Heartbeats can also +report results of an intermittent check (or ping) to see if a given +machine, device, or server is functioning properly. + +Humans are very apt at recognizing when continual background sounds +change, making problem detection swift and simple. If your email server +dies, chances are that you will not receive any email warning of the +problem. But the crickets will have stopped chirping. The heartbeats +provide an effective method for monitoring the functionality of your +network and being alerted of a problem when all else fails, through the +absence of sound. Likewise, the administrator need not fear about +monitoring his Peep server; if it dies, he will be immersed in sudden +silence\! + +Sound representation depends very much on personal taste. Peep aims to +provide users with a choice of themes such as *wetlands* (the current +theme available) or *jungle*. Within a theme, sounds are classified +according to the network events they most appropriately express. +Although the two chorusing birds were used to represent incoming and +outgoing mail in the previous example, the two bird sounds could have +been used for any type of coupled event behavior. These classifications +help the user make decisions on what sounds to use from his collection +of favorites. + +We also recognize that distinguishing sounds can be difficult if, for +example, several similar bird sounds are used in a single theme. As the +theme repository provided with Peep expands, we hope it will address a +wide range of network situations and personal tastes. + +# Scalability and Flexibility + +The Peep architecture was designed to be versatile and scalable. The +architecture is based upon a producer/consumer relationship between +distributed monitoring processes that watch the network and servers that +actually play sounds. Producers alert consumers to events and state +changes via short UDP messages, as shown in Figure 1. + +This architecture allows the receipt of status reports from any number +of devices or nodes. Producers (the monitors in Figure 1) monitor +network behavior and report events and states while consumers take their +input from the producers and play the appropriate sounds. Producers can +be pointed at several sound generators simultaneously, e.g., a lab full +of Linux workstations, for a truly immersive experience\! + +![](fig1a.gif) +**Figure 1**: The Peep architecture. + + +Producers are executed as daemons on machines with access to information +sources. This eliminates the need to send copious amounts of sensitive +log or machine information across the network to a centralized +monitoring server. The packets sent to the consumer contain only sound +representation information and would be of little use to a snooper +without access to the Peep configuration file. + +The Peep system was designed to take advantage of existing system +administration tools. Server and client configuration information is +stored in the same configuration file. This allows centralized control +of Peep via simple file distribution via NFS or other widely accepted +mechanisms such as CFEngine \[6, 7, 8\] and rdist \[9\]. + +Clients provided with the Peep distribution are \`lightweight' Perl +scripts. Each client functions strictly within one problem domain: it +addresses its original intended purpose and no more. This keeps client +code simple, easy to debug, and easy to customize. + +We also wanted clients to run in the background and utilize as little +resources as possible. Our log probing client, ***LogParser***, watches +log files and uses regular expressions to determine when particular +events have occurred. Because of the way regular expressions are mapped +in memory, scanning a single log for many different text patterns can +become memory intensive. Instead, we designed ***LogParser*** to +distribute monitoring overhead. Multiple instances of ***LogParser*** +can run on separate feeds around the network, each instance searching +for only a few textual patterns in the local system logs. This allows +the system administrator to take advantage of the distributed computing +power of his network, rather than waste what is often an abundance of +idle resources in the hands of naive users. Peep aims to provide +administrators with several means of implementing monitoring. +Administrators still have the option of directing all log entries to a +single machine should they so desire, at the cost of increased network +bandwidth. Furthermore, the distributed method can be combined with the +single-machine method with no effort on the administrator's part. + +Expanding the capabilities of Peep to fit your own needs is simple. Perl +libraries handle all the low-level details, so writing scripts for +event, state, and heartbeat-driven feeds can be quick and painless. +***LogParser*** can also be easily configured to scan a log for new +events via additional regular expressions. + +# The Peep Protocol + +Peep was designed to allow centralized management of its distributed +architecture. The Peep protocol uses auto-discovery to dynamically bind +clients and servers together upon startup. Peep configuration also uses +a class mechanism to define groups of clients that should all report +data to the same servers. + +Peep was originally designed to use TCP for communication between +clients and servers but communication over UDP proved much more +efficient and effective. The main strength of TCP is its reliability. +However, this reliability comes at the cost of greater bandwidth usage. +Extra packets must be sent to ensure that transmissions were received +correctly and in the proper order. Peep does not require packets to be +ordered in any way - nor for packet transmissions to be reliable - since +the representation of the state of the network is an approximation +rather than a precise depiction. In any case, the human ear has no way +of distinguishing the exact order of events when events rapidly arrive +at the Peep server; indeed, the resulting sounds seem simultaneous. + +The statelessness of UDP provided another benefit: clients and servers +can be stopped and restarted without affecting one another. We wanted +users to be able to write their own clients with minimal hassle. +Avoiding connection management keeps clients simple and allows one to +readily write Peep clients without making use of the included Perl +libraries. + +One drawback to using UDP is that clients have difficulty determining +when servers crash. If this problem is not addressed, a client will +continue to provide data to a non-existent server forever. Peep deals +with this problem by combining a leasing mechanism with auto-discovery. +This combination provides safe, dynamic, real-time bindings between +clients and servers. + +![](fig2a.gif) +**Figure 2**: A server initialization. +![](fig3a.gif) +**Figure 3**: A client initialization. + + +Peep's auto-discovery mechanism uses a domain-class concept to maintain +bindings between clients and their respective servers. When a server +initializes, it broadcasts its existence to the subnets associated with +its classes and announces the classes of which it is a part. The clients +that are members of those classes register themselves with the server +and begin sending it packets. Conversely, should a client start up and +broadcast its existence, the servers associated with its class will tell +it to begin sending. A broadcast only occurs once during the +initialization of each client or server, after which a list of hosts is +maintained on both sides and communications are direct. Both clients and +servers can belong to multiple classes at the same time and clients can +communicate with many servers concurrently. + +Leasing is used to ensure that clients do not waste network bandwidth +and system resources sending packets to servers that are no longer +listening. The server sends a lease time to the client during +auto-discovery. Just before the lease expires, the server tells the +client to renew the lease. The client responds by telling the server +that it is still alive and still needs to know about lease information. +If the client has not heard from a server after the lease time has +expired, it will no longer send packets to that server. Similarly, if a +server does not receive lease acknowledgement from a client, it will no +longer attempt to renew its lease with that client. + +The auto-discovery and lease mechanisms greatly ease the burden on the +system administrator. The system administrator can then use a file +distribution mechanism, like CFEngine, to add client and server daemons +to a machine's background processes. Clients will sleep until a server +becomes available, and will send packets only while that server stays +available. + +Alternatively, system administrators may decide to dedicate a machine to +run Peep software and want all clients to execute on a single machine. +In this situation, broadcasting becomes totally unnecessary and +inefficient. Instead, the user can disable the auto-discovery mechanism. +Clients will then become dumb clients, continually processing and +sending event information to a server throughout the course of their +lifetimes. Peep also provides the user the choice of mixing and +matching, applying distributed and centralized configurations where they +make sense. + +In terms of robustness, the Peep protocol has version identification, +room for future expansion, and type identification. Upgrades should +allow older clients to work with newer servers and vice versa. +Communications are done using one-byte quantities to represent +attributes, and strings for anything more complex. This allows us to +avoid any external data representation issues, making the protocol more +portable. + +Details of this protocol are hidden inside a Perl client interface +library provided with Peep. The Peep library demands little expertise. +To create a client with all of the library's benefits, programmers need +only initialize the library with their application name and tell the +library what information to send. Initializing the library parses the +Peep master configuration file, so programmers need not do it +themselves. This allows client design to be as simple or as complicated +as the user desires. We hope that the simplicity of writing clients with +the Perl library will encourage users to write their own client +applications and share their code with others. + +# Configuring the Peep System + +How one configures Peep is very much dependent on whether you choose to +use single or multiple nodes. The generalized Peep installation is a +four-step process: downloading the source and a sound package, compiling +the server, editing the configuration file, and deploying clients. + +The Peep server package uses the gnu autoconf package to make +configuration and compilation easy. Support for tcp\_wrappers \[11\] can +be added as an option. Peep comes with two generic sound modules. One +handles generic /dev/audio support while the other takes advantage of +ALSA \[1\] on Linux systems. The ***configure*** package will default to +ALSA drivers over generic support, if present. Special support for the +Sun audio jack is also provided. + +After compilation, the next step is to tell Peep which sounds to +associate with which events, the classes to which your clients and +servers belong, and your client configurations. A simple Peep +configuration file is shown in Figure 4. + + class myclass + broadcast 130.64.23.255:2000 + server swami:2001 + end myclass + client LogParser + class myclass + port 2000 + config + #Name|OptLetter|Location|Priority|RegX + out-mail 0 1 "sendmail.*:.*from" + inc-mail I 255 0 "sendmail.*:.*to" + end config + end client LogParser + events + #Event Type|Path|# sounds to load + out-mail /path/sounds/peep1a.* 1 + inc-mail /path/sounds/peep2a.* 1 + end events + states + #Event Type|Path|# sounds| Fade time + loadavg /path/sounds/water.* 5 0.3 + end states + + +**Figure 4**: An example peep.conf. + +Class definitions consist of two lines: one specifying broadcast zones +and another specifying which servers are part of that class. Several +broadcast zones and servers can be specified. Clients and servers can be +part of several classes and will broadcast all the classes to which they +belong during initialization. Putting multiple servers in a class (or +making a client a member of multiple classes) is an easy way to have a +single client dump data to multiple servers. + +The \`events' and \`states' sections tell Peep servers to associate a +name with a group of sounds. Filename descriptions in the Peep +configuration file have a trailing asterisk extension followed by the +number of sounds to load. Peep expands each asterisk into a two-digit +number and loads, in ascending order, the number of sounds specified. +All of the sound files loaded for a single entry then correspond to a +single event. Every time that event occurs, the server will randomly +play one of the associated sounds. This randomness makes the sound +ambiance more natural. Heartbeats are created from streams of normal +events from a client at suitable intervals. For state sounds, the server +randomly strings together sound segments to create a non-repeating, +random-sounding background ambiance. To keep transitions between sound +segments sounding natural, the user can specify a linear fade time +between segments. + +The final step is to configure and deploy some of the clients provided +with Peep. Two of those are discussed here: ***Peck*** and +***LogParser***. + +#### `Peck` + +***Peck*** is a command-line utility provided with Peep. It allows the +user to tell a server to play (and how to play) a given sound. +***Peck*** is an example of a dumb client and bypasses the +auto-discovery and leasing mechanisms. Event and state attributes are +specified on the command-line and delivered directly to the server. Some +command-line options apply to event sounds and others to background +sounds, but the user need only remember a small number of options to get +the Peep server to play some interesting things. ***Peck*** can be +called with appropriate arguments from a shell script if a user does not +wish to use a client library. Ideally, one should only utilize +***Peck*** to talk to servers on the same physical machine, or to report +very infrequent events since ***Peck***'s inability to use +auto-discovery and leasing capabilities means that calling applications +will have no knowledge of the state of the receiving server. ***Peck*** +is handy for a variety of simple tasks, including debugging +installations, testing how things sound together, experimenting with +Peep's capabilities, and interfacing Peep with other monitoring systems +(such as an existing Swatch or mon installation). + +#### `LogParser` + +A simple log analyzer, similar to Swatch, is also provided with Peep. +***LogParser*** takes advantage of Peep's auto-discovery and leasing +mechanisms. It is also an efficient distributed tool. ***LogParser*** +reads its entire configuration but only searches for and remembers +textual patterns specified on the command-line. It was designed to have +multiple instances run on several different machines, each scanning for +different sets of textual patterns on each client machine. + +***LogParser*** is flexible, easy to configure, and provides a simple +way to access Peep's capabilities for representing events and states. It +analyzes log messages as they are added to the log file and scans them +for regular expressions. ***LogParser*** uses simple configuration +syntax to generate command-line options and determine which sounds to +associate with which particular events. Several options follow: + + - The **priority of the event ensures that no matter how many network + events hit the Peep server, the most important ones will be played + first and foremost.** + - The **stereo location of the event, aside from pleasing the true + audiophile, helps the user distinguish and even locate an event. + Sonic locations can even be assigned to correspond to the actual + locations of machines on the network. Future versions of Peep might + include a visual sound location map to exploit this.** + - A **regular expression that tells ***LogParser*** how to find the + event in a log file. Users with experience with Awk/Perl pattern + matching will appreciate this feature while others may find writing + these difficult. We feel this is the easiest way to extend the + capabilities of Peep without doing any sort of programming.** + +Directives in the ***LogParser*** configuration can be enabled or +disabled via command-line options. Each line of the ***LogParser*** +configuration corresponds to a user-specified single-letter option. In +Figure 4, incoming and outgoing mail are mapped to command-line options +\`\`I'' and \`\`O'', respectively. Thus, an invocation of +***LogParser*** searching for incoming mail might look as follows: + + LogParser -events=I + -logfile=/var/log/messages + +Should the user forget the options, a help option will conveniently +generate a list of user-configured options. + +A single instance of ***LogParser*** can scan numerous logs +simultaneously. It can send event streams to multiple servers +automatically via the auto-discovery and domain-class mechanisms. These +features provide the user with a myriad of options for structuring the +architecture of Peep within a network. + +# Peep Performance under Pressure + +To deal with copious amounts of incoming network data, Peep has a +queuing and windowing system that handles large numbers of simultaneous +events. This ensures that events are played in the order of receipt and +in accordance with their particular priority. Peep will also discard +events from its queue if too much time elapses between receipt and +playtime, in order to keep events relevant. + +Peep plays sounds by mixing sources in software. Since having large +numbers of simultaneous voices can become computationally expensive, the +user can tweak Peep's performance by changing the number of voices used +when mixing sound. Less mixing voices tend to mean that the Peep's +queuing and windowing system gets more usage, but the two always strike +a balance to keep events accurately positioned in terms of time of +occurrence. + +It is difficult to send events to a Peep server fast enough to fill a +queue on a Pentium II 400 and during testing, this required the use of +an infinite loop. If the Peep server does manage to become overloaded, +it only falls behind time-wise, adding a delay between the real-time +event and the playing of its counterpart. Peep will preserve the general +order and users will still be able to diagnose problems based upon the +relative frequency of events. The delay experienced only applies to +events and heartbeats; state changes occur instantaneously. In a worst +case scenario, should the queue manage to fill up while new events are +still arriving, Peep will begin discarding the oldest events from the +queue, attempting to give the best approximation of network activity. + +# A Brief Overview of Implementation + +The inner-workings of a Peep server are based upon the interactions +between three execution threads as shown in Figure 5: the listener, the +engine, and the mixer. The listener handles all communications with the +client, discovering clients via auto-discovery and keeping track of +client leases. Upon receipt of event or state data, the listener thread +places the information into a queue to be processed by the engine. The +engine works closely in conjunction with the mixer to keep track of the +priority of incoming and currently playing sounds. The engine also tries +to find the best available mixing channel on which to play the incoming +events and informs the mixer of the necessary parameters to properly +represent the information. Should a suitable mixing channel not be +found, the engine will place the events into a priority queue, ensuring +that the mixer will play the most important events as soon as mixing +channels free up. The mixer performs the processing necessary to produce +Peep's output. This process involves scaling each sound's volume, as +well as fading between state sounds. The mixer must also check the +engine's event queue and ensure that queued, older events have priority +as soon as mixing channels free up. + +# Critique + +From our perspective, the design of Peep is very robust and portable. We +decided, however, that support for generic audio hardware was more +important than efficiency of memory and processor usage on the server +side. Peep utilizes Linux ALSA and OSS drivers, as well as the Solaris +/dev/audio interface, to avoid device incompatibilities. This is done at +the expense of ignoring commonly available device-dependent +hardware-based mixing in favor of mixing in software. Software mixing +did afford us one advantage that hardware cannot guarantee: users will +always get the benefit of sound processing incorporated into Peep +regardless of the hardware. Future plans do include support for +hardware-based mixing on a selected number of audio cards. + +An invisible limitation of Peep is that creating accurate natural venues +of consonant sounds is both an art and very labor-intensive. Due to +copyright limitations on existing natural sound collections, Prof. Couch +has spent many hours with a Telinga parabolic nature microphone and Sony +DAT or digital minidisc recorder in search of the perfect bird. Sounds +we collected required significant post-processing, including high and +low-pass filtering and noise reduction, before they were free of enough +normal background noises to serve as event sounds. Collecting state +sounds proved even more difficult, with the sound of wind being the most +difficult. The challenge was to collect \`desirable noise' without +impurities such as car horns and airplane engines. + +In spite of the excellent guidance on the recording of natural sounds +that we obtained from the Cornell Ornithology website \[13\], the Stokes +Field Guide to Bird Songs \[14, 15\], and the British Library National +Sound Archive \[12\] we are not ornithologists and apologize in advance +for any gross mislabeling of sounds included with Peep\! Nonetheless, we +have made significant progress in providing a Wetlands venue, and are +planning others in the future. + +![](fig5a.gif) +**Figure 5**: The Peep server's internal structure. + +Configuring a Peep theme pleasingly can be non-trivial, especially when +choosing which sounds should be associated with which events. The +process of choosing sounds can often be a very lengthy. Since sounds +chosen vary according to personal taste and the situation they are +attempting to describe, we hope to provide several different preset +configurations for our users after the tool has had more exposure. + +Peep is relatively young and prior to this publication has received very +little public usage. We hope we have anticipated and met the needs of a +wide range of network implementations. However, only public usage and +time will tell. + +# Future Work + +We want to see several other capabilities added to Peep servers to +better represent network events. One idea is \`log dithering'. Due to +block buffering, many log files are updated in erratic bursts so that +several events are written to the log file and reported by +***LogParser*** as simultaneous. A dither time would space out how the +events are played so they have a truer representation. + +We also want to represent state sounds in a way that better models the +way the human ear works. Since the ear hears amplitudes on an +exponential scale (in dB), we want to scale state measurements +exponentially so that they better approximate what the human ear +considers truly loud. This still may not satisfy our vision of having a +storm break loose when a machine is overloaded. + +We may also allow sounds to change in nature with volume. A small stream +might become a river rapid when a state measurement, such as load +average, increases. State sounds might be represented by three or four +different collections of sounds to achieve a \`thunderous' effect. A +final item on the server wish-list is pitch bending: the ability to play +sounds at different frequencies. Using this capability we could generate +birdcalls at different pitches and then combine them together to create +the effect of a chorus of distinct birds from a single sample. + +We would also like to add a GUI to ease the process of configuring +sounds for Peep. Since we plan on having several different sound +classifications, a sound browser would be a welcome addition. The +interface would let the user play several sounds simultaneously so they +could get a feel for how things would sound in various situations. This +will most likely be the next major addition to the Peep software +package. + +Lastly, we hope a few brave users will contribute homegrown scripts and +configurations to the project so that we can establish an archive and +ease the process of making a new installation. + +# Conclusions + +This work began two years ago by trying to define what constitutes +\`normal' behavior of a network and how to take action to rectify +\`abnormal' behavior. This proved infeasible because normalcy depends as +much upon policy decisions as upon many pre-existing conditions. These +conditions exhibit complexities and intricacies that are difficult to +depict via traditional methods. + +Our sound ecology depicts normalcy in a new way. Things are normal when +Peep \`\`sounds like it did yesterday,'' regardless of the intricacy of +the depiction. Our innate human abilities to detect these differences +are more acute than one may realize. When things sound different, we may +not know why, but we can tell that *something* has changed. + +Traditional tools look for specific problems while Peep only tells the +listener about potential problems. In that respect, Peep will outlast +traditional problem-detection tools because it portrays the general +problem and no more. And unlike other tools, Peep is non-intrusive. One +doesn't need to pay much attention to Peep in order to benefit. We don't +want you to. We just want you to sit back, and listen. + +# Availability + +The current revision of Peep is 0.3.0alpha and is is currently freely +available from . A demo of Peep's +capabilities will also be provided on the website in .wav format so +users can know what they're getting into before they install it. + +# Acknowledgements + +Thanks to USENIX for funding this project and making it possible. +Additional thanks goes to Andy Davidoff for contributing many great +design ideas throughout the course of Peep's development and for being +one of the first to embrace Peep software. + +# Biography + +Michael Gilfix was born in Winnipeg, Canada and presently resides in +Montreal, Canada where he attended high school at Lower Canada College. +He is currently a junior at Tufts University, where he is completing his +undergraduate degree in electrical engineering and his masters in +computer science. His interests include guitars, music, and computers in +all ways, shapes, and forms. While completing his degrees, he is +currently practicing the art of system administration in Tufts' +Electrical Engineering and Computer Science department. He will be +graduating in 2003. He can be reached via electronic mail as +. Reach him telephonically at +1 617-627-2804. + +Alva L. Couch was born in Winston-Salem, North Carolina where he +attended the North Carolina School of the Arts as a high school major in +bassoon and contrabassoon performance. He received an S.B. in +Architecture from M.I.T. in 1978, after which he worked for four years +as a systems analyst and administrator at Harvard Medical School. +Returning to school, he received an M.S. in Mathematics from Tufts in +1987, and a Ph.D. in Mathematics from Tufts in 1988. He became a member +of the faculty of Tufts Department of Computer Science in the fall of +1988, and is currently an Associate Professor of Electrical Engineering +and Computer Science at Tufts. He can be reached by surface mail at the +Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, 161 College +Avenue, Tufts University, Medford, MA 02155. He can be reached via +electronic mail as . His work phone is +1 +617-627-3674. + +# References + +\[1\] Advanced Linux Sound Architecture, +. +\[2\] G. Kramer, Ed, *Auditory Display: Sonification, Audification, and +Auditory Interfaces*, Addison-Wesley, Inc. 1994. +\[3\] J. Francioni and J. A. Jackson, \`\`Breaking the Silence: +Auralization of Parallel Program Behavior,'' *Journal of Parallel and +Distributed Computing*, June 1993. +\[4\] J. Trocki, \`\`Mon, the Server Monitoring Daemon,'' +. +\[5\] M. Brown, \`\`An Introduction to Zeus: Audiovisualization of Some +Elementary Sorting Algorithms,'' *CHI '92 proceedings*, Addison-Wesley, +Inc. 1992. +\[6\] M. Burgess, \`\`A Site Configuration Engine,'' *Computing +Systems*, 1995. +\[7\] M. Burgess, \`\`A Distributed Resource Administration Using +Cfengine,'' *Software: Practice and Experience*, 1997. +\[8\] M. Burgess, \`\`Computer Immunology,'' *Proceedings LISA XII*, +Usenix Assoc., 1998. +\[9\] M. Cooper, \`\`Overhauling Rdist for the '90's,'' *Proceedings +LISA VI*, Usenix Assoc., 1992. +\[10\] S. Hansen and T. Atkins, \`\`Centralized System Monitoring With +Swatch,'' *Proceedings LISA VII*, Usenix Assoc., 1993. +\[11\] W. Venema, \`\`TCP WRAPPER, network monitoring, access control, +and booby traps,'' *UNIX Security Symposium III*, September 1992. +\[12\] \`\`The British Library National Sound Archive,'' +, The British Library, +2000. +\[13\] \`\`The Library of Natural Sounds,'' +, Cornell Lab of Ornithology, 2000. +\[14\] D. Stokes, L. Stokes, and L. Elliot, *Stokes Field Guide to Bird +Songs: Eastern Region* (three audio CD's), Warner Books, Inc., 1997. +\[15\] Peterson Field Guides, *Eastern/Central Bird Songs* (three audio +CD's), Houghton-Mifflin, Inc., 1999. diff --git a/_stories/2000/11067604.md b/_stories/2000/11067604.md index 2ef15da..66f5a73 100644 --- a/_stories/2000/11067604.md +++ b/_stories/2000/11067604.md @@ -19,353 +19,7 @@ _tags: objectID: '11067604' --- -[Source](https://www.amnh.org/education/resources/rfl/web/essaybooks/cosmic/cs_paradox.html "Permalink to kernel (20)") - -# kernel (20) - -* [Skip to Page Content][3] -* [Skip to Site Navigation][4] -* [Skip to Search][5] -* [Skip to Footer][6] - -# ![American Museum of Natural History][7] - -__ __ __ - -[My Profile][8] | [Log Out][9] [Log In][10] | [Register][11] - -[My Profile][8] | [Log Out][9] [Log In][10] | [Register][11] - -* [ __Plan Your Visit ][12] - -The Museum is open daily from 10 am to 5:45 pm except on Thanksgiving and Christmas.  - - * 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-[142]: https://www.amnh.org/about-the-museum/notice-of-non-discrimination-and-harassment "Non-Discrimination Notice" -[143]: //googleads.g.doubleclick.net/pagead/viewthroughconversion/984088422/?value=1&guid=ON&script=0 +# Error Page +The page you have requested could not be found.  [Click here](/) to +return to the AMNH homepage. diff --git a/_stories/2000/11191326.md b/_stories/2000/11191326.md index f129817..be2ce61 100644 --- a/_stories/2000/11191326.md +++ b/_stories/2000/11191326.md @@ -19,7 +19,109 @@ _tags: objectID: '11191326' --- -[Source](https://www.theguardian.com/science/2000/may/14/spaceexploration.theobserver "Permalink to ") +The US Air Force developed a top-secret plan to detonate a nuclear bomb +on the moon as a display of military might at the height of the Cold +War. +In an exclusive interview with The Observer, Dr Leonard Reiffel, 73, the +physicist who fronted the project in the late Fifties at the US +military-backed Armour Research Foundation, revealed America's +extraordinary lunar plan. +'It was clear the main aim of the proposed detonation was a PR exercise +and a show of one-upmanship. The Air Force wanted a mushroom cloud so +large it would be visible on earth,' he said yesterday. 'The US was +lagging behind in the space race.' +'The explosion would obviously be best on the dark side of the moon and +the theory was that if the bomb exploded on the edge of the moon, the +mushroom cloud would be illuminated by the sun.' The bomb would have +been at least as large as the one used on Hiroshima at the end of World +War II. + +'I made it clear at the time there would be a huge cost to science of +destroying a pristine lunar environment, but the US Air Force were +mainly concerned about how the nuclear explosion would play on earth,' +said Reiffel. + +Although he believes the blast would have had little environmental +impact on Earth, its crater may have ruined the face of the 'man in the +moon'. + +Reiffel would not reveal how the explosion would have taken place. But +he confirmed it was 'certainly technically feasible' and that at the +time an intercontinental ballistic nuclear missile would have been +capable of hitting a target on the moon with an accuracy of within two +miles. + +Reiffel was approached by senior US Air Force officers in 1958, who +asked him to 'fast-track' a project to investigate the visibility and +effects of a nuclear explosion on the moon. The top-secret Project A119, +was entitled 'A Study of Lunar Research Flights'. + +'Had the project been made public there would have been an outcry,' said +Reiffel. + +Many Cold War documents are still classified in the US, but details of +Project A119 emerged after a biography of celebrated US scientist and +astronomer Carl Sagan was published there last year. + +Sagan, who died in 1996, was famous for popularising science in the US +and pioneering the study of potential life on other planets. At the +Armour Foundation in Chicago - now called the Illinois Institute of +Technology Research - he was hired by Reiffel to undertake mathematical +modelling on the expansion of an exploding dust cloud in the space +around the moon. This was key to calculating the visibility of such a +cloud from the Earth. + +At the time scientists still believed there might be microbial life on +the moon and Sagan had suggested a nuclear explosion might be used to +detect organisms. + +Despite the highly classified nature of the work, Sagan's biographer, +Keay Davidson, discovered that he had disclosed details of it when he +applied for the prestigious Miller Institute graduate fellowship to +Berkeley. + +Yet, until today, the full nature of Project A119 has never been +revealed. Friends of Sagan believe he never would have wilfully revealed +classified information, but Reiffel has come forward to put the +'historical record straight'. + +Reiffel continued: 'It was well known that the existence of this project +was top secret. Had Sagan wanted to make any disclosures to any party, +as his boss at the time, I would have had to take forward any such +request and Air Force permission would have been extremely unlikely in +those very tense times.' + +In a letter to the science magazine Nature, Reiffel said: 'Fortunately +for the future of lunar science, a one or two horse race to detonate a +nuclear explosion never occurred. But in my opinion Sagan breached +security in March, 1959.' + +Reiffel produced eight reports between May 1958 and January 1959 on the +feasibility of the plan, all of which were destroyed in 1987 by the +foundation. Reiffel would not discuss details of these reports, +believing they were still classified, but it was clear the conclusion +was that the explosion would have been visible from Earth + +He does not know why the plans were scrapped, but said: 'Thankfully, the +thinking changed. I am horrified that such a gesture to sway public +opinion was ever considered.' + +Dr David Lowry, a British nuclear historian, said: 'It is obscene. To +think that the first contact human beings would have had with another +world would have been to explode a nuclear bomb. Had they gone ahead, we +would never have had the romantic image of Neil Armstrong taking "one +giant step for mankind".' + +Lowry believes Project A119 has relevance today with the US proposing a +missile defence system in space. He said: 'The US has always wanted to +militarise space and some of the fanciful ideas currently being put +forward will seem as incredible as the idea of nuking the moon in the +Fifties seems today.' + +A Pentagon spokesman would not confirm or deny the plans. + +• +[antony.barnett@observer.co.uk]('mailto:antony.barnett@observer.co.uk') diff --git a/_stories/2000/1714338.md b/_stories/2000/1714338.md deleted file mode 100644 index 30e9005..0000000 --- a/_stories/2000/1714338.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,25 +0,0 @@ ---- -created_at: '2010-09-21T22:27:06.000Z' -title: Courtney Love does the math (2000) -url: http://www.salon.com/technology/feature/2000/06/14/love -author: ssp -points: 148 -story_text: '' -comment_text: -num_comments: 56 -story_id: -story_title: -story_url: -parent_id: -created_at_i: 1285108026 -_tags: -- story -- author_ssp -- story_1714338 -objectID: '1714338' - ---- -[Source](https://www.salon.com/technology/feature/2000/06/14/love "Permalink to ") - - - diff --git a/_stories/2000/2742303.md b/_stories/2000/2742303.md deleted file mode 100644 index 812e19c..0000000 --- a/_stories/2000/2742303.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,25 +0,0 @@ ---- -created_at: '2011-07-08T13:26:14.000Z' -title: Courtney Love does the math (2000) -url: http://www.salon.com/technology/feature/2000/06/14/love/print.html -author: hezekiah -points: 246 -story_text: '' -comment_text: -num_comments: 68 -story_id: -story_title: -story_url: -parent_id: -created_at_i: 1310131574 -_tags: -- story -- author_hezekiah -- story_2742303 -objectID: '2742303' - ---- -[Source](https://www.salon.com/technology/feature/2000/06/14/love/print.html "Permalink to ") - - - diff --git a/_stories/2000/3482983.md b/_stories/2000/3482983.md deleted file mode 100644 index de617b6..0000000 --- a/_stories/2000/3482983.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,25 +0,0 @@ ---- -created_at: '2012-01-19T02:42:14.000Z' -title: Courtney Love does the math (2000) -url: http://www.salon.com/2000/06/14/love_7/singleton/ -author: dmor -points: 173 -story_text: '' -comment_text: -num_comments: 36 -story_id: -story_title: -story_url: -parent_id: -created_at_i: 1326940934 -_tags: -- story -- author_dmor -- story_3482983 -objectID: '3482983' - ---- -[Source](https://www.salon.com/2000/06/14/love_7/singleton/ "Permalink to ") - - - diff --git a/_stories/2000/4058513.md b/_stories/2000/4058513.md index 4b70728..38d07c1 100644 --- a/_stories/2000/4058513.md +++ b/_stories/2000/4058513.md @@ -19,7 +19,16 @@ _tags: objectID: '4058513' --- -[Source](https://www.maa.org/devlin/devlin_10_00.html "Permalink to ") +Mathematician Keith Devlin is the Executive Director of the +Human-Sciences and Technologies Advanced Research Institute +([H-STAR](http://hstar.stanford.edu/)) at Stanford University and [The +Math Guy](http://www.stanford.edu/~kdevlin/MathGuy.html) on NPR's +[Weekend Edition](http://www.npr.org/programs/wesat). +[Contact](mailto:keithdevlin@profkeithdevlin.com). +[Devlin's Angle](http://maa.org/devlin/devangle.html) is a monthly +column sponsored by the Mathematical Association of America. +This column does not reflect an official position of the Mathematical +Association of America. diff --git a/_stories/2000/5022281.md b/_stories/2000/5022281.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..2fc2fa2 --- /dev/null +++ b/_stories/2000/5022281.md @@ -0,0 +1,80 @@ +--- +created_at: '2013-01-07T18:14:01.000Z' +title: The Path to Mastery (2000) +url: http://www.perlmonks.org/?node_id=26380 +author: btilly +points: 56 +story_text: '' +comment_text: +num_comments: 5 +story_id: +story_title: +story_url: +parent_id: +created_at_i: 1357582441 +_tags: +- story +- author_btilly +- story_5022281 +objectID: '5022281' + +--- +This is not a story about Perl. Or Perl programming. Or even computers. + +Rather it is a story about the road to mastering any logical subject. + +As my bio says, I once studied math. One subject in math is analysis. +This is the true story of a student that my first analysis professor +once had. + +This student was a physics student. He did not really want to take +analysis. But he decided that if he was taking it, then he might as well +truly learn it. + +When he sat down to do his first homework he realized that he did not +understand what it meant to prove something. So he went to the professor +and asked what a proof was. The professor answered, "A proof is an +airtight demonstration that a thing must be so." The student asked what +could be assumed. The professor answered, "You may start with the axioms +and the theorems we have proven from the axioms." The student asked if +you had to accept the theorems, the professor said, "You need not accept +anything that you have not been fully convinced of." + +The student's first homework set was 20 pages long. The other students +needed 5. The student was concerned and asked the professor, "My +homework is so much longer than theirs is. Am I doing something wrong?" +The professor said, "You may take as long to do it as you need to. Did +you keep in mind what I said about axioms and theorems?" The student +answered, "I did, but I didn't feel that I understood the theorems so I +worked from the axioms only." The professor answered, "That is good but +learn to build on what you already know." The student promised to try. + +The student's first homework was perfect. As the course progressed the +student continued to try. Homework by homework he maintained excellent +work, and step by step learned to organize his thoughts so that he could +build on previous results in class and in his own work. And step by step +the length of his homework fell. + +By the end of the course the other's still needed 5 pages for their +homework. But this student did not. He no longer needed 20. He no longer +needed 10. Instead his perfect assignments fit comfortably on a page +with room to spare. + +The professor congratulated him on his progress and asked him about the +cause. The student said, "Well I know the subject so well that I know +exactly how to do each problem, and I do that and no more." + +Here then is the moral for Perl programmers. When you see the code of +master Perl programmers you may be amazed at how few strokes of the +keyboard they require to solve a problem completely. Many in error think +that they should therefore constantly try to cram as much into as little +room as possible. + +This is a misguided path. + +Instead strive to understand fully and completely the tool at hand. +Explore exactly how it works and what it can do. In addition constantly +learn how to build on what you and others have done before. Aim for +clarity and comprehension, and mastery shall surely follow. + +This is a true path. diff --git a/_stories/2000/5352108.md b/_stories/2000/5352108.md index 042eb0f..054c056 100644 --- a/_stories/2000/5352108.md +++ b/_stories/2000/5352108.md @@ -19,7 +19,19 @@ _tags: objectID: '5352108' --- -[Source](https://www.salon.com/2000/06/14/love_7/ "Permalink to ") - - - +How powerful is management? +Who owes whom a favor? +What independent promoter's cousin is the drummer? +What part of the fiscal year is the company putting out the record? +Is the royalty rate for the artist so obscenely bad that it's almost 100 +percent profit instead of just 95 percent so that if the record sells, +it's literally a steal? +How much bin space is left over this year? +Was the record already a hit in Europe so that there's corporate +pressure to make it work? +Will the band screw up its live career to play free shows for radio +stations? +Does the artist's song sound enough like someone else that radio +stations will play it because it fits the sound of the month? +Did the artist get the song on a film soundtrack so that the movie +studio will pay for the video? diff --git a/_stories/2000/602407.md b/_stories/2000/602407.md deleted file mode 100644 index 84dfb88..0000000 --- a/_stories/2000/602407.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,25 +0,0 @@ ---- -created_at: '2009-05-10T20:04:57.000Z' -title: Nethack - Best Game Ever (2000) -url: http://archive.salon.com/tech/feature/2000/01/27/nethack/ -author: lukas -points: 50 -story_text: '' -comment_text: -num_comments: 29 -story_id: -story_title: -story_url: -parent_id: -created_at_i: 1241985897 -_tags: -- story -- author_lukas -- story_602407 -objectID: '602407' - ---- -[Source](https://www.salon.com/feature/2000/01/27/nethack/ "Permalink to ") - - - diff --git a/_stories/2000/6327021.md b/_stories/2000/6327021.md index 61cc994..524a350 100644 --- a/_stories/2000/6327021.md +++ b/_stories/2000/6327021.md @@ -19,7 +19,163 @@ _tags: objectID: '6327021' --- -[Source](https://www.joelonsoftware.com/articles/fog0000000069.html "Permalink to ") +Netscape 6.0 is finally going into its first public beta. There never +was a version 5.0. The last major release, version 4.0, was released +almost three years ago. Three years is an *awfully* long time in the +Internet world. During this time, Netscape sat by, helplessly, as their +market share plummeted. +It’s a bit smarmy of me to criticize them for waiting so long between +releases. They didn’t do it *on purpose*, now, did they? +Well, yes. They did. They did it by making the **single worst strategic +mistake** that any software company can +make: +![](https://i0.wp.com/www.joelonsoftware.com/wp-content/uploads/2000/04/Upper_West_Side_Brownstones_2.jpg?w=730&ssl=1)They +decided to rewrite the code from scratch. + +Netscape wasn’t the first company to make this mistake. Borland made the +same mistake when they bought Arago and tried to make it into dBase for +Windows, a doomed project that took so long that Microsoft Access ate +their lunch, then they made it again in rewriting Quattro Pro from +scratch and astonishing people with how few features it had. Microsoft +almost made the same mistake, trying to rewrite Word for Windows from +scratch in a doomed project called Pyramid which was shut down, thrown +away, and swept under the rug. Lucky for Microsoft, they had never +stopped working on the old code base, so they had something to ship, +making it merely a financial disaster, not a strategic one. + +We’re programmers. Programmers are, in their hearts, architects, and the +first thing they want to do when they get to a site is to bulldoze the +place flat and build something grand. We’re not excited by incremental +renovation: tinkering, improving, planting flower beds. + +There’s a subtle reason that programmers always want to throw away the +code and start over. The reason is that they think the old code is a +mess. And here is the interesting observation: *they are probably +wrong.* The reason that they think the old code is a mess is because of +a cardinal, fundamental law of programming: + +It’s harder to read code than to write it. + +This is why code reuse is so hard. This is why everybody on your team +has a different function they like to use for splitting strings into +arrays of strings. They write their own function because it’s easier and +more fun than figuring out how the old function +works. + +![](https://i2.wp.com/www.joelonsoftware.com/wp-content/uploads/2000/04/Columbus_Ave_Barber_Shop.jpg?w=730&ssl=1)As +a corollary of this axiom, you can ask almost any programmer today about +the code they are working on. “It’s a big hairy mess,” they will tell +you. “I’d like nothing better than to throw it out and start over.” + +Why is it a mess? + +“Well,” they say, “look at this function. It is two pages long\! None of +this stuff belongs in there\! I don’t know what half of these API calls +are for.” + +Before Borland’s new spreadsheet for Windows shipped, Philippe Kahn, the +colorful founder of Borland, was quoted a lot in the press bragging +about how Quattro Pro would be much better than Microsoft Excel, because +it was written from scratch. All new source code\! As if source code +*rusted*. + +The idea that new code is better than old is patently absurd. Old code +has been *used*. It has been *tested*. *Lots* of bugs have been found, +and they’ve been *fixed*. There’s nothing wrong with it. It doesn’t +acquire bugs just by sitting around on your hard drive. Au contraire, +baby\! Is software supposed to be like an old Dodge Dart, that rusts +just sitting in the garage? Is software like a teddy bear that’s kind of +gross if it’s not made out of *all new material*? + +Back to that two page function. Yes, I know, it’s just a simple function +to display a window, but it has grown little hairs and stuff on it and +nobody knows why. Well, I’ll tell you why: those are bug fixes. One of +them fixes that bug that Nancy had when she tried to install the thing +on a computer that didn’t have Internet Explorer. Another one fixes that +bug that occurs in low memory conditions. Another one fixes that bug +that occurred when the file is on a floppy disk and the user yanks out +the disk in the middle. That LoadLibrary call is ugly but it makes the +code work on old versions of Windows 95. + +Each of these bugs took weeks of real-world usage before they were +found. The programmer might have spent a couple of days reproducing the +bug in the lab and fixing it. If it’s like a lot of bugs, the fix might +be one line of code, or it might even be a couple of characters, but a +lot of work and time went into those two characters. + +When you throw away code and start from scratch, you are throwing away +all that knowledge. All those collected bug fixes. Years of programming +work. + +You are throwing away your market leadership. You are giving a gift of +two or three years to your competitors, and believe me, that is a *long* +time in software years. + +You are putting yourself in an extremely dangerous position where you +will be shipping an old version of the code for several years, +completely unable to make any strategic changes or react to new features +that the market demands, because you don’t have shippable code. You +might as well just close for business for the duration. + +You are wasting an outlandish amount of money writing code that already +exists. + +![](https://i0.wp.com/www.joelonsoftware.com/wp-content/uploads/2000/04/Columbus_Ave.jpg?w=730&ssl=1) + +Is there an alternative? The consensus seems to be that the old Netscape +code base was *really* bad. Well, it might have been bad, but, you know +what? It worked pretty darn well on an awful lot of real world computer +systems. + +When programmers say that their code is a holy mess (as they always do), +there are three kinds of things that are wrong with it. + +First, there are architectural problems. The code is not factored +correctly. The networking code is popping up its own dialog boxes from +the middle of nowhere; this should have been handled in the UI code. +These problems can be solved, one at a time, by carefully moving code, +refactoring, changing interfaces. They can be done by one programmer +working carefully and checking in his changes all at once, so that +nobody else is disrupted. Even fairly major architectural changes can be +done without *throwing away the code*. On the Juno project we spent +several months rearchitecting at one point: just moving things around, +cleaning them up, creating base classes that made sense, and creating +sharp interfaces between the modules. But we did it carefully, with our +existing code base, and we didn’t introduce new bugs or throw away +working code. + +A second reason programmers think that their code is a mess is that it +is inefficient. The rendering code in Netscape was rumored to be slow. +But this only affects a small part of the project, which you can +optimize or even rewrite. You don’t have to rewrite the whole thing. +When optimizing for speed, 1% of the work gets you 99% of the bang. + +Third, the code may be doggone ugly. One project I worked on actually +had a data type called a FuckedString. Another project had started out +using the convention of starting member variables with an underscore, +but later switched to the more standard “m\_”. So half the functions +started with “\_” and half with “m\_”, which looked ugly. Frankly, this +is the kind of thing you solve in five minutes with a macro in Emacs, +not by starting from scratch. + +It’s important to remember that when you start from scratch there is +**absolutely no reason** to believe that you are going to do a better +job than you did the first time. First of all, you probably don’t even +have the same programming team that worked on version one, so you don’t +actually have “more experience”. You’re just going to make most of the +old mistakes again, and introduce some new problems that weren’t in the +original +version. + +![](https://i0.wp.com/www.joelonsoftware.com/wp-content/uploads/2008/01/Lincoln_Center_Trees.jpg?w=730&ssl=1)The +old mantra *build one to throw away* is dangerous when applied to large +scale commercial applications. If you are writing code experimentally, +you may want to rip up the function you wrote last week when you think +of a better algorithm. That’s fine. You may want to refactor a class to +make it easier to use. That’s fine, too. But throwing away the whole +program is a dangerous folly, and if Netscape actually had some adult +supervision with software industry experience, they might not have shot +themselves in the foot so badly. diff --git a/_stories/2000/7933513.md b/_stories/2000/7933513.md index 74224a9..c59060d 100644 --- a/_stories/2000/7933513.md +++ b/_stories/2000/7933513.md @@ -19,7 +19,17 @@ _tags: objectID: '7933513' --- -[Source](https://www.salon.com/2000/05/17/nabokov_5/ "Permalink to ") - - - +Nabokov was fascinated by doubles, and his work is full of them -- +mirrors, twins, reflections, chance resemblances. Sergei was his +brother's double, a "shadow in the background," as Nabokov put it. All +his life Vladimir would be the golden wordsmith, the master of language; +Sergei was afflicted with an atrocious stutter that would only get worse +as he got older. He idolized Napoleon and slept with a bronze bust of +him in his bed. He also loved music, particularly Richard Wagner, and he +studied the piano seriously. Vladimir, by contrast, was almost +pathologically insensitive to music, which he once described as "an +arbitrary succession of more or less irritating sounds." He would creep +up behind Sergei while he was practicing and poke him in the ribs -- +something he remembered with bitter remorse in later life. "They were +never friends when they were children," says Sikorski. "There was always +a sort of *aversion."* diff --git a/_stories/2000/8736357.md b/_stories/2000/8736357.md deleted file mode 100644 index aac5fbe..0000000 --- a/_stories/2000/8736357.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,25 +0,0 @@ ---- -created_at: '2014-12-11T18:38:36.000Z' -title: The Irregular Verbs (2000) -url: http://pinker.wjh.harvard.edu/articles/media/2000_03_landfall.html -author: ggreer -points: 150 -story_text: '' -comment_text: -num_comments: 71 -story_id: -story_title: -story_url: -parent_id: -created_at_i: 1418323116 -_tags: -- story -- author_ggreer -- story_8736357 -objectID: '8736357' - ---- -[Source](http://pinker.wjh.harvard.edu/articles/media/2000_03_landfall.html "Permalink to ") - - - diff --git a/_stories/2000/9659721.md b/_stories/2000/9659721.md index 405f83d..1764161 100644 --- a/_stories/2000/9659721.md +++ b/_stories/2000/9659721.md @@ -19,7 +19,21 @@ _tags: objectID: '9659721' --- -[Source](https://www.salon.com/2000/05/16/chapter_2_part_one/ "Permalink to ") - - - +Third, even if Joy did not piss off his fellow programmers by saying +"Read the protocol and write the code," no one who knows him well will +deny that it is the kind of thing he *could* easily have said. Joy's +colleagues and professors are unanimous in describing him as a +fundamentally nice guy. But like so many great hackers, Joy is also +almost unconsciously arrogant. And that arrogance has been, +historically, a key part of the BSD legend. As a general rule, +programmers tend to have a high opinion of themselves. And as a class, +Unix programmers are well known for demonstrating their own special +blend of high-priest orneriness. But BSD Unix hackers, with some notable +exceptions, are especially virulent in their self-assuredness. They +aren't wrong very often, and when they are, convincing them of that fact +requires several armies and quite a bit of heavy artillery. Indeed, the +easiest explanation for why BSD hackers watch in dismay while +Linux-based operating systems sweep the world is that, for years, +subsections of the BSD community have been endlessly imitating the +mulishness that marked Joy's original reluctance to compromise on +TCP/IP. diff --git a/_stories/2001/10565456.md b/_stories/2001/10565456.md index 2eb1ecb..c3c1592 100644 --- a/_stories/2001/10565456.md +++ b/_stories/2001/10565456.md @@ -19,7 +19,978 @@ _tags: objectID: '10565456' --- -[Source](https://readtext.org/history/confession-of-codez-kid/ "Permalink to ") +What seems like a long time period at age thirteen seems significantly +shorter when you’re over double that age. With that in mind, the entire +“hacker phenomenon” should be viewed as an extreme bit of ephemera, +the result of a naive convergence between technology and what can be +stereotyped as 1980’s teenage angst and rebellion. The “hacker kid” made +famous in every 1980’s movie became (in a matter that Jean Baudrillard +would be proud of) not only a reflection of ourselves, but an ideal we +aspired to as well… and was really only a viable archetype for less than +ten years. This should be kept in mind by any third-party who’s +attempting to put this scene in some sort of historical perspective. +While there might be “hackers” in some sense even in the new millennium, +this file specifically relates experiences of those of us who saw John +Hughes movies at an actual movie theater back in the 80’s. (“Hackers” +generally meaning self-described phone phreaks and those who obtained +unauthorized access to corporate computer networks, not just people good +with computers). +These ramblings were inspired by my recent discovery of some old BBS +buffers and text files I had booted up on my old Apple IIe while +recently visiting my parents’ house. Luckily (or unluckily) for you, I +have a near-photographic memory of all of these events. (Too bad my +post-high school years are rather hazy…) ;) +This surely has thousands of corollaries from around the country. My +question is: where are you all now? +My father had been transferred to Peterson Air Force Base in Colorado +Springs, CO at the beginning of the summer in 1986, right during some +extreme hormonal changes on my behalf. I was twelve years old at the +time, and had absolutely nothing to do, with no kids in my neighborhood. +In lieu of this, my mother signed me up for a BASIC programming class +for “gifted” (or perhaps just geeky) kids at one of the local high +schools. Of course, the class was really more about playing video games +and networking with other fledgling geeks than it was about programming. +But the last day of class was devoted to something I’d always been +interested in: the modem. + +I’d been fascinated by modems for years and finally my father had +purchased a “NetWorker” modem during late 1984 for our Apple IIe, but +due to only having one local BBS to our old house in Iowa and my +father’s unwillingness to pay for CompuServe I had quickly lost +interest in it. To call this modem primitive by today’s standards would +be an understatement; while it lacked the classic acoustic coupler +design (made famous by “WarGames”, therefore becoming engrained in the +public mind as what a modem looked like) it did not have any sort of +auto-connection feature. This meant that when you dialed in and heard a +carrier tone, you had to press a switch exterior to the computer to +connect to the desired baud rate (110 or 300). This 300-baud monstrosity +was about the cheapest modem on the market, but at $200 (in 1984 +dollars) was still relegated to at least middle-class youth and their +associated parents. + +We briefly touched on the subject of bulletin-board systems (BBSes) and +our instructor provided the numbers for a couple of local systems, which +I proceeded to call when I got home. They were fairly typical and boring +for the time: systems frequented by off-duty COBOL programmers run on a +variety of home-grown systems, perhaps TRS-80’s or something running +CP/M, exchanging messages on the dry subjects of sports and politics. +However, I did manage to stumble on a list of other local bulletin +boards, and of course the ones that intrigued me were ones with the +following names: + +Valhalla (?) +Elite Connection 548-9519 +Underground Star 390-0783 +Adventurer’s Cove 598-6669 + +At the time, there was not nearly the stigma associated with “hacking” +or piracy in the general computer community that there is now, and there +was very little concern about what the “proper” uses of computers were +in the general BBS community. Many people were not even aware they were +breaking the law by having pirated software around the house, and +software was freely copied at computer users’ groups and the like. Many +older BBSers were 60’s types with some sort of anti-establishment bent, +and even in 1986, you were still considered more than just a little +weird if you had anything to do with computers. Even sysops of +“respectable” boards (the ones where old guys talked about politics) +might know a bit about making a Blue Box or have a copy of the latest +game you wanted. I would imagine that thousands of other people were +therefore exposed to what is now called “computer crime” in such a +benign, clueless way. + +Calling the aforementioned boards would end up causing a dramatic change +in my life, but I had no idea at the time. The first system I ended up +calling was “Valhalla”, a “part-time” BBS (the type that was NEVER up +during its purported hours of operation, usually run by a junior-high +school kid who didn’t have the money for his own phone line.) But on +this particular occasion, the board happened to be up. I dialed in and +proceeded to log in as normal; the Sysop (one “Loki Odinsson”) ended up +breaking into chat mode immediately and offered to verify my access on +the spot and call me back voice. He was running a part-time BBS off of a +Commodore 64 with one floppy disk drive, and apparently I was his only +user thus far along with his best friend, who had chosen the handle +“Thor Odinsson”. The details of the conversation are hazy, but I do +remember him making allusions to “hacking MCI” and him somehow providing +me with a list of long-distance Commodore 64 pirate BBSes, with exotic +names like “The Gates Of Hell” and “Underground Empire”. + +I proceeded to call “The Gates of Hell” next. (Even the name sounded +frightening to a white suburban 12 year old), logged in, and remember +navigating through the message boards, where people cursed at each other +on “The War Board”, engaged in the then-raging Apple II vs. Commodore 64 +debate, and wrote stories on the “Sex Board” (I’m sure in retrospect, a +bunch of sex stories by what surely were a bunch of 15 year old virgins +would be highly comical.) + +Scared of the phone bill, I logged off after ten minutes, and proceeded +to call the other numbers local to me. The Elite Connection was next, +and its new user log in page had tons of scary information about +“entrapment” and how each user must provide their actual voice number +for verification. I did as I was told, curious to see if anyone would +actually call me. (No one ever did.) The message boards on the Elite +Connection were filled with vague references about hacking and +phreaking, and the system did not seem terribly active. However, there +did seem to be a raging local war between the “Warlock” (the sysop of +the Underground Star) and “The Master Kracker”, a local Apple pirate, +each of which saying they were going to kick each others’ asses and the +like. “The Warlock” also seemed to misspell every other word in his +posts, for some sort of dramatic effect. This also seemed to be an +extension of the Apple vs. Commodore 64 thing, with the Elite +Connection’s C64 using sysop “Night Runner” backing The Warlock with +Apple II pirate “The Assassin” backing The Master Kracker. The Apple +users were part of some local group called “PPPG” (Pikes’ Peak Pirates’ +Guild.) The C64 vs. Apple thing was very predominant during this time +period, and was (IMO) steeped in class conflict. In retrospect, the C64 +was not a bad computer, and had much better graphics/sound and +(important for every teenage geek) consequently, video games. But the +Apple was more predominant in upper-middle class America, with all of +the logical consequences not worth going into here. + +At this point, I was getting tired, so I proceeded to log off and call +the Underground Star, which was filled with more of the same sort of +thing. A couple of days later, I called the Elite Connection back, and +made a solicitation for anyone who wanted to trade “APPLE GAMES”. I had +made posts on BBSes before, but still had no idea how to transfer files +over the modem. When I called back the next day, I had an e-mail from +:“The Assassin”, whose real name was John, to give him a call at +574-2872. I gave him a call, and as it turned out he was a sophomore at +the same high school I had gotten my introduction to BBSes at. He was +also lacking a 1200 baud modem, which at the time meant being restricted +access to all forms of pirate BBSes due to its slow speed. Being a +300-baud only user in 1986 was the equivalent of being an untouchable in +India; you generally only associated with other untouchables and no one +wanted much to do with you. + +John was friendly and patient with me, and he had many new games that I +wanted. He sent me a copy of “Dalton’s Disk Disintegrator” which allowed +for the compression of an entire Apple II floppy into one file, and then +we did a 300-baud transfer of the Activision game “Hacker”, which took +about two hours. If you’ve never seen text slow by at 300 baud, suffice +to say that most college graduates can probably read text faster than +300 baud can scroll by.) He also sent me a copy of a couple of other +programs he seemed very impressed with himself for owning - “Time Bomb” +and “Microhacker”. He also made references to “hacking MCI” and I asked +him for further clarification. The clarification went something like +this: + +“Dial 630-TIME, and start entering codes starting with 10000, followed +by a number. If the number goes through, you have a good code. If not, +redial and start with 10001, etc.” In retrospect, dialing codes +incrementally, starting with the same value every time, was incredibly +bad advice, although no one ever seemed to get busted by MCI locally. + +After we had finally transferred “Hacker” after a couple of abortions +and said conversation, “The Assassin” had started to grow a bit +impatient with me, probably annoyed by this 12 year old kid who kept +asking him what other games he had. (He proved a bit short with me on +subsequent phone calls to his house.) However, now I was armed with the +knowledge on how to make free phone calls, plus I had a couple of +weird-sounding “hacker” programs in the form of Microhacker and Time +Bomb. Microhacker was a tool written by a Denver local to hack +“MetroPhone” (I had no idea what that was) which didn’t work due to +its requiring a modem with autoconnect capabilities, and “Time Bomb” +allowed you to format someone’s disk after a specified number of boots +and display what was invariably a smart-ass message, something that +would allow for much jocularity with the kids at school who always +wanted to come over and copy games from me. The Assassin also gave me a +copy of Ascii Express, which allowed exchange of files with the Xmodem +protocal in addition to being one of the most obscure, hard-to-learn, +and powerful terminal programs ever developed. + +I decided to call 630-TIME. I dialed the number, and after several +second a weird droney sounding tone greeted me. I dialed 10000, followed +by a random long-distance number in Denver. The number immediately rang, +and a stock corporate-announcer female voice stated that “The access +code you have entered is not valid.” This voice was a bit unnerving, so +I did not try to “hack” any more codes that night. + +Since I had nothing to do, I started calling the Elite Connection, +Underground Star, and several other local boards on an almost daily +basis, although I didn’t make that many other voice connections due to +my owning an Apple II, and most of the bulletin boards local to me were +Commodore 64 in nature. This quickly proved to be boring, as most of the +boards didn’t get more than a few posts in a day. As the summer dragged +on, I became more impertinent and started to lose fear of “hacking MCI.” +Finally, one day the sysop of the Elite Connection, Night Runner, broke +in after I had tried ©hatting with him. He also proved to be mostly +friendly and offered a “PHREAK CODE” (I was mostly using an old Apple +II+ computer, and did not have a lower-case modification key) as well as +telling me to call a better board in the Dallas, TX area that was more +active and dedicated to hacking, the “Thieve’s Underground” (sic.) In +hindsight, he was probably just sick of me calling every single day and +tying up his line. He also offered me access to the “Elite\!” (sic) +section of his BBS, where people would post information on hacking and +phreaking, piracy, and other things. + +Somewhat nervous, I called 630-TIME and entered the code Night Runner +had offered, followed by the number for the Thieve’s Underground. Unlike +previous attempts, the number did not immediately ring, but hung there +for some time until a remote ring could be heard (we were not even on +ESS1A in Colorado Springs at that time, and it sometimes took 20 or more +seconds to dial a LOCAL number - we were in Crossbar, with a couple of +areas even in Step by Step. If I had even known about a Blue Box at the +time, I could have actually used that instead of these MCI codes). - I +then got carrier and proceeded to connect to the Thieve’s Underground. +It was definitely the most hardcore BBS I had ever seen at the time, +again requiring a “real phone number” for verification and certification +that “you are not a member of any law enforcement agency”. Additionally, +it required you to define some “hacker terms” which I failed at +miserably: what was COSMOS? What was TELENET? + +Needless to say, I was rejected from the Thieve’s Underground. But from +that point forward, I was determined to find out what exactly the terms +were that I didn’t understand. But of course, I was still concerned with +getting all of the new games I didn’t have access to and that would only +be possible with the fabled 1200 baud modem. + +In the meantime I’d also been granted access on a board called “Skeleton +Island” in Richmond, VA, (I believe at 303-747-8920) a board that was a +complete throwback to what looked like it must have been about 1982. The +sysop, “The Skeleton”, was running custom-built software on an Apple II +computer with a ten megabyte hard disk, completely devoted to text +files\! It was here that I first started reading about the history of +hacking, as amongst all of the files there were all-caps transcriptions +of old TAP Magazine articles, some of the first things I had read about +hacking. (The board wasn’t exactly updated regularly, so what were +considered “newer” hack/phreak periodicals such as PHRACK were left +out.) In TAP Magazine’s mind, evil was personified in the form of the +pre-antitrust Bell Corporation, and I read about how Bell harassed its +employees as well as phreaks, even driving one to suicide. I read about +how to construct a Blue Box and a Black Box, Cheshire Catalyst’s +“Hacker’s Anthem”, and some file called “A Man Called Boris” about a +Russian expatriate who was ripping off the Soviet government by +thousands of dollars by insuring mail to dissidents, who would be +refused delivery, forcing the government to pay up. There was some +article on how to coat stamps with Elmer’s Glue and reuse them, as well +as a huge BBS list from about 1983, and information on removing +copywrite protection from games. + +It’s undoubtedly true that no small amount of kids were influenced by +the anti-establishment, libertarian philosophies that permeated these +types of boards. The range of anti-authoritarianism ran the gamut from +left-wing socialism to good ‘ol boy giving the middle finger to the US +government, but libertarianism was the dominant theme. In addition, it +still wasn’t that risky to engage in hacking and phreaking, so it had +the allure of a restricted activity without the risk. The demographic +was pure 1980’s - almost strictly white adolescents, with no small +amount of passive (or even overt) racism. Certainly, no effort was made +to incorporate this raw teenage angst into a more far-reaching critique +of power or authority of any sort, but it did make it “OK” to feel +pissed off at the world around you. Hackers were basically punks and +misfits with computers, and were usually smarter than the rest of their +peers. Being exposed to what seemed like such powerful information did +not help many of us adjust to life in the “real world”, where you had to +learn some sort of bounds of acceptable behavior. But in the beginning, +it was merely benign curiosity about the world that got almost every kid +who has a story like this involved with “computer crime”, not some sort +of malicious intent - that was what always confused the authorities. + +I had continued down the boring path of being a 300 baud, mostly local +user, calling the same boards too many times, although I did learn how +to scan our local Telenet ports for remote systems, although I had +little idea how to hack into them (I did obtain access with a couple of +typical username/password combinations like JOHN/JOHN and TEST/TEST), +completely clueless as to what I was doing, especially with what to do +once in the system. + +I continued my path in 300-baud loserdom until Christmas of 1986, at +which point I received a 1200 baud “Prometheus ProModem” as my Christmas +present. It wasn’t the Apple-Cat that I wanted, but to have 1200 baud +was incredibly exciting nonetheless. Now I could actually call “real” +BBSes, (most of which would either hang up immediately or echo an +insulting message like “Call back when you get a real modem” if +attempting to connect at 300 baud). After some consternation (Ascii +Express stopped giving me my “-\>” prompt I was used to with the new +modem, expecting the Hayes “AT” command set instead) with configuration, +I proceeded to call “The Roadhouse BBS” in Anaheim, California, which +had always refused to let me “Run AE” at 300 baud, but let me in with no +problem at 1200 baud. Now I could get all of the latest games - the +first one I downloaded was “Shard of Spring” - and the MCI code I used +to call insured that it was all free, free, free. + +This also was my earliest memory of a paranoid way of thinking that I +still get tinges of to this day - the feeling that every “kodez kid” had +when your phone would ring IMMEDIATELY after you would hang up after +calling for free; that sinking feeling that they were “tracing” you that +whole time, calling you right back to let you know your number was up\! +Even worse, you’d sometimes start thinking that they “traced” you, but +you wouldn’t know until the police came knocking at your house two weeks +later. There was always an inclination to say that the next time you’d +use those damn codes would be the last, at least until you realized how +expensive long distance was back then (even night-time rates were often +more than $.20 a minute, quite a bit for a 13 year old kid with no job.) +There was really no way to stop once you started. + +I wasn’t too worried about the codes though - no one else had been +busted for using them, although I did receive a scare when someone who +said they were from the (FBI? Mountain Bell? I can’t remember) called my +house, saying they were logging all calls to the Elite Connection since +so many bootleg phone calls had their destination there, and I was +calling it a lot, even though it was local. I still don’t know if this +was complete bullshit or not, although that’s my inclination with the +benefit of hindsight. At the time though, the person calling did seem +“official”, and if it was a joke on the part of the Sysop, they didn’t +make an effort to make it very humorous - surely any good teenager would +have punctuated a hoax like that with a bit of humor. But sadly, even +the “FBI” calling my house didn’t seem to deter much of the behavior I +was going to get involved with over subsequent years. + +I was now determined to get involved in the pirate scene, with its +promise of unlimited “wares”; games would be available to me right after +being released on the market\! One of the first boards I called was the +“Trade Center” in New Jersey (201-256-4202), the headquarters of the +Apple pirate group “Digital Gang”. Digital Gang, as I remember, was +composed of about half absolutely brilliant programmers (one in +particular was named Tom E. Hawk, who did extensive modifications to the +Dalton’s Disk Disintegrator utility) and a couple of locals in 201 named +“The Triton” (Eddie) and “High Voltage” (Tony). The former was rumored +to be a high school dropout, who was some fat rich kid who had a lot of +money to buy software and run the Trade Center, and “High Voltage” was +another 14 year old rich kid who lived nearby. I knew that I had to get +a reference from a “real” pirate board in order to get accepted on other +pirate boards - you needed references of other boards you called as well +as other “reputable” pirates to get accepted. I had no idea how to start +doing this, but you could send a donation to the Trade Center, which I +assumed would get you access. I sent in a paltry $5 donation and The +Triton granted me access to the Trade Center, which gave me a slight bit +of clout in the pirate world. I’d also gotten a lower-case modification +for my Apple II+, so I could use that computer without that sure sign of +rodenthood - having to post in all caps. + +With 1200 baud, I immediately started to trade all of the software I +could get my hands on. I quickly left the realm of some of these 714 +pirate boards I was calling (because they accepted 300 baud users) and +started calling some of the “top tier” pirate boards in the country. +Despite an early rejection from Remote Hideout (818-999-3680) I was +accepted on every other board I called. There was an awesome board in +213 called the Norse Wanderer that had custom BBS software, and you had +to be voted on by other users on the board (the sysop actually let me on +without being voted on, one of the early “breaks” I got in the scene.) +There was “The Citadel” at 213-493-2011, which was ALWAYS busy but +always had the latest wares with no credit system - you could call and +leech for hours if you wanted. There was Club Zero in 213 as well, run +by Pac-Rat. The Abyss at 818-993-7422 , which I had to call at 300 baud +due to its being a “202” only board (202 was the Apple-Cat’s proprietary +half-duplex 1200 baud standard), but which had some great discussions on +religion, politics, and music, which was sysoped by Dark Cavalier (I’d +chosen “Dark Sorcerer” as my alias at the time, as it seemed like there +were a lot of other “Dark whatever” type aliases, i.e., Dark Prophet, +Dark Dante, etc.) There was Red-Sector-A at 313-591-1024 run by the +Necromancer (whom a friend of mine and I prank called one time in 1989… +sorry Ralph\!) and best of all, the Curse at 612-544-3980. The Curse was +run by ‘The Incognito’ and was a message-only board that was very +popular. “The Incognito” had lots of really cool modifications to his +board, as he had taken to programming after being busted for credit card +fraud (sometime in 1984, I believe - he wrote a text file about it +called “The Day The Secret Service Raided My House” or something along +those lines, in addition to authoring “How To Spot A Loser On A BBS”). +There was an area where you could simulate logging in to vintage-era +Apple II pirate boards like the South Pole, the Arabian Dezert, and +Sherwood Forest, as well as hack/phreak boards like Plovernet, World of +Cryton, and Blottoland. These boards seemed ancient at the time, but in +fact it had really only been 3 years since they had gone down (again, +the time-perspective of a 14 year old is very different. 3 years seems +like nothing to a post-college grad.) + +There was also a blank “graffiti wall” area, which I remember as being +the current home of a war between “The Martyr”, a pirate from Braintree, +MA who ran a board called “Brave New World”, and assorted other pirates +like Touch Tone and Sorcerer’s Apprentice. I remember anonymous comments +like the following: evidently The Martyr said he had some sort of +“connections” and was going to fuck up the other members, which +solicited comments about The Martyr evidently being in a wheelchair, in +addition to being incredibly ugly (Sorcerer’s Apprentice said that “I +can’t wait until your ugly face is in a 34 sector BFILE for all us \]\[ +folks out there and a full-blown GIF for the IIGS people”). In what +could have been an unrelated incident, Touch Tone made claims to being +in the Mafia which elicitied similar sorts of disdain. It was all highly +entertaining. + +There were also quite a few “AE” systems still floating around (as well +as Cat-Fur systems, which didn’t apply to me). This was simply ASCII +Express in remote mode, where you could call a remote system and +transfer files back and forth after entering a password. The most famous +of these was probably the Metal AE at 201-879-6668, (pw: KILL) which to +my knowledge was the absolute last surviving such system in the country +(the sysop even kept it running on two floppies after his 10 meg drive +crashed\!) These systems could be highly entertaining due to their +graffiti-wall, free flowing nature. A typical 10 or 20 meg AE system +would probably be 20% software (usually older, but good for picking up +some older stuff that you missed earlier on), 20-30% textfiles, and a +bunch of blank two-sector text files people would upload with “file +names” ragging on other users or sometimes with a really mean or racist +content to them (remember, things were much less sensitive 10-15 years +ago, and these are pissed off white suburban kids we’re talking about.) +The sysop of the Metal AE, Lustfer Death, was also infamous for busting +into chat mode unexpectedly and asking questions like “Got any codes” or +“Why do you smoke pot”), the latter evidently just for entertainment +value. + +The whole pirate scene was entertaining, but lost its lustre pretty +fast, even for a video-game crazy 13 year old. For one, I started +realizing that most of these games weren’t really that entertaining. +Most pirates with talent usually got more into programming, which was +somewhat alluring but I didn’t have much exposure to it, much less the +patience. Plus, by mid-1987 the number of Apple II games was starting to +get slower and slower, and the quality of games was getting less and +less, as it became obvious less original development was going on on the +Apple, with most of the games being ports from the Commodore 64. It +started to be pretty clear that the Apple II platform (with the +exception of the IIGS, which was incredibly expensive and was not Apple +Corporation’s top priority) was becoming less viable. In addition, it +seemed to start getting more difficult to obtain codes for our local MCI +ports, as the whole need for extenders was lessening as “Plus One” +service became available. I started to get interested in the Amiga +family of computers, but had to resign myself for having only two Apple +II series computers in the meantime. + +Then, something happened that changed my point of view to the “computer +underground” forever. Some user had posted regarding a system on the +Trade Center called “WizNet” that wasn’t just another BBS with a regular +dial-up line - it was an entire bootleg BBS that had been set up on a +Prime system out on Telenet, and had a chat room in it. What’s more, +most of “WizNet”’s users weren’t just software pirates who programmed or +possibly used phone codes, they were hackers in the true sense, and they +seemed to be so much more interesting and mysterious than most of the +pirates in the waning Apple II scene. WizNet (programmed by “The +Wizard”) would invariably go down a couple of days after it was put up +as it would be discovered by an unlucky sysadmin, but it was about the +coolest thing I’d witnessed in the computer scenes yet. + +At the time, Telenet had just closed a major security flaw which hackers +called “pad-to-padding” which allowed you to basically dial in to a +Telenet port and connect recursively to another Telenet port, allowing +you to”listen in” as a silent guest to whatever the remote user might be +doing. I unfortunately missed the tail-end of this, but it had resulted +in a virtual goldmine of network accounts and passwords on Telenet. +There were tons of “NUI’s” (Network User ID’s) floating around, a few of +which were shared with all of the known world, which allowed connecting +to any port on Telenet. And a few of these ports were called “Altos” and +“Altgers”, two chat systems in Hamburg, Germany, which were frequented +by hackers all over the world and were linked to by WizNet. These +quickly became overrun with morons, but until about the summer of 1988 +or so were frequented by all manners of hackers, and at the time, the +thought that you were conversing with people via a system on another +continent from all around the world seemed like something out of a +futuristic cyberpunk novel. Again, this broke down the conceptions that +you’d typically have as a suburban teenager, only confined to the +options present at your high school. Suddenly you were talking to +hackers like Shatter from the UK, or Logex from Mexico, and you might +find out that the Mexican phone switching system is more advanced than +the one you’re on. + +Hackers tended to be a little more of a snooty, elitist group than the +pirates did, and they were more heteregenous in nature. It was a sport +accessible to anyone with a modem and a terminal; you didn’t need a +high-speed modem or a gazillion meg hard drive to compete, which was +natural given my hardware, which was less impressive by the day. But +generally, you had to know your shit, and the learning curve was pretty +steep. It wasn’t enough to know how to get into systems, you had to know +VAX, Primos, or Unix inside and out to garner any respect. And no one +was really telling you how to get in to these systems to begin with, +despite the rash of accounts unearthed by the pad-to-pad phenomenon. If +you wanted to start hacking, you generally had to do three things: + +1. Find systems to hack. This was accomplished by scanning Telenet or + Tymnet, or by scanning every night for local systems with a + “wardialing” utility. Any major metro area would usually yield a + ton of potentially hack-able systems if you wardialed every night. + +2. Know what system you were in. Generally, there were Unix, VAX/VMS, + Primos, HP3000, and maybe a few older systems like TOPS-20 (which + was remarkably hacker-friendly in that it would allow you to view a + list of valid usernames without being logged in, necessitating only + the guessing of passwords); + +3. Know how to get in. Generally, this was pure trial and error, or you + could try “social engineering” (i.e., bullshitting the users). + Mostly, you started with default accounts that you knew would be + likely to exist on the system, and tried a bunch of passwords until + you’d get in. Maybe if you were lucky, you’d get an unprotected root + password - (yeah, right\!). + +4. Network with other hackers. To be fair, there were a lot of hackers + that never called BBSes, solitary weirdos of the Kevin Mitnick + variety. (I remember hearing of one legendary hacker named “Sir Qix” + during this time as well who supposedly never saw the light of day). + But having friends to talk to and teleconference with every day made + things a lot more fun, and at the end of the day, it was mainly a + social scene - albeit a strange one. + +And the teleconference… this was always one of the highlights of the +hack/phreak experience. If you were diligent, you could find a PBX that +would allow calls to Alliance Teleconferencing (0-700-456-1000, I +believe) which would allow you to talk to over fifty people at once. +Alliance conferences could go on for days and days, usually dwindling to +two or three participants in the early morning Pacific time, at which +point the usual suspects were waking up during Eastern time, building +the conference until it reached a dozen people or so the next evening. +There were always rumors of Alliance bills coming to customers in shoe +box sized containers and the like. Alliance did have one defense +mechanism, though; those whose numbers showed up too frequently on +fraudulent bills would get “blacklisted”, which would result in the +entire conference going down. There were also bridges, which were the +equivalent of unofficial “party lines” in the 80’s sense of the word. +You’d dial in to a bridge, and talk to whoever had dialed in as well. I +had a couple of decent conversations on these bridges, but usually +they’d get taken over by “bridge trolls”, usually 13 year olds who +would get on and play touch-tone music or something equally as annoying. + +But as stated before, it wasn’t necessarily easy to get accepted among +hackers. I did have one thing going for me though, and that was that I +could write at what seemed to be a much higher level than my actual age. +No one ever seemed to understand how this scene encouraged creativity +and intellectual development like none other. Knowledge was a +prerequisite for admittance to higher echelons of the hacking circle, as +you were generally expected to behave and learn as if you were in the +very top of the Bell Curve in terms of IQ. And the topics of +conversation would often extend far beyond computers, reaching into the +realms of history, politics, or music (I was first exposed to all matter +of punk, new wave, and dance music through people in this scene, many of +whom might have lived somewhere cool like New York City or Los Angeles +and weren’t relegated to the Whitesnake-style crap I had to deal with on +the local radio.) I don’t think this drive to increase knowledge was +engenederd by any other youth subculture scene before or since - and it +is certainly not a byproduct of the American public school system. You +were exposed to youths who were actually reading Nietzsche and +understanding it - and solely due to intellectual curiosity, not out of +some coffeehouse intellectual pretention. + +But of course, being only fourteen years old at the time, my first +exposure to this scene was one of dismal failure in terms of acceptance. +I met the sysop of the “Dallas Hack Shack” on WizNet, who let me call +his board and granted me access. Unfortunately, I must have been +ferreted out as a newbie, because my subsequent phone calls revealed +that my access had been revoked after a single call. However, I’d been +rejected from BBSes before and this left me undeterred. Later on, I +remember I was going to be offered an extension into some new group +called “xTension”, run by a rodent-turned-elite named ParMaster. When +asked what my skills were on Altos, I jokingly replied “being elite” +which was evidently taken seriously by a humorless “Necrovore”, which +resulted in me being denied access in to the group. How the irony of +that one escaped him, I never understood. There was obviously a whole +new realm to explore out there, and I was committed to be a part of it. +Armed with my NUI’s that everyone else in the world had, I started +scanning Telenet intensely, as well as wardialing every night for local +systems. I gained access to numerous Unix, VAX, and Primos systems +through binges of all-night scanning and attacking common +username/password combinations, which I then shared with others or +posted to boards. I took a keen liking to Primos systems due to their +possession of a unique utility - “NETLINK”. NETLINK typically allowed +any Prime system on an x25 network to access any other NUA (Network User +Address) on the network, so these systems could serve as a launch pad to +other systems. I remember PRIMOS being very difficult to learn, although +in retrospect, UNIX is still a lot harder. “Necrovore” actually wrote an +exhaustive compendium of PRIMOS CPL commands, a text file that can be +found on www.textfiles.com to this day under the “hack” section. + +There was another problem brewing, though. It seemed as though my local +MCI ports, which had been fairly regular sources of free phone calls, +were almost completely dry. No one seemed to be able to get much out of +them, and any codes obtained were generally dead within 24 hours. And I +had growing reservations about doing the typical “autoscanning” with a +modem from my home, due to heightened security in our then-new digital +switching system that allowed for easier identification of callers. +Luckily, I’d found a new service (On my own, although there were many +others who were already using it) in the form of MidAmerica +Communications, or 950-1001, a popular service with Rocky Mountain +region phreaks. The first code I ever tried on this system, 548951, +ended up lasting me over three (\!) months, and the connections were +crystal clear. But I did take to hacking these codes by hand from my +local 7-11’s payphone, as all 950 calls were free. And I did find out a +couple of years later, when the Secret Service raided my house, that I +actually had a DNR (Dialed Number Recorder) on my phone line for a brief +period of time before I took to hand-scanning, but I had conveniently +stopped scanning at the same time, so my usage was disregarded for some +reason. At the time, it seemed as though many people were starting to +see the handwriting on the wall - that Automatic Number Identification +and enhanced security features found in the new digital switching +systems were eventually going to render hacking and phreaking unviable. +But I knew that was at least a couple of years off, and I hoped that I +would be able to have fun at least until my 18th birthday… + +I’d managed to hack into at least twenty systems that first summer of +1988, and was feeling quite pleased with myself. I seemed to have a lot +of newer on-line friends, although I hadn’t met two of the hackers I +would end up talking to for hours on end every single day yet. (If you +ever read this, you know who you are). I was particularly proud of +several Unix systems I broke into in Finland, which I accessed with the +NUI’s I had and just reeked of exotcisim. There also seemed to be a sort +of “hacker’s revival” movement, as more people were getting involved +again after a series of busts that occurred in 1987, the most notable +being a 17 year old named “Shadow Hawk”, aka Herbert Zinn. The spearhead +of this movement was on a board called the “Phoenix Project” in Austin, +TX, run by an extremely knowledgable hacker named The Mentor. The +Mentor, whose real name was Loyd Blankenship, has been forever +immortalized as the one who penned the angry “Conscience of a Hacker” +(which somehow has made it into academic texts on computer security and +hacking) as well as the “Beginner’s Guide To Hacking”, which no doubt +influenced hundreds of ne’er-do-wells to undertake hacking as a hobby. +(He also famously penned the Steve Jackson Cyberpunk game, which +resulted in Steve Jackson Games being comically raided by the Feds in +early 1990). The Phoenix Project was about the only place where anyone +could get access, and questions could be answered by the cream of the +crop members of the hacker community, the Legion of Doom. I remember one +file written by The Prophet which was an introductory text on Unix +hacking that was particularly excellent. There were some new +technologies, such as 9600 baud modems, that had allowed users to run +bigger, better boards and transfer more data. This also marked the +summer that many people I knew started experimenting with one of the +darker sides of the hacking scene, “carding”, or credit card fraud. + +“Marijuana is the flame; heroin is the fuse; LSD is the bomb.” -Joe +Friday on an LSD scare episode of Dragnet + +Generally, the hacker’s entrance into fraud can be compared to the +classic propaganda of marijuana eventually leading to hard drugs and +culminating with shooting heroin. What starts off as benign curiosity, +causing a lot of consternation and paranoia, eventually becomes banal, +especially in the sped-up, attention-deficit deprived world of the +teenage hacker. If the hacker has no desire to learn about the systems +or networks in question, hacking quickly becomes not an end but rather a +means to bigger and better thrills. Most pirates were content to learn +about their own computers, dabbling in phone fraud as a means to stay in +touch with their cohorts. Some hackers did draw the line at credit card +fraud, merely content to explore the systems they break into. But many… +and they were not statistically insignificant numbers in terms of the +whole community… ended up getting bored with breaking into remote +computer systems and turned to outright theft for bigger thrills. + +Theft had always been a part of the hacking experience, at least in +part. “Dumpster diving” was considered a great way to garner discarded +passwords and technical manuals, and there were many of us who broke +into our local Bell office in hopes of finding manuals and technical +equipment. “Tapping cans” was also popular - you could find those big +round “cans” on telephone poles and monitor phone calls with a phone and +a $5 visit to Radio Shack. But the temptation to engage in outright +fraud was definitely engaged in to no small degree, spurred on by the +ridiculously easy availabilty of credit card numbers. Most Americans +seemed unaware that during this time period, anyone who needed to check +your credit rating (say, the used car dealership where you placed a +benign inquiry about a purchase last week) could do so through an +account with TRW or CBI. TRW seemed to be the de facto standard for +hackers in the early to mid 1980’s, but it seemed to have been +supplanted by CBI in the later 1980’s. Some enterprising hacker had +actually figured out the number seed for the generation of CBI accounts, +which effectively had opened up every CBI account in the country for +potential abuse. (This also happened with ITT calling cards on the +infamous 950-0488 extension and American Express credit cards during the +late 1980’s. It makes you wonder if companies have taken to more +sophisticated number generation schema in the new millennium.) + +But at any rate, credit card numbers ran like water, and if you had a +modicum of clout in the scene (hacking CBI was only marginally harder +than hacking “codez”) you could feasibly pull the credit card history of +anyone you didn’t like, especially your high school English teacher that +was pissing you off and giving you a hard time. And it seemed like for a +while, EVERYONE was carding everything under the sun. There was some kid +named Lord Zeus who had at least a dozen US Robotics HST modems, valued +at $500 a pop. Unsurprisingly, a lot of the hackers in New York City I +knew, including one “The Guardian” who ran an Amiga pirate board called +FBI BBS, were carding entire computer systems. There were reports of +kids getting busted and having tens of thousands of dollars in stolen +hardware in the closet of their houses, with their parents blissfully +unaware of what was going on. + +Because carding did seem so easy, most people did take at least one +crack at it. Generally, the myth on the street was that if you don’t get +too greedy, and don’t use the same drop address more than once, you +could get away with it forever. But even in my increasingly warped mind, +it still seemed a bit hard to justify, so I just stopped trying to +justify it. I succeeded in carding a $600 1.5 megabyte RAM upgrade for +the Commodore Amiga (I was the proud new owner of an Amiga 500 computer, +and RAM was ridiculously high during this period due to a fire at a +semiconductor plant in Japan) from some company in California, which had +eventually brought down some heat on my neighborhood, in addition to +some clothes from Eddie Bauer and some jewelry. In retrospect, I believe +this was the start of my incurring some seriously bad karma, which +eventually culminated in my arrest which was to occur only about a year +and a half later. However, the feeling of getting away with something +like that - a true high-tech crime - was incredibly thrilling for a +young teenager still in Junior High school. Mostly, credit card numbers +were just fun to have lying around, and could be a source of endless +amusement. + +Case in point: party lines and phone sex lines. Phone sex lines, in this +age of virginity, were not taken seriously at all, but what better fun +than to call an 800 sex line with someone else’s credit card and harass +the poor woman on the other end? And how about putting the local Pizza +Hut on a three-way call with some woman you’ve just requested to +simulate giving a blow job? At a friend’s request, I left the number of +a mutual acquaintance who had been pissing us off lately on a gay phone +sex line, which resulted in him getting dozens of solicitations for gay +phone sex over a several day period. And everyone I knew in the scene +was doing all of these things as a matter of course. That wasn’t even +the start of the possible revenge that could be extracted by a +knowledgable hacker: some of the elite had access to local LMOS systems, +and were able to forward phone calls from whatever source they wanted to +your line if you pissed them off bad enough. Hackers with LMOS access +were able to turn on the call waiting on the phone line of some sysop +they didn’t like, making his board disrupted every time someone else +tried calling in. One hacker we knew, “Fry Guy”, made a bet that he +could make a payphone local to my friend’s house into a regular phone +(i.e., not needing a quarter to dial out) and succeeded in doing it +within several days. I’m sure there were no small number of public high +school teachers that ended up getting a dozen toilet seats in the mail +from Sears after failing a certain apathetic computer enthusiast in one +of their classes. + +There were kids who were engaged in outright ripoffs and serious fraud - +kids that inspired serious investigation from the likes of the FBI and +Secret Service. The most intense example I remember is a Florida hacker +named “Maximum Overdrive” who had succeeded in his local Western Union +to the tune of at least fifty thousand dollars. Not only could he get +the credit card numbers of the people whom he was wiring “from”, when +Western Union decided to verify by calling their home address he could +forward the victim’s number to one he specified and pretend to be the +person wiring the money. It was during this stage in my hacking career +when I believe my head started to get a little concerned again. I was +starting to have ethical issues with the wholesale rip-off of +corporations. Even though I already had an inkling of the American +corporate power structure and how the “insurance companies just pay for +it all”, I was still not comfortable associating with individuals who +seemed to have little desire other than to scam as much free money and +computer hardware as they could possibly get. This sets the stage for +what Lord Digital was talking about in his sequel to “Fall Of The Modem +World” - the stage when the power you have starts to get out of hand. +When you’re engaging in high-tech grand larceny as a fifteen or sixteen +year old, you don’t learn the boundaries that other kids your age have +to learn. You just blow through every barrier that’s presented to you +and when that’s coupled with fragile adolescent egos, some serious +emotional and mental maladjustment can be the result. + +There was another hacker called the “Video Vindicator” that I also +talked with a few times (we’d struck up a mutual interest in electronic +music - I remember him playing the old techno track “Spice” by Eon to me +over the telephone.) The Video Vindicator was an admitted techno-vandal, +who liked to crash every system that he broke into. He ran a pretty good +board in Northern California called the “Shadows Of Iga” and was by all +accounts, an extremely intelligent kid. But the last I heard of him, he +got out of California Youth Authority at age 19, stole a car, managed to +evade jail at least once, and was living “on the run”, writing text +files about how to fence stole jewelry, break into houses, and the like. +I had the typical angst-ridden teenage experiences shoplifting and +engaging in burglarly and generally did not like them - I didn’t seem to +have the stomach or nerve to engage in serious crime, but in the +adrenaline and testosterone-riddled time, it was easy to see how people +were getting pressured into doing more extreme acts by the day. These +were kids who knew how to encrypt stolen credit cards - straight up +Cyberpunk Mafia type of shit. These were kids writing programs that +would decipher the mathematical algorithms that corporations would use +to generate credit card and calling card numbers, just for fun. + +It seemed like the scene was starting to get a bit sketchier all around. +In addition to knowing aforementioned fledgling Mafia members, it seemed +like all sorts of people were getting busted for carding and phone +fraud. A local user to me had gotten busted by 950-1001, a fate that +only escaped me because of my temporary moratorium I’d placed on +scanning for phone codes from my house. I’d ended up taking all of my +notes and disks with sensitive information on them over to a friend’s +house, afraid that I was the next one. But of course it never came, and +another vow to stop what I was doing was left unfulfilled. At the end of +the day, I was at a point where the scene had consumed my life and none +of us could do anything else. Fledgling interests in sports and +academics had long been discarded in favor of complete devotion to the +hacker subculture, and I had little desire to go back. I was branded as +the classic “bright but an underachiever” role in school, something I +knew that all of my peers had also experienced. Everything in my life +now embraced this one-dimensional anti-authoritarian view, but despite +my best intentions, everything always seemed to confirm the worst of +what I had suspected. Kids at my school were generally mean, and I had +already witnessed all of the typical detritus of the suburban wasteland +I lived in; parties where there were gang-bangs, 15 year old kids +smoking weed, drinking Old Milwaukee, and sniffing cocaine. It didn’t +offer much appeal. But it didn’t matter, because in this scene, you +truly had a purpose and you truly were someone important. And it wasn’t +related to ANYTHING that was going on in the real world. You just +couldn’t expect anyone to go back to the “real world” after being a +member of the hacker subculture. It seemed like you were a member of +this secret fraternity, with all of the power (at least in your own +mind) and crazy aliases and code words out of what seemed like a comic +book adventure. + +“I’m not crazy, you’re the one that’s crazy…” -Suicidal Tendencies in +“Institutionalized” + +As one could imagine, most hackers didn’t exactly have the most +fulfilling home and personal lives, and I was no exception. I was +threatened at home with being sent to a Christian school if I didn’t +clean up my act, which never materialized into anything but empty +threats, but I felt constantly at odds with my parents, who felt like I +was slipping into some sort of weird drugged Satanic cult or something, +perhaps due to the long hair and obscure musical taste I’d cultivated. +Nothing could have been further from the truth; I was actually +ridiculously drug-free, having only been drunk one time in my life. I +had no desire to smoke weed or get drunk like a lot of the other kids I +knew at school were doing. I was mostly angry, and most of my +non-computer time consisted of listening to the likes of Black Flag or +Minor Threat. + +Adults might have wanted you to just get your head out of your ass, but +everything in your life reinforced the following associations: “Real +World” = boring, angry, stupid, and pointless. “Hacker World” = happy, +fun, exciting, where your friends were. School was something to be slept +through if you actually had no choice but to go, which would then be +followed by another night of all-night teleconferences and the latest +scene gossip. Most importantly, it was FUN. You knew you were doing +things that no one else knew how to do. And you were learning more every +day. I spent endless hours on the phone every day. (What’s up Data +Wizard, Blue Adept, and PhaZeTech Crew, if you ever read this…) ;) + +However, the handwriting on the wall seemed to be getting more and more +pronounced. It had started to become pretty obvious to those in the know +that it wasn’t really safe to scan or use stolen calling card numbers +from your house at all anymore, as people seemed to be going down for +that left and right. (Getting busted for phone codes is a notoriously +lame thing to get caught for anyway.) Like it or not, even the “elite” +hackers who disdained the “kodez kidz” needed to make free phone calls. +New technologies like ANI and Caller ID threatened to make the +activities of wardialing and scanning, long staples of the hacking +scene, obsolete overnight. (A hacker named Lorax and his brother in +Michigan had gotten nailed simply for scanning the 800 prefix for +carrier, along with them stupidly leaving a message for the owner of a +hacked HP3000 to “please give us a call if you want help with your +security. He called them, all right) ;) + +It was clear that the whole scene had been based on this ephemeral +convergence of (1) naive computer security; (2) the availability of +telecommunications equipment on the mass market and (3) a very +libertarian culture of computer users who disliked governments and +regulations of any sort. It was no longer acceptable to talk about +pirated software on most BBSes like it had been during the nascent scene +in the early 1980’s period. But I was still having a good time, and was +starting to get to the point where I was a pretty good hacker. I had +probably only cracked into fifty systems in my life, but had learned +quite a bit doing it. And the vague group I knew, PhaZeTech, had a +system called “Colonial” that was essentially taken over by the group, +which served as a fertile Unix learning ground. (Perhaps the system +administrators viewed us as sort of a helpful ant colony and never +kicked us off, as we ended up doing a bit to maintain the system.) There +was no reason to think it would stop anytime in the near future, as I’d +stopped scanning for codes from my house some time in the past. + +But then another “convergence” came back to kick my ass. I’d recently +been sent an Apple Cat modem by a user named “Zippo Pinhead” on the +good-faith notion I’d pay him $30 for it, which I never did. (I really +did mean to, Bob, but I was a broke-ass 16 year old and just never got +around to it, and you didn’t really seem to care anyway.) I’d always +wanted the legendary Apple-Cat, due to its ability to mimic any tone, as +well as scan for codes at least twice as fast as any Hayes modem. The +temptation to let it scan for codes was just too much, and in addition, +the bad karma from not paying for it was also a factor. Despite my +better judgment, I was starting to get REALLY sloppy. + +My sloppiness ended up being epitomized by another really stupid-ass +mistake; leaving my real name and phone number on a board in Arizona +called “The Dark Side” run by a user named “The Dictator” who as it +turned out was running a sting operation for the Secret Service in +exchange for some computer hardware. (To this date, I hope “The +Dictator” is burning in hell, and I hope your life is a complete piece +of shit, you traitorous loser. How “cool” is that Amiga hardware you got +now, seeing as how you exchanged your soul for it, motherfucker?) But +anyway… I’d seen “The Dictator” around, as he was calling virtually +every board in existence and advertising his system, so I blindly left +my number on his system. Naturally, I was immediately corroborated with +the “Dark Sorcerer” who’d been seen around, probably posting some hacked +VAX (incidentally, John Lee, aka “Corrupt”, ruined a hacked VAX I posted +at 215 379, pw BACKUP/BACKUP, that I had gotten into by trying to run +some BBS on it, and this guy ended up on the cover of Wired Magazine. +Weird when people you knew threw the scene started becoming minor cause +celebres in the nascent wannabe-Cyberpunk type scene.) This resulted in +a DNR (Dialed Number Recorder) placed on my line around December of +1989, and of course I was using my new Apple-Cat to scan for codes +during that time. I could kick myself for days just thinking about how +stupid all of this was. + +The climax came on January 11, 1990, when two of the following showed up +at my house: Secret Service agents, local cops, and US West phone +security guys. And right before my parents were going to church for +their bell choir practice. Ugh. Not exactly my finest hour. And yes +kids, they do play “good cop, bad cop” just like in the movies. It was +somewhat comical, but I felt proud that at least I didn’t start bawling +or narcing out everyone I had ever known, as a lot of others were prone +to do (guess my nerves had been toughened up somewhat.) The charges +against me ended up being somewhat impressive, as I’d been using +multiple 950 services (ooops) all of which were small companies anxious +to prosecute me, in addition to having some floppies on them with about +seven hundred credit cards in the form of CBI buffers (double ooops) as +well as suspicion I’d been involved in a couple of local credit-card +shenanigans (which never materialized into real charges.) To make +matters worse, they wanted to confiscate the Apple computer, which I had +actually done all of the scanning on, which my little sister was +currently writing a huge paper on. We had to convince them to take my +Amiga instead. I ended up having to go down to the police station, +taking a mug shot just like any other criminal, and spending a couple of +nights in the Zebulon Pike Youth Detention Facility, shooting hoops and +wondering what was going to happen to me. + +The end result: Most of the charges got dropped, and I had to do fifty +hours’ community service, as well as pay about $3500 in restituion. +Luckily, I ended up doing my “community service” for my youth minister, +an ex-rock and roller who took pride in the fact that he just let me +read all of the books in his office (my first exposure to Hunter S. +Thompson, by the way.) It was a small compensation, but at least I +didn’t have to load furniture at Goodwill every weekend for two months +like a lot of other people I knew who got in trouble. + +And my probation officer thought I was the greatest novelty - here he +was dealing with kids who were stealing cars and selling weed, and he +gets this gangly “hacker” out of nowhere. + +I was pretty much out of the scene immediately, sans a few friends. But +it didn’t much matter, as the scene was quickly coming to an end anyway. +The “Operation Sun Devil” busts in early-mid 1990 effectively killed off +the vestiges of the 1980’s hacker scene, as most of the “elite” members +of the Legion of Doom and MOD had been snared in this raid. Probably +almost half of the people I had known had gotten busted, had retired, or +were simply getting older, getting cars and going to college. There I +was, sixteen years old, yet the disappointment was something to this day +I feel like only extremely old people feel; like how it must feel when +half of your friends are dead. I did manage to pull off a few +shenanigans after getting my computer back (my ever-unaware parents let +me continue to use the computer periodically, for “school work” of +course). I hacked into our local Water Supply Department VAX and gave +away the account some time later, which strangely resulted in an article +in the local paper a month later about how the Water Supply Department +needed a new computer, with my account that had been active forever +strangely cancelled… ;) (to this date, I have no idea if someone I gave +it out to on the “Magnetic Page” BBS crashed this or something.) I got +the occasional Alliance call from some old people I knew, and I quickly +found I had little in common with most of them. It seemed like most were +either drifting off into computer-science major irrelevance, or were +still able to pull off some capers due to non-busted status. But no one +seemed to be quite as crazy as they were even a year ago, as security +was getting better and better and “hacking” was starting to just mean +hacking voice mail systems. (Although the Tymnet heyday was still to +come. Does anyone else remember that cheezy chat system “QSD”?) ;) + +Computers seemed to lose their lustre. All of a sudden I had to be +normal, go to parties and try to fit in somwhat. The disappointment at +not being a part of the scene any more was quite a bit to bear. I still +had some calling cards, CBI accounts, and a few token relics of the +hacker era in order to amuse my “real world” friends, mostly. But by and +large, everything was gone. Before I knew it, a lot of the people I had +known were in college, and some of them had dropped out to become +professional programmers at age 19 or so, already knowing way more than +most of their professors. After a year or so of re-adjustment, I +attained some sort of normalcy. I used LSD extensively, and later +Ecstasy and ketamine. Drugs were sort of an effort to get that “peak +feeling” that I used to get, and were incredibly entertaining and +insightful, although they lacked the long-term intellectual stimulation +that computers were able to provide, eventually becoming somewhat banal +in their own right. But that, as they say, is a different story. :) + +This brings me to the end of this file: if you made it this far, how +come? And where are the rest of the people I used to know in that scene +now? All grown up, I’d imagine. The ones who didn’t get busted probably +got their PhD’s and didn’t stray too far from the Republican Party. But +the ones who were a little more worldly, what happened? Was it a period +of intense self-scrutiny, reading thousands of books, spending endless +hours of self-reflection… and was intellectual curiosity what that scene +was all about? + + - Author: Dark Sorcerer, C0dez Kid / February 20, 2001 + - Original: diff --git a/_stories/2001/11786193.md b/_stories/2001/11786193.md deleted file mode 100644 index 4f8abf3..0000000 --- a/_stories/2001/11786193.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,25 +0,0 @@ ---- -created_at: '2016-05-27T14:19:02.000Z' -title: 'Dijkstra: My Recollections of Operating System Design (2001) [pdf]' -url: https://www.cs.utexas.edu/users/EWD/ewd13xx/EWD1303.PDF -author: jdnc -points: 65 -story_text: -comment_text: -num_comments: 11 -story_id: -story_title: -story_url: -parent_id: -created_at_i: 1464358742 -_tags: -- story -- author_jdnc -- story_11786193 -objectID: '11786193' - ---- -[Source](https://www.cs.utexas.edu/users/EWD/ewd13xx/EWD1303.PDF "Permalink to ") - - - diff --git a/_stories/2001/11882797.md b/_stories/2001/11882797.md deleted file mode 100644 index 681b9ef..0000000 --- a/_stories/2001/11882797.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,25 +0,0 @@ ---- -created_at: '2016-06-11T09:28:11.000Z' -title: Why Plan 9? (2001) -url: http://marc.info/?l=9fans&m=111558822710356&w=2 -author: _acme -points: 102 -story_text: -comment_text: -num_comments: 53 -story_id: -story_title: -story_url: -parent_id: -created_at_i: 1465637291 -_tags: -- story -- author__acme -- story_11882797 -objectID: '11882797' - ---- -[Source](https://marc.info/?l=9fans&m=111558822710356&w=2 "Permalink to ") - - - diff --git a/_stories/2001/12069662.md b/_stories/2001/12069662.md index 88c5613..40b9f3c 100644 --- a/_stories/2001/12069662.md +++ b/_stories/2001/12069662.md @@ -19,7 +19,504 @@ _tags: objectID: '12069662' --- -[Source](https://www.theguardian.com/education/2001/aug/25/research.highereducation "Permalink to ") +Twenty years ago, 1,000 people died in an epidemic that spread across +Spain. Poisoned cooking oil was blamed - an explanation that suited +government and giant chemical corporations. It was, argues Bob +Woffinden, who investigated the scandal in the 80s, the prototype +scientific fraud that has found echoes around the world +In the days before "do-gooders" became a term of disapproval, doctors +and scientists were held in absolute public esteem. They did the most +good; they were working altruistically to benefit the human race - to +cure illness, prevent disease and create a safer, healthier future for +us all. That, at least, used to be the popular perception. Plainly, the +image has become more than a little tarnished. Even before the scandal +of the deaths of babies at Bristol Royal Infirmary, enough instances of +incompetence and negligence had emerged to provoke widespread public +scepticism about the professions. These days, scientists are more likely +to find themselves occupying the lower rungs on the ladder of public +trust, alongside estate agents and, well, journalists. +It is also increasingly understood that scientific research is now +hardly ever conducted in a spirit of disinterested inquiry. Usually, it +is funded by global companies whose concerns are anything but +disinterested. Even when research is financed by government agencies, +those, too, will want to call the tune. According to a survey carried +out last year by the scientific body, the Institute of Professionals, +Managers and Specialists, one in three scientists working for government +quangos or newly privatised laboratories has been asked to adjust +conclusions to suit the sponsor. +Leaving aside the implication of this for forensic science, it is +evident that most scientific inquiry today is dictated not by the thirst +for knowledge but by the thirst for profits. Even so, the full extent of +the betrayal of the public interest has yet to be appreciated. +Internationally, the scientific community has been responsible for +serious errors, which have then been covered up with devastating +consequences for public health. There was no proper treatment available +for victims, as their condition was undiagnosed; and the same mistakes +were repeated elsewhere. + +Twenty years ago, the Spanish "cooking oil" disaster began as a mystery +illness. Years later, the toll was put at more than 1,000 deaths and +more than 25,000 seriously injured, many of whom were permanently +disabled. It was the most devastating food poisoning in modern European +history. + +The disaster is historically important not just because of its scale and +the number of victims. It was the prototype contemporary scientific +fraud. It marked the first time that multinational interests +successfully contrived a major cover-up in international science. For +the one thing that is certain about the Spanish "cooking oil" disaster +is that it had nothing to do with cooking oil. + +The epidemic is officially deemed to have started on May 1 1981, when an +eight-year-old boy, Jaime Vaquero Garcia, suddenly fell ill and died in +his mother's arms on the way to La Paz children's hospital in Madrid. +Learning that his five brothers and sisters were also ill, doctors had +them all brought in and put one of the girls into intensive care. The +other four children were transferred to the Hospital del Rey, Madrid's +prestigious clinic for infectious diseases, where doctors began treating +them for "atypical pneumonia". + +When the director, Dr Antonio Muro y Fernandez-Cavada, arrived at work +the following morning, he was alarmed to be told that these new patients +were being treated for pneumonia. He gave his staff a dressing-down; it +was out of the question medically for six members of a family to be +suffering the same symptoms of pneumonia at the same time. + +The Vaquero family proved merely the first of many. It seemed to be +mainly women and children who were affected. The initial symptoms were +flu-like: fever and breathing difficulties, vomiting and nausea, +although patients soon developed a pulmonary oedema (the build-up of +fluid in the lungs), skin rashes and muscle pain. The epidemic was +national news. + +After a few days, Muro told the media that he believed it was due to +food poisoning, adding that the foodstuff was marketed "via an +alternative route". He was certain of this because the casualties were +all coming from the apartment blocks of the communities and towns +surrounding the capital; almost no one from Madrid itself appeared to be +affected. + +Muro brought together relatives of those afflicted with the mystery +illness and told them to work out exactly what the victims may have +eaten that they, the unaffected family members, may not have eaten. In +half an hour, they had an answer: salads. + +On May 12, Dr Angel Peralta, the head of the endocrinology department at +La Paz hospital, pointed out in a newspaper article that the symptoms of +the illness were best explained by "poisoning by organo-phosphates". The +following day, he received a telephone call from the health ministry, +ordering him to say nothing about the epidemic, and certainly nothing +about organo-phosphorous poisoning. + +That same day, Muro invited health ministry officials to the Hospital +del Rey. He produced maps of the localities, showing where the patients +lived. He believed that the contaminated foodstuff was being sold at the +local weekly street markets, the mercadillos, which set up in different +towns on different days. On this basis, he predicted where the illness +would strike next. He was proved right, but this was scant consolation +for the fact that he was suddenly informed that he was relieved of his +duties as hospital director, with immediate effect. His dismissal at +least enabled him to carry out his own first-hand investigations. He +patrolled the mercadillos and noticed the popularity and cheapness of +large, unlabelled plastic containers of cooking oil. Immediately, he and +his colleagues, one of whom was Dr Vicente Granero More, went to the +houses of affected families and removed the containers of oil that they +had been using when they fell ill. They carefully labelled them, sent +samples of each to the government's main laboratory at Majadahonda, just +outside Madrid, and awaited the results. + +Most medical personnel were simply trying to tend the sick and dying - a +difficult enough task in optimum conditions, but one made almost +impossible because doctors, not knowing the cause of the illness, had no +idea how to treat patients. Further, as the illness reached its chronic +stage, the symptoms became more severe, and included weight loss, +myalgia, alopecia (hair loss), muscle atrophy and limb deformity. + +At all administrative levels, there was bewilderment and anxiety. Spain +was then still a fledgling democracy; the dictator, General Franco, had +died as recently as 1975. In February 1981, only three months prior to +the outbreak, a lieutenant-colonel, Antonio Tejero, had held MPs in the +cortes (parliament) at gunpoint in a botched attempt to restore army +rule. More than a month after the epidemic first struck, most of those +in power had no strategy other than to hope something would turn up. +Finally, it did. Dr Juan Tabuenca Oliver, director of the Hospital +Infantil de Niño Jesus, told the government that he'd found the cause of +the epidemic. He'd asked 210 of the children in his care, and they'd all +consumed cooking oil. + +A fter, it seems, some initial hesitation, the government accepted his +theory. On June 10, an official announcement was made on late-night +television, informing the public that the epidemic was caused by +contaminated cooking oil. Almost immediately, the panic subsided. The +hospitals remained full of victims, but new admissions dropped sharply. +The situation seemed, at least, under control. + +Yet the government's announcement had been watched with stunned +disbelief by Muro and his colleagues. Only the previous day, on June 9, +they had obtained the results of the tests on their own, precise oil +samples. These showed that, although none was the pure olive oil that +the vendor had no doubt claimed it to be, almost all the oils had +different constituents. Such a variety of oils obviously could not +account for one specific illness. + +The cooking oil theory was superficially persuasive. To protect its +native olive oil industry, the Spanish government tried to prevent +imports of the much cheaper rapeseed oil, then being put to widespread +use throughout the European Community (which Spain did not join until +1986). Imports of rapeseed oil were allowed only for industrial use; the +oil first had to be made inedible through the addition of aniline. + +Streetwise entrepreneurs simply imported the cheaper oil anyway. The +more scrupulous among them then removed the aniline; the others didn't +bother. The illness was therefore attributed to aniline poisoning. It +became colloquially known as la colza (which is Spanish for "rapeseed"). +A number of the more high-profile oil merchants were arrested. + +Three weeks after the television announcement, the health ministry +allowed families to hand in their supposedly contaminated oil and +replaced it with pure olive oil. This belated exchange programme was +hopelessly mishandled, with few authentic records kept of who was +exchanging what or (and this should have been the key point) whether the +oil came from affected or unaffected households. As olive oil was +guaranteed in return, many people simply handed in any oil they could +find, even motor oil. Most of the oil that supposedly caused the +epidemic was never available for subsequent scientific analysis. The +instinctive reaction of most families, upon hearing that it was to blame +for the illness, had simply been to throw it away. + +In order to demonstrate that the oil had caused the illness, government +scientists needed to be able to show, for example, that families who had +bought the oil were affected, whereas those who hadn't were not; that +the aniline in the oil was indeed poisonous and that the victims were +suffering from aniline poisoning; and, bearing in mind that such +commercial cooking oil fraud had been widespread for years, just what +had changed in the manufacturing process to cause the oil suddenly to +become so poisonous. To this day, none of these basic conditions has +been met. + +In 1983, however, an international conference was convened in Madrid +under the auspices of the World Health Organisation (WHO). Despite the +reservations of many scientists present, the epidemic was then +officially named toxic oil syndrome (TOS). In 1985, the opinion of the +internationally respected British epidemiologist Sir Richard Doll was +sought. He was cautious, saying, "If it could be shown that even one +person who developed the disease could not have had exposure to \[the +oil\], that would provide good grounds for exculpating the oil +altogether." + +The trial of the oil merchants began in March 1987. Four months later, +Doll, just before giving his evidence, announced that, on the basis of +fresh epidemiological reports given to him, he now believed that the oil +was the cause of the outbreak. + +At the end of the two-year trial in 1989, the judges themselves stressed +that the toxin in the oil was "still unknown". This somewhat fundamental +difficulty did not prevent them from handing down long prison terms to +the oil merchants, who were convicted, in effect, of causing the +epidemic. + +After years of one-track media reports, the notion of the "cooking oil" +epidemic was firmly lodged in the public consciousness. It was +unquestioned fact. No one doubted the official scientific conclusions, +especially as they were accepted by the WHO. + +After the 1983 Madrid conference, when there was still widespread unease +with the oil theory, the Spanish government recruited some of the +country's leading epidemiologists to head a fresh commission of inquiry. +Among those chosen were Dr Javier Martinez Ruiz and Dr Maria Clavera +Ortiz, a husband-and-wife team from Barcelona. "We absolutely believed +the oil was to blame," they said. "We thought the only problem was that +the information was disorganised and the research inadequate." + +So they set about a rigorous examination of the official information. +The results shocked them. Martinez looked at the pattern of admissions +to hospitals and realised that the epidemic had peaked at the end of +May. The incidence curve went down at least 10 days before the +government's June 10 broadcast, and about a month before the withdrawal +of the oil. In fact, the announcement that oil was to blame had had no +effect on the course of the epidemic. + +Meanwhile, his wife had examined the patterns of distribution of the +suspect oil, which had come across the border from France. She realised +that vast quantities of the oil were sold in regions (notably Catalonia) +where there had not been a single case of illness. And they subsequently +learned that the government was already fully aware of this. At the time +of the epidemic, the government had created a new post of secretary of +state for consumer affairs at cabinet level. Chosen for this appointment +was a rising lawyer and economist, Enrique Martinez de Genique. + +Genique himself had drawn up maps of the distribution of the oil and the +pattern of illness. He realised that there was no correlation between +the two and, accordingly, that the oil was not the cause of the +epidemic. After presenting his findings to the health ministry, he was +sacked from his government post, and soon decided to retire from +politics altogether. He emphasised that he had never regretted what he +did: "I had very grave doubts \[about the government's stance on the +epidemic\] and I was morally and ethically obliged to voice them." + +Martinez and Clavera, too, were fired. As this did not entirely prevent +the possibility of the commission reaching inconvenient conclusions, it +was soon closed down altogether. + +The powerful, indeed irrefutable, evidence that the suspect oil was sold +throughout parts of Spain where not a single case of illness resulted +could be coupled with equally clear evidence of the converse: of people +who could not have been exposed to the oil falling victim to the +epidemic. + +While making a television documentary, I saw many families who had +suffered illness yet were adamant that they had never purchased the oil. +One woman used only supplies from the olive groves of her relatives in +Andalusia, yet she was seriously disabled by the illness. Perhaps the +best authenticated example was the case of Maria Concepcion Navarro, a +young lawyer in Madrid who fell ill, became progressively worse and died +in August 1982. Her symptoms were exactly the same as those of other +fatalities of la colza and she was put on the official roll of TOS +victims - despite the fact that her husband, also a lawyer, stressed +that they had only ever used the most reputable cooking oils. Then the +authorities belatedly noticed another significant contradiction. Maria +Concepcion had actually been hospitalised from November 1979, 18 months +before the start of la colza. She didn't fit the official theory; +consequently, her name was struck off the list of victims. + +On a broader scale, this was how the statistics of the epidemic were +compiled. If victims - afectados - or their families agreed that they +had used the oil, their names were added to the official list; if they +asserted that they had never had the oil, their names were excluded. +However, the health ministry had made it known that only those whose +names appeared on the official list would qualify for government +compensation, so there was a clear incentive for afectados to say that +they had used the oil. Developments like this artificially buttressed +the government's position and made it almost impossible to produce an +accurate assessment of the epidemic. + +T hrough all the obfuscation, one man had simply ignored the official +lines of inquiry and spent months pursuing his own. Having eliminated +the cooking oil, Muro and his colleagues turned their attention to other +salad products. Speaking to market stallholders, lorry drivers and +around 4,000-5,000 affected families, they concluded that, without any +doubt, the contaminated foodstuff was tomatoes, and it was the +pesticides on them that were responsible for the epidemic. The +organo-phosphorous chemicals would indeed cause the range of symptoms +observed by clinicians. + +The tomatoes, they established, had come from Almeria, in the south-east +corner of Spain. Once a desert area, this was not fit for crop-growing +until the discovery of underground water in the 1970s helped to +transform it into an agricultural success story. Fruit and vegetables +were forced into rapid growth under long tunnels of plastic sheeting. +Some farmers got three, or even four, crops a year. + +This agricultural boom was made possible only through the application of +copious quantities of chemicals: nutrients, fertilisers and pesticides. +Although exactly what happened may never be known, it is likely that one +farmer had used the chemicals too liberally, or had harvested the crop +too quickly after applying them. Neither would have been surprising. +Some of the farmers were illiterate and would have had difficulty with +the instructions for use on the containers of chemicals. + +Muro had many supporters but, as the official view became more and more +entrenched, so he was marginalised as the one dissident voice. In 1985, +he died suddenly of a mysterious illness. His wife perceived the whole +saga as an unmitigated family tragedy. + +It was Muro and his team who had done the on-the-ground epidemiology in +the immediate wake of the outbreak. What, then, of the epidemiology that +the WHO in 1992 was boldly to describe as "comprehensive and exacting +epidemiological studies, subjected to critical independent assessment"? + +Muro's work was first-hand. But trying to assess the accuracy and +validity of the official epidemiology was not easy. The FIS - the +government agency responsible for toxic oil syndrome - refused to +release details of the fieldwork carried out or any background +information. However, the families described in the reports were given +code numbers and these could be matched against the official list of +victims which then became part of the trial documentation. Eventually we +identified the families supposedly interviewed for the key +epidemiological reports and went to see them. + +From these first-hand inquiries, we established that there was not a +single case in which the family's history corresponded with what was +written in the epidemiological reports. Sometimes the differences were +slight; sometimes the reports bore no relation to what had actually +happened. In one sense, this was not surprising; while some families did +recall having been interviewed by officials at the time, others insisted +that they were never questioned at all. The principal scientific premise +- that evidence should be gathered and, on that basis, a conclusion +reached - appeared to have been reversed: a conclusion had been reached, +and then the evidence manipulated in order to support that conclusion. + +The original study on which the oil theory is founded, by Dr Juan +Tabuenca Oliver, was published in the Lancet; yet it appears less than +rigorous. At the outset, he claimed that all 210 of the children in his +care had taken the oil. The next time that reference was made to this +study, the number of children in his care was given as 60. Two years +later, it had shot up again, to 345. Today, the figure is put at 62. + +Moreover, his claim that all of the children had consumed the oil was +disputed at the trial. Pilar Pans Gonzalez, the mother of one of his +patients, was asked if her son had had the oil. She replied that he had +not. Asked how she could explain this discrepancy (with the supposed +100% finding), she replied, "That is their problem, something they have +invented." + +There are three specific epidemiological reports on which the oil theory +now rests. Two of these are particularly astonishing. The first concerns +three cases of illness in two families in Seville. These three became +ill, according to the official analysis, because the heads of the +families worked at a refinery where some of the suspect oil had +supposedly been refined, and took some for use at home. + +There are a number of glaring problems with this report. Most +importantly, one of the families, on hearing the government's +announcement about the illness, had taken their own oil to be analysed +at the local Instituto de la Grasa, which happened to be one of the +country's most renowned laboratories. The records of this analysis are +still available; the oil was not rapeseed at all, it was olive oil. + +If the theory was correct, one might have expected other refinery +workers to fall ill; no one did. However, there were originally, +according to the government's own records, 83 cases of la colza in +Seville. The other 80 vanished from the official records, presumably +because they couldn't possibly fit the oil theory; after all, the +suspect oil had never been sold in Andalusia, where authentic olive oil +is in such plentiful supply. + +Even more amazing was the study concerning a convent outside Madrid. +According to this, 42 out of 43 nuns fell ill after using the oil, while +visitors whose food was prepared in a different oil did not fall ill. +From an official perspective, the beauty of this epidemiology was not +just that it provided game, set and match for the oil theory, but that +no one could afterwards check the veracity of the paper. This was a +closed convent. The nuns had no routine contact with members of the +public, and they certainly didn't talk to the media. In the event, +senior nuns from the convent did give evidence at the trial. Their +testimony flatly contradicted what was written in the convent report. Of +course, all the food was prepared in the same way and cooked in the same +oil. In fact, only very few nuns (about eight or nine) suffered any +illness. The epidemiological report was a fabrication. + +Nor was the oil theory underpinned by any laboratory science. In the +years since the 1981 outbreak, the suspect oils have been analysed in +leading laboratories throughout the world. No chemical, or contaminant, +that would account for the symptoms observed in the afectados has ever +been found. Aniline - which was blamed for the epidemic - is poisonous +only in much greater quantities than were present in the oil and, in any +case, the symptoms of aniline poisoning are quite different from those +of the afectados. Laboratory tests proved that the oil was not harmful +to animals. "All the animals thrived on the stuff," one researcher +explained. "Their coats became glossier and they put on weight." + +Dr Gaston Vettorazzi was chief toxicologist at the WHO at the time of +the outbreak, but had since retired. He told us, in the most gracious +way, that if even a bunch of journalists with no scientific expertise +could see through all this, then it must indeed be obvious. In other +words, he didn't believe that this had occurred through a series of +administrative errors; he believed that the truth had been deliberately +concealed by Spanish officialdom. As he said, the rapeseed explanation +of the illness was "predetermined. That was the official line of the +so-called Spanish science. You cannot force an investigator to follow a +line. If this is done, science is dead." + +For the various political and industrial concerns, there was substantial +common interest in hiding the truth. For the multinational chemical +companies, the revelation that a mass poisoning had occurred would have +been scandalous and financially disastrous. At that stage, +organo-chlorine (OC) pesticides were being phased out, to be replaced by +organo-phosphates (OPs). The profits generated by the worldwide sales of +OPs in the past 20 years have been vast. In those terms, suppressing the +true cause of la colza was a commercial imperative. The Spanish +administration had entirely congruent interests. With the attempted coup +in parliament still fresh in the public mind, it was vital that +ministers were seen to be in control. Democracy itself depended on the +government being seen to deal capably with this national tragedy. + +Moreover, at that time, Almeria represented an economic miracle for +Spain, providing produce that went to all parts of Europe. Had it been +frankly acknowledged that all those deaths had been caused by pesticides +on tomatoes, the effect on the entire Spanish export trade would have +been incalculable. + +Nor was that the only economic repercussion. The news that such staple +home-grown produce as tomatoes could be poisonous would have had a +calamitous impact on Spain's other main generator of foreign income, the +ever-growing tourist trade. On the other hand, spreading the fiction +that the epidemic had been caused by cheap rapeseed oil sold in +unlabelled containers at street markets to the Spanish working class in +poorer areas of the country - that, of course, had no effect on tourism. + +The consequences of the cover-up were appalling. Many died +unnecessarily. Thousands more, children among them, were left to endure +a lifetime of pain and physical impairment that perhaps could have been +avoided if they had received the care and treatment they needed as early +as possible. The Spanish colza is not just one of the great tragedies of +the last century, it is also one of the great scandals. + +Years later, in 1989, a similar mystery illness was first diagnosed in +New Mexico. Victims, 29 of whom died, fell ill with pneumonia-like +symptoms. Altogether, there were about 1,500 cases across the US. The +symptoms appeared identical to those suffered by the afectados in Spain; +yet no one in the US had had access to contaminated cooking oil. + +It is virtually certain that this outbreak, too, was caused by OP +pesticides. The scientific community - helpfully for their paymasters - +did not conclude that; the cause of the illness was attributed to an +innocuous amino acid supplement, L-Tryptophan, which had been taken +without problem by millions of Americans throughout the 1980s. (Its sale +is now banned in the US and Europe.) Just as with toxic oil syndrome, +funding was available for scientists who wished to pursue the official +line, but not for those who held different views. Nevertheless, no +component of L-Tryptophan has ever been found that would account for the +symptoms suffered by victims. + +There have now been several issues about which there is a general +perception that the truth is not being allowed to surface. These +include, most obviously, the effects of OPs on farmers in Britain. +Despite what appears to be a mounting toll of death and debilitating +illness inflicted on the farming community, all official inquiries +somehow fail to establish a link between pesticide exposure and the +illness. + +The WHO, to its shame, continues to refer to the Spanish epidemic as the +"toxic oil syndrome". Every day around the world, students are no doubt +being taught that "cooking oil" was the cause of the disaster. Two books +on the cover-up have lately been published. One of these, Detras de la +colza, is by Granero, Muro's right-hand man; the other, published in +France, is Jacques Philipponneau's Relation de l'empoisonnement perpétré +en Espagne et camouflé sous le nom de syndrome de l'huile toxique - but +the worldwide deception continues, automatically recycled by a compliant +media. + +The enduring feature of the TOS saga is that it provided a blueprint for +the international scientific community. If even a theory as palpably +bogus as the "toxic oil" syndrome can be sustained internationally, then +suppressing the truth must be remarkably straightforward. All it takes +is a series of epidemiological reports, accredited by scientists of a +similar persuasion, and then published in reputable scientific journals. +There are, as Disraeli might have said, lies, damned lies and +peer-reviewed scientific papers. + +Given increasing privacy constraints, the media can never independently +verify the data, and just have to report whatever they are told. + +Moreover, we could discover the truth about the Spanish epidemic for two +reasons: because the two-year trial ensured that otherwise unavailable +information reached the public domain (and the authorities haven't made +that mistake again); and because I was able, in 1990, to spend almost +three months in Spain researching and filming the epidemic. A decade +later, it is now inconceivable that journalistic investigations on such +a scale would be supported. In future, without even the remote +possibility of a bunch of journalists turning up years later to ask +inconvenient questions, it will be even easier for international science +to organise its cover-ups. + +An internal German government memo was recently leaked to Der Spiegel. +According to this, the monitoring of imported produce had revealed that +there continued to be unsafe pesticide residues on fruit and vegetables +from Spain. Some peppers were "highly contaminated" and the residues had +"reached levels we can no longer tolerate". It was the last line of the +memo that was most telling: "Under no circumstances should the general +public be informed." diff --git a/_stories/2001/12783040.md b/_stories/2001/12783040.md index 59b1d54..497c2e1 100644 --- a/_stories/2001/12783040.md +++ b/_stories/2001/12783040.md @@ -19,338 +19,38 @@ _tags: objectID: '12783040' --- -[Source](http://www.nytimes.com/2001/10/24/business/technology-apple-introduces-what-it-calls-an-easier-to-use-portable-music-player.html "Permalink to TECHNOLOGY; Apple Introduces What It Calls an Easier to Use Portable Music Player - The New York Times") +Apple Computer introduced a portable music player today and declared +that the new gadget, called the iPod, was so much easier to use that it +would broaden a nascent market in the way the Macintosh once helped make +the personal computer accessible to a more general audience. -# TECHNOLOGY; Apple Introduces What It Calls an Easier to Use Portable Music Player - The New York Times +But while industry analysts said the device appeared to be as consumer +friendly as the company said it was, they also pointed to its relatively +limited potential audience, around seven million owners of the latest +Macintosh computers. Apple said it had not yet decided whether to +introduce a version of the music player for computers with the Windows +operating system, which is used by more than 90 percent of personal +computer users. -__NYTimes.com no longer supports Internet Explorer 9 or earlier. Please upgrade your browser. [LEARN MORE »][1] +''It's a nice feature for Macintosh users,'' said P. J. McNealy, a +senior analyst for Gartner G2, an e-commerce research group. ''But to +the rest of the Windows world, it doesn't make any difference.'' -__Sections __ Home __Search [Skip to content][2] [Skip to navigation][3] [View mobile version][4] - -## [ The New York Times ][5] - -###### [Business Day][6]|TECHNOLOGY; Apple Introduces What It Calls an Easier to Use Portable Music Player - -__Search - -Subscribe Now Log In __0 __Settings - -__Close search - -## Site Search Navigation - -Search NYTimes.com - -__Clear this text input - -Go - -1. Loading... - -See next articles - -See previous articles - -## Site Navigation - -## Site Mobile Navigation +Steven P. Jobs, Apple's chief executive, disputed the concern that the +market was limited, and said the company might have trouble meeting +holiday demand. He predicted that the improvement in technology he said +the iPod represented would inspire consumers to buy Macintosh computers +so they could use an iPod. Advertisement -Supported by +[Continue reading the main story](#story-continues-1) -### [Business Day][6] | TECHNOLOGY - -# TECHNOLOGY; Apple Introduces What It Calls an Easier to Use Portable Music Player - -By [MATT RICHTEL][7]OCT. 24, 2001 - -[Continue reading the main story][8] Share This Page - -[Continue reading the main story][8] - -Apple Computer introduced a portable music player today and declared that the new gadget, called the iPod, was so much easier to use that it would broaden a nascent market in the way the Macintosh once helped make the personal computer accessible to a more general audience. - -But while industry analysts said the device appeared to be as consumer friendly as the company said it was, they also pointed to its relatively limited potential audience, around seven million owners of the latest Macintosh computers. Apple said it had not yet decided whether to introduce a version of the music player for computers with the Windows operating system, which is used by more than 90 percent of personal computer users. - -''It's a nice feature for Macintosh users,'' said P. J. McNealy, a senior analyst for Gartner G2, an e-commerce research group. ''But to the rest of the Windows world, it doesn't make any difference.'' - -Steven P. Jobs, Apple's chief executive, disputed the concern that the market was limited, and said the company might have trouble meeting holiday demand. He predicted that the improvement in technology he said the iPod represented would inspire consumers to buy Macintosh computers so they could use an iPod. - -Advertisement - -[Continue reading the main story][8] - -There are several categories of digital music devices, including players that use flash memory, which are small but expensive. Another competing player relies on magnetic hard drives, which are typically larger in both capacity and size, and thus are enclosed in larger gadgets. The market for all such devices is growing and is expected to be around 18 million units by 2005, according to IDC, a market research firm. - -[Continue reading the main story][9] - -Advertisement - -[Continue reading the main story][10] - -The iPod, which will sell for $399 when it becomes available on Nov. 10, is something of a hybrid of existing products. At 4 inches by just under 2.5 inches and just over three-quarters of an inch thick, it is as small as flash players, but it has a 5-gigabyte hard drive, large enough to store 1,000 songs. - -Among the features being promoted, the device uses an Apple technology called Firewire to permit songs to be transferred from a computer onto the gadget at a rate of around 1 second a song, substantially faster than other portable players, the company said. - -## Newsletter Sign Up - -[Continue reading the main story][11] - -### - -Please verify you're not a robot by clicking the box. - -Invalid email address. Please re-enter. - -You must select a newsletter to subscribe to. - -Sign Up - -You agree to receive occasional updates and special offers for The New York Times's products and services. - -### Thank you for subscribing. - -### An error has occurred. Please try again later. - -### You are already subscribed to this email. - -[View all New York Times newsletters.][12] - -* [See Sample][13] -* [Manage Email Preferences][14] -* [Not you?][15] -* [Privacy Policy][16] -* Opt out or [contact us][17] anytime - -Mr. Jobs said other major advances were its ease of use and a rechargeable lithium battery that runs for 10 hours, making it the most sophisticated battery in any Apple computer or device. - -But just how easy MP3 players are to use is a matter of some concern to the record industry. The industry has expressed concern that songs encoded in the MP3 format -- a popular digital format into which songs can be converted and stored -- can be easily pirated or traded freely, as on services like Napster. - -Mr. Jobs said the company had taken some steps to protect against piracy in its device. For instance, he said, songs loaded onto the iPod from a Macintosh computer, cannot then be loaded from the device to a different Macintosh computer, a step he said would make it difficult for people to distribute music they own to other users. - -The Recording Industry Association of America, which represents the major record labels, declined to comment on the iPod. - -Susan Kevorkian, a digital music industry analyst with IDC, praised the new iPod design, saying the combination of its ease of use, portability and big storage space would influence competitors. 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https://www.nytimes.com/content/help/rights/copyright/copyright-notice.html -[82]: https://www.nytimes.com -[83]: http://query.nytimes.com/search/sitesearch/#/ -[84]: mailto:accessibility%40nytimes.com -[85]: https://www.nytimes.com/ref/membercenter/help/infoservdirectory.html -[86]: http://www.nytco.com/careers -[87]: http://nytmediakit.com/ -[88]: https://www.nytimes.com/content/help/rights/privacy/policy/privacy-policy.html#pp -[89]: https://www.nytimes.com/privacy -[90]: https://www.nytimes.com/ref/membercenter/help/agree.html -[91]: https://www.nytimes.com/content/help/rights/sale/terms-of-sale.html -[92]: http://spiderbites.nytimes.com -[93]: https://www.nytimes.com/membercenter/sitehelp.html -[94]: https://myaccount.nytimes.com/membercenter/feedback.html -[95]: https://www.nytimes.com/subscriptions/Multiproduct/lp5558.html?campaignId=37WXW +There are several categories of digital music devices, including players +that use flash memory, which are small but expensive. Another competing +player relies on magnetic hard drives, which are typically larger in +both capacity and size, and thus are enclosed in larger gadgets. The +market for all such devices is growing and is expected to be around 18 +million units by 2005, according to IDC, a market research firm. +[Continue reading the main story](#story-continues-2) diff --git a/_stories/2001/1583717.md b/_stories/2001/1583717.md index 5f0d015..148e335 100644 --- a/_stories/2001/1583717.md +++ b/_stories/2001/1583717.md @@ -19,7 +19,136 @@ _tags: objectID: '1583717' --- -[Source](https://www.joelonsoftware.com/articles/fog0000000007.html "Permalink to ") +Time for a pop quiz. +![Copley +Square](https://i1.wp.com/www.joelonsoftware.com/wp-content/uploads/2001/10/Copley_Square.jpg?resize=226%2C195&ssl=1) +1. Code Reuse is: +> a) Good +> b) Bad +2\. Reinventing the Wheel is: + +> a) Good +> b) Bad + +3\. The Not-Invented-Here Syndrome is: + +> a) Good +> b) Bad + +Of course, everybody knows that you should always leverage other +people’s work. The correct answers are, of course, 1(a) 2(b) 3(b). + +Right? + +Not so fast, there\! + +The Not-Invented-Here Syndrome is considered a classic management +pathology, in which a team refuses to use a technology that they didn’t +create themselves. People with NIH syndrome are obviously just being +petty, refusing to do what’s in the best interest of the overall +organization because they can’t find a way to take credit. (Right?) The +Boring Business History Section at your local megabookstore is rife with +stories about stupid teams that spend millions of dollars and twelve +years building something they could have bought at Egghead for $9.99. +And everybody who has paid any attention whatsoever to three decades of +progress in computer programming knows that Reuse is the Holy Grail of +all modern programming systems. + +Right. Well, that’s what I thought, too. So when I was the program +manager in charge of the first implementation of Visual Basic for +Applications, I put together a careful coalition of four, count them, +four different teams at Microsoft to get custom dialog boxes in Excel +VBA. The idea was complicated and fraught with interdependencies. There +was a team called AFX that was working on some kind of dialog editor. +Then we would use this brand new code from the OLE group which let you +embed one app inside another. And the Visual Basic team would provide +the programming language behind it. After a week of negotiation I got +the AFX, OLE, and VB teams to agree to this in principle. + +I stopped by Andrew Kwatinetz’s office. He was my manager at the time +and taught me everything I know. “The Excel development team will never +accept it,” he said. “You know their motto? ‘Find the dependencies — and +eliminate them.’ They’ll never go for something with so many +dependencies.” + +In-ter-est-ing. I hadn’t known that. I guess that explained why Excel +had its own C compiler. + +By now I’m sure many of my readers are rolling on the floor laughing. +“Isn’t Microsoft stupid,” you’re thinking, “they refused to use other +people’s code and they even had their own compiler just for one +product.” + +Not so fast, big boy\! The Excel team’s ruggedly independent mentality +also meant that they always shipped on time, their code was of uniformly +high quality, and they had a compiler which, back in the 1980s, +generated pcode and could therefore run unmodified on Macintosh’s 68000 +chip as well as Intel PCs. The pcode also made the executable file about +half the size that Intel binaries would have been, which loaded faster +from floppy disks and required less RAM. + +“Find the dependencies — and eliminate them.” When you’re working on a +really, really good team with great programmers, everybody else’s code, +frankly, is bug-infested garbage, and nobody else knows how to ship on +time. When you’re a cordon bleu chef and you need fresh lavender, you +grow it yourself instead of buying it in the farmers’ market, because +sometimes they don’t have fresh lavender or they have old lavender which +they pass off as fresh. + +Indeed during the recent dotcom mania a bunch of quack business writers +suggested that the company of the future would be totally virtual — just +a trendy couple sipping Chardonnay in their living room outsourcing +everything. What these hyperventilating “visionaries” overlooked is that +the market pays for value added. Two yuppies in a living room buying an +e-commerce engine from company A and selling merchandise made by company +B and warehoused and shipped by company C, with customer service from +company D, isn’t honestly adding much value. In fact, if you’ve ever had +to outsource a critical business function, you realize that outsourcing +is hell. Without direct control over customer service, you’re going to +get nightmarishly bad customer service — the kind people write about in +their weblogs when they tried to get someone, anyone, from some phone +company to do even the most basic thing. If you outsource fulfillment, +and your fulfillment partner has a different idea about what constitutes +prompt delivery, your customers are not going to be happy, and there’s +nothing you can do about it, because it took 3 months to find a +fulfillment partner in the first place, and in fact, you won’t even know +that your customers are unhappy, because they can’t talk to you, because +you’ve set up an outsourced customer service center with the explicit +aim of not listening to your own customers. That e-commerce engine you +bought? There’s no way it’s going to be as flexible as what Amazon does +with obidos, which they wrote themselves. (And if it is, then Amazon has +no advantage over their competitors who bought the same thing). And no +off-the-shelf web server is going to be as blazingly fast as what Google +does with their hand-coded, hand-optimized server. + +This principle, unfortunately, seems to be directly in conflict with the +ideal of “code reuse good — reinventing wheel bad.” + +The best advice I can offer: + +> **If it’s a core business function — do it yourself, no matter what.** + +Pick your core business competencies and goals, and do those in house. +If you’re a software company, writing excellent code is how you’re going +to succeed. Go ahead and outsource the company cafeteria and the CD-ROM +duplication. If you’re a pharmaceutical company, write software for drug +research, but don’t write your own accounting package. If you’re a web +accounting service, write your own accounting package, but don’t try to +create your own magazine ads. If you have customers, never outsource +customer service. + +If you’re developing a computer game where the plot is your competitive +advantage, it’s OK to use a third party 3D library. But if cool 3D +effects are going to be your distinguishing feature, you had better roll +your own. + +The only exception to this rule, I suspect, is if your own people are +more incompetent than everyone else, so whenever you try to do anything +in house, it’s botched up. Yes, there are plenty of places like this. If +you’re in one of them, I can’t help +you. + +[Discuss](http://discuss.fogcreek.com/joelonsoftware/default.asp?cmd=show&ixPost=112) diff --git a/_stories/2001/16078017.md b/_stories/2001/16078017.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..f044a4b --- /dev/null +++ b/_stories/2001/16078017.md @@ -0,0 +1,139 @@ +--- +created_at: '2018-01-05T11:42:00.000Z' +title: Momentum builds for open-source processors (2001) +url: https://www.eetimes.com/document.asp?doc_id=1179860 +author: ashitlerferad +points: 56 +story_text: +comment_text: +num_comments: 11 +story_id: +story_title: +story_url: +parent_id: +created_at_i: 1515152520 +_tags: +- story +- author_ashitlerferad +- story_16078017 +objectID: '16078017' + +--- +Advertisement + +[![EE Times](https://m.eet.com/images/eetimes/ee-times.gif)](../) +[![](https://m.eet.com/images/images/spacer.gif)]() +![](https://m.eet.com/images/images/spacer.gif) + +[REGISTER | LOGIN]() [PROFILE |](profile.asp?screenToRender=editProfile) +[LOGOUT]() + +Sign Up / Sign In + +[Forgot your password?](#) [Create Account](#) + +{\* \#signInForm \*} {\* signInEmailAddress \*} {\* currentPassword +\*}{\* /signInForm \*} + +Sign In + +Welcome back, {\* welcomeName \*}\! + +{\* loginWidget \*} [Use another account](#) + +{\* loginWidget \*} + +Sign In + +Welcome Back + +{\* /signInForm \*} [Use another account](#) + +{\* \#signInForm \*} {\* signInEmailAddress \*} {\* currentPassword +\*}{\* /signInForm \*} + +Registration + +Please confirm the information below before signing in. 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Enter your email below, +and we'll send you another email. + +{\* \#resetPasswordForm \*} {\* signInEmailAddress \*} {\* +/resetPasswordForm \*} + +{\* \#resetPasswordForm \*} {\* signInEmailAddress \*} {\* +/resetPasswordForm \*} + +Create New Password + +We've sent you an email with instructions to create a new password. Your +existing password has not been changed. diff --git a/_stories/2001/16146553.md b/_stories/2001/16146553.md index 7396cec..246a9aa 100644 --- a/_stories/2001/16146553.md +++ b/_stories/2001/16146553.md @@ -19,7 +19,18 @@ _tags: objectID: '16146553' --- -[Source](https://idp.nature.com/authorize?response_type=cookie&client_id=grover&redirect_uri=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nature.com%2Farticles%2F35091039 "Permalink to ") - - - +Reliable communication on the Internet is guaranteed by a standard set +of protocols, used by all +computers[1](/articles/35091039#ref1 "Peterson, L. L. & Davie, B. S. Computer Networks, A Systems Approach 2nd edn (Morgan Kaufmann, San Francisco, 2000)."). +Here we show that these protocols can be exploited to compute with the +communication infrastructure, transforming the Internet into a +distributed computer in which servers unwittingly perform computation on +behalf of a remote node. In this model, which we call ‘parasitic +computing’, one machine forces target computers to solve a piece of a +complex computational problem merely by engaging them in standard +communication. Consequently, the target computers are unaware that they +have performed computation for the benefit of a commanding node. As +experimental evidence of the principle of parasitic computing, we +harness the power of several web servers across the globe, which—unknown +to them—work together to solve an NP complete +problem[2](/articles/35091039#ref2 "Garey, M. & Johnson, D. S. Computers and Intractability: A Guide to the Theory of NP-completeness (Freeman, San Francisco, 1979)."). diff --git a/_stories/2001/3774355.md b/_stories/2001/3774355.md index 4aa9110..99569f7 100644 --- a/_stories/2001/3774355.md +++ b/_stories/2001/3774355.md @@ -18,7 +18,17 @@ _tags: objectID: '3774355' --- -[Source](https://www.joelonsoftware.com/news/fog0000000322.html "Permalink to ") - +![](https://i0.wp.com/www.joelonsoftware.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/jobs.jpg?w=730&ssl=1) +Ready to level up? [Stack Overflow Jobs](http://stackoverflow.com/jobs) +is the job site that puts the needs of developers first. Whether you +want to take control of your search or [let employers discover +you](http://stackoverflow.com/jobs/why-jobs), we’re on a mission to help +every developer find a job they love. +Looking to hire smart programmers who get things done? [Stack Overflow +Talent](https://www.stackoverflowbusiness.com/talent) is a +fully-customized sourcing solution that helps you understand, reach, and +attract developers on the platform they trust most. Find the right +candidates for your jobs. [Learn +more.](https://www.stackoverflowbusiness.com/talent/request-a-demo?utm_source=joelonsoftware&utm_medium=referral&utm_term=learn-more) diff --git a/_stories/2001/4462659.md b/_stories/2001/4462659.md deleted file mode 100644 index 111958e..0000000 --- a/_stories/2001/4462659.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,25 +0,0 @@ ---- -created_at: '2012-09-01T04:31:09.000Z' -title: LG demonstrates wireless Linux Web pad at CeBIT (2001) -url: http://www.linuxfordevices.com/c/a/News/LG-demonstrates-wireless-Linux-Web-pad-at-CeBIT/ -author: bane -points: 64 -story_text: '' -comment_text: -num_comments: 21 -story_id: -story_title: -story_url: -parent_id: -created_at_i: 1346473869 -_tags: -- story -- author_bane -- story_4462659 -objectID: '4462659' - ---- -[Source](http://www.linuxfordevices.com/c/a/News/LG-demonstrates-wireless-Linux-Web-pad-at-CeBIT/ "Permalink to ") - - - diff --git a/_stories/2001/6661343.md b/_stories/2001/6661343.md index 17d79a9..f501d74 100644 --- a/_stories/2001/6661343.md +++ b/_stories/2001/6661343.md @@ -19,7 +19,136 @@ _tags: objectID: '6661343' --- -[Source](https://www.joelonsoftware.com/articles/fog0000000020.html "Permalink to ") +Version 5.0 of Microsoft’s flagship spreadsheet program Excel came out +in 1993. It was positively *huge*: it required a whole *15 megabytes* of +hard drive space. In those days we could still remember our first 20MB +PC hard drives (around 1985) and so 15MB sure seemed like a lot. +By the time Excel 2000 came out, it required a whopping 146MB … almost a +tenfold increase\! Dang those sloppy Microsoft programmers, +right? +![](https://i1.wp.com/www.joelonsoftware.com/wp-content/uploads/2001/03/Main_Beach_Lifeguards.jpg?resize=356%2C219&ssl=1) +Wrong. + +I’ll bet you think I’m going to write one of those boring articles you +see all over the net  bemoaning “bloatware”.  Whine whine whine, this +stuff is so bloated, oh woe is me, edlin and vi are *so* much better +than Word and Emacs because they are svelte, etc. + +Ha ha\! I tricked you\! I’m not going to write that article again, +because it’s not true. + +In 1993, given the cost of hard drives in those days, Microsoft Excel +5.0 took up about $36 worth of hard drive space. + +In 2000, given the cost of hard drives in 2000, Microsoft Excel 2000 +takes up about $1.03 in hard drive space. + +(These figures are adjusted for inflation and based on hard drive price +data from [here](http://www.littletechshoppe.com/ns1625/winchest.html).) + +In real terms, it’s almost like Excel is actually *getting smaller*\! + +What is bloatware, exactly? [The Jargon +File](http://www.tuxedo.org/~esr/jargon/html/entry/bloatware.html) +snidely defines it as “software that provides minimal functionality +while requiring a disproportionate amount of diskspace and memory. +Especially used for application and OS upgrades. This term is very +common in the Windows/NT world. So is its cause.” + +I guess those guys just hate Windows. I haven’t run out of memory in +more than a decade, ever since virtual memory appeared in Windows 386 +(1989). And hard drive space is down to $0.0071 per megabyte and still +plummeting like a sheep learning to fly by jumping out of a tree. + +Maybe Linus Åkerlund can explain it. On his web page, he +[writes](http://user.tninet.se/~uxm165t/bloatware.html), “The big +disadvantage of using these bloated programs is that you have to load +this very large program, even if you just want to accomplish one tiny +little thing. It eats up all your memory… you’re not using your system +in an efficient way. You make the system seem more inefficient than it +really is, and this is totally unnecessary.” + +Ohhh. It eats up all your memory. I see. Actually, well, no, it doesn’t. +Ever since Windows 1.0, in 1987, the operating system only loads pages +as they are used. If you have a 15MB executable and you only use code +that spans 2MB worth of pages, you will only ever load 2MB from disk to +RAM. In fact if you have a modern version of Windows, the OS will +automatically rearrange those pages on the hard drive so that they’re +consecutive, which makes the program start even faster next time. + +And I don’t think anyone will deny that on today’s overpowered, +under-priced computers, loading a huge program is still faster than +loading a small program was even 5 years ago. So what’s the problem? + +[RA Downes](http://www.blu.org/faq/bloat.html) gives us a clue. It looks +like he spent *hours* dissecting a small Microsoft utility, apparently +enraged that it was a whole megabyte in size. (That’s 3.15 cents of hard +drive space at the time he wrote the article). In his opinion, the +program should have been around 95% smaller. The joke is that the +utility he dissected is something called RegClean, which you’ve probably +never heard of. This is a program that goes through your Windows +registry looking for things that aren’t being used and deleting them. +You have to be a little bit on the obsessive-compulsive side to care +about cleaning up unused parts of your registry. So I’m starting to +suspect that fretting about bloatware is more of a [mental health +problem](http://www.mentalhealth.com/dis/p20-an05.html) than a software +problem. + +In fact there are lots of great reasons for bloatware. For one, if +programmers don’t have to worry about how large their code is, they can +ship it sooner. And that means you get more features, and features make +your life better (when you use them) and don’t usually hurt (when you +don’t). If your software vendor stops, before shipping, and spends two +months squeezing the code down to make it 50% smaller, the net benefit +to you is going to be imperceptible. Maybe, just maybe, if you tend to +keep your hard drive full, that’s one more Duran Duran MP3 you can +download. But the loss to you of waiting an extra two months for the new +version *is* perceptible, and the loss to the software company that has +to give up two months of sales is even worse. + +A lot of software developers are seduced by the old “80/20” rule. It +*seems* to make a lot of sense: 80% of the people use 20% of the +features. So you convince yourself that you only need to implement 20% +of the features, and you can still sell 80% as many copies.  + +Unfortunately, it’s never the same 20%. Everybody uses a *different* set +of features. In the last 10 years I have probably heard of *dozens* of +companies who, determined not to learn from each other, tried to release +“lite” word processors that only implement 20% of the features. This +story is as old as the PC. Most of the time, what happens is that they +give their program to a journalist to review, and the journalist reviews +it by writing their review using the new word processor, and then the +journalist tries to find the “word count” feature which they need +because most journalists have precise word count requirements, and it’s +not there, because it’s in the “80% that nobody uses,” and the +journalist ends up writing [a +story](http://www.zdnet.com/anchordesk/stories/story/0,10738,2681437,00.html) +that attempts to claim simultaneously that lite programs are good, bloat +is bad, and I can’t use this damn thing ’cause it won’t count my words. +If I had a dollar for +[every](http://washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/tech/reviews/finder/rev_1030.htm) +time this has happened I would be very happy. + +When you start marketing your “lite” product, and you tell people, “hey, +it’s lite, only 1MB,” they tend to be very happy, then they ask you if +it has *their* crucial feature, and it doesn’t, so they don’t buy your +product. + +Bottom line: if your strategy is “80/20”, you’re going to have trouble +selling software. That’s just reality. This strategy is as old as the +software industry itself and it just doesn’t pay; what’s surprising is +how many executives at [fast companies](http://www.fuckedcompany.com/) +think that it’s going to work. + +Jamie Zawinski says it best, +[discussing](http://www.jwz.org/doc/easter-eggs.html) the original +version of Netscape that changed the world. “Convenient though it would +be if it were true, Mozilla \[Netscape 1.0\] is not big because it’s +full of useless crap. Mozilla is big because your needs are big. Your +needs are big because the Internet is big. There are lots of small, lean +web browsers out there that, incidentally, do almost nothing useful. But +being a shining jewel of perfection was not a goal when we wrote +Mozilla.” diff --git a/_stories/2001/667411.md b/_stories/2001/667411.md index c28b94e..1f4491e 100644 --- a/_stories/2001/667411.md +++ b/_stories/2001/667411.md @@ -19,7 +19,10 @@ _tags: objectID: '667411' --- -[Source](https://www.hoover.org/publications/digest/3459466.html "Permalink to ") - +# Page not found +The requested page "/publications/digest/3459466.html" could not be +found. +The requested page "/publications/digest/3459466.html" could not be +found. diff --git a/_stories/2001/7330853.md b/_stories/2001/7330853.md index 4d86f7a..1d0ea74 100644 --- a/_stories/2001/7330853.md +++ b/_stories/2001/7330853.md @@ -19,103 +19,76 @@ _tags: objectID: '7330853' --- -[Source](http://www.nytimes.com/2001/02/25/magazine/jonathan-lebed-s-extracurricular-activities.html "Permalink to Jonathan Lebed's Extracurricular Activities - The New York Times") +When I arrived one afternoon not long ago, the first person to the door +was Greg Lebed, Jonathan's 54-year-old father. Black hair sprouted in +many directions from the top of his head and joined together somewhere +in the middle of his back. The curl of his lip seemed designed to shout +abuse from a bleacher seat. He had become famous, briefly, when he +ordered the world's media off his front lawn and said, ''I'm proud of my +son.'' Later, elaborating on ''60 Minutes,'' he said, ''It's not like he +was out stealing the hubcaps off cars or peddling drugs to the +neighbors.'' -# Jonathan Lebed's Extracurricular Activities - The New York Times +He led me to the family dining room, and without the slightest help from +me, worked himself into a lather. He got out a photocopy of front-page +stories from The Daily News. One side had a snapshot of Bill and Hillary +Clinton beside the headline ''Insufficient Evidence' in Whitewater Case: +CLINTONS CLEARED''; the other side had a picture of Jonathan Lebed +beside the headline ''Teen Stock Whiz Nailed.'' Over it all was scrawled +in Greg's furious hand, ''U.S. Justice at Work.'' -__NYTimes.com no longer supports Internet Explorer 9 or earlier. Please upgrade your browser. [LEARN MORE »][1] +''Look at that\!'' he shouted. ''This is what goes on in this +country\!'' -__Sections __ Home __Search [Skip to content][2] [Skip to navigation][3] [View mobile version][4] +Then, just as suddenly as he had erupted, he went dormant. ''Don't +bother with me,'' he said. ''I get upset.'' He offered me a seat at the +dining-room table. Connie Lebed, Jonathan's 45-year-old mother, now +entered. She had a look on her face that as much as said: ''I assume +Greg has already started yelling about something. Don't mind him; I +certainly don't.'' -## [ The New York Times ][5] +Greg said testily, ''It was that goddamn computer what was the +problem.'' -###### [Magazine][6]|Jonathan Lebed's Extracurricular Activities +''My problem with the S.E.C.,'' said Connie, ignoring her husband, ''was +that they never called. One day we get this package from Federal Express +with the whatdyacallit, the subpoenas inside. If only they had called me +first.'' She will say this six times before the end of the day, with one +of those marvelous harmonicalike wails that convey a sense of grievance +maybe better than any noise on the planet. If only they'da caaaawwwwlled +me. -__Search +''The wife brought that goddamn computer into this house in the first +place,'' Greg said, hurling a thumb at Connie. ''Ever since that +computer came into the house, this family was ruined.'' -Subscribe Now Log In __0 __Settings +Connie absorbed the full frontal attack with an uncomprehending blink, +and then said to me, as if her husband had never spoken: ''My husband +has a lot of anger. He gets worked up easily. He's already had one heart +attack.'' -__Close search - -## Site Search Navigation - -Search NYTimes.com - -__Clear this text input - -Go - -## Site Navigation - -## Site Mobile Navigation +She neither expects nor receives the faintest reply from him. They obey +the conventions of the stage. When one of them steps forward into the +spotlight to narrate, the other recedes and freezes like a statue. Ten +minutes into the conversation, Jonathan slouched in. Even that verb does +not capture the mixture of sullenness and truculence with which he +entered the room. He was long and thin and dressed in the prison costume +of the American suburban teenager: pants too big, sneakers gaping, a +pirate hoop dangling from one ear. He looked away when he shook my hand +and said ''Nice to meet you'' in a way that made it clear that he +couldn't be less pleased. Then he sat down and said nothing while his +parents returned to their split-screen narration. Advertisement -Supported by +[Continue reading the main story](#story-continues-4) -### [Magazine][6] - -# Jonathan Lebed's Extracurricular Activities - -By [MICHAEL LEWIS][7]FEB. 25, 2001 - -[Continue reading the main story][8] Share This Page - -[Continue reading the main story][8] - -On Sept. 20, 2000, the Securities and Exchange Commission settled its case against a 15-year-old high-school student named Jonathan Lebed. The S.E.C.'s news release explained that Jonathan -- the first minor ever to face proceedings for stock-market fraud -- had used the Internet to promote stocks from his bedroom in the northern New Jersey suburb of Cedar Grove. Armed only with accounts at A.O.L. and E*Trade, the kid had bought stock and then, ''using multiple fictitious names,'' posted hundreds of messages on Yahoo Finance message boards recommending that stock to others. He had done this 11 times between September 1999 and February 2000, the S.E.C. said, each time triggering chaos in the stock market. The average daily trading volume of the small companies he dealt in was about 60,000 shares; on the days he posted his messages, volume soared to more than a million shares. More to the point, he had made money. Between September 1999 and February 2000, his smallest one-day gain was $12,000. His biggest was $74,000. Now the kid had agreed to hand over his illicit gains, plus interest, which came to $285,000. - -When I first read the newspaper reports last fall, I didn't understand them. It wasn't just that I didn't understand what the kid had done wrong; I didn't understand what he had done. And if the initial articles about Jonathan Lebed raised questions -- what did it mean to use a fictitious name on the Internet, where every name is fictitious, and who were these people who traded stocks naïvely based on what they read on the Internet? -- they were trivial next to the questions raised a few days later when a reporter asked Jonathan Lebed's lawyer if the S.E.C. had taken all of the profits. They hadn't. There had been many more than the 11 trades described in the S.E.C's press release, the lawyer said. The kid's take from six months of trading had been nearly $800,000. Initially the S.E.C. had demanded he give it all up, but then backed off when the kid put up a fight. As a result, Jonathan Lebed was still sitting on half a million dollars. - -At length, I phoned the Philadelphia office of the S.E.C., where I reached one of the investigators who had brought Jonathan Lebed to book. I was maybe the 50th journalist he'd spoken with that day, and apparently a lot of the others had had trouble grasping the finer points of securities law. At any rate, by the time I asked him to explain to me what, exactly, was wrong with broadcasting one's private opinion of a stock on the Internet, he was in no mood. - -''Tell me about the kid.'' - -''He's a little jerk.'' - -''How so?'' - -''He is exactly what you or I hope our kids never turn out to be.'' - -Advertisement - -[Continue reading the main story][8] - -''Have you met him?'' - -''No. I don't need to.'' - -Cedar Grove is one of those Essex County suburbs defined by the fact that it is not Newark. Its real-estate prices rise with the hills. The houses at the bottom of each hill are barely middle class; the houses at the top might fairly be described as opulent. The Lebeds' house sits about a third of the way up one of the hills. - -[Continue reading the main story][9] - -Advertisement - -[Continue reading the main story][10] - -When I arrived one afternoon not long ago, the first person to the door was Greg Lebed, Jonathan's 54-year-old father. Black hair sprouted in many directions from the top of his head and joined together somewhere in the middle of his back. The curl of his lip seemed designed to shout abuse from a bleacher seat. He had become famous, briefly, when he ordered the world's media off his front lawn and said, ''I'm proud of my son.'' Later, elaborating on ''60 Minutes,'' he said, ''It's not like he was out stealing the hubcaps off cars or peddling drugs to the neighbors.'' - -He led me to the family dining room, and without the slightest help from me, worked himself into a lather. He got out a photocopy of front-page stories from The Daily News. One side had a snapshot of Bill and Hillary Clinton beside the headline ''Insufficient Evidence' in Whitewater Case: CLINTONS CLEARED''; the other side had a picture of Jonathan Lebed beside the headline ''Teen Stock Whiz Nailed.'' Over it all was scrawled in Greg's furious hand, ''U.S. Justice at Work.'' - -''Look at that!'' he shouted. ''This is what goes on in this country!'' - -Then, just as suddenly as he had erupted, he went dormant. ''Don't bother with me,'' he said. ''I get upset.'' He offered me a seat at the dining-room table. Connie Lebed, Jonathan's 45-year-old mother, now entered. She had a look on her face that as much as said: ''I assume Greg has already started yelling about something. Don't mind him; I certainly don't.'' - -Greg said testily, ''It was that goddamn computer what was the problem.'' - -''My problem with the S.E.C.,'' said Connie, ignoring her husband, ''was that they never called. One day we get this package from Federal Express with the whatdyacallit, the subpoenas inside. If only they had called me first.'' She will say this six times before the end of the day, with one of those marvelous harmonicalike wails that convey a sense of grievance maybe better than any noise on the planet. If only they'da caaaawwwwlled me. - -''The wife brought that goddamn computer into this house in the first place,'' Greg said, hurling a thumb at Connie. ''Ever since that computer came into the house, this family was ruined.'' - -Connie absorbed the full frontal attack with an uncomprehending blink, and then said to me, as if her husband had never spoken: ''My husband has a lot of anger. He gets worked up easily. He's already had one heart attack.'' - -She neither expects nor receives the faintest reply from him. They obey the conventions of the stage. When one of them steps forward into the spotlight to narrate, the other recedes and freezes like a statue. Ten minutes into the conversation, Jonathan slouched in. Even that verb does not capture the mixture of sullenness and truculence with which he entered the room. He was long and thin and dressed in the prison costume of the American suburban teenager: pants too big, sneakers gaping, a pirate hoop dangling from one ear. He looked away when he shook my hand and said ''Nice to meet you'' in a way that made it clear that he couldn't be less pleased. Then he sat down and said nothing while his parents returned to their split-screen narration. - -Advertisement - -[Continue reading the main story][11] - -At first glance, it was impossible to link Jonathan in the flesh to Jonathan on the Web. I have a file of his Internet postings, and they're all pretty bombastic. Two days before the FedEx package arrived bearing the S.E.C.'s subpoenas, for instance, he logged onto the Internet and posted 200 separate times the following plug for a company called Firetector (ticker symbol FTEC): +At first glance, it was impossible to link Jonathan in the flesh to +Jonathan on the Web. I have a file of his Internet postings, and they're +all pretty bombastic. Two days before the FedEx package arrived bearing +the S.E.C.'s subpoenas, for instance, he logged onto the Internet and +posted 200 separate times the following plug for a company called +Firetector (ticker symbol FTEC): ''Subj: THE MOST UNDERVALUED STOCK EVER @@ -123,85 +96,194 @@ At first glance, it was impossible to link Jonathan in the flesh to Jonathan on ''From: LebedTG1 -''FTEC is starting to break out! Next week, this thing will EXPLODE. . . . +''FTEC is starting to break out\! Next week, this thing will EXPLODE. . +. . -''Currently FTEC is trading for just $2 1/2! I am expecting to see FTEC at $20 VERY SOON. +''Currently FTEC is trading for just $2 1/2\! I am expecting to see FTEC +at $20 VERY SOON. ''Let me explain why. . . . -''Revenues for the year should very conservatively be around $20 million. The average company in the industry trades with a price/sales ratio of 3.45. With 1.57 million shares outstanding, this will value FTEC at . . . $44. +''Revenues for the year should very conservatively be around $20 +million. The average company in the industry trades with a price/sales +ratio of 3.45. With 1.57 million shares outstanding, this will value +FTEC at . . . $44. -''It is very possible that FTEC will see $44, but since I would like to remain very conservative . . . my short-term target price on FTEC is still $20! +''It is very possible that FTEC will see $44, but since I would like to +remain very conservative . . . my short-term target price on FTEC is +still $20\! -''The FTEC offices are extremely busy. . . . I am hearing that a number of HUGE deals are being worked on. Once we get some news from FTEC and the word gets out about the company . . . it will take-off to MUCH HIGHER LEVELS! +''The FTEC offices are extremely busy. . . . I am hearing that a number +of HUGE deals are being worked on. Once we get some news from FTEC and +the word gets out about the company . . . it will take-off to MUCH +HIGHER LEVELS\! -''I see little risk when purchasing FTEC at these DIRT-CHEAP PRICES. FTEC is making TREMENDOUS PROFITS and is trading UNDER BOOK VALUE!!!'' +''I see little risk when purchasing FTEC at these DIRT-CHEAP PRICES. +FTEC is making TREMENDOUS PROFITS and is trading UNDER BOOK +VALUE\!\!\!'' -And so on. The author of that and dozens more like it now sat dully at the end of the family's dining-room table and watched his parents take potshots at each other and their government. There wasn't an exclamation point in him. +And so on. The author of that and dozens more like it now sat dully at +the end of the family's dining-room table and watched his parents take +potshots at each other and their government. There wasn't an exclamation +point in him. -not long after his 11th birthday, Jonathan opened an account with America Online. He went onto the Internet, at least at first, to meet other pro-wrestling fans. He built a Web site dedicated to the greater glory of Stone Cold Steve Austin. But about the same time, by watching his father, he became interested in the stock market. In his 30-plus years working for Amtrak, Greg Lebed had worked his way up to middle manager. Along the way, he accumulated maybe $12,000 of blue-chip stocks. Like half of America, he came to watch the market's daily upward leaps and jerks with keen interest. +not long after his 11th birthday, Jonathan opened an account with +America Online. He went onto the Internet, at least at first, to meet +other pro-wrestling fans. He built a Web site dedicated to the greater +glory of Stone Cold Steve Austin. But about the same time, by watching +his father, he became interested in the stock market. In his 30-plus +years working for Amtrak, Greg Lebed had worked his way up to middle +manager. Along the way, he accumulated maybe $12,000 of blue-chip +stocks. Like half of America, he came to watch the market's daily upward +leaps and jerks with keen interest. Advertisement -[Continue reading the main story][12] +[Continue reading the main story](#story-continues-5) -Jonathan saved him the trouble. When he came home from school, he turned on CNBC and watched the stock-market ticker stream across the bottom of the screen, searching it for the symbols inside his father's portfolio. ''Jonathan would sit there for hours staring at them,'' Connie said, as if Jonathan is miles away. +Jonathan saved him the trouble. When he came home from school, he turned +on CNBC and watched the stock-market ticker stream across the bottom of +the screen, searching it for the symbols inside his father's portfolio. +''Jonathan would sit there for hours staring at them,'' Connie said, as +if Jonathan is miles away. -''I just liked to watch the numbers go across the screen,'' Jonathan said. +''I just liked to watch the numbers go across the screen,'' Jonathan +said. ''Why?'' ''I don't know,'' he said. ''I just wondered, like, what they meant.'' -At first, the numbers meant a chance to talk to his father. He would call his father at work whenever he saw one of his stocks cross the bottom of the television screen. This went on for about six months before Jonathan declared his own interest in owning stocks. On Sept. 29, 1996, Jonathan's 12th birthday, a savings bond his parents gave him at birth came due. He took the $8,000 and got his father to invest it for him in the stock market. The first stock he bought was America Online, at $25 a share -- in spite of a lot of adverse commentary about the company on CNBC. +At first, the numbers meant a chance to talk to his father. He would +call his father at work whenever he saw one of his stocks cross the +bottom of the television screen. This went on for about six months +before Jonathan declared his own interest in owning stocks. On Sept. 29, +1996, Jonathan's 12th birthday, a savings bond his parents gave him at +birth came due. He took the $8,000 and got his father to invest it for +him in the stock market. The first stock he bought was America Online, +at $25 a share -- in spite of a lot of adverse commentary about the +company on CNBC. -''He said that it was a stupid company and that it would go to 2 cents,'' Jonathan chimed in, pointing at his father, who obeyed what now appeared to be the family rule and sat frozen at the back of some mental stage. AOL rose five points in a couple of weeks, and Jonathan had his father sell it. From this he learned that a) you could make money quickly in the stock market, b) his dad didn't know what he was talking about and c) it paid him to exercise his own judgment on these matters. All three lessons were reinforced dramatically by what happened next. +''He said that it was a stupid company and that it would go to 2 +cents,'' Jonathan chimed in, pointing at his father, who obeyed what now +appeared to be the family rule and sat frozen at the back of some mental +stage. AOL rose five points in a couple of weeks, and Jonathan had his +father sell it. From this he learned that a) you could make money +quickly in the stock market, b) his dad didn't know what he was talking +about and c) it paid him to exercise his own judgment on these matters. +All three lessons were reinforced dramatically by what happened next. -What happened next was that CNBC -- which Jonathan now rose at 5 every morning to watch -- announced a stock-picking contest for students. Jonathan had wanted to join the contest on his own but was told that he needed to be on a team, and so he went and asked two friends to join him. Thousands of students from across the country set out to speculate their way to victory. Each afternoon CNBC announced the top five teams of the day. +What happened next was that CNBC -- which Jonathan now rose at 5 every +morning to watch -- announced a stock-picking contest for students. +Jonathan had wanted to join the contest on his own but was told that he +needed to be on a team, and so he went and asked two friends to join +him. Thousands of students from across the country set out to speculate +their way to victory. Each afternoon CNBC announced the top five teams +of the day. -To get your name read out loud on television, you obviously opted for highly volatile stocks that stood a chance of doing well in the short term. Jonathan's team, dubbing itself the Triple Threat, had a portfolio that rose 51 percent the first day, which put them in first place. They remained in the Top 3 for the next three months, until in the last two weeks of the contest they collapsed. Even a fourth-place finish was good enough to fetch a camera crew from CNBC, which came and filmed the team in Cedar Grove. The Triple Threat was featured in The Verona-Cedar Grove Times and celebrated on television by the Cedar Grove Township Council. +To get your name read out loud on television, you obviously opted for +highly volatile stocks that stood a chance of doing well in the short +term. Jonathan's team, dubbing itself the Triple Threat, had a portfolio +that rose 51 percent the first day, which put them in first place. They +remained in the Top 3 for the next three months, until in the last two +weeks of the contest they collapsed. Even a fourth-place finish was good +enough to fetch a camera crew from CNBC, which came and filmed the team +in Cedar Grove. The Triple Threat was featured in The Verona-Cedar Grove +Times and celebrated on television by the Cedar Grove Township Council. -''From then, everyone at work started asking me if Jonathan had any stock tips for them,'' said Greg. +''From then, everyone at work started asking me if Jonathan had any +stock tips for them,'' said Greg. ''They still ask me,'' said Connie. -By the Spring of 1998, Jonathan was 13, and his ambitions were growing. He had glimpsed the essential truth of the market: that even people who called themselves professionals are often incapable of independent thought and that most people, though obsessed with money, have little ability to make decisions about it. He knew what he was doing, or thought he did. He had learned to find everything he wanted to know about a company on the Internet; what he couldn't find, he ran down in the flesh. It became part of Connie Lebed's life to drive her son to various corporate headquarters to make sure they existed. He also persuaded her to open an account with Ameritrade. ''He'd done so well with the stock contest, I figured, Let's see what he can do,'' Connie said. +By the Spring of 1998, Jonathan was 13, and his ambitions were growing. +He had glimpsed the essential truth of the market: that even people who +called themselves professionals are often incapable of independent +thought and that most people, though obsessed with money, have little +ability to make decisions about it. He knew what he was doing, or +thought he did. He had learned to find everything he wanted to know +about a company on the Internet; what he couldn't find, he ran down in +the flesh. It became part of Connie Lebed's life to drive her son to +various corporate headquarters to make sure they existed. He also +persuaded her to open an account with Ameritrade. ''He'd done so well +with the stock contest, I figured, Let's see what he can do,'' Connie +said. Advertisement -[Continue reading the main story][13] +[Continue reading the main story](#story-continues-6) -What he did was turn his $8,000 savings bond into $28,000 inside of 18 months. During the same period, he created his own Web site devoted to companies with small market capitalization -- penny stocks. The Web site came to be known as Stock-dogs.com. (''You know, like racing dogs.'') Stock-dogs.com plugged the stocks of companies Jonathan found interesting or that people Jonathan met on the Internet found interesting. At its peak, Stock-dogs.com had maybe 1,500 visitors a day. Even so, the officers of what seemed to Jonathan to be serious companies wrote to him to sell him on their companies. Within a couple of months of becoming an amateur stock-market analyst, he was in the middle of a network of people who spent every waking hour chatting about and trading stocks on the Internet. The mere memory of this clearly upset Greg. +What he did was turn his $8,000 savings bond into $28,000 inside of 18 +months. During the same period, he created his own Web site devoted to +companies with small market capitalization -- penny stocks. The Web site +came to be known as Stock-dogs.com. (''You know, like racing dogs.'') +Stock-dogs.com plugged the stocks of companies Jonathan found +interesting or that people Jonathan met on the Internet found +interesting. At its peak, Stock-dogs.com had maybe 1,500 visitors a day. +Even so, the officers of what seemed to Jonathan to be serious companies +wrote to him to sell him on their companies. Within a couple of months +of becoming an amateur stock-market analyst, he was in the middle of a +network of people who spent every waking hour chatting about and trading +stocks on the Internet. The mere memory of this clearly upset Greg. -''He was just a little kid,'' he said. ''These people who got in touch with him could have been anybody.'' +''He was just a little kid,'' he said. ''These people who got in touch +with him could have been anybody.'' -''How do you know?'' said Jonathan. ''You've never even been on the Internet.'' +''How do you know?'' said Jonathan. ''You've never even been on the +Internet.'' -''Suppose some hacker comes in and steals his money!'' Greg said. ''Next day, you type in, and you got nothing left.'' +''Suppose some hacker comes in and steals his money\!'' Greg said. +''Next day, you type in, and you got nothing left.'' -Jonathan snorted. ''That can't happen.'' He turned to me. ''Whenever he sees something on TV about the Internet, he gets mad and disconnects my computer phone line.'' +Jonathan snorted. ''That can't happen.'' He turned to me. ''Whenever he +sees something on TV about the Internet, he gets mad and disconnects my +computer phone line.'' -''Oh, yeah,'' Connie said, brightening as if realizing for the first time that she lived in the same house as the other two. ''I used to hear the garage door opening at 3 in the morning. Then Jonathan's little feet running back up the stairs.'' +''Oh, yeah,'' Connie said, brightening as if realizing for the first +time that she lived in the same house as the other two. ''I used to hear +the garage door opening at 3 in the morning. Then Jonathan's little feet +running back up the stairs.'' -''I haven't ever even turned a computer on!'' Greg said. ''And I never will!'' +''I haven't ever even turned a computer on\!'' Greg said. ''And I never +will\!'' -''He just doesn't understand how a lot of this works,'' explained Jonathan patiently. ''And so he overreacts sometimes.'' +''He just doesn't understand how a lot of this works,'' explained +Jonathan patiently. ''And so he overreacts sometimes.'' -Greg and Connie were born in New Jersey, but from the moment the Internet struck, they might as well have just arrived from Taiwan. When the Internet landed on them, it redistributed the prestige and authority that goes with a general understanding of the ways of the world away from the grown-ups and to the child. The grown-ups now depended on the child to translate for them. Technology had turned them into a family of immigrants. +Greg and Connie were born in New Jersey, but from the moment the +Internet struck, they might as well have just arrived from Taiwan. When +the Internet landed on them, it redistributed the prestige and authority +that goes with a general understanding of the ways of the world away +from the grown-ups and to the child. The grown-ups now depended on the +child to translate for them. Technology had turned them into a family of +immigrants. -''I know, I know,'' Greg said, turning to me. ''I'm supposed to know how it works. It's the future. But that's his future, not mine!'' +''I know, I know,'' Greg said, turning to me. ''I'm supposed to know how +it works. It's the future. But that's his future, not mine\!'' Advertisement -[Continue reading the main story][14] +[Continue reading the main story](#story-continues-7) -''Anyway,'' Connie said, drifting back in again. ''That's when the S.E.C. called us the first time.'' +''Anyway,'' Connie said, drifting back in again. ''That's when the +S.E.C. called us the first time.'' The first time? -Jonathan was 14 when Connie agreed to take him to meet with the S.E.C. in its Manhattan offices. When he heard the news, Greg, of course, hit the roof and hopped on the high-speed train to triple bypass. ''He'd already had one heart attack,'' Connie explained and started to go into the heart problems all over again, inspiring Greg to mutter something about how he wasn't the person who brought the computer into the house and so it wasn't his responsibility to deal with this little nuisance. +Jonathan was 14 when Connie agreed to take him to meet with the S.E.C. +in its Manhattan offices. When he heard the news, Greg, of course, hit +the roof and hopped on the high-speed train to triple bypass. ''He'd +already had one heart attack,'' Connie explained and started to go into +the heart problems all over again, inspiring Greg to mutter something +about how he wasn't the person who brought the computer into the house +and so it wasn't his responsibility to deal with this little nuisance. -At any rate, Connie asked Harold Burk, her boss at Hoffmann-La Roche, the drug company where she worked as a secretary, to go with her and Jonathan. Together, they made their way to a long conference table in a big room at 7 World Trade Center. On one side of the table, five lawyers and an examiner from the S.E.C.; on the other, a 14-year-old boy, his mother and a bewildered friend. +At any rate, Connie asked Harold Burk, her boss at Hoffmann-La Roche, +the drug company where she worked as a secretary, to go with her and +Jonathan. Together, they made their way to a long conference table in a +big room at 7 World Trade Center. On one side of the table, five lawyers +and an examiner from the S.E.C.; on the other, a 14-year-old boy, his +mother and a bewildered friend. This is how it began: @@ -219,9 +301,14 @@ Mrs. Lebed: With Harold. S.E.C.: And that Mr. Burk is here. -Mrs Lebed: He did not want to -- this whole thing has upset my husband a lot. He had a heart attack about a year ago, and he gets very, very upset about things. So he really did not want anything to do with it, and I just felt like -- Harold said he would help me. +Mrs Lebed: He did not want to -- this whole thing has upset my husband a +lot. He had a heart attack about a year ago, and he gets very, very +upset about things. So he really did not want anything to do with it, +and I just felt like -- Harold said he would help me. -The S.E.C. seemed to have figured out quickly that they are racing into some strange mental cul-de-sac. They turned their attention to Jonathan or, more specifically, his brokerage statements. +The S.E.C. seemed to have figured out quickly that they are racing into +some strange mental cul-de-sac. They turned their attention to Jonathan +or, more specifically, his brokerage statements. S.E.C.: Where did you learn your technique for day trading? @@ -231,39 +318,66 @@ S.E.C.: What TV shows? Advertisement -[Continue reading the main story][15] +[Continue reading the main story](#story-continues-8) Jonathan: CNBC mostly -- basically CNBC is what I watch all the time S.E.C.: Do you generally make money on your day trading? -Jonathan: I usually don't day trade; I just try to -- since I was home these days and I was very bored, I wanted something to do, so I was just trading constantly. I don't think I was making money. . . . +Jonathan: I usually don't day trade; I just try to -- since I was home +these days and I was very bored, I wanted something to do, so I was just +trading constantly. I don't think I was making money. . . . -S.E.C.: Just looking at your April statement, it looks like the majority of your trading is day trading. +S.E.C.: Just looking at your April statement, it looks like the majority +of your trading is day trading. Jonathan: I was home a lot that time. Mrs. Lebed: They were on spring vacation that week. -Having established and then ignored the boy's chief motive for trading stocks -- a desire to escape the tedium of existence -- the authorities then sought to discover his approach to attracting attention on the Internet. +Having established and then ignored the boy's chief motive for trading +stocks -- a desire to escape the tedium of existence -- the authorities +then sought to discover his approach to attracting attention on the +Internet. -S.E.C.: On the first page [referring to a hard copy of Jonathan's Web site, Stock-dogs.com] where it says, ''Our 6- to 12-month outlook, $8,'' what does that mean? The stock is selling less than 3 but you think it's going to go to 8. +S.E.C.: On the first page \[referring to a hard copy of Jonathan's Web +site, Stock-dogs.com\] where it says, ''Our 6- to 12-month outlook, +$8,'' what does that mean? The stock is selling less than 3 but you +think it's going to go to 8. -Jonathan: That's our outlook for the price to go based on their earnings potential and a good value ratio. . . . +Jonathan: That's our outlook for the price to go based on their earnings +potential and a good value ratio. . . . -S.E.C.: Are you aware that there are laws that regulate company projections? +S.E.C.: Are you aware that there are laws that regulate company +projections? Jonathan: No. -Eventually, the S.E.C. people crept up on the reason they had noticed Jonathan in the first place. They had been hot on the trail of a grown-up named Ira Monas, one of Jonathan Lebed's many Internet correspondents. Monas, eventually jailed on unrelated charges, had been employed in ''investor relations'' by a number of small companies. In that role, he had fed Jonathan Lebed information about the companies, some of which turned out to be false and some of which Jonathan had unwittingly posted on Stock-dogs.com. +Eventually, the S.E.C. people crept up on the reason they had noticed +Jonathan in the first place. They had been hot on the trail of a +grown-up named Ira Monas, one of Jonathan Lebed's many Internet +correspondents. Monas, eventually jailed on unrelated charges, had been +employed in ''investor relations'' by a number of small companies. In +that role, he had fed Jonathan Lebed information about the companies, +some of which turned out to be false and some of which Jonathan had +unwittingly posted on Stock-dogs.com. -The S.E.C. asked if Monas had paid Jonathan to do this and thus help to inflate the price of his company's stocks. Jonathan said no, he had done it for free because he thought the information was sound. The S.E.C. then expressed its doubt that Jonathan was being forthright about his relationship with Monas. One of the small companies Monas had been hired to plug was a cigar retail outlet called Havana Republic. As a publicity stunt, Monas announced that the company -- in which Jonathan came to own 100,000 shares -- would hold a ''smoke-out'' in Midtown Manhattan. +The S.E.C. asked if Monas had paid Jonathan to do this and thus help to +inflate the price of his company's stocks. Jonathan said no, he had done +it for free because he thought the information was sound. The S.E.C. +then expressed its doubt that Jonathan was being forthright about his +relationship with Monas. One of the small companies Monas had been hired +to plug was a cigar retail outlet called Havana Republic. As a publicity +stunt, Monas announced that the company -- in which Jonathan came to own +100,000 shares -- would hold a ''smoke-out'' in Midtown Manhattan. Advertisement -[Continue reading the main story][16] +[Continue reading the main story](#story-continues-9) -The S.E.C. now knew that Jonathan Lebed had attended the smoke-out. To the people across the table from Jonathan, this suggested that his relationship with a known criminal was deeper than he admitted. +The S.E.C. now knew that Jonathan Lebed had attended the smoke-out. To +the people across the table from Jonathan, this suggested that his +relationship with a known criminal was deeper than he admitted. S.E.C.: So you decided to go to the smoke-out? @@ -283,11 +397,14 @@ Jonathan: We took a bus to New York. S.E.C.: You cut school to do this? -Jonathan: It was after school. Then we got picked up at Port Authority, so then my mother and Harold came and picked us up and we went to the smoke-out. +Jonathan: It was after school. Then we got picked up at Port Authority, +so then my mother and Harold came and picked us up and we went to the +smoke-out. S.E.C.: Why were you picked up at the Port Authority? -Jonathan: Because people like under 18 across the country, from California. . . . +Jonathan: Because people like under 18 across the country, from +California. . . . Mrs. Lebed: They pick up minors there at Port Authority. @@ -317,25 +434,36 @@ Jonathan: No. Advertisement -[Continue reading the main story][17] +[Continue reading the main story](#story-continues-10) -Here, you can almost here the little sucking sound on the S.E.C.'s side of the table as the conviction goes out of this line of questioning. +Here, you can almost here the little sucking sound on the S.E.C.'s side +of the table as the conviction goes out of this line of questioning. S.E.C.: Why not? -Jonathan: Because I'm not sure if he knew my age, or anything like that, so I didn't talk to anyone there at all. +Jonathan: Because I'm not sure if he knew my age, or anything like that, +so I didn't talk to anyone there at all. -This mad interrogation began at 10 in the morning and ended at 6 in the evening. When it was done, the S.E.C. declined to offer legal advice. Instead, it said, ''The Internet is a grown-up medium for grown-up-type activities.'' Connie Lebed and Harold Burk, both clearly unnerved, apologized profusely on Jonathan's behalf and explained that he was just a naïve child who had sought attention in the wrong place. Whatever Jonathan thought, he kept to himself. +This mad interrogation began at 10 in the morning and ended at 6 in the +evening. When it was done, the S.E.C. declined to offer legal advice. +Instead, it said, ''The Internet is a grown-up medium for grown-up-type +activities.'' Connie Lebed and Harold Burk, both clearly unnerved, +apologized profusely on Jonathan's behalf and explained that he was just +a naïve child who had sought attention in the wrong place. Whatever +Jonathan thought, he kept to himself. -When I came home that day, I closed the Ameritrade account,'' Connie told me. +When I came home that day, I closed the Ameritrade account,'' Connie +told me. ''Then how did Jonathan continue to trade?'' I asked. Greg then blurted out, ''The kid never did something wrong,'' -''Don't ask me!'' Connie said. ''I got nothing to do with it.'' +''Don't ask me\!'' Connie said. ''I got nothing to do with it.'' -''All right,'' Greg said, ''here's what happened. When Little Miss Nervous over here closes the Ameritrade account, I open an account for him in my name with that other place, E*Trade.'' +''All right,'' Greg said, ''here's what happened. When Little Miss +Nervous over here closes the Ameritrade account, I open an account for +him in my name with that other place, E\*Trade.'' I turned to Jonathan, who wore his expression of airy indifference. @@ -353,15 +481,28 @@ I turned to Jonathan, who wore his expression of airy indifference. Advertisement -[Continue reading the main story][18] +[Continue reading the main story](#story-continues-11) -Soon after he agreed to defend Jonathan Lebed, Kevin Marino, his lawyer, discovered he had a problem. No matter how he tried, he was unable to get Jonathan Lebed to say what he really thought. ''In a conversation with Jonathan, I was supplying way too many of the ideas,'' Marino says. ''You can't get them out of him.'' Finally, he asked Jonathan and his parents each to write a few paragraphs describing their feelings about how the S.E.C. was treating Jonathan. Connie Lebed's statement took the form of a wailing lament of the pain inflicted by the callous government regulators on the family. (''I am also upset as you know that I was not called.'') Greg Lebed's statement was an angry screed directed at both the government and the media. +Soon after he agreed to defend Jonathan Lebed, Kevin Marino, his lawyer, +discovered he had a problem. No matter how he tried, he was unable to +get Jonathan Lebed to say what he really thought. ''In a conversation +with Jonathan, I was supplying way too many of the ideas,'' Marino says. +''You can't get them out of him.'' Finally, he asked Jonathan and his +parents each to write a few paragraphs describing their feelings about +how the S.E.C. was treating Jonathan. Connie Lebed's statement took the +form of a wailing lament of the pain inflicted by the callous government +regulators on the family. (''I am also upset as you know that I was not +called.'') Greg Lebed's statement was an angry screed directed at both +the government and the media. -Jonathan's statement -- a four-page e-mail message dashed off the night that Marino asked for it -- was so different in both tone and substance from his parents' that it inspired wonder that it could have been written by even the most casual acquaintance of the other two. +Jonathan's statement -- a four-page e-mail message dashed off the night +that Marino asked for it -- was so different in both tone and substance +from his parents' that it inspired wonder that it could have been +written by even the most casual acquaintance of the other two. ## Newsletter Sign Up -[Continue reading the main story][19] +[Continue reading the main story](#continues-post-newsletter) ### @@ -371,69 +512,201 @@ Invalid email address. Please re-enter. You must select a newsletter to subscribe to. -Sign Up - -You agree to receive occasional updates and special offers for The New York Times's products and services. +You agree to receive occasional updates and special offers for The New +York Times's products and services. ### Thank you for subscribing. ### An error has occurred. Please try again later. -### You are already subscribed to this email. - -[View all New York Times newsletters.][20] - -* [See Sample][21] -* [Manage Email Preferences][22] -* [Not you?][23] -* [Privacy Policy][24] -* Opt out or [contact us][25] anytime +[View all New York Times newsletters.](/newsletters) It began: -''I was going over some old press releases about different companies. The best performing stock in 1999 on the Nasdaq was Qualcomm (QCOM). QCOM was up around 2000% for the year. On December 29th of last year, even after QCOM's run from 25 to 500, Paine Webber analyst Walter Piecky came out and issued a buy rating on QCOM with a target price of 1,000. QCOM finished the day up 156 to 662. There was nothing fundamentally that would make QCOM worth 1,000. There is no way that a company with sales under $4 billion, should be worth hundreds of billions. . . . QCOM has now fallen from 800 to under 300. It is no longer the hot play with all of the attention. Many people were able to successfully time QCOM and make a lot of money. The ones who had bad timing on QCOM, lost a lot of money. +''I was going over some old press releases about different companies. +The best performing stock in 1999 on the Nasdaq was Qualcomm (QCOM). +QCOM was up around 2000% for the year. On December 29th of last year, +even after QCOM's run from 25 to 500, Paine Webber analyst Walter Piecky +came out and issued a buy rating on QCOM with a target price of 1,000. +QCOM finished the day up 156 to 662. There was nothing fundamentally +that would make QCOM worth 1,000. There is no way that a company with +sales under $4 billion, should be worth hundreds of billions. . . . QCOM +has now fallen from 800 to under 300. It is no longer the hot play with +all of the attention. Many people were able to successfully time QCOM +and make a lot of money. The ones who had bad timing on QCOM, lost a lot +of money. -''People who trade stocks, trade based on what they feel will move and they can trade for profit. Nobody makes investment decisions based on reading financial filings. Whether a company is making millions or losing millions, it has no impact on the price of the stock. Whether it is analysts, brokers, advisors, Internet traders, or the companies, everybody is manipulating the market. If it wasn't for everybody manipulating the market, there wouldn't be a stock market at all. . . .'' +''People who trade stocks, trade based on what they feel will move and +they can trade for profit. Nobody makes investment decisions based on +reading financial filings. Whether a company is making millions or +losing millions, it has no impact on the price of the stock. Whether it +is analysts, brokers, advisors, Internet traders, or the companies, +everybody is manipulating the market. If it wasn't for everybody +manipulating the market, there wouldn't be a stock market at all. . . +.'' -As it happens, those last two sentences stand for something like the opposite of the founding principle of the United States Securities and Exchange Commission. To a very great extent, the world's financial markets are premised on a black-and-white mental snapshot of the American investor that was taken back in 1929. The S.E.C. was created in 1934, and the big question in 1934 was, How do you reassure the public that the stock market is not rigged? From mid-1929 to mid-1932, the value of the stocks listed on the New York Stock Exchange had fallen 83 percent, from $90 billion to about $16 billion. Capitalism, with reason, was not feeling terribly secure. +As it happens, those last two sentences stand for something like the +opposite of the founding principle of the United States Securities and +Exchange Commission. To a very great extent, the world's financial +markets are premised on a black-and-white mental snapshot of the +American investor that was taken back in 1929. The S.E.C. was created in +1934, and the big question in 1934 was, How do you reassure the public +that the stock market is not rigged? From mid-1929 to mid-1932, the +value of the stocks listed on the New York Stock Exchange had fallen 83 +percent, from $90 billion to about $16 billion. Capitalism, with reason, +was not feeling terribly secure. -To the greater public in 1934, the numbers on the stock-market ticker no longer seemed to represent anything ''real,'' but rather the result of manipulation by financial pros. So, how to make the market seem ''real''? The answer was to make new stringent laws against stock-market manipulation -- aimed not at ordinary Americans, who were assumed to be the potential victims of any manipulation and the ones who needed to be persuaded that it was not some elaborate web of perceptions, but at the Wall Street elite. The American financial elite acquired its own police force, whose job it was to make sure their machinations did not ever again unnerve the great sweaty rabble. That's not how the S.E.C. put it, of course. The catch phrase used by the policy-making elites when describing the S.E.C.'s mission was ''to restore public confidence in the securities markets.'' But it amounted to the same thing. Keep up appearances, so that the public did not become too cautious. It occurred to no one that the public might one day be as sophisticated in these matters as financial professional.s +To the greater public in 1934, the numbers on the stock-market ticker no +longer seemed to represent anything ''real,'' but rather the result of +manipulation by financial pros. So, how to make the market seem +''real''? The answer was to make new stringent laws against stock-market +manipulation -- aimed not at ordinary Americans, who were assumed to be +the potential victims of any manipulation and the ones who needed to be +persuaded that it was not some elaborate web of perceptions, but at the +Wall Street elite. The American financial elite acquired its own police +force, whose job it was to make sure their machinations did not ever +again unnerve the great sweaty rabble. That's not how the S.E.C. put it, +of course. The catch phrase used by the policy-making elites when +describing the S.E.C.'s mission was ''to restore public confidence in +the securities markets.'' But it amounted to the same thing. Keep up +appearances, so that the public did not become too cautious. It occurred +to no one that the public might one day be as sophisticated in these +matters as financial professional.s -Anyone who paid attention to the money culture could see its foundation had long lay exposed, and it was just a matter of time before the termites got to it. From the moment the Internet went boom back in 1996, Web sites popped up in the middle of nowhere -- Jackson, Mo.; Carmel, Calif. -- and began to give away precisely what Wall Street sold for a living: earning forecasts, stock recommendations, market color. By the summer of 1998, Xerox or AT&T or some such opaque American corporation would announce earnings of 22 cents a share, and even though all of Wall Street had predicted a mere 20 cents and the company had exceeded all expectations, the stock would collapse. The amateur Web sites had been saying 23 cents. +Anyone who paid attention to the money culture could see its foundation +had long lay exposed, and it was just a matter of time before the +termites got to it. From the moment the Internet went boom back in 1996, +Web sites popped up in the middle of nowhere -- Jackson, Mo.; Carmel, +Calif. -- and began to give away precisely what Wall Street sold for a +living: earning forecasts, stock recommendations, market color. By the +summer of 1998, Xerox or AT\&T or some such opaque American corporation +would announce earnings of 22 cents a share, and even though all of Wall +Street had predicted a mere 20 cents and the company had exceeded all +expectations, the stock would collapse. The amateur Web sites had been +saying 23 cents. -Eventually, the Bloomberg News Service commissioned a study to explore the phenomenon of what were now being called ''whisper numbers.'' The study showed the whisper numbers, the numbers put out by the amateur Web sites, were mistaken, on average, by 21 percent. The professional Wall Street forecasts were mistaken, on average, by 44 percent. The reason the amateurs now held the balance of power in the market was that they were, on average, more than twice as accurate as the pros -- this in spite of the fact that the entire financial system was rigged in favor of the pros. The big companies spoon-fed their scoops directly to the pros; the amateurs were flying by radar. +Eventually, the Bloomberg News Service commissioned a study to explore +the phenomenon of what were now being called ''whisper numbers.'' The +study showed the whisper numbers, the numbers put out by the amateur Web +sites, were mistaken, on average, by 21 percent. The professional Wall +Street forecasts were mistaken, on average, by 44 percent. The reason +the amateurs now held the balance of power in the market was that they +were, on average, more than twice as accurate as the pros -- this in +spite of the fact that the entire financial system was rigged in favor +of the pros. The big companies spoon-fed their scoops directly to the +pros; the amateurs were flying by radar. -Even a 14-year-old boy could see how it all worked, why some guy working for free out of his basement in Jackson, Mo., was more reliable than the most highly paid analyst on Wall Street. The companies that financial pros were paid to analyze were also the financial pros' biggest customers. Xerox and AT&T and the rest needed to put the right spin on their quarterly earnings. The goal at the end of every quarter was for the newspapers and the cable television shows and the rest to announce that they had ''exceeded analysts' expectations.'' The easiest way to exceed analysts' expectations was to have the analysts lower them. And that's just what they did, and had been doing for years. The guy in Carmel, Calif., confessed to Bloomberg that all he had to do to be more accurate on the earnings estimates than Wall Street analysts was to raise all of them 10 percent. +Even a 14-year-old boy could see how it all worked, why some guy working +for free out of his basement in Jackson, Mo., was more reliable than the +most highly paid analyst on Wall Street. The companies that financial +pros were paid to analyze were also the financial pros' biggest +customers. Xerox and AT\&T and the rest needed to put the right spin on +their quarterly earnings. The goal at the end of every quarter was for +the newspapers and the cable television shows and the rest to announce +that they had ''exceeded analysts' expectations.'' The easiest way to +exceed analysts' expectations was to have the analysts lower them. And +that's just what they did, and had been doing for years. The guy in +Carmel, Calif., confessed to Bloomberg that all he had to do to be more +accurate on the earnings estimates than Wall Street analysts was to +raise all of them 10 percent. Advertisement -[Continue reading the main story][26] +[Continue reading the main story](#story-continues-12) -A year later, when the Internet bubble burst, the hollowness of the pros only became clearer. The most famous analysts on Wall Street, who just a few weeks before had done whatever they could to cadge an appearance on CNBC or a quote in The Wall Street Journal to promote their favorite dot-com, went into hiding. Morgan Stanley's Mary Meeker, who made $15 million in 1999 while telling people to buy Priceline when it was at $165 a share and Healtheon/WebMD when it reached $105 a share, went silent as they collapsed toward zero. +A year later, when the Internet bubble burst, the hollowness of the pros +only became clearer. The most famous analysts on Wall Street, who just a +few weeks before had done whatever they could to cadge an appearance on +CNBC or a quote in The Wall Street Journal to promote their favorite +dot-com, went into hiding. Morgan Stanley's Mary Meeker, who made $15 +million in 1999 while telling people to buy Priceline when it was at +$165 a share and Healtheon/WebMD when it reached $105 a share, went +silent as they collapsed toward zero. -Financial professionals had entered some weird new head space. They simply took it for granted that a ''financial market'' was a collection of people doing their best to get onto CNBC and CNNfn and into the Heard on the Street column of The Wall Street Journal and the Lex column of The Financial Times, where they could advance their narrow self-interests. +Financial professionals had entered some weird new head space. They +simply took it for granted that a ''financial market'' was a collection +of people doing their best to get onto CNBC and CNNfn and into the Heard +on the Street column of The Wall Street Journal and the Lex column of +The Financial Times, where they could advance their narrow +self-interests. -To anyone who wandered into the money culture after, say, January 1996, it would have seemed absurd to take anything said by putative financial experts at face value. There was no reason to get worked up about it. The stock market was not an abstraction whose integrity needed to be preserved for the sake of democracy. It was a game people played to make money. Who cared if anything anyone said or believed was ''real''? Capitalism could now afford for money to be viewed as no different from anything else you might buy or sell. +To anyone who wandered into the money culture after, say, January 1996, +it would have seemed absurd to take anything said by putative financial +experts at face value. There was no reason to get worked up about it. +The stock market was not an abstraction whose integrity needed to be +preserved for the sake of democracy. It was a game people played to make +money. Who cared if anything anyone said or believed was ''real''? +Capitalism could now afford for money to be viewed as no different from +anything else you might buy or sell. Or, as Jonathan Lebed wrote to his lawyer: -''Every morning I watch Shop at Home, a show on cable television that sells such products as baseball cards, coins and electronics. Don West, the host of the show, always says things like, 'This is one of the best deals in the history of Shop at Home! This is a no-brainer folks! This is absolutely unbelievable, congratulations to everybody who got in on this! Folks, you got to get in on the line, this is a gift, I just can't believe this!' There is absolutely nothing wrong with him making quotes such as those. As long as he isn't lying about the condition of a baseball card or lying about how large a television is, he isn't committing any kind of a crime. The same thing applies to people who discuss stocks.'' +''Every morning I watch Shop at Home, a show on cable television that +sells such products as baseball cards, coins and electronics. Don West, +the host of the show, always says things like, 'This is one of the best +deals in the history of Shop at Home\! This is a no-brainer folks\! This +is absolutely unbelievable, congratulations to everybody who got in on +this\! Folks, you got to get in on the line, this is a gift, I just +can't believe this\!' There is absolutely nothing wrong with him making +quotes such as those. As long as he isn't lying about the condition of a +baseball card or lying about how large a television is, he isn't +committing any kind of a crime. The same thing applies to people who +discuss stocks.'' -Right from the start, the S.E.C. treated the publicity surrounding the case of Jonathan Lebed at least as seriously as the case itself. Maybe even more seriously. The Philadelphia office had brought the case, and so when the producer from ''60 Minutes'' called to say he wanted to do a big segment about the world's first teenage stock market manipulator, he called the Philadelphia office. ''Normally we call the top and get bumped down to some flack,'' says Trevor Nelson, the ''60 Minutes'' producer in question. ''This time I left a message at the S.E.C's Philadelphia office, and Arthur Levitt's office called me right back.'' Levitt, being the S.E.C. chairman, flew right up from Washington to be on the show. +Right from the start, the S.E.C. treated the publicity surrounding the +case of Jonathan Lebed at least as seriously as the case itself. Maybe +even more seriously. The Philadelphia office had brought the case, and +so when the producer from ''60 Minutes'' called to say he wanted to do a +big segment about the world's first teenage stock market manipulator, he +called the Philadelphia office. ''Normally we call the top and get +bumped down to some flack,'' says Trevor Nelson, the ''60 Minutes'' +producer in question. ''This time I left a message at the S.E.C's +Philadelphia office, and Arthur Levitt's office called me right back.'' +Levitt, being the S.E.C. chairman, flew right up from Washington to be +on the show. -To the S.E.C., it wasn't enough that Jonathan Lebed hand over his winnings: he had to be vilified; people had to be made to understand that what he had done was a crime, with real victims. ''The S.E.C. kept saying that they were going to give us the name of one of the kid's victims so we could interview him,'' Nelson says. ''But they never did.'' +To the S.E.C., it wasn't enough that Jonathan Lebed hand over his +winnings: he had to be vilified; people had to be made to understand +that what he had done was a crime, with real victims. ''The S.E.C. kept +saying that they were going to give us the name of one of the kid's +victims so we could interview him,'' Nelson says. ''But they never +did.'' -I waited a couple of months for things to cool off before heading down to Washington to see Arthur Levitt. He was just then finishing up being the longest-serving chairman of the S.E.C. and was taking a victory lap in the media for a job well done. He was now 69, but as a youth, back in the 1950's and 1960's, he had made a lot of money on Wall Street. At the age of 62, he landed his job at the S.E.C. -- in part, because he had raised a lot of money on the street for Bill Clinton -- where he set himself up to defend the interests of the ordinary investor. He had declared war on the financial elite and pushed through rules that stripped it of its natural market advantages. His single bravest act was Regulation FD, which required corporations to release significant information about themselves to everyone at once rather than through the Wall Street analysts. +I waited a couple of months for things to cool off before heading down +to Washington to see Arthur Levitt. He was just then finishing up being +the longest-serving chairman of the S.E.C. and was taking a victory lap +in the media for a job well done. He was now 69, but as a youth, back in +the 1950's and 1960's, he had made a lot of money on Wall Street. At the +age of 62, he landed his job at the S.E.C. -- in part, because he had +raised a lot of money on the street for Bill Clinton -- where he set +himself up to defend the interests of the ordinary investor. He had +declared war on the financial elite and pushed through rules that +stripped it of its natural market advantages. His single bravest act was +Regulation FD, which required corporations to release significant +information about themselves to everyone at once rather than through the +Wall Street analysts. -Having first determined I was the sort of journalist likely to see the world exactly as he did, he set out to explain to me the new forces corrupting the financial markets. ''The Internet has speeded up everything,'' he said, ''and we're seeing more people in the markets who shouldn't be there. A lot of these new investors don't have the experience or the resources or a professional trader. These are the ones who bought that [expletive] that Lebed was pushing.'' +Having first determined I was the sort of journalist likely to see the +world exactly as he did, he set out to explain to me the new forces +corrupting the financial markets. ''The Internet has speeded up +everything,'' he said, ''and we're seeing more people in the markets who +shouldn't be there. A lot of these new investors don't have the +experience or the resources or a professional trader. These are the ones +who bought that \[expletive\] that Lebed was pushing.'' Advertisement -[Continue reading the main story][27] +[Continue reading the main story](#story-continues-13) ''Do you think he is a sign of a bigger problem?'' -''Yes, I do. And I find his case very disturbing . . . more serious than the guy who holds up the candy store. . . . I think there's a considerable risk of an anti-business backlash in this country. The era of the 25-year-old billionaire represents a kind of symbol which is different from the Horatio Alger symbol. The 25-year-old billionaire looks lucky, feels lucky. And investors who lose money buying stock in the company of the 25-year-old billionaire. . . . '' +''Yes, I do. And I find his case very disturbing . . . more serious than +the guy who holds up the candy store. . . . I think there's a +considerable risk of an anti-business backlash in this country. The era +of the 25-year-old billionaire represents a kind of symbol which is +different from the Horatio Alger symbol. The 25-year-old billionaire +looks lucky, feels lucky. And investors who lose money buying stock in +the company of the 25-year-old billionaire. . . . '' He trailed off, leaving me to finish the thought. @@ -447,63 +720,144 @@ He trailed off, leaving me to finish the thought. ''Can you explain to me what he did?'' -He looked at me long and hard. I could see that this must be his meaningful stare. His eyes were light blue bottomless pits. ''He'd go into these chat rooms and use 20 fictitious names and post messages. . . . '' +He looked at me long and hard. I could see that this must be his +meaningful stare. His eyes were light blue bottomless pits. ''He'd go +into these chat rooms and use 20 fictitious names and post messages. . . +. '' ''By fictitious names, do you mean e-mail addresses?'' ''I don't know the details.'' -Don't know the details? He'd been all over the airwaves decrying the behavior of Jonathan Lebed. +Don't know the details? He'd been all over the airwaves decrying the +behavior of Jonathan Lebed. -''Put it this way,'' he said. ''He'd buy, lie and sell high.'' The chairman's voice had deepened unnaturally. He hadn't spoken the line; he had acted it. It was exactly the same line he had spoken on ''60 Minutes'' when his interviewer, Steve Kroft, asked him to explain Jonathan Lebed's crime. He must have caught me gaping in wonder because, once again, he looked at me long and hard. I glanced away. +''Put it this way,'' he said. ''He'd buy, lie and sell high.'' The +chairman's voice had deepened unnaturally. He hadn't spoken the line; he +had acted it. It was exactly the same line he had spoken on ''60 +Minutes'' when his interviewer, Steve Kroft, asked him to explain +Jonathan Lebed's crime. He must have caught me gaping in wonder because, +once again, he looked at me long and hard. I glanced away. ''What do you think?'' he asked. -Well, I had my opinions. In the first place, I had been surprised to learn that it was legal for, say, an author to write phony glowing reviews of his book on Amazon but illegal for him to plug a stock on Yahoo just because he happened to own it. I thought it was -- to put it kindly -- misleading to tell reporters that Jonathan Lebed had used ''20 fictitious names'' when he had used four AOL e-mail addresses and posted exactly the same message under each of them so that no one who read them could possibly mistake him for more than one person. I further thought that without quite realizing what had happened to them, the people at the S.E.C. were now lighting out after the very people -- the average American with a bit of money to play with -- whom they were meant to protect. +Well, I had my opinions. In the first place, I had been surprised to +learn that it was legal for, say, an author to write phony glowing +reviews of his book on Amazon but illegal for him to plug a stock on +Yahoo just because he happened to own it. I thought it was -- to put it +kindly -- misleading to tell reporters that Jonathan Lebed had used ''20 +fictitious names'' when he had used four AOL e-mail addresses and posted +exactly the same message under each of them so that no one who read them +could possibly mistake him for more than one person. I further thought +that without quite realizing what had happened to them, the people at +the S.E.C. were now lighting out after the very people -- the average +American with a bit of money to play with -- whom they were meant to +protect. -Finally, I thought that by talking to me or any other journalist about Jonathan Lebed when he didn't really understand himself what Jonathan Lebed had done, the chairman of the S.E.C. displayed a disturbing faith in the media to buy whatever he was selling. +Finally, I thought that by talking to me or any other journalist about +Jonathan Lebed when he didn't really understand himself what Jonathan +Lebed had done, the chairman of the S.E.C. displayed a disturbing faith +in the media to buy whatever he was selling. -But when he asked me what I thought, all I said was, ''I think it's more complicated than you think.'' +But when he asked me what I thought, all I said was, ''I think it's more +complicated than you think.'' Advertisement -[Continue reading the main story][28] +[Continue reading the main story](#story-continues-14) -''Richard -- call Richard!'' Levitt was shouting out the door of his vast office. ''Tell Richard to come in here!'' +''Richard -- call Richard\!'' Levitt was shouting out the door of his +vast office. ''Tell Richard to come in here\!'' -Richard was Richard Walker, the S.E.C.'s director of enforcement. He entered with a smile, but mislaid it before he even sat down. His mind went from a standing start to deeply distressed inside of 10 seconds. ''This kid was making predictions about the prices of stocks,'' he said testily. ''He had no basis for making these predictions.'' Before I could tell him that sounds a lot like what happens every day on Wall Street, he said, ''And don't tell me that's standard practice on Wall Street,'' so I didn't. But it is. It is still O.K. for the analysts to lowball their estimates of corporate earnings and plug the stocks of the companies they take public so that they remain in the good graces of those companies. The S.E.C. would protest that the analysts don't actually own the stocks they plug, but that is a distinction without a difference: they profit mightily and directly from its rise. +Richard was Richard Walker, the S.E.C.'s director of enforcement. He +entered with a smile, but mislaid it before he even sat down. His mind +went from a standing start to deeply distressed inside of 10 seconds. +''This kid was making predictions about the prices of stocks,'' he said +testily. ''He had no basis for making these predictions.'' Before I +could tell him that sounds a lot like what happens every day on Wall +Street, he said, ''And don't tell me that's standard practice on Wall +Street,'' so I didn't. But it is. It is still O.K. for the analysts to +lowball their estimates of corporate earnings and plug the stocks of the +companies they take public so that they remain in the good graces of +those companies. The S.E.C. would protest that the analysts don't +actually own the stocks they plug, but that is a distinction without a +difference: they profit mightily and directly from its rise. ''Jonathan Lebed was seeking to manipulate the market,'' said Walker. -But that only begs the question. If Wall Street analysts and fund managers and corporate C.E.O.'s who appear on CNBC and CNNfn to plug stocks are not guilty of seeking to manipulate the market, what on earth does it mean to manipulate the market? +But that only begs the question. If Wall Street analysts and fund +managers and corporate C.E.O.'s who appear on CNBC and CNNfn to plug +stocks are not guilty of seeking to manipulate the market, what on earth +does it mean to manipulate the market? -''It's when you promote a stock for the purpose of artificially raising its price.'' +''It's when you promote a stock for the purpose of artificially raising +its price.'' -But when a Wall Street analyst can send the price of a stock of a company that is losing billions of dollars up 50 points in a day, what does it mean to ''artificially raise'' the price of a stock? The law sounded perfectly circular. Actually, this point had been well made in a recent article in Business Crimes Bulletin by a pair of securities law experts, Lawrence S. Bader and Daniel B. Kosove. ''The casebooks are filled with opinions that describe manipulation as causing an 'artificial' price,'' the experts wrote. ''Unfortunately, the casebooks are short on opinions defining the word 'artificial' in this context. . . . By using the word 'artificial,' the courts have avoided coming to grips with the problem of defining 'manipulation'; they have simply substituted one undefined term for another.'' +But when a Wall Street analyst can send the price of a stock of a +company that is losing billions of dollars up 50 points in a day, what +does it mean to ''artificially raise'' the price of a stock? The law +sounded perfectly circular. Actually, this point had been well made in a +recent article in Business Crimes Bulletin by a pair of securities law +experts, Lawrence S. Bader and Daniel B. Kosove. ''The casebooks are +filled with opinions that describe manipulation as causing an +'artificial' price,'' the experts wrote. ''Unfortunately, the casebooks +are short on opinions defining the word 'artificial' in this context. . +. . By using the word 'artificial,' the courts have avoided coming to +grips with the problem of defining 'manipulation'; they have simply +substituted one undefined term for another.'' -Walker recited, ''The price of a stock is artificially raised when subjected to something other than ordinary market forces.'' +Walker recited, ''The price of a stock is artificially raised when +subjected to something other than ordinary market forces.'' But what are ''ordinary market forces''? -An ordinary market force, it turned out, is one that does not cause the stock to rise artificially. In short, an ordinary market force is whatever the S.E.C. says it is, or what it can persuade the courts it is. And the S.E.C. does not view teenagers' broadcasting their opinions as ''an ordinary market force.'' It can't. If it did, it would be compelled to face the deep complexity of the modern market -- and all of the strange new creatures who have become, with the help of the Internet, ordinary market forces. When the Internet collided with the stock market, Jonathan Lebed became a market force. Adolescence became a market force. +An ordinary market force, it turned out, is one that does not cause the +stock to rise artificially. In short, an ordinary market force is +whatever the S.E.C. says it is, or what it can persuade the courts it +is. And the S.E.C. does not view teenagers' broadcasting their opinions +as ''an ordinary market force.'' It can't. If it did, it would be +compelled to face the deep complexity of the modern market -- and all of +the strange new creatures who have become, with the help of the +Internet, ordinary market forces. When the Internet collided with the +stock market, Jonathan Lebed became a market force. Adolescence became a +market force. -I finally came clean with a thought: the S.E.C. let Jonathan Lebed walk away with 500 grand in his pocket because it feared that if it didn't, it would wind up in court and it would lose. And if the law ever declared formally that Jonathan Lebed didn't break it, the S.E.C. would be faced with an impossible situation: millions of small investors plugging their portfolios with abandon, becoming in essence professional financial analysts, generating embarrassing little explosions of unreality in every corner of the capital markets. No central authority could sustain the illusion that stock prices were somehow ''real'' or that the market wasn't, for most people, a site of not terribly productive leisure activity. The red dog would be off his leash. +I finally came clean with a thought: the S.E.C. let Jonathan Lebed walk +away with 500 grand in his pocket because it feared that if it didn't, +it would wind up in court and it would lose. And if the law ever +declared formally that Jonathan Lebed didn't break it, the S.E.C. would +be faced with an impossible situation: millions of small investors +plugging their portfolios with abandon, becoming in essence professional +financial analysts, generating embarrassing little explosions of +unreality in every corner of the capital markets. No central authority +could sustain the illusion that stock prices were somehow ''real'' or +that the market wasn't, for most people, a site of not terribly +productive leisure activity. The red dog would be off his leash. -I might as well have strolled into the office of the drug czar and lit up a joint. +I might as well have strolled into the office of the drug czar and lit +up a joint. -''The kid himself said he set out to manipulate the market,'' Walker virtually shrieked. But, of course, that is not all the kid said. The kid said everybody in the market was out to manipulate the market. +''The kid himself said he set out to manipulate the market,'' Walker +virtually shrieked. But, of course, that is not all the kid said. The +kid said everybody in the market was out to manipulate the market. Advertisement -[Continue reading the main story][29] +[Continue reading the main story](#story-continues-15) ''Then why did you let him keep 500 grand of his profits?'' I asked. -''We determined that those profits were different from the profits he made on the 11 trades we defined as illegal,'' he said. +''We determined that those profits were different from the profits he +made on the 11 trades we defined as illegal,'' he said. -This, I already knew, was a pleasant fiction. The amount Jonathan Lebed handed over to the government was determined by haggling between Kevin Marino and the S.E.C.'s Philadelphia office. The S.E.C. initially demanded the $800,000 Jonathan had made, plus interest. Marino had countered with 125 grand. They haggled a bit and then settled at 285. +This, I already knew, was a pleasant fiction. The amount Jonathan Lebed +handed over to the government was determined by haggling between Kevin +Marino and the S.E.C.'s Philadelphia office. The S.E.C. initially +demanded the $800,000 Jonathan had made, plus interest. Marino had +countered with 125 grand. They haggled a bit and then settled at 285. -''Can you explain how you distinguished the illegal trades from the legal ones?'' +''Can you explain how you distinguished the illegal trades from the +legal ones?'' ''I'm not going to go through the case point by point.'' @@ -511,358 +865,258 @@ This, I already knew, was a pleasant fiction. The amount Jonathan Lebed handed o ''It wouldn't be appropriate.'' -At which point, Arthur Levitt, who had been trying to stare into my eyes as intently as a man can stare, said in his deep voice, ''This kid has no basis for making these predictions.'' +At which point, Arthur Levitt, who had been trying to stare into my eyes +as intently as a man can stare, said in his deep voice, ''This kid has +no basis for making these predictions.'' ''But how do you know that?'' -And the chairman of the S.E.C., the embodiment of investor confidence, the keeper of the notion that the numbers gyrating at the bottom of the CNBC screen are ''real,'' drew himself up and said, ''I worked on Wall Street.'' +And the chairman of the S.E.C., the embodiment of investor confidence, +the keeper of the notion that the numbers gyrating at the bottom of the +CNBC screen are ''real,'' drew himself up and said, ''I worked on Wall +Street.'' -Well. What do you say to that? He had indeed worked on Wall Street -- in 1968. +Well. What do you say to that? He had indeed worked on Wall Street -- in +1968. ''So did I,'' I said. ''I worked there longer than you.'' -Walker leapt back in. ''This kid's father said he was going to rip the [expletive] computer out of the wall.'' +Walker leapt back in. ''This kid's father said he was going to rip the +\[expletive\] computer out of the wall.'' -I realized that it was my turn to stare. I stared at Richard Walker. ''Have you met Jonathan Lebed's father?'' I said. +I realized that it was my turn to stare. I stared at Richard Walker. +''Have you met Jonathan Lebed's father?'' I said. Advertisement -[Continue reading the main story][30] +[Continue reading the main story](#story-continues-16) -''No I haven't,'' he said curtly. ''But look, we talked to this kid two years ago, when he was 14 years old. If I'm a kid and I'm pulled in by some scary government agency, I'd back off.'' +''No I haven't,'' he said curtly. ''But look, we talked to this kid two +years ago, when he was 14 years old. If I'm a kid and I'm pulled in by +some scary government agency, I'd back off.'' -That's the trouble with 14-year-old boys -- from the point of view of the social order. They haven't yet learned the more sophisticated forms of dishonesty. It can take years of slogging to learn how to feign respect for hollow authority. +That's the trouble with 14-year-old boys -- from the point of view of +the social order. They haven't yet learned the more sophisticated forms +of dishonesty. It can take years of slogging to learn how to feign +respect for hollow authority. -Still! That a 14-year-old boy, operating essentially in a vacuum, would walk away from a severe grilling by six hostile bureaucrats and jump right back into the market -- how did that happen? It occurred to me, as it had occurred to Jonathan's lawyer, that I had taken entirely the wrong approach to getting the answer. The whole point of Jonathan Lebed was that he had invented himself on the Internet. The Internet had taught him how hazy the line was between perception and reality. When people could see him, they treated him as they would treat a 14-year-old boy. When all they saw were his thoughts on financial matters, they treated him as if he were a serious trader. On the Internet, where no one could see who he was, he became who he was. I left the S.E.C. and went back to my hotel and sent him an e-mail message, asking him the same question I asked the first time we met: why hadn't he been scared off? +Still\! That a 14-year-old boy, operating essentially in a vacuum, would +walk away from a severe grilling by six hostile bureaucrats and jump +right back into the market -- how did that happen? It occurred to me, as +it had occurred to Jonathan's lawyer, that I had taken entirely the +wrong approach to getting the answer. The whole point of Jonathan Lebed +was that he had invented himself on the Internet. The Internet had +taught him how hazy the line was between perception and reality. When +people could see him, they treated him as they would treat a 14-year-old +boy. When all they saw were his thoughts on financial matters, they +treated him as if he were a serious trader. On the Internet, where no +one could see who he was, he became who he was. I left the S.E.C. and +went back to my hotel and sent him an e-mail message, asking him the +same question I asked the first time we met: why hadn't he been scared +off? Straight away he wrote back: -''It was about 2-3 months from when the S.E.C. called me in for the first time until I started trading again. The reason I didn't trade for those 2-3 months is because I had all of my money tied up in a stock. I sold it at the end of the year to take a tax loss, which allowed me to start trading again. I wasn't frightened by them because it was clear that they were focused on whether or not I was being paid to profile stocks when the fact is I was not. I was never told by them that I was doing something wrong and I was never told by them not to do something.'' +''It was about 2-3 months from when the S.E.C. called me in for the +first time until I started trading again. The reason I didn't trade for +those 2-3 months is because I had all of my money tied up in a stock. I +sold it at the end of the year to take a tax loss, which allowed me to +start trading again. I wasn't frightened by them because it was clear +that they were focused on whether or not I was being paid to profile +stocks when the fact is I was not. I was never told by them that I was +doing something wrong and I was never told by them not to do +something.'' -By September 1999, Jonathan Lebed was playing at the top of his game. He had figured out the advantage, after he had bought shares in a small company, in publicizing his many interests. ''I came up with it myself,'' he said of the idea. ''It was obvious from the newspapers and CNBC. Of course stocks respond to publicity!'' +By September 1999, Jonathan Lebed was playing at the top of his game. He +had figured out the advantage, after he had bought shares in a small +company, in publicizing his many interests. ''I came up with it +myself,'' he said of the idea. ''It was obvious from the newspapers and +CNBC. Of course stocks respond to publicity\!'' -After he had picked and bought his stock, he would write a single message about it and stick it up in as many places on Yahoo Finance as he could between 5 and 8 in the morning, when he left home for school. There were no explicit rules on Yahoo Finance, but there were constraints. The first was that Yahoo limited the number of messages he could post using one e-mail address. He would click onto Yahoo and open an account with one of his four AOL screen names; a few minutes later, Yahoo, mysteriously, would tell him that his messages could no longer be delivered. Eventually, he figured out that they must have some limit that they weren't telling people about. He got around it by grabbing another of his four AOL screen names and creating another Yahoo account. By rotating his four AOL screen names, he found he could get his message onto maybe 200 Yahoo message boards before school. +After he had picked and bought his stock, he would write a single +message about it and stick it up in as many places on Yahoo Finance as +he could between 5 and 8 in the morning, when he left home for school. +There were no explicit rules on Yahoo Finance, but there were +constraints. The first was that Yahoo limited the number of messages he +could post using one e-mail address. He would click onto Yahoo and open +an account with one of his four AOL screen names; a few minutes later, +Yahoo, mysteriously, would tell him that his messages could no longer be +delivered. Eventually, he figured out that they must have some limit +that they weren't telling people about. He got around it by grabbing +another of his four AOL screen names and creating another Yahoo account. +By rotating his four AOL screen names, he found he could get his message +onto maybe 200 Yahoo message boards before school. -He also found that when he went to do it the next time, with a different stock, Yahoo would no longer accept messages from his AOL screen names. So he was forced to create four more screen names and start over again. Yahoo never told him he shouldn't do this. ''The account would be just, like, deleted,'' he said. ''Yahoo never had a policy; it's just what I figured out.'' The S.E.C. accused Jonathan of trying to seem like more than one person when he promoted his stocks, but when you see how and why he did what he did, that is clearly false. (For instance, he ignored the feature on Yahoo that enables users to employ up to seven different ''fictitious names'' for each e-mail address.) It's more true to say that he was trying to simulate an appearance on CNBC. +He also found that when he went to do it the next time, with a different +stock, Yahoo would no longer accept messages from his AOL screen names. +So he was forced to create four more screen names and start over again. +Yahoo never told him he shouldn't do this. ''The account would be just, +like, deleted,'' he said. ''Yahoo never had a policy; it's just what I +figured out.'' The S.E.C. accused Jonathan of trying to seem like more +than one person when he promoted his stocks, but when you see how and +why he did what he did, that is clearly false. (For instance, he ignored +the feature on Yahoo that enables users to employ up to seven different +''fictitious names'' for each e-mail address.) It's more true to say +that he was trying to simulate an appearance on CNBC. -Over time, he learned that some messages had more effect on the stock market than others. ''I definitely refined it,'' he said of his Internet persona. ''In the beginning, I would write, like, very professionally. But then I started putting stuff in caps and using exclamation points and making it sound more exciting. That worked better. When it's more exciting, it draws people's attention to it compared to when you write like, dull or something.'' The trick was to find a stock that he could get excited about. He sifted the Internet chat rooms and the shopping mall with three things in mind: 1) ''It had to be in the area of the stock market that is likely to become a popular play''; 2) ''it had to be undervalued compared to similar companies''; and 3) ''it had to be undiscovered -- not that many people talking about it on the message boards.'' +Over time, he learned that some messages had more effect on the stock +market than others. ''I definitely refined it,'' he said of his Internet +persona. ''In the beginning, I would write, like, very professionally. +But then I started putting stuff in caps and using exclamation points +and making it sound more exciting. That worked better. When it's more +exciting, it draws people's attention to it compared to when you write +like, dull or something.'' The trick was to find a stock that he could +get excited about. He sifted the Internet chat rooms and the shopping +mall with three things in mind: 1) ''It had to be in the area of the +stock market that is likely to become a popular play''; 2) ''it had to +be undervalued compared to similar companies''; and 3) ''it had to be +undiscovered -- not that many people talking about it on the message +boards.'' Advertisement -[Continue reading the main story][31] +[Continue reading the main story](#story-continues-17) -Over a couple of months, I drifted in and out of Jonathan Lebed's life and became used to its staccato rhythms. His defining trait was that the strangest things happened to him, and he just thought of them as perfectly normal -- and there was no one around to clarify matters. The threat of being prosecuted by the U.S. Attorney in Newark and sent away to a juvenile detention center still hung over him, but he didn't give any of it a second thought. He had his parents, his 12-year-old sister Dana and a crowd of friends at Cedar Grove High School, most of whom owned pieces of Internet businesses and all of whom speculated in the stock market. ''There are three groups of kids in our school,'' one of them explained to me. ''There's the jocks, there's the druggies and there's us -- the more business oriented. The jocks and the druggies respect what we do. At first, a lot of the kids are, like, What are you doing? But once kids see money, they get excited.'' +Over a couple of months, I drifted in and out of Jonathan Lebed's life +and became used to its staccato rhythms. His defining trait was that the +strangest things happened to him, and he just thought of them as +perfectly normal -- and there was no one around to clarify matters. The +threat of being prosecuted by the U.S. Attorney in Newark and sent away +to a juvenile detention center still hung over him, but he didn't give +any of it a second thought. He had his parents, his 12-year-old sister +Dana and a crowd of friends at Cedar Grove High School, most of whom +owned pieces of Internet businesses and all of whom speculated in the +stock market. ''There are three groups of kids in our school,'' one of +them explained to me. ''There's the jocks, there's the druggies and +there's us -- the more business oriented. The jocks and the druggies +respect what we do. At first, a lot of the kids are, like, What are you +doing? But once kids see money, they get excited.'' -The first time I heard this version of the social structure of Cedar Grove High, I hadn't taken it seriously. But then one day I went out with Jonathan and one of his friends, Keith Graham, into a neighboring suburb to do what they liked to do most when they weren't doing business, shoot pool. We parked the car and set out down an unprosperous street in search of the pool hall. +The first time I heard this version of the social structure of Cedar +Grove High, I hadn't taken it seriously. But then one day I went out +with Jonathan and one of his friends, Keith Graham, into a neighboring +suburb to do what they liked to do most when they weren't doing +business, shoot pool. We parked the car and set out down an unprosperous +street in search of the pool hall. ''Remember West Coast Video?'' Keith said drolly. -I looked up. We were walking past a derelict building with ''West Coast Video'' stenciled on its plate glass. +I looked up. We were walking past a derelict building with ''West Coast +Video'' stenciled on its plate glass. Jonathan chuckled knowingly. ''We owned, like, half the company.'' -I looked at him. He seemed perfectly serious. He began to tick off the reasons for his investment. ''First, they were about to open an Internet subsidiary; second, they were going to sell DVD's when no other video chain. . . . '' +I looked at him. He seemed perfectly serious. He began to tick off the +reasons for his investment. ''First, they were about to open an Internet +subsidiary; second, they were going to sell DVD's when no other video +chain. . . . '' -I stopped him before he really got going. ''Who owned half the company?'' +I stopped him before he really got going. ''Who owned half the +company?'' ''Me and a few others. Keith, Michael, Tom, Dan.'' ''Some teachers, too,'' Keith said. -''Yeah, the teachers heard about it,'' Jonathan said. He must have seen me looking strangely at him because he added: ''It wasn't that big a deal. We probably didn't have a controlling interest in the company, but we had a fairly good percentage of the stock.'' +''Yeah, the teachers heard about it,'' Jonathan said. He must have seen +me looking strangely at him because he added: ''It wasn't that big a +deal. We probably didn't have a controlling interest in the company, but +we had a fairly good percentage of the stock.'' -''Teachers?'' I said. ''The teachers followed you into this sort of thing.'' +''Teachers?'' I said. ''The teachers followed you into this sort of +thing.'' ''Sometimes,'' Jonathan said. -''All the time,'' Keith said. Keith is a year older than Jonathan and tends to be a more straightforward narrator of events. Jonathan will habitually dramatize or understate some case and emit a strange frequency, like a boy not quite sure how hard to blow into his new tuba, and Keith will invariably correct him. ''As soon as people at school found out what Jonathan was in, everybody got in. Like right way. It was, like, if Jonathan's in on it, it must be good.'' And then the two boys moved on to some other subject, bored with the memory of having led some teachers in the acquisition of shares of West Coast Video. We entered the pool hall and took a table, where we were joined by another friend, John. Keith had paged him. +''All the time,'' Keith said. Keith is a year older than Jonathan and +tends to be a more straightforward narrator of events. Jonathan will +habitually dramatize or understate some case and emit a strange +frequency, like a boy not quite sure how hard to blow into his new tuba, +and Keith will invariably correct him. ''As soon as people at school +found out what Jonathan was in, everybody got in. Like right way. It +was, like, if Jonathan's in on it, it must be good.'' And then the two +boys moved on to some other subject, bored with the memory of having led +some teachers in the acquisition of shares of West Coast Video. We +entered the pool hall and took a table, where we were joined by another +friend, John. Keith had paged him. -My role in Jonathan Lebed's life suddenly became clear: to express sufficient wonder at whatever he has been up to that he is compelled to elaborate. +My role in Jonathan Lebed's life suddenly became clear: to express +sufficient wonder at whatever he has been up to that he is compelled to +elaborate. -''I don't understand,'' I said. ''How would other kids find out what Jonathan was in?'' +''I don't understand,'' I said. ''How would other kids find out what +Jonathan was in?'' -''It's high school,'' said Keith, in a tone reserved for people over 35. ''Four hundred kids. People talk.'' +''It's high school,'' said Keith, in a tone reserved for people over 35. +''Four hundred kids. People talk.'' ''How would the teachers find out?'' -Now Keith gave me a look that told me that I'm the most prominent citizen of a new nation called Stupid. ''They would ask us!'' he said. +Now Keith gave me a look that told me that I'm the most prominent +citizen of a new nation called Stupid. ''They would ask us\!'' he said. ''But why?'' ''They saw we were making money,'' Keith said. -''Yeah,'' said Jonathan, who, odd as it sounds, exhibits none of his friend's knowingness. He just knows. ''I feel, like, that most of my classes, my grades would depend not on my performance but on how the stocks were doing.'' +''Yeah,'' said Jonathan, who, odd as it sounds, exhibits none of his +friend's knowingness. He just knows. ''I feel, like, that most of my +classes, my grades would depend not on my performance but on how the +stocks were doing.'' ''Not really,'' Keith said. -''O.K.,'' Jonathan said. ''Maybe not that. But, like, I didn't think it mattered if I was late for class.'' +''O.K.,'' Jonathan said. ''Maybe not that. But, like, I didn't think it +mattered if I was late for class.'' Keith considered that. ''That's true,'' he said. -''I mean,'' Jonathan said, ''they were making like thousands of dollars off the trades, more than their salaries even. . . . '' +''I mean,'' Jonathan said, ''they were making like thousands of dollars +off the trades, more than their salaries even. . . . '' -''Look,'' I said, ''I know this is a stupid question. But was there any teacher who, say, disapproved of what you were doing?'' +''Look,'' I said, ''I know this is a stupid question. But was there any +teacher who, say, disapproved of what you were doing?'' -The three boys considered this, plainly for the first time in their lives. +The three boys considered this, plainly for the first time in their +lives. ''The librarian,'' Jonathan finally said. -''Yeah,'' John said. ''But that's only because the computers were in the library, and she didn't like us using them.'' +''Yeah,'' John said. ''But that's only because the computers were in the +library, and she didn't like us using them.'' ''You traded stocks from the library?'' -''Fifth-period study hall was in the library,'' Keith said. ''Fifth-period study hall was like a little Wall Street. But sometimes the librarian would say the computers were for study purposes only. None of the other teachers cared.'' +''Fifth-period study hall was in the library,'' Keith said. +''Fifth-period study hall was like a little Wall Street. But sometimes +the librarian would say the computers were for study purposes only. None +of the other teachers cared.'' ''They were trading,'' Jonathan said. -The mood had shifted. We shot pool and pretended that there was no more boring place to be than this world we live in. ''Even though we owned like a million shares,'' Jonathan said, picking up the new mood. ''It wasn't that big a deal. West Coast Video was trading at like 30 cents a share when we got in.'' +The mood had shifted. We shot pool and pretended that there was no more +boring place to be than this world we live in. ''Even though we owned +like a million shares,'' Jonathan said, picking up the new mood. ''It +wasn't that big a deal. West Coast Video was trading at like 30 cents a +share when we got in.'' -Keith looked up from the cue ball. ''When you got in,'' he said. ''Everyone else got in at 65 cents; then it collapsed. Most of the people lost money on that one.'' +Keith looked up from the cue ball. ''When you got in,'' he said. +''Everyone else got in at 65 cents; then it collapsed. Most of the +people lost money on that one.'' -''Hmmm,'' Jonathan said, with real satisfaction. ''That's when I got out.'' +''Hmmm,'' Jonathan said, with real satisfaction. ''That's when I got +out.'' -Suddenly I realized that the S.E.C. was right: there were victims to be found from Jonathan Lebed's life on the Internet. They were right here in New Jersey. I turned to Keith. ''You're Jonathan's victim.'' +Suddenly I realized that the S.E.C. was right: there were victims to be +found from Jonathan Lebed's life on the Internet. They were right here +in New Jersey. I turned to Keith. ''You're Jonathan's victim.'' ''Yeah, Keith,'' Jonathan said, laughing. ''You're my victim.'' -''Nah,'' Keith said. ''In the stock market, you go in knowing you can lose. We were just doing what Jon was doing, but not doing as good a job at it.'' - -Michael Lewis - -[Continue reading the main story][32] - -[ - -We’re interested in your feedback on this page. **Tell us what you think.** - -][33] - -## - -* * * * ## What's Next - -Loading... - -[Go to Home Page »][34] - -## Site Index [ The New York Times ][34] - -## Site Index Navigation - -### News - -* [World][35] -* [U.S.][36] -* [Politics][37] -* [N.Y.][38] -* [Business][39] -* [Tech][40] -* [Science][41] -* [Health][42] -* [Sports][43] -* [Education][44] -* [Obituaries][45] -* [Today's Paper][46] -* [Corrections][47] - -### Opinion - -* [Today's Opinion][48] -* [Op-Ed Columnists][49] -* [Editorials][50] -* [Op-Ed Contributors][51] -* [Letters][52] -* [Sunday Review][53] -* [Video: Opinion][54] - -### Arts - -* [Today's Arts][55] -* [Art & Design][56] -* [Books][57] -* [Dance][58] -* [Movies][59] -* [Music][60] -* [N.Y.C. 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https://www.nytimes.com/ref/membercenter/help/agree.html -[105]: https://www.nytimes.com/content/help/rights/sale/terms-of-sale.html -[106]: http://spiderbites.nytimes.com -[107]: https://www.nytimes.com/membercenter/sitehelp.html -[108]: https://myaccount.nytimes.com/membercenter/feedback.html -[109]: https://www.nytimes.com/subscriptions/Multiproduct/lp5558.html?campaignId=37WXW +''Nah,'' Keith said. ''In the stock market, you go in knowing you can +lose. We were just doing what Jon was doing, but not doing as good a job +at it.'' +[Continue reading the main story](#whats-next) diff --git a/_stories/2001/7503721.md b/_stories/2001/7503721.md deleted file mode 100644 index 20ace74..0000000 --- a/_stories/2001/7503721.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,25 +0,0 @@ ---- -created_at: '2014-03-31T19:57:10.000Z' -title: Bootstrapping a simple compiler from nothing (2001) -url: http://homepage.ntlworld.com/edmund.grimley-evans/bcompiler.html -author: emersonrsantos -points: 175 -story_text: '' -comment_text: -num_comments: 32 -story_id: -story_title: -story_url: -parent_id: -created_at_i: 1396295830 -_tags: -- story -- author_emersonrsantos -- story_7503721 -objectID: '7503721' - ---- -[Source](http://homepage.ntlworld.com/edmund.grimley-evans/bcompiler.html "Permalink to ") - - - diff --git a/_stories/2001/9422961.md b/_stories/2001/9422961.md index 0eb5822..b137e86 100644 --- a/_stories/2001/9422961.md +++ b/_stories/2001/9422961.md @@ -19,7 +19,6 @@ _tags: objectID: '9422961' --- -[Source](https://slashdot.org/story/01/01/25/1343218/directvs-secret-war-on-hackers/ "Permalink to ") - - - +Slashdot is presently in offline mode. Only the front page and story +pages linked from the front page are available in this mode. Please try +again later. diff --git a/_stories/2001/9590986.md b/_stories/2001/9590986.md deleted file mode 100644 index 1cec8e7..0000000 --- a/_stories/2001/9590986.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,25 +0,0 @@ ---- -created_at: '2015-05-22T21:33:05.000Z' -title: An introduction to Core Erlang (2001) -url: http://view.samurajdata.se/psview.php?id=6fbf619d -author: striking -points: 48 -story_text: '' -comment_text: -num_comments: 2 -story_id: -story_title: -story_url: -parent_id: -created_at_i: 1432330385 -_tags: -- story -- author_striking -- story_9590986 -objectID: '9590986' - ---- -[Source](http://view.samurajdata.se/psview.php?id=6fbf619d "Permalink to ") - - - diff --git a/_stories/2002/10021054.md b/_stories/2002/10021054.md deleted file mode 100644 index acb3c34..0000000 --- a/_stories/2002/10021054.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,25 +0,0 @@ ---- -created_at: '2015-08-07T05:39:00.000Z' -title: The Easiest Hard Problem (2002) -url: https://www.americanscientist.org/issues/pub/2002/3/the-easiest-hard-problem/99999 -author: te -points: 49 -story_text: '' -comment_text: -num_comments: 30 -story_id: -story_title: -story_url: -parent_id: -created_at_i: 1438925940 -_tags: -- story -- author_te -- story_10021054 -objectID: '10021054' - ---- -[Source](https://www.americanscientist.org/issues/pub/2002/3/the-easiest-hard-problem/99999 "Permalink to ") - - - diff --git a/_stories/2002/10090218.md b/_stories/2002/10090218.md index 15cb1fa..e82a0d1 100644 --- a/_stories/2002/10090218.md +++ b/_stories/2002/10090218.md @@ -19,113 +19,90 @@ _tags: objectID: '10090218' --- -[Source](http://www.nytimes.com/2002/04/08/business/google-s-toughest-search-is-for-a-business-model.html "Permalink to Google's Toughest Search Is for a Business Model - The New York Times") +The executives' disdain for business meant they spent nothing to +advertise their site and cut very few deals with other sites. They have +insisted that the ads that do run on Google should employ only words, +not pictures, so as not to slow the site's amazingly quick response +time. -# Google's Toughest Search Is for a Business Model - The New York Times +All this has made Google Silicon Valley's hottest private company, one +deluged with 1,000 résumés a day. And the whisper is that when Google +finally does go public, probably in the next year or so, it will make +its debut with a multibillion dollar valuation. (That is one dot-com +tradition the company probably will not disdain.) -__NYTimes.com no longer supports Internet Explorer 9 or earlier. Please upgrade your browser. [LEARN MORE »][1] +But Google has its share of challenges. The very success of Google .com, +which is now the nation's sixth-most popular Internet site and is +growing ever more popular abroad, undercuts its effort to be hired to +provide search technology for other sites. -__Sections __ Home __Search [Skip to content][2] [Skip to navigation][3] [View mobile version][4] +Analysts wonder, in fact, whether Yahoo will see Google as too much a +rival to renew its contract, which was worth $6.1 million in cash (and +far more in publicity) for the last year. The Yahoo deal expires in +June. Google's effort to expand to other areas, like providing search +capabilities for corporations' internal Web sites, has yet to pay off. -## [ The New York Times ][5] +And most importantly, while Google is the leader in searching Web pages, +it is a tiny force in the rapidly growing market for selling advertising +related to search. The dominant player there is Overture Services, which +began life as GoTo.com, a search engine that let Web sites bid to be +listed and ranked in searches. (Whoever pays most gets listed first, the +runner-up is listed second, and so on.) -###### [Business Day][6]|Google's Toughest Search Is for a Business Model +Users never warmed to GoTo, but advertisers, especially small ones, +jumped on it. What better place to advertise your cozy inn than on a +page where someone is searching for information about the Berkshires? So +Overture regrouped, and it now offers to split revenue with sites that +display its listings on their search results pages. Yahoo, MSN, America +Online and all the other major sites -- except Google -- have agreed. -__Search - -Subscribe Now Log In __0 __Settings - -__Close search - -## Site Search Navigation - -Search NYTimes.com - -__Clear this text input - -Go - -1. Loading... - -See next articles - -See previous articles - -## Site Navigation - -## Site Mobile Navigation +Google has increasingly modeled its ad program on Overture's, +introducing a feature in February that lets advertisers bid for more +prominent position. (The ads on Google appear either above or to the +side of the main search results.) Overture responded on Friday by suing +Google, claiming patent infringement, an accusation Google denies. Advertisement -Supported by +[Continue reading the main story](#story-continues-4) -### [Business Day][6] +But the bigger question is whether Google has the scale to capture a +viable share of the search advertising market. In other words, can +Google create a business model even remotely as good as its technology? -# Google's Toughest Search Is for a Business Model +''The days of investing in Web sites we love are over,'' said Lanny +Baker, a Salomon Smith Barney analyst. ''People rave about Google. But +as a business, it will take an awful lot for them to catch up to +Overture.'' -By [SAUL HANSELL][7]APRIL 8, 2002 +Mr. Schmidt says Google's sales are growing so briskly he is not +worried. Google will not disclose its results, but competitors estimate +its sales at $15 million to $25 million a quarter. (Overture is expected +to post $126 million in revenue for the first quarter.) -[Continue reading the main story][8] Share This Page +The founders, Sergey Brin, now 28, and Larry Page, 29, who started +Google in 1998 after dropping out of Stanford's computer science +doctoral program, say they still believe that if they devote themselves +to improving Web search technology, the users and thus the advertisers +will follow. -[Continue reading the main story][8] +''We have pride that we are building a service that is really important +to the world and really successful for the long term,'' Mr. Page said. -As Eric Schmidt prepared the agenda for last September's board meeting of Google, the Internet search company, he added an item: ''Financing Plans -- prepare for initial public offering.'' +The cornerstone of Google's search technology is something it calls Page +Rank (after Larry Page, not Web page). It determines a site's popularity +based on the number of other sites that have links pointing to it. When +a user types a query into Google, it first finds all the pages that +contain the query terms and then displays the pages in order, based on +the Page Rank. -''I assumed I was brought in to take the company public,'' recalled Mr. Schmidt, who became chairman of Google in March 2001 after a long career at Sun Microsystems and four years as chief executive of Novell. - -By last September Google, which began as a research project at Stanford before raising venture capital in 1999, had earned a reputation as the best way to find things on the Internet. It had the prestige of being the search engine on Yahoo. Traffic to its own Google.com Web site was surging. The company's advertising sales, after a slow start, were starting to catch on. It had just turned a profit. - -By Silicon Valley tradition, this was the time to go public. But the board, which included venture capitalists who had backed the Internet's biggest hits and some of its biggest flops, was adamant. The stock offering should wait. - -Advertisement - -[Continue reading the main story][8] - -''I was flabbergasted,'' Mr. Schmidt recalled. - -It was another example of Google as the dot-com that delights in flouting dot-com tradition. Much more than other advertising-supported Web site, Google is a technology-driven company -- one founded by computer science prodigies who have hired more than 50 computer science Ph.D.'s to create an information mill that sifts through an index of three billion Web pages, pictures and messages more than 150 million times a day. - -[Continue reading the main story][9] - -Advertisement - -[Continue reading the main story][10] - -The executives' disdain for business meant they spent nothing to advertise their site and cut very few deals with other sites. They have insisted that the ads that do run on Google should employ only words, not pictures, so as not to slow the site's amazingly quick response time. - -All this has made Google Silicon Valley's hottest private company, one deluged with 1,000 résumés a day. And the whisper is that when Google finally does go public, probably in the next year or so, it will make its debut with a multibillion dollar valuation. (That is one dot-com tradition the company probably will not disdain.) - -But Google has its share of challenges. The very success of Google .com, which is now the nation's sixth-most popular Internet site and is growing ever more popular abroad, undercuts its effort to be hired to provide search technology for other sites. - -Analysts wonder, in fact, whether Yahoo will see Google as too much a rival to renew its contract, which was worth $6.1 million in cash (and far more in publicity) for the last year. The Yahoo deal expires in June. Google's effort to expand to other areas, like providing search capabilities for corporations' internal Web sites, has yet to pay off. - -And most importantly, while Google is the leader in searching Web pages, it is a tiny force in the rapidly growing market for selling advertising related to search. The dominant player there is Overture Services, which began life as GoTo.com, a search engine that let Web sites bid to be listed and ranked in searches. (Whoever pays most gets listed first, the runner-up is listed second, and so on.) - -Users never warmed to GoTo, but advertisers, especially small ones, jumped on it. What better place to advertise your cozy inn than on a page where someone is searching for information about the Berkshires? So Overture regrouped, and it now offers to split revenue with sites that display its listings on their search results pages. Yahoo, MSN, America Online and all the other major sites -- except Google -- have agreed. - -Google has increasingly modeled its ad program on Overture's, introducing a feature in February that lets advertisers bid for more prominent position. (The ads on Google appear either above or to the side of the main search results.) Overture responded on Friday by suing Google, claiming patent infringement, an accusation Google denies. - -Advertisement - -[Continue reading the main story][11] - -But the bigger question is whether Google has the scale to capture a viable share of the search advertising market. In other words, can Google create a business model even remotely as good as its technology? - -''The days of investing in Web sites we love are over,'' said Lanny Baker, a Salomon Smith Barney analyst. ''People rave about Google. But as a business, it will take an awful lot for them to catch up to Overture.'' - -Mr. Schmidt says Google's sales are growing so briskly he is not worried. Google will not disclose its results, but competitors estimate its sales at $15 million to $25 million a quarter. (Overture is expected to post $126 million in revenue for the first quarter.) - -The founders, Sergey Brin, now 28, and Larry Page, 29, who started Google in 1998 after dropping out of Stanford's computer science doctoral program, say they still believe that if they devote themselves to improving Web search technology, the users and thus the advertisers will follow. - -''We have pride that we are building a service that is really important to the world and really successful for the long term,'' Mr. Page said. - -The cornerstone of Google's search technology is something it calls Page Rank (after Larry Page, not Web page). It determines a site's popularity based on the number of other sites that have links pointing to it. When a user types a query into Google, it first finds all the pages that contain the query terms and then displays the pages in order, based on the Page Rank. - -The founders, both sons of university professors, take pride in their tough admission standards, having interviewed 50 candidates before choosing Mr. Schmidt as chief executive, for example. +The founders, both sons of university professors, take pride in their +tough admission standards, having interviewed 50 candidates before +choosing Mr. Schmidt as chief executive, for example. ## Newsletter Sign Up -[Continue reading the main story][12] +[Continue reading the main story](#continues-post-newsletter) ### @@ -135,291 +112,128 @@ Invalid email address. Please re-enter. You must select a newsletter to subscribe to. -Sign Up - -You agree to receive occasional updates and special offers for The New York Times's products and services. +You agree to receive occasional updates and special offers for The New +York Times's products and services. ### Thank you for subscribing. ### An error has occurred. Please try again later. -### You are already subscribed to this email. +[View all New York Times newsletters.](/newsletters) -[View all New York Times newsletters.][13] +The search was ''interminable,'' said Michael Moritz, the Sequoia +Capital venture capitalist who is on Google's board. They still have not +picked a chief financial officer. The soft-spoken Mr. Schmidt fit in +because he is an accomplished engineer who happens to have spent some +time running a company. -* [See Sample][14] -* [Manage Email Preferences][15] -* [Not you?][16] -* [Privacy Policy][17] -* Opt out or [contact us][18] anytime - -The search was ''interminable,'' said Michael Moritz, the Sequoia Capital venture capitalist who is on Google's board. They still have not picked a chief financial officer. The soft-spoken Mr. Schmidt fit in because he is an accomplished engineer who happens to have spent some time running a company. - -Mr. Brin and Mr. Page, who share a dry and impetuous sense of humor, have also cultivated an impudent culture, as if nerds had taken over a college dorm. Programmers work by the light of lava lamps into the wee hours of the morning, taking breaks to ride motorized scooters down the halls and eat spicy meals prepared by the house cook, Charlie Ayers, the former chef for the Grateful Dead. +Mr. Brin and Mr. Page, who share a dry and impetuous sense of humor, +have also cultivated an impudent culture, as if nerds had taken over a +college dorm. Programmers work by the light of lava lamps into the wee +hours of the morning, taking breaks to ride motorized scooters down the +halls and eat spicy meals prepared by the house cook, Charlie Ayers, the +former chef for the Grateful Dead. Advertisement -[Continue reading the main story][19] +[Continue reading the main story](#story-continues-5) -This bitbucket bonhomie has resulted in a steady stream of nifty features, like a rather unusual approach to fixing users' spelling errors. Instead of a predetermined dictionary, it looks for correct spelling in its index of the entire Web. That means it can propose correct spellings to proper names, and it works in 74 languages, most of which no one at Google has ever spoken. Or in some cases, no person anywhere has ever spoken: Google runs versions of its sites in a few languages that no one has spoken, like Bork Bork Bork, purported to be the tongue of the Swedish chef on ''The Muppet Show.'' +This bitbucket bonhomie has resulted in a steady stream of nifty +features, like a rather unusual approach to fixing users' spelling +errors. Instead of a predetermined dictionary, it looks for correct +spelling in its index of the entire Web. That means it can propose +correct spellings to proper names, and it works in 74 languages, most of +which no one at Google has ever spoken. Or in some cases, no person +anywhere has ever spoken: Google runs versions of its sites in a few +languages that no one has spoken, like Bork Bork Bork, purported to be +the tongue of the Swedish chef on ''The Muppet Show.'' -The company is so infatuated with its technical prowess and sense of destiny that it has developed a reputation as being difficult to deal with. +The company is so infatuated with its technical prowess and sense of +destiny that it has developed a reputation as being difficult to deal +with. -''Serge and Larry are very blunt and very cocky,'' said Danny Sullivan, editor of Search Engine Watch, an online newsletter. ''They honestly believe they can do a better job than other people, and they don't have any hesitation in saying that.'' +''Serge and Larry are very blunt and very cocky,'' said Danny Sullivan, +editor of Search Engine Watch, an online newsletter. ''They honestly +believe they can do a better job than other people, and they don't have +any hesitation in saying that.'' -Mr. Schmidt, who is 46, makes clear that managing Google's cocky culture is one of his tasks. ''It's easy for companies like ours to get arrogant,'' he said. ''That makes people get madder as you are winning. I think you need to win, but you are better off winning softly.'' +Mr. Schmidt, who is 46, makes clear that managing Google's cocky culture +is one of his tasks. ''It's easy for companies like ours to get +arrogant,'' he said. ''That makes people get madder as you are winning. +I think you need to win, but you are better off winning softly.'' -Mr. Schmidt has also done other things grown-up executives are supposed to do. Like reining in spending for his first few months until the company became profitable. Like recruiting a bunch of new vice presidents and imposing systems for sales forecasting. And ordering an international expansion. +Mr. Schmidt has also done other things grown-up executives are supposed +to do. Like reining in spending for his first few months until the +company became profitable. Like recruiting a bunch of new vice +presidents and imposing systems for sales forecasting. And ordering an +international expansion. -He also sometimes challenges the geeks to be less geeky. Late last year, Mr. Schmidt, no novice at technical matters, wanted to test the ease of installation of one of Google's new products -- a computer server the size of a pizza box, which corporations can buy to search their internal networks. +He also sometimes challenges the geeks to be less geeky. Late last year, +Mr. Schmidt, no novice at technical matters, wanted to test the ease of +installation of one of Google's new products -- a computer server the +size of a pizza box, which corporations can buy to search their internal +networks. -After four frustrating hours, he sent off a nasty e-mail to the designers. The revised version he received several days later was much easier to use. But at a company meeting several days later, David Watson, an engineer and one of the rebuked designers, stood up and presented Mr. Schmidt with a certificate labeled ''Tester Technical Award: Most Improved.'' +After four frustrating hours, he sent off a nasty e-mail to the +designers. The revised version he received several days later was much +easier to use. But at a company meeting several days later, David +Watson, an engineer and one of the rebuked designers, stood up and +presented Mr. Schmidt with a certificate labeled ''Tester Technical +Award: Most Improved.'' -''That doesn't happen in real companies,'' Mr. Schmidt says, still in wonder at the act, cheeky even by engineers' insubordinate standards. The certificate now hangs on the wall of Mr. Schmidt's small office. +''That doesn't happen in real companies,'' Mr. Schmidt says, still in +wonder at the act, cheeky even by engineers' insubordinate standards. +The certificate now hangs on the wall of Mr. Schmidt's small office. Advertisement -[Continue reading the main story][20] +[Continue reading the main story](#story-continues-6) -The biggest challenge for Mr. Schmidt, though, is balancing Google's increasing popularity among Web users with the needs and demands of the other Web sites, like Yahoo, for which it provides search technology. Google still charges a fee for each search conducted. And in the last two years, it has lost ground to others like Overture and Inktomi, which actually pay Web portals to use their technologies -- since their revenue comes from the sites whose pages Overture and Inktomi index. +The biggest challenge for Mr. Schmidt, though, is balancing Google's +increasing popularity among Web users with the needs and demands of the +other Web sites, like Yahoo, for which it provides search technology. +Google still charges a fee for each search conducted. And in the last +two years, it has lost ground to others like Overture and Inktomi, which +actually pay Web portals to use their technologies -- since their +revenue comes from the sites whose pages Overture and Inktomi index. -To keep other portals interested, Google recently started letting other sites run the text ads it sells alongside its search results and agreed to split the revenue. +To keep other portals interested, Google recently started letting other +sites run the text ads it sells alongside its search results and agreed +to split the revenue. -So far, only Earthlink has agreed, bouncing Overture's paid listings from its main page. +So far, only Earthlink has agreed, bouncing Overture's paid listings +from its main page. -But Google does not yet appear to have sufficient clout with some of the bigger sites. Analysts say Google cannot deliver enough money to supplant Overture from AOL, the AOL Time Warner flagship service. And Microsoft's MSN selected Inktomi -- not Google -- to provide technology for its search service, because Inktomi does not operate its own search site. +But Google does not yet appear to have sufficient clout with some of the +bigger sites. Analysts say Google cannot deliver enough money to +supplant Overture from AOL, the AOL Time Warner flagship service. And +Microsoft's MSN selected Inktomi -- not Google -- to provide technology +for its search service, because Inktomi does not operate its own search +site. -''At the end of the day, Google is becoming more of a competitor to Microsoft and MSN,'' said Brian Gluth, a senior product manager for MSN. ''We want to work with partners who don't compete with us.'' +''At the end of the day, Google is becoming more of a competitor to +Microsoft and MSN,'' said Brian Gluth, a senior product manager for MSN. +''We want to work with partners who don't compete with us.'' -Mr. Schmidt argues that Google's search technique is so superior that other sites gain traffic and happy users when they adopt it. He will have to hope he can convince Terry Semel, chief executive of Yahoo, when Google's current contract with the leading Web portal expires in two months. +Mr. Schmidt argues that Google's search technique is so superior that +other sites gain traffic and happy users when they adopt it. He will +have to hope he can convince Terry Semel, chief executive of Yahoo, when +Google's current contract with the leading Web portal expires in two +months. -''Terry must be asking why Yahoo has helped build what could be one of its greatest competitors,'' said Evan Thornley, the chief executive of LookSmart, a Google competitor. +''Terry must be asking why Yahoo has helped build what could be one of +its greatest competitors,'' said Evan Thornley, the chief executive of +LookSmart, a Google competitor. -Meanwhile, other companies are not willing to concede the search quality game to Google. One of them, Ask Jeeves, has acquired Teoma, a search service developed at Rutgers University. And last month, Look-Smart bought WiseNut, a Korean-backed search technology firm. +Meanwhile, other companies are not willing to concede the search quality +game to Google. One of them, Ask Jeeves, has acquired Teoma, a search +service developed at Rutgers University. And last month, Look-Smart +bought WiseNut, a Korean-backed search technology firm. -''The history of search is that pundits declared the winner at the end of every lap,'' Mr. Thornley said. ''You have to be careful if you start to smoke your own stuff and believe you are the only one who can build a great search engine. There was a two-year window when Google was the only company focused on building search. 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''You have to be careful if you start +to smoke your own stuff and believe you are the only one who can build a +great search engine. There was a two-year window when Google was the +only company focused on building search. No more.'' +[Continue reading the main story](#whats-next) diff --git a/_stories/2002/11348182.md b/_stories/2002/11348182.md index 407ed22..a2b751b 100644 --- a/_stories/2002/11348182.md +++ b/_stories/2002/11348182.md @@ -19,7 +19,69 @@ _tags: objectID: '11348182' --- -[Source](https://github.com/braydie/HowToBeAProgrammer "Permalink to ") +# [](#how-to-be-a-programmer-community-version)How to be a Programmer: Community Version +Robert L. Read with Community +Copyright 2002, 2003, 2016 Robert L. Read +Licensed under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 +International License](http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). + +[Available on gitbook to read online or download for offline reading (as +PDF, ePub or +Mobi)](https://www.gitbook.com/book/braydie/how-to-be-a-programmer/details) + +[Available to buy as a hardcover book (cost covers production & shipping +only)](http://www.blurb.com/b/6999069-how-to-be-a-programmer) - Edition +1, published 04/01/16 + +## [](#introduction)Introduction + +To be a good programmer is difficult and noble. The hardest part of +making real a collective vision of a software project is dealing with +one's coworkers and customers. Writing computer programs is important +and takes great intelligence and skill. But it is really child's play +compared to everything else that a good programmer must do to make a +software system that succeeds for both the customer and myriad +colleagues for whom he or she is partially responsible. In this essay I +attempt to summarize as concisely as possible those things that I wish +someone had explained to me when I was twenty-one. + +This is very subjective and, therefore, this essay is doomed to be +personal and somewhat opinionated. I confine myself to problems that a +programmer is very likely to have to face in her work. Many of these +problems and their solutions are so general to the human condition that +I will probably seem preachy. I hope in spite of this that this essay +will be useful. + +Computer programming is taught in courses. The excellent books: The +Pragmatic Programmer \[Prag99\], Code Complete \[CodeC93\], Rapid +Development \[RDev96\], and Extreme Programming Explained \[XP99\] all +teach computer programming and the larger issues of being a good +programmer. The essays of Paul Graham \[PGSite\] and Eric Raymond +\[Hacker\] should certainly be read before or along with this article. +This essay differs from those excellent works by emphasizing social +problems and comprehensively summarizing the entire set of necessary +skills as I see them. + +In this essay the term boss is used to refer to whomever gives you +projects to do. I use the words business, company, and tribe, +synonymously except that business connotes moneymaking, company connotes +the modern workplace and tribe is generally the people you share loyalty +with. + +Welcome to the tribe. + +## [](#contents)Contents + +**Also available in +[Chinese](/braydie/HowToBeAProgrammer/blob/master/zh/README.md) and +[Japanese](/braydie/HowToBeAProgrammer/blob/master/jp/README.md)** + +[![Creative Commons +License](https://camo.githubusercontent.com/e170e276291254896665fa8f612b99fe5b7dd005/68747470733a2f2f692e6372656174697665636f6d6d6f6e732e6f72672f6c2f62792d73612f342e302f38387833312e706e67)](http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/) +How To Be A Programmer: Community Version by Robert L. Read with +Community is licensed under a [Creative Commons +Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International +License](http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). diff --git a/_stories/2002/13060398.md b/_stories/2002/13060398.md index 71efab6..4c6bcc5 100644 --- a/_stories/2002/13060398.md +++ b/_stories/2002/13060398.md @@ -19,7 +19,7 @@ _tags: objectID: '13060398' --- -[Source](https://web.stanford.edu/class/math53/jasp.html "Permalink to ") - - +# Object not found\! +The requested URL was not found on this server. If you entered the URL +manually please check your spelling and try again. diff --git a/_stories/2002/14676835.md b/_stories/2002/14676835.md index f4b7193..f698492 100644 --- a/_stories/2002/14676835.md +++ b/_stories/2002/14676835.md @@ -19,7 +19,154 @@ _tags: objectID: '14676835' --- -[Source](https://www.ibiblio.org/harris/500milemail.html "Permalink to ") +The case of the 500-mile email +# The case of the 500-mile email +Read the [FAQ](500milemail-faq.html) about the story. +The following is the 500-mile email story in the form it originally +appeared, in a post to sage-members on Sun, 24 Nov 2002.: + + From trey@sage.org Fri Nov 29 18:00:49 2002 + Date: Sun, 24 Nov 2002 21:03:02 -0500 (EST) + From: Trey Harris + To: sage-members@sage.org + Subject: The case of the 500-mile email (was RE: [SAGE] Favorite impossible + task?) + + Here's a problem that *sounded* impossible... I almost regret posting the + story to a wide audience, because it makes a great tale over drinks at a + conference. :-) The story is slightly altered in order to protect the + guilty, elide over irrelevant and boring details, and generally make the + whole thing more entertaining. + + I was working in a job running the campus email system some years ago when + I got a call from the chairman of the statistics department. + + "We're having a problem sending email out of the department." + + "What's the problem?" I asked. + + "We can't send mail more than 500 miles," the chairman explained. + + I choked on my latte. "Come again?" + + "We can't send mail farther than 500 miles from here," he repeated. "A + little bit more, actually. Call it 520 miles. But no farther." + + "Um... Email really doesn't work that way, generally," I said, trying to + keep panic out of my voice. One doesn't display panic when speaking to a + department chairman, even of a relatively impoverished department like + statistics. "What makes you think you can't send mail more than 500 + miles?" + + "It's not what I *think*," the chairman replied testily. "You see, when + we first noticed this happening, a few days ago--" + + "You waited a few DAYS?" I interrupted, a tremor tinging my voice. "And + you couldn't send email this whole time?" + + "We could send email. Just not more than--" + + "--500 miles, yes," I finished for him, "I got that. But why didn't you + call earlier?" + + "Well, we hadn't collected enough data to be sure of what was going on + until just now." Right. This is the chairman of *statistics*. "Anyway, I + asked one of the geostatisticians to look into it--" + + "Geostatisticians..." + + "--yes, and she's produced a map showing the radius within which we can + send email to be slightly more than 500 miles. There are a number of + destinations within that radius that we can't reach, either, or reach + sporadically, but we can never email farther than this radius." + + "I see," I said, and put my head in my hands. "When did this start? A + few days ago, you said, but did anything change in your systems at that + time?" + + "Well, the consultant came in and patched our server and rebooted it. + But I called him, and he said he didn't touch the mail system." + + "Okay, let me take a look, and I'll call you back," I said, scarcely + believing that I was playing along. It wasn't April Fool's Day. I tried + to remember if someone owed me a practical joke. + + I logged into their department's server, and sent a few test mails. This + was in the Research Triangle of North Carolina, and a test mail to my own + account was delivered without a hitch. Ditto for one sent to Richmond, + and Atlanta, and Washington. Another to Princeton (400 miles) worked. + + But then I tried to send an email to Memphis (600 miles). It failed. + Boston, failed. Detroit, failed. I got out my address book and started + trying to narrow this down. New York (420 miles) worked, but Providence + (580 miles) failed. + + I was beginning to wonder if I had lost my sanity. I tried emailing a + friend who lived in North Carolina, but whose ISP was in Seattle. + Thankfully, it failed. If the problem had had to do with the geography of + the human recipient and not his mail server, I think I would have broken + down in tears. + + Having established that--unbelievably--the problem as reported was true, + and repeatable, I took a look at the sendmail.cf file. It looked fairly + normal. In fact, it looked familiar. + + I diffed it against the sendmail.cf in my home directory. It hadn't been + altered--it was a sendmail.cf I had written. And I was fairly certain I + hadn't enabled the "FAIL_MAIL_OVER_500_MILES" option. At a loss, I + telnetted into the SMTP port. The server happily responded with a SunOS + sendmail banner. + + Wait a minute... a SunOS sendmail banner? At the time, Sun was still + shipping Sendmail 5 with its operating system, even though Sendmail 8 was + fairly mature. Being a good system administrator, I had standardized on + Sendmail 8. And also being a good system administrator, I had written a + sendmail.cf that used the nice long self-documenting option and variable + names available in Sendmail 8 rather than the cryptic punctuation-mark + codes that had been used in Sendmail 5. + + The pieces fell into place, all at once, and I again choked on the dregs + of my now-cold latte. When the consultant had "patched the server," he + had apparently upgraded the version of SunOS, and in so doing + *downgraded* Sendmail. The upgrade helpfully left the sendmail.cf + alone, even though it was now the wrong version. + + It so happens that Sendmail 5--at least, the version that Sun shipped, + which had some tweaks--could deal with the Sendmail 8 sendmail.cf, as most + of the rules had at that point remained unaltered. But the new long + configuration options--those it saw as junk, and skipped. And the + sendmail binary had no defaults compiled in for most of these, so, finding + no suitable settings in the sendmail.cf file, they were set to zero. + + One of the settings that was set to zero was the timeout to connect to the + remote SMTP server. Some experimentation established that on this + particular machine with its typical load, a zero timeout would abort a + connect call in slightly over three milliseconds. + + An odd feature of our campus network at the time was that it was 100% + switched. An outgoing packet wouldn't incur a router delay until hitting + the POP and reaching a router on the far side. So time to connect to a + lightly-loaded remote host on a nearby network would actually largely be + governed by the speed of light distance to the destination rather than by + incidental router delays. + + Feeling slightly giddy, I typed into my shell: + + $ units + 1311 units, 63 prefixes + + You have: 3 millilightseconds + You want: miles + * 558.84719 + / 0.0017893979 + + "500 miles, or a little bit more." + + Trey Harris + -- + I'm looking for work. If you need a SAGE Level IV with 10 years Perl, + tool development, training, and architecture experience, please email me + at trey@sage.org. I'm willing to relocate for the right opportunity. diff --git a/_stories/2002/15350393.md b/_stories/2002/15350393.md index 4379e76..e0a2168 100644 --- a/_stories/2002/15350393.md +++ b/_stories/2002/15350393.md @@ -19,7 +19,441 @@ _tags: objectID: '15350393' --- -[Source](https://spectrum.ieee.org/consumer-electronics/gaming/the-video-game-software-wizardry-of-id "Permalink to ") +Advertisement +[![assorted game graphics screens, video game +software](/image/1903521)](/image/1903521 "© 2002 IEEE Spectrum magazine") +All Images: ID Software +Over the last 12 years, the evolving realism of Id Software's graphics +has set the bar for the industry. Among the games \[bottom to top, +left\]: Commander Keen (1990); Hovertank (1991); Wolfenstein 3D (1992); +Doom (1993); Quake (1996); and Return to Castle Wolfenstein (2001). +Click on the image for a larger view. + +It's after midnight when the carnage begins. Inside a castle, soldiers +chase Nazis through the halls. A flame-thrower unfurls a hideous tongue +of fire. This is Return to Castle Wolfenstein, a computer game that's as +much a scientific marvel as it is a visceral adventure. It's also the +latest product of Id Software (Mesquite, Texas). Through its +technologically innovative games, Id has had a huge influence on +everyday computing, from the high-speed, high-color, and high-resolution +graphics cards common in today's PCs to the marshalling of an army of +on-line game programmers and players who have helped shape popular +culture. + +Id shot to prominence 10 years ago with the release of its original +kill-the-Nazis-and-escape game, Wolfenstein 3D. It and its successors, +Doom and Quake, cast players as endangered foot soldiers, racing through +mazes while fighting monsters or, if they so chose, each other. To bring +these games to the consumer PC and establish Id as the market leader +required skill at simplifying difficult graphics problems and cunning in +exploiting on-going improvements in computer graphics cards, processing +power, and memory size \[see illustration, Driven\]. To date, their +games have earned over US $150 million in sales, according to The NPD +Group, a New York City market research firm. + +**It all began with a guy named Mario** + +The company owes much of its success to advances made by John Carmack, +its 31-year-old lead programmer and cofounder who has been programming +games since he was a teenager. + +Back in the late 1980s, the electronic gaming industry was dominated by +dedicated video game consoles. Most game software was distributed in +cartridges, which slotted into the consoles, and as a consequence, +writing games required expensive development systems and corporate +backing. + +The only alternative was home computer game programming, an underworld +in which amateurs could develop and distribute software. Writing games +for the low-powered machines required only programming skill and a love +of gaming. + +Four guys with that passion were artist Adrian Carmack; programmer John +Carmack (no relation); game designer Tom Hall; and programmer John +Romero. While working together at Softdisk (Shreveport, La.), a small +software publisher, these inveterate gamers began moonlighting on their +own titles. + +At the time, the PC was still largely viewed as being for business only. +It had, after all, only a handful of screen colors and squeaked out +sounds through a tiny tinny speaker. Nonetheless, the Softdisk gamers +figured this was enough to start using the PC as a games platform. + +First, hey decided to see if they could recreate on a PC the gaming +industry's biggest hit at the time, Super Mario Brothers 3. This +two-dimensional game ran on the Super Nintendo Entertainment System, +which drove a regular television screen. The object was to make a +mustached plumber, named Mario, leap over platforms and dodge hazards +while running across a landscape below a blue sky strewn with puffy +clouds. As Mario ran, the terrain scrolled from side to side to keep him +more or less in the middle of the screen. To get the graphics +performance required, the Nintendo console resorted to dedicated +hardware. "We had clear examples of console games \[like Mario\] that +did smooth scrolling," John Carmack says, "but \[in 1990\] no one had +done it on an IBM PC." + +After a few nights of experimentation, Carmack figured out how to +emulate the side-scrolling action on a PC. In the game, the screen image +was drawn, or rendered, by assembling an array of 16-by-16-pixel tiles. +Usually the on-screen background took over 200 of these square tiles, a +blue sky tile here, a cloud tile there, and so on. Graphics for active +elements, such as Mario, were then drawn on top of the background. + +Any attempt to redraw the entire background every frame resulted in a +game that ran too slowly, so Carmack figured out how to have to redraw +only a handful of tiles every frame, speeding the game up immensely. His +technique relied on a new type of graphics card that had become +available, and the observation that the player's movement occurred +incrementally, so most of the next frame's scenery had already been +drawn. + +The new graphics cards were known as Enhanced Graphics Adapter (EGA) +cards. They had more on-board video memory than the earlier Color +Graphics Adapter (CGA) cards and could display 16 colors at once, +instead of four. For Carmack, the extra memory had two important +consequences. First, while intended for a single relatively +high-resolution screen image, the card's memory could hold several video +screens' worth of low-resolution images, typically 300 by 200 pixels, +simultaneously, good enough for video games. By pointing to different +video memory addresses, the card could switch which image was being sent +to the screen at around 60 times a second, allowing smooth animation +without annoying flicker. Second, the card could move data around in its +video memory much faster than image data could be copied from the PC's +main memory to the card, eliminating a major graphics performance +bottleneck. + +Carmack wrote a so-called graphics display engine that exploited both +properties to the full by using a technique that had been originally +developed in the 1970s for scrolling over large images, such as +satellite photographs. First, he assembled a complete screen in video +memory, tile by tile--plus a border one tile wide \[see illustration, +"Scrolling With the Action" \]. If the player moved one pixel in any +direction, the display engine moved the origin of the image it sent to +the screen by one pixel in the corresponding direction. No new tiles had +to be drawn. When the player's movements finally pushed the screen image +to the outer edge of a border, the engine still did not redraw most of +the screen. Instead, it copied most of the existing image--the part that +would remain constant--into another portion of video memory. Then it +added the new tiles and moved the origin of the screen display so that +it pointed to the new image . + +![graphic of scrolling, video game +software](/images/archive/images/idf2.gif) + +**Scrolling With the Action:** For two-dimensional scrolling in his PC +game, programmer John Carmack cheated a little by not always redrawing +the background. He built the background of graphical tiles stored in +video memory \[left\] but only sent part of the image to the screen +\[top left, inside orange border\]. As the play character \[yellow +circle\] moved, the background sent to the screen was adjusted to +include tiles outside the border \[see top right\]. New background +elements would be needed only after a shift of one tile width. Then, +most of the background was copied to another region of video memory +\[see bottom right\], and the screen image centered in the new +background. + +In short, rather than having the PC redraw tens of thousands of pixels +every time the player moved, the engine usually had to change only a +single memory address--the one that indicated the origin of the screen +image--or, at worst, draw a relatively thin strip of pixels for the new +tiles. So the PC's CPU was left with plenty of time for other tasks, +such as drawing and animating the game's moving platforms, hostile +characters, and the other active elements with which the player +interacted. + +Hall and Carmack knocked up a Mario clone for the PC, which they dubbed +Dangerous Dave in Copyright Infringement. But Softdisk, their employer, +had no interest in publishing what were then high-end EGA games, +preferring to stick with the market for CGA applications. So the nascent +Id Software company went into moonlight overdrive, using the technology +to create its own side-scrolling PC game called Commander Keen. When it +came time to release the game, they hooked up with game publisher Scott +Miller, who urged them to go with a distribution plan that was as novel +as their technology: shareware. + +In the 1980s, hackers started making their programs available through +shareware, which relied on an honor code: try it and if you like it, pay +me. But it had been used only for utilitarian programs like file tools +or word processors. The next frontier, Miller suggested, was games. +Instead of giving away the entire game, he said, why not give out only +the first portion, then make the player buy the rest? Id agreed to let +Miller's company, Apogee, release the game. Prior to Commander Keen, +Apogee's most popular shareware game had sold a few thousand copies. +Within months of Keen's release in December 1990, the game had sold 30 +000 copies. For the burgeoning world of PC games, Miller recalls, "it +was a little atom bomb." + +**Going for depth** + +Meanwhile programmer Carmack was again pushing the graphics envelope. He +had been experimenting with 3-D graphics ever since junior high school, +when he produced wire-frame MTV logos on his Apple II. Since then, +several game creators had experimented with first-person 3-D points of +view, where the flat tiles of 2-D games are replaced by polygons forming +the surfaces of the player's surrounding environment. The player no +longer felt outside, looking in on the game's world, but saw it as if +from the inside. + +The results had been mixed, though. The PC was simply too slow to redraw +detailed 3-D scenes as the player's position shifted. It had to draw +lots of surfaces for each and every frame sent to the screen, including +many that would be obscured by other surfaces closer to the player. + +Carmack had an idea that would let the computer draw only those surfaces +that were seen by the player. "If you're willing to restrict the +flexibility of your approach," he says, "you can almost always do +something better." + +So he chose not to address the general problem of drawing arbitrary +polygons that could be positioned anywhere in space, but designed a +program that would draw only trapezoids. His concern at this time was +with walls (which are shaped like trapezoids in 3-D), not ceilings or +floors. + +For his program, Carmack simplified a technique for rendering realistic +images on then high-end systems. In raycasting, as it is called, the +computer draws scenes by extending lines from the player's position in +the direction he or she is facing. When it strikes a surface, the pixel +corresponding to that line on the player's screen is painted the +appropriate color. None of the computer's time is wasted on drawing +surfaces that would never be seen anyway. By only drawing walls, Carmack +could raycast scenes very quickly. + +Carmack's final challenge was to furnish his 3-D world with treasure +chests, hostile characters, and other objects. Once again, he simplified +the task, this time by using 2-D graphical icons, known as sprites. He +got the computer to scale the size of the sprite, depending on the +player's location, so that he did not have to model the objects as 3-D +figures, a task that would have slowed the game painfully. By combining +sprites with raycasting, Carmack was able to place players in a +fast-moving 3-D world. The upshot was Hovertank, released in April 1991. +It was the first fast-action 3-D first-person action shooter for the PC. + +Around this time, fellow programmer Romero heard about a new graphics +technique called texture mapping. In this technique, realistic textures +are applied to surfaces in place of their formerly flat, solid colors. +in green slime in its next game, Catacombs 3D. While running through a +maze, the player shot fireballs at enemy figures using another +novelty--a hand drawn in the lower center of the screen. It was as if +the player were looking down on his or her own hand, reaching into the +computer screen. By including the hand in Catacombs 3D, Id Software was +making a subtle, but strong, psychological point to its audience: you +are not just playing the game--you're part of it. + +**Instant sensation** + +For Id's next game, Wolfenstein 3D, Carmack refined his code. A key +decision ensured the graphics engine had as little work to do as +possible: to make the walls even easier to draw, they would all be the +same height. + +This speeded up raycasting immensely. In normal raycasting, one line is +projected through space for every pixel displayed. A 320-by-200-pixel +screen image of the type common at the time required 64 000 lines. But +because Carmack's walls were uniform from top to bottom, he had to +raycast along only one horizontal plane, just 320 lines \[see diagram, +Raycasting 3-D Rooms\]. + +[![illustration of raycasting 3-d +rooms](/image/1903601)](/image/1903601 "© 2002 IEEE Spectrum magazine") + +**Raycasting 3-D Rooms:** To quickly draw three-dimensional rooms +without drawing obscured and thus unnecessary surfaces, Carmack used a +simplified form of raycasting, a technique used to reate realistic 3-D +images. In raycasting, the computer draws scenes by extending lines from +the player's viewpoint \[top\], through an imaginary grid, so that they +strike the surfaces the player sees; only these surfaces get drawn. +Carmack simplified things by keeping all the walls the same height. This +allowed him to extend the rays from the player in just a single +horizontal 2-D plan \[middle\] and scale the apparent height of the wall +according to its distance from the player, instead of determining every +point on the wall individually. The result is the final 3-D image of the +walls \[bottom\]. Click on image for larger view. + +With Carmack's graphics engine now blazingly fast, Romero, Adrian +Carmack, and Hall set about creating a brutal game in which an American +G.I. had to mow down Nazis while negotiating a series of maze-based +levels. Upon its release in May 1992, Wolfenstein 3D was an instant +sensation and became something of a benchmark for PCs. When Intel wanted +to demonstrate the performance of its new Pentium chip to reporters, it +showed them a system running Wolfenstein. + +Wolfenstein also empowered gamers in unexpected ways--they could modify +the game with their own levels and graphics. Instead of a Nazi officer, +players could, for example, substitute Barney, the purple dinosaur star +of U.S. children's television. Carmack and Romero made no attempt to sue +the creators of these mutated versions of Wolfenstein, for, as hackers +themselves, they couldn't have been more pleased. + +Their next game, Doom, incorporated two important effects Carmack had +experimented with in working on another game, Shadowcaster, for a +company called Raven in 1992. One was to apply texture mapping to floors +and ceilings, as well as to walls. Another was to add diminished +lighting. Diminished lighting meant that, as in real life, distant +vistas would recede into shadows, whereas in Wolfenstein, every room was +brightly lit, with no variation in hue. + +By this time, Carmack was programming for the Video Graphics Adapter +(VGA) cards that had supplanted the EGA cards. VGA allowed 256 colors--a +big step up from EGA's 16, but still a limited range that made it a +challenge to incorporate all the shading needed for diminished lighting +effects. + +The solution was to restrict the palette used for the game's graphics, +so that 16 shades of each of 16 colors could be accommodated. Carmack +then programmed the computer to display different shades based on the +player's location within a room. The darkest hues of a color were +applied to far sections of a room; nearer surfaces would always be +brighter than those farther away. This added to the moody atmosphere of +the game. + +Both Carmack and Romero were eager to break away from the simple designs +used in the levels of their earlier games. "My whole thing was--let's +not do anything that Wolfenstein does," Romero says. "Let's not have the +same light levels, let's not have the same ceiling heights, let's not +have walls that are 90 degrees \[to each other\]. Let's show off +Carmack's new technology by making everything look different." + +Profiting from improvements in computer speed and memory, Carmack began +working on how to draw polygons with more arbitrary shapes than +Wolfenstein's trapezoids. "It was looking like \[the graphics engine\] +wouldn't be fast enough," he recalls, "so we had to come up with a new +approach....I knew that to be fast, we still had to have strictly +horizontal floors and vertical walls." The answer was a technique known +as binary space partitioning (BSP). Henry Fuchs, Zvi Kedem, and Bruce +Naylor had popularized BSP techniques in 1980 while at Bell Labs to +render 3-D models of objects on screen. + +A fundamental problem in converting a 3-D model of an object into an +on-screen image is determining which surfaces are actually visible, +which boils down to calculating: is surface Y in front of, or behind, +surface X? Traditionally, this calculation was done any time the model +changed orientation. + +The BSP approach depended on the observation that the model itself is +static, and although different views give rise to different images, +there is no change in the relationships between its surfaces. BSP +allowed the relationships to be determined once and then stored in such +a way that determining which surfaces hid other surfaces from any +arbitrary viewpoint was a matter of looking up the information, not +calculating it anew. + +BSP takes the space occupied by the model and partitions it into two +sections. If either section contains more than one surface of the model, +it is divided again, until the space is completely broken up into +sections each containing one surface. The branching hierarchy that +results is called a BSP tree and extends all the way from the initial +partition of the space down to the individual elements. By following a +particular path through the nodes of the stored tree, it is possible to +generate key information about the relationships between surfaces in a +specific view of the model. + +What if, Carmack wondered, you could use a BSP to create not just one +3-D model of an object, but an entire virtual world? Again, he made the +problem simpler by imposing a constraint: walls had to be vertical and +floors and ceilings horizontal. BSP could then be used to divide up not +the 3-D space itself, but a much simpler 2-D plan view of that space and +still provide all the important information about which surfaces were in +front of which \[see diagram, Divide and Conquer\]. + +[![illustration of doom +structure](/images/archive/images/idf4.jpg)](/images/archive/images/idf4.jpg "© 2002 IEEE Spectrum magazine") + +Illustration: Armand Veneziano + +**Divide and Conquer:** "Doom treated \[the surfaces of the 3-D world\] +all as lines," Carmack says, "cutting lines and sorting lines is so much +easier than sorting polygons....The whole point was taking BSP \[trees\] +and applying them to...a plane, instead of to polygons in a 3-D world, +which let it be drastically simpler." Click on the image for a larger +view. + +Doom was also designed to make it easy for hackers to extend the game by +adding their own graphics and game-level designs. Networking was added +to Doom, allowing play between multiple players over a local-area +network and modem-to-modem competition. + +The game was released in December 1993. Between the multiplayer option, +the extensibility, the riveting 3-D graphics, and the cleverly designed +levels, which cast the player as a futuristic space marine fighting +against the legions of hell, it became a phenomenon. Doom II, the +sequel, featured more weapons and new levels but used the same graphics +engine. It was released in October 1994 and eventually sold more than 1 +500 000 copies at about $50 each; according to the NPD Group, it remains +the third best-selling computer game in history. + +**The finish line** + +In the mid-1990s, Carmack felt that PC technology had advanced far +enough for him to finally achieve two specific goals for his next game, +Quake. He wanted to create an arbitrary 3-D world in which true 3-D +objects could be viewed from any angle, unlike the flat sprites in Doom +and Wolfenstein. The solution was to use the power of the latest +generation of PCs to use BSP to chop up the volume of a true 3-D space, +rather than just areas of a 2-D plan view. He also wanted to make a game +that could be played over the Internet. + +For Internet play, a client-server architecture was used. The +server--which could be run on any PC--would handle the game environment +consisting of rooms, the physics of moving objects, player positions, +and so on. Meanwhile, the client PC would be responsible for both the +input, through the player's keyboard and mouse, and the output, in the +form of graphics and sound. Being online, however, the game was liable +to lags and lapses in network packet deliveries--just the thing to screw +up a fast action game. To reduce the problem, Id limited the packet +delivery method to only the most necessary information, such as a +player's position. + +"The key point was use of an unreliable transport for all +communication," Carmack says, "taking advantage of continuous packet +communication and \[relaxing\] the normal requirements for reliable +delivery," such as handshaking and error correction. A variety of data +compression methods were also used to reduce the bandwidth. The +multiplayer friendliness of the game that emerged--Quake--was rewarded +by the emergence of a huge online community when it was released in June +1996. + +**Looking good** + +Games in general drove the evolution of video cards. But multiplayer +games in particular created an insatiable demand for better graphics +systems, providing a market for even the most incremental advance. +Business users are not concerned if the graphics card they are using to +view their e-mail updates the screen 8 times a second while their +neighbor's card allows 10 updates a second. But a gamer playing Quake, +in which the difference between killing or being killed is measured in +tenths of a second, very much cares. + +Quake soon became the de facto benchmark for the consumer graphics card +industry. Says David Kirk, chief scientist of NVIDIA, a leading graphics +processor manufacturer in Santa Clara, Calif., "Id Software's games +always push the envelope." + +Quake II improved on its predecessor by taking advantage of hardware +acceleration that might be present in a PC, allowing much of the work of +rendering 3-D scenes to be moved from the CPU to the video card. Quake +III, released in December 1999, went a step further and became the first +high-profile game to require hardware acceleration, much as Id had been +willing to burn its boats in 1990 by insisting on EGA over CGA with +Commander Keen. + +Carmack himself feels that his real innovations peaked with Quake in +1996. Everything since, he says, is essentially refining a theme. Return +to Castle Wolfenstein, in fact, was based on the Quake III engine, with +much of the level and game logic development work being done by an +outside company. + +"There were critical points in the evolution of this stuff," Carmack +says, "getting into first person at all, then getting into arbitrary +3-D, and then getting into hardware acceleration....But the critical +goals have been met. There's still infinite refinement that we can do on +all these different things, but...we can build an arbitrary +representational world at some level of fidelity. We can be improving +our fidelity and our special effects and all that. But we have the +fundamental tools necessary to be doing games that are a simulation of +the world." + +Advertisement diff --git a/_stories/2002/2811983.md b/_stories/2002/2811983.md deleted file mode 100644 index 58f3700..0000000 --- a/_stories/2002/2811983.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,25 +0,0 @@ ---- -created_at: '2011-07-27T13:22:01.000Z' -title: The geeks who saved Usenet (2002) -url: http://dir.salon.com/story/tech/feature/2002/01/07/saving_usenet/print.html -author: ern -points: 49 -story_text: '' -comment_text: -num_comments: 7 -story_id: -story_title: -story_url: -parent_id: -created_at_i: 1311772921 -_tags: -- story -- author_ern -- story_2811983 -objectID: '2811983' - ---- -[Source](https://www.salon.com/story/tech/feature/2002/01/07/saving_usenet/print.html "Permalink to ") - - - diff --git a/_stories/2002/6856447.md b/_stories/2002/6856447.md deleted file mode 100644 index 90f1f1f..0000000 --- a/_stories/2002/6856447.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,25 +0,0 @@ ---- -created_at: '2013-12-05T19:13:00.000Z' -title: Testimony of Ms. Soon Ok Lee (2002) -url: http://www.judiciary.senate.gov/hearings/testimony.cfm?id=4f1e0899533f7680e78d03281fe18baf&wit_id=4f1e0899533f7680e78d03281fe18baf-2-1 -author: mckee1 -points: 75 -story_text: '' -comment_text: -num_comments: 81 -story_id: -story_title: -story_url: -parent_id: -created_at_i: 1386270780 -_tags: -- story -- author_mckee1 -- story_6856447 -objectID: '6856447' - ---- -[Source](https://www.judiciary.senate.gov/hearings/testimony.cfm?id=4f1e0899533f7680e78d03281fe18baf&wit_id=4f1e0899533f7680e78d03281fe18baf-2-1 "Permalink to ") - - - diff --git a/_stories/2002/7274819.md b/_stories/2002/7274819.md index 36feb7b..872b786 100644 --- a/_stories/2002/7274819.md +++ b/_stories/2002/7274819.md @@ -19,7 +19,23 @@ _tags: objectID: '7274819' --- -[Source](http://everything2.com/title/Kit Kat Konspiracy "Permalink to ") - - +I must agree with [Mr. +Protozoa](/title/Amoeba+Protozoa "Amoeba Protozoa") . The Kit Kat bars +manufactured outside the [U.S.](/title/U.S. "U.S.") are different. They +use [Nestle](/title/Nestle "Nestle") +[chocolate](/title/chocolate "chocolate") instead of +[Hershy](/title/Hershy "Hershy") 's chocolate. The chocolate used to +make the non- [U.S.](/title/U.S. "U.S.") version of the Kit Kat is the +exact same recipe as the chocolate found in [Nestle +Crunch](/title/Nestle+Crunch "Nestle Crunch") . Surprisingly, the +non-U.S. Kit Kats tastes strangely similar to Nestle Crunch (the +chocolate is the same, and the little [rice +crispies](/title/rice+crispies "rice crispies") have pretty much the +same flavor as the Kit Kat [wafer](/title/wafer "wafer") ). +If you live near [Half Moon Bay](/title/Half+Moon+Bay "Half Moon Bay"), +[California](/title/California "California"), I found a little store off +main street there named [The Village +Store](/title/The+Village+Store "The Village Store"). It imports little +treats from England. One of which is the Nestle Kit Kat. So, if you are +in the area, you can pick one up there. diff --git a/_stories/2002/9621011.md b/_stories/2002/9621011.md index 58cd86f..4a360bc 100644 --- a/_stories/2002/9621011.md +++ b/_stories/2002/9621011.md @@ -19,7 +19,277 @@ _tags: objectID: '9621011' --- -[Source](https://www.susanblackmore.co.uk/journalism/the-grand-illusion-why-consciousness-exists-only-when-you-look-for-it/ "Permalink to ") +**The Grand Illusion:** +**Why consciousness exists only when you look for it** +New Scientist, 22 June 2002, p 26-29 +“The last great mystery of science”; “the most baffling problem in the +science of the mind”; this is how scientists talk about consciousness, +but what if our conscious experience is all a grand illusion? +Like most people, I used to think of my conscious life as like a stream +of experiences, passing through my mind, one after another. But now I’m +starting to wonder, is consciousness really like this? Could this +apparently innocent assumption be the reason we find consciousness so +baffling? + +Different strands of research on the senses over the past decade suggest +that the brave cognitive scientists, psychologists and neuroscientists +who dare to tackle the problem of consciousness are chasing after the +wrong thing. If consciousness seems to be a continuous stream of rich +and detailed sights, sounds, feelings and thoughts, then I suggest this +is the illusion. + +First we must be clear what is meant by the term “illusion”. To say that +consciousness is an illusion is not to say that it doesn’t exist, but +that it is not what it seems to be―more like a mirage or a visual +illusion. And if consciousness is not what it seems, no wonder it’s +proving such a mystery. + +For the proposal “It’s all an illusion” even to be worth considering, +the problem has to be serious. And it is. We can’t even begin to explain +consciousness. Take this magazine in front of your eyes. Right now, you +are presumably having a conscious experience of seeing the paper, the +words, and the pictures. The way you see the page is unique to you, and +no one else can know exactly what it is like for you. This is how +consciousness is defined: it is your own subjective experience. + +But how do you get from a magazine composed of atoms and molecules, to +your experience of seeing it? Real, physical objects and private +experiences are such completely different kinds of thing. How can one be +related to the other? David Chalmers, of the University of Tucson, +Arizona, calls it the “Hard Problem”. How can the firing of brain cells +produce subjective experience? It seems like magic; water into wine. + +If you are not yet feeling perplexed (in which case I am not doing my +job properly), consider another problem. It seems that most of what goes +on in the brain is not conscious. For example, we can consciously hear a +song on the car radio, while we are not necessarily conscious of all the +things we do as we’re driving. This leads us to make a fundamental +distinction: contrasting conscious brain processes with unconscious +ones. But no one can explain what the difference really is. Is there a +special place in the brain where unconscious things are made conscious? +Are some brain cells endowed with an extra magic something that makes +what goes on in them subjective? This doesn’t make sense. Yet most +theories of consciousness assume that there must be such a difference, +and then get stuck trying to explain or investigate it. + +For example, in the currently popular “Global Workspace” theory, Bernard +Baars, of the Wright Institute in Berkeley, California, equates the +contents of consciousness with the contents of working memory. But how +does being “in” memory turn electrical impulses into personal +experiences? + +Another popular line of research is to search for the “neural +correlates” of consciousness. Nobel Laureate, Francis Crick, wants to +pin down the brain activity that corresponds to “the vivid picture of +the world we see in front of our eyes”. And Oxford pharmacologist, Susan +Greenfield, is looking for “the particular physical state of the brain +that always accompanies a subjective feeling” (New Scientist, 2 Feb, p +30). These researchers are not alone in their search. But their attempts +all founder on exactly the same mystery―how can some kinds of brain +activity be “in” the conscious stream, while others are not? I can’t see +what this difference could possibly be. + +Could the problem be so serious that we need to start again at the very +beginning? Could it be that, after all, there is no stream of +consciousness; no movie in the brain; no picture of the world we see in +front of our eyes? Could all this be just a grand illusion? + +You might want to protest. You may be absolutely sure that you do have +such a stream of conscious experiences. But perhaps you have noticed +this intriguing little oddity. Imagine you are reading this magazine +when suddenly you realise that the clock is striking. You hadn’t noticed +it before, but now that you have, you know that the clock has struck +four times already, and you can go on counting. What is happening here? +Were the first three “dongs” really unconscious and have now been pulled +out of memory and put in the stream of consciousness? If so were the +contents of the stream changed retrospectively to seem as though you +heard them at the time? Or what? You might think up some other +elaborations to make sense of it but they are unlikely to be either +simple or convincing. + +A similar problem is apparent with listening to speech. You need to hear +several syllables before the meaning of a sentence becomes unambiguous. +So what was in the stream of consciousness after one syllable? Did it +switch from gobbledegook to words half way through? It doesn’t feel like +that. It feels as though you heard a meaningful sentence as it went +along. But that is impossible. + +#### The running tap of time + +Consciousness also does funny things with time. A good example is the +“cutaneous rabbit”. If a person’s arm is tapped rapidly, say five +times at the wrist, then twice near the elbow and finally three times on +the upper arm, they report not a series of separate taps coming in +groups, but a continuous series moving upwards―as though a little +creature were running up their arm. We might ask how taps two to four +came to be experienced some way up the forearm when the next tap in the +series had not happened yet. How did the brain know where the next tap +was going to fall? + +You might try to explain it by saying that the stream of consciousness +lags a little behind, just in case more taps are coming. Or perhaps, +when the elbow tap comes, the brain runs back in time and changes the +contents of consciousness. If so, what was really in consciousness when +the third tap happened? The problem arises only if we think that things +must always be either “in” or “out” of consciousness. Perhaps, if this +apparently natural distinction is causing so much trouble, we should +abandon it. + +Even deeper troubles threaten our sense of conscious vision. You might +be utterly convinced that right now you’re seeing a vivid and detailed +picture of the world in front of your eyes, and no one can tell you +otherwise. Consider, then, a few experiments. + +The most challenging are studies of “change blindness” (New Scientist, +18 Nov 2000, p 28). Imagine you are asked to look at the left hand +picture in the +[illustration](https://www.susanblackmore.co.uk/journalism/change-blindness/) +below. Then at the exact moment you move your eyes (which you do several +times a second) the picture is swapped for the one on the right. Would +you notice the difference? Most people assume that they would. But +they’d be wrong. When our eyes are still we detect changes easily, but +when a change happens during an eye movement or a blink we are change +blind. + +Another way to reveal change blindness is to present the two pictures +one after the other repeatedly on a computer screen with flashes of grey +in between (for an example see +http://nivea.psycho.univ-paris5.fr/ASSChtml/kayakflick.gif). It can take +people many minutes to detect even a large object that changes colour, +or one that disappears altogether, even if it’s right in the middle of +the picture. + +What do these odd findings mean? At the very least they challenge the +textbook description that vision is a process of building up +representations in our heads of the world around us. The idea is that as +we move our eyes about, we build up an even better picture, and this +picture is what we consciously see. But these experiments show that this +way of thinking about vision has to be false. If we had such a picture +in our heads we would surely notice that something had changed, yet we +don’t. We jump to the conclusion that we’re seeing a continuous, +detailed and rich picture. But this is an illusion. + +Researchers differ in how far they think the illusion goes. +Psychologists Daniel Simons of Harvard University and Daniel Levin of +Kent State University, Ohio, suggest that during each visual fixation +our brain builds a fleeting representation of the scene. It then +extracts the gist and throws away all the details. This gives us the +feeling of continuity and richness without too much overload. + +Ronald Rensink of the University of British Columbia in Vancouver, goes +a little further and claims that we never form representations of the +whole scene at all, not even during fixations. Instead we construct what +he calls “virtual representations” of just the object we are paying +attention to. Nothing else is represented in our heads, but we get the +impression that everything is there because a new object can always be +made “just in time” whenever we look. + +Finally, our ordinary notions of seeing are more or less demolished by +psychologists Kevin O’Regan of the CNRS, the French national research +agency in Paris, and Alva Noë of the University of California, Santa +Cruz, who first described vision as a grand illusion. They argue that we +don’t need internal representations at all because the world is always +there to be referred to. According to their “sensorimotor theory of +vision” seeing is not about building pictures of the world in our heads, +it’s about what you are doing. Seeing is a way of interacting with the +world, a kind of action. What remains between eye movements is not a +picture of the world but the information needed for further exploration. +The theory is dramatically different from existing theories of +perception. + +It’s not clear who’s right. Perhaps all these theories are off the mark, +but there is no doubt about the basic phenomenon and its main +implication. Searching for the neural correlates of the detailed, +picture in our heads is doomed because there is no such picture. + +This leaves another problem. If we have no picture, how can we act on +the things we see? This question may seem reasonable but it hides +another false assumption―that we have to see consciously in order to +act. We need only think of the tennis player who returns a serve before +consciously seeing it, to realise that this is false, but the situation +is odder than this. We probably have several separate visual systems +that do their jobs somewhat independently, rather than one single one +that produces a unified visual world. + +David Milner of the University of St Andrews, and Melvyn Goodale of the +University of Western Ontario, argue that there is one system for fast +visuomotor control and a slower system for perceiving objects. Much of +their evidence comes from patients with brain damage, such as D.F. who +has a condition known as visual form agnosia. She cannot recognise +objects by sight, name simple line drawings, or recognise or copy +letters, even though she produces letters correctly from dictation and +can recognise objects by touch. She can also reach out and grasp +everyday objects (objects that she cannot recognise) with remarkable +accuracy. D.F. seems to have a visual system that guides her actions but +her perception system is damaged. + +In a revealing experiment D.F. was shown a slot set randomly at +different angles. (Trends in Neurosciences, vol 15 p 20, 1992). She +could not consciously see the orientation of the slot, and could not +draw it or adjust a line to the same angle. But when given a piece of +card she could quickly and accurately line it up and post it straight +through. Experiments with normal volunteers have shown similar kinds of +dissociation, suggesting that we all have at least two separate vision +systems. + +Perhaps the most obvious conclusion is that the slow perceptual system +is conscious and the fast action system is unconscious. But then the old +mystery is back. We would have to explain the difference between +conscious and unconscious systems. Is there a magic ingredient in one? +Does neural information turn into subjective experiences just because it +is processed more slowly? + +Perhaps the answer here is to admit that there is no stream of conscious +experiences on which we act. Instead, at any time a whole lot of +different things are going on in our brain at once. None of these things +is either “in” or “out” of consciousness but every so often, something +happens to create what seems to have been a unified conscious stream; an +illusion of richness and continuity. + +It sounds bizarre, but try to catch yourself not being conscious. More +than a hundred years ago the psychologist William James likened +introspective analysis to “trying to turn up the gas quickly enough to +see how the darkness looks.” The modern equivalent is looking in the +fridge to see whether the light is always on. However quickly you open +the door, you can never catch it out. The same is true of consciousness. +Whenever you ask yourself, “Am I conscious now?” you always are. + +But perhaps there is only something there when you ask. Maybe each time +you probe, a retrospective story is concocted about what was in the +stream of consciousness a moment before, together with a “self” who was +apparently experiencing it. Of course there was neither a conscious self +nor a stream, but it now seems as though there was. + +Perhaps a new story is concocted whenever you bother to look. When we +ask ourselves about it, it would seem as though there’s a stream of +consciousness going on. When we don’t bother to ask, or to look, it +doesn’t, but then we don’t notice so it doesn’t matter. + +Admitting that it’s all an illusion does not solve the problem of +consciousness but changes it completely. Instead of asking how neural +impulses turn into conscious experiences, we must ask how the grand +illusion gets constructed. This will prove no easy task, but unlike +solving the Hard Problem it may at least be possible. + +**Susan Blackmore is a psychologist, writer and lecturer based in +Bristol.** + +**Further Reading** + +Consciousness Explained by Daniel Dennett, Penguin (1993) + +O’Regan and Noë’s ideas will soon be debated in a special issue of +Behavioral and Brain Sciences. + +N.B. The current issue of Journal of Consciousness Studies is devoted to +the Grand Illusion.  See + +This will also be published as a book Is the Visual World a Grand +Illusion? Ed. Alva Noë, Imprint Academic, 2002. + +Watch me talking about [the grand +illusion](http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=6958873142520847424&ei=p9E3Ss_UN4Xt-AaKx5Fz&q=sue+blackmore+2005+skeptics&hl=en&client=firefox-a) +at the Skeptics’ Conference 2005 diff --git a/_stories/2002/9797936.md b/_stories/2002/9797936.md deleted file mode 100644 index 4133247..0000000 --- a/_stories/2002/9797936.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,25 +0,0 @@ ---- -created_at: '2015-06-29T13:35:46.000Z' -title: Why Wolfram Mathematica did not use Lisp (2002) -url: http://www.ymeme.com/why-wolfram-(mathematica)-did-not-use-lisp.html -author: gearhart -points: 166 -story_text: -comment_text: -num_comments: 140 -story_id: -story_title: -story_url: -parent_id: -created_at_i: 1435584946 -_tags: -- story -- author_gearhart -- story_9797936 -objectID: '9797936' - ---- -[Source](http://www.ymeme.com/why-wolfram-(mathematica)-did-not-use-lisp.html "Permalink to ") - - - diff --git a/_stories/2003/10549191.md b/_stories/2003/10549191.md index 8ec3e61..c1c79f4 100644 --- a/_stories/2003/10549191.md +++ b/_stories/2003/10549191.md @@ -19,7 +19,267 @@ _tags: objectID: '10549191' --- -[Source](https://www.forbes.com/2003/11/19/1119aviation.html "Permalink to ") +The layoff was caused by the brothers' obsession with secrecy. They had +a patent pending on the airplane's control technique, which enabled it +to climb, dive and turn, but even after the patent was granted in May +1906, they were unwilling to show the machine to anyone who might steal +its design, since enforcing their patent rights could be a long, +laborious, and very expensive process. Having conquered flight, they +wanted to cash out before going any further. +Chanute urged the brothers to try for some of the aviation prizes that +were being offered for flights of specified times and distances, which +would have established their dominance in the public's mind. They +refused. "We would have to expose our machine more or less, and that +might interfere with the sale of our secrets," they wrote to a friend in +January 1906. "We appreciate the honor and the prestige that would come +with the winning of a prize...but we can hardly afford at the present +time to jeopardize our other interests in doing it." +Recognizing the airplane's potential military applications, the Wrights +offered to sign a manufacturing contract with the U.S. War Department, +but they presented the deal in such a clumsy and stubborn way that there +was no chance it would be accepted. They refused to show the airplane to +any prospective buyer without a sizable deposit, and when pressed for +proof that it could fly, they furnished the names of Dayton residents +who had happened to see their Huffman Prairie tests. The military +representatives, having already dealt with countless aircraft +visionaries (including Samuel P. Langley of the Smithsonian, who spent +$50,000 of War Department funds on his unsuccessful experiments), +understandably refused to hand over any money until they saw the plane, +or at least a photograph of it. +The Wrights approached the British, who at first were greatly interested +but later on decided to support their own airplane research. +Negotiations with France and Germany dragged on as the various officials +and purchasing consortia kept changing their contractual demands. The +Wrights refused to budge on the price and gave technical reasons why the +aircraft's specifications couldn't be changed. Instead of demonstrating +the plane's capabilities for prospective buyers, they just talked about +them and insisted on being taken at their word. Afterward, if the plane +failed to perform as promised, they would refund the buyer's money. +(With the Europeans, this cautious approach was justified, since almost +every industrial country was trying to build its own aviation industry, +and patent rights would have been much harder to enforce abroad.) + +As the negotiations spun out fruitlessly, the Wrights' sales prospects +started to dim. Yet they weren't worried about competition. Wilbur wrote +to Chanute in late 1906, "...we are convinced that no one will be able +to develop a practical flyer within five years." So they sat and waited. + +Meanwhile, the competition began to heat up. In October 1906 the +Brazilian Alberto Santos-Dumont flew more than 160 feet in France, +earning the public acclaim the Wrights had never achieved. Newspaper +articles made much of the fact that Santos-Dumont had not flown in +secret. + +Wilbur Wright dismissed the feat in a letter to Chanute: "From our +knowledge...he has only jumped...When someone goes over three hundred +feet and lands safely in a wind of seven or eight miles it will then be +important for us to do something. So far we see no indication that it +will be done for several years yet." In fact Santos-Dumont flew more +than 700 feet a month later, winning two prizes for the first flight +longer than 100 meters, but the Wrights still refused to take him +seriously. In their shop they worked on a new engine design, but instead +of demonstrating it in flight, they turned their backs on public events +and continued to set their sights on military sales. + +It was a bad time to walk away from aviation, for in 1907 flying fever +was beginning to grip the globe. Enthusiasts established competitions +and offered prizes. The Wrights could easily have snapped up every honor +available, but instead France dominated aviation development, as the +pilots Charles and Gabriel Voisin and Louis Blériot managed increasingly +longer "jumps." In January 1908 Henri Farman was awarded the +Deutsch-Archdeacon Grand Prix for flying a one-kilometer circle over a +field near Paris two months earlier. Meanwhile, the Wrights continued to +shift their focus from mechanical innovation--their strength--to sales. + +As Wilbur told an associate in November 1907, "I want the business built +up so as to get the greatest amount of money with as little work. Sell +few machines at a big profit, so that we can close out..." None of the +European deals came together, so the brothers returned to America late +in 1907. + +They put the finishing touches on their new engine and began a fresh +push to sell planes to the United States government. Now, two years and +many public French flights later, U.S. officials took the Wrights' +claims more seriously. In February 1908 the Army accepted their bid to +build one airplane, the Model A, at the Wrights' rock-bottom price of +$25,000. At the same time, the French government also agreed to buy +manufacturing rights to the Wright patents. The brothers' strategy +finally seemed to be paying off, and they looked forward to a busy +spring. + +With contracts in hand, the Wrights planned to fly only for their +buyers. They spent a month at Kitty Hawk rebuilding and re-rigging their +plane, and in May Orville flew for the first time in two and a half +years. A few reporters managed to hide in the woods and got the story. +The flights were international news. + +Now that the cat was out of the bag, a flurry of public flights +followed--Orville in America and Wilbur in Europe. They left competitors +in awe and full of apologies for doubting their genius. The French had +been snippy about the Wrights, questioning their achievements and +holding up their own innovators as the true pioneers of aviation. Now +they were apologetic. "Not one of the former detractors of the Wrights +dare question, today, the previous experiments of the men who were truly +the first to fly," reported one French paper. + +The Wrights had gotten back in business in the nick of time, or so it +seemed, for within the next few years a handful of North American +aircraft builders would take to the air as well. The Aerial Experiment +Association, formed by Alexander Graham Bell and others, was one. Out of +that group came the man over whom the Wright brothers would obsess until +their deaths: Glenn Curtiss. + +On the Fourth of July 1908, Curtiss piloted his speedy June Bug biplane +more than one kilometer to win the $2,500 Scientific American Trophy and +national acclaim. Wilbur Wright had flown farther in 1905, but with few +witnesses. Now he refused to compete against a man who he believed was +stealing his ideas. It was a fatal mistake. Curtiss realized the value +of public opinion and would use it against the Wrights until they left +the business. He also built beautiful and well-designed airplanes that +quickly surpassed the Wright models. + +Curtiss saw, as would all future aeronautical engineers, that the +Wrights' wing-warping system, or some variation on it, was the key to +controlling a craft laterally. The Wrights threatened to sue anyone who +incorporated that design feature into an airplane, yet no airplane could +fly without it. The system involved changing the shape of the entire +wing to alter its aerodynamic qualities. Curtiss got around the patent +by using ailerons instead--separate, movable surfaces at the back of +each wing, like those found on today's airplanes. Curtiss's system was +much easier to use, yet the Wrights considered any form of +three-dimensional control to fall under their patent, and they +threatened a lawsuit. Curtiss ignored them. + +In the meantime, the aviation industry was coming alive with talented +competitors. In July 1909 Blériot crossed the English Channel in his +innovative monoplane. In August Curtiss won the Bennett Trophy by +setting a speed record of 47 miles per hour. He also sold the first +consumer airplane, for just $5,000, compared with the Wrights' asking +price of $25,000. + +The competitions had become sales tools. The public bought the planes +they saw at the races, not the high-priced Wright machine that few had +ever seen fly. The Army liked the Wrights' plane, but so what? The +future of aviation was being conceived in the public imagination and in +the shops of a handful of eager inventors, not on military bases. At the +1909 flying meet in Rheims, France, where Curtiss won the Bennett +Trophy, the skies were filled with 23 different airplanes, which broke +all of the Wrights' speed and altitude records. The brothers had +declined to enter the competition, supposedly on the grounds that they +didn't compete against mere imitators. But the truth was that their +airplane was no longer the industry standard. As they had feared all +along, aviation enthusiasts had understood, copied and improved on it. + +The Wrights chose not to fight back with technical innovations. Instead, +in August 1909 they turned to the courts, slapping Curtiss with a +long-threatened patent-infringement lawsuit. The litigation stretched +out for eight years of trials and appeals, slowly suffocating the +Wrights' company. + +In the brothers' partnership, Wilbur had always been the idea man, with +Orville fine-tuning and executing his plans. As the courtroom battles +dragged on, Wilbur's knowledge made him the key expert witness. He +testified tirelessly about aeronautical design issues, explaining them +in a clear, easily understood manner. His skill on the witness stand +meant that his time at the company was limited. Orville was busy with +production, so design innovation languished. + +For example, the complicated control system, which required the pilot to +manipulate three different levers with two hands, was never modified. By +contrast, Curtiss airplanes had one integrated control wheel and a +system of straps attached to the pilot's upper body that controlled +cables to move the ailerons, while Blériot's planes had the +stick-and-rudder arrangement that is standard in today's fighter jets. +According to Gen. Henry ("Hap") Arnold, who learned to fly at a Wright +school, "No two types of controls were the same in those days, and from +the student's point of view the Wright system was the most difficult." + +By the spring of 1914 the Curtiss Aeroplane Company had surpassed the +Wrights and grown into the largest aircraft manufacturer in the United +States. Wilbur was exhausted by the patent wars and aviation in general. +He wrote to a friend, "We have been compelled to spend our time on +business matters...during the past five years. When we think what we +might have accomplished if we had been able to devote this time to +experiments, we feel very sad, but it is always easier to deal with +things than with men, and no one can direct his life entirely as he +would choose." + +In April, Wilbur was taken ill during a trip to Boston. It turned out to +be typhoid fever, and he was gone within a month. The world mourned his +loss, with international newspaper coverage lauding him as "the man who +made flying possible" and "inventor of the airplane." Twenty-five +thousand people attended the viewing before his funeral. After the death +of his brother, Orville found himself at the helm of a foundering +company. + +By 1913 the Wright Model C was obsolete--slow, unstable and hard to +maneuver, with a strong tendency to nose up and stall. But with the +patent wars still in progress, Orville was reluctant to improve on the +airplane's basic design. That would have required adopting features from +the very men he and Wilbur had accused of stealing. Pride compelled +Orville to stick close to the original plan. + +Unfortunately, it was becoming deadly. Nine people died in Wright Model +B and C crashes between mid-1912 and mid-1913. Orville's answer was to +complete his work on the first automatic pilot, a pendulum-driven system +that stabilized the aircraft. It was a revolutionary technology that +finally won for Orville the prestigious Collier Trophy, which Curtiss +had captured the previous two years. However, it was eclipsed within +months by Lawrence Sperry's gyroscope-driven system. + +The dawn of 1914 brought good news, as the U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals +upheld the Wrights' patent suit, agreeing that Curtiss had infringed. +This would have been the perfect time to shut down the competition by +re-establishing the Wright monopoly. But Orville did not make a move, as +the company manager Grover Loening lamented later: "In no time +Curtiss...could have been closed down or bought up, and we would have +seen a totally different development of flying starting here and +spreading to Europe exactly as the telephone monopoly did...At any rate, +it did not happen because of one man--Orville Wright. With the winning +of the suit, his revenge on Curtiss seemed satisfied, and all he wanted +was...royalties from everyone." Orville felt vindicated. Any company +building and selling airplanes would have to pay the Wright Company 20% +of its receipts. + +By this point Orville had also realized his limitations as a manager. He +had no desire to oversee a team of research-and-development engineers, +such as Curtiss had built. He hated running board meetings. + +In October 1915 Orville sold the Wright Company to a group of investors +for a reported $1.5 million. A year later Wright was merged with the +Glenn L. Martin Company to become the Wright-Martin Company. By then, 12 +years after he had made the world's first controlled, powered +heavier-than-air flight, Orville had separated himself from the business +and was spending his time tinkering quietly in his Dayton home. + +It wasn't until after Orville left that the patent wars were finally +settled. In early 1917 Curtiss began threatening to sue other aircraft +manufacturers to protect his own growing collection of patents. At the +urging of the U.S. government after its entry into World War I, a +consortium of aviation companies banded together and brokered an +agreement by which all members could pay a fee to license the patented +technology. In return, Curtiss and Wright-Martin each received two +million dollars in a one-time settlement and agreed to lay the patent +issue to rest. + +Without Orville running things, the Wright name eventually regained its +luster, but not as a builder of airplanes, though the company did put +together a few prototypes for the U.S. Navy in the early 1920s. The +Wright-Martin Company, which was reorganized in 1919 as the Wright +Aeronautical Company, became a world leader in aircraft-engine design, +manufacturing the Wright Whirlwind, which was renowned for its +reliability. Charles Lindbergh put one in his Ryan for his transatlantic +flight. + +Two years after Lindbergh, in 1929, the Wright name became even more +potent in aviation manufacturing. Wright Aeronautical merged with +Curtiss Aeroplane and Motor, becoming Curtiss-Wright . Twenty years +after the Wrights sold their first airplane, struggling into business +while fighting their debilitating patent wars, the company they had +started finally became the second-largest aircraft and engine +manufacturer in the nation (after the United Aircraft and Transport +Corporation). But it had had to merge with its archenemy, Curtiss, to +achieve this stature. And put its name second. diff --git a/_stories/2003/1219065.md b/_stories/2003/1219065.md index fb98242..94aef0f 100644 --- a/_stories/2003/1219065.md +++ b/_stories/2003/1219065.md @@ -19,7 +19,428 @@ _tags: objectID: '1219065' --- -[Source](https://www.joelonsoftware.com/articles/Unicode.html "Permalink to ") +Ever wonder about that mysterious Content-Type tag? You know, the one +you’re supposed to put in HTML and you never quite know what it should +be? +Did you ever get an email from your friends in Bulgaria with the subject +line “???? ?????? ??? +????”? +![](https://i2.wp.com/www.joelonsoftware.com/wp-content/uploads/2003/10/ibm.jpg?resize=150%2C143&ssl=1)I’ve +been dismayed to discover just how many software developers aren’t +really completely up to speed on the mysterious world of character sets, +encodings, Unicode, all that stuff. A couple of years ago, a beta tester +for [FogBUGZ](http://www.fogcreek.com/FogBUGZ) was wondering whether it +could handle incoming email in Japanese. Japanese? They have email in +Japanese? I had no idea. When I looked closely at the commercial ActiveX +control we were using to parse MIME email messages, we discovered it was +doing exactly the wrong thing with character sets, so we actually had to +write heroic code to undo the wrong conversion it had done and redo it +correctly. When I looked into another commercial library, it, too, had a +completely broken character code implementation. I corresponded with the +developer of that package and he sort of thought they “couldn’t do +anything about it.” Like many programmers, he just wished it would all +blow over somehow. +But it won’t. When I discovered that the popular web development tool +PHP has almost [complete ignorance of character encoding +issues](http://ca3.php.net/manual/en/language.types.string.php), +blithely using 8 bits for characters, making it darn near impossible to +develop good international web applications, I thought, enough is +enough. + +So I have an announcement to make: if you are a programmer working in +2003 and you don’t know the basics of characters, character sets, +encodings, and Unicode, and I catch you, I’m going to punish you by +making you peel onions for 6 months in a submarine. I swear I will. + +And one more thing: + +**IT’S NOT THAT HARD.** + +In this article I’ll fill you in on exactly what every working +programmer should know. All that stuff about “plain text = ascii = +characters are 8 bits” is not only wrong, it’s hopelessly wrong, and if +you’re still programming that way, you’re not much better than a medical +doctor who doesn’t believe in germs. Please do not write another line of +code until you finish reading this article. + +Before I get started, I should warn you that if you are one of those +rare people who knows about internationalization, you are going to find +my entire discussion a little bit oversimplified. I’m really just trying +to set a minimum bar here so that everyone can understand what’s going +on and can write code that has a hope of working with text in any +language other than the subset of English that doesn’t include words +with accents. And I should warn you that character handling is only a +tiny portion of what it takes to create software that works +internationally, but I can only write about one thing at a time so today +it’s character sets. + +**A Historical Perspective** + +The easiest way to understand this stuff is to go chronologically. + +You probably think I’m going to talk about very old character sets like +EBCDIC here. Well, I won’t. EBCDIC is not relevant to your life. We +don’t have to go that far back in time. + +![ASCII +table](https://i1.wp.com/www.joelonsoftware.com/wp-content/uploads/2003/10/ascii.png?resize=274%2C146&ssl=1)Back +in the semi-olden days, when Unix was being invented and K\&R were +writing [The C Programming +Language](http://cm.bell-labs.com/cm/cs/cbook/), everything was very +simple. EBCDIC was on its way out. The only characters that mattered +were good old unaccented English letters, and we had a code for them +called [ASCII](http://www.robelle.com/library/smugbook/ascii.html) which +was able to represent every character using a number between 32 and 127. +Space was 32, the letter “A” was 65, etc. This could conveniently be +stored in 7 bits. Most computers in those days were using 8-bit bytes, +so not only could you store every possible ASCII character, but you had +a whole bit to spare, which, if you were wicked, you could use for your +own devious purposes: the dim bulbs at WordStar actually turned on the +high bit to indicate the last letter in a word, condemning WordStar to +English text only. Codes below 32 were called unprintable and were used +for cussing. Just kidding. They were used for control characters, like 7 +which made your computer beep and 12 which caused the current page of +paper to go flying out of the printer and a new one to be fed in. + +And all was good, assuming you were an English +speaker. + +![](https://i0.wp.com/www.joelonsoftware.com/wp-content/uploads/2003/10/oem.png?resize=271%2C209&ssl=1)Because +bytes have room for up to eight bits, lots of people got to thinking, +“gosh, we can use the codes 128-255 for our own purposes.” The trouble +was, lots of people had this idea at the same time, and they had their +own ideas of what should go where in the space from 128 to 255. The +IBM-PC had something that came to be known as the OEM character set +which provided some accented characters for European languages and [a +bunch of line drawing +characters](http://www.jimprice.com/ascii-dos.gif)… horizontal bars, +vertical bars, horizontal bars with little dingle-dangles dangling off +the right side, etc., and you could use these line drawing characters to +make spiffy boxes and lines on the screen, which you can still see +running on the 8088 computer at your dry cleaners’. In fact  as soon as +people started buying PCs outside of America all kinds of different OEM +character sets were dreamed up, which all used the top 128 characters +for their own purposes. For example on some PCs the character code 130 +would display as é, but on computers sold in Israel it was the Hebrew +letter Gimel +(![ג](https://i0.wp.com/www.joelonsoftware.com/wp-content/uploads/2003/10/gimel.png?resize=5%2C9&ssl=1)), +so when Americans would send their résumés to Israel they would arrive +as +r![ג](https://i0.wp.com/www.joelonsoftware.com/wp-content/uploads/2003/10/gimel.png?resize=5%2C9&ssl=1)sum![ג](https://i0.wp.com/www.joelonsoftware.com/wp-content/uploads/2003/10/gimel.png?resize=5%2C9&ssl=1)s. +In many cases, such as Russian, there were lots of different ideas of +what to do with the upper-128 characters, so you couldn’t even reliably +interchange Russian documents. + +Eventually this OEM free-for-all got codified in the ANSI standard. In +the ANSI standard, everybody agreed on what to do below 128, which was +pretty much the same as ASCII, but there were lots of different ways to +handle the characters from 128 and on up, depending on where you lived. +These different systems were called [code +pages](http://www.i18nguy.com/unicode/codepages.html#msftdos). So for +example in Israel DOS used a code page called 862, while Greek users +used 737. They were the same below 128 but different from 128 up, where +all the funny letters resided. The national versions of MS-DOS had +dozens of these code pages, handling everything from English to +Icelandic and they even had a few “multilingual” code pages that could +do Esperanto and Galician on the same computer\! Wow\! But getting, say, +Hebrew and Greek on the same computer was a complete impossibility +unless you wrote your own custom program that displayed everything using +bitmapped graphics, because Hebrew and Greek required different code +pages with different interpretations of the high numbers. + +Meanwhile, in Asia, even more crazy things were going on to take into +account the fact that Asian alphabets have thousands of letters, which +were never going to fit into 8 bits. This was usually solved by the +messy system called DBCS, the “double byte character set” in which some +letters were stored in one byte and others took two. It was easy to move +forward in a string, but dang near impossible to move backwards. +Programmers were encouraged not to use s++ and s– to move backwards and +forwards, but instead to call functions such as Windows’ AnsiNext and +AnsiPrev which knew how to deal with the whole mess. + +But still, most people just pretended that a byte was a character and a +character was 8 bits and as long as you never moved a string from one +computer to another, or spoke more than one language, it would sort of +always work. But of course, as soon as the Internet happened, it became +quite commonplace to move strings from one computer to another, and the +whole mess came tumbling down. Luckily, Unicode had been invented. + +**Unicode** + +Unicode was a brave effort to create a single character set that +included every reasonable writing system on the planet and some +make-believe ones like Klingon, too. Some people are under the +misconception that Unicode is simply a 16-bit code where each character +takes 16 bits and therefore there are 65,536 possible characters. **This +is not, actually, correct.** It is the single most common myth about +Unicode, so if you thought that, don’t feel bad. + +In fact, Unicode has a different way of thinking about characters, and +you have to understand the Unicode way of thinking of things or nothing +will make sense. + +Until now, we’ve assumed that a letter maps to some bits which you can +store on disk or in memory: + +A -\> 0100 0001 + +In Unicode, a letter maps to something called a code point which is +still just a theoretical concept. How that code point is represented in +memory or on disk is a whole nuther story. + +In Unicode, the letter A is a platonic ideal. It’s just floating in +heaven: + +A + +This platonic A is different than B, and different from a, but the same +as A and ***A*** and A. The idea that A in a Times New Roman font is the +same character as the A in a Helvetica font, but different from “a” in +lower case, does not seem very controversial, but in some languages just +figuring out what a letter is can cause controversy. Is the German +letter ß a real letter or just a fancy way of writing ss? If a letter’s +shape changes at the end of the word, is that a different letter? Hebrew +says yes, Arabic says no. Anyway, the smart people at the Unicode +consortium have been figuring this out for the last decade or so, +accompanied by a great deal of highly political debate, and you don’t +have to worry about it. They’ve figured it all out already. + +Every platonic letter in every alphabet is assigned a magic number by +the Unicode consortium which is written like this: **U+0639**.  This +magic number is called a code point. The U+ means “Unicode” and the +numbers are hexadecimal. **U+0639** is the Arabic letter Ain. The +English letter A would be **U+0041**. You can find them all using the +**charmap** utility on Windows 2000/XP or visiting [the Unicode web +site](http://www.unicode.org/). + +There is no real limit on the number of letters that Unicode can define +and in fact they have gone beyond 65,536 so not every unicode letter can +really be squeezed into two bytes, but that was a myth anyway. + +OK, so say we have a string: + +**Hello** + +which, in Unicode, corresponds to these five code points: + +U+0048 U+0065 U+006C U+006C U+006F. + +Just a bunch of code points. Numbers, really. We haven’t yet said +anything about how to store this in memory or represent it in an email +message. + +**Encodings** + +That’s where encodings come in. + +The earliest idea for Unicode encoding, which led to the myth about the +two bytes, was, hey, let’s just store those numbers in two bytes each. +So Hello becomes + +00 48 00 65 00 6C 00 6C 00 6F + +Right? Not so fast\! Couldn’t it also be: + +48 00 65 00 6C 00 6C 00 6F 00 ? + +Well, technically, yes, I do believe it could, and, in fact, early +implementors wanted to be able to store their Unicode code points in +high-endian or low-endian mode, whichever their particular CPU was +fastest at, and lo, it was evening and it was morning and there were +already two ways to store Unicode. So the people were forced to come up +with the bizarre convention of storing a FE FF at the beginning of every +Unicode string; this is called a [Unicode Byte Order +Mark](http://msdn.microsoft.com/library/default.asp?url=/library/en-us/intl/unicode_42jv.asp) +and if you are swapping your high and low bytes it will look like a FF +FE and the person reading your string will know that they have to swap +every other byte. Phew. Not every Unicode string in the wild has a byte +order mark at the +beginning. + +![](https://i2.wp.com/www.joelonsoftware.com/wp-content/uploads/2003/10/hummers.jpg?resize=390%2C61&ssl=1) + +For a while it seemed like that might be good enough, but programmers +were complaining. “Look at all those zeros\!” they said, since they were +Americans and they were looking at English text which rarely used code +points above U+00FF. Also they were liberal hippies in California who +wanted to conserve (sneer). If they were Texans they wouldn’t have +minded guzzling twice the number of bytes. But those Californian wimps +couldn’t bear the idea of doubling the amount of storage it took for +strings, and anyway, there were already all these doggone documents out +there using various ANSI and DBCS character sets and who’s going to +convert them all? Moi? For this reason alone most people decided to +ignore Unicode for several years and in the meantime things got worse. + +Thus was +[invented](http://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/~mgk25/ucs/utf-8-history.txt) the +brilliant concept of [UTF-8](http://www.utf-8.com/). UTF-8 was another +system for storing your string of Unicode code points, those magic U+ +numbers, in memory using 8 bit bytes. In UTF-8, every code point from +0-127 is stored in a single byte. Only code points 128 and above are +stored using 2, 3, in fact, up to 6 bytes. + +![How UTF-8 +works](https://i1.wp.com/www.joelonsoftware.com/wp-content/uploads/2003/10/utf8.png?resize=400%2C63&ssl=1) + +This has the neat side effect that English text looks exactly the same +in UTF-8 as it did in ASCII, so Americans don’t even notice anything +wrong. Only the rest of the world has to jump through hoops. +Specifically, **Hello**, which was U+0048 U+0065 U+006C U+006C U+006F, +will be stored as 48 65 6C 6C 6F, which, behold\! is the same as it was +stored in ASCII, and ANSI, and every OEM character set on the planet. +Now, if you are so bold as to use accented letters or Greek letters or +Klingon letters, you’ll have to use several bytes to store a single code +point, but the Americans will never notice. (UTF-8 also has the nice +property that ignorant old string-processing code that wants to use a +single 0 byte as the null-terminator will not truncate strings). + +So far I’ve told you three ways of encoding Unicode. The traditional +store-it-in-two-byte methods are called UCS-2 (because it has two bytes) +or UTF-16 (because it has 16 bits), and you still have to figure out if +it’s high-endian UCS-2 or low-endian UCS-2. And there’s the popular new +UTF-8 [standard](http://www.zvon.org/tmRFC/RFC2279/Output/chapter2.html) +which has the nice property of also working respectably if you have the +happy coincidence of English text and braindead programs that are +completely unaware that there is anything other than ASCII. + +There are actually a bunch of other ways of encoding Unicode. There’s +something called UTF-7, which is a lot like UTF-8 but guarantees that +the high bit will always be zero, so that if you have to pass Unicode +through some kind of draconian police-state email system that thinks 7 +bits are quite enough, thank you it can still squeeze through unscathed. +There’s UCS-4, which stores each code point in 4 bytes, which has the +nice property that every single code point can be stored in the same +number of bytes, but, golly, even the Texans wouldn’t be so bold as to +waste that much memory. + +And in fact now that you’re thinking of things in terms of platonic +ideal letters which are represented by Unicode code points, those +unicode code points can be encoded in any old-school encoding scheme, +too\! For example, you could encode the Unicode string for Hello (U+0048 +U+0065 U+006C U+006C U+006F) in ASCII, or the old OEM Greek Encoding, or +the Hebrew ANSI Encoding, or any of several hundred encodings that have +been invented so far, with one catch: some of the letters might not show +up\! If there’s no equivalent for the Unicode code point you’re trying +to represent in the encoding you’re trying to represent it in, you +usually get a little question mark: ? or, if you’re really good, a box. +Which did you get? -\> � + +There are hundreds of traditional encodings which can only store some +code points correctly and change all the other code points into question +marks. Some popular encodings of English text are Windows-1252 (the +Windows 9x standard for Western European languages) +and [ISO-8859-1](http://www.htmlhelp.com/reference/charset/), aka +Latin-1 (also useful for any Western European language). But try to +store Russian or Hebrew letters in these encodings and you get a bunch +of question marks. UTF 7, 8, 16, and 32 all have the nice property of +being able to store any code point correctly. + +**The Single Most Important Fact About Encodings** + +If you completely forget everything I just explained, please remember +one extremely important fact. **It does not make sense to have a string +without knowing what encoding it uses**. You can no longer stick your +head in the sand and pretend that “plain” text is ASCII. + +**There Ain’t No Such Thing As Plain Text.** + +If you have a string, in memory, in a file, or in an email message, you +have to know what encoding it is in or you cannot interpret it or +display it to users correctly. + +Almost every stupid “my website looks like gibberish” or “she can’t read +my emails when I use accents” problem comes down to one naive programmer +who didn’t understand the simple fact that if you don’t tell me whether +a particular string is encoded using UTF-8 or ASCII or ISO 8859-1 (Latin +1) or Windows 1252 (Western European), you simply cannot display it +correctly or even figure out where it ends. There are over a hundred +encodings and above code point 127, all bets are off. + +How do we preserve this information about what encoding a string uses? +Well, there are standard ways to do this. For an email message, you are +expected to have a string in the header of the form + +> **Content-Type: text/plain; charset="UTF-8"** + +For a web page, the original idea was that the web server would return a +similar **Content-Type** http header along with the web page itself — +not in the HTML itself, but as one of the response headers that are sent +before the HTML page. + +This causes problems. Suppose you have a big web server with lots of +sites and hundreds of pages contributed by lots of people in lots of +different languages and all using whatever encoding their copy of +Microsoft FrontPage saw fit to generate. The web server itself wouldn’t +really know what encoding each file was written in, so it couldn’t send +the Content-Type header. + +It would be convenient if you could put the Content-Type of the HTML +file right in the HTML file itself, using some kind of special tag. Of +course this drove purists crazy… how can you read the HTML file until +you know what encoding it’s in?\! Luckily, almost every encoding in +common use does the same thing with characters between 32 and 127, so +you can always get this far on the HTML page without starting to use +funny letters: + +> **\ +> \ +> \** + +But that meta tag really has to be the very first thing in the \ +section because as soon as the web browser sees this tag it’s going to +stop parsing the page and start over after reinterpreting the whole page +using the encoding you specified. + +What do web browsers do if they don’t find any Content-Type, either in +the http headers or the meta tag? Internet Explorer actually does +something quite interesting: it tries to guess, based on the frequency +in which various bytes appear in typical text in typical encodings of +various languages, what language and encoding was used. Because the +various old 8 bit code pages tended to put their national letters in +different ranges between 128 and 255, and because every human language +has a different characteristic histogram of letter usage, this actually +has a chance of working. It’s truly weird, but it does seem to work +often enough that naïve web-page writers who never knew they needed a +Content-Type header look at their page in a web browser and it looks ok, +until one day, they write something that doesn’t exactly conform to the +letter-frequency-distribution of their native language, and Internet +Explorer decides it’s Korean and displays it thusly, proving, I think, +the point that Postel’s Law about being “conservative in what you emit +and liberal in what you accept” is quite frankly not a good engineering +principle. Anyway, what does the poor reader of this website, which was +written in Bulgarian but appears to be Korean (and not even cohesive +Korean), do? He uses the View | Encoding menu and tries a bunch of +different encodings (there are at least a dozen for Eastern European +languages) until the picture comes in clearer. If he knew to do that, +which most people +don’t. + +![](https://i0.wp.com/www.joelonsoftware.com/wp-content/uploads/2003/10/rose.jpg?resize=300%2C225&ssl=1) + +For the latest version of [CityDesk](http://www.fogcreek.com/CityDesk), +the web site management software published by [my +company](http://www.fogcreek.com/), we decided to do everything +internally in UCS-2 (two byte) Unicode, which is what Visual Basic, COM, +and Windows NT/2000/XP use as their native string type. In C++ code we +just declare strings as **wchar\_t** (“wide char”) instead of **char** +and use the **wcs** functions instead of the **str** functions (for +example **wcscat** and **wcslen** instead of **strcat** and **strlen**). +To create a literal UCS-2 string in C code you just put an L before it +as so: **L"Hello"**. + +When CityDesk publishes the web page, it converts it to UTF-8 encoding, +which has been well supported by web browsers for many years. That’s the +way all [29 language +versions](https://www.joelonsoftware.com/navLinks/OtherLanguages.html) +of Joel on Software are encoded and I have not yet heard a single person +who has had any trouble viewing them. + +This article is getting rather long, and I can’t possibly cover +everything there is to know about character encodings and Unicode, but I +hope that if you’ve read this far, you know enough to go back to +programming, using antibiotics instead of leeches and spells, a task to +which I will leave you now. diff --git a/_stories/2003/12348151.md b/_stories/2003/12348151.md deleted file mode 100644 index c7c260b..0000000 --- a/_stories/2003/12348151.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,25 +0,0 @@ ---- -created_at: '2016-08-23T22:07:29.000Z' -title: The Complexity Barrier (2003) -url: http://babylon.acad.cai.cam.ac.uk/people/dmh/engineering/engineer03/cecomplexity.htm -author: preordained -points: 45 -story_text: -comment_text: -num_comments: 23 -story_id: -story_title: -story_url: -parent_id: -created_at_i: 1471990049 -_tags: -- story -- author_preordained -- story_12348151 -objectID: '12348151' - ---- -[Source](http://babylon.acad.cai.cam.ac.uk/people/dmh/engineering/engineer03/cecomplexity.htm "Permalink to ") - - - diff --git a/_stories/2003/13147635.md b/_stories/2003/13147635.md index d551af4..824521f 100644 --- a/_stories/2003/13147635.md +++ b/_stories/2003/13147635.md @@ -19,7 +19,12 @@ _tags: objectID: '13147635' --- -[Source](https://www.cs.umd.edu/class/sum2003/cmsc311/Notes/Mips/stack.html "Permalink to ") - +# HTTP 451: Unavailable For Legal Reasons +Access to this page is restricted because it does not meet the +[University of Maryland's Accessibility +Guidelines](https://www.umd.edu/web-accessibility "UMD web accessibility"). +[You could also try archive.org to search for a snapshot of the +non-compliant +page](https://web.archive.org/web/*/http://www.cs.umd.edu/class/sum2003/cmsc311/Notes/Mips/stack.html "archive.org snapshots of this page"). diff --git a/_stories/2003/13268944.md b/_stories/2003/13268944.md index ca622ef..be7c44e 100644 --- a/_stories/2003/13268944.md +++ b/_stories/2003/13268944.md @@ -19,7 +19,96 @@ _tags: objectID: '13268944' --- -[Source](https://www.urbandictionary.com/define.php?term=linux "Permalink to ") - - + + +UNIX Airways + +Everyone brings one + +DOS + +Everybody pushes the airplane until it glides, then they jump on and let +the plane coast until it hits the ground again. Then they push again, +jump on again, and so on... + +Airlines + +All the stewards, captains, baggage handlers, and + +Windows Air + +The terminal is + +Windows NT Air + +like Windows Air, but costs more, uses + +Windows XP Air + +You turn up at the airport,which is under contract to only allow XP Air +planes. All the aircraft are identical, brightly coloured and three +times as big as they need to be. The signs are + +Linux Air + +Disgruntled employees of all the other OS airlines decide to start their +own airline. They build the planes, ticket counters, and pave the +runways themselves. They charge a + +When you board the plane, you are given a seat, +If Operating Systems Ran The Airlines...UNIX AirwaysEveryone brings one +[piece](/define.php?term=piece) of the plane along when they come [to +the](/define.php?term=to%20the) airport. They all go out on the runway +and put the plane together piece by piece, arguing non-stop about what +kind of plane they are supposed to be building. +[Air](/define.php?term=Air) DOSEverybody pushes the airplane until it +glides, then they jump on and let the plane coast until it hits the +ground again. Then they push again, jump on again, and so on... +[Mac](/define.php?term=Mac) AirlinesAll the stewards, captains, baggage +handlers, and [ticket](/define.php?term=ticket) agents look and act +exactly the same. Every [time](/define.php?term=time) you ask questions +about details, you are gently but firmly told that you don't +[need](/define.php?term=need) to know, don't [want +to](/define.php?term=want%20to) know, and everything +[will](/define.php?term=will) be done for you without your ever having +to know, so [just](/define.php?term=just) shut up.Windows AirThe +terminal is [pretty](/define.php?term=pretty) and colourful, with +friendly stewards, [easy](/define.php?term=easy) baggage +[check](/define.php?term=check) and boarding, and a smooth take-off. +After about 10 minutes in the [air](/define.php?term=air) , the plane +explodes with no warning whatsoever.Windows NT Air +[Just](/define.php?term=Just) like Windows Air, but costs more, uses +[much](/define.php?term=much) bigger planes, and takes out all the other +aircraft within a 40-mile radius when it explodes.Windows XP AirYou turn +up at the airport,which is under contract to only allow XP Air planes. +All the aircraft are identical, brightly coloured and three times as big +as they need to be. The signs are [huge](/define.php?term=huge) and all +[point](/define.php?term=point) the same way. Whichever way you go, +someone pops up dressed in a cloak and pointed +[hat](/define.php?term=hat) insisting you follow him. Your luggage and +clothes are [taken](/define.php?term=taken) off you and replaced with an +XP Air suit and suitcase identical to everyone +[around](/define.php?term=around) you as this is included in the +exorbitant ticket cost. The aircraft will not take off until you have +signed a contract. The inflight entertainment promised turns out to be +the same [Mickey Mouse](/define.php?term=Mickey%20Mouse) cartoon +repeated over and over again. You have to +[phone](/define.php?term=phone) your travel agent before you can have a +meal or [drink](/define.php?term=drink) . You are searched regularly +throughout the flight. If you go to the toilet twice or more you get +charged for a [new](/define.php?term=new) ticket. No matter what +destination you [booked](/define.php?term=booked) you will +[always](/define.php?term=always) end up crash landing at Whistler in +Canada.Linux AirDisgruntled employees of all the other OS airlines +decide to start their own airline. They build the planes, ticket +counters, and pave the runways themselves. They charge a +[small](/define.php?term=small) fee to cover the cost of printing the +ticket, but you can also download and print the ticket yourself.When you +board the plane, you are given a seat, [four](/define.php?term=four) +bolts, a wrench and a copy of the seat-HOWTO.html. Once settled, the +fully adjustable seat is very comfortable, the plane leaves and arrives +on time without a single problem, the in-flight meal is wonderful. You +try to tell customers of the other airlines about the great +[trip](/define.php?term=trip) , but all they can say is, "You had to do +what with the seat?" diff --git a/_stories/2003/13625895.md b/_stories/2003/13625895.md index bfad45a..a39b3fb 100644 --- a/_stories/2003/13625895.md +++ b/_stories/2003/13625895.md @@ -19,7 +19,154 @@ _tags: objectID: '13625895' --- -[Source](https://boards.straightdope.com/sdmb/showthread.php?threadid=160851 "Permalink to ") - - +**The horror of blimps** +Last week while travelling I stopped at a Zany Brainy store and saw that +they had a blimp for sale. It's called Airship Earth, and it's a great +big balloon with a map of the Earth on it, and two propellors hanging +from the bottom. You blow up the balloon with helium put batteries in +it, and you have a radio controll indoor blimp. + +I'd seen these things for sale in Sharper Image catalogs for $60-$75. At +Zany Brainy it was on clearance for $15. What a deal\! + +Last night my wife was playing tennis and it was just my daughter and I +at home. I bought a small helium tank from a party store, and last night +we put the blimp together. + +Let me tell you, it's quite a blimp. It's huge. The balloon has like a 3 +ft diameter. + +We blew it up with the tank attacched the gondola with the propellors, +and put in batteries. + +Then we balanced the blimp for neutral bouyancy with this putty that +came with it, so it hangs in the air by itself neither rising nor +falling. + +It was easy and fun, and then I blew up another balloon and made Mickey +Mouse helium voices for my daughter. + +My three year old girl loved it. We flew the blimp all over the house, +terrorized the dog, attacked the fish tank, and the controls were so +easy my daughter could fly. + +Let's face it, blimps are fun. + +Alas, the fun had to end and my daughter had to go to sleep. I left the +blimp floating in my office downstairs, my wife came home, and we went +to bed, and slept the sleep of the righteous. + +At this point it is important to know that my house has central heating. +I have it configured to blow hot air out on the ground floor and take it +in at the second floor to take advantage of the fact that heat rises. + +The blimp which was up until this moment a fun toy here embarked on a +career of evil. Using the artificial convection of my central heating, +the blimp stealthily departed my office. It moved silently through the +living and drifted to the staircase. Gliding wraithlike over the +staircase it then entered the bedroom where my wife and I lay sleeping +peacefully. + +Running silently, and gliding six feet or so above the ground on +invisible and tiny air currects it approached the bed. + +In spite of it's noiseless passage, or perhaps because of it, I awoke. +That doesn't really say it properly. Let me try again. + +I awoke, the way you awake at 2:00 AM when your sleeping senses suddenly +tell you without reason that the forces of evil on converging on you. + +That still doesn't do it. Let me try one more time. + +I awoke the way you awake when you suddenly know that there is a large +levitating sinister presence hovering towards you with menacing intent +through the maligant darkness. + +Now sometimes I do wake up in the middle of the night thinking that +there are large sinister and menacing things floating out of the +darkness to do me and mine evil. Usually I open my eyes, look and listen +carefully, decide it was a false alarm, and go back to sleep. + +So, the fact that I awoke in such a manner was not all that unusual. + +On this occasion I awoke to the sense that there was a large menacing +presence approaching me silently out of the gloom, so I opened my eyes, +and there it was\! **A LARGE SILENT MENACING PRESENCE WAS APPROACHING ME +OUT OF THE GLOOM, AND IT COULD FLY\!\!\!** + +Somewhere in the control room of my mind a fat little dwarf in a +security outfit was paging through a Penthouse while smoking a cigar +with his feet up on the table, watching the security monitors of my +brain with his peripheral vision. Suddenly he saw the LARGE SILENT +SINSITER MENACING FLOATING PRESENCE coming at me, and he pulled every +panic switch and hit every alarm that my body has. A full decade's +allotment of adrenaline was dumped into my bloodstream all at once. My +metabolism went from "restful sleep mode" to HOLY SHIT\! FIGHT FOR YOUR +LIFE OR DIE\!\!\!\! mode" in a nanosecond. My heart went from twenty +something beats per minute to about 240 even faster. + +I always knew this was going to happen. I always knew that skepticism +and science were mere psychological decorations and vanities. Deep in +our alligator brains we all know that the world is just chock full of +evil and monsters and sinister forces aligned against us, and it is only +a matter of time until they show up. Evolution know this, too. It knows +what to do when the silent terror comes at you from out of the dark. + +When 50 million years worth of evolutionary survival instinct hits you +all at once flat in the gut at 200 mph it is not a pleasant sensation. + +Without volition I screamed my battle cry (which is indistinguishable to +the sound a little girl makes when you drop a spider down her dress (not +that I'd know what that sounds like,) and lept out of bed in my +underwear. + +I struck the approaching menace with all my strength and almost fell +over at the total lack of resistance that a helium balloon offers when +you punch the living shit out of it with all the stength that sudden +middle of the night terror produces. + +It's trajectory took it straight into the ceiling fan which whipped it +about the room at terrifying velocity. + +Seeking a weapon, I ripped the alarm clock out of its plug and hurled it +at the now High Velocity Menacing presence (breaking the clock and +putting a nice hole in the wall.) + +Somehow at this moment I suddenly realized that I was fighting the +blimp, and not a monster. It might have been funny if I didn't truly and +actually feel like I was having a legitimate heart-attack. + +On quivering legs I went to the bathroom and literally gagged into the +toilet while shaking uncontrollably with the shock of the reaction I'd +had. + +Unbeleivably, both my wife and daughter had completely slept through the +incident. When I decided that I wasn't having a heart attack after all I +went back into the bedroom and found the blimp which had somehow +survived the incident. + +I took it to the walk in closet and released it inside where it floated +around with the air currents released from the vents in there. I closed +the door, this sealing it in, and went back to bed. About 500 years +later I fell asleep. + + +\*\*\* + +At about 7 am my wife awoke. She had been playing tennis and wasn't +aware that we have assembled the blimp the previous evening, and that is +was now floating around the the walk-in closet that she approached. + +The dyndamic between the existing air currents of the closet and the +suction caused by opening the door was just enough to give the blimp the +appearance of an Evil Sinister Menace flying straight towards her. + +This time the blimp did not survive the encounter, nor almost, did I, as +I had to explain to my very angry spouse what motivated me to hide an +evil lurking presence in the closet for her to find at 7 am. + +I can order replacement balloons on the internet but I don't think I +will. + +Some blimps are better off dead. diff --git a/_stories/2003/15229353.md b/_stories/2003/15229353.md index bc3d484..fb49cc6 100644 --- a/_stories/2003/15229353.md +++ b/_stories/2003/15229353.md @@ -19,152 +19,77 @@ _tags: objectID: '15229353' --- -[Source](http://rhizome.org/community/25205/ "Permalink to Wal-Mart Web Offers Linux as Windows Alternative | Rhizome") - -# Wal-Mart Web Offers Linux as Windows Alternative | Rhizome - -[ ][1] - -[Blog][2][Program][3][Software][4][Community][5][About][6] - -[Login][7][Search][8] - -![][9] - -![][10] - -[Blog][2][Program][3][Software][4][Community][5][About][6] - -[Login][7][Search][8] - -←[ Back][11] - -discussion - -Posted Feb. 18 2003 17:53 - -## Wal-Mart Web Offers Linux as Windows Alternative - Wal-Mart Web Offers Linux as Windows Alternative -LOS ANGELES (Reuters) - Wal-Mart Stores Inc.(NYSE:WMT - news) the world's +LOS ANGELES (Reuters) - Wal-Mart Stores Inc.(NYSE:WMT - news) the +world's largest retailer, has begun selling packaged Linux (news - web sites) operating system software on its Web site, a sign of rising consumer interest in the alternative to Microsoft Corp.'s (Nasdaq:MSFT - news) Windows, software maker Lycoris said on Tuesday. -Walmart.com offers Linux operating systems and applications from Lycoris and -Lindows, two companies which produce slightly different versions of Linux +Walmart.com offers Linux operating systems and applications from Lycoris +and +Lindows, two companies which produce slightly different versions of +Linux that both look similar to Windows. -Walmart.com has already offered computers loaded with Linux for as little as +Walmart.com has already offered computers loaded with Linux for as +little as $200. The boxed software, meant to be loaded on an extra, often older -machine, is an expansion of the Linux product lines carried by the retailer. +machine, is an expansion of the Linux product lines carried by the +retailer. -Linux enthusiasts say the upstart platform offers a cheaper alternative to -Microsoft, which has an effective monopoly in the market for PC operating -systems. +Linux enthusiasts say the upstart platform offers a cheaper alternative +to +Microsoft, which has an effective monopoly in the market for PC +operating +systems. -A Lycoris desktop operating system goes for about $30, compared to about -$100-$120 for Microsoft Windows XP (news - web sites) home edition upgrades -and full versions, on Walmart.com. Lindows' and Lycoris's operating system, +A Lycoris desktop operating system goes for about $30, compared to +about +$100-$120 for Microsoft Windows XP (news - web sites) home edition +upgrades +and full versions, on Walmart.com. Lindows' and Lycoris's operating +system, office software and games cost about $100. -The core of a Linux operating system is a nugget of freely available "open +The core of a Linux operating system is a nugget of freely available +"open source" software code that is developed cooperatively by programmers -worldwide. Many applications, such as word processing programs, are also +worldwide. Many applications, such as word processing programs, are +also available in open source versions. -Critics say Linux is still relatively difficult to use for consumers, but -Lycoris spokesman Jason Spisak said the audience was clearly growing as +Critics say Linux is still relatively difficult to use for consumers, +but +Lycoris spokesman Jason Spisak said the audience was clearly growing +as mainstream retailers like Wal-Mart and Fry's offered his software. -Open source software is often free, but technological novices generally find +Open source software is often free, but technological novices generally +find it easier to buy the software packaged with instructions and consumer-friendly applications, such as from Lindows and Lycoris. -Linux so far has been more widely adopted by corporations and hi-end users, -and Microsoft's dominance on the desktop is nearly absolute. Spisak said at -peak during the holiday season Wal-Mart sold in one week about 700 of its +Linux so far has been more widely adopted by corporations and hi-end +users, +and Microsoft's dominance on the desktop is nearly absolute. Spisak said +at +peak during the holiday season Wal-Mart sold in one week about 700 of +its $200 computer running Lycoris Linux. -He said the boxed software would appeal to more sophisticated users putting -Linux on older machines, often for less technologically able friends and +He said the boxed software would appeal to more sophisticated users +putting +Linux on older machines, often for less technologically able friends +and acquaintances. - -Sign in to Comment - -__ - -* [Make a Donation][12] -* [Membership][13] -* [Advertising][14] -* [RSS][15] -* [New Museum][16] -* [info@rhizome.org][17] -* [Make a Donation][12] -* [Advertising][14] -* [RSS][18] -* [New Museum][16] - -![][19] - -* ![][20] -* ![][21] -* ![][22] - -![][23] - -#### . 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This is basically a draft and I hope to do some +more editing as time permits and you should expect many typos until +then. I'm also going to continue to edit and change this as I remember +details. +This is my long-delayed attempt at writing about my experience in +writing VisiCalc and the many design decisions that we made along the +way. But even after nearly a quarter century I remember many of the +details though maybe my memories have evolved. The process of writing +down this experience is already evoking many memories and, unless proven +otherwise, I'll assume that they are memories of real events but others +may view it differently and I will try to correct the more creative +aspects of my memory. +Even simple decisions were only simple in context. They were all +intertwined and I will try to reduce the confusion by separating aspects +of implementation, design and business. + +For more details on the history of VisiCalc and even a version that +still runs on the IBM PC, see Dan Bricklin's [VisiCalc +History](http://www.bricklin.com/visicalc.htm) pages. + +## Getting Started + +I started to program VisiCalc in November 1978 and we shipped the first +production copy in October 1979. The idea itself had been percolating in +Dan's head long before and we had discussed various approaches over the +year before I started to program it. At one point we considered +implementing the program on the [DEC](http://www.dec.com/) PDT +(Programmable Data Terminal) which was a small computer that fit inside +a VT (Video Terminal) -100 which was a character-based computer +terminal. It would have been expensive and aimed at high level meetings. +We were lucky that we didn't make a deal with DEC. + +As Dan described the product I envisioned a group of people sitting +around a table with small devices pointing at a screen. Each had the +ability to draw on the shared screen with graphics and formulas. The +formulas would be recalculated as needed. This seemed reasonable give +the technology of the day such as the Spatial Data Management System +developed at MIT Architecture Machine Group, the predecessor of the MIT +Media Lab. + +The big breakthrough was when Dan put together a simple version in +Integer Basic on the Apple \]\[. It had a grid of rows and columns. +While the use of a character grid with rows and columns seems +uninteresting compared with a shared graphics screen it was the key to +making the product usable because it gave people a framework to work +with. It wasn't necessary to describe the equations since they were +easily and implicitly defined by their position on the grid. We also +dispensed with a pointing device since game paddle for the machine +wasn't up to the task. + +The Apple's screen was 40 columns and 25 rows. This was a small area and +it was easy to move around using the arrow keys on the keyboard. Since +everything could be done using the keyboard, proficient users would work +very quickly. + +Dan was attending Harvard Business School so asked me to help him by +writing the program. I had already been programming on the 6502 and also +did a project to convert a program from the TRS-80 to the Apple \]\[ +simply to become proficient. I made a listing of the TRS-80 program by +using my SX-70 Polaroid camera to take a picture of each page and then +worked with this listing as I rewrote the code for the Apple. + +In November of 1978 I started to prototype VisiCalc. We eventually +shipped that prototype. + +## Background + +By the time we created VisiCalc Dan and I had been working professional +and academically for well over a decade. I started programming in Junior +High School in 1963 and had been creating online services professionally +since 1966. Those of us working in online systems in those days would +have full responsibility how the program was used, not just the +implementation details. While there were corporate projects that had a +whole raft of people breaking the design and implementation project into +small steps, many of us worked from ideas and then adjusted the programs +as we gained experience. Working with online systems we deployed the +program by simply giving others access and could quickly evolve the +program as we learned how it was actually used. The process worked best +when we were also users. + +I did both commercial software at Interactive Data and was a student at +MIT where I worked on the Multics project. Multics was a very +influential project in that its goal was to make computing accessible to +nontechnical users. It was also managed as an open source project within +the development group. There were very few computer projects in those +days so any large project would attract the best people available yet +there was remarkable little reluctance to share with others and trade +code. + +We were able to treat the large mainframe computers as personal +computers. We focused on making the program and the experience rather +than the limitations of the smaller systems. The smaller less expensive +systems were also valuable in that they allowed for more interaction +with the user. The early systems were run in what was called full-duplex +or echo-plex. When you typed a character on the keyboard of a teletype +nothing printed. The computer system would normally send the character +you pressed back to the teletype so you would think that it acted like a +typewriter but that was only an illusion since there was no intrinsic +relationship. + +When we started to use screens instead of teletype we had the freedom to +paint the screen in two dimensions. There were interactive editors for +teletypes--today's VI is a descendent of QED on the SDS-940 which did +just this. You were always editing the previous line. At MIT Richard +Stallman added a redisplay capability to the Teco editor which allowed +others to create sets of macros. One set was called Emacs (Editors +Macros) become most popular and eventually was treated as the native +editor. Later I implemented a version of Emacs for use at Software Arts +and we traded it to Prime Computer for a disk drive (they used to be +very expensive). The interactivity of Emacs provided a good example of +the independence of what you did with the keyboard and what you saw on +the screen. + +Dan did a commercial word processor, WPS-8 at DEC that paid careful +attention to making the users feel comfortable with editing on this new +device by making it simple and familiar. + +I also worked with a company, ECD, that produced a 6502-based computer. +It gave me a lot of experience with the 6502. One of the programmers, +John Doty, created a useful assembly language for the machine that +included macros to eliminate the need to use jump (or goto) +instructions. It ran on Multics and we'd download the code to the 6502. + +In addition to the commercial time sharing experience and the experience +with Multics at MIT and the experience using the more interactive +systems at the AI Lab, languages like Lisp and +AIU- well there was a +lot of experience. I also founded the Student Information Processing +Board as a way to make this computing bounty available to others +students. + +## Design Principles + +VisiCalc was a product, not a program. Decisions were made with the +product in mind and, to the extent possible the programming was towards +this end. In practice it was more complicated as we were designing +against the limitations of the personal computers, price point and, most +important, what the user could understand. + +The goal was to give the user a conceptual model which was unsurprising +-- it was called the principle of least surprise. We were illusionists +synthesizing an experience. Our model was the spreadsheet -- a simple +paper grid that would be laid out on a table. The paper grid provided an +organizing metaphor for a working with series of numbers. While the +spreadsheet is organized we also had the back-of-envelope model which +treated any surface as a scratch pad for working out ideas. Since we +were used to working with powerful computers without worry about the +clock running, we already had the experience of focusing on the users +needs rather than the computers needs. + +The ability for Dan and I to work as a team was crucial. While he +could've written the program, the fact that he wasn't gave him the +freedom to focus on what the program should do rather than how to do it. +I could appreciate his reasons and would eventually accept that I had to +change code that I had labored over. We were able to find ways to take +advantage of the limited space available for the program in deciding +what features to include or not include. + +The original version put the entry area at the bottom of the screen. By +playing with this simple prototype Dan found that it was better to put +the entry area at the top of the screen and I made the change to the +evolving program. + +In addition to prototyping, Dan put together a reference card for users. +If we couldn't figure out how to explain a feature on the reference card +we would change the program. The original method for copying formulas +was too complicated so we just changed the design rather than try to +explain it. + +## The Apple \]\[ + +In 1978 the Apple \]\[ was viewed as a game machine. In fact, it was +intended to be a hobbyist game machine. It had up to 64KB (that's kilo +bytes) or 65336 8 bit bytes, or 2^16 compared with today's PC's which +now have 2^29 (512 Megabytes) or 8000 (ok, 8196) times as much memory. +We had no hard drive. Apple had cornered the market for floppy drives +but they weren't universal so we supported the cassette tape player as a +storage device but, fortunately, few users even know about it. + +*There was no way to start or stop the tape drive. We had to leave gaps +in the data on the tape to allow for processing of each chunk of data +before we got the next one.* + +Our goal was to fit in a 16KB machine but eventually we required 32KB. +That included a 1KB buffer for the screen and more memory for the needs +of the system. We also needed to implement a file system for the +floppies as well as the firmware to support the drive. Steve Wozniak did +a very clever and lean design and took advantage of the 6502 processor +to control the disk drive as well as for computing. I had to figure out +how he did this by reverse engineering it since we need to adjust the +code for our needs. We also wanted to avoid being beholden to Apple's +license which gave them the ability to revoke permission. More on that +and the challenges later. + +The Apple \]\[ was very fast compared with+AIU-well, with using our +fingers? It was capable of doing maybe a million instruction per second +but each one was very simple, a small portion of a single instruction in +today's computers. Performance was just almost as important as space. + +There were many many little design decisions. In order to keep things a +bit organized I will group them in categories though many overlapped: + +### The User Experience + +These are the design decisions visible to the user or, often, the lack +of visibility was essential. + +#### The Layout of the Screen + +I started programming VisiCalc late November 1978 and by January we were +able to demonstrate simple applications such as the one on the right. We +had already arrived at the essential elements of the layout:![Apple +\\]\[\ Screen from January +1979](Images/VisiCalcAppleIIScreen.gif) + + - The inverted L framed the grid though we didn't show actually grid + lines since the screen was small. + + - The status information was shown at the top:  + + - B8 showed where the position of the cursor though you normally + just thought of it as "there". + - The R showed that we were doing row-order calculation. + - The \! meant that that two arrow keys went up and down. + - The amount of memory available was added to the status in later + versions. We had to be careful to make this number match the + number shown in the manual since users didn't necessarily + distinguish accidental properties from intrinsic properties so + we need to be careful about even something that seemed obvious. + - The black area showed formulas as they were typed. We also + showed the typing in the cell itself. + - The date and time at the bottom showed the version of the + program -- we didn't have a clock so this wasn't part of the + actual program. + - Each row had a number. In this example it is left justified but + we made sure it was right justified for the product. We departed + from common notation by numbering the rows and using letters for + the columns. This was because we had only 63 columns and 255 + rows. These numbers were chosen to limit the number of bits we + had to use. There had to be enough columns for a full year of + production planning plus some extra. The large number of arrows + allowed for it to be used for multiple sets of data such as a + payroll table. + + ![Screen for VisiCalc on the IBM + PC](Images/IBMPCVisiCalcScreen.gif)We originally planned to let + people rename the rows and columns with labels and implemented the + feature. Eventually we decided that we needed to assure stable + reference names so prevented people form moving into the zeroth row + or column. Instead we implemented the ability to split the screen + vertically or horizontally. + + Remember that the screen was small so we couldn't fit that much on + the screen so a single split was enough. + + The columns were all the same width within a window. This avoid a + level of indirection in reference the screen. This was a mistake + since it would've added insignificant overhead and the lack of what + came be called variable column with become a competitive + disadvantage. + + We made sure that there was a border between numbers in each column + to assure readability. If the last column didn't fit then we + reformatted for what was visible rather than clipping it as is + typical in today's windowing systems. Clipping would let the user + see "100" instead of "1000". + + We did allow the two windows to have different widths which gave + some flexibility. Movement in the two windows could be synchronized + or they could be viewed independently. A single cell could be + displayed in the two windows. + + The windows could also show different global formats including the + underlying formulas and a simple character graphics mode that showed + the contents of the cell as the corresponding number of asterisks. + This was a primitive graphic of plotting capability. + + We did toy with the idea of using the split screen bitmap capability + of the Apple \]\[ to show a live graph at the bottom of the screen + but it would've added too much code. + + The screen would automatically redisplay as values were changed + though the user could turn it off for manual recalculations when + automatic calculations were confusing. The \! would recalculate. + + *Note that it was always "recalculate" -- the first calculation was + just an unimportant special case.* + + Since displaying the spreadsheet was relatively slow we implemented + scrolling as a special case by copying text from one part of the + screen to the other. It took a few hundred bytes--a major investment + in code, but we felt it was necessary to give a good feel. Thus we + were surprised that 1-2-3 didn't do this smooth scrolling. + Apparently Jon Sachs ran into some problems and it wasn't wroth + delaying their shipment for that feature. + + #### Keyboard Usage and Interacting with VisiCalc + + Before discussing keyboards, it's worth noting that back in 1979 + people viewed the keyboard as an impediment to using computers. + After all, only secretaries could type and the rest of us need to be + able to talk to the computer. Hence the decades spent on trying to + get computers to understand speech. It turns out that most people + could type (at least those who used spreadsheets) since it was a + basic skill necessary for getting through college. In fact, speech + is a very problematic way to interact with a spreadsheet. In fact, + the spreadsheet itself is used as a communications vehicle rather + than speech. + + The Apple \]\[ had a simple keyboard that only had upper case + letters and only two arrow keys. There were no interrupts nor a + clock. If the user typed a character before the keyboard input + buffer was emptied it would be lost. + + ![Apple II pictures at + BinaryDinosaurs](Images/AppleIIFromBinaryDinosaurs.jpg) + + Electric Pencil was an early word processor for the Apple \]\[ and + it would lose characters if the user typed to fast. To avoid this + problem in VisiCalc I polled the keyboard in the middle of + potentially long loop--keyboard checks were strewn throughout the + code. + + The characters would be stored in the input buffer. Since the user + would type ahead there was the opposite danger -- overtyping or + running ahead. It is normally to press the arrow key until the + cursor was in the right place. By the time the user reached the + correct cell there would be a lot of extra characters in the input + buffer. To prevent skidding we ignored these extra characters. Thus + we preserved type ahead but not too much. I doubt if any but the + most geeky users were even aware that there was an issue let alone a + solution. This is the kind of design detail that makes a program + feel good even if you don't know why. + + Since there were only two arrow keys we used the space bar to toggle + between vertical and horizontal motion and showed the current mode + with the -- or \! in the upper right hand corner of the screen. The + use of the space bar in conjunction with the arrow keys quickly + became internalized to the point that users may not have noticed + they were toggling the arrows. + + Since I've mentioned the arrow keys I'll get a little ahead to note + that the arrow keys worked very differently when entering a formula + or label. If you pressed the arrow key when you needed to point to a + cell you see the position inline with the formula and as soon as you + typed the next character, such as a +-, the cell would be committed + and you could continue to edit the formula. But if you were in an + operator position and pressed the arrow, it would enter the formula + into the cell and move the focus to the new cell. Again, few users + were probably aware that these were very different function because + the right thing "just happened" at the right place. + + This was part of the larger goal of giving the user the illusion of + infinite choice and freedom at very point even though only a very + small number of choices were allowed. In practice only a few choices + made sense in that context. Thus in the context of pointing to a + cell, the arrows naturally pointed rather than terminated the + formula. + + We used the same principle to avoid error messages. One motivation + was very simple -- error messages took up a lot of space. Instead we + showed the formula as it was interpreted. If what you typed didn't + make sense it just didn't do the wrong thing. + + In order to keep this illusion we had to distinguish between cell + names (A1) and functions such as SUM. We used the "@" as a prefix + for functions. That seemed acceptable and apparently users didn't + have a problem with it. + + This was also one reason we didn't allow people to give the cells + themselves names. The bigger reason was that it wasn't necessary and + the most proficient users, those who would most value such a + feature, seemed to be very well served with out them. But we did + consider allowing the use of labels instead of cell names but, given + the limits of the Apple \]\[, it never became an issue. + + We also need to distinguish formulas from labels and for that we + required a formula start with a number or an operator such as +- or + the special @. One could use a " to force interpretation as a lab + + There were a small number of commands in VisiCalc and we used the / + as the "command key". Remember that there were no f unction keys. + The legacy of the / lasted long after VisiCalc and people used to + expect / to be the command key on the IBM PC even for word + processors. I got complaints when I implemented Lotus express and + required a function key for commands. Today the F10 has become + standard for that role. + + The / itself was chosen because it seemed obvious to me and was + otherwise available. But it was also a good choice for Dan whose + fingers just happened to be a little crooked and were predisposed to + reach that key. + + The commands themselves were meant to mnemonic but we only showed + the letters since the full names would've been part of the + unimplemented help system. The goal was to have an interactive help + systems that allowed you to see the full names of commands and the + keyboard options at any point but we estimated it would have taken + 2000 bytes to implemented an interactive help system and that was an + unaffordable luxury. + + Overall though VisiCalc was designed for the casual user the + proficient user was well-rewarded by having an interface which + didn't require one to move one's hands off the keyboard or even look + at the screen to see where a mouse pointer wound up. The arrows were + reliable ways to move one's position (well, as long as one didn't + scroll very far). + + The Apple \]\[ had a reset key and in the first versions there was + no way to prevent the user from accidentally pressing reset and + losing all the work. This was simply unacceptable for a production + product so we including a short command sequence that could be typed + into the Apple \]\[ monitor to continue VisiCalc. Since we didn't + know where VisiCalc interrupted we couldn't assume it was safe to + continue and only allowed the user to save the spreadsheet at that + point. + + #### Files and I/O + + The Apple \]\[ handled IO view add-in boards. If you wanted to print + to a printer in slot 6 you would say PR\#6. if that slot happened to + contain a disk drive that same operation, however, would boot from + the drive. In order to avoid such problems and do the right thing + for each device VisiCalc had a table of signature bytes for each + board so that we could avoid doing something like rebooting by + mistake. We derived the bytes by examining the boards and, in + effect, doing our own plug and play. Thus you could print and + VisiCalc would find the printer automatically. + + Since we didn't want to be beholden to Apple, I had to reverse + engineer the low level I/O operations for the disk drives and + implement a compatible file system. The first beta copies had a bug + -- I didn't reserve the bitmap for the file system so after a few + files the file system would get corrupted. Those people who were + careful and wrote their files onto two floppies were not spared -- + both would get corrupted at the same time. + + Since we were handling the low level I/O operations we could also + implement a scheme to discourage copying the floppy. I also added an + extra touch by having VisiCalc write over itself after booting on + the assumption that a user would test the copy and, unlike the + product disk, it wouldn't be protected. Unfortunately the write + protect tab was not reliable on those drives so we would also + overwrite the original copy. + + The copy protection scheme did make the normal Apple \]\[ disk copy + program fail. Later this expertise allowed us to ship a single disk + that could handle the original floppies with 13 sectors per track + and those with 16. It would even remember which way it booted and + then format new disks with the same number of sectors. + + Eventually the copy protection become too much of an impediment and + we dropped it. + + As I mentioned we also supported cassette drives in the initial + version. When we saved the spreadsheet we made sure the first + operation allocated the entire sheet since that could be a long + operation and then read it back from the lower right back. This + technique also sped up loading from disk. + + We saved the spreadsheet in a format that allowed us to use the + keyboard input processor to read the file. There were undocumented + commands that allowed us to set the initial value of a cell and + control the loading. They would also work from the keyboard. + + #### Calculations and Formulas + + At its heart, VisiCalc is about numbers. One of the early decisions + we made was to use decimal arithmetic so that the errors would be + the same one that an accountant would see using a decimal + calculator. In retrospect this was a bad decision because people + turn out to not care and it made calculations much slower than they + would have been in binary. + + We did want to have enough precision to handle large numbers for + both scientific calculations and in the unrealistic case it would be + used to calculate the United States budget. Of course, as it turned + out, that was one of the real applications. + + Since the formulas did depend on each other the order of + (re)calculation made a difference. The first idea was to follow the + dependency chains but this would have involved keeping pointers and + that would take up memory. We realized that normal spreadsheets were + simple and could be calculated in either row or column order and + errors would usually become obvious right away. Later spreadsheets + touted "natural order" as a major feature but for the Apple \]\[ I + think we made the right tradeoff. + + The functions or, as they were called, the @functions each had a + story. Some, like **@sum** seem simple enough but we did have to + deal with ranges (as in A1+AIU-A2). **@average** skipped over empty + cells and **@count** could be used to find the count of nonempty + cells. + + For **@npv** (net present value) we decided on a formula which was + different from that used in COBOL (a programming language). The + COBOL committee was later asked to be compatible with VisiCalc + though I don't think they made the change. + + One of the early applications for VisiCalc was my 1979 tax form. I + created **@lookup** for that purpose. + + The transcendental functions like **@sin** were going to be a + problem so we decided to omit them in the initial version but, + unfortunately, in this review of VisiCalc, Carl Helmers praised that + aspect of VisiCalc and we felt obliged to implement them. This was a + real pain because I had to find books on such functions and how to + compute them for the appropriate precision and range of values and + all this had to be done in very little space. It took a week or two + but eventually we did them. At this point Dan was available and + joined in the programming. + + While I could usually cobble together adequate routines to do what + was needed I found myself doing a bad job in converting numbers to + external representation. Late in coding I found some cases that + didn't convert properly and produced results such as "+-0". I + patched around it by looking for those cases in the screen buffer + itself and fixing it. It worked well enough so that I could move on + to other problems. + + One design decision was to not do precedence in the formulas. If you + typed 3+5\*4 you got 32 instead of 23. We reasoned simple calculator + users expected each operation to take place as it was typed. In + hindsight this was a mistake?people expect precedence and the + sequential operators on a simple calculator were not viewed in terms + of the whole calculation as written. Internally I had been + self-taught on how to do parsing of formulas (I keep trying to not + type equation since mathematicians talk about equations since they + are normally balancing them). In 1966 I was working on FFL (First + Financial Language), a story in its own right but for another essay, + and had a vague sense of how to do it but with some advice I figured + out how to do a simple stack-based implementation. For VisiCalc I + tried to do a very compact version of this and it would have been + just as easy to implement precedence. + + For those interested in the details of handling formulas ... + Internally the parser works by pushing operands and operands on the + stack and executing each operation when it was forced by a lower + precedence operation. Thus for 3+4\*5+2 you push the 3 on the + operand stack and the + on the operator stack (at least, that's what + I think?unless I actually run the code I presume anything I write is + buggy), then push the 4 and then the \* and the 5. So we have 3,4,5 + and +,\*. The + causes the previous \* and + to execute, producing + 3,20 and +. Next we do the first plus to get 23 on the stack, push + the 2 and then the end of the equation causes remaining operations + to be performed. This is left to right execution with precedence. + All we do to not do precedence is to treat the \* and the + as being + the same priority. ()'s are used to force ordering. + + I used two stacks in this example, if we didn't have to deal with + reordering, I could write the formula as 3,4,5,\*,+,2,+. This stack + notation is known as reverse polish notation or RPN. (Polish?look up + the name of Pole who invented the notation). HP calculators handled + this natively and it was very natural once you got used to it. In + fact, many of us liked it better than the standard notation since + one didn't have to keep all the context in mind and there is no need + for ()'s. But it wasn't a sufficient improvement to get over the + unfamiliarity. + + ### Programming Decisions + + *This section is for geeks so I won't try to translate all of the + terms.* + + OK, so what's going on behind the curtain? Faced with a 16KB target, + that included enough space to actually hold a useful spreadsheet, I + went into severe design mode. I normally don't worry about the size + of my code since it takes a lot of work and normally doesn't make a + difference and there is a real risk of getting locked into premature + design decisions. + + For VisiCalc I had no choice. It was made more difficult by not + knowing much about the program since no one had used it yet. Dan's + ability to work on the prototype gave us some clues about where we + were headed. I started to mock up the program by writing the + initializations code, SSINIT (SpreadSheet Init) so that we had a + framework for displaying the sheet. Now all I had to do was fill in + the stuff underneath. + + One guiding principle was to always have functioning code. It was + the scaffolding and all I needed to do was flesh it out. Or not. + Since the program held together omitting a feature was a choice and + it gave us flexibility. + + I was lucky in that basic architecture was viable. Well, after + programming for 15 years I did have some idea of how to write such a + program so it was more than luck. In fact, I did have to do some + reworking as we went along but I also left stubs such as the reality + of row and column 0 for the labels even though we didn't allow users + to move there. It allowed them to be handled normally by most of the + code. + + One of the earliest issues was representation -- how do I represent + the formulas in memory (and later, on disk). I was still spending a + little time at Interactive Data at that point and designing the + layout was the kind of productive doodling I needed to stay awake in + a training class. + + The basic approach was to allocate memory into fixed chunks so that + we wouldn't have a problem with the kind of breakage that occurs + with irregular allocation. Deallocating a cell freed up 100% of its + storage. Thus a given spreadsheet would take up the same amount of + space no matter how it was created. I presumed that the spreadsheet + would normally be compact and in the upper left (low number rows and + cells) so used a vector of rows vectors. The chunks were also called + cells so I had to be careful about terminology to avoid confusion. + Internally the term "cell" always meant storage cell. These cells + were allocated from one direction and the vectors from the other. + When they collided the program reorganized the storage. It had to do + this in place since there was no room left at that point -- after + all that's why we had to do the reorganization. + + The actual representation was variable length with each element + prefixed by a varying length type indicator. In order to avoid + having most code parse the formula the last by was marked $ff (or + 0xff in today's representation). It turned out that valid cell + references at the edges of the sheet looked like this and created + some interesting bugs. + + The program was tuned for the Apple \]\['s 6502 processor. It + processes 8 bits at a time and has up to 64KB bytes. The program was + tuned to this processor + + - Arrays of 16 bit values were split into two 8 bit arrays so that + the value could be incremented or decremented in a single + operation in a loop. + - Loops tended to go from the high to low value since this saved a + byte in each loop + + The assembler had macros so that instead of directly coding to the + machines conditional instructions I could use an "aif/aelse/aendif" + set in order to assure that the structure of the code was + maintained. There was a special "calret" (call/return) operator that + was used for calling a subroutine at the end of a sequence of code. + It generated an efficient jump instruction but the reader could + assume that the code continued and returned at that point instead of + wondering about an unstructured transfer. + + Though there was a very strong emphasis on efficiency there was even + a strong emphasis on readability. Anything that might surprise + someone reading the code was carefully documented. My assumption was + that I would forget those key points myself. It also helped others + who would read the code but the primary audience was me in the fog + of coding. + + The spreadsheet array itself was designed for efficient processing. + + - The spreadsheet itself had a guard row so that there was no need + to constantly check against the bounds but sometimes an + operation, such as replicate would skip over this guard and + would simply wrap back. It might have produced strange results + but no damage. + - The insert operation was really a move and it fail if the last + row was occupied. The bias was towards assuming that everything + was in the upper left. + - Though I knew how to constructed shared structures the formulas + were copied into each cell. Attempting to share the + representation would have added complexity and we would have had + to hide this from the user in order to make irregularities in + the spreadsheet normal. Programs that emphasized regularity + failed because they did time series well and everything else + poorly. + + #### Tools and Environment + + We started programming by using the tools from ECD on Multics. I + worked at night when the computer time cost $1/hour. Honeywell also + took advantage of the low fee to use the machine at night to develop + the Ada language for the military but those developers worked during + their day from France. + + Once we formed the company we decided to buy our own computer. Prime + was trying to follow in Multics' path and seemed like a reasonable + choice. It had a PL/1 compiler which made it easy for me to port + some of my work. The first project was to implement a simple editor + and then an assembler and other development tools. On the side I + evolved an editor that was originally supposed to be a line editor + (QED) into a screen editor (Emacs). Seth Steinberg who had worked at + MIT Architecture Machine Group added a lisp-like language and Emacs + became a very useful tool. We even programmed an email system within + the editor. It also allowed us to create tools to assist in + formatting the code and other housekeeping. + + Later we developed our own language and tools to make it easier to + code and to write for multiple platforms but that's a separate + topics. For now I'm focusing on the early days of VisiCalc. Once we + had grown we used more advanced tools such as an in-circuit emulator + which allowed us to examine code as it executed. It proved itself + invaluable when I found that the reason my code was failing was that + the memory ship was defective and the values changed on their own\! + Sometimes it is the hardware\! + + ## Later Enhancements Versions + + The Apple \]\[ version was the key version of VisiCalc. Before we + shipped we added the ability to run demonstration programs and + eventually evolved this into a macro capability for advanced + VisiCalc. + + Before we shipped we started to grow the company and moved from my + attic to share office with John Strayhorn's Renaissance Computing + and hired Steve Lawrence who I had worked with at ECD. + + After the Apple \]\[ we created versions for the Commodore Pet and + the Atari 800 since both use the same processor. Brad Templeton (now + President of EFF) helped us with the Pet port. + + We hired Seth Steinberg to convert the code to the Z80 and he did a + very faithful port. He was very skilled and recognized the goal was + to keep the code base aligned rather than trying to show off his own + skills. + + And then, well, that's another story. + + On October 17th we finally shipped the prototype, now dubbed the + production version, of VisiCalc. diff --git a/_stories/2003/293488.md b/_stories/2003/293488.md index 5a0d1ee..096eeac 100644 --- a/_stories/2003/293488.md +++ b/_stories/2003/293488.md @@ -19,7 +19,187 @@ _tags: objectID: '293488' --- -[Source](https://www.theguardian.com/world/2003/jun/24/usa.science "Permalink to ") +It's one of the burning questions of the moment: how easy would it be +for a country with no nuclear expertise to build an A-bomb? Forty years +ago in a top-secret project, the US military set about finding out. +Oliver Burkeman talks to the men who solved the nuclear puzzle in just +30 months +Dave Dobson's past is not a secret. Not technically, anyway - not since +the relevant US government intelligence documents were declassified and +placed in the vaults of the National Security Archive, in Washington DC. +But Dobson, now 65, is a modest man, and once he had discovered his +vocation - teaching physics at Beloit College, in Wisconsin - he felt no +need to drop dark hints about his earlier life. You could have taken any +number of classes at Beloit with Professor Dobson, until his recent +retirement, without having any reason to know that in his mid-20s, +working entirely as an amateur and equipped with little more than a +notebook and a library card, he designed a nuclear bomb. +Today his experiences in 1964 - the year he was enlisted into a covert +Pentagon operation known as the Nth Country Project - suddenly seem as +terrifyingly relevant as ever. The question the project was designed to +answer was a simple one: could a couple of non-experts, with brains but +no access to classified research, crack the "nuclear secret"? In the +aftermath of the Cuban missile crisis, panic had seeped into the arms +debate. Only Britain, America, France and the Soviet Union had the bomb; +the US military desperately hoped that if the instructions for building +it could be kept secret, proliferation - to a fifth country, a sixth +country, an "Nth country", hence the project's name - could be averted. +Today, the fear is back: with al-Qaida resurgent, North Korea out of +control, and nuclear rumours emanating from any number of "rogue +states", we cling, at least, to the belief that not just anyone could +figure out how to make an atom bomb. The trouble is that, 40 years ago, +anyone did. +The quest to discover whether an amateur was up to the task presented +the US Army with the profoundly bizarre challenge of trying to find +people with exactly the right lack of qualifications, recalls Bob +Selden, who eventually became the other half of the two-man project. +(Another early participant, David Pipkorn, soon left.) Both men had +physics PhDs - the hypothetical Nth country would have access to those, +it was assumed - but they had no nuclear expertise, let alone access to +secret research. + +"It's a very strange story," says Selden, then a lowly 28-year-old +soldier drafted into the army and wondering how to put his talents to +use, when he received a message that Edward Teller, the father of the +hydrogen bomb and the grumpy commanding figure in the US atomic +programme, wanted to see him. "I went to DC and we spent an evening +together. But he began to question me in great detail about the physics +of making a nuclear weapon, and I didn't know anything. As the evening +wore on, I knew less and less. I went away very, very discouraged. Two +days later a call comes through: they want you to come to Livermore." + +Livermore was the Livermore Radiation Laboratory, a fabled army facility +in California, and the place where Dave Dobson, in a similarly surreal +fashion, was initiated into the project. The institution's head offered +him a job. The work would be "interesting", he promised, but he couldn't +say more until Dobson had the required security clearance. And he +couldn't get the clearance unless he accepted the job. He only learned +afterwards what he was expected to do. "My first thought," he says +today, with characteristic understatement, "was, 'Oh, my. That sounds +like a bit of a challenge.'" + +They would be working in a murky limbo between the world of military +secrets and the public domain. They would have an office at Livermore, +but no access to its warrens of restricted offices and corridors; they +would be banned from consulting classified research but, on the other +hand, anything they produced - diagrams in sketchbooks, notes on the +backs of envelopes - would be automatically top secret. And since the +bomb that they were designing wouldn't, of course, actually be built and +detonated, they would have to follow an arcane, precisely choreographed +ritual for having their work tested as they went along. They were to +explain at length, on paper, what part of their developing design they +wanted to test, and they would pass it, through an assigned lab worker, +into Livermore's restricted world. Days later, the results would come +back - though whether as the result of real tests or hypothetical +calculations, they would never know. + +"The goal of the participants should be to design an explosive with a +militarily significant yield," read the "operating rules", unearthed by +the nuclear historian Dan Stober in a recent study of the project +published in the Bulletin of the Atomic Sciences. "A working context for +the experiment might be that the participants have been asked to design +a nuclear explosive which, if built in small numbers, would give a small +nation a significant effect on their foreign relations." + +Dobson's knowledge of nuclear bombs was rudimentary, to say the least. +"I just had the idea that \[to make a bomb\] you had to quickly put a +bunch of fissile material together somehow," he recalls. The two men +were assigned to one of Livermore's less desirable office spaces, in a +converted army barracks near the facility's perimeter. Bob Selden found +a book on the Manhattan Project that culminated in America's development +of the bomb. "It gave us a road map," Dobson says. "But we knew there +would be important ideas they'd deliberately left out because they were +secret. This was one of the things that produced a little bit of +paranoia in us. Were we being led down the garden path?" + +They faced one key decision, Dobson says: whether to design a gun-style +bomb, like the one dropped on Hiroshima, that used a sawn-off howitzer +to crash two pieces of fissile material together, or a more complex +implosion bomb, like that dropped on Nagasaki. By now they were +beginning to enjoy the challenge, so they went for the harder, more +impressive option. "The gun device needed a large amount of material, +and didn't make a very big bang," Dobson says. "The other one was more +bang, less material." + +Dobson and Selden had decided to assume that their fictional Nth Country +had already obtained the requisite plutonium - a huge assump tion, since +it would be, almost certainly, the hardest part - but there was plenty +more to consider. "Obtaining the fissile material is really the major +problem - that drives the whole project," says Selden. "But the process +of designing the weapon - I'm always careful to point out that many +people overstate how easy it is. You really have to do it right, and +there are thousands of ways to do it wrong. You can't just guess." + +As Stober's study noted, the two amateurs were ironically aided by +information published as part of President Dwight Eisenhower's "Atoms +for Peace" program, which spread word of the benefits of non-military +nuclear power around the world. And Atoms for Peace was only the most +prominent example of a fad for everything nuclear that propelled a huge +amount of technical detail into the public domain. + +Eventually, towards the end of 1966, two and a half years after they +began, they were finished. "We produced a short document that described +precisely, in engineering terms, what we proposed to build and what +materials were involved," says Selden. "The whole works, in great +detail, so that this thing could have been made by Joe's Machine Shop +downtown." + +Agonisingly, though, at the moment they believed they had triumphed, +Dobson and Selden were kept in the dark about whether they had +succeeded. Instead, for two weeks, the army put them on the lecture +circuit, touring them around the upper echelons of Washington, +presenting them for cross-questioning at defence and scientific +agencies. Their questioners, people with the highest levels of security +clearance, were instructed not to ask questions that would reveal secret +information. They fell into two camps, Selden says: "One had been +holding on to the hope that designing a bomb would be very difficult. +The other argued that it was essentially trivial - that a high-school +science student could do it in their garage." If the two physics +postdocs had pulled it off, their result, it seemed, would fall +somewhere between the two - "a straightforward technical problem, but +one that involves some rather sophisticated physics". + +Finally, after a valedictory presentation at Livermore attended by a +grumpy Edward Teller, they were pulled aside by a senior researcher, Jim +Frank. "Jim said, 'I bet you guys want to know how it turned out,'" +Dobson recalls. "We said yes. And he told us that if it had been +constructed, it would have made a pretty impressive bang." How +impressive, they wanted to know. "On the same order of magnitude as +Hiroshima," Frank replied. + +"It's kind of a depressing thing to know, that it could be that easy," +Dobson says. "On the other hand, it's far better to know the truth." And +the truth today, he is certain, is that terrorists - with a bit of luck +and, crucially, access to the right materials - could easily build a +nuclear bomb. "Back in the 50s, there were two schools of thought - that +the ideas could be kept secret, and that the material could be locked +up. Now? Well, hopefully the materials can still be locked up, but we +all have our doubts about that." Obtaining sufficiently enriched fissile +material could be difficult but, when it comes to creating the bomb, "It +turns out it's not overwhelmingly difficult. There are some subtleties +that are not trivial ... but an awful lot has been published. If you +were a grad student today, and you reviewed the literature, a lot of +pieces would fall into place." + +It was, relatively speaking, easy - so easy that both Selden and Dobson +seem to have emerged from the Nth Country Experiment deeply troubled by +their own capacities. Selden stayed in the military, on a career that +sent him from Livermore to the army's other major research base, at Los +Alamos, and is still a member of the US Air Force Scientific Advisory +Board; he has been closely involved in planning how the US might respond +to a nuclear terrorist incident. Dobson, meanwhile, felt so +uncomfortable that he left the sector entirely. "It was one thing to +work on a project which was hopefully going to illuminate the decision +makers so they could see that weapons were easily designed," he says. +"It was a rather different thing to go in and say, 'OK, for example, +let's make a thermonuclear device that's only four inches in diameter.' +That's an acceleration of the arms race, and I didn't really want to do +that." + +Einstein was famously said to have commented that if he had only known +that his theories would lead to the development of the atom bomb, he +would have been a locksmith. Dave Dobson, having designed one, got a job +as a teacher. diff --git a/_stories/2003/484779.md b/_stories/2003/484779.md index d806cef..c5582b1 100644 --- a/_stories/2003/484779.md +++ b/_stories/2003/484779.md @@ -21,99 +21,144 @@ _tags: objectID: '484779' --- -[Source](http://www.nytimes.com/2003/09/07/magazine/the-futile-pursuit-of-happiness.html "Permalink to The Futile Pursuit of Happiness - The New York Times") +''The average person says, 'I know I'll be happier with a Porsche than a +Chevy,' '' Gilbert explains. '' 'Or with Linda rather than Rosalyn. Or +as a doctor rather than as a plumber.' That seems very clear to people. +The problem is, I can't get into medical school or afford the Porsche. +So for the average person, the obstacle between them and happiness is +actually getting the futures that they desire. But what our research +shows -- not just ours, but Loewenstein's and Kahneman's -- is that the +real problem is figuring out which of those futures is going to have the +high payoff and is really going to make you happy. -# The Futile Pursuit of Happiness - The New York Times +''You know, the Stones said, 'You can't always get what you want,' '' +Gilbert adds. ''I don't think that's the problem. The problem is you +can't always know what you want.'' -__NYTimes.com no longer supports Internet Explorer 9 or earlier. Please upgrade your browser. [LEARN MORE »][1] +gilbert's papers on affective forecasting began to appear in the late +1990's, but the idea to study happiness and emotional prediction +actually came to him on a sunny afternoon in October 1992, just as he +and his friend Jonathan Jay Koehler sat down for lunch outside the +psychology building at the University of Texas at Austin, where both men +were teaching at the time. Gilbert was uninspired about his studies and +says he felt despair about his failing marriage. And as he launched into +a discussion of his personal life, he swerved to ask why economists +focus on the financial aspects of decision making rather than the +emotional ones. Koehler recalls, ''Gilbert said something like: 'It all +seems so small. It isn't really about money; it's about happiness. Isn't +that what everybody wants to know when we make a decision?' '' For a +moment, Gilbert forgot his troubles, and two more questions came to him. +Do we even know what makes us happy? And if it's difficult to figure out +what makes us happy in the moment, how can we predict what will make us +happy in the future? -__Sections __ Home __Search [Skip to content][2] [Skip to navigation][3] [View mobile version][4] +In the early 1990's, for an up-and-coming psychology professor like +Gilbert to switch his field of inquiry from how we perceive one another +to happiness, as he did that day, was just a hairsbreadth short of +bizarre. But Gilbert has always liked questions that lead him somewhere +new. Now 45, Gilbert dropped out of high school at 15, hooking into what +he calls ''the tail end of the hippie movement'' and hitchhiking +aimlessly from town to town with his guitar. He met his wife on the +road; she was hitching in the other direction. They married at 17, had a +son at 18 and settled down in Denver. ''I pulled weeds, I sold rebar, I +sold carpet, I installed carpet, I spent a lot of time as a phone +solicitor,'' he recalls. During this period he spent several years +turning out science-fiction stories for magazines like Amazing Stories. +Thus, in addition to being ''one of the most gifted social psychologists +of our age,'' as the psychology writer and professor David G. Myers +describes him to me, Gilbert is the author of ''The Essence of Grunk,'' +a story about an encounter with a creature made of egg salad that jets +around the galaxy in a rocket-powered refrigerator. -## [ The New York Times ][5] +Psychology was a matter of happenstance. In the midst of his sci-fi +career, Gilbert tried to sign up for a writing course at the local +community college, but the class was full; he figured that psych, still +accepting registrants, would help him with character development in his +fiction. It led instead to an undergraduate degree at the University of +Colorado at Denver, then a Ph.D. at Princeton, then an appointment at +the University of Texas, then the appointment at Harvard. ''People ask +why I study happiness,'' Gilbert says, ''and I say, 'Why study anything +else?' It's the holy grail. We're studying the thing that all human +action is directed toward.'' -###### [Magazine][6]|The Futile Pursuit of Happiness +One experiment of Gilbert's had students in a photography class at +Harvard choose two favorite pictures from among those they had just +taken and then relinquish one to the teacher. Some students were told +their choices were permanent; others were told they could exchange their +prints after several days. As it turned out, those who had time to +change their minds were less pleased with their decisions than those +whose choices were irrevocable. -__Search - -Subscribe Now Log In __0 __Settings - -__Close search - -## Site Search Navigation - -Search NYTimes.com - -__Clear this text input - -Go - -## Site Navigation - -## Site Mobile Navigation +Much of Gilbert's research is in this vein. Another recent study asked +whether transit riders in Boston who narrowly missed their trains +experienced the self-blame that people tend to predict they'll feel in +this situation. (They did not.) And a paper waiting to be published, +''The Peculiar Longevity of Things Not So Bad,'' examines why we expect +that bigger problems will always dwarf minor annoyances. ''When really +bad things happen to us, we defend against them,'' Gilbert explains. +''People, of course, predict the exact opposite. If you ask, 'What would +you rather have, a broken leg or a trick knee?' they'd probably say, +'Trick knee.' And yet, if your goal is to accumulate maximum happiness +over your lifetime, you just made the wrong choice. A trick knee is a +bad thing to have.'' Advertisement -Supported by +[Continue reading the main story](#story-continues-4) -### [Magazine][6] +All of these studies establish the links between prediction, decision +making and well-being. The photography experiment challenges our common +assumption that we would be happier with the option to change our minds +when in fact we're happier with closure. The transit experiment +demonstrates that we tend to err in estimating our regret over missed +opportunities. The ''things not so bad'' work shows our failure to +imagine how grievously irritations compromise our satisfaction. Our +emotional defenses snap into action when it comes to a divorce or a +disease but not for lesser problems. We fix the leaky roof on our house, +but over the long haul, the broken screen door we never mend adds up to +more frustration. -# The Futile Pursuit of Happiness +Gilbert does not believe all forecasting mistakes lead to similar +results; a death in the family, a new gym membership and a new husband +are not the same, but in how they affect our well-being they are +similar. ''Our research simply says that whether it's the thing that +matters or the thing that doesn't, both of them matter less than you +think they will,'' he says. ''Things that happen to you or that you buy +or own -- as much as you think they make a difference to your happiness, +you're wrong by a certain amount. You're overestimating how much of a +difference they make. None of them make the difference you think. And +that's true of positive and negative events.'' -By JON GERTNERSEPT. 7, 2003 +Much of the work of Kahneman, Loewenstein, Gilbert and Wilson takes its +cue from the concept of adaptation, a term psychologists have used since +at least the 1950's to refer to how we acclimate to changing +circumstances. George Loewenstein sums up this human capacity as +follows: ''Happiness is a signal that our brains use to motivate us to +do certain things. And in the same way that our eye adapts to different +levels of illumination, we're designed to kind of go back to the +happiness set point. Our brains are not trying to be happy. Our brains +are trying to regulate us.'' In this respect, the tendency toward +adaptation suggests why the impact bias is so pervasive. As Tim Wilson +says: ''We don't realize how quickly we will adapt to a pleasurable +event and make it the backdrop of our lives. When any event occurs to +us, we make it ordinary. And through becoming ordinary, we lose our +pleasure.'' -[Continue reading the main story][7] Share This Page - -[Continue reading the main story][7] - -If Daniel Gilbert is right, then you are wrong. That is to say, if Daniel Gilbert is right, then you are wrong to believe that a new car will make you as happy as you imagine. You are wrong to believe that a new kitchen will make you happy for as long as you imagine. You are wrong to think that you will be more unhappy with a big single setback (a broken wrist, a broken heart) than with a lesser chronic one (a trick knee, a tense marriage). You are wrong to assume that job failure will be crushing. You are wrong to expect that a death in the family will leave you bereft for year upon year, forever and ever. You are even wrong to reckon that a cheeseburger you order in a restaurant -- this week, next week, a year from now, it doesn't really matter when -- will definitely hit the spot. That's because when it comes to predicting exactly how you will feel in the future, you are most likely wrong. - -A professor in Harvard's department of psychology, Gilbert likes to tell people that he studies happiness. But it would be more precise to say that Gilbert -- along with the psychologist Tim Wilson of the University of Virginia, the economist George Loewenstein of Carnegie-Mellon and the psychologist (and Nobel laureate in economics) Daniel Kahneman of Princeton -- has taken the lead in studying a specific type of emotional and behavioral prediction. In the past few years, these four men have begun to question the decision-making process that shapes our sense of well-being: how do we predict what will make us happy or unhappy -- and then how do we feel after the actual experience? For example, how do we suppose we'll feel if our favorite college football team wins or loses, and then how do we really feel a few days after the game? How do we predict we'll feel about purchasing jewelry, having children, buying a big house or being rich? And then how do we regard the outcomes? According to this small corps of academics, almost all actions -- the decision to buy jewelry, have kids, buy the big house or work exhaustively for a fatter paycheck -- are based on our predictions of the emotional consequences of these events. - -Until recently, this was uncharted territory. How we forecast our feelings, and whether those predictions match our future emotional states, had never been the stuff of laboratory research. But in scores of experiments, Gilbert, Wilson, Kahneman and Loewenstein have made a slew of observations and conclusions that undermine a number of fundamental assumptions: namely, that we humans understand what we want and are adept at improving our well-being -- that we are good at maximizing our utility, in the jargon of traditional economics. Further, their work on prediction raises some unsettling and somewhat more personal questions. To understand affective forecasting, as Gilbert has termed these studies, is to wonder if everything you have ever thought about life choices, and about happiness, has been at the least somewhat naïve and, at worst, greatly mistaken. - -The problem, as Gilbert and company have come to discover, is that we falter when it comes to imagining how we will feel about something in the future. It isn't that we get the big things wrong. We know we will experience visits to Le Cirque and to the periodontist differently; we can accurately predict that we'd rather be stuck in Montauk than in a Midtown elevator. What Gilbert has found, however, is that we overestimate the intensity and the duration of our emotional reactions -- our ''affect'' -- to future events. In other words, we might believe that a new BMW will make life perfect. But it will almost certainly be less exciting than we anticipated; nor will it excite us for as long as predicted. The vast majority of Gilbert's test participants through the years have consistently made just these sorts of errors both in the laboratory and in real-life situations. And whether Gilbert's subjects were trying to predict how they would feel in the future about a plate of spaghetti with meat sauce, the defeat of a preferred political candidate or romantic rejection seemed not to matter. On average, bad events proved less intense and more transient than test participants predicted. Good events proved less intense and briefer as well. - -Advertisement - -[Continue reading the main story][7] - -Gilbert and his collaborator Tim Wilson call the gap between what we predict and what we ultimately experience the ''impact bias'' -- ''impact'' meaning the errors we make in estimating both the intensity and duration of our emotions and ''bias'' our tendency to err. The phrase characterizes how we experience the dimming excitement over not just a BMW but also over any object or event that we presume will make us happy. Would a 20 percent raise or winning the lottery result in a contented life? You may predict it will, but almost surely it won't turn out that way. And a new plasma television? You may have high hopes, but the impact bias suggests that it will almost certainly be less cool, and in a shorter time, than you imagine. Worse, Gilbert has noted that these mistakes of expectation can lead directly to mistakes in choosing what we think will give us pleasure. He calls this ''miswanting.'' - -[Continue reading the main story][8] - -Advertisement - -[Continue reading the main story][9] - -''The average person says, 'I know I'll be happier with a Porsche than a Chevy,' '' Gilbert explains. '' 'Or with Linda rather than Rosalyn. Or as a doctor rather than as a plumber.' That seems very clear to people. The problem is, I can't get into medical school or afford the Porsche. So for the average person, the obstacle between them and happiness is actually getting the futures that they desire. But what our research shows -- not just ours, but Loewenstein's and Kahneman's -- is that the real problem is figuring out which of those futures is going to have the high payoff and is really going to make you happy. - -''You know, the Stones said, 'You can't always get what you want,' '' Gilbert adds. ''I don't think that's the problem. The problem is you can't always know what you want.'' - -gilbert's papers on affective forecasting began to appear in the late 1990's, but the idea to study happiness and emotional prediction actually came to him on a sunny afternoon in October 1992, just as he and his friend Jonathan Jay Koehler sat down for lunch outside the psychology building at the University of Texas at Austin, where both men were teaching at the time. Gilbert was uninspired about his studies and says he felt despair about his failing marriage. And as he launched into a discussion of his personal life, he swerved to ask why economists focus on the financial aspects of decision making rather than the emotional ones. Koehler recalls, ''Gilbert said something like: 'It all seems so small. It isn't really about money; it's about happiness. Isn't that what everybody wants to know when we make a decision?' '' For a moment, Gilbert forgot his troubles, and two more questions came to him. Do we even know what makes us happy? And if it's difficult to figure out what makes us happy in the moment, how can we predict what will make us happy in the future? - -In the early 1990's, for an up-and-coming psychology professor like Gilbert to switch his field of inquiry from how we perceive one another to happiness, as he did that day, was just a hairsbreadth short of bizarre. But Gilbert has always liked questions that lead him somewhere new. Now 45, Gilbert dropped out of high school at 15, hooking into what he calls ''the tail end of the hippie movement'' and hitchhiking aimlessly from town to town with his guitar. He met his wife on the road; she was hitching in the other direction. They married at 17, had a son at 18 and settled down in Denver. ''I pulled weeds, I sold rebar, I sold carpet, I installed carpet, I spent a lot of time as a phone solicitor,'' he recalls. During this period he spent several years turning out science-fiction stories for magazines like Amazing Stories. Thus, in addition to being ''one of the most gifted social psychologists of our age,'' as the psychology writer and professor David G. Myers describes him to me, Gilbert is the author of ''The Essence of Grunk,'' a story about an encounter with a creature made of egg salad that jets around the galaxy in a rocket-powered refrigerator. - -Psychology was a matter of happenstance. In the midst of his sci-fi career, Gilbert tried to sign up for a writing course at the local community college, but the class was full; he figured that psych, still accepting registrants, would help him with character development in his fiction. It led instead to an undergraduate degree at the University of Colorado at Denver, then a Ph.D. at Princeton, then an appointment at the University of Texas, then the appointment at Harvard. ''People ask why I study happiness,'' Gilbert says, ''and I say, 'Why study anything else?' It's the holy grail. We're studying the thing that all human action is directed toward.'' - -One experiment of Gilbert's had students in a photography class at Harvard choose two favorite pictures from among those they had just taken and then relinquish one to the teacher. Some students were told their choices were permanent; others were told they could exchange their prints after several days. As it turned out, those who had time to change their minds were less pleased with their decisions than those whose choices were irrevocable. - -Much of Gilbert's research is in this vein. Another recent study asked whether transit riders in Boston who narrowly missed their trains experienced the self-blame that people tend to predict they'll feel in this situation. (They did not.) And a paper waiting to be published, ''The Peculiar Longevity of Things Not So Bad,'' examines why we expect that bigger problems will always dwarf minor annoyances. ''When really bad things happen to us, we defend against them,'' Gilbert explains. ''People, of course, predict the exact opposite. If you ask, 'What would you rather have, a broken leg or a trick knee?' they'd probably say, 'Trick knee.' And yet, if your goal is to accumulate maximum happiness over your lifetime, you just made the wrong choice. A trick knee is a bad thing to have.'' - -Advertisement - -[Continue reading the main story][10] - -All of these studies establish the links between prediction, decision making and well-being. The photography experiment challenges our common assumption that we would be happier with the option to change our minds when in fact we're happier with closure. The transit experiment demonstrates that we tend to err in estimating our regret over missed opportunities. The ''things not so bad'' work shows our failure to imagine how grievously irritations compromise our satisfaction. Our emotional defenses snap into action when it comes to a divorce or a disease but not for lesser problems. We fix the leaky roof on our house, but over the long haul, the broken screen door we never mend adds up to more frustration. - -Gilbert does not believe all forecasting mistakes lead to similar results; a death in the family, a new gym membership and a new husband are not the same, but in how they affect our well-being they are similar. ''Our research simply says that whether it's the thing that matters or the thing that doesn't, both of them matter less than you think they will,'' he says. ''Things that happen to you or that you buy or own -- as much as you think they make a difference to your happiness, you're wrong by a certain amount. You're overestimating how much of a difference they make. None of them make the difference you think. And that's true of positive and negative events.'' - -Much of the work of Kahneman, Loewenstein, Gilbert and Wilson takes its cue from the concept of adaptation, a term psychologists have used since at least the 1950's to refer to how we acclimate to changing circumstances. George Loewenstein sums up this human capacity as follows: ''Happiness is a signal that our brains use to motivate us to do certain things. And in the same way that our eye adapts to different levels of illumination, we're designed to kind of go back to the happiness set point. Our brains are not trying to be happy. Our brains are trying to regulate us.'' In this respect, the tendency toward adaptation suggests why the impact bias is so pervasive. As Tim Wilson says: ''We don't realize how quickly we will adapt to a pleasurable event and make it the backdrop of our lives. When any event occurs to us, we make it ordinary. And through becoming ordinary, we lose our pleasure.'' - -It is easy to overlook something new and crucial in what Wilson is saying. Not that we invariably lose interest in bright and shiny things over time -- this is a long-known trait -- but that we're generally unable to recognize that we adapt to new circumstances and therefore fail to incorporate this fact into our decisions. So, yes, we will adapt to the BMW and the plasma TV, since we adapt to virtually everything. But Wilson and Gilbert and others have shown that we seem unable to predict that we will adapt. Thus, when we find the pleasure derived from a thing diminishing, we move on to the next thing or event and almost certainly make another error of prediction, and then another, ad infinitum. +It is easy to overlook something new and crucial in what Wilson is +saying. Not that we invariably lose interest in bright and shiny things +over time -- this is a long-known trait -- but that we're generally +unable to recognize that we adapt to new circumstances and therefore +fail to incorporate this fact into our decisions. So, yes, we will adapt +to the BMW and the plasma TV, since we adapt to virtually everything. +But Wilson and Gilbert and others have shown that we seem unable to +predict that we will adapt. Thus, when we find the pleasure derived from +a thing diminishing, we move on to the next thing or event and almost +certainly make another error of prediction, and then another, ad +infinitum. ## Newsletter Sign Up -[Continue reading the main story][11] +[Continue reading the main story](#continues-post-newsletter) ### @@ -123,277 +168,243 @@ Invalid email address. Please re-enter. You must select a newsletter to subscribe to. -Sign Up - -You agree to receive occasional updates and special offers for The New York Times's products and services. +You agree to receive occasional updates and special offers for The New +York Times's products and services. ### Thank you for subscribing. ### An error has occurred. Please try again later. -### You are already subscribed to this email. +[View all New York Times newsletters.](/newsletters) -[View all New York Times newsletters.][12] +As Gilbert points out, this glitch is also significant when it comes to +negative events like losing a job or the death of someone we love, in +response to which we project a permanently inconsolable future. ''The +thing I'm most interested in, that I've spent the most time studying, is +our failure to recognize how powerful psychological defenses are once +they're activated,'' Gilbert says. ''We've used the metaphor of the +'psychological immune system' -- it's just a metaphor, but not a bad one +for that system of defenses that helps you feel better when bad things +happen. Observers of the human condition since Aristotle have known that +people have these defenses. Freud spent his life, and his daughter Anna +spent her life, worrying about these defenses. What's surprising is that +people don't seem to recognize that they have these defenses, and that +these defenses will be triggered by negative events.'' During the course +of my interviews with Gilbert, a close friend of his died. ''I am like +everyone in thinking, I'll never get over this and life will never be +good again,'' he wrote to me in an e-mail message as he planned a trip +to Texas for the funeral. ''But because of my work, there is always a +voice in the back of my head -- a voice that wears a lab coat and has a +lot of data tucked under its arm -- that says, 'Yes, you will, and yes, +it will.' And I know that voice is right.'' -* [See Sample][13] -* [Manage Email Preferences][14] -* [Not you?][15] -* [Privacy Policy][16] -* Opt out or [contact us][17] anytime +Still, the argument that we imperfectly imagine what we want and how we +will cope is nevertheless disorienting. On the one hand, it can cast a +shadow of regret on some life decisions. Why did I decide that working +100 hours a week to earn more would make me happy? Why did I think +retiring to Sun City, Ariz., would please me? On the other hand, it can +be enlightening. No wonder this teak patio set hasn't made me as happy +as I expected. Even if she dumps me, I'll be O.K. Either way, predicting +how things will feel to us over the long term is mystifying. A large +body of research on well-being seems to suggest that wealth above +middle-class comfort makes little difference to our happiness, for +example, or that having children does nothing to improve well-being -- +even as it drives marital satisfaction dramatically down. We often yearn +for a roomy, isolated home (a thing we easily adapt to), when, in fact, +it will probably compromise our happiness by distancing us from +neighbors. (Social interaction and friendships have been shown to give +lasting pleasure.) The big isolated home is what Loewenstein, 48, +himself bought. ''I fell into a trap I never should have fallen into,'' +he told me. -As Gilbert points out, this glitch is also significant when it comes to negative events like losing a job or the death of someone we love, in response to which we project a permanently inconsolable future. ''The thing I'm most interested in, that I've spent the most time studying, is our failure to recognize how powerful psychological defenses are once they're activated,'' Gilbert says. ''We've used the metaphor of the 'psychological immune system' -- it's just a metaphor, but not a bad one for that system of defenses that helps you feel better when bad things happen. Observers of the human condition since Aristotle have known that people have these defenses. Freud spent his life, and his daughter Anna spent her life, worrying about these defenses. What's surprising is that people don't seem to recognize that they have these defenses, and that these defenses will be triggered by negative events.'' During the course of my interviews with Gilbert, a close friend of his died. ''I am like everyone in thinking, I'll never get over this and life will never be good again,'' he wrote to me in an e-mail message as he planned a trip to Texas for the funeral. ''But because of my work, there is always a voice in the back of my head -- a voice that wears a lab coat and has a lot of data tucked under its arm -- that says, 'Yes, you will, and yes, it will.' And I know that voice is right.'' +Loewenstein's office is up a narrow stairway in a hidden corner of an +enormous, worn brick building on the edge of the Carnegie-Mellon campus +in Pittsburgh. He and Gilbert make for an interesting contrast. Gilbert +is garrulous, theatrical, dazzling in his speech and writing; he fills a +room. Loewenstein is soft-spoken, given to abstraction and lithe in the +way of a hard-core athlete; he seems to float around a room. Both men +profess tremendous admiration for the other, and their different +disciplines -- psychology and economics -- have made their overlapping +interests in affective forecasting more complementary than fraught. +While Gilbert's most notable contribution to affective forecasting is +the impact bias, Loewenstein's is something called the ''empathy gap.'' -Still, the argument that we imperfectly imagine what we want and how we will cope is nevertheless disorienting. On the one hand, it can cast a shadow of regret on some life decisions. Why did I decide that working 100 hours a week to earn more would make me happy? Why did I think retiring to Sun City, Ariz., would please me? On the other hand, it can be enlightening. No wonder this teak patio set hasn't made me as happy as I expected. Even if she dumps me, I'll be O.K. Either way, predicting how things will feel to us over the long term is mystifying. A large body of research on well-being seems to suggest that wealth above middle-class comfort makes little difference to our happiness, for example, or that having children does nothing to improve well-being -- even as it drives marital satisfaction dramatically down. We often yearn for a roomy, isolated home (a thing we easily adapt to), when, in fact, it will probably compromise our happiness by distancing us from neighbors. (Social interaction and friendships have been shown to give lasting pleasure.) The big isolated home is what Loewenstein, 48, himself bought. ''I fell into a trap I never should have fallen into,'' he told me. +Here's how it expresses itself. In a recent experiment, Loewenstein +tried to find out how likely people might be to dance alone to Rick +James's ''Super Freak'' in front of a large audience. Many agreed to do +so for a certain amount of money a week in advance, only to renege when +the day came to take the stage. This sounds like a goof, but it gets at +the fundamental difference between how we behave in ''hot'' states +(those of anxiety, courage, fear, drug craving, sexual excitation and +the like) and ''cold'' states of rational calm. This empathy gap in +thought and behavior -- we cannot seem to predict how we will behave in +a hot state when we are in a cold state -- affects happiness in an +important but somewhat less consistent way than the impact bias. ''So +much of our lives involves making decisions that have consequences for +the future,'' Loewenstein says. ''And if our decision making is +influenced by these transient emotional and psychological states, then +we know we're not making decisions with an eye toward future +consequences.'' This may be as simple as an unfortunate proclamation of +love in a moment of lust, Loewenstein explains, or something darker, +like an act of road rage or of suicide. -Loewenstein's office is up a narrow stairway in a hidden corner of an enormous, worn brick building on the edge of the Carnegie-Mellon campus in Pittsburgh. He and Gilbert make for an interesting contrast. Gilbert is garrulous, theatrical, dazzling in his speech and writing; he fills a room. Loewenstein is soft-spoken, given to abstraction and lithe in the way of a hard-core athlete; he seems to float around a room. Both men profess tremendous admiration for the other, and their different disciplines -- psychology and economics -- have made their overlapping interests in affective forecasting more complementary than fraught. While Gilbert's most notable contribution to affective forecasting is the impact bias, Loewenstein's is something called the ''empathy gap.'' - -Here's how it expresses itself. In a recent experiment, Loewenstein tried to find out how likely people might be to dance alone to Rick James's ''Super Freak'' in front of a large audience. Many agreed to do so for a certain amount of money a week in advance, only to renege when the day came to take the stage. This sounds like a goof, but it gets at the fundamental difference between how we behave in ''hot'' states (those of anxiety, courage, fear, drug craving, sexual excitation and the like) and ''cold'' states of rational calm. This empathy gap in thought and behavior -- we cannot seem to predict how we will behave in a hot state when we are in a cold state -- affects happiness in an important but somewhat less consistent way than the impact bias. ''So much of our lives involves making decisions that have consequences for the future,'' Loewenstein says. ''And if our decision making is influenced by these transient emotional and psychological states, then we know we're not making decisions with an eye toward future consequences.'' This may be as simple as an unfortunate proclamation of love in a moment of lust, Loewenstein explains, or something darker, like an act of road rage or of suicide. - -Among other things, this line of inquiry has led Loewenstein to collaborate with health experts looking into why people engage in unprotected sex when they would never agree to do so in moments of cool calculation. Data from tests in which volunteers are asked how they would behave in various ''heat of the moment'' situations -- whether they would have sex with a minor, for instance, or act forcefully with a partner who asks them to stop -- have consistently shown that different states of arousal can alter answers by astonishing margins. ''These kinds of states have the ability to change us so profoundly that we're more different from ourselves in different states than we are from another person,'' Loewenstein says. +Among other things, this line of inquiry has led Loewenstein to +collaborate with health experts looking into why people engage in +unprotected sex when they would never agree to do so in moments of cool +calculation. Data from tests in which volunteers are asked how they +would behave in various ''heat of the moment'' situations -- whether +they would have sex with a minor, for instance, or act forcefully with a +partner who asks them to stop -- have consistently shown that different +states of arousal can alter answers by astonishing margins. ''These +kinds of states have the ability to change us so profoundly that we're +more different from ourselves in different states than we are from +another person,'' Loewenstein says. Advertisement -[Continue reading the main story][18] +[Continue reading the main story](#story-continues-5) -Part of Loewenstein's curiosity about hot and cold states comes from situations in which his emotions have been pitted against his intellect. When he's not teaching, he treks around the world, making sure to get to Alaska to hike or kayak at least once a year. A scholar of mountaineering literature, he once wrote a paper that examined why climbers have a poor memory for pain and usually ignore turn-back times at great peril. But he has done the same thing himself many times. He almost died in a whitewater canoeing accident and vowed afterward that he never wanted to see his runaway canoe again. (A couple of hours later, he went looking for it.) The same goes for his climbing pursuits. ''You establish your turn-back time, and then you find yourself still far from the peak,'' he says. ''So you push on. You haven't brought enough food or clothes, and then as a result, you're stuck at 13,000 feet, and you have to just sit there and shiver all night without a sleeping bag or warm clothes. When the sun comes up, you're half-frozen, and you say, 'Never again.' Then you get back and immediately start craving getting out again.'' He pushes the point: ''I have tried to train my emotions.'' But he admits that he may make the same mistakes on his next trip. +Part of Loewenstein's curiosity about hot and cold states comes from +situations in which his emotions have been pitted against his intellect. +When he's not teaching, he treks around the world, making sure to get to +Alaska to hike or kayak at least once a year. A scholar of +mountaineering literature, he once wrote a paper that examined why +climbers have a poor memory for pain and usually ignore turn-back times +at great peril. But he has done the same thing himself many times. He +almost died in a whitewater canoeing accident and vowed afterward that +he never wanted to see his runaway canoe again. (A couple of hours +later, he went looking for it.) The same goes for his climbing pursuits. +''You establish your turn-back time, and then you find yourself still +far from the peak,'' he says. ''So you push on. You haven't brought +enough food or clothes, and then as a result, you're stuck at 13,000 +feet, and you have to just sit there and shiver all night without a +sleeping bag or warm clothes. When the sun comes up, you're half-frozen, +and you say, 'Never again.' Then you get back and immediately start +craving getting out again.'' He pushes the point: ''I have tried to +train my emotions.'' But he admits that he may make the same mistakes on +his next trip. -Would a world without forecasting errors be a better world? Would a life lived without forecasting errors be a richer life? Among the academics who study affective forecasting, there seems little doubt that these sorts of questions will ultimately jump from the academy to the real world. ''If people do not know what is going to make them better off or give them pleasure,'' Daniel Kahneman says, ''then the idea that you can trust people to do what will give them pleasure becomes questionable.'' To Kahneman, who did some of the first experiments in the area in the early 1990's, affective forecasting could greatly influence retirement planning, for example, where mistakes in prediction (how much we save, how much we spend, how we choose a community we think we'll enjoy) can prove irreversible. He sees a role for affective forecasting in consumer spending, where a ''cooling off'' period might remedy buyer's remorse. Most important, he sees vital applications in health care, especially when it comes to informed consent. ''We consider people capable of giving informed consent once they are told of the objective effects of a treatment,'' Kahneman says. ''But can people anticipate how they and other people will react to a colostomy or to the removal of their vocal cords? The research on affective forecasting suggests that people may have little ability to anticipate their adaptation beyond the early stages.'' Loewenstein, along with his collaborator Dr. Peter Ubel, has done a great deal of work showing that nonpatients overestimate the displeasure of living with the loss of a limb, for instance, or paraplegia. To use affective forecasting to prove that people adapt to serious physical challenges far better and will be happier than they imagine, Loewenstein says, could prove invaluable. +Would a world without forecasting errors be a better world? Would a life +lived without forecasting errors be a richer life? Among the academics +who study affective forecasting, there seems little doubt that these +sorts of questions will ultimately jump from the academy to the real +world. ''If people do not know what is going to make them better off or +give them pleasure,'' Daniel Kahneman says, ''then the idea that you can +trust people to do what will give them pleasure becomes questionable.'' +To Kahneman, who did some of the first experiments in the area in the +early 1990's, affective forecasting could greatly influence retirement +planning, for example, where mistakes in prediction (how much we save, +how much we spend, how we choose a community we think we'll enjoy) can +prove irreversible. He sees a role for affective forecasting in consumer +spending, where a ''cooling off'' period might remedy buyer's remorse. +Most important, he sees vital applications in health care, especially +when it comes to informed consent. ''We consider people capable of +giving informed consent once they are told of the objective effects of a +treatment,'' Kahneman says. ''But can people anticipate how they and +other people will react to a colostomy or to the removal of their vocal +cords? The research on affective forecasting suggests that people may +have little ability to anticipate their adaptation beyond the early +stages.'' Loewenstein, along with his collaborator Dr. Peter Ubel, has +done a great deal of work showing that nonpatients overestimate the +displeasure of living with the loss of a limb, for instance, or +paraplegia. To use affective forecasting to prove that people adapt to +serious physical challenges far better and will be happier than they +imagine, Loewenstein says, could prove invaluable. -There are downsides to making public policy in light of this research, too. While walking in Pittsburgh one afternoon, Loewenstein tells me that he doesn't see how anybody could study happiness and not find himself leaning left politically; the data make it all too clear that boosting the living standards of those already comfortable, such as through lower taxes, does little to improve their levels of well-being, whereas raising the living standards of the impoverished makes an enormous difference. Nevertheless, he and Gilbert (who once declared in an academic paper, ''Windfalls are better than pratfalls, A's are better than C's, December 25 is better than April 15, and everything is better than a Republican administration'') seem to lean libertarian in regard to pushing any kind of prescriptive agenda. ''We're very, very nervous about overapplying the research,'' Loewenstein says. ''Just because we figure out that X makes people happy and they're choosing Y, we don't want to impose X on them. I have a discomfort with paternalism and with using the results coming out of our field to impose decisions on people.'' +There are downsides to making public policy in light of this research, +too. While walking in Pittsburgh one afternoon, Loewenstein tells me +that he doesn't see how anybody could study happiness and not find +himself leaning left politically; the data make it all too clear that +boosting the living standards of those already comfortable, such as +through lower taxes, does little to improve their levels of well-being, +whereas raising the living standards of the impoverished makes an +enormous difference. Nevertheless, he and Gilbert (who once declared in +an academic paper, ''Windfalls are better than pratfalls, A's are better +than C's, December 25 is better than April 15, and everything is better +than a Republican administration'') seem to lean libertarian in regard +to pushing any kind of prescriptive agenda. ''We're very, very nervous +about overapplying the research,'' Loewenstein says. ''Just because we +figure out that X makes people happy and they're choosing Y, we don't +want to impose X on them. I have a discomfort with paternalism and with +using the results coming out of our field to impose decisions on +people.'' -Still, Gilbert and Loewenstein can't contain the personal and philosophical questions raised by their work. After talking with both men, I found it hard not to wonder about my own predictions at every turn. At times it seemed like knowing the secret to some parlor trick that was nonetheless very difficult to pull off -- when I ogled a new car at the Honda dealership as I waited for a new muffler on my '92 Accord, for instance, or as my daughter's fever spiked one evening and I imagined something terrible, and then something more terrible thereafter. With some difficulty, I could observe my mind overshooting the mark, zooming past accuracy toward the sublime or the tragic. It was tempting to want to try to think about the future more moderately. But it seemed nearly impossible as well. +Still, Gilbert and Loewenstein can't contain the personal and +philosophical questions raised by their work. After talking with both +men, I found it hard not to wonder about my own predictions at every +turn. At times it seemed like knowing the secret to some parlor trick +that was nonetheless very difficult to pull off -- when I ogled a new +car at the Honda dealership as I waited for a new muffler on my '92 +Accord, for instance, or as my daughter's fever spiked one evening and I +imagined something terrible, and then something more terrible +thereafter. With some difficulty, I could observe my mind overshooting +the mark, zooming past accuracy toward the sublime or the tragic. It was +tempting to want to try to think about the future more moderately. But +it seemed nearly impossible as well. -To Loewenstein, who is especially attendant to the friction between his emotional and deliberative processes, a life without forecasting errors would most likely be a better, happier life. ''If you had a deep understanding of the impact bias and you acted on it, which is not always that easy to do, you would tend to invest your resources in the things that would make you happy,'' he says. This might mean taking more time with friends instead of more time for making money. He also adds that a better understanding of the empathy gap -- those hot and cold states we all find ourselves in on frequent occasions -- could save people from making regrettable decisions in moments of courage or craving. +To Loewenstein, who is especially attendant to the friction between his +emotional and deliberative processes, a life without forecasting errors +would most likely be a better, happier life. ''If you had a deep +understanding of the impact bias and you acted on it, which is not +always that easy to do, you would tend to invest your resources in the +things that would make you happy,'' he says. This might mean taking more +time with friends instead of more time for making money. He also adds +that a better understanding of the empathy gap -- those hot and cold +states we all find ourselves in on frequent occasions -- could save +people from making regrettable decisions in moments of courage or +craving. -Gilbert seems optimistic about using the work in terms of improving ''institutional judgment'' -- how we spend health care dollars, for example -- but less sanguine about using it to improve our personal judgment. He admits that he has taken some of his research to heart; for instance, his work on what he calls the psychological immune system has led him to believe that he would be able to adapt to even the worst turn of events. In addition, he says that he now takes more chances in life, a fact corroborated in at least one aspect by his research partner Tim Wilson, who says that driving with Gilbert in Boston is a terrifying, white-knuckle experience. ''But I should have learned many more lessons from my research than I actually have,'' Gilbert admits. ''I'm getting married in the spring because this woman is going to make me happy forever, and I know it.'' At this, Gilbert laughs, a sudden, booming laugh that fills his Cambridge office. He seems to find it funny not because it's untrue, but because nothing could be more true. This is how he feels. ''I don't think I want to give up all these motivations,'' he says, ''that belief that there's the good and there's the bad and that this is a contest to try to get one and avoid the other. I don't think I want to learn too much from my research in that sense.'' +Gilbert seems optimistic about using the work in terms of improving +''institutional judgment'' -- how we spend health care dollars, for +example -- but less sanguine about using it to improve our personal +judgment. He admits that he has taken some of his research to heart; for +instance, his work on what he calls the psychological immune system has +led him to believe that he would be able to adapt to even the worst turn +of events. In addition, he says that he now takes more chances in life, +a fact corroborated in at least one aspect by his research partner Tim +Wilson, who says that driving with Gilbert in Boston is a terrifying, +white-knuckle experience. ''But I should have learned many more lessons +from my research than I actually have,'' Gilbert admits. ''I'm getting +married in the spring because this woman is going to make me happy +forever, and I know it.'' At this, Gilbert laughs, a sudden, booming +laugh that fills his Cambridge office. He seems to find it funny not +because it's untrue, but because nothing could be more true. This is how +he feels. ''I don't think I want to give up all these motivations,'' he +says, ''that belief that there's the good and there's the bad and that +this is a contest to try to get one and avoid the other. I don't think I +want to learn too much from my research in that sense.'' -Even so, Gilbert is currently working on a complex experiment in which he has made affective forecasting errors ''go away.'' In this test, Gilbert's team asks members of Group A to estimate how they'll feel if they receive negative personality feedback. The impact bias kicks in, of course, and they mostly predict they'll feel terrible, when in fact they end up feeling O.K. But if Gilbert shows Group B that others have gotten the same feedback and felt O.K. afterward, then its members predict they'll feel O.K. as well. The impact bias disappears, and the participants in Group B make accurate predictions. +Even so, Gilbert is currently working on a complex experiment in which +he has made affective forecasting errors ''go away.'' In this test, +Gilbert's team asks members of Group A to estimate how they'll feel if +they receive negative personality feedback. The impact bias kicks in, of +course, and they mostly predict they'll feel terrible, when in fact they +end up feeling O.K. But if Gilbert shows Group B that others have gotten +the same feedback and felt O.K. afterward, then its members predict +they'll feel O.K. as well. The impact bias disappears, and the +participants in Group B make accurate predictions. -This is exciting to Gilbert. But at the same time, it's not a technique he wants to shape into a self-help book, or one that he even imagines could be practically implemented. ''Hope and fear are enduring features of the human experience,'' he says, ''and it is unlikely that people are going to abandon them anytime soon just because some psychologist told them they should.'' In fact, in his recent writings, he has wondered whether forecasting errors might somehow serve a larger functional purpose he doesn't yet understand. If he could wave a wand tomorrow and eliminate all affective-forecasting errors, I ask, would he? ''The benefits of not making this error would seem to be that you get a little more happiness,'' he says. ''When choosing between two jobs, you wouldn't sweat as much because you'd say: 'You know, I'll be happy in both. I'll adapt to either circumstance pretty well, so there's no use in killing myself for the next week.' But maybe our caricatures of the future -- these overinflated assessments of how good or bad things will be -- maybe it's these illusory assessments that keep us moving in one direction over the other. Maybe we don't want a society of people who shrug and say, 'It won't really make a difference.' +This is exciting to Gilbert. But at the same time, it's not a technique +he wants to shape into a self-help book, or one that he even imagines +could be practically implemented. ''Hope and fear are enduring features +of the human experience,'' he says, ''and it is unlikely that people are +going to abandon them anytime soon just because some psychologist told +them they should.'' In fact, in his recent writings, he has wondered +whether forecasting errors might somehow serve a larger functional +purpose he doesn't yet understand. If he could wave a wand tomorrow and +eliminate all affective-forecasting errors, I ask, would he? ''The +benefits of not making this error would seem to be that you get a little +more happiness,'' he says. ''When choosing between two jobs, you +wouldn't sweat as much because you'd say: 'You know, I'll be happy in +both. I'll adapt to either circumstance pretty well, so there's no use +in killing myself for the next week.' But maybe our caricatures of the +future -- these overinflated assessments of how good or bad things will +be -- maybe it's these illusory assessments that keep us moving in one +direction over the other. Maybe we don't want a society of people who +shrug and say, 'It won't really make a difference.' -''Maybe it's important for there to be carrots and sticks in the world, even if they are illusions,'' he adds. ''They keep us moving towards carrots and away from sticks.'' - -Jon Gertner is a contributing writer for Money magazine. - -[Continue reading the main story][19] - -[ - -We’re interested in your feedback on this page. **Tell us what you think.** - -][20] - -## - -* * * * ## What's Next - -Loading... - -[Go to Home Page »][21] - -## Site Index [ The New York Times ][21] - -## Site Index Navigation - -### News - -* [World][22] -* [U.S.][23] -* [Politics][24] -* [N.Y.][25] -* [Business][26] -* [Tech][27] -* [Science][28] -* [Health][29] -* [Sports][30] -* [Education][31] -* [Obituaries][32] -* [Today's Paper][33] -* [Corrections][34] - -### Opinion - -* [Today's Opinion][35] -* [Op-Ed Columnists][36] -* [Editorials][37] -* [Op-Ed Contributors][38] -* [Letters][39] -* [Sunday Review][40] -* [Video: Opinion][41] - -### Arts - -* [Today's Arts][42] -* [Art & Design][43] -* [Books][44] -* [Dance][45] -* [Movies][46] -* [Music][47] -* [N.Y.C. 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https://www.nytimes.com/ref/membercenter/help/infoservdirectory.html -[87]: http://www.nytco.com/careers -[88]: http://nytmediakit.com/ -[89]: https://www.nytimes.com/content/help/rights/privacy/policy/privacy-policy.html#pp -[90]: https://www.nytimes.com/privacy -[91]: https://www.nytimes.com/ref/membercenter/help/agree.html -[92]: https://www.nytimes.com/content/help/rights/sale/terms-of-sale.html -[93]: http://spiderbites.nytimes.com -[94]: https://www.nytimes.com/membercenter/sitehelp.html -[95]: https://myaccount.nytimes.com/membercenter/feedback.html -[96]: https://www.nytimes.com/subscriptions/Multiproduct/lp5558.html?campaignId=37WXW +''Maybe it's important for there to be carrots and sticks in the world, +even if they are illusions,'' he adds. ''They keep us moving towards +carrots and away from sticks.'' +[Continue reading the main story](#whats-next) diff --git a/_stories/2003/5041708.md b/_stories/2003/5041708.md index 409d3c6..c26eed5 100644 --- a/_stories/2003/5041708.md +++ b/_stories/2003/5041708.md @@ -19,7 +19,93 @@ _tags: objectID: '5041708' --- -[Source](https://marc.info/?m=104197092318639 "Permalink to ") - - - + [prev in list] [next in list] [prev in thread] [next in thread] + + List: kfm-devel + Subject: (fwd) Greetings from the Safari team at Apple Computer + From: Dirk Mueller + Date: 2003-01-07 20:19:48 + [Download message RAW] + + Hi, + + Just received this email. I've removed the email addresses, but otherwise + its unmodified. + + ----- Forwarded message from Don Melton @apple.com ----- + + From: Don Melton + Subject: Greetings from the Safari team at Apple Computer + Date: Tue, 7 Jan 2003 11:31:10 -0800 + + Hi, + + I'm the engineering manager of Safari, Apple Computer's new web browser + built upon KHTML and KJS. I'm sending you this email to thank you for + making such a great open source project and introduce myself and my + development team. I also wish to explain why and how we've used your + excellent technology. It's important that you know we're committed to + open source and contributing our changes, now and in the future, back + to you, the original developers. Hopefully this will begin a dialogue + among ourselves for the benefit of both of our projects. + + I've "cc"-ed my team on this email so you know their names and contact + information. Perhaps you already recognize some of those names. Back + in '98 I was one of the people who took Mozilla open source. David + Hyatt is not only the originator of the Chimera web browser project but + also the inventor of XBL. Darin Adler is the former lead of the + Nautilus file manager. Darin, Maciej Stachowiak, John Sullivan, Ken + Kocienda, and I are all Eazel veterans. + + The number one goal for developing Safari was to create the fastest web + browser on Mac OS X. When we were evaluating technologies over a year + ago, KHTML and KJS stood out. Not only were they the basis of an + excellent modern and standards compliant web browser, they were also + less than 140,000 lines of code. The size of your code and ease of + development within that code made it a better choice for us than other + open source projects. Your clean design was also a plus. And the + small size of your code is a significant reason for our winning startup + performance as you can see reflected in the data at + http://www.apple.com/safari/ . + + How did we do it? As you know, KJS is very portable and independent. + The Sherlock team is already using it on Mac OS X in the framework my + team prepared called JavaScriptCore. But because KHTML requires other + components from KDE and Qt, we wrote our own adapter library called KWQ + (and pronounced "quack") that replaces these other components. KHTML + and KWQ have been encapsulated in a framework called WebCore. We've + also made significant enhancements, bug fixes, and performance + improvements to KHTML and KJS. + + Both WebCore and JavaScriptCore, which account for a little over half + the code in Safari, are being released as open source today. They + should be available at + http://developer.apple.com/darwin/projects/webcore/ very soon. Also, + we'll be sending you another email soon which details our changes and + additions to KHTML and KJS. I hope the detailed list in that email + will help you understand what we've done a little better. We'd also + like to send this information to the appropriate KDE mailing list. + Please advise us on which one to use. + + We look forward to your comments. We'd also like to speak to you and + we'd be happy to set up a conference call at our expense for this + purpose. + + Thank you again for making KHTML and KJS. + + Please forward this email to any contributor whom I may have missed. + + -- + Don Melton + Safari Engineering Manager + Apple Computer + + P.S. -- I'm sending you this email while attending MacWorld exposition + so it may take myself and my staff several hours before we can respond + to email. My apologies in advance. + + ----- End forwarded message ----- + + -- + Dirk (received 493 mails today) + [prev in list] [next in list] [prev in thread] [next in thread] diff --git a/_stories/2003/6310555.md b/_stories/2003/6310555.md index 7bcf738..0f80a9c 100644 --- a/_stories/2003/6310555.md +++ b/_stories/2003/6310555.md @@ -19,7 +19,71 @@ _tags: objectID: '6310555' --- -[Source](https://www.joelonsoftware.com/items/2003/10/13.html "Permalink to ") +**Exceptions** +People have asked why I don’t like programming with exceptions. In both +Java and C++, my policy is: +1. Never throw an exception of my own +2. Always catch any possible exception that might be thrown by a + library I’m using on the same line as it is thrown and deal with it + immediately. +The reasoning is that I consider exceptions to be no better than +“goto’s”, [considered harmful](http://www.acm.org/classics/oct95/) +since the 1960s, in that they create an abrupt jump from one point of +code to another. In fact they are significantly worse than goto’s: + +1. **They are invisible in the source code.** Looking at a block of + code, including functions which may or may not throw exceptions, + there is no way to see which exceptions might be thrown and from + where. This means that even careful code inspection doesn’t reveal + potential bugs. +2. **They create too many possible exit points** for a function. To + write correct code, you really have to think about every possible + code path through your function. Every time you call a function that + can raise an exception and don’t catch it on the spot, you create + opportunities for surprise bugs caused by functions that terminated + abruptly, leaving data in an inconsistent state, or other code paths + that you didn’t think about. + +A better alternative is to have your functions return error values when +things go wrong, and to deal with these explicitly, no matter how +verbose it might be. It is true that what should be a simple 3 line +program often blossoms to 48 lines when you put in good error checking, +but that’s life, and papering it over with exceptions does not make your +program more robust. I think the reason programmers in C/C++/Java style +languages have been attracted to exceptions is simply because the syntax +does not have a concise way to call a function that returns multiple +values, so it’s hard to write a function that either produces a return +value or returns an error. (The only languages I have used extensively +that do let you return multiple values nicely are ML and Haskell.) In +C/C++/Java style languages one way you can handle errors is to use the +real return value for a result status, and if you have anything you want +to return, use an OUT parameter to do that. This has the unforunate side +effect of making it impossible to nest function calls, so **result = +f(g(x))** must become: + +> T tmp; +> if (ERROR == g(x, tmp)) +>      errorhandling; +> if (ERROR == f(tmp, result)) +>      errorhandling; + +This is ugly and annoying but it’s better than getting magic unexpected +gotos sprinkled throughout your code at unpredictable places. + +**PHP** + +If someone wants to write up a nice article about how to develop +multilingual, Unicode applications with PHP or point me to an existing +article on the subject I will link to it here. Right now both the PHP +documentation and a google search for “PHP Unicode” make it look like +you’re pretty screwed if you really want to do Unicode in PHP. There is +[some existing +documention](http://ca3.php.net/manual/en/ref.mbstring.php) of mb\_ +functions that people have pointed me to, which is badly written and +confusing, and appears to only support a handful of encodings, not +Unicode in general. It also seems to be an extension that you have to +turn on, which means, I think, that the average PHP installation does +not support this out of the box. diff --git a/_stories/2003/6410779.md b/_stories/2003/6410779.md index 3c0a21f..9f45e6f 100644 --- a/_stories/2003/6410779.md +++ b/_stories/2003/6410779.md @@ -19,7 +19,100 @@ _tags: objectID: '6410779' --- -[Source](https://www.securityfocus.com/news/7388 "Permalink to ") +Thwarted Linux backdoor hints at smarter hacks + +Kevin Poulsen +, + +SecurityFocus + + + +Software developers on Wednesday detected and thwarted a hacker's scheme +to submerge a slick backdoor in the next version of the Linux kernel, +but security experts say the abortive caper proves that extremely subtle +source code tampering is more than just the stuff of paranoid +speculation. + +The backdoor was a two-line addition to a development copy of the Linux +kernel's source code, carefully crafted to look like a harmless +error-checking feature added to the wait4() system call -- a function +that's available to any program running on the computer, and which, +roughly, tells the operating system to pause execution of that program +until another program has finished its work. + +Under casual inspection, the code appears to check if a program calling +wait4() is using a particular invalid combination of two flags, and if +the user invoking it is the computer's all-powerful root account. If +both conditions are true, it aborts the call. + +But up close, the code doesn't actually check if the user is root at +all. If it sees the flags, it grants the process root privileges, +turning wait4() into an instant doorway to complete control of any +machine, if the hacker knows the right combinations of flags. + +That difference between what the code looks like and what it actually is +-- that is, between assignment and comparison -- is a matter of a single +equal sign in the C programming language, making it easy to overlook. If +the addition had been detected in a normal code review, the backdoor +could even have been mistaken for a programming error -- no different +from the buffer overflows that wind up in Microsoft products on a +routine basis. "It's indistinguishable from an accidental bug," says +security consultant Ryan Russell. "So unless you have a reason to be +suspicious, and go back and find out if it was legitimately checked in, +that's going to be a long trail to follow." + +**Investigation Underway** +In all, the unknown hacker used exactly the sort of misdirection and +semantic trickery that security professionals talk about over beer after +a conference, while opining on how clumsy the few discovered source code +backdoors have been, and how a real cyber warrior would write one. + +"That's the kind of pub talk that you end up having," says BindView +security researcher Mark "Simple Nomad" Loveless. "If you were the NSA, +how would you backdoor someone's software? You'd put in the changes +subtly. Very subtly." + +"Whoever did this knew what they were doing," says Larry McVoy, founder +of San Francisco-based BitMover, Inc., which hosts the Linux kernel +development site that was compromised. "They had to find some flags that +could be passed to the system without causing an error, and yet are not +normally passed together... There isn't any way that somebody could +casually come in, not know about UNIX, not know the Linux kernel code, +and make this change. Not a chance." + +However sophisticated, the hack fell apart Wednesday, when a routine +file integrity check told McVoy that someone had manually changed a copy +of a kernel source code file that's normally only modified by an +automated process, specifically one that pulls the code from BitMover's +BitKeeper software collaboration tool and repackages it for the open +source CVS system still favored by some developers. + +Even then, McVoy didn't initially recognize the change as a backdoor, +and he announced to the Linux kernel developers list as a procedural +annoyance. Other programmers soon figured out the trick, and by Thursday +an investigation into how the development site was compromised was +underway, headed by Linux chief Linus Torvalds, according to McVoy. + +If BitMover didn't run automated integrity checks, the backdoor could +have made it into the official release of version 2.6 of the kernel, and +eventually into every up-to-date Linux machine on the Internet. But to +get there a kernel developer using CVS would have to have used the +modified file as the basis for further development, then submitted it to +the main BitKeeper repository through Torvalds. + +"If it had gotten out, it could have been really bad, because any Linux +kernel that had this in it, anybody who had access to that machine could +become root," says McVoy. But even then, he's convinced it wouldn't have +lasted long. "If someone started getting root with it, some smart kid +would figure out what was going on." + +But Loveless says the hack is a glimpse of a more sophisticated computer +underground than is normally talked about, and fuel for speculation that +backdoors in software products are far more common than imagined. "We've +had bad examples of \[backdoors\], and we've had rumors of extremely +good examples," says Loveless. "This is a concrete example of a good +one." diff --git a/_stories/2003/6996500.md b/_stories/2003/6996500.md index dc3d637..ccba938 100644 --- a/_stories/2003/6996500.md +++ b/_stories/2003/6996500.md @@ -19,7 +19,428 @@ _tags: objectID: '6996500' --- -[Source](https://www.joelonsoftware.com/articles/Unicode.html "Permalink to ") +Ever wonder about that mysterious Content-Type tag? You know, the one +you’re supposed to put in HTML and you never quite know what it should +be? +Did you ever get an email from your friends in Bulgaria with the subject +line “???? ?????? ??? +????”? +![](https://i2.wp.com/www.joelonsoftware.com/wp-content/uploads/2003/10/ibm.jpg?resize=150%2C143&ssl=1)I’ve +been dismayed to discover just how many software developers aren’t +really completely up to speed on the mysterious world of character sets, +encodings, Unicode, all that stuff. A couple of years ago, a beta tester +for [FogBUGZ](http://www.fogcreek.com/FogBUGZ) was wondering whether it +could handle incoming email in Japanese. Japanese? They have email in +Japanese? I had no idea. When I looked closely at the commercial ActiveX +control we were using to parse MIME email messages, we discovered it was +doing exactly the wrong thing with character sets, so we actually had to +write heroic code to undo the wrong conversion it had done and redo it +correctly. When I looked into another commercial library, it, too, had a +completely broken character code implementation. I corresponded with the +developer of that package and he sort of thought they “couldn’t do +anything about it.” Like many programmers, he just wished it would all +blow over somehow. +But it won’t. When I discovered that the popular web development tool +PHP has almost [complete ignorance of character encoding +issues](http://ca3.php.net/manual/en/language.types.string.php), +blithely using 8 bits for characters, making it darn near impossible to +develop good international web applications, I thought, enough is +enough. + +So I have an announcement to make: if you are a programmer working in +2003 and you don’t know the basics of characters, character sets, +encodings, and Unicode, and I catch you, I’m going to punish you by +making you peel onions for 6 months in a submarine. I swear I will. + +And one more thing: + +**IT’S NOT THAT HARD.** + +In this article I’ll fill you in on exactly what every working +programmer should know. All that stuff about “plain text = ascii = +characters are 8 bits” is not only wrong, it’s hopelessly wrong, and if +you’re still programming that way, you’re not much better than a medical +doctor who doesn’t believe in germs. Please do not write another line of +code until you finish reading this article. + +Before I get started, I should warn you that if you are one of those +rare people who knows about internationalization, you are going to find +my entire discussion a little bit oversimplified. I’m really just trying +to set a minimum bar here so that everyone can understand what’s going +on and can write code that has a hope of working with text in any +language other than the subset of English that doesn’t include words +with accents. And I should warn you that character handling is only a +tiny portion of what it takes to create software that works +internationally, but I can only write about one thing at a time so today +it’s character sets. + +**A Historical Perspective** + +The easiest way to understand this stuff is to go chronologically. + +You probably think I’m going to talk about very old character sets like +EBCDIC here. Well, I won’t. EBCDIC is not relevant to your life. We +don’t have to go that far back in time. + +![ASCII +table](https://i1.wp.com/www.joelonsoftware.com/wp-content/uploads/2003/10/ascii.png?resize=274%2C146&ssl=1)Back +in the semi-olden days, when Unix was being invented and K\&R were +writing [The C Programming +Language](http://cm.bell-labs.com/cm/cs/cbook/), everything was very +simple. EBCDIC was on its way out. The only characters that mattered +were good old unaccented English letters, and we had a code for them +called [ASCII](http://www.robelle.com/library/smugbook/ascii.html) which +was able to represent every character using a number between 32 and 127. +Space was 32, the letter “A” was 65, etc. This could conveniently be +stored in 7 bits. Most computers in those days were using 8-bit bytes, +so not only could you store every possible ASCII character, but you had +a whole bit to spare, which, if you were wicked, you could use for your +own devious purposes: the dim bulbs at WordStar actually turned on the +high bit to indicate the last letter in a word, condemning WordStar to +English text only. Codes below 32 were called unprintable and were used +for cussing. Just kidding. They were used for control characters, like 7 +which made your computer beep and 12 which caused the current page of +paper to go flying out of the printer and a new one to be fed in. + +And all was good, assuming you were an English +speaker. + +![](https://i0.wp.com/www.joelonsoftware.com/wp-content/uploads/2003/10/oem.png?resize=271%2C209&ssl=1)Because +bytes have room for up to eight bits, lots of people got to thinking, +“gosh, we can use the codes 128-255 for our own purposes.” The trouble +was, lots of people had this idea at the same time, and they had their +own ideas of what should go where in the space from 128 to 255. The +IBM-PC had something that came to be known as the OEM character set +which provided some accented characters for European languages and [a +bunch of line drawing +characters](http://www.jimprice.com/ascii-dos.gif)… horizontal bars, +vertical bars, horizontal bars with little dingle-dangles dangling off +the right side, etc., and you could use these line drawing characters to +make spiffy boxes and lines on the screen, which you can still see +running on the 8088 computer at your dry cleaners’. In fact  as soon as +people started buying PCs outside of America all kinds of different OEM +character sets were dreamed up, which all used the top 128 characters +for their own purposes. For example on some PCs the character code 130 +would display as é, but on computers sold in Israel it was the Hebrew +letter Gimel +(![ג](https://i0.wp.com/www.joelonsoftware.com/wp-content/uploads/2003/10/gimel.png?resize=5%2C9&ssl=1)), +so when Americans would send their résumés to Israel they would arrive +as +r![ג](https://i0.wp.com/www.joelonsoftware.com/wp-content/uploads/2003/10/gimel.png?resize=5%2C9&ssl=1)sum![ג](https://i0.wp.com/www.joelonsoftware.com/wp-content/uploads/2003/10/gimel.png?resize=5%2C9&ssl=1)s. +In many cases, such as Russian, there were lots of different ideas of +what to do with the upper-128 characters, so you couldn’t even reliably +interchange Russian documents. + +Eventually this OEM free-for-all got codified in the ANSI standard. In +the ANSI standard, everybody agreed on what to do below 128, which was +pretty much the same as ASCII, but there were lots of different ways to +handle the characters from 128 and on up, depending on where you lived. +These different systems were called [code +pages](http://www.i18nguy.com/unicode/codepages.html#msftdos). So for +example in Israel DOS used a code page called 862, while Greek users +used 737. They were the same below 128 but different from 128 up, where +all the funny letters resided. The national versions of MS-DOS had +dozens of these code pages, handling everything from English to +Icelandic and they even had a few “multilingual” code pages that could +do Esperanto and Galician on the same computer\! Wow\! But getting, say, +Hebrew and Greek on the same computer was a complete impossibility +unless you wrote your own custom program that displayed everything using +bitmapped graphics, because Hebrew and Greek required different code +pages with different interpretations of the high numbers. + +Meanwhile, in Asia, even more crazy things were going on to take into +account the fact that Asian alphabets have thousands of letters, which +were never going to fit into 8 bits. This was usually solved by the +messy system called DBCS, the “double byte character set” in which some +letters were stored in one byte and others took two. It was easy to move +forward in a string, but dang near impossible to move backwards. +Programmers were encouraged not to use s++ and s– to move backwards and +forwards, but instead to call functions such as Windows’ AnsiNext and +AnsiPrev which knew how to deal with the whole mess. + +But still, most people just pretended that a byte was a character and a +character was 8 bits and as long as you never moved a string from one +computer to another, or spoke more than one language, it would sort of +always work. But of course, as soon as the Internet happened, it became +quite commonplace to move strings from one computer to another, and the +whole mess came tumbling down. Luckily, Unicode had been invented. + +**Unicode** + +Unicode was a brave effort to create a single character set that +included every reasonable writing system on the planet and some +make-believe ones like Klingon, too. Some people are under the +misconception that Unicode is simply a 16-bit code where each character +takes 16 bits and therefore there are 65,536 possible characters. **This +is not, actually, correct.** It is the single most common myth about +Unicode, so if you thought that, don’t feel bad. + +In fact, Unicode has a different way of thinking about characters, and +you have to understand the Unicode way of thinking of things or nothing +will make sense. + +Until now, we’ve assumed that a letter maps to some bits which you can +store on disk or in memory: + +A -\> 0100 0001 + +In Unicode, a letter maps to something called a code point which is +still just a theoretical concept. How that code point is represented in +memory or on disk is a whole nuther story. + +In Unicode, the letter A is a platonic ideal. It’s just floating in +heaven: + +A + +This platonic A is different than B, and different from a, but the same +as A and ***A*** and A. The idea that A in a Times New Roman font is the +same character as the A in a Helvetica font, but different from “a” in +lower case, does not seem very controversial, but in some languages just +figuring out what a letter is can cause controversy. Is the German +letter ß a real letter or just a fancy way of writing ss? If a letter’s +shape changes at the end of the word, is that a different letter? Hebrew +says yes, Arabic says no. Anyway, the smart people at the Unicode +consortium have been figuring this out for the last decade or so, +accompanied by a great deal of highly political debate, and you don’t +have to worry about it. They’ve figured it all out already. + +Every platonic letter in every alphabet is assigned a magic number by +the Unicode consortium which is written like this: **U+0639**.  This +magic number is called a code point. The U+ means “Unicode” and the +numbers are hexadecimal. **U+0639** is the Arabic letter Ain. The +English letter A would be **U+0041**. You can find them all using the +**charmap** utility on Windows 2000/XP or visiting [the Unicode web +site](http://www.unicode.org/). + +There is no real limit on the number of letters that Unicode can define +and in fact they have gone beyond 65,536 so not every unicode letter can +really be squeezed into two bytes, but that was a myth anyway. + +OK, so say we have a string: + +**Hello** + +which, in Unicode, corresponds to these five code points: + +U+0048 U+0065 U+006C U+006C U+006F. + +Just a bunch of code points. Numbers, really. We haven’t yet said +anything about how to store this in memory or represent it in an email +message. + +**Encodings** + +That’s where encodings come in. + +The earliest idea for Unicode encoding, which led to the myth about the +two bytes, was, hey, let’s just store those numbers in two bytes each. +So Hello becomes + +00 48 00 65 00 6C 00 6C 00 6F + +Right? Not so fast\! Couldn’t it also be: + +48 00 65 00 6C 00 6C 00 6F 00 ? + +Well, technically, yes, I do believe it could, and, in fact, early +implementors wanted to be able to store their Unicode code points in +high-endian or low-endian mode, whichever their particular CPU was +fastest at, and lo, it was evening and it was morning and there were +already two ways to store Unicode. So the people were forced to come up +with the bizarre convention of storing a FE FF at the beginning of every +Unicode string; this is called a [Unicode Byte Order +Mark](http://msdn.microsoft.com/library/default.asp?url=/library/en-us/intl/unicode_42jv.asp) +and if you are swapping your high and low bytes it will look like a FF +FE and the person reading your string will know that they have to swap +every other byte. Phew. Not every Unicode string in the wild has a byte +order mark at the +beginning. + +![](https://i2.wp.com/www.joelonsoftware.com/wp-content/uploads/2003/10/hummers.jpg?resize=390%2C61&ssl=1) + +For a while it seemed like that might be good enough, but programmers +were complaining. “Look at all those zeros\!” they said, since they were +Americans and they were looking at English text which rarely used code +points above U+00FF. Also they were liberal hippies in California who +wanted to conserve (sneer). If they were Texans they wouldn’t have +minded guzzling twice the number of bytes. But those Californian wimps +couldn’t bear the idea of doubling the amount of storage it took for +strings, and anyway, there were already all these doggone documents out +there using various ANSI and DBCS character sets and who’s going to +convert them all? Moi? For this reason alone most people decided to +ignore Unicode for several years and in the meantime things got worse. + +Thus was +[invented](http://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/~mgk25/ucs/utf-8-history.txt) the +brilliant concept of [UTF-8](http://www.utf-8.com/). UTF-8 was another +system for storing your string of Unicode code points, those magic U+ +numbers, in memory using 8 bit bytes. In UTF-8, every code point from +0-127 is stored in a single byte. Only code points 128 and above are +stored using 2, 3, in fact, up to 6 bytes. + +![How UTF-8 +works](https://i1.wp.com/www.joelonsoftware.com/wp-content/uploads/2003/10/utf8.png?resize=400%2C63&ssl=1) + +This has the neat side effect that English text looks exactly the same +in UTF-8 as it did in ASCII, so Americans don’t even notice anything +wrong. Only the rest of the world has to jump through hoops. +Specifically, **Hello**, which was U+0048 U+0065 U+006C U+006C U+006F, +will be stored as 48 65 6C 6C 6F, which, behold\! is the same as it was +stored in ASCII, and ANSI, and every OEM character set on the planet. +Now, if you are so bold as to use accented letters or Greek letters or +Klingon letters, you’ll have to use several bytes to store a single code +point, but the Americans will never notice. (UTF-8 also has the nice +property that ignorant old string-processing code that wants to use a +single 0 byte as the null-terminator will not truncate strings). + +So far I’ve told you three ways of encoding Unicode. The traditional +store-it-in-two-byte methods are called UCS-2 (because it has two bytes) +or UTF-16 (because it has 16 bits), and you still have to figure out if +it’s high-endian UCS-2 or low-endian UCS-2. And there’s the popular new +UTF-8 [standard](http://www.zvon.org/tmRFC/RFC2279/Output/chapter2.html) +which has the nice property of also working respectably if you have the +happy coincidence of English text and braindead programs that are +completely unaware that there is anything other than ASCII. + +There are actually a bunch of other ways of encoding Unicode. There’s +something called UTF-7, which is a lot like UTF-8 but guarantees that +the high bit will always be zero, so that if you have to pass Unicode +through some kind of draconian police-state email system that thinks 7 +bits are quite enough, thank you it can still squeeze through unscathed. +There’s UCS-4, which stores each code point in 4 bytes, which has the +nice property that every single code point can be stored in the same +number of bytes, but, golly, even the Texans wouldn’t be so bold as to +waste that much memory. + +And in fact now that you’re thinking of things in terms of platonic +ideal letters which are represented by Unicode code points, those +unicode code points can be encoded in any old-school encoding scheme, +too\! For example, you could encode the Unicode string for Hello (U+0048 +U+0065 U+006C U+006C U+006F) in ASCII, or the old OEM Greek Encoding, or +the Hebrew ANSI Encoding, or any of several hundred encodings that have +been invented so far, with one catch: some of the letters might not show +up\! If there’s no equivalent for the Unicode code point you’re trying +to represent in the encoding you’re trying to represent it in, you +usually get a little question mark: ? or, if you’re really good, a box. +Which did you get? -\> � + +There are hundreds of traditional encodings which can only store some +code points correctly and change all the other code points into question +marks. Some popular encodings of English text are Windows-1252 (the +Windows 9x standard for Western European languages) +and [ISO-8859-1](http://www.htmlhelp.com/reference/charset/), aka +Latin-1 (also useful for any Western European language). But try to +store Russian or Hebrew letters in these encodings and you get a bunch +of question marks. UTF 7, 8, 16, and 32 all have the nice property of +being able to store any code point correctly. + +**The Single Most Important Fact About Encodings** + +If you completely forget everything I just explained, please remember +one extremely important fact. **It does not make sense to have a string +without knowing what encoding it uses**. You can no longer stick your +head in the sand and pretend that “plain” text is ASCII. + +**There Ain’t No Such Thing As Plain Text.** + +If you have a string, in memory, in a file, or in an email message, you +have to know what encoding it is in or you cannot interpret it or +display it to users correctly. + +Almost every stupid “my website looks like gibberish” or “she can’t read +my emails when I use accents” problem comes down to one naive programmer +who didn’t understand the simple fact that if you don’t tell me whether +a particular string is encoded using UTF-8 or ASCII or ISO 8859-1 (Latin +1) or Windows 1252 (Western European), you simply cannot display it +correctly or even figure out where it ends. There are over a hundred +encodings and above code point 127, all bets are off. + +How do we preserve this information about what encoding a string uses? +Well, there are standard ways to do this. For an email message, you are +expected to have a string in the header of the form + +> **Content-Type: text/plain; charset="UTF-8"** + +For a web page, the original idea was that the web server would return a +similar **Content-Type** http header along with the web page itself — +not in the HTML itself, but as one of the response headers that are sent +before the HTML page. + +This causes problems. Suppose you have a big web server with lots of +sites and hundreds of pages contributed by lots of people in lots of +different languages and all using whatever encoding their copy of +Microsoft FrontPage saw fit to generate. The web server itself wouldn’t +really know what encoding each file was written in, so it couldn’t send +the Content-Type header. + +It would be convenient if you could put the Content-Type of the HTML +file right in the HTML file itself, using some kind of special tag. Of +course this drove purists crazy… how can you read the HTML file until +you know what encoding it’s in?\! Luckily, almost every encoding in +common use does the same thing with characters between 32 and 127, so +you can always get this far on the HTML page without starting to use +funny letters: + +> **\ +> \ +> \** + +But that meta tag really has to be the very first thing in the \ +section because as soon as the web browser sees this tag it’s going to +stop parsing the page and start over after reinterpreting the whole page +using the encoding you specified. + +What do web browsers do if they don’t find any Content-Type, either in +the http headers or the meta tag? Internet Explorer actually does +something quite interesting: it tries to guess, based on the frequency +in which various bytes appear in typical text in typical encodings of +various languages, what language and encoding was used. Because the +various old 8 bit code pages tended to put their national letters in +different ranges between 128 and 255, and because every human language +has a different characteristic histogram of letter usage, this actually +has a chance of working. It’s truly weird, but it does seem to work +often enough that naïve web-page writers who never knew they needed a +Content-Type header look at their page in a web browser and it looks ok, +until one day, they write something that doesn’t exactly conform to the +letter-frequency-distribution of their native language, and Internet +Explorer decides it’s Korean and displays it thusly, proving, I think, +the point that Postel’s Law about being “conservative in what you emit +and liberal in what you accept” is quite frankly not a good engineering +principle. Anyway, what does the poor reader of this website, which was +written in Bulgarian but appears to be Korean (and not even cohesive +Korean), do? He uses the View | Encoding menu and tries a bunch of +different encodings (there are at least a dozen for Eastern European +languages) until the picture comes in clearer. If he knew to do that, +which most people +don’t. + +![](https://i0.wp.com/www.joelonsoftware.com/wp-content/uploads/2003/10/rose.jpg?resize=300%2C225&ssl=1) + +For the latest version of [CityDesk](http://www.fogcreek.com/CityDesk), +the web site management software published by [my +company](http://www.fogcreek.com/), we decided to do everything +internally in UCS-2 (two byte) Unicode, which is what Visual Basic, COM, +and Windows NT/2000/XP use as their native string type. In C++ code we +just declare strings as **wchar\_t** (“wide char”) instead of **char** +and use the **wcs** functions instead of the **str** functions (for +example **wcscat** and **wcslen** instead of **strcat** and **strlen**). +To create a literal UCS-2 string in C code you just put an L before it +as so: **L"Hello"**. + +When CityDesk publishes the web page, it converts it to UTF-8 encoding, +which has been well supported by web browsers for many years. That’s the +way all [29 language +versions](https://www.joelonsoftware.com/navLinks/OtherLanguages.html) +of Joel on Software are encoded and I have not yet heard a single person +who has had any trouble viewing them. + +This article is getting rather long, and I can’t possibly cover +everything there is to know about character encodings and Unicode, but I +hope that if you’ve read this far, you know enough to go back to +programming, using antibiotics instead of leeches and spells, a task to +which I will leave you now. diff --git a/_stories/2003/7220917.md b/_stories/2003/7220917.md deleted file mode 100644 index 3f51fb9..0000000 --- a/_stories/2003/7220917.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,25 +0,0 @@ ---- -created_at: '2014-02-11T22:21:41.000Z' -title: Stop the autoconf insanity – Why we need a new build system (2003) -url: http://freecode.com/articles/stop-the-autoconf-insanity-why-we-need-a-new-build-system -author: ahomescu1 -points: 51 -story_text: '' -comment_text: -num_comments: 84 -story_id: -story_title: -story_url: -parent_id: -created_at_i: 1392157301 -_tags: -- story -- author_ahomescu1 -- story_7220917 -objectID: '7220917' - ---- -[Source](https://sourceforge.net/projects/freshmeat/ "Permalink to ") - - - diff --git a/_stories/2003/9054846.md b/_stories/2003/9054846.md index 02dce7e..a45f466 100644 --- a/_stories/2003/9054846.md +++ b/_stories/2003/9054846.md @@ -19,7 +19,678 @@ _tags: objectID: '9054846' --- -[Source](https://simulation-argument.com/simulation.html "Permalink to ") +# +ARE YOU LIVING IN A COMPUTER SIMULATION? +  +BY NICK BOSTROM + +  + +#### + +ABSTRACT + +  + +  + +#### + +I. INTRODUCTION + +  + +Many works of science fiction as well as some forecasts by serious +technologists and futurologists predict that enormous amounts of +computing power will be available in the future. Let us suppose for a +moment that these predictions are correct. One thing that later +generations might do with their super-powerful computers is run detailed +simulations of their forebears or of people like their forebears. +Because their computers would be so powerful, they could run a great +many such simulations. Suppose that these simulated people are conscious +(as they would be if the simulations were sufficiently fine-grained and +if a certain quite widely accepted position in the philosophy of mind is +correct). Then it could be the case that the vast majority of minds like +ours do not belong to the original race but rather to people simulated +by the advanced descendants of an original race. It is then possible to +argue that, if this were the case, we would be rational to think that we +are likely among the simulated minds rather than among the original +biological ones. Therefore, if we don’t think that we are currently +living in a computer simulation, we are not entitled to believe that we +will have descendants who will run lots of such simulations of their +forebears. That is the basic idea. The rest of this paper will spell it +out more carefully. + +            Apart form the interest this thesis may hold for those who +are engaged in futuristic speculation, there are also more purely +theoretical rewards. The argument provides a stimulus for formulating +some methodological and metaphysical questions, and it suggests +naturalistic analogies to certain traditional religious conceptions, +which some may find amusing or thought-provoking. + +            The structure of the paper is as follows. First, we +formulate an assumption that we need to import from the philosophy of +mind in order to get the argument started. Second, we consider some +empirical reasons for thinking that running vastly many simulations of +human minds would be within the capability of a future civilization that +has developed many of those technologies that can already be shown to be +compatible with known physical laws and engineering constraints. This +part is not philosophically necessary but it provides an incentive for +paying attention to the rest. Then follows the core of the argument, +which makes use of some simple probability theory, and a section +providing support for a weak indifference principle that the argument +employs. Lastly, we discuss some interpretations of the disjunction, +mentioned in the abstract, that forms the conclusion of the simulation +argument. + +  + +#### + +II. THE ASSUMPTION OF SUBSTRATE-INDEPENDENCE + +  + +A common assumption in the philosophy of mind is that of +*substrate-independence*. The idea is that mental states can supervene +on any of a broad class of physical substrates. Provided a system +implements the right sort of computational structures and processes, it +can be associated with conscious experiences. It is not an essential +property of consciousness that it is implemented on carbon-based +biological neural networks inside a cranium: silicon-based processors +inside a computer could in principle do the trick as well. + +Arguments for this thesis have been given in the literature, and +although it is not entirely uncontroversial, we shall here take it as a +given. + +The argument we shall present does not, however, depend on any very +strong version of functionalism or computationalism. For example, we +need not assume that the thesis of substrate-independence is +*necessarily* true (either analytically or metaphysically) – just that, +in fact, a computer running a suitable program would be conscious. +Moreover, we need not assume that in order to create a mind on a +computer it would be sufficient to program it in such a way that it +behaves like a human in all situations, including passing the Turing +test etc. We need only the weaker assumption that it would suffice for +the generation of subjective experiences that the computational +processes of a human brain are structurally replicated in suitably +fine-grained detail, such as on the level of individual synapses. This +attenuated version of substrate-independence is quite widely accepted. + +Neurotransmitters, nerve growth factors, and other chemicals that are +smaller than a synapse clearly play a role in human cognition and +learning. The substrate-independence thesis is not that the effects of +these chemicals are small or irrelevant, but rather that they affect +subjective experience only *via* their direct or indirect influence on +computational activities. For example, if there can be no difference in +subjective experience without there also being a difference in synaptic +discharges, then the requisite detail of simulation is at the synaptic +level (or higher). + +  + +**III. THE TECHNOLOGICAL LIMITS OF COMPUTATION** + +**** + +  + +At our current stage of technological development, we have neither +sufficiently powerful hardware nor the requisite software to create +conscious minds in computers. But persuasive arguments have been given +to the effect that *if* technological progress continues unabated *then* +these shortcomings will eventually be overcome. Some authors argue that +this stage may be only a few decades away.[](#_ftn1) Yet present +purposes require no assumptions about the time-scale. The simulation +argument works equally well for those who think that it will take +hundreds of thousands of years to reach a “posthuman” stage of +civilization, where humankind has acquired most of the technological +capabilities that one can currently show to be consistent with physical +laws and with material and energy constraints. + +Such a mature stage of technological development will make it possible +to convert planets and other astronomical resources into enormously +powerful computers. It is currently hard to be confident in any upper +bound on the computing power that may be available to posthuman +civilizations. As we are still lacking a “theory of everything”, we +cannot rule out the possibility that novel physical phenomena, not +allowed for in current physical theories, may be utilized to transcend +those constraints[](#_ftn2) that in our current understanding impose +theoretical limits on the information processing attainable in a given +lump of matter. We can with much greater confidence establish *lower* +bounds on posthuman computation, by assuming only mechanisms that are +already understood. For example, Eric Drexler has outlined a design for +a system the size of a sugar cube (excluding cooling and power supply) +that would perform 1021 instructions per second.[](#_ftn3) Another +author gives a rough estimate of 1042 operations per second for a +computer with a mass on order of a large planet.[](#_ftn4) (If we could +create quantum computers, or learn to build computers out of nuclear +matter or plasma, we could push closer to the theoretical limits. Seth +Lloyd calculates an upper bound for a 1 kg computer of 5\*1050 logical +operations per second carried out on ~1031 bits.[](#_ftn5) However, it +suffices for our purposes to use the more conservative estimate that +presupposes only currently known design-principles.) + +The amount of computing power needed to emulate a human mind can +likewise be roughly estimated. One estimate, based on how +computationally expensive it is to replicate the functionality of a +piece of nervous tissue that we have already understood and whose +functionality has been replicated *in silico*, contrast enhancement in +the retina, yields a figure of ~1014 operations per second for the +entire human brain.[](#_ftn6) An alternative estimate, based the number +of synapses in the brain and their firing frequency, gives a figure of +~1016-1017 operations per second.[](#_ftn7) Conceivably, even more could +be required if we want to simulate in detail the internal workings of +synapses and dendritic trees. However, it is likely that the human +central nervous system has a high degree of redundancy on the mircoscale +to compensate for the unreliability and noisiness of its neuronal +components. One would therefore expect a substantial efficiency gain +when using more reliable and versatile non-biological processors. + +Memory seems to be a no more stringent constraint than processing +power.[](#_ftn8) Moreover, since the maximum human sensory bandwidth is +~108 bits per second, simulating all sensory events incurs a negligible +cost compared to simulating the cortical activity. We can therefore use +the processing power required to simulate the central nervous system as +an estimate of the total computational cost of simulating a human mind. + +If the environment is included in the simulation, this will require +additional computing power – how much depends on the scope and +granularity of the simulation. Simulating the entire universe down to +the quantum level is obviously infeasible, unless radically new physics +is discovered. But in order to get a realistic simulation of human +experience, much less is needed – only whatever is required to ensure +that the simulated humans, interacting in normal human ways with their +simulated environment, don’t notice any irregularities. The microscopic +structure of the inside of the Earth can be safely omitted. Distant +astronomical objects can have highly compressed representations: +verisimilitude need extend to the narrow band of properties that we can +observe from our planet or solar system spacecraft. On the surface of +Earth, macroscopic objects in inhabited areas may need to be +continuously simulated, but microscopic phenomena could likely be filled +in *ad hoc*. What you see through an electron microscope needs to look +unsuspicious, but you usually have no way of confirming its coherence +with unobserved parts of the microscopic world. Exceptions arise when we +deliberately design systems to harness unobserved microscopic phenomena +that operate in accordance with known principles to get results that we +are able to independently verify. The paradigmatic case of this is a +computer. The simulation may therefore need to include a continuous +representation of computers down to the level of individual logic +elements. This presents no problem, since our current computing power is +negligible by posthuman standards. + +Moreover, a posthuman simulator would have enough computing power to +keep track of the detailed belief-states in all human brains at all +times. Therefore, when it saw that a human was about to make an +observation of the microscopic world, it could fill in sufficient detail +in the simulation in the appropriate domain on an as-needed basis. +Should any error occur, the director could easily edit the states of any +brains that have become aware of an anomaly before it spoils the +simulation. Alternatively, the director could skip back a few seconds +and rerun the simulation in a way that avoids the problem. + +            It thus seems plausible that the main computational cost in +creating simulations that are indistinguishable from physical reality +for human minds in the simulation resides in simulating organic brains +down to the neuronal or sub-neuronal level.[](#_ftn9) While it is not +possible to get a very exact estimate of the cost of a realistic +simulation of human history, we can use ~1033 - 1036 operations as a +rough estimate[](#_ftn10). As we gain more experience with virtual +reality, we will get a better grasp of the computational requirements +for making such worlds appear realistic to their visitors. But in any +case, even if our estimate is off by several orders of magnitude, this +does not matter much for our argument. We noted that a rough +approximation of the computational power of a planetary-mass computer is +1042 operations per second, and that assumes only already known +nanotechnological designs, which are probably far from optimal. A single +such a computer could simulate the entire mental history of humankind +(call this an *ancestor-simulation*) by using less than one millionth of +its processing power for one second. A posthuman civilization may +eventually build an astronomical number of such computers. We can +conclude that the computing power available to a posthuman civilization +is sufficient to run a huge number of ancestor-simulations even it +allocates only a minute fraction of its resources to that purpose. We +can draw this conclusion even while leaving a substantial margin of +error in all our estimates. + +  + +·         Posthuman civilizations would have enough computing power to +run hugely many ancestor-simulations even while using only a tiny +fraction of their resources for that purpose. + +**** + +  + +**IV. THE CORE OF THE SIMULATION ARGUMENT** + +## + +  + +The basic idea of this paper can be expressed roughly as follows: If +there were a substantial chance that our civilization will ever get to +the posthuman stage and run many ancestor-simulations, then how come you +are not living in such a simulation? + +            We shall develop this idea into a rigorous argument. Let us +introduce the following notation: + +  + +![](simargtemp_files/image002.gif) : Fraction of all human-level +technological civilizations that survive to reach a posthuman stage + +  + +![](simargtemp_files/image004.gif) : Average number of +ancestor-simulations run by a posthuman civilization + +  + +![\*](simargtemp_files/image006.gif) : Average number of individuals +that have lived in a civilization before it reaches a posthuman stage + +  + +The actual fraction of all observers with human-type experiences that +live in simulations is then + +  + +![](simargtemp_files/image008.gif)  + +  + +Writing ![](simargtemp_files/image010.gif) for the fraction of posthuman +civilizations that are interested in running ancestor-simulations (or +that contain at least some individuals who are interested in that and +have sufficient resources to run a significant number of such +simulations), and ![](simargtemp_files/image012.gif) for the average +number of ancestor-simulations run by such interested civilizations, we +have + +  + +![](simargtemp_files/image014.gif) + +  + +and thus: + +  + +![](simargtemp_files/image016.gif)                                       + (\*) + +  + +Because of the immense computing power of posthuman civilizations, +![](simargtemp_files/image012.gif) is extremely large, as we saw in the +previous section. By inspecting (\*) we can then see that *at least one* +of the following three propositions must be true: + +  + +(1)        ![](simargtemp_files/image018.gif) + +(2)        ![](simargtemp_files/image020.gif) + +(3)        ![](simargtemp_files/image022.gif) + +  + +#### + +V. A BLAND INDIFFERENCE PRINCIPLE + +  + +We can take a further step and conclude that conditional on the truth of +(3), one’s credence in the hypothesis that one is in a simulation should +be close to unity. More generally, if we knew that a fraction *x* of all +observers with human-type experiences live in simulations, and we don’t +have any information that indicate that our own particular experiences +are any more or less likely than other human-type experiences to have +been implemented *in vivo* rather than *in machina*, then our credence +that we are in a simulation should equal *x*: + +  + +![](simargtemp_files/image024.gif)                                    +(\#) + +  + +This step is sanctioned by a very weak indifference principle. Let us +distinguish two cases. The first case, which is the easiest, is where +all the minds in question are like your own in the sense that they are +exactly qualitatively identical to yours: they have exactly the same +information and the same experiences that you have. The second case is +where the minds are “like” each other only in the loose sense of being +the sort of minds that are typical of human creatures, but they are +qualitatively distinct from one another and each has a distinct set of +experiences. I maintain that even in the latter case, where the minds +are qualitatively different, the simulation argument still works, +provided that you have no information that bears on the question of +which of the various minds are simulated and which are implemented +biologically. + +            A detailed defense of a stronger principle, which implies +the above stance for both cases as trivial special instances, has been +given in the literature.[](#_ftn11) Space does not permit a +recapitulation of that defense here, but we can bring out one of the +underlying intuitions by bringing to our attention to an analogous +situation of a more familiar kind. Suppose that *x*% of the population +has a certain genetic sequence *S* within the part of their DNA commonly +designated as “junk DNA”. Suppose, further, that there are no +manifestations of *S* (short of what would turn up in a gene assay) and +that there are no known correlations between having *S* and any +observable characteristic. Then, quite clearly, unless you have had your +DNA sequenced, it is rational to assign a credence of *x*% to the +hypothesis that you have *S*. And this is so quite irrespective of the +fact that the people who have *S* have qualitatively different minds and +experiences from the people who don’t have *S*. (They are different +simply because all humans have different experiences from one another, +not because of any known link between *S* and what kind of experiences +one has.) + +The same reasoning holds if *S* is not the property of having a certain +genetic sequence but instead the property of being in a simulation, +assuming only that we have no information that enables us to predict any +differences between the experiences of simulated minds and those of the +original biological minds. + +It should be stressed that the bland indifference principle expressed by +(\#) prescribes indifference only between hypotheses about which +observer you are, when you have no information about which of these +observers you are. It does not in general prescribe indifference between +hypotheses when you lack specific information about which of the +hypotheses is true. In contrast to Laplacean and other more ambitious +principles of indifference, it is therefore immune to Bertrand’s paradox +and similar predicaments that tend to plague indifference principles of +unrestricted scope. + +Readers familiar with the Doomsday argument[](#_ftn12) may worry that +the bland principle of indifference invoked here is the same assumption +that is responsible for getting the Doomsday argument off the ground, +and that the counterintuitiveness of some of the implications of the +latter incriminates or casts doubt on the validity of the former. This +is not so. The Doomsday argument rests on a *much* stronger and more +controversial premiss, namely that one should reason as if one were a +random sample from the set of all people who will ever have lived (past, +present, and future) *even though we know that we are living in the +early twenty-first century* rather than at some point in the distant +past or the future. The bland indifference principle, by contrast, +applies only to cases where we have no information about which group of +people we belong to. + +If betting odds provide some guidance to rational belief, it may also be +worth to ponder that if everybody were to place a bet on whether they +are in a simulation or not, then if people use the bland principle of +indifference, and consequently place their money on being in a +simulation if they know that that’s where almost all people are, then +almost everyone will win their bets. If they bet on *not* being in a +simulation, then almost everyone will lose. It seems better that the +bland indifference principle be heeded. + +Further, one can consider a sequence of possible situations in which an +increasing fraction of all people live in simulations: 98%, 99%, 99.9%, +99.9999%, and so on. As one approaches the limiting case in which +*everybody* is in a simulation (from which one can *deductively* infer +that one is in a simulation oneself), it is plausible to require that +the credence one assigns to being in a simulation gradually approach the +limiting case of complete certainty in a matching manner. + +  + +**VI. INTERPRETATION** + +## + +  + +The possibility represented by proposition (1) is fairly +straightforward. If (1) is true, then humankind will almost certainly +fail to reach a posthuman level; for virtually no species at our level +of development become posthuman, and it is hard to see any justification +for thinking that our own species will be especially privileged or +protected from future disasters. Conditional on (1), therefore, we must +give a high credence to *DOOM*, the hypothesis that humankind will go +extinct before reaching a posthuman level: + +![](simargtemp_files/image026.gif) + +  + +One can imagine hypothetical situations were we have such evidence as +would trump knowledge of ![](simargtemp_files/image002.gif) . For +example, if we discovered that we were about to be hit by a giant +meteor, this might suggest that we had been exceptionally unlucky. We +could then assign a credence to *DOOM* larger than our expectation of +the fraction of human-level civilizations that fail to reach +posthumanity. In the actual case, however, we seem to lack evidence for +thinking that we are special in this regard, for better or worse. + +            Proposition (1) doesn’t by itself imply that we are likely +to go extinct soon, only that we are unlikely to reach a posthuman +stage. This possibility is compatible with us remaining at, or somewhat +above, our current level of technological development for a long time +before going extinct. Another way for (1) to be true is if it is likely +that technological civilization will collapse. Primitive human societies +might then remain on Earth indefinitely. + +There are many ways in which humanity could become extinct before +reaching posthumanity. Perhaps the most natural interpretation of (1) is +that we are likely to go extinct as a result of the development of some +powerful but dangerous technology.[](#_ftn13) One candidate is molecular +nanotechnology, which in its mature stage would enable the construction +of self-replicating nanobots capable of feeding on dirt and organic +matter – a kind of mechanical bacteria. Such nanobots, designed for +malicious ends, could cause the extinction of all life on our +planet.[](#_ftn14) + +            The second alternative in the simulation argument’s +conclusion is that the fraction of posthuman civilizations that are +interested in running ancestor-simulation is negligibly small. In order +for (2) to be true, there must be a strong *convergence* among the +courses of advanced civilizations. If the number of ancestor-simulations +created by the interested civilizations is extremely large, the rarity +of such civilizations must be correspondingly extreme. Virtually no +posthuman civilizations decide to use their resources to run large +numbers of ancestor-simulations. Furthermore, virtually all posthuman +civilizations lack individuals who have sufficient resources and +interest to run ancestor-simulations; or else they have reliably +enforced laws that prevent such individuals from acting on their +desires. + +            What force could bring about such convergence? One can +speculate that advanced civilizations all develop along a trajectory +that leads to the recognition of an ethical prohibition against running +ancestor-simulations because of the suffering that is inflicted on the +inhabitants of the simulation. However, from our present point of view, +it is not clear that creating a human race is immoral. On the contrary, +we tend to view the existence of our race as constituting a great +ethical value. Moreover, convergence on an ethical view of the +immorality of running ancestor-simulations is not enough: it must be +combined with convergence on a civilization-wide social structure that +enables activities considered immoral to be effectively banned. + +            Another possible convergence point is that almost all +individual posthumans in virtually all posthuman civilizations develop +in a direction where they lose their desires to run +ancestor-simulations. This would require significant changes to the +motivations driving their human predecessors, for there are certainly +many humans who would like to run ancestor-simulations if they could +afford to do so. But perhaps many of our human desires will be regarded +as silly by anyone who becomes a posthuman. Maybe the scientific value +of ancestor-simulations to a posthuman civilization is negligible (which +is not too implausible given its unfathomable intellectual superiority), +and maybe posthumans regard recreational activities as merely a very +inefficient way of getting pleasure – which can be obtained much more +cheaply by direct stimulation of the brain’s reward centers. One +conclusion that follows from (2) is that posthuman societies will be +very different from human societies: they will not contain relatively +wealthy independent agents who have the full gamut of human-like desires +and are free to act on them. + +            The possibility expressed by alternative (3) is the +conceptually most intriguing one. If we are living in a simulation, then +the cosmos that we are observing is just a tiny piece of the totality of +physical existence. The physics in the universe where the computer is +situated that is running the simulation may or may not resemble the +physics of the world that we observe. While the world we see is in some +sense “real”, it is not located at the fundamental level of reality. + +            It may be possible for simulated civilizations to become +posthuman. They may then run their own ancestor-simulations on powerful +computers they build in their simulated universe. Such computers would +be “virtual machines”, a familiar concept in computer science. (Java +script web-applets, for instance, run on a virtual machine – a simulated +computer – inside your desktop.) Virtual machines can be stacked: it’s +possible to simulate a machine simulating another machine, and so on, in +arbitrarily many steps of iteration. If we do go on to create our own +ancestor-simulations, this would be strong evidence against (1) and (2), +and we would therefore have to conclude that we live in a simulation. +Moreover, we would have to suspect that the posthumans running our +simulation are themselves simulated beings; and their creators, in turn, +may also be simulated beings. + +            Reality may thus contain many levels. Even if it is +necessary for the hierarchy to bottom out at some stage – the +metaphysical status of this claim is somewhat obscure – there may be +room for a large number of levels of reality, and the number could be +increasing over time. (One consideration that counts against the +multi-level hypothesis is that the computational cost for the +basement-level simulators would be very great. Simulating even a single +posthuman civilization might be prohibitively expensive. If so, then we +should expect our simulation to be terminated when we are about to +become posthuman.) + +            Although all the elements of such a system can be +naturalistic, even physical, it is possible to draw some loose analogies +with religious conceptions of the world. In some ways, the posthumans +running a simulation are like gods in relation to the people inhabiting +the simulation: the posthumans created the world we see; they are of +superior intelligence; they are “omnipotent” in the sense that they can +interfere in the workings of our world even in ways that violate its +physical laws; and they are “omniscient” in the sense that they can +monitor everything that happens. However, all the demigods except those +at the fundamental level of reality are subject to sanctions by the more +powerful gods living at lower levels. + +Further rumination on these themes could climax in a *naturalistic +theogony* that would study the structure of this hierarchy, and the +constraints imposed on its inhabitants by the possibility that their +actions on their own level may affect the treatment they receive from +dwellers of deeper levels. For example, if nobody can be sure that they +are at the basement-level, then everybody would have to consider the +possibility that their actions will be rewarded or punished, based +perhaps on moral criteria, by their simulators. An afterlife would be a +real possibility. Because of this fundamental uncertainty, even the +basement civilization may have a reason to behave ethically. The fact +that it has such a reason for moral behavior would of course add to +everybody else’s reason for behaving morally, and so on, in truly +virtuous circle. One might get a kind of universal ethical imperative, +which it would be in everybody’s self-interest to obey, as it were “from +nowhere”. + +In addition to ancestor-simulations, one may also consider the +possibility of more selective simulations that include only a small +group of humans or a single individual. The rest of humanity would then +be zombies or “shadow-people” – humans simulated only at a level +sufficient for the fully simulated people not to notice anything +suspicious. It is not clear how much cheaper shadow-people would be to +simulate than real people. It is not even obvious that it is possible +for an entity to behave indistinguishably from a real human and yet lack +conscious experience. Even if there are such selective simulations, you +should not think that you are in one of them unless you think they are +much more numerous than complete simulations. There would have to be +about 100 billion times as many “me-simulations” (simulations of the +life of only a single mind) as there are ancestor-simulations in order +for most simulated persons to be in me-simulations. + +There is also the possibility of simulators abridging certain parts of +the mental lives of simulated beings and giving them false memories of +the sort of experiences that they would typically have had during the +omitted interval. If so, one can consider the following (farfetched) +solution to the problem of evil: that there is no suffering in the world +and all memories of suffering are illusions. Of course, this hypothesis +can be seriously entertained only at those times when you are not +currently suffering. + +            Supposing we live in a simulation, what are the implications +for us humans? The foregoing remarks notwithstanding, the implications +are not all that radical. Our best guide to how our posthuman creators +have chosen to set up our world is the standard empirical study of the +universe we see. The revisions to most parts of our belief networks +would be rather slight and subtle – in proportion to our lack of +confidence in our ability to understand the ways of posthumans. Properly +understood, therefore, the truth of (3) should have no tendency to make +us “go crazy” or to prevent us from going about our business and making +plans and predictions for tomorrow. The chief empirical importance of +(3) at the current time seems to lie in its role in the tripartite +conclusion established above.[](#_ftn15) We may hope that (3) is true +since that would decrease the probability of (1), although if +computational constraints make it likely that simulators would terminate +a simulation before it reaches a posthuman level, then out best hope +would be that (2) is true. + +If we learn more about posthuman motivations and resource constraints, +maybe as a result of developing towards becoming posthumans ourselves, +then the hypothesis that we are simulated will come to have a much +richer set of empirical implications. + +  + +**VII. CONCLUSION** + +## + +  + +A technologically mature “posthuman” civilization would have enormous +computing power. Based on this empirical fact, the simulation argument +shows that *at least one* of the following propositions is true: (1) The +fraction of human-level civilizations that reach a posthuman stage is +very close to zero; (2) The fraction of posthuman civilizations that are +interested in running ancestor-simulations is very close to zero; (3) +The fraction of all people with our kind of experiences that are living +in a simulation is very close to one. + +If (1) is true, then we will almost certainly go extinct before reaching +posthumanity. If (2) is true, then there must be a strong convergence +among the courses of advanced civilizations so that virtually none +contains any relatively wealthy individuals who desire to run +ancestor-simulations and are free to do so. If (3) is true, then we +almost certainly live in a simulation. In the dark forest of our current +ignorance, it seems sensible to apportion one’s credence roughly evenly +between (1), (2), and (3). + +Unless we are now living in a simulation, our descendants will almost +certainly never run an ancestor-simulation. + +  + +  + +## + +Acknowledgements + +I’m grateful to many people for comments, and especially to Amara +Angelica, Robert Bradbury, Milan Cirkovic, Robin Hanson, Hal Finney, +Robert A. Freitas Jr., John Leslie, Mitch Porter, Keith DeRose, Mike +Treder, Mark Walker, Eliezer Yudkowsky, and several anonymous referees. + +  + +\[Nick Bostrom's academic homepage: +[www.nickbostrom.com](http://www.nickbostrom.com)\] +\[More on the simulation argument: +[www.simulation-argument.com](http://www.simulation-argument.com)\] diff --git a/_stories/2004/12115935.md b/_stories/2004/12115935.md index 5818433..57e4be4 100644 --- a/_stories/2004/12115935.md +++ b/_stories/2004/12115935.md @@ -19,7 +19,69 @@ _tags: objectID: '12115935' --- -[Source](https://lkml.org/lkml/2004/12/20/255 "Permalink to ") - +![/](/images/icornerl.gif)DateMon, 20 Dec 2004 16:56:13 -0800 +(PST)FromLinus Torvalds \<\>SubjectRe: \[PATCH\] kill access\_ok() call +from copy\_siginfo\_to\_user() that we might as well + avoid. + [ Linux-kernel added back into the cc, because I actually think this is + important. ] + + On Tue, 21 Dec 2004, Jesper Juhl wrote: + > + > Should I just stop attemting to make these trivial cleanups/fixes/whatever + > patches? are they more noice than gain? am I being a pain to more skilled + > people on lkml or can you all live with my, sometimes quite ignorant, + > patches? + > I do try to learn from the feedback I get, and I like to think that my + > patches are gradually getting a bit better, but if I'm more of a bother + > than a help I might as well stop. + + To me, the biggest thing with small patches is not necessarily the patch + itself. I think that much more important than the patch is the fact that + people get used to the notion that they can change the kernel - not just + on an intellectual level ("I understand that the GPL means that I have the + right to change my kernel"), but on a more practical level ("Hey, I did + that small change"). + + And whether it ends up being the right thing or not, that's how everybody + starts out. It's simply not possible to "get into" the kernel without + starting out small, and making mistakes. So I very much encourage it, even + if I often don't have the time to actually worry about small patches, and + I try to get suckers^H^H^H^H^H^H^Hother developers like Rusty to try to + acts as quality control and a "gathering place". + + Btw, this is why even "trivial patches" really do take time - they often + have trivial mistakes in them, and it's not just because there are more + inexperienced people doing them - most of _my_ mistakes tend to be at the + truly idiotic level, just because it "looked obvious", and then there's + something that I miss. + + So at one level I absolutely _hate_ trivial patches: they take time and + effort to merge, and individually the patch itself is often not really + obviously "worth it". But at the same time, I think the trivial patches + are among the most important ones - exactly because they are the "entry" + patches for every new developer. + + I just try really hard to find somebody else to worry about them ;) + + (It's not a thankful job, btw, exactly because it _looks_ so trivial. It's + easy to point to 99 patches that are absolutely obvious, and complain + about the fact that they haven't been merged. But they take time to merge + exactly because of that one patch that _did_ look obvious, but wasn't. + And actually, it's usually not 99:1, it's usually more like 10:1 or + something). + + So please don't stop. Yes, those trivial patches _are_ a bother. Damn, + they are _horrible_. But at the same time, the devil is in the detail, and + they are needed in the long run. Both the patches themselves, and the + people that grew up on them. + + Linus + - + To unsubscribe from this list: send the line "unsubscribe linux-kernel" in + the body of a message to majordomo@vger.kernel.org + More majordomo info at http://vger.kernel.org/majordomo-info.html + Please read the FAQ at http://www.tux.org/lkml/ +![\\](/images/icornerr.gif) diff --git a/_stories/2004/4527839.md b/_stories/2004/4527839.md deleted file mode 100644 index 2c65465..0000000 --- a/_stories/2004/4527839.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,25 +0,0 @@ ---- -created_at: '2012-09-16T00:47:10.000Z' -title: Popular misconceptions about the Golden Ratio (2004) -url: http://www.maa.org/devlin/devlin_06_04.html -author: iansilber -points: 60 -story_text: '' -comment_text: -num_comments: 7 -story_id: -story_title: -story_url: -parent_id: -created_at_i: 1347756430 -_tags: -- story -- author_iansilber -- story_4527839 -objectID: '4527839' - ---- -[Source](https://www.maa.org/devlin/devlin_06_04.html "Permalink to ") - - - diff --git a/_stories/2004/5355945.md b/_stories/2004/5355945.md deleted file mode 100644 index 426f869..0000000 --- a/_stories/2004/5355945.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,25 +0,0 @@ ---- -created_at: '2013-03-11T10:58:49.000Z' -title: How I Explained REST to My Wife (2004) -url: http://tomayko.com/writings/rest-to-my-wife -author: bugBunny -points: 112 -story_text: '' -comment_text: -num_comments: 51 -story_id: -story_title: -story_url: -parent_id: -created_at_i: 1362999529 -_tags: -- story -- author_bugBunny -- story_5355945 -objectID: '5355945' - ---- -[Source](https://tomayko.com/writings/rest-to-my-wife "Permalink to ") - - - diff --git a/_stories/2004/7472495.md b/_stories/2004/7472495.md index f15f700..0eb2135 100644 --- a/_stories/2004/7472495.md +++ b/_stories/2004/7472495.md @@ -19,7 +19,433 @@ _tags: objectID: '7472495' --- -[Source](https://spectrum.ieee.org/aerospace/space-flight/titan-calling "Permalink to ") +![1004titanf1](/img/10Cassinif1-1395852608172.jpg) Photo: Bert +Bostelmann **Unsung Hero:** With the help of the engineering model of +Huygens \[background\], Boris Smeds discovered a crippling +communications problem. +**Last June, scientists were thrilled** when NASA’s Cassini probe +successfully began orbiting Saturn after a 3.5-billion-kilometer, +seven-year journey across the solar system. The 6-ton spacecraft +immediately started returning spectacular pictures of the planet, its +rings, and its 30-plus moons. It was just the beginning of Cassini’s +four-year tour of Saturn’s neighborhood, and while scientists expect +amazing discoveries in the years to come, the most dramatic chapter in +the mission’s history will happen this January, when scientists attempt +to peek beneath the atmospheric veil that surrounds Saturn’s largest +moon, Titan—a chapter that might have ended in disaster, save for one +persistent engineer. +In a collaboration with the European Space Agency, Cassini, in addition +to its own suite of scientific instruments designed to scan Saturn and +its moons, carries a hitchhiker—a lander probe called Huygens. A stubby +cone 3 meters across, Huygens was built for a single purpose: to pierce +the cloaking methane atmosphere of Titan and report its findings back to +Cassini for relay to Earth. +So it was quite a shock when Boris Smeds, a graying, Swedish, 26-year +ESA veteran, who normally specializes in solving problems related to the +agency’s network of ground stations, discovered in early 2000 that +Cassini’s receiver was in danger of scrambling Huygens’s data beyond +recognition. + +Making that discovery would lead Smeds from his desk in Darmstadt, +Germany, to an antenna farm deep in California’s Mojave Desert, after he +and his allies battled bureaucracy and disbelief to push through a test +program tough enough to reveal the existence of Cassini-Huygens’s +communications problem. In doing so, Smeds continued a glorious +engineering tradition of rescuing deep-space missions from doom with +sheer persistence, insight, and lots of improvisation. + +![1004titanf2](/img/1004titanf2-1395849582443.jpg) Photo: NASA-HQ-GRIN +**Smoggy Sphere:** This image, taken by Cassini, of Saturn’s largest +moon, Titan, shows the dense atmospherichaze of hydrocarbons that hides +the surface. + +**Larger than the planet Mercury,** Titan appeared to the Voyager probes +in the 1980s as a mysterious yellow-orange globe, its surface hidden by +its soupy methane atmosphere. Cassini is equipped to peer through those +clouds with special camera filters and radar, but really getting up +close and personal with this enigmatic world is the job of ESA’s +Huygens. + +Launched from Cassini, Huygens will soon slam into Titan’s atmosphere at +21 000 kilometers per hour and begin a one-way, two-and-a-half hour +descent to the surface, slowed by parachutes. The lander is fitted with +cameras pointing down and sideways, instruments designed to unlock the +atmosphere’s chemical secrets, and a microphone to pick up wind sounds. +Investigators have speculated there might be seas of liquid methane and +ethane on Titan, so Huygens has been designed to float. Although its +batteries will be nearly exhausted by the time it finally reaches the +surface, researchers hope it will be able to make a few measurements of +the physical composition of the landing site \[see illustration, +below\]. + +[![1004titanf5](/img/1004titanf5-1395850143021.jpg)](/img/1004titanf5-1395850143021.jpg) + +  + +Illustration: John MacNeill Huygens will slam into Titan’s thick +atmosphere at 21 000 kilometers per hour. After drag has slowed the +probe down to about 1440 km/h at a 180-km altitude, a pilot parachute +will be deployed to pull out the 8.3-meter-diameter main parachute. The +front shield will then eject, and the probe will begin to take readings. +So that the descent doesn’t last more than two and a half hours and +exhaust the probe’s batteries before it reaches the surface, the main +parachute will be released after 15 minutes and a 3-meter parachute will +be deployed. Huygens will hit the surface at around 20 km/h.Nestled +behind its 3-meter-diameter front shield that protects the +battery-powered probe from heat during the initial entry phase, Huygens +packs a suite of instruments designed to unlock the secrets of Titan’s +atmosphere and surface. Cameras will take pictures of Titan’s cloud +cover and surface, and a microphone will listen to the moon’s wind, +while other instruments will report back on the chemical, thermal, and +electrical properties of the atmosphere. After touchdown, a small bundle +of sensors will examine the surface. + +Scientists believe the information gathered during the descent will open +not only a window onto a mysterious world at the far end of the solar +system but one onto the past as well, since Titan’s atmosphere is +believed to be similar to that of the primordial Earth. + +Getting Huygens’s once-in-a-lifetime readings and observations back to +Earth is a two-stage process. Huygens is too small to be equipped with a +radio transmitter powerful enough to reach Earth, so instead a receiver +onboard Cassini will pick up Huygens’s transmissions. With its powerful +4-meter main antenna, Cassini will then relay the data back to a small +army of researchers, some of whom have been waiting decades for the +insights they hope Huygens will provide. + +**When the Cassini-Huygens mission blasted** off from Cape Canaveral in +October 1997, no one suspected that a critical design flaw was lurking +deep within the telemetry system onboard Cassini that was dedicated to +harvesting Huygens’s broadcast. Uncorrected, the flaw meant the data +flowing from the hardy lander was in danger of being hopelessly +scrambled, its seven-year odyssey across the solar system in vain. + +“We have a technical term for what went wrong here,” one of Huygens’s +principal investigators, John Zarnecki of Britain’s Open University, +would later explain to reporters: “It’s called a cock-up.” + +But back in 1998, as Cassini was swinging past Venus and the Earth to +build up speed for its run out to Saturn, Zarnecki and the other +scientists and engineers at ESA and NASA were still blissfully unaware +of any problem. + +In fact, everything was working fine. The mission builders felt +confident in their work: both the Cassini orbiter and the Huygens lander +had been extensively tested on the ground, both separately and together. +However, a proposal for a so-called full-up high-fidelity test of the +radio link between the probes (where every system is subjected to a +simulation of the exact signals and conditions it will experience during +flight) had been rejected because it would have required disassembly of +some of the communications components. + +“Budget was a key part” of this decision, explained Robert Mitchell, +program manager for the Cassini-Huygens Mission at NASA’s Jet Propulsion +Laboratory (JPL) in Pasadena, Calif. The reassembled spacecraft would +then have had to undergo exhaustive and expensive recertification. In +hindsight, these testing failures were embarrassing. "We had three +safety nets set up to catch things like Cassini-Huygens’s communications +problem," said John Credland, head of ESA’s scientific projects,“and it +now appears that we fell through all three.” + +Fortunately, Claudio Sollazzo, Huygens’s ground operations manager at +ESA’s European Space Operation Centre (ESOC) in Darmstadt, Germany, had +a nagging worry about the lack of a full-up communications systems test. +Sollazzo knew there was time to run some tests during Cassini’s long, +uneventful stretches between the planets. So he approached Smeds in +January 1998 with an unusual request: design a test to send a signal +from Earth toward Cassini that would mimic a radio transmission from +Huygens during its landing. + +Smeds normally works on the communications links between ESA’s global +ground antenna network and its 11 active science spacecraft. Most of +these are satellites that never stray more than tens of thousands of +kilometers from Earth, a far cry from the Huygens probe, which was +designed to plunge into an atmosphere 1.2 billion km away. But Smeds’s +experience with ground antennas was just what Sollazzo needed. + +It was impossible to test the Huygens-to-Cassini radio link during the +cruise using the spacecraft themselves: they were firmly mated together, +communicating not by radio but via a cable. And even if Huygens could be +made to transmit to Cassini, successfully sending a radio signal a few +centimeters would hardly inspire confidence for the difficult Titan +descent. + +The Cassini-Huygens mission plan had Cassini jettisoning Huygens toward +Titan before Cassini began a low-altitude, high-velocity fly-by of the +mysterious moon. Huygens would reach Titan well in advance of Cassini, +and as Cassini streaked along at some 21 000 km/h relative to Titan, +Huygens would be descending on parachutes through the moon’s soupy +atmosphere at a comparatively leisurely 18 to 22 km/h. The relative +velocity of Huygens to Cassini was expected to be about 5.5 kilometers +per second, increasing the frequency of Huygens’s transmitter by about +38 kilohertz as seen by Cassini because of Doppler shift. + +If you’ve ever heard a screaming ambulance or whistling train pass by, +you’re familiar with Doppler shift. When an acoustic or radio wave is +emitted by a moving object, an observer in front of the object will +notice an increase in the wave’s frequency as the wave’s peaks and +troughs are compressed by the object’s motion, and an observer behind it +will notice a decrease in the wave’s frequency as the wave is +stretched—hence the familiar rise and fall in the pitch of an +ambulance’s siren as the vehicle speeds by. + +In the case of Huygens, its signal will vary not only in frequency but +also in strength as the probe is buffeted by the atmosphere, changing +the orientation of its transmitter. When Smeds was brought into the +picture, the plan to test Cassini’s receivers was to transmit a signal +from Earth that would duplicate Huygens’s carrier signal without +modulating it with any simulated telemetry from the lander’s +instruments. If the Cassini receiver could pick up a fluctuating, +Doppler-shifted carrier wave, all should be well. But Smeds wanted to do +better. “If I do a test like this, I want to do it properly and simulate +everything, not just a part of it,” he told IEEE Spectrum. + +Smeds used ESOC’s engineering model of Huygens—an exact duplicate of the +lander down to the last bolt and transistor—to generate a stream of +typical telemetry. Then he developed a test signal pattern on his office +computer that could modulate a carrier wave with telemetry as Huygens +would. His plan was to broadcast the simulated Huygens telemetry from +Earth to Cassini and have Cassini echo what it received back to Earth. + +![1004titanf3](/img/1004titanf3-1395852701517.jpg) Illustration: Armand +Veneziano **Going Through a Phase:** Huygens’s telemetry is sent to +Cassini using a technique known as binary phase-shift keying. In the +simple two-phase example above, a stream of bits \[top\] is encoded onto +a carrier wave \[middle\] by modulating the phase of the wave +\[bottom\]. To represent a 1, the modulated signal is in phase with the +unmodulated carrier wave, and to represent a 0, the modulated wave is +180 degrees out of phase with the unmodulated wave. Decoding the +modulated signal requires precise timing, as the incoming wave is +compared with an unmodulated wave at precise intervals to determine each +bit’s phase and whether the bit is a 1 or a 0. + +Huygens is designed to generate telemetry at a rate of 8192 bits per +second. Using a common modulation technique known as binary phase-shift +keying, Huygens’s transmission system represents 1s and 0s by varying +the phase of the outgoing carrier wave. Recovering these bits requires +precise timing: in simple terms, Cassini’s receiver is designed to break +the incoming signal into 8192 chunks every second. It determines the +phase of each chunk compared with an unmodulated wave and outputs a 0 or +a 1 accordingly \[see chart, above\]. + +Smeds’s scheme required that his test signal pattern be broadcast from +Earth in a sequence of varying power levels to simulate the effect of +Huygens and its transmitter’s being swung around in Titan’s atmosphere. +The test signal’s frequency would also be adjusted at broadcast so that +when it arrived at Cassini, it would match the Doppler-shifted signal +expected from Huygens. The echoed signal could then be decoded and +verified by matching it against the original telemetry used to create +the test signal. + +In proposing this more complex test with simulated telemetry, Smeds “had +to argue with those who didn’t think it was necessary,” recalled JPL’s +Mitchell. Smeds was persistent and continued championing the test even +after it was initially rejected. In the end, with the backing of +Sollazzo and Huygens’s project scientist, Jean-Pierre Lebreton, Smeds’s +plan was accepted because it was easy to do, even though hardly anybody +seemed to think it was worth doing. On such seeming trivia US $300 +million missions can turn: the simpler carrier-signal-only test, +Mitchell noted, would never have uncovered any problems. + +![1004titanf4](/img/10CassiniAntenna-1395852747785.jpg) Photo: Richard +Ross/Corbis **Desert Dish:** A 34-meter antenna, like this one at NASA’s +Deep Space Network facility at Goldstone in California’s Mojave Desert, +was used to transmit the test signal that revealed Cassini-Huygens’s +communications problem in early 2000. + +So it was that in early February 2000, a jet-lagged Smeds found himself +sitting in a windowless, fluorescent-lit, concrete basement below one of +NASA’s Deep Space Network (DSN) 34-meter dish antennas in Goldstone, +Calif. He had been scheduled for two test sequences during consecutive +days, when Cassini would be above the horizon and in view of the dish. +The test signal Smeds had devised on his office computer was loaded into +Goldstone’s signal-processing center, located at the far end of the +sprawling Mojave Desert complex, which would adjust the frequency to +simulate Huygens’s Doppler shift. + +Smeds and a DSN technician couldn’t stay in the relative comfort of the +processing center. They had to be present there in the bowels with the +noisy signal generators to adjust the power of the outgoing transmission +during the test. Smeds and the technician set up shop, ready to swap in +and out a series of laptop-controlled attenuators to simulate the signal +strength fluctuations that were expected from Huygens. + +When Cassini appeared over the horizon, the test sequence began. Smeds’s +test signal was transmitted to Cassini at a given power level for 5 +minutes at a time before moving on to another power level. Cassini was +now so far from Earth—430 million km away, somewhere in the asteroid +belt—that it took 48 minutes for the signal to reach the probe and be +relayed back to Goldstone. The signal from Cassini was then sent to ESOC +in Darmstadt for decoding and verification; the center kept in touch +with Smeds during the test by fax and phone. + +Soon, it became obvious that something was very wrong. Darmstadt +reported that it was picking up the carrier signal, but none of the +simulated telemetry was coming through. The data in the decoded signal +was a mess. As Smeds worked through his test sequence, the situation +grew even more puzzling, as Darmstadt would occasionally get short +bursts of good data. “Specific things were very confusing. When you +increase the power, you expect the signal to get better. Initially it +did, but then when I increased the power even more, the data was +corrupted again,” Smeds told Spectrum. + +After the day’s test sequence, Smeds kept thinking about the scrambled +data during the hour-long drive back to Barstow, Calif., the nearest +town to Goldstone with a motel. He started to get a hunch that the +problem didn’t have anything to do with signal strength but with Doppler +shift. He was running out of time, however, to test theories—he had only +a few hours the next day at Goldstone before the communications pass +would be over. It would be months before another test could be arranged, +because other investigators were in line to communicate with their +equipment onboard Cassini. + +Smeds decided to carve out some more time for himself. The next day he +cut each step in the official test sequence from 5 minutes to 2, +allowing him to finish early. + +Now he could act on his intuition. He called up Goldstone’s +signal-processing center and had it reduce the simulated Doppler shift +of the signal reaching Cassini to zero. Forty-eight minutes later—light +speed to the asteroid belt and back—Smeds’s hunch paid off. “Suddenly I +got better results. I knew then that there was something wrong in the +data-detection system and that it was sensitive to Doppler shift,” said +Smeds. + +Even with the test results in hand, Smeds was greeted with some +skepticism on his return to Darmstadt. “Some people didn’t believe me,” +he chuckles. They thought that “something was wrong with the test setup. +But I had the engineering model, and I continued doing tests on the +ground and doing more investigations. I could demonstrate the effect of +the Doppler shift and the effect it had on the data reception.” + +By September 2000, Smeds and his allies had managed to convince ESA that +the problem was real and that it was time to tell NASA. “Without Smeds, +we wouldn’t have known we had a problem,” says JPL’s Mitchell. Adds +Zarnecki, “The guys who pushed the original test through are heroes.” + +But what had gone wrong? + +**ESA immediately convened an inquiry board,** with two NASA observers. +One of them was Richard Horttor, who was then JPL’s telecommunications +system engineer for the Cassini project. He recalls, “We worked our way +out by being totally candid from top to bottom once we detected the +problem. There was no hesitancy or lack of resources. Nor was there any +‘nation-to-nation finger-pointing.’ ” + +The board discovered that Alenia Spazio SpA, the Rome-based company that +built the radio link, had properly anticipated the need to make the +receiver sensitive over a wide enough range of frequencies to detect +Huygens’s carrier signal even when Doppler shifted. But it had +overlooked another subtle consequence: Doppler shift would affect not +just the frequency of the carrier wave that the probe’s vital +observations would be transmitted on but also the digitally encoded +signal itself. In effect, the shift would push the signal out of synch +with the timing scheme used to recover data from the phase-modulated +carrier. + +Because of Doppler shift, the frequency at which bits would be arriving +from Huygens would be significantly different from the nominal data rate +of 8192 bits per second. As the radio wave from the lander was +compressed by Doppler shift, the data rate would increase as the length +of each bit was reduced. + +Although the receiver’s decoder could accommodate small shifts in the +received data rate, it was completely out of its league here. The +incoming signal was doomed to be chopped up into chunks that didn’t +correspond to the actual data being sent, and as a result the signal +decoder would produce a stream of binary junk. The situation would be +like trying to watch a scrambled TV channel—the TV’s tuned in fine, but +you still can’t make out the picture. + +Alenia Spazio wasn’t alone in missing the impact Doppler shift would +have on the decoder. All the design reviews of the communications link, +including those conducted with NASA participation, also failed to notice +the error that would threaten to turn Huygens’s moment of glory into an +embarrassing failure. + +Alenia Spazio’s insistence on confidentiality may have played a role in +this oversight. NASA reviewers were never given the specs of the +receiver. As JPL’s Mitchell explained to Spectrum, “Alenia Spazio +considered JPL to be a competitor and treated the radio design as +proprietary data.” JPL’s Horttor admitted that NASA probably could have +insisted on seeing the design if it had agreed to sign standard +nondisclosure agreements, but NASA didn’t consider the effort +worthwhile, automatically assuming Alenia Spazio would compensate for +the changing data rate. + +Horttor never got an explanation of why Alenia Spazio’s telemetry system +was built with a timing system that couldn’t accommodate the Doppler +shift in Huygens’s telemetry. “It is a design feature of another +application in Earth orbit, and they just reused it,” he told Spectrum, +adding, “I don’t know why anyone would ever want to build it that way.” +(An Alenia Spazio spokeswoman said that none of the company’s officials +were available to comment because of a company-wide summer vacation +period.) + +Frustratingly, engineers discovered that the timing scheme was +implemented by firmware loaded in Cassini’s receiver; a trivial change +to some operating parameters would have fixed Cassini’s comprehension +problem. But the firmware could not be altered after launch. + +Now, the question remained: how to save Huygens’s mission? + +**From a variety of proposed fixes,** the Cassini team crafted a +response plan that centered on reducing the Doppler shift sufficiently +to keep the data signal within the recognition range of the receiver. +They accomplished this trick by altering the planned trajectory of +Cassini. Now, Cassini will be much farther from Titan when Huygens +enters its atmosphere. As a result of this geometrical rearrangement, +the probe’s major deceleration component will be perpendicular to the +Huygens-Cassini line of sight rather than mostly along it. This simple +change literally sidesteps the Doppler shift problem, as the radio waves +coming out perpendicular to Huygens’s direction of motion will be +neither stretched nor compressed. + +By the time NASA and ESA realized a rearrangement was needed, +interplanetary navigation experts had already laboriously developed +Cassini’s multiyear flight plan to maximize the number of visits to +Saturn’s moons. There were to be 44 close fly-by passes of Titan, 8 +close passes of smaller moons, and between 50 and 100 more distant +passes of these other moons. Reconstructing this celestial ballet from +scratch would have been prohibitively expensive. + +So the navigators designed a trajectory in which Cassini initially +enters a lower and faster orbit around Saturn, drops off Huygens, and +then hits a specific point in space that coincides with a point on the +previously planned path. There Cassini fires its rocket engine again to +get back on the original course. During this altered period, it will +make three orbits of Saturn instead of the original two, but the extra +rocket fuel needed to make the changes is available because Cassini’s +navigation has been so precise that a lot of fuel allocated to course +corrections has not been used. + +The upshot of this maneuvering is that instead of landing on Titan in +November 2004, Huygens will now be deployed on 24 December 2004 for a 14 +January 2005 landing. The lander still faces enormous engineering +challenges as it ventures into the unknown conditions of Titan’s +atmosphere and surface. But at least now it has a fighting chance to +transmit its findings back to Earth. + +As for Smeds, ESA’s staff association awarded him and some of his +colleagues a plaque and a small cash prize for their role in saving the +$300 million mission, though Smeds told Spectrum that he is still +looking forward to his real reward: “I hope to sit in Darmstadt and see +the data coming in on the screen in January.” + +## About the author + +James Oberg is a 22-year veteran of NASA mission control. He is now a +writer and consultant in Houston. His last article for IEEE Spectrum was +in August, about the first private suborbital spacecraft, SpaceshipOne. + +Stephen Cass contributed additional reporting for this article. + +## To Probe Further + +For more information on the Cassini-Huygens Mission, go to +. + +[Download a PDF version of the article](/ns/pdfs/1004titan.pdf). diff --git a/_stories/2004/7615271.md b/_stories/2004/7615271.md index 8f6dfbc..a9c537c 100644 --- a/_stories/2004/7615271.md +++ b/_stories/2004/7615271.md @@ -19,7 +19,570 @@ _tags: objectID: '7615271' --- -[Source](https://www.theguardian.com/film/2004/mar/27/features.weekend "Permalink to ") +Stanley Kubrick's films were landmark events - majestic, memorable and +richly researched. But, as the years went by, the time between films +grew longer and longer, and less and less was seen of the director. What +on earth was he doing? Two years after his death, Jon Ronson was invited +to the Kubrick estate and let loose among the fabled archive. He was +looking for a solution to the mystery - this is what he found +In 1996 I received what was - and probably remains - the most exciting +telephone call I have ever had. It was from a man calling himself Tony. +"I'm phoning on behalf of [Stanley +Kubrick](https://www.theguardian.com/film/stanleykubrick)," he said. +"I'm sorry?" I said. +"Stanley would like you to send him a radio documentary you made called +Hotel Auschwitz," said this man. This was a programme for Radio 4 about +the marketing of the concentration camp. + +"Stanley Kubrick?" I said. + +"Let me give you the address," said the man. He sounded posh. It seemed +that he didn't want to say any more about this than he had to. I sent +the tape to a PO box in St Albans and waited. What might happen next? +Whatever it was, it was going to be amazing. My mind started going +crazy. Perhaps Kubrick would ask me to collaborate on something. (Oddly, +in this daydream, I reluctantly turned him down because I didn't think +I'd make a good screenwriter.) + +At the time I received that telephone call, nine years had passed since +Kubrick's last film, Full Metal Jacket. All anyone outside his circle +knew about him was that he was living in a vast country house somewhere +near St Albans - or a "secret lair", according to a Sunday Times article +of that year - behaving presumably like some kind of mad hermit genius. +Nobody even knew what he looked like. It had been 16 years since a +photograph of him had been published. + +He'd gone from making a film a year in the 1950s (including the +brilliant, horrific Paths Of Glory), to a film every couple of years in +the 1960s (Lolita, Dr Strangelove and 2001: A Space Odyssey all came out +within a six-year period), to two films a decade in the 1970s and 1980s +(there had been a seven-year gap between The Shining and Full Metal +Jacket), and now, in the 1990s, absolutely nothing. What the hell was he +doing in there? According to rumours, he was passing his time being +terrified of germs and refusing to let his chauffeur drive over 30mph. +But now I knew what he was doing. He was listening to my BBC Radio 4 +documentary, Hotel Auschwitz. + +"The good news," wrote Nicholas Wapshott in the Times in 1997, bemoaning +the ever-lengthening gaps between his films, "is that Kubrick is a +hoarder ... There is an extensive archive of material at his home in +Childwick Bury. When that is eventually opened, we may get close to +understanding the tangled brain which brought to life HAL, the +\[Clockwork Orange\] Droogs and Jack Torrance." + +The thing is, once I sent the tape to the PO box, nothing happened next. +I never heard anything again. Not a word. My cassette disappeared into +the mysterious world of Stanley Kubrick. And then, three years later, +Kubrick was dead. + +Two years after that, in 2001, I got another phone call out of the blue +from the man called Tony. "Do you want to get some lunch?" he asked. +"Why don't you come up to Childwick?" + +The journey to the Kubrick house starts normally. You drive through +rural Hertfordshire, passing ordinary-sized postwar houses and opticians +and vets. Then you turn right at an electric gate with a "Do Not +Trespass" sign. Drive through that, and through some woods, and past a +long, white fence with the paint peeling off, and then another electric +gate, and then another electric gate, and then another electric gate, +and you're in the middle of an estate full of boxes. + +There are boxes everywhere - shelves of boxes in the stable block, rooms +full of boxes in the main house. In the fields, where racehorses once +stood and grazed, are half a dozen portable cabins, each packed with +boxes. These are the boxes that contain the legendary Kubrick archive. + +Was the Times right? Would the stuff inside the boxes offer an +understanding of his "tangled brain"? I notice that many of the boxes +are sealed. Some have, in fact, remained unopened for decades. + +Tony turns out to be Tony Frewin. He started working as an office boy +for Kubrick in 1965, when he was 17. One day, apropos of nothing, +Kubrick said to him, "You have that office outside my office if I need +you." That was 36 years ago and Tony is still here, two years after +Kubrick died and was buried in the grounds behind the house. There may +be no more Kubrick movies to make, but there are DVDs to remaster and +reissue in special editions. There are box sets and retrospective books +to oversee. There is paperwork. + +Tony gives me a guided tour of the house. We walk past boxes and more +boxes and filing cabinets and past a grand staircase. Childwick was once +home to a family of horse-breeders called the Joels. Back then there +were, presumably, busts or floral displays on either side at the bottom +of this staircase. Here, instead, is a photocopier on one side and +another photocopier on the other. + +"Is this ... ?" I ask. + +"Yes," says Tony. "This is how Stanley left it." + +Stanley Kubrick's house looks as if the Inland Revenue took it over long +ago. + +Tony takes me into a large room painted blue and filled with books. +"This used to be the cinema," he says. + +"Is it the library now?" I ask. + +"Look closer at the books," says Tony. + +I do. "Bloody hell," I say. "Every book in this room is about +Napoleon\!" + +"Look in the drawers," says Tony. + +I do. + +"It's all about Napoleon, too\!" I say. "Everything in here is about +Napoleon\!" + +I feel a little like Shelley Duvall in The Shining, chancing upon her +husband's novel and finding it is comprised entirely of the line "All +Work And No Play Makes Jack A Dull Boy" typed over and over again. John +Baxter wrote, in his unauthorised biography of Kubrick, "Most people +attributed the purchase of Childwick to Kubrick's passion for privacy, +and drew parallels with Jack Torrance in The Shining." + +This room full of Napoleon stuff seems to bear out that comparison. +"Somewhere else in this house," Tony says, "is a cabinet full of 25,000 +library cards, three inches by five inches. If you want to know what +Napoleon, or Josephine, or anyone within Napoleon's inner circle was +doing on the afternoon of July 23 17-whatever, you go to that card and +it'll tell you." + +"Who made up the cards?" I ask. + +"Stanley," says Tony. "With some assistants." + +"How long did it take?" I ask. + +"Years," says Tony. "The late 1960s." + +Kubrick never made his film about Napoleon. During the years it took him +to compile this research, a Rod Steiger movie called Waterloo was +written, produced and released. It was a box-office failure, so MGM +abandoned Napoleon and Kubrick made A Clockwork Orange instead. + +"Did you do this kind of massive research for all the movies?" I ask +Tony. + +"More or less," he says. + +"OK," I say. "I understand how you might do this for Napoleon, but what +about, say, The Shining?" + +"Somewhere here," says Tony, "is just about every ghost book ever +written, and there'll be a box containing photographs of the exteriors +of maybe every mountain hotel in the world." + +There is a silence. + +"Tony," I say, "can I look through the boxes?" + +I've been coming to the Kubrick house a couple of times a month ever +since. + +I start, chronologically, in a portable cabin behind the stable block, +with a box marked Lolita. I open it, noting the ease with which the lid +comes off. "These are excellent, well-designed boxes," I think to +myself. I flick through the paperwork inside, pausing randomly at a +letter that reads as if it has come straight from a Jane Austen novel: + +Dear Mr Kubrick, + +Just a line to express to you and to Mrs Kubrick my husband's and my own +deep appreciation of your kindness in arranging for Dimitri's +introduction to your uncle, Mr Günther Rennert. + +Sincerely, + +Mrs Vladimir Nabokov + +I later learn that Dimitri was a budding opera singer and Rennert was a +famous opera director, in charge of the Munich Opera House. This letter +was written in 1962, back in the days when Kubrick was still producing a +film every year or so. This box is full of fascinating correspondence +between Kubrick and the Nabokovs but - unlike the fabulously +otherworldly Napoleon room, which was accrued six years later - it is +the kind of stuff you would probably find in any director's archive. + +The unusual stuff - the stuff that elucidates the ever-lengthening gaps +between productions - can be found in the boxes that were compiled from +1968 onwards. In a box next to the Lolita box in the cabin, I find an +unusually terse letter, written by Kubrick to someone called Pat, on +January 10 1968: "Dear Pat, Although you are apparently too busy to +personally return my phone calls, perhaps you will find time in the near +future to reply to this letter?" + +(Later, when I show Tony this letter, he says he's surprised by the +brusqueness. Kubrick must have been at the end of his tether, he says, +because on a number of occasions he said to Tony, "Before you send an +angry letter, imagine how it would look if it got into the hands of Time +Out.") The reason for Kubrick's annoyance in this particular letter was +because he'd heard that the Beatles were going to use a landscape shot +from Dr Strangelove in one of their movies: "The Beatle film will be +very widely seen," Kubrick writes, "and it will make it appear that the +material in Dr Strangelove is stock footage. I feel this harms the +film." + +There is a similar batch of telexes from 1975: "It would appear," +Kubrick writes in one, "that Space 1999 may very well become a +long-running and important television series. There seems nothing left +now but to seek the highest possible damages ... The deliberate choice +of a date only two years away from 2001 is not accidental and harms us." +This telex was written seven years after the release of 2001. + +But you can see why Kubrick sometimes felt compelled to wage war to +protect the honour of his work. A 1975 telex, from a picture publicity +man at Warner Bros called Mark Kauffman, regards publicity stills for +Kubrick's sombre reworking of Thackeray's Barry Lyndon. It reads: +"Received additional material. Is there any material with humour or +zaniness that you could send?" + +Kubrick replies, clearly through gritted teeth: "The style of the +picture is reflected by the stills you have already received. The film +is based on William Makepeace Thackeray's novel which, though it has +irony and wit, could not be well described as zany." + +I take a break from the boxes to wander over to Tony's office. As I walk +in, I notice something pinned to his letterbox. "POSTMAN," it reads. +"Please put all mail in the white box under the colonnade across the +courtyard to your right." + +It is not a remarkable note except for one thing. The typeface Tony used +to print it is exactly the same typeface Kubrick used for the posters +and title sequences of Eyes Wide Shut and 2001. "It's Futura Extra +Bold," explains Tony. "It was Stanley's favourite typeface. It's sans +serif. He liked Helvetica and Univers, too. Clean and elegant." + +"Is this the kind of thing you and Kubrick used to discuss?" I ask. + +"God, yes," says Tony. "Sometimes late into the night. I was always +trying to persuade him to turn away from them. But he was wedded to his +sans serifs." + +Tony goes to his bookshelf and brings down a number of volumes full of +examples of typefaces, the kind of volumes he and Kubrick used to study, +and he shows them to me. "I did once get him to admit the beauty of +Bembo," he adds, "a serif." + +"So is that note to the postman a sort of private tribute from you to +Kubrick?" I ask. + +"Yeah," says Tony. He smiles to himself. "Yeah, yeah." + +For a moment I also smile at the unlikely image of the two men +discussing the relative merits of typefaces late into the night, but +then I remember the first time I saw the trailer for Eyes Wide Shut, the +way the words "CRUISE, KIDMAN, KUBRICK" flashed dramatically on to the +screen in large red, yellow and white colours, to the song Baby Did A +Bad Bad Thing. Had the words not been in Futura Extra Bold, I realise +now, they wouldn't have sent such a chill up the spine. Kubrick and Tony +obviously became, at some point during their relationship, tireless +amateur sleuths, wanting to amass and consume and understand all +information. Tony obviously misses Kubrick terribly. + +But this attention to detail becomes so amazingly evident and seemingly +all-consuming in the later boxes, I begin to wonder whether it was worth +it. In one portable cabin, for example, there are hundreds and hundreds +of boxes related to Eyes Wide Shut, marked EWS - Portman Square, EWS - +Kensington & Chelsea, etc, etc. I choose the one marked EWS - Islington +because that's where I live. Inside are hundreds of photographs of +doorways. The doorway of my local video shop, Century Video, is here, as +is the doorway of my dry cleaner's, Spots Suede Services on Upper +Street. Then, as I continue to flick through the photographs, I find, to +my astonishment, pictures of the doorways of the houses in my own +street. Handwritten at the top of these photographs are the words, +"Hooker doorway?" + +"Huh," I think. So somebody within the Kubrick organisation (it was, in +fact, his nephew) once walked up my street, on Kubrick's orders, hoping +to find a suitable doorway for a hooker in Eyes Wide Shut. It is both an +extremely interesting find and a bit of a kick in the teeth. + +It is not, though, as incredible a coincidence as it may at first seem. +Judging by the writing on the boxes, probably just about every doorway +in London has been captured and placed inside this cabin. This solves +one mystery for me - the one about why Kubrick, a native of the Bronx, +chose the St Albans countryside, of all places, for his home. I realise +now that it didn't matter. It could have been anywhere. It is as if the +whole world is to be found somewhere within this estate. + +But was it worth it? Was the hooker doorway eventually picked for Eyes +Wide Shut the quintessential hooker doorway? Back at home, I watch Eyes +Wide Shut again on DVD. The hooker doorway looks exactly like any +doorway you would find in Lower Manhattan - maybe on Canal Street or in +the East Village. It is a red door, up some brownstone steps, with the +number 265 painted on the glass at the top. Tom Cruise is pulled through +the door by the hooker. The scene is over in a few seconds. (It was +eventually shot on a set at Pinewood.) I remember the Napoleon archive, +the years it took Kubrick and some assistants to compile it, and I +suggest to Jan Harlan, Kubrick's executive producer and brother-in-law, +that had there not been all those years of attention to detail during +the early planning of the movie, perhaps Napoleon would actually have +been made. + +"That's a completely theoretical and obsolete observation\!" replies +Jan, in a jolly way. "That's like saying had Vermeer painted in a +different manner, he'd have done 100 more paintings." + +"OK," I say. + +Jan is right, of course. So why am I so keen to discover in the boxes +some secret personality flaw to Kubrick, whose films I love so much? He +was the greatest director of his generation. Jack Nicholson's "Here's +Johnny\!" Lolita's heart-shaped sunglasses. The Dr Strangelove cowboy +riding the nuclear bomb like it's a bucking bronco. And on and on. So +many images have implanted themselves into the public consciousness, +surely because of the director's ever-burgeoning attention to detail. + +"Why don't you just accept," says Jan, "that this was how he worked?" + +"But if he hadn't allowed his tireless work ethic to take him to +unproductive places, he'd have made more films," I say. "For instance, +the Space 1999 lawsuit seems, with the benefit of hindsight, a little +trivial." + +"Of course I wish he had made more films," says Jan. + +Jan and I are having this conversation inside the stable block, +surrounded by hundreds of boxes. For the past few days I have been +reading the contents of those marked "Fan Letters" and "Résumés". They +are filled with pleas from hundreds of strangers, written over the +decades. They say much the same thing: "I know I have the talent to be a +big star. I know it's going to happen to me one day. I just need a +break. Will you give me that break?" + +All these letters are - every single one of them - written by people of +whom I have never heard. Many of these young actors will be middle-aged +by now. I want to go back in time and say to them, "You're not going to +make it\! It's best you know now rather than face years of having your +dreams slowly erode." They are heartbreaking boxes. + +"Stanley never wrote back to the fans," says Jan. "He never, never +responded. It would have been too much. It would have driven him crazy. +He didn't like to get engaged with strangers." + +(In fact, I soon discover, Kubrick did write back to fans, on random, +rare occasions. I find two replies in total. Maybe he only ever wrote +back twice. One reads, "Your letter of 4th May was overwhelming. What +can I say in reply? Sincerely, Stanley Kubrick." The other reads, "Dear +Mr William, Thank you for writing. No comment about A Clockwork Orange. +You will have to decide for yourself. Sincerely, Stanley Kubrick.") + +"One time, in 1998," Jan says, "I was in the kitchen with Stanley and I +mentioned that I'd just been to the optician's in St Albans to get a new +pair of glasses. Stanley looked shocked. He said, 'Where exactly did you +go?' I told him and he said, 'Oh, thank God\! I was just in the other +optician's in town getting some glasses and I used your name\!'" Jan +laughs. "He used my name in the optician's, everywhere." + +"But even if he didn't reply to the fan letters," I say, "they've all +been so scrupulously read and filed." + +The fan letters are perfectly preserved. They are not in the least bit +dusty or crushed. The system used to file them is, in fact, +extraordinary. Each fan box contains perhaps 50 orange folders. Each +folder has the name of a town or city typed on the front - Agincourt, +Ontario; Alhambra, California; Cincinnati, Ohio; Daly City, California, +and so on - and they are in alphabetical order inside the boxes. And +inside each folder are all the fan letters that came from that +particular place in any one year. Kubrick has handwritten "F-P" on the +positive ones and "F-N" on the negative ones. The crazy ones have been +marked "F-C". + +"Look at this," I say to Jan. + +I hand him a letter written by a fan and addressed to Arthur C Clarke. +He forwarded it on to Kubrick and wrote on the top, "Stanley. See P3\!\! +Arthur." + +Jan turns to page 3, where Clarke had marked, with exclamation marks, +the following paragraph: + +"What is the meaning behind the epidemic? Does the pink furniture reveal +anything about the 3rd monolith and it's emitting a pink colour when it +first approaches the ship? Does this have anything to do with a shy +expression? Does the alcohol offered by the Russians have anything to do +with French kissing and saliva?" + +"Why do you think Arthur C Clarke marked that particular paragraph for +Kubrick to read?" I ask Jan. + +"Because it is so bizarre and absurd," he says. + +"I thought so," I say. "I just wanted to make sure." + +In the back of my mind, I wondered whether this paragraph was marked +because the writer of the fan letter - Mr Sam Laks of Alhambra, +California - had actually worked out the secret of the monolith in 2001. +I find myself empathising with Sam Laks. I am also looking for answers +to the mysteries. So many conspiracy theories and wild rumours +surrounded Kubrick - the one about him being responsible for faking the +moon landings (untrue), the one about his terror of germs (this one +can't be true, either - there's a lot of dust around here), the one +about him refusing to fly and drive over 30mph. (The flying one is true +- Tony says he wasn't scared of planes, he was scared of air traffic +controllers - but the one about the 30mph is "bullshit", says Tony. "He +had a Porsche.") + +This is why my happiest times looking through the boxes are when things +turn weird. For instance, at the end of one shelf inside the stable +block is a box marked "Sniper head - scary". Inside, wrapped in +newspaper, is an extremely lifelike and completely disgusting +disembodied head of a young Vietnamese girl, the veins in her neck +protruding horribly, her eyes staring out, her lips slightly open, her +tongue just visible. I feel physically sick looking at it. As I hold it +up by its blood-matted hair, Christiane, Kubrick's widow, walks past the +window. + +"I found a head\!" I say. + +"It's probably Ryan O'Neal's head," she replies. + +Christiane has no idea who I am, nor what I'm doing in her house, but +she accepts the moment with admirable calm. + +"No," I say. "It's the head of the sniper from Full Metal Jacket." + +"But she wasn't beheaded," calls back Christiane. "She was shot." + +"I know\!" I say. + +Christiane shrugs and walks on. The sniper head would probably please Mr +Sam Laks, on a superficial level, because it is so grotesque. But in +general the most exotic things to be found here are generated from the +outside, from the imaginations of fans like him. + +"I was just talking to Tony about typefaces," I say to Jan. + +"Ah yes," says Jan. "Stanley loved typefaces." Jan pauses. "I tell you +what else he loved." + +"What?" I ask. + +"Stationery," says Jan. + +I glance over at the boxes full of letters from people who felt about +Kubrick the way Kubrick felt about stationery, and then back to Jan. +"His great hobby was stationery," he says. "One time a package arrived +with 100 bottles of brown ink. I said to Stanley, 'What are you going to +do with all that ink?' He said, 'I was told they were going to +discontinue the line, so I bought all the remaining bottles in +existence.' Stanley had a tremendous amount of ink." Jan pauses. "He +loved stationery, pads, everything like that." + +Tony wanders into the stable block. + +"How's it going?" he asks. + +"Still looking for Rosebud," I say. + +"The closest I ever got to Rosebud," says Tony, "was finding a daisy gun +that he had when he was a child." + +As I look through the boxes over the months, I never find my Hotel +Auschwitz tape. Nor do I get around to opening the two boxes that read +Shadow On The Sun. But, one evening just before last Christmas, I decide +to take a look. The boxes contain two volumes of what appears to be a +cheesy sci-fi radio drama script. The story begins with a sick dog: "Can +you run me over to Oxford with my dog?" says the dog's owner. "He's not +very well. I'm a bit worried about him, John." This is typed. + +Kubrick has handwritten below it: "THE DOG IS NOT WELL." It soon becomes +clear - through speed-reading - that a virus has been carried to earth +on a meteorite. This is why the dog is listless, and also why humans +across the planet are no longer able to control their sexual appetites. +It ends with a speech: "There's been so much killing - friend against +friend, neighbour against neighbour, but we all know nobody on this +earth is to blame, Mrs Brighton. We've all had the compulsions. We'll +just have to forgive each other our trespasses. I'll do my part. I'll +grant a general amnesty - wipe the slate clean. Then perhaps we can +begin to live again, as ordinary decent human beings, and forget the +horror of the past few months." + +This, too, is typed. But all over the script I find notes handwritten by +Kubrick. ("Establish Brighton's interest in extraterrestrial matters"; +"Dog finds meteorite"; "John has got to have very powerful connections +of the highest level"; "A Bill Murray line\!") "Tony\!" I say. "What the +hell is this?" + +I believe I have stumbled on a lost Kubrick radio play. Perhaps he did +this in his spare time. But, if so, why? + +"No, no," says Tony. "I know what this is." + +Kubrick was always a keen listener to BBC Radio, Tony explains. When he +first arrived in the UK, back in the early 1960s, he happened to hear +this drama serial, Shadow On The Sun. Three decades later, in the early +1990s, after he had finished Full Metal Jacket, he was looking for a new +project, so he asked Tony to track down the scripts. He spent a few +years, on and off, thinking about Shadow On The Sun, reading and +annotating the scripts, before he abandoned the idea and eventually - +after working on and rejecting AI (which was filmed by Steven Spielberg +after Kubrick's death) - made Eyes Wide Shut instead. + +"But the original script seems so cheesy," I say. + +"Ah," replies Tony, "but this is before Stanley worked his alchemy." + +And I realise this is true. "Dog finds meteorite." It sounds so banal, +but imagine how Kubrick might have directed it. Do the words, "Ape finds +monolith" or, "Little boy turns the corner and sees twin girls" sound +any less banal on the page? + +All this time I have been looking in the boxes for some embodiment of +the fantasies of the outsiders like Mr Sam Laks and me - but I never do +find anything like that. I suppose that the closer you get to an enigma, +the more explicable it becomes. Even the somewhat crazy-seeming stuff, +like the filing of the fan letters by the town from which they came, +begins to make sense after a while. + +It turns out that Kubrick ordered this filing in case he ever wanted to +have a local cinema checked out. If 2001, say, was being screened in +Daly City, California, at a cinema unknown to Kubrick, he would get Tony +or one of his secretaries to telephone a fan from that town to ask them +to visit the cinema to ensure that, say, the screen wasn't ripped. Tony +says that if I'm looking for something exotic or unexpected or extreme, +if I'm looking for the solution to the mystery of Kubrick, I don't +really need to look inside the boxes. I just need to watch the films. + +"It's all there," he says. "Those films are Stanley." + +Although the Kubricks have always closely guarded their privacy inside +Childwick, I come to the end of my time at the house during something of +a watershed moment. Christiane Kubrick and her daughter Katherine are +soon to open the grounds and the stable block to the public for an art +fair, displaying their work and the work of a number of local artists. +The boxes are going to be moved somewhere else. Many, in fact, have now +been shipped to Frankfurt. On March 31, the Deutsches Filmmuseum will +launch a major Kubrick exhibition, including lenses, props, cameras and +some of the stuff that I found in the boxes. This will tour across +Europe and hopefully visit London, if the BFI can find a suitable +exhibition space. And the German publisher Taschen is soon to bring out +a book on Kubrick that will reproduce some of the Napoleon archive. + +Towards the end of my time at the Kubrick house, Tony mentions something +seemingly inconsequential, but as soon as he says it I realise that the +Rosebud I was after - the quintessence of Kubrick - has been staring me +in the face from the very first day. From the beginning, I had mentally +noted how well constructed the boxes were, and now Tony tells me that +this is because Kubrick designed them himself. He wasn't happy with the +boxes that were on the market - their restrictive dimensions and the +fact that it was sometimes difficult to get the tops off - so he set +about designing a whole new type of box. He instructed a company of box +manufacturers, G Ryder & Co, of Milton Keynes, to construct 400 of them +to his specifications. + +"When one batch arrived," says Tony, "we opened them up and found a +note, written by someone at G Ryder & Co. The note said, 'Fussy +customer. Make sure the tops slide off.'" + +Tony laughs. I half expect him to say, "I suppose we were a bit fussy." +But he doesn't. Instead, he says, "As opposed to non-fussy customers who +don't care if they struggle all day to get the tops off." + +The thing is, nobody outside the Kubrick house got to see the boxes diff --git a/_stories/2004/7664301.md b/_stories/2004/7664301.md index 3d3347e..c75fad8 100644 --- a/_stories/2004/7664301.md +++ b/_stories/2004/7664301.md @@ -19,7 +19,785 @@ _tags: objectID: '7664301' --- -[Source](https://newyorker.com/archive/2004/12/06/041206fa_fact?currentPage=all "Permalink to ") +Every illness is a story, and Annie Page’s began with the kinds of +small, unexceptional details that mean nothing until seen in hindsight. +Like the fact that, when she was a baby, her father sometimes called her +Little Potato Chip, because her skin tasted salty when he kissed her. Or +that Annie’s mother noticed that her breathing was sometimes a little +wheezy, though the pediatrician heard nothing through his stethoscope. +The detail that finally mattered was Annie’s size. For a while, Annie’s +fine-boned petiteness seemed to be just a family trait. Her sister, +Lauryn, four years older, had always been at the bottom end of the +pediatrician’s growth chart for girls her age. By the time Annie was +three years old, however, she had fallen off the chart. She stood an +acceptable thirty-four inches tall but weighed only twenty-three +pounds—less than ninety-eight per cent of girls her age. She did not +look malnourished, but she didn’t look quite healthy, either. +“Failure to thrive” is what it’s called, and there can be scores of +explanations: pituitary disorders, hypothyroidism, genetic defects in +metabolism, inflammatorybowel disease, lead poisoning, H.I.V., tapeworm +infection. In textbooks, the complete list is at least a page long. +Annie’s doctor did a thorough workup. Then, at four o’clock on July 27, +1997—“I’ll never forget that day,” her mother, Honor, says—the +pediatrician called the Pages at home with the results of a sweat test. +It’s a strange little test. The skin on the inside surface of a child’s +forearm is cleaned and dried. Two small gauze pads are applied—one +soaked with pilocarpine, a medicine that makes skin sweat, and the other +with a salt solution. Electrodes are hooked up. Then a mild electric +current is turned on for five minutes, driving the pilocarpine into the +skin. A reddened, sweaty area about an inch in diameter appears on the +skin, and a collection pad of dry filter paper is taped over it to +absorb the sweat for half an hour. A technician then measures the +concentration of chloride in the pad. + +Over the phone, the doctor told Honor that her daughter’s chloride level +was far higher than normal. Honor is a hospital pharmacist, and she had +come across children with abnormal results like this. “All I knew was +that it meant she was going to die,” she said quietly when I visited the +Pages’ home, in the Cincinnati suburb of Loveland. The test showed that +Annie had cystic fibrosis. + +Cystic fibrosis is a genetic disease. Only a thousand American children +per year are diagnosed as having it. Some ten million people in the +United States carry the defective gene, but the disorder is recessive: a +child will develop the condition only if both parents are carriers and +both pass on a copy. The gene—which was discovered, in 1989, sitting out +on the long arm of chromosome No. 7—produces a mutant protein that +interferes with cells’ ability to manage chloride. This is what makes +sweat from people with CF so salty. (Salt is sodium chloride, after +all.) The chloride defect thickens secretions throughout the body, +turning them dry and gluey. In the ducts of the pancreas, the flow of +digestive enzymes becomes blocked, making a child less and less able to +absorb food. This was why Annie had all but stopped growing. The effects +on the lungs, however, are what make the disease lethal. Thickened mucus +slowly fills the small airways and hardens, shrinking lung capacity. +Over time, the disease leaves a child with the equivalent of just one +functioning lung. Then half a lung. Then none at all. + +The one overwhelming thought in the minds of Honor and Don Page was: We +need to get to Children’s. Cincinnati Children’s Hospital is among the +most respected pediatric hospitals in the country. It was where Albert +Sabin invented the oral polio vaccine. The chapter on cystic fibrosis in +the “Nelson Textbook of Pediatrics”—the bible of the specialty—was +written by one of the hospital’s pediatricians. The Pages called and +were given an appointment for the next morning. + +“We were there for hours, meeting with all the different members of the +team,” Honor recalled. “They took Annie’s blood pressure, measured her +oxygen saturation, did some other tests. Then they put us in a room, and +the pediatrician sat down with us. He was very kind, but frank, too. He +said, ‘Do you understand it’s a genetic disease? That it’s nothing you +did, nothing you can catch?’ He told us the median survival for patients +was thirty years. In Annie’s lifetime, he said, we could see that go to +forty. For him, he was sharing a great accomplishment in CF care. And +the news was better than our worst fears. But only forty\! That’s not +what we wanted to hear.” + +The team members reviewed the treatments. The Pages were told that they +would have to give Annie pancreatic-enzyme pills with the first bite of +every meal. They would have to give her supplemental vitamins. They also +had to add calories wherever they could—putting tablespoons of butter on +everything, giving her ice cream whenever she wanted, and then putting +chocolate sauce on it. + +A respiratory therapist explained that they would need to do manual +chest therapy at least twice a day, half-hour sessions in which they +would strike—“percuss”—their daughter’s torso with a cupped hand at each +of fourteen specific locations on the front, back, and sides in order to +loosen the thick secretions and help her to cough them up. They were +given prescriptions for inhaled medicines. The doctor told them that +Annie would need to come back once every three months for extended +checkups. And then they went home to start their new life. They had been +told almost everything they needed to know in order to give Annie her +best chance to live as long as possible. + +The one thing that the clinicians failed to tell them, however, was that +Cincinnati Children’s was not, as the Pages supposed, among the +country’s best centers for children with cystic fibrosis. According to +data from that year, it was, at best, an average program. This was no +small matter. In 1997, patients at an average center were living to be +just over thirty years old; patients at the top center typically lived +to be forty-six. By some measures, Cincinnati was well below average. +The best predictor of a CF patient’s life expectancy is his or her lung +function. At Cincinnati, lung function for patients under the age of +twelve—children like Annie—was in the bottom twenty-five per cent of the +country’s CF patients. And the doctors there knew it. + +It used to be assumed that differences among hospitals or doctors in a +particular specialty were generally insignificant. If you plotted a +graph showing the results of all the centers treating cystic fibrosis—or +any other disease, for that matter—people expected that the curve would +look something like a shark fin, with most places clustered around the +very best outcomes. But the evidence has begun to indicate otherwise. +What you tend to find is a bell curve: a handful of teams with +disturbingly poor outcomes for their patients, a handful with remarkably +good results, and a great undistinguished middle. + +In ordinary hernia operations, the chances of recurrence are one in ten +for surgeons at the unhappy end of the spectrum, one in twenty for those +in the middle majority, and under one in five hundred for a handful. A +Scottish study of patients with treatable colon cancer found that the +ten-year survival rate ranged from a high of sixty-three per cent to a +low of twenty per cent, depending on the surgeon. For heartbypass +patients, even at hospitals with a good volume of experience, +risk-adjusted death rates in New York vary from five per cent to under +one per cent—and only a very few hospitals are down near the +one-per-cent mortality rate. + +It is distressing for doctors to have to acknowledge the bell curve. It +belies the promise that we make to patients who become seriously ill: +that they can count on the medical system to give them their very best +chance at life. It also contradicts the belief nearly all of us have +that we are doing our job as well as it can be done. But evidence of the +bell curve is starting to trickle out, to doctors and patients alike, +and we are only beginning to find out what happens when it does. + +In medicine, we are used to confronting failure; all doctors have +unforeseen deaths and complications. What we’re not used to is comparing +our records of success and failure with those of our peers. I am a +surgeon in a department that is, our members like to believe, one of the +best in the country. But the truth is that we have had no reliable +evidence about whether we’re as good as we think we are. Baseball teams +have win-loss records. Businesses have quarterly earnings reports. What +about doctors? + +There is a company on the Web called HealthGrades, which for $7.95 will +give you a report card on any physician you choose. Recently, I +requested the company’s report cards on me and several of my colleagues. +They don’t tell you that much. You will learn, for instance, that I am +in fact certified in my specialty, have no criminal convictions, have +not been fired from any hospital, have not had my license suspended or +revoked, and have not been disciplined. This is no doubt useful to know. +But it sets the bar a tad low, doesn’t it? + +In recent years, there have been numerous efforts to measure how various +hospitals and doctors perform. No one has found the task easy. One +difficulty has been figuring out what to measure. For six years, from +1986 to 1992, the federal government released an annual report that came +to be known as the Death List, which ranked all the hospitals in the +country by their death rate for elderly and disabled patients on +Medicare. The spread was alarmingly wide, and the Death List made +headlines the first year it came out. But the rankings proved to be +almost useless. Death among the elderly or disabled mostly has to do +with how old or sick they are to begin with, and the statisticians could +never quite work out how to apportion blame between nature and doctors. +Volatility in the numbers was one sign of the trouble. Hospitals’ +rankings varied widely from one year to the next based on a handful of +random deaths. It was unclear what kind of changes would improve their +performance (other than sending their sickest patients to other +hospitals). Pretty soon the public simply ignored the rankings. + +Even with younger patients, death rates are a poor metric for how +doctors do. After all, very few young patients die, and when they do +it’s rarely a surprise; most already have metastatic cancer or +horrendous injuries or the like. What one really wants to know is how we +perform in typical circumstances. After I’ve done an appendectomy, how +long does it take for my patients to fully recover? After I’ve taken out +a thyroid cancer, how often do my patients have serious avoidable +complications? How do my results compare with those of other surgeons? + +Getting this kind of data can be difficult. Medicine still relies +heavily on paper records, so to collect information you have to send +people to either scour the charts or track the patients themselves, both +of which are expensive and laborious propositions. Recent privacy +regulations have made the task still harder. Yet it is being done. The +country’s veterans’ hospitals have all now brought in staff who do +nothing but record and compare surgeons’ complication rates and death +rates. Fourteen teaching hospitals, including my own, have recently +joined together to do the same. California, New Jersey, New York, and +Pennsylvania have been collecting and reporting data on every cardiac +surgeon in their states for several years. + +One small field in medicine has been far ahead of most others in +measuring the performance of its practitioners: cystic-fibrosis care. +For forty years, the Cystic Fibrosis Foundation has gathered detailed +data from the country’s cystic-fibrosis treatment centers. It did not +begin doing so because it was more enlightened than everyone else. It +did so because, in the nineteen-sixties, a pediatrician from Cleveland +named LeRoy Matthews was driving people in the field crazy. + +Matthews had started a cystic-fibrosis treatment program as a young +pulmonary specialist at Babies and Children’s Hospital, in Cleveland, in +1957, and within a few years was claiming to have an annual mortality +rate that was less than two per cent. To anyone treating CF at the time, +it was a preposterous assertion. National mortality rates for the +disease were estimated to be higher than twenty per cent a year, and the +average patient died by the age of three. Yet here was Matthews saying +that he and his colleagues could stop the disease from doing serious +harm for years. “How long \[our patients\] will live remains to be seen, +but I expect most of them to come to my funeral,” he told one conference +of physicians. + +In 1964, the Cystic Fibrosis Foundation gave a University of Minnesota +pediatrician named Warren Warwick a budget of ten thousand dollars to +collect reports on every patient treated at the thirty-one CF centers in +the United States that year—data that would test Matthews’s claim. +Several months later, he had the results: the median estimated age at +death for patients in Matthews’s center was twenty-one years, seven +times the age of patients treated elsewhere. He had not had a single +death among patients younger than six in at least five years. + +Unlike pediatricians elsewhere, Matthews viewed CF as a cumulative +disease and provided aggressive treatment long before his patients +became sick. He made his patients sleep each night in a plastic tent +filled with a continuous, aerosolized water mist so dense you could +barely see through it. This thinned the tenacious mucus that clogged +their airways and enabled them to cough it up. Like British +pediatricians, he also had family members clap on the children’s chests +daily to help loosen the mucus. After Warwick’s report came out, +Matthews’s treatment quickly became the standard in this country. The +American Thoracic Society endorsed his approach, and Warwick’s data +registry on treatment centers proved to be so useful that the Cystic +Fibrosis Foundation has continued it ever since. + +Looking at the data over time is both fascinating and disturbing. By +1966, mortality from CF nationally had dropped so much that the average +life expectancy of CF patients had already reached ten years. By 1972, +it was eighteen years—a rapid and remarkable transformation. At the same +time, though, Matthews’s center had got even better. The foundation has +never identified individual centers in its data; to insure +participation, it has guaranteed anonymity. But Matthews’s center +published its results. By the early nineteen-seventies, ninety-five per +cent of patients who had gone there before severe lung disease set in +were living past their eighteenth birthday. There was a bell curve, and +the spread had narrowed a little. Yet every time the average moved up +Matthews and a few others somehow managed to stay ahead of the pack. In +2003, life expectancy with CF had risen to thirty-three years +nationally, but at the best center it was more than forty-seven. Experts +have become as leery of life-expectancy calculations as they are of +hospital death rates, but other measures tell the same story. For +example, at the median center, lung function for patients with CF—the +best predictor of survival—is about three-quarters of what it is for +people without CF. At the top centers, the average lung function of +patients is indistinguishable from that of children who do not have CF. + +What makes the situation especially puzzling is that our system for CF +care is far more sophisticated than that for most diseases. The hundred +and seventeen CF centers across the country are all ultra-specialized, +undergo a rigorous certification process, and have lots of experience in +caring for people with CF. They all follow the same detailed guidelines +for CF treatment. They all participate in research trials to figure out +new and better treatments. You would think, therefore, that their +results would be much the same. Yet the differences are enormous. +Patients have not known this. So what happens when they find out? + +In the winter of 2001, the Pages and twenty other families were invited +by their doctors at Cincinnati Children’s to a meeting about the CF +program there. Annie was seven years old now, a lively, brown-haired +second grader. She was still not growing enough, and a simple cold could +be hellish for her, but her lung function had been stable. The families +gathered in a large conference room at the hospital. After a brief +introduction, the doctors started flashing PowerPoint slides on a +screen: here is how the top programs do on nutrition and respiratory +performance, and here is how Cincinnati does. It was a kind of +experiment in openness. The doctors were nervous. Some were opposed to +having the meeting at all. But hospital leaders had insisted on going +ahead. The reason was Don Berwick. + +Berwick runs a small, nonprofit organization in Boston called the +Institute for Healthcare Improvement. The institute provided +multimillion-dollar grants to hospitals that were willing to try his +ideas for improving medicine. Cincinnati’s CF program won one of the +grants. And among Berwick’s key stipulations was that recipients had to +open up their information to their patients—to “go naked,” as one doctor +put it. + +Berwick, a former pediatrician, is an unusual figure in medicine. In +2002, the industry publication Modern Healthcare listed him as the third +most powerful person in American health care. Unlike the others on the +list, he is powerful not because of the position he holds. (The +Secretary of Health and Human Services, Tommy Thompson, was No. 1, and +the head of Medicare and Medicaid was No. 2.) He is powerful because of +how he thinks. + +In December, 1999, at a health-care conference, Berwick gave a +forty-minute speech distilling his ideas about the failings of American +health care. Five years on, people are still talking about the speech. +The video of it circulated like samizdat. (That was how I saw it: on a +grainy, overplayed tape, about a year later.) A booklet with the +transcript was sent to thousands of doctors around the country. Berwick +is middle-aged, soft-spoken, and unprepossessing, and he knows how to +use his apparent ordinariness to his advantage. He began his speech with +a gripping story about a 1949 Montana forest fire that engulfed a +parachute brigade of firefighters. Panicking, they ran, trying to make +it up a seventy-six-per-cent grade and over a crest to safety. But their +commander, a man named Wag Dodge, saw that it wasn’t going to work. So +he stopped, took out some matches, and set the tall dry grass ahead of +him on fire. The new blaze caught and rapidly spread up the slope. He +stepped into the middle of the burned-out area it left behind, lay down, +and called out to his crew to join him. He had invented what came to be +called an “escape fire,” and it later became a standard part of Forest +Service fire training. His men, however, either thought he was crazy or +never heard his calls, and they ran past him. All but two were caught by +the inferno and perished. Inside his escape fire, Dodge survived +virtually unharmed. + +As Berwick explained, the organization had unravelled. The men had lost +their ability to think coherently, to act together, to recognize that a +lifesaving idea might be possible. This is what happens to all flawed +organizations in a disaster, and, he argued, that’s what is happening in +modern health care. To fix medicine, Berwick maintained, we need to do +two things: measure ourselves and be more open about what we are doing. +This meant routinely comparing the performance of doctors and hospitals, +looking at everything from complication rates to how often a drug +ordered for a patient is delivered correctly and on time. And, he +insisted, hospitals should give patients total access to the +information. “ ‘No secrets’ is the new rule in my escape fire,” he said. +He argued that openness would drive improvement, if simply through +embarrassment. It would make it clear that the well-being and +convenience of patients, not doctors, were paramount. It would also +serve a fundamental moral good, because people should be able to learn +about anything that affects their lives. + +Berwick’s institute was given serious money from the Robert Wood Johnson +Foundation to offer those who used his ideas. And so the doctors, +nurses, and social workers of Cincinnati Children’s stood uncertainly +before a crowd of patients’ families in that hospital conference room, +told them how poorly the program’s results ranked, and announced a plan +for doing better. Surprisingly, not a single family chose to leave the +program. + +“We thought about it after that meeting,” Ralph Blackwelder told me. He +and his wife, Tracey, have eight children, four of whom have CF. “We +thought maybe we should move. We could sell my business here and start a +business somewhere else. We were thinking, Why would I want my kids to +be seen here, with inferior care? I want the very best people to be +helping my children.” But he and Tracey were impressed that the team had +told them the truth. No one at Cincinnati Children’s had made any +excuses, and everyone appeared desperate to do better. The Blackwelders +had known these people for years. The program’s nutritionist, Terri +Schindler, had a child of her own in the program. Their pulmonary +specialist, Barbara Chini, had been smart, attentive, loving—taking +their late-night phone calls, seeing the children through terrible +crises, instituting new therapies as they became available. The program +director, Jim Acton, made a personal promise that there would soon be no +better treatment center in the world. + +Honor Page was alarmed when she saw the numbers. Like the Blackwelders, +the Pages had a close relationship with the team at Children’s, but the +news tested their loyalty. Acton announced the formation of several +committees that would work to improve the program’s results. Each +committee, he said, had to have at least one parent on it. This is +unusual; hospitals seldom allow patients and families on internal-review +committees. So, rather than walk away, Honor decided to sign up for the +committee that would reëxamine the science behind patients’ care. + +Her committee was puzzled that the center’s results were not better. Not +only had the center followed national guidelines for CF; two of its +physicians had helped write them. They wanted to visit the top centers, +but no one knew which those were. Although the Cystic Fibrosis +Foundation’s annual reports displayed the individual results for each of +the country’s hundred and seventeen centers, no names were attached. +Doctors put in a call and sent e-mails to the foundation, asking for the +names of the top five, but to no avail. + +Several months later, in early 2002, Don Berwick visited the Cincinnati +program. He was impressed by its seriousness, and by the intense +involvement of the families, but he was incredulous when he learned that +the committee couldn’t get the names of the top programs from the +foundation. He called the foundation’s executive vice-president for +medical affairs, Preston Campbell. “I was probably a bit +self-righteous,” Berwick says. “I said, ‘How could you do this?’ And +he said, ‘You don’t understand our world.’ ” This was the first Campbell +had heard about the requests, and he reacted with instinctive caution. +The centers, he tried to explain, give their data voluntarily. The +reason they have done so for forty years is that they have trusted that +it would be kept confidential. Once the centers lost that faith, they +might no longer report solid, honest information tracking how different +treatments are working, how many patients there are, and how well they +do. + +Campbell is a deliberate and thoughtful man, a pediatric pulmonologist +who has devoted his career to cystic-fibrosis patients. The discussion +with Berwick had left him uneasy. The Cystic Fibrosis Foundation had +always been dedicated to the value of research; by investing in bench +science, it had helped decode the gene for cystic fibrosis, produce two +new drugs approved for patients, and generate more than a dozen other +drugs that are currently being tested. Its investments in tracking +patient care had produced scores of valuable studies. But what do you do +when the research shows that patients are getting care of widely +different quality? + +A couple of weeks after Berwick’s phone call, Campbell released the +names of the top five centers to Cincinnati. The episode convinced +Campbell and others in the foundation that they needed to join the drive +toward greater transparency, rather than just react. The foundation +announced a goal of making the outcomes of every center publicly +available. But it has yet to come close to doing so. It’s a measure of +the discomfort with this issue in the cystic-fibrosis world that +Campbell asked me not to print the names of the top five. “We’re not +ready,” he says. “It’d be throwing grease on the slope.” So far, only a +few of the nation’s CF treatment centers are committed to going public. + +Still, after travelling to one of the top five centers for a look, I +found I could not avoid naming the center I saw—no obscuring physicians’ +identities or glossing over details. There was simply no way to explain +what a great center did without the particulars. The people from +Cincinnati found this, too. Within months of learning which the top five +centers were, they’d spoken to each and then visited what they +considered to be the very best one, the Minnesota Cystic Fibrosis +Center, at Fairview-University Children’s Hospital, in Minneapolis. I +went first to Cincinnati, and then to Minneapolis for comparison. + +What I saw in Cincinnati both impressed me and, given its ranking, +surprised me. The CF staff was skilled, energetic, and dedicated. They +had just completed a flu-vaccination campaign that had reached more than +ninety per cent of their patients. Patients were being sent +questionnaires before their clinic visits so that the team would be +better prepared for the questions they would have and the services (such +as X-rays, tests, and specialist consultations) they would need. Before +patients went home, the doctors gave them a written summary of their +visit and a complete copy of their record, something that I had never +thought to do in my own practice. + +I joined Cori Daines, one of the seven CF-care specialists, in her +clinic one morning. Among the patients we saw was Alyssa. She was +fifteen years old, freckled, skinny, with nails painted loud red, +straight sandy-blond hair tied in a ponytail, a soda in one hand, legs +crossed, foot bouncing constantly. Every few minutes, she gave a short, +throaty cough. Her parents sat to one side. All the questions were +directed to her. How had she been doing? How was school going? Any +breathing difficulties? Trouble keeping up with her calories? Her +answers were monosyllabic at first. But Daines had known Alyssa for +years, and slowly she opened up. Things had mostly been going all right, +she said. She had been sticking with her treatment regimen—twice-a-day +manual chest therapy by one of her parents, inhaled medications using a +nebulizer immediately afterward, and vitamins. Her lung function had +been measured that morning, and it was sixty-seven per cent of +normal—slightly down from her usual eighty per cent. Her cough had got +a little worse the day before, and this was thought to be the reason for +the dip. Daines was concerned about stomach pains that Alyssa had been +having for several months. The pains came on unpredictably, Alyssa +said—before meals, after meals, in the middle of the night. They were +sharp, and persisted for up to a couple of hours. Examinations, tests, +and X-rays had found no abnormalities, but she’d stayed home from school +for the past five weeks. Her parents, exasperated because she seemed +fine most of the time, wondered if the pain could be just in her head. +Daines wasn’t sure. She asked a staff nurse to check in with Alyssa at +home, arranged for a consultation with a gastroenterologist and with a +pain specialist, and scheduled an earlier return visit than the usual +three months. + +This was, it seemed to me, real medicine: untidy, human, but practiced +carefully and conscientiously—as well as anyone could ask for. Then I +went to Minneapolis. + +The director of Fairview-University Children’s Hospital’s +cystic-fibrosis center for almost forty years has been none other than +Warren Warwick, the pediatrician who had conducted the study of LeRoy +Matthews’s suspiciously high success rate. Ever since then, Warwick has +made a study of what it takes to do better than everyone else. The +secret, he insists, is simple, and he learned it from Matthews: you do +whatever you can to keep your patients’ lungs as open as possible. +Patients with CF at Fairview got the same things that patients +everywhere did—some nebulized treatments to loosen secretions and unclog +passageways (a kind of mist tent in a mouth pipe), antibiotics, and a +good thumping on their chests every day. Yet, somehow, everything he did +was different. + +In the clinic one afternoon, I joined him as he saw a seventeen-year-old +high-school senior named Janelle, who had been diagnosed with CF at the +age of six and had been under his care ever since. She had come for her +routine three-month checkup. She wore dyed-black hair to her shoulder +blades, black Avril Lavigne eyeliner, four earrings in each ear, two +more in an eyebrow, and a stud in her tongue. Warwick is seventy-six +years old, tall, stooped, and frumpy-looking, with a well-worn tweed +jacket, liver spots dotting his skin, wispy gray hair—by all +appearances, a doddering, mid-century academic. He stood in front of +Janelle for a moment, hands on his hips, looking her over, and then he +said, “So, Janelle, what have you been doing to make us the best CF +program in the country?” + +“It’s not easy, you know,” she said. + +They bantered. She was doing fine. School was going well. Warwick pulled +out her latest lung-function measurements. There’d been a slight dip, as +there was with Alyssa. Three months earlier, Janelle had been at a +hundred and nine per cent (she was actually doing better than normal); +now she was at around ninety per cent. Ninety per cent was still pretty +good, and some ups and downs in the numbers are to be expected. But this +was not the way Warwick saw the results. + +He knitted his eyebrows. “Why did they go down?” he asked. + +Janelle shrugged. + +Any cough lately? No. Colds? No. Fevers? No. Was she sure she’d been +taking her treatments regularly? Yes, of course. Every day? Yes. Did she +ever miss treatments? Sure. Everyone does once in a while. How often is +once in a while? + +Then, slowly, Warwick got a different story out of her: in the past few +months, it turned out, she’d barely been taking her treatments at all. + +He pressed on. “Why aren’t you taking your treatments?” He appeared +neither surprised nor angry. He seemed genuinely curious, as if he’d +never run across this interesting situation before. + +“I don’t know.” + +He kept pushing. “What keeps you from doing your treatments?” + +“I don’t know.” + +“Up here”—he pointed at his own head—“what’s going on?” + +“ I don ’ t know ,” she said. + +He paused for a moment. And then he began speaking to me, taking a new +tack. “The thing about patients with CF is that they’re good +scientists,” he said. “They always experiment. We have to help them +interpret what they experience as they experiment. So they stop doing +their treatments. And what happens? They don’t get sick . Therefore, +they conclude, Dr. Warwick is nuts.” + +“Let’s look at the numbers,” he said to me, ignoring Janelle. He went to +a little blackboard he had on the wall. It appeared to be well used. “A +person’s daily risk of getting a bad lung illness with CF is 0.5 per +cent.” He wrote the number down. Janelle rolled her eyes. She began +tapping her foot. “The daily risk of getting a bad lung illness with CF +plus treatment is 0.05 per cent,” he went on, and he wrote that number +down. “So when you experiment you’re looking at the difference between a +99.95-per-cent chance of staying well and a 99.5-per-cent chance of +staying well. Seems hardly any difference, right? On any given day, you +have basically a one-hundred-per-cent chance of being well. But”—he +paused and took a step toward me—“it is a big difference.” He chalked +out the calculations. “Sum it up over a year, and it is the difference +between an eighty-three-per-cent chance of making it through 2004 +without getting sick and only a sixteen-per-cent chance.” + +He turned to Janelle. “How do you stay well all your life? How do you +become a geriatric patient?” he asked her. Her foot finally stopped +tapping. “I can’t promise you anything. I can only tell you the odds.” + +In this short speech was the core of Warwick’s world view. He believed +that excellence came from seeing, on a daily basis, the difference +between being 99.5-per-cent successful and being 99.95-per-cent +successful. Many activities are like that, of course: catching fly +balls, manufacturing microchips, delivering overnight packages. +Medicine’s only distinction is that lives are lost in those slim +margins. + +And so he went to work on finding that margin for Janelle. Eventually, +he figured out that she had a new boyfriend. She had a new job, too, and +was working nights. The boyfriend had his own apartment, and she was +either there or at a friend’s house most of the time, so she rarely made +it home to take her treatments. At school, new rules required her to go +to the school nurse for each dose of medicine during the day. So she +skipped going. “It’s such a pain,” she said. He learned that there were +some medicines she took and some she didn’t. One she took because it was +the only thing that she felt actually made a difference. She took her +vitamins, too. (“Why your vitamins?” “Because they’re cool.”) The rest +she ignored. + +Warwick proposed a deal. Janelle would go home for a breathing treatment +every day after school, and get her best friend to hold her to it. She’d +also keep key medications in her bag or her pocket at school and take +them on her own. (“The nurse won’t let me.” “Don’t tell her,” he said, +and deftly turned taking care of herself into an act of rebellion.) So +far, Janelle was O.K. with this. But there was one other thing, he said: +she’d have to come to the hospital for a few days of therapy to recover +the lost ground. She stared at him. + +“Today?” + +“Yes, today.” + +“How about tomorrow?” + +“We’ve failed, Janelle,” he said. “It’s important to acknowledge when +we’ve failed.” + +With that, she began to cry. + +Warwick’s combination of focus, aggressiveness, and inventiveness is +what makes him extraordinary. He thinks hard about his patients, he +pushes them, and he does not hesitate to improvise. Twenty years ago, +while he was listening to a church choir and mulling over how he might +examine his patients better, he came up with a new stethoscope—a +stereo-stethoscope, he calls it. It has two bells dangling from it, and, +because of a built-in sound delay, transmits lung sounds in stereo. He +had an engineer make it for him. Listening to Janelle with the +instrument, he put one bell on the right side of her chest and the other +on her left side, and insisted that he could systematically localize how +individual lobes of her lungs sounded. + +He invented a new cough. It wasn’t enough that his patients actively +cough up their sputum. He wanted a deeper, better cough, and later, in +his office, Warwick made another patient practice his cough. The patient +stretched his arms upward, yawned, pinched his nose, bent down as far as +he could, let the pressure build up, and then, straightening, blasted +everything out. (“Again\!” Warwick encouraged him. “Harder\!”) + +He produced his most far-reaching invention almost two decades ago—a +mechanized, chest-thumping vest for patients to wear. The chief +difficulty for people with CF is sticking with the laborious daily +regimen of care, particularly the manual chest therapy. It requires +another person’s help. It requires conscientiousness, making sure to +bang on each of the fourteen locations on a patient’s chest. And it +requires consistency, doing this twice a day, every day, year after +year. Warwick had become fascinated by studies showing that inflating +and deflating a blood-pressure cuff around a dog’s chest could mobilize +its lung secretions, and in the mid-nineteen-eighties he created what is +now known as the Vest. It looks like a black flak jacket with two vacuum +hoses coming out of the sides. These are hooked up to a compressor that +shoots quick blasts of air in and out of the vest at high frequencies. +(I talked to a patient while he had one of these on. He vibrated like a +car on a back road.) Studies eventually showed that Warwick’s device was +at least as effective as manual chest therapy, and was used far more +consistently. Today, forty-five thousand patients with CF and other lung +diseases use the technology. + +Like most medical clinics, the Minnesota Cystic Fibrosis Center has +several physicians and many more staff members. Warwick established a +weekly meeting to review everyone’s care for their patients, and he +insists on a degree of uniformity that clinicians usually find +intolerable. Some chafe. He can have, as one of the doctors put it, +“somewhat of an absence of, um, collegial respect for different care +plans.” And although he stepped down as director of the center in 1999, +to let a protégé, Carlos Milla, take over, he remains its guiding +spirit. He and his colleagues aren’t content if their patients’ lung +function is eighty per cent of normal, or even ninety per cent. They aim +for a hundred per cent—or better. Almost ten per cent of the children at +his center get supplemental feedings through a latex tube surgically +inserted into their stomachs, simply because, by Warwick’s standards, +they were not gaining enough weight. There’s no published research +showing that you need to do this. But not a single child or teen-ager at +the center has died in years. Its oldest patient is now sixty-four. + +The buzzword for clinicians these days is “evidence-based practice”—good +doctors are supposed to follow research findings rather than their own +intuition or ad-hoc experimentation. Yet Warwick is almost contemptuous +of established findings. National clinical guidelines for care are, he +says, “a record of the past, and little more—they should have an +expiration date.” I accompanied him as he visited another of his +patients, Scott Pieper. When Pieper came to Fairview, at the age of +thirty-two, he had lost at least eighty per cent of his lung capacity. +He was too weak and short of breath to take a walk, let alone work, and +he wasn’t expected to last a year. That was fourteen years ago. + +“Some days, I think, This is it—I’m not going to make it,” Pieper told +me. “But other times I think, I’m going to make sixty, seventy, maybe +more.” For the past several months, Warwick had Pieper trying a new +idea—wearing his vest not only for two daily thirty-minute sessions +but also while napping for two hours in the middle of the day. Falling +asleep in that shuddering thing took some getting used to. But Pieper +was soon able to take up bowling, his first regular activity in years. +He joined a two-night-a-week league. He couldn’t go four games, and his +score always dropped in the third game, but he’d worked his average up +to 177. “Any ideas about what we could do so you could last for that +extra game, Scott?” Warwick asked. Well, Pieper said, he’d noticed that +in the cold—anything below fifty degrees—and when humidity was below +fifty per cent, he did better. Warwick suggested doing an extra hour in +the vest on warm or humid days and on every game day. Pieper said he’d +try it. + +We are used to thinking that a doctor’s ability depends mainly on +science and skill. The lesson from Minneapolis is that these may be the +easiest parts of care. Even doctors with great knowledge and technical +skill can have mediocre results; more nebulous factors like +aggressiveness and consistency and ingenuity can matter enormously. In +Cincinnati and in Minneapolis, the doctors are equally capable and well +versed in the data on CF. But if Annie Page—who has had no breathing +problems or major setbacks—were in Minneapolis she would almost +certainly have had a feeding tube in her stomach and Warwick’s team +hounding her to figure out ways to make her breathing even better than +normal. + +Don Berwick believes that the subtleties of medical decision-making can +be identified and learned. The lessons are hidden. But if we open the +book on physicians’ results, the lessons will be exposed. And if we are +genuinely curious about how the best achieve their results, he believes +they will spread. + +The Cincinnati CF team has already begun tracking the nutrition and lung +function of individual patients the way Warwick does, and is getting +more aggressive in improving the results in these areas, too. Yet you +have to wonder whether it is possible to replicate people like Warwick, +with their intense drive and constant experimenting. In the two years +since the Cystic Fibrosis Foundation began bringing together centers +willing to share their data, certain patterns have begun to emerge, +according to Bruce Marshall, the head of quality improvement for the +foundation. All the centers appear to have made significant progress. +None, however, have progressed more than centers like Fairview. + +“You look at the rates of improvement in different quartiles, and it’s +the centers in the top quartile that are improving fastest,” Marshall +says. “They are at risk of breaking away.” What the best may have, above +all, is a capacity to learn and adapt—and to do so faster than everyone +else. + +Once we acknowledge that, no matter how much we improve our average, the +bell curve isn’t going away, we’re left with all sorts of questions. +Will being in the bottom half be used against doctors in lawsuits? Will +we be expected to tell our patients how we score? Will our patients +leave us? Will those at the bottom be paid less than those at the top? +The answer to all these questions is likely yes. + +Recently, there has been a lot of discussion, for example, about “paying +for quality.” (No one ever says “docking for mediocrity,” but it amounts +to the same thing.) Congress has discussed the idea in hearings. +Insurers like Aetna and the Blue Cross-Blue Shield companies are +introducing it across the country. Already, Medicare has decided not to +pay surgeons for intestinal transplantation operations unless they +achieve a predefined success rate. Not surprisingly, this makes doctors +anxious. I recently sat in on a presentation of the concept to an +audience of doctors. By the end, some in the crowd were practically +shouting with indignation: We’re going to be paid according to our +grades ? Who is doing the grading? For God’s sake, how? + +We in medicine are not the only ones being graded nowadays. Firemen, +C.E.O.s, and salesmen are. Even teachers are being graded, and, in some +places, being paid accordingly. Yet we all feel uneasy about being +judged by such grades. They never seem to measure the right things. They +don’t take into account circumstances beyond our control. They are +misused; they are unfair. Still, the simple facts remain: there is a +bell curve in all human activities, and the differences you measure +usually matter. + +I asked Honor Page what she would do if, after all her efforts and the +efforts of the doctors and nurses at Cincinnati Children’s Hospital to +insure that “there was no place better in the world” to receive +cystic-fibrosis care, their comparative performance still rated as +resoundingly average. + +“I can’t believe that’s possible,” she told me. The staff have worked so +hard, she said, that she could not imagine they would fail. + +After I pressed her, though, she told me, “I don’t think I’d settle for +Cincinnati if it remains just average.” Then she thought about it some +more. Would she really move Annie away from people who had been so +devoted all these years, just because of the numbers? Well, maybe. But, +at the same time, she wanted me to understand that their effort counted +for more than she was able to express. + +I do not have to consider these matters for very long before I start +thinking about where I would stand on a bell curve for the operations I +do. I have chosen to specialize (in surgery for endocrine tumors), so I +would hope that my statistics prove to be better than those of surgeons +who only occasionally do the kind of surgery I do. But am I up in +Warwickian territory? Do I have to answer this question? + +The hardest question for anyone who takes responsibility for what he or +she does is, What if I turn out to be average? If we took all the +surgeons at my level of experience, compared our results, and found that +I am one of the worst, the answer would be easy: I’d turn in my scalpel. +But what if I were a C? Working as I do in a city that’s mobbed with +surgeons, how could I justify putting patients under the knife? I could +tell myself, Someone’s got to be average. If the bell curve is a fact, +then so is the reality that most doctors are going to be average. There +is no shame in being one of them, right? + +Except, of course, there is. Somehow, what troubles people isn’t so much +being average as settling for it. Everyone knows that averageness is, +for most of us, our fate. And in certain matters—looks, money, tennis—we +would do well to accept this. But in your surgeon, your child’s +pediatrician, your police department, your local high school? When the +stakes are our lives and the lives of our children, we expect +averageness to be resisted. And so I push to make myself the best. If +I’m not the best already, I believe wholeheartedly that I will be. And +you expect that of me, too. Whatever the next round of numbers may say. +♦ diff --git a/_stories/2004/8362707.md b/_stories/2004/8362707.md index d476901..b83f8c8 100644 --- a/_stories/2004/8362707.md +++ b/_stories/2004/8362707.md @@ -19,7 +19,69 @@ _tags: objectID: '8362707' --- -[Source](https://lkml.org/lkml/2004/12/20/255 "Permalink to ") - +![/](/images/icornerl.gif)DateMon, 20 Dec 2004 16:56:13 -0800 +(PST)FromLinus Torvalds \<\>SubjectRe: \[PATCH\] kill access\_ok() call +from copy\_siginfo\_to\_user() that we might as well + avoid. + [ Linux-kernel added back into the cc, because I actually think this is + important. ] + + On Tue, 21 Dec 2004, Jesper Juhl wrote: + > + > Should I just stop attemting to make these trivial cleanups/fixes/whatever + > patches? are they more noice than gain? am I being a pain to more skilled + > people on lkml or can you all live with my, sometimes quite ignorant, + > patches? + > I do try to learn from the feedback I get, and I like to think that my + > patches are gradually getting a bit better, but if I'm more of a bother + > than a help I might as well stop. + + To me, the biggest thing with small patches is not necessarily the patch + itself. I think that much more important than the patch is the fact that + people get used to the notion that they can change the kernel - not just + on an intellectual level ("I understand that the GPL means that I have the + right to change my kernel"), but on a more practical level ("Hey, I did + that small change"). + + And whether it ends up being the right thing or not, that's how everybody + starts out. It's simply not possible to "get into" the kernel without + starting out small, and making mistakes. So I very much encourage it, even + if I often don't have the time to actually worry about small patches, and + I try to get suckers^H^H^H^H^H^H^Hother developers like Rusty to try to + acts as quality control and a "gathering place". + + Btw, this is why even "trivial patches" really do take time - they often + have trivial mistakes in them, and it's not just because there are more + inexperienced people doing them - most of _my_ mistakes tend to be at the + truly idiotic level, just because it "looked obvious", and then there's + something that I miss. + + So at one level I absolutely _hate_ trivial patches: they take time and + effort to merge, and individually the patch itself is often not really + obviously "worth it". But at the same time, I think the trivial patches + are among the most important ones - exactly because they are the "entry" + patches for every new developer. + + I just try really hard to find somebody else to worry about them ;) + + (It's not a thankful job, btw, exactly because it _looks_ so trivial. It's + easy to point to 99 patches that are absolutely obvious, and complain + about the fact that they haven't been merged. But they take time to merge + exactly because of that one patch that _did_ look obvious, but wasn't. + And actually, it's usually not 99:1, it's usually more like 10:1 or + something). + + So please don't stop. Yes, those trivial patches _are_ a bother. Damn, + they are _horrible_. But at the same time, the devil is in the detail, and + they are needed in the long run. Both the patches themselves, and the + people that grew up on them. + + Linus + - + To unsubscribe from this list: send the line "unsubscribe linux-kernel" in + the body of a message to majordomo@vger.kernel.org + More majordomo info at http://vger.kernel.org/majordomo-info.html + Please read the FAQ at http://www.tux.org/lkml/ +![\\](/images/icornerr.gif) diff --git a/_stories/2004/8510839.md b/_stories/2004/8510839.md index d5bd4d0..0a37f0f 100644 --- a/_stories/2004/8510839.md +++ b/_stories/2004/8510839.md @@ -19,7 +19,251 @@ _tags: objectID: '8510839' --- -[Source](https://microship.com/resources/technomadic-tools.html "Permalink to ") +From 1983 to 1991, I pedaled around the US on a computerized recumbent +bicycle while living in the emerging online networks… in the process +becoming the first “technomad” and sparking fascination with mobile +connectivity. This page introduces the High-Tech Nomad book that is +packed with gizmological details, massive cultural shifts, road stories +from the sexy to the bizarre, and the stuff of geek fantasy. The text +includes Computing Across America, Miles with Maggie, and technical +details of Winnebiko & BEHEMOTH… and in this online collection it is +interspersed with extensive media coverage and other details that would +be impossible in a physical book. The story begins here… +### by Steven K. Roberts +High-Tech Nomad, Chapter 0 +1952 to 1983 +Electronics was passion, obsession, raison d’etre. My identity lay in my +basement laboratory; my happiness was a function of acrid solder smoke, +blinkenlights, clacking relays, and that sweet mysterious crackle of +shortwave radio. When I was 9, I had a contest with my friend Rusty, a +chemistry fanatic: we each had a week to write down all the words we +knew (or could find) in our respective fields. Pentode. Grid-leak. +Crystal. Nixie. Hollerith. Ahh, those early ’60s in Jeffersontown, +Kentucky. +By the time I was 12, I was a ham radio operator known as WN4KSW, a +skinny burr-headed prisoner of school. I was theoretically a smart +little bugger, according to test scores, yet I kept hearing that I had +attitude problems and wasn’t working up to my potential. With the +exception of science fairs, my academic performance was apparently +disappointing to authority figures. + +Oh well. I didn’t care: I had a secret life. + +School received the minimum attention required, which wasn’t much. My +real life was too important to dilute with homework: I was obsessed with +relay logic, my lab, and the vague notion that if I prowled the magical +world of electronic surplus with enough finesse, I might even be able to +cobble together a computer with a few thousand +[12AU7](https://amzn.to/1Mc9Adf) triodes and an air conditioner. I +amused myself with microphones in the ductwork and a parasitic phone +line routed through an old black-crackle 19-inch equipment rack, +listening to domestic goings-on by way of an 8-ohm primary coiled around +the lab and an amplified loopstick antenna on my headphones (a primitive +wireless audio system). + +Year after year I tolerated the time-waste of school, accepting +patriotic brainwashing and sanitized history, superficial science and +anachronistic literature selections — living not for girls, grades, and +sports but for electronics, science fairs, and dreams of future +laboratories. I was a social outcast, for my adventure was measured in +volts, not adrenaline. When neighborhood bullies soaked my books with +squirt guns one day, I ran home and attached a battery-powered +14,000-volt supply to a pair of squirt guns mounted side-by-side on a +wooden stock… with salt water as the conductive ammo. As long as both +streams hit someone before degenerating into droplets — WHAM\! + +My relationship with the neighbors subtly changed. + +Empowering stuff indeed, but most seductive of all was radio… for it +connected me to the outside. + +It’s like a flashback now, recalling the chirpy Morse code of my +unbuffered crystal oscillator built on a chunk of pine, the deeply +imprinted smell of solder and flux vapors, and the magical noises +emanating from the Star Roamer — as well as the Heaths and Hammarlunds +that followed. Other people, other tongues, strange sideband squawks, +political realities and cultural attitudes utterly unlike the +Huntley-Brinkley Report that invariably accompanied dinner to the +strains of Beethoven’s Ninth. I spent years gazing through this +electronic window and building my tools; like the railroad tracks that +passed near my house, radio became deeply symbolic of escape and +movement. My physical adventures were confined to rural bike hikes; in +my head, I could cruise the universe with a skyhook and a powerful +collection of instruments ablaze with Nixie readouts, backlit dials, +dancing meter needles, and round green CRTs. + +When I was a senior, I finally made it to the International Science +Fair — a holy grail of sorts — with a homemade speech synthesizer. +Having hit dead ends with other approaches after three years of +frustrating work (tape loops, LC tank circuits, discrete transistor +filters…), I built a working acoustic model of the vocal tract based +upon X-rays of my own head. It even had a voice-change problem. + +Graduation, anticlimactic and vaguely embarrassing, occurred in 1969 — +when I was 16. I was academically ordinary, ranked in the middle of my +class. There was such a gulf between learning and school that I +doubtless responded with less than adequate concern to my parents’ +repeated accusations that I was still not working up to my potential. It +was an old story by then. + +I arrived at [Rose Polytechnic +Institute](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rose-Hulman_Institute_of_Technology) +wide-eyed, heavy-laden with gadgetry and school supplies, ready to +plunge into every college cliché I had ever seen in the movies. +Philosophical bull sessions, scientific investigations of beer and other +interesting substances, the mysteries of girls at last unveiled, +haze-crazy fraternities, brilliant and slightly mad profs, all-night +test-cramming sessions, eccentric nerds, emotional moments of discovery, +huge computing machines, and through it all that magical rarified air of +academia, of knowledge. Oooh… I got goose bumps all over my alma mater +just imagining the richness and camaraderie of college life. + +But engineering school turned out to be like going to art school and +learning to paint by numbers. The infinitely interrelated universe was +segmented into “subjects,” taught in isolation, out of context — despite +the fact that humans are associative systems and generalists at heart. +“Remember this, and this, and this; don’t worry, Steve, it will all +fit together someday.” Nonsense\! But there was something more insidious +still: the motivation for learning was not curiosity, but fear of +failure. That had the effect of reducing the educational process to a +succession of panic-stricken study sessions. Learning was an incidental +spinoff of staying out of trouble. + +Besides… it was 1970 and getting high was more fun than studying. It +even promoted that sweet illusion of wisdom, making it easy to feel good +about donning a headband and quitting school halfway through freshman +year. Before I knew it, I was on the road — waving my thumb from +interstate shoulders and living out of a blue backpack emblazoned with +the icon of peace. + +As fun as that sounds, I soon tired of penniless drifting and began +sampling jobs. I grew tan and strong as a deckhand on barges in Illinois +and Minnesota; I briefly tried the dehumanizing factory life. I worked +in a department store for a month, and installed telephone central +office equipment on Army bases. I finally decided that maybe I needed a +degree after all, but having cut the cord I now had to go for it on my +own. + +How else? I joined the Air Force… during the Vietnam war. + +It didn’t take long to discover that despite the idealistic picture +painted by the recruiter, I was not to be in research, this was not to +be a great adventure, and there would be no free education beyond +specialized tech school. Charged with the task of swapping black boxes +in F-111 jet fighters, I huddled on the frozen Idaho flightline in my +parka and rankled… confined to an intellectual straitjacket and +supervised even in the private world of my dorm room. + +He was an 8-striper with power. I was a misfit, earning both his respect +and contempt with my confusing combination of technical knowledge and +anti-war sentiments. When I heard rumors of his extended inspection +visits to my room filled with lab equipment and communication gear, I +built an intervalometer camera system that would record, on film and +tape, anything that went on for 15 minutes after my door opened. +Evidence mounted quickly: he was going through my desk — commenting out +loud that “one way or another I’m gonna get this sonofabitch +court-martialed… damn, he’s got his own die set.” + +I did make a splash that got him off my back, but satisfaction was +short-lived. Pressure mounted from all sides — surprise inspections, +harassment, disappearance of my cat, orders to get rid of my ham station +and all the other “junk” in my room (I was designing an arbitrary signal +synthesizer). Within 3 weeks I had orders to go to Guam in an unrelated +career field, and I quickly understood that it was a death sentence. +There were too many of ’em to fight. I saw my opening: we eventually +agreed upon an honorable return to civilian life after a few months +working in a precision measurement lab. + +I hit RESET and tried again. + +Field engineer, Singer Business Machines: a year’s education in how not +to design computers. But my real attention was closer to home; in a +Louisville apartment my techno-passions reached a new peak: by mid-1974 +I had designed an [8008-based computer +system](https://microship.com/homebrew-8008-computer-schematics) +jokingly named BEHEMOTH (for Badly Engineered Heap of Electrical, +Mechanical, Optical, and Thermal Hardware), now on display in the +Computer History Museum. + +I started a moonlight parts business called Cybertronics to support my +habit, hustling integrated circuits and related hardware, doling out +plastic-bagged silicon goodies to the growing population of +microprocessor junkies in those exciting early days of personal +computers. What the machines lacked in capability they made up in class: +card cages full of wirewrap boards, blinking front panels and massive +power supplies, teletype machines, graphics with 8-bit DACs, hand-coded +monitors and line editors… + +[Cybertronics](https://microship.com/cybertronics-flyers-from-1976) +became my full-time support. 1K (by 1 bit) static RAMs went down to +$8.00 each, then to an unbelievable $3.50. The 8080 made a splash at +$360 and I managed to find some I could sell for $250. The excitement +was tangible; I devoured EDN and Electronics Magazine as most +22-year-olds would devour Penthouse — often staying up all night when +some project was too exciting to put down. Universities could take a +lesson from this: learning follows from passion as surely as pregnancy +from fertilization. + +And so was born an engineering firm. Word got out that some kid was +designing with micros right there in Louisville, and within a few years +I was building custom industrial control systems for Corning Glass, +Seagrams Distilleries, Honeywell, and Robinson-Nugent — working out of a +local industrial park and branching out… selling the new generation of +IMSAI computer kits (What’s this world coming to? Any bozo can have a +computer now…) and pushing chips by mail order. All the signs bespoke +imminent wealth, but something was terribly wrong. + +My all-nighters, when they happened, no longer had much to do with +passion. They had to do with fear — of deadlines, of customers, of +disaster. One had to do with tracking the ravages of an embezzling +secretary; another with an ultimatum from a client; yet another from an +expensive lesson about partnership. My favorite toys were turning into +business equipment, and it was getting to be way too much like work. + +I cannibalized the company, escaped the industrial lease, and moved +alone to a cavernous Victorian house where I continued tinkering, +consulting, and writing magazine articles. A couple of years later, my +girlfriend and I got pregnant, so we married and moved to Columbus in +1979 — where a software engineering job promised to fatten my bank +account at last and buy me the space to do some real writing. + +I signed a 30-year mortgage on a 3-bedroom ranch house in suburbia — an +acre along the Scioto River. A beautiful girl-child was born. I commuted +to work in a Honda station wagon. And in the cold, gray Ohio winter of +1980-81 I panicked, recoiling violently from the routine that had +settled around me. My old computers were cobweb-shrouded, lying idle, +while I had been reduced to writing boring software for a living and +arguing with my boss about design methods. Imprisoned, frightened of the +scope of the next change yet even more frightened of not making it, I +quit both job and marriage, finding myself a lone homeowner in +Genericsville, USA… then immediately slipping into debt. + +I dusted off the word processor and began. For three years I wrote a +book a year and did tech-writing for local industry, filling in the gaps +with articles about artificial intelligence, robotics, online +information retrieval, emerging network communities, and +microprocessors. My textbook, [Creative Design with +Microcomputers](https://microship.com/industrial-design-with-microcomputers-review) +(Prentice-Hall), was a complete distillation of the Cybertronics era, +carrying the exuberant message that “art without engineering is +dreaming; engineering without art is calculating.” + +Freelance writing was a license to be a generalist, but still… something +was amiss. I had turned another passion into a business. I was working +my ass off to pay for a house I didn’t like in a city I didn’t like, and +every change seemed but a new trap, more insidious than the last. What I +needed was a lifestyle that would combine all of my passions: computers, +gizmology, ham radio, bicycling, romance, adventure, steep learning +curves, the transcendence of the well-turned phrase, interesting people, +the buzz of publicity, and most of all change — non-stop change — +weaving through my life as naturally as breath. + +The story begins in March of 1983, in that house on the outskirts of +Columbus… + +  + +### Related diff --git a/_stories/2004/9463044.md b/_stories/2004/9463044.md deleted file mode 100644 index 357a372..0000000 --- a/_stories/2004/9463044.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,25 +0,0 @@ ---- -created_at: '2015-04-30T02:41:33.000Z' -title: Mark Zuckerberg appears on CNBC to discuss a social network (2004) [video] -url: https://www.facebook.com/cnbc/videos/vb.97212224368/10153395251424369/?type=2&theater -author: Michie -points: 197 -story_text: -comment_text: -num_comments: 80 -story_id: -story_title: -story_url: -parent_id: -created_at_i: 1430361693 -_tags: -- story -- author_Michie -- story_9463044 -objectID: '9463044' - ---- -[Source](http://www.facebook.com/unsupportedbrowser "Permalink to ") - - - diff --git a/_stories/2004/9783382.md b/_stories/2004/9783382.md index c57b5ed..bc198b9 100644 --- a/_stories/2004/9783382.md +++ b/_stories/2004/9783382.md @@ -19,7 +19,40 @@ _tags: objectID: '9783382' --- -[Source](https://blogs.msdn.microsoft.com/b/oldnewthing/archive/2004/11/10/255047.aspx "Permalink to ") +You may have noticed that if you take a USB device and plug it into your +computer, Windows recognizes it and configures it. Then if you unplug it +and replug it into a different USB port, Windows gets a bout of amnesia +and thinks that it's a completely different device instead of using the +settings that applied when you plugged it in last time. Why is that? +The USB device people explained that this happens when the device lacks +a USB serial number. +Serial numbers are optional on USB devices. If the device has one, then +Windows recognizes the device no matter which USB port you plug it into. +But if it doesn't have a serial number, then Windows treats each +appearance on a different USB port as if it were a new device. +(I remember that one major manufacturer of USB devices didn't quite +understand how serial numbers worked. They gave all of their devices +serial numbers, that's great, but they all got the **same** serial +number. Exciting things happened if you plugged two of their devices +into a computer at the same time.) + +But why does Windows treat it as a different device if it lacks a serial +number and shows up on a different port? Why can't it just say, "Oh, +there you are, over there on another port." + +Because that creates random behavior once you plug in **two** such +devices. Depending on the order in which the devices get enumerated by +Plug and Play, the two sets of settings would get assigned seemingly +randomly at each boot. Today the settings match up one way, but tomorrow +when the devices are enumerated in the other order, the settings are +swapped. (You get similarly baffling behavior if you plug in the devices +in different order.) + +In other words: Things suck because (1) things were already in bad +shape—this would not have been a problem if the device had a proper +serial number—and (2) once you're in this bad state, the alternative +sucks more. The USB stack is just trying to make the best of a bad +situation without making it any worse. diff --git a/_stories/2005/10430862.md b/_stories/2005/10430862.md index 7f1f08b..bf55f61 100644 --- a/_stories/2005/10430862.md +++ b/_stories/2005/10430862.md @@ -19,7 +19,443 @@ _tags: objectID: '10430862' --- -[Source](https://spectrum.ieee.org/computing/software/the-exterminators "Permalink to ") +![Photo of Peter Amey \[left\] and Roderick +Chapman](/image/MzAxMzYyNw.jpeg) Photo: Peter Searle **Checking Code:** +At Praxis, Peter Amey \[left\] and Roderick Chapman use mathematical +logic to make sure their programs do not contain errors. +Peter Amey was an aeronautical engineer serving in the United Kingdom’s +Royal Air Force in the early 1980s when he found a serious flaw in an +aircraft missile-control system being deployed at the time. It wasn’t a +defect in any of the thousands of mechanical and electronic parts that +constituted the system’s hardware. The problem was in the system’s +software. Amey found an erroneous piece of program code—a bug \[see +photo, “Checking Code”\]. Because of it, the unthinkable could happen: +under rare circumstances, a missile could fire without anyone’s having +commanded it to do so. +Amey says his superiors, rather than commending his discovery, +complained that it would delay the system’s deployment. Like most +project managers, they didn’t like the idea of fixing errors at the end +of the development process. After all, good design ought to keep errors +out in the first place. Yet time and again, Amey knew, the software +development process didn’t prevent bugs; it merely put off dealing with +them until the end. Did it have to be that way? Or could developers +avoid bugs in the first place? He would find the answer to be “yes” +when, years later, he joined Praxis High Integrity Systems \[see photo, +“[Bug +Killer](/images/sep05/images/extf2.jpg "Photo: Peter Searle")”\]. +Praxis, headquartered in Bath, 2 hours from London by car, was founded +in 1983 by a group of software experts who firmly believed they could +put together a sound methodology to ruthlessly exterminate bugs during +all stages of a software project. + +At the time, the software world was in a malaise that it hasn’t fully +shaken even today \[see “[Why Software Fails](/sep05/1685),” in this +issue\]. Software projects were getting larger and more complex, and as +many as 70 percent of them, by some estimates, were running into +trouble: going over budget, missing deadlines, or collapsing completely. +Even projects considered successful were sometimes delivering software +without all the features that had been promised or with too many +errors—errors that, as in the missile-firing system, were sometimes +extremely serious. The personal computer era, then just starting, only +reinforced a development routine of “compile first, debug later.” + +Praxis armed itself not only with an arsenal of the latest software +engineering methods but also with something a little more unusual in the +field: mathematical logic. The company is one of the foremost software +houses to use mathematically based techniques, known as formal methods, +to develop software. + +Basically, formal methods require that programmers begin their work not +by writing code but rather by stringing together special symbols that +represent the program’s logic. Like a mathematical theorem, these symbol +strings can be checked to verify that they form logically correct +statements. Once the programmer has checked that the program doesn’t +have logical flaws, it’s a relatively simple matter to convert those +symbols into programming code. It’s a way to eliminate bugs even before +you start writing the actual program. + +Praxis doesn’t claim it can make bug-free software, says Amey, now the +company’s chief technical officer. But he says the methodology pays off. +Bugs are notoriously hard to count, and estimates of how common they are +vary hugely. With an average of less than one error in every 10 000 +lines of delivered code, however, Praxis claims a bug rate that is at +least 50—and possibly as much as 1000—times better than the industry +standard. + +Praxis is still a small, lonely asteroid compared to the Jupiter-size +companies that dominate the software universe—companies like Microsoft, +Oracle, and SAP. The tiny British software house doesn’t make products +for the masses; it focuses on complex, custom systems that need to be +highly reliable. Such mission-critical systems are used to control +military systems, industrial processes, and financial applications, +among other things. + +Sometimes the software needs to work 99.999 percent of the time, like an +air-traffic control program Praxis delivered some years ago. Sometimes +it needs to be really, really secure, like the one Praxis recently +developed for the National Security Agency, the supersecret U.S. signals +intelligence and cryptographic agency, in Fort Meade, Md. + +And though Praxis employs just 100 people, its name has become +surprisingly well known. “They’re very, very talented, with a very +different approach,” says John C. Knight, a professor of computer +science at the University of Virginia and the editor in chief of IEEE +Transactions on Software Engineering. Praxis’s founders, he says, +believed that building software wasn’t as hard as people made it out to +be. “They thought, it isn’t rocket science, just very careful +engineering.” + +Watts S. Humphrey, who once ran software development at IBM and is now a +fellow at the Software Engineering Institute at Carnegie Mellon +University, in Pittsburgh, also speaks highly of Praxis. He says the +company’s methodology incorporates things like quality control that +should be more widely used in the field. In fact, Humphrey spent this +past summer at Praxis headquarters to learn how they do things. He wants +to use that knowledge to improve a complementary methodology he +developed to help organizations better manage their software projects. + +Praxis’s approach, however, isn’t perfect and isn’t for everybody. +Formal methods obviously are no silver bullet. For one thing, using +formal methods can take more time and require new skills, all of which +can mean higher up-front costs for a client. In fact, Praxis charges +more—50 percent more in some cases—than the standard daily rate. To this +its engineers will say: “You get what you pay for; our bug rate speaks +for itself.” + +And although formal methods have been used to great effect in small and +medium-size projects, no one has yet managed to apply them to large +ones. There’s some reason to think no one ever will, except perhaps in a +limited fashion. Nevertheless, even though the company may not have all +the answers to make software projects more successful, those working in +the field can learn plenty of lessons from it, say advocates like Knight +and Humphrey. + +**Software was conceived as** a mathematical artifact in the early days +of modern computing, when British mathematician Alan Turing formalized +the concept of algorithm and computation by means of his now famous +Turing Machine, which boils the idea of a computer down to an idealized +device that steps though logical states. + +But over time, software development gradually became more of a craft +than a science. Forget the abstractions and the mathematical +philosophers. Enter the realm of fearless, caffeinated programmers who +can churn out hundreds of lines of code a day (often by hastily gluing +together existing pieces of code). The problem is that for some +projects, even tirelessness, dedication, and skill aren’t good enough if +the strategy is wrong. + +Large, complex software systems usually involve so many modules that +dealing with them all can overwhelm a team following an insufficiently +structured approach. That’s especially true of the mission-critical +applications Praxis develops, as well as of large enterprise +resource-planning systems, of the sort used by Fortune 500 companies, +and complex data-driven software, such as the FBI’s Virtual Case File +project \[see “[Who Killed the Virtual Case +File?](/computing/software/who-killed-the-virtual-case-file)” in this +issue\]. + +Even when you break such a big program down into small, seemingly +manageable pieces, making a change to one turns out to affect 10 others, +which may in turn affect scores or maybe even hundreds of other pieces. +It may happen that making all the fixes will require more time and money +than you have. If your system’s correct operation depends on those +changes, you’ll have to either admit defeat or scramble to find a way to +salvage what you’ve done so far, perhaps by giving up on some of the +capabilities or features you’d hoped to have in the software. + +As it turns out, complete failure—projects canceled before completion—is +the fate of 18 percent of all information technology projects surveyed +in a 2004 study by consultancy Standish Group International Inc., in +West Yarmouth, Mass. Apparently that’s the good news; the rate 10 years +ago, according to Standish, was 31 percent. + +Still, the overall picture is pretty bleak. Standish asserts that more +than 50 percent of the thousands of projects it surveyed faced problems, +from being turned over without significant features to going well beyond +their deadlines or budgets. In the end, according to the Standish +numbers, only 28 percent of projects could be considered successes by +any rigorous definition. + +Standish’s numbers, however, are far from universally accepted in the +computer industry. For contract software projects, more specifically, +other analyses in recent years have put the success rate as low as 16 +percent and as high as 62 percent. Nevertheless, even using those +numbers as a guide, it’s hard not to see the contract software business +as anything but an enterprise all too often mired in mediocrity. As one +study by consultant Capers Jones, in Marlborough, Mass., put it: “Large +software systems...have one of the highest failure rates of any +manufactured object in human history.” + +Today, ever more sophisticated tools are available to help companies +manage all aspects of their software projects. These tools help +conceptualize and design the system; manage all people, files, +computers, and documents involved; keep track of all versions and +changes made to the system and its modules; and automate a number of +tests that can be used to find system errors. + +Indeed, worldwide sales of such software development tools, according to +Stamford, Conn.based market research firm Gartner Inc., generate more +than US $3 billion a year. Rational Software Corp., a company acquired +by IBM in 2002 for $2.1 billion, is currently the market leader, +followed by Microsoft, Computer Associates International, Compuware, +Borland, and others, according to Gartner. + +But the effect of widespread use of these tools on overall software +quality hasn’t been gauged in a detailed or rigorous way. Some would +even argue that the sector is a little reminiscent of the market for +diet products: it, too, is a billion-dollar industry, and yet, somehow, +obesity as a public health problem hasn’t gone away. And, just as the +few successful diet strategies all seem to require a major change in +lifestyle, perhaps, too, the software failure rates won’t improve +significantly without a basic and widespread shift in tactics. + +Certainly, Praxis’s experience supports that idea. Consider one of the +company’s recent projects, for Mondex International Inc., a financial +services company founded in the UK that is now a subsidiary of +MasterCard International Inc. First, a little background. Mondex had a +product called an electronic purse, a credit cardlike payment card that +stored electronic cash. That is, it did not debit a bank account or draw +on a line of credit; it stored the cash digitally in an embedded chip. +Mondex wanted to make the card flexible enough to run a variety of +applications that would keep track not only of electronic cash but also +of discount coupons, loyalty reward points, and other items still +unimagined. + +The critical issue was to make sure that only cards with legitimate +applications would work; any other card, even if programmed to pass as a +Mondex card, would be deemed invalid. The solution Mondex chose was to +use a special program, known as a certification authority, that would +run on a central computer at the company’s headquarters. The +certification authority would generate unique digital certificates—long +strings of numbers—to accompany all applications on the cards. That way, +a card reader at, say, a store could validate a card’s certificates by +running them through a series of mathematical operations that would +prove unequivocally that they came from Mondex. + +Mondex hired Praxis to develop the certification authority, which was +the most critical part of the whole system. After all, if the security +of one card was broken, then just that one card could be forged. But +compromising the certification authority would allow mass forgery of +cards. + +**The Praxis team began working** on the solution in late 1998. The +first step was to hammer out what, precisely, the Mondex system was +supposed to do—in software jargon, the system’s requirements. These are +essentially English-language bullet points that detail everything the +program will do but not how it will be done. + +Getting the requirements right is perhaps the most critical part of +Praxis’s methodology. For that reason, Praxis engineers held many +exhaustive meetings with the people from Mondex, during which they tried +to imagine all possible scenarios of what could happen. As Praxis does +for all its projects, it insisted that Mondex make available not only +its IT people but everyone who would have any involvement with the +product—salespeople, accountants, senior managers, and perhaps even the +CEO. “We focus very hard on identifying all stakeholders, everybody that +cares,” says Roderick Chapman, a principal engineer at Praxis \[see +photo, “[Spark +Maker](/images/sep05/images/extf3.jpg "Photo: Peter Searle")”\]. + +To make sure Praxis was on target with the system requirements, it +devised a prototype program that simulated the graphical interface of +the proposed system. This prototype had no real system underlying it; +data and commands entered through the interface served only to check the +requirements. In fact, Praxis made no further use of the prototype—the +real graphical interface would be developed later, using much more +rigorous methods. In following this approach, Praxis was complying with +an edict from Frederick P. Brooks’s 1975 classic study of software +development, The Mythical Man-Month: Essays on Software Engineering +(Addison-Wesley, 2nd edition, 1995): + +> In most projects, the first system built is barely usable. It may be +> too slow, too big, awkward to use, or all three. There is no +> alternative but to start again, smarting but smarter and build a +> redesigned version in which these problems are solved. The discard and +> redesign may be done in one lump, or it may be done piece-by-piece. +> But all large-system experience shows that it will be done.... +> +> Hence plan to throw one away; you will, anyhow. + +Once Praxis’s engineers had a general idea of what the system would do, +they began to describe it in great detail, in pages and pages of +specifications. For example, if a requirement said that every user’s +action on the system should produce an audit report, then the +corresponding specification would flesh out what data should be logged, +how the information should be formatted, and so on. + +This is the first math-intensive phase, because the specifications are +written mostly in a special language called Z (pronounced the British +way: “zed”). It’s not a programming language—it doesn’t tell a computer +how to do something—but it is a formal specification language that +expresses notions in ways that can be subjected to proof. Its purpose is +simple: to detect ambiguities and inconsistencies. This forces engineers +to resolve the problems right then and there, before the problems are +built into the system. + +Z, which was principally designed at the University of Oxford, in +England, in the late 1970s and early 1980s, is based on set theory and +predicate logic. Once translated into Z, a program’s validity can be +reviewed by eye or put through theorem-proving software tools. The goal +is to spot bugs as soon as possible \[see sidebar, “[Bugproof +Code](/computing/software/the-exterminators/bugproof-code)”\]. + +The process is time-consuming. For the Mondex project, spec-writing took +nearly a year, or about 25 percent of the entire development process. +That was a long time to go without producing anything that looks like a +payoff, concedes Andrew Calvert, Mondex’s information technology liaison +for the project. “Senior management would say: ‘We are 20 percent into +the project and we’re getting nothing. Why aren’t we seeing code? Why +aren’t we seeing implementation?’” he recalls. “I had to explain that we +were investing much more than usual in the initial analysis, and that we +wouldn’t see anything until 50 percent of the way through.” For +comparison, in most projects, programmers start writing code before the +quarter-way mark. + +Only after Praxis’s engineers are sure that they have logically correct +specifications written in Z do they start turning the statements into +actual computer code. The programming language they used in this case, +called Spark, was also selected for its precision. Spark, based on Ada, +a programming language created in the 1970s and backed by the U.S. +Department of Defense, was designed by Praxis to eliminate all +expressions, functions, and notations that can make a program behave +unpredictably. + +By contrast, many common programming languages suffer from ambiguity. +Take, for example, the programming language C and the expression “i++ \* +i++,” in which “\*” denotes a multiplication and “++” means you should +increment the variable “i” by 1. It’s not an expression a programmer +would normally use; yet it serves to illustrate the problem. Suppose “i” +equals 7. What’s the value of the expression? Answer: it is not possible +to know. Different compilers—the special programs that transform source +code into instructions that microprocessors can understand—would +interpret the expression in different ways. Some would do the +multiplication before incrementing either “i,” giving 49 as the answer. +Others would increment the first “i” only and then do the +multiplication, giving 56 as the answer. Yet others would do unexpected +things. + +Such a problem could not happen in Spark, says Praxis’s Chapman, because +all such ambiguous cases were considered—and eliminated—when the +language was created. Coding with Spark thus helps Praxis achieve +reduced bug rates. In fact, once Spark code has been written, Chapman +says, it has the uncanny tendency to work the first time, just as you +wanted. “Our defect rate with Spark is at least 10 times, sometimes 100 +times lower than those created with other languages,” he says. + +Peter Amey explains that the two-step translation—from English to Z and +from Z to Spark—lets engineers keep everything in mind. “You can’t +reason across the semantic gap between English and code,” he says, “but +the gap from English to an unambiguous mathematical language is smaller, +as is the gap from that language to code.” + +What’s more, Spark lets engineers analyze certain properties of a +program—the way data flows through the program’s variables, for +example—without actually having to compile and run it. Such a +technique, called static analysis, often lets them prevent two serious +software errors: using uninitialized variables, which may inject +spurious values into the program, and allocating data to a memory area +that is too small, a problem known as buffer overflow. + +In practice, though, not everything can be put through the mathematical +wringer. Problems with the way different modules exchange data, for +instance, by and large have to be solved the old-fashioned way: by +thinking. Nor can Praxis completely eliminate classic trial-and-error +testing, in which the programmers try to simulate every situation the +software is likely to confront. + +But what Praxis does do is make such simulation a last resort, instead +of the main line of defense against bugs. (As famed computer scientist +Edsger Dijkstra wrote, “Program testing can be used to show the presence +of bugs, but never to show their absence\!”) For the Mondex project, +such testing took up 34 percent of the contract time. That’s in the +lower end of the usual share, which typically ranges from 30 to 90 +percent. Reduced efforts on testing mean huge savings that go a long way +toward balancing the extra time spent on the initial analysis. + +The system went live in 1999. Though it cost more up front, the contract +called for Praxis to fix for free any problem—that is, any deviation +from the specification—that came up in the first year of operation, a +guarantee rarely offered in the world of contract software. That first +year, just four defects triggered the clause. According to Chapman, +three of the problems were so trivial that they took no more than a few +hours to correct. Only one was functionally significant; it took two +days to fix. With about 100 000 lines of code, that’s an average of 0.04 +faults per 1000 lines. Fault rates for projects not using formal +methods, by some estimates, can vary from 2 to 10 per 1000 lines of +code, and sometimes more. + +For Mondex, fewer bugs meant saving money. Calvert estimates that Mondex +will spend 20 to 25 percent less than the norm in maintenance costs over +the lifetime of the project. + +**Formal methods were relatively new** when Praxis started using them, +and after some ups and downs, they have recently been gaining +popularity. Among their leading proponents are John Rushby at SRI +International, Menlo Park, Calif.; Constance Heitmeyer, at the U.S. +Naval Research Laboratory’s Center for High Assurance Computer Systems, +Washington, D.C.; Jonathan Bowen at London South Bank University; the +developers of Z at the University of Oxford and other institutions; and +the supporters of other specification languages, such as B, VDM, Larch, +Specware, and Promela. + +In recent years, even Microsoft has used formal methods, applying them +to develop small applications, such as a bug-finding tool used in-house +and also a theorem-proving “driver verifier,” which makes sure device +drivers run properly under Windows. + +But still, the perceived difficulty of formal tools repels the +rank-and-file programmer. After all, coders don’t want to solve logical +problems with the help of set theory and predicate logic. They want to, +well, code. “Few people, even among those who complete computer science +degrees, are skilled in those branches of pure mathematics,” says +Bernard Cohen, a professor in the department of computing at City +University, in London. + +In every other branch of engineering, he insists, practitioners master +difficult mathematical notations. “Ask any professional engineer if he +could do the job without math, and you’ll get a very rude reply,” Cohen +says. But in programming, he adds, the emphasis has often been to ship +it and let the customer find the bugs. + +Until formal methods become easier to use, Cohen says, Praxis and +companies like it will continue to rely on clients’ +“self-selection”—only those users who are highly motivated to get +rock-solid software will beat a path to their door. Those that need +software to handle functions critical to life, limb, national security, +or the survival of a company will self-select; so will those that are +contractually obligated to meet software requirements set by some +regulator. That’s the case with many military contractors that now need +to demonstrate their use of formal methodologies to government +purchasers; the same goes for financial institutions. Mondex, for +instance, required the approval of the Bank of England, in London, and +formal methods were part of that approval. + +Yet even if regulators were omnipresent, not all problems would be +amenable to formal methods, at least not to those that are available +now. First, there is the problem of scaling. The largest system Praxis +has ever built had 200 000 lines of code. For comparison, Microsoft +Windows XP has around 40 million, and some Linux versions have more than +200 million. And that’s nothing compared with the monster programs that +process tax returns for the U.S. Internal Revenue Service or manage a +large telecom company’s infrastructure. Such systems can total hundreds +of millions of lines of code. + +What does Praxis say about that? “The simple answer is, we’ve never gone +that big,” says Chapman. “We believe these methods should scale, but we +have no evidence that they won’t or that they will.” So what if a client +approaches Praxis with a really big project? Would the company handle +it? “The key weapon is abstraction,” he says. “If you can build +abstractions well enough, you should be able to break things down into +bits you can handle.” That maxim guides every other discipline in +engineering, not least the design of computer hardware. Why not apply it +to software, too? + +## About the Author + +Philip E. Ross (IEEE Member) wrote “[Managing Care Through the +Air](/computing/networks/managing-care-through-the-air)” for the +December 2004 issue of IEEE Spectrum. His work has also appeared in +Scientific American, Forbes, and Red Herring. diff --git a/_stories/2005/10562793.md b/_stories/2005/10562793.md deleted file mode 100644 index 5e6ac0c..0000000 --- a/_stories/2005/10562793.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,25 +0,0 @@ ---- -created_at: '2015-11-13T22:25:55.000Z' -title: 'KLOS: Kernel-Less Operating System Architecture (2005) [pdf]' -url: http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.59.2606&rep=rep1&type=pdf -author: vezzy-fnord -points: 65 -story_text: -comment_text: -num_comments: 20 -story_id: -story_title: -story_url: -parent_id: -created_at_i: 1447453555 -_tags: -- story -- author_vezzy-fnord -- story_10562793 -objectID: '10562793' - ---- -[Source](http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.59.2606&rep=rep1&type=pdf "Permalink to ") - - - diff --git a/_stories/2005/11739294.md b/_stories/2005/11739294.md deleted file mode 100644 index f455d57..0000000 --- a/_stories/2005/11739294.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,25 +0,0 @@ ---- -created_at: '2016-05-20T16:40:35.000Z' -title: An insomniac's guide to the group theory of mattress flipping (2005) -url: http://www.americanscientist.org/issues/pub/group-theory-in-the-bedroom/99999 -author: luckysahaf -points: 62 -story_text: -comment_text: -num_comments: 14 -story_id: -story_title: -story_url: -parent_id: -created_at_i: 1463762435 -_tags: -- story -- author_luckysahaf -- story_11739294 -objectID: '11739294' - ---- -[Source](https://www.americanscientist.org/issues/pub/group-theory-in-the-bedroom/99999 "Permalink to ") - - - diff --git a/_stories/2005/11790804.md b/_stories/2005/11790804.md deleted file mode 100644 index 5afbcf8..0000000 --- a/_stories/2005/11790804.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,25 +0,0 @@ ---- -created_at: '2016-05-28T06:31:57.000Z' -title: Exploit Mitigation Techniques in OpenBSD (2005) -url: https://www.openbsd.org/papers/ven05-deraadt/mgp00001.html -author: kercker -points: 62 -story_text: -comment_text: -num_comments: 4 -story_id: -story_title: -story_url: -parent_id: -created_at_i: 1464417117 -_tags: -- story -- author_kercker -- story_11790804 -objectID: '11790804' - ---- -[Source](https://www.openbsd.org/papers/ven05-deraadt/mgp00001.html "Permalink to ") - - - diff --git a/_stories/2005/12026879.md b/_stories/2005/12026879.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..75137ff --- /dev/null +++ b/_stories/2005/12026879.md @@ -0,0 +1,1867 @@ +--- +created_at: '2016-07-03T17:42:37.000Z' +title: Bit Twiddling Hacks (2005) +url: https://graphics.stanford.edu/~seander/bithacks.html +author: e-sushi +points: 127 +story_text: +comment_text: +num_comments: 24 +story_id: +story_title: +story_url: +parent_id: +created_at_i: 1467567757 +_tags: +- story +- author_e-sushi +- story_12026879 +objectID: '12026879' + +--- +## Bit Twiddling Hacks + +### By Sean Eron Anderson +seander@cs. stanford.edu + +Individually, the **code snippets here are in the public domain** +(unless otherwise noted) — feel free to use them however you please. The +aggregate collection and descriptions are © 1997-2005 Sean Eron +Anderson. The code and descriptions are distributed in the hope that +they will be useful, but **WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY** and without even the +implied warranty of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. +As of May 5, 2005, all the code has been tested thoroughly. Thousands of +people have read it. Moreover, [Professor Randal +Bryant](http://www-2.cs.cmu.edu/~bryant/), the Dean of Computer Science +at Carnegie Mellon University, has personally tested almost everything +with his [Uclid code verification +system](http://www-2.cs.cmu.edu/~uclid/). What he hasn't tested, I have +checked against all possible inputs on a 32-bit machine. **To the first +person to inform me of a legitimate bug in the code, I'll pay a bounty +of US$10 (by check or Paypal)**. If directed to a charity, I'll pay +US$20. + +### Contents + +When totaling the number of operations for algorithms here, any C +operator is counted as one operation. Intermediate assignments, which +need not be written to RAM, are not counted. Of course, this operation +counting approach only serves as an approximation of the actual number +of machine instructions and CPU time. All operations are assumed to take +the same amount of time, which is not true in reality, but CPUs have +been heading increasingly in this direction over time. There are many +nuances that determine how fast a system will run a given sample of +code, such as cache sizes, memory bandwidths, instruction sets, etc. In +the end, benchmarking is the best way to determine whether one method is +really faster than another, so consider the techniques below as +possibilities to test on your target architecture. + + int v; // we want to find the sign of v + int sign; // the result goes here + + // CHAR_BIT is the number of bits per byte (normally 8). + sign = -(v < 0); // if v < 0 then -1, else 0. + // or, to avoid branching on CPUs with flag registers (IA32): + sign = -(int)((unsigned int)((int)v) >> (sizeof(int) * CHAR_BIT - 1)); + // or, for one less instruction (but not portable): + sign = v >> (sizeof(int) * CHAR_BIT - 1); + +The last expression above evaluates to sign = v \>\> 31 for 32-bit +integers. This is one operation faster than the obvious way, sign = -(v +\< 0). This trick works because when signed integers are shifted right, +the value of the far left bit is copied to the other bits. The far left +bit is 1 when the value is negative and 0 otherwise; all 1 bits gives +-1. Unfortunately, this behavior is architecture-specific. + +Alternatively, if you prefer the result be either -1 or +1, then + use: + + sign = +1 | (v >> (sizeof(int) * CHAR_BIT - 1)); // if v < 0 then -1, else +1 + +On the other hand, if you prefer the result be either -1, 0, or +1, then +use: + + sign = (v != 0) | -(int)((unsigned int)((int)v) >> (sizeof(int) * CHAR_BIT - 1)); + // Or, for more speed but less portability: + sign = (v != 0) | (v >> (sizeof(int) * CHAR_BIT - 1)); // -1, 0, or +1 + // Or, for portability, brevity, and (perhaps) speed: + sign = (v > 0) - (v < 0); // -1, 0, or +1 + +If instead you want to know if something is non-negative, resulting in ++1 or else 0, then + use: + + sign = 1 ^ ((unsigned int)v >> (sizeof(int) * CHAR_BIT - 1)); // if v < 0 then 0, else 1 + +Caveat: On March 7, 2003, Angus Duggan pointed out that the 1989 ANSI C +specification leaves the result of signed right-shift +implementation-defined, so on some systems this hack might not work. For +greater portability, Toby Speight suggested on September 28, 2005 that +CHAR\_BIT be used here and throughout rather than assuming bytes were 8 +bits long. Angus recommended the more portable versions above, involving +casting on March 4, 2006. [Rohit Garg](http://rpg-314.blogspot.com/) +suggested the version for non-negative integers on September 12, 2009. + + int x, y; // input values to compare signs + + bool f = ((x ^ y) < 0); // true iff x and y have opposite signs + +Manfred Weis suggested I add this entry on November 26, 2009. + + int v; // we want to find the absolute value of v + unsigned int r; // the result goes here + int const mask = v >> sizeof(int) * CHAR_BIT - 1; + + r = (v + mask) ^ mask; + +Patented variation: + + r = (v ^ mask) - mask; + +Some CPUs don't have an integer absolute value instruction (or the +compiler fails to use them). On machines where branching is expensive, +the above expression can be faster than the obvious approach, r = (v \< +0) ? -(unsigned)v : v, even though the number of operations is the same. + +On March 7, 2003, Angus Duggan pointed out that the 1989 ANSI C +specification leaves the result of signed right-shift +implementation-defined, so on some systems this hack might not work. +I've read that ANSI C does not require values to be represented as two's +complement, so it may not work for that reason as well (on a +diminishingly small number of old machines that still use one's +complement). On March 14, 2004, Keith H. Duggar sent me the patented +variation above; it is superior to the one I initially came up with, +`r=(+1|(v>>(sizeof(int)*CHAR_BIT-1)))*v`, because a multiply is not +used. Unfortunately, this method has been +[patented](http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect1=PTO2&Sect2=HITOFF&p=1&u=/netahtml/search-adv.htm&r=1&f=G&l=50&d=ptxt&S1=6073150&OS=6073150&RS=6073150) +in the USA on June 6, 2000 by Vladimir Yu Volkonsky and assigned to [Sun +Microsystems](http://www.sun.com/). On August 13, 2006, Yuriy Kaminskiy +told me that the patent is likely invalid because the method was +published well before the patent was even filed, such as in [How to +Optimize for the Pentium +Processor](http://www.goof.com/pcg/doc/pentopt.txt) by Agner Fog, dated +November, 9, 1996. Yuriy also mentioned that this document was +translated to Russian in 1997, which Vladimir could have read. Moreover, +the Internet Archive also has an old +[link](http://web.archive.org/web/19961201174141/www.x86.org/ftp/articles/pentopt/PENTOPT.TXT) +to it. On January 30, 2007, Peter Kankowski shared with me an [abs +version](http://smallcode.weblogs.us/2007/01/31/microsoft-probably-uses-the-abs-function-patented-by-sun/) +he discovered that was inspired by Microsoft's Visual C++ compiler +output. It is featured here as the primary solution. On December 6, +2007, Hai Jin complained that the result was signed, so when computing +the abs of the most negative value, it was still negative. On April 15, +2008 Andrew Shapira pointed out that the obvious approach could +overflow, as it lacked an (unsigned) cast then; for maximum portability +he suggested `(v < 0) ? (1 + ((unsigned)(-1-v))) : (unsigned)v`. But +citing the ISO C99 spec on July 9, 2008, Vincent Lefèvre convinced me to +remove it becasue even on non-2s-complement machines -(unsigned)v will +do the right thing. The evaluation of -(unsigned)v first converts the +negative value of v to an unsigned by adding 2\*\*N, yielding a 2s +complement representation of v's value that I'll call U. Then, U is +negated, giving the desired result, -U = 0 - U = 2\*\*N - U = 2\*\*N - +(v+2\*\*N) = -v = abs(v). + + int x; // we want to find the minimum of x and y + int y; + int r; // the result goes here + + r = y ^ ((x ^ y) & -(x < y)); // min(x, y) + +On some rare machines where branching is very expensive and no condition +move instructions exist, the above expression might be faster than the +obvious approach, r = (x \< y) ? x : y, even though it involves two more +instructions. (Typically, the obvious approach is best, though.) It +works because if x \< y, then -(x  To find the maximum, use: + + r = x ^ ((x ^ y) & -(x < y)); // max(x, y) + +#### Quick and dirty versions: + +If you know that INT\_MIN \<= x - y \<= INT\_MAX, then you can use the +following, which are faster because (x - y) only needs to be evaluated +once. + + r = y + ((x - y) & ((x - y) >> (sizeof(int) * CHAR_BIT - 1))); // min(x, y) + r = x - ((x - y) & ((x - y) >> (sizeof(int) * CHAR_BIT - 1))); // max(x, y) + +Note that the 1989 ANSI C specification doesn't specify the result of +signed right-shift, so these aren't portable. If exceptions are thrown +on overflows, then the values of x and y should be unsigned or cast to +unsigned for the subtractions to avoid unnecessarily throwing an +exception, however the right-shift needs a signed operand to produce all +one bits when negative, so cast to signed there. + +On March 7, 2003, Angus Duggan pointed out the right-shift portability +issue. On May 3, 2005, Randal E. Bryant alerted me to the need for the +precondition, INT\_MIN \<= x - y \<= INT\_MAX, and suggested the +non-quick and dirty version as a fix. Both of these issues concern only +the quick and dirty version. Nigel Horspoon observed on July 6, 2005 +that gcc produced the same code on a Pentium as the obvious solution +because of how it evaluates (x \< y). On July 9, 2008 Vincent Lefèvre +pointed out the potential for overflow exceptions with subtractions in r += y + ((x - y) & -(x \< y)), which was the previous version. Timothy B. +Terriberry suggested using xor rather than add and subract to avoid +casting and the risk of overflows on June 2, 2009. + + unsigned int v; // we want to see if v is a power of 2 + bool f; // the result goes here + + f = (v & (v - 1)) == 0; + +Note that 0 is incorrectly considered a power of 2 here. To remedy this, +use: + + f = v && !(v & (v - 1)); + +Sign extension is automatic for built-in types, such as chars and ints. +But suppose you have a signed two's complement number, x, that is stored +using only b bits. Moreover, suppose you want to convert x to an int, +which has more than b bits. A simple copy will work if x is positive, +but if negative, the sign must be extended. For example, if we have only +4 bits to store a number, then -3 is represented as 1101 in binary. If +we have 8 bits, then -3 is 11111101. The most-significant bit of the +4-bit representation is replicated sinistrally to fill in the +destination when we convert to a representation with more bits; this is +sign extending. In C, sign extension from a constant bit-width is +trivial, since bit fields may be specified in structs or unions. For +example, to convert from 5 bits to an full integer: + + int x; // convert this from using 5 bits to a full int + int r; // resulting sign extended number goes here + struct {signed int x:5;} s; + r = s.x = x; + +The following is a C++ template function that uses the same language +feature to convert from B bits in one operation (though the compiler is +generating more, of course). + + template + inline T signextend(const T x) + { + struct {T x:B;} s; + return s.x = x; + } + + int r = signextend(x); // sign extend 5 bit number x to r + +John Byrd caught a typo in the code (attributed to html formatting) on +May 2, 2005. On March 4, 2006, Pat Wood pointed out that the ANSI C +standard requires that the bitfield have the keyword "signed" to be +signed; otherwise, the sign is undefined. + +Sometimes we need to extend the sign of a number but we don't know a +priori the number of bits, b, in which it is represented. (Or we could +be programming in a language like Java, which lacks bitfields.) + + unsigned b; // number of bits representing the number in x + int x; // sign extend this b-bit number to r + int r; // resulting sign-extended number + int const m = 1U << (b - 1); // mask can be pre-computed if b is fixed + + x = x & ((1U << b) - 1); // (Skip this if bits in x above position b are already zero.) + r = (x ^ m) - m; + +The code above requires four operations, but when the bitwidth is a +constant rather than variable, it requires only two fast operations, +assuming the upper bits are already zeroes. + +A slightly faster but less portable method that doesn't depend on the +bits in x above position b being zero is: + + int const m = CHAR_BIT * sizeof(x) - b; + r = (x << m) >> m; + +Sean A. Irvine suggested that I add sign extension methods to this page +on June 13, 2004, and he provided `m = (1 << (b - 1)) - 1; r = -(x & ~m) +| x;` as a starting point from which I optimized to get m = 1U \<\< (b - +1); r = -(x & m) | x. But then on May 11, 2007, Shay Green suggested the +version above, which requires one less operation than mine. Vipin Sharma +suggested I add a step to deal with situations where x had possible ones +in bits other than the b bits we wanted to sign-extend on Oct. 15, 2008. +On December 31, 2009 Chris Pirazzi suggested I add the faster version, +which requires two operations for constant bit-widths and three for +variable widths. + +The following may be slow on some machines, due to the effort required +for multiplication and division. This version is 4 operations. If you +know that your initial bit-width, b, is greater than 1, you might do +this type of sign extension in 3 operations by using r = (x \* +multipliers\[b\]) / multipliers\[b\], which requires only one array +lookup. + + unsigned b; // number of bits representing the number in x + int x; // sign extend this b-bit number to r + int r; // resulting sign-extended number + #define M(B) (1U << ((sizeof(x) * CHAR_BIT) - B)) // CHAR_BIT=bits/byte + static int const multipliers[] = + { + 0, M(1), M(2), M(3), M(4), M(5), M(6), M(7), + M(8), M(9), M(10), M(11), M(12), M(13), M(14), M(15), + M(16), M(17), M(18), M(19), M(20), M(21), M(22), M(23), + M(24), M(25), M(26), M(27), M(28), M(29), M(30), M(31), + M(32) + }; // (add more if using more than 64 bits) + static int const divisors[] = + { + 1, ~M(1), M(2), M(3), M(4), M(5), M(6), M(7), + M(8), M(9), M(10), M(11), M(12), M(13), M(14), M(15), + M(16), M(17), M(18), M(19), M(20), M(21), M(22), M(23), + M(24), M(25), M(26), M(27), M(28), M(29), M(30), M(31), + M(32) + }; // (add more for 64 bits) + #undef M + r = (x * multipliers[b]) / divisors[b]; + +The following variation is not portable, but on architectures that +employ an arithmetic right-shift, maintaining the sign, it should be +fast. + + const int s = -b; // OR: sizeof(x) * CHAR_BIT - b; + r = (x << s) >> s; + +Randal E. Bryant pointed out a bug on May 3, 2005 in an earlier version +(that used multipliers\[\] for divisors\[\]), where it failed on the +case of x=1 and b=1. + + bool f; // conditional flag + unsigned int m; // the bit mask + unsigned int w; // the word to modify: if (f) w |= m; else w &= ~m; + + w ^= (-f ^ w) & m; + + // OR, for superscalar CPUs: + w = (w & ~m) | (-f & m); + +On some architectures, the lack of branching can more than make up for +what appears to be twice as many operations. For instance, informal +speed tests on an AMD Athlon™ XP 2100+ indicated it was 5-10% faster. An +Intel Core 2 Duo ran the superscalar version about 16% faster than the +first. Glenn Slayden informed me of the first expression on December 11, +2003. Marco Yu shared the superscalar version with me on April 3, 2007 +and alerted me to a typo 2 days later. + +If you need to negate only when a flag is false, then use the following +to avoid branching: + + bool fDontNegate; // Flag indicating we should not negate v. + int v; // Input value to negate if fDontNegate is false. + int r; // result = fDontNegate ? v : -v; + + r = (fDontNegate ^ (fDontNegate - 1)) * v; + +If you need to negate only when a flag is true, then use this: + + bool fNegate; // Flag indicating if we should negate v. + int v; // Input value to negate if fNegate is true. + int r; // result = fNegate ? -v : v; + + r = (v ^ -fNegate) + fNegate; + +Avraham Plotnitzky suggested I add the first version on June 2, 2009. +Motivated to avoid the multiply, I came up with the second version on +June 8, 2009. Alfonso De Gregorio pointed out that some parens were +missing on November 26, 2009, and received a bug bounty. + + unsigned int a; // value to merge in non-masked bits + unsigned int b; // value to merge in masked bits + unsigned int mask; // 1 where bits from b should be selected; 0 where from a. + unsigned int r; // result of (a & ~mask) | (b & mask) goes here + + r = a ^ ((a ^ b) & mask); + +This shaves one operation from the obvious way of combining two sets of +bits according to a bit mask. If the mask is a constant, then there may +be no advantage. + +Ron Jeffery sent this to me on February 9, 2006. + + unsigned int v; // count the number of bits set in v + unsigned int c; // c accumulates the total bits set in v + + for (c = 0; v; v >>= 1) + { + c += v & 1; + } + +The naive approach requires one iteration per bit, until no more bits +are set. So on a 32-bit word with only the high set, it will go through +32 iterations. + + static const unsigned char BitsSetTable256[256] = + { + # define B2(n) n, n+1, n+1, n+2 + # define B4(n) B2(n), B2(n+1), B2(n+1), B2(n+2) + # define B6(n) B4(n), B4(n+1), B4(n+1), B4(n+2) + B6(0), B6(1), B6(1), B6(2) + }; + + unsigned int v; // count the number of bits set in 32-bit value v + unsigned int c; // c is the total bits set in v + + // Option 1: + c = BitsSetTable256[v & 0xff] + + BitsSetTable256[(v >> 8) & 0xff] + + BitsSetTable256[(v >> 16) & 0xff] + + BitsSetTable256[v >> 24]; + + // Option 2: + unsigned char * p = (unsigned char *) &v; + c = BitsSetTable256[p[0]] + + BitsSetTable256[p[1]] + + BitsSetTable256[p[2]] + + BitsSetTable256[p[3]]; + + + // To initially generate the table algorithmically: + BitsSetTable256[0] = 0; + for (int i = 0; i < 256; i++) + { + BitsSetTable256[i] = (i & 1) + BitsSetTable256[i / 2]; + } + +On July 14, 2009 Hallvard Furuseth suggested the macro compacted table. + + unsigned int v; // count the number of bits set in v + unsigned int c; // c accumulates the total bits set in v + for (c = 0; v; c++) + { + v &= v - 1; // clear the least significant bit set + } + +Brian Kernighan's method goes through as many iterations as there are +set bits. So if we have a 32-bit word with only the high bit set, then +it will only go once through the loop. + +Published in 1988, the C Programming Language 2nd Ed. (by Brian W. +Kernighan and Dennis M. Ritchie) mentions this in exercise 2-9. On April +19, 2006 Don Knuth pointed out to me that this method "was first +published by Peter Wegner in CACM 3 (1960), 322. (Also discovered +independently by Derrick Lehmer and published in 1964 in a book edited +by Beckenbach.)" + + unsigned int v; // count the number of bits set in v + unsigned int c; // c accumulates the total bits set in v + + // option 1, for at most 14-bit values in v: + c = (v * 0x200040008001ULL & 0x111111111111111ULL) % 0xf; + + // option 2, for at most 24-bit values in v: + c = ((v & 0xfff) * 0x1001001001001ULL & 0x84210842108421ULL) % 0x1f; + c += (((v & 0xfff000) >> 12) * 0x1001001001001ULL & 0x84210842108421ULL) + % 0x1f; + + // option 3, for at most 32-bit values in v: + c = ((v & 0xfff) * 0x1001001001001ULL & 0x84210842108421ULL) % 0x1f; + c += (((v & 0xfff000) >> 12) * 0x1001001001001ULL & 0x84210842108421ULL) % + 0x1f; + c += ((v >> 24) * 0x1001001001001ULL & 0x84210842108421ULL) % 0x1f; + +This method requires a 64-bit CPU with fast modulus division to be +efficient. The first option takes only 3 operations; the second option +takes 10; and the third option takes 15. + +Rich Schroeppel originally created a 9-bit version, similiar to option +1; see the Programming Hacks section of [Beeler, M., Gosper, R. W., and +Schroeppel, R. HAKMEM. MIT AI Memo 239, Feb. 29, +1972.](http://www.inwap.com/pdp10/hbaker/hakmem/hakmem.html) His method +was the inspiration for the variants above, devised by Sean Anderson. +Randal E. Bryant offered a couple bug fixes on May 3, 2005. Bruce Dawson +tweaked what had been a 12-bit version and made it suitable for 14 bits +using the same number of operations on Feburary 1, 2007. + + unsigned int v; // count bits set in this (32-bit value) + unsigned int c; // store the total here + static const int S[] = {1, 2, 4, 8, 16}; // Magic Binary Numbers + static const int B[] = {0x55555555, 0x33333333, 0x0F0F0F0F, 0x00FF00FF, 0x0000FFFF}; + + c = v - ((v >> 1) & B[0]); + c = ((c >> S[1]) & B[1]) + (c & B[1]); + c = ((c >> S[2]) + c) & B[2]; + c = ((c >> S[3]) + c) & B[3]; + c = ((c >> S[4]) + c) & B[4]; + +The B array, expressed as binary, is: + + B[0] = 0x55555555 = 01010101 01010101 01010101 01010101 + B[1] = 0x33333333 = 00110011 00110011 00110011 00110011 + B[2] = 0x0F0F0F0F = 00001111 00001111 00001111 00001111 + B[3] = 0x00FF00FF = 00000000 11111111 00000000 11111111 + B[4] = 0x0000FFFF = 00000000 00000000 11111111 11111111 + +We can adjust the method for larger integer sizes by continuing with the +patterns for the Binary Magic Numbers, B and S. If there are k bits, +then we need the arrays S and B to be ceil(lg(k)) elements long, and we +must compute the same number of expressions for c as S or B are long. +For a 32-bit v, 16 operations are used. + +The best method for counting bits in a 32-bit integer v is the +following: + + v = v - ((v >> 1) & 0x55555555); // reuse input as temporary + v = (v & 0x33333333) + ((v >> 2) & 0x33333333); // temp + c = ((v + (v >> 4) & 0xF0F0F0F) * 0x1010101) >> 24; // count + +The best bit counting method takes only 12 operations, which is the same +as the lookup-table method, but avoids the memory and potential cache +misses of a table. It is a hybrid between the purely parallel method +above and the earlier methods using multiplies (in the section on +counting bits with 64-bit instructions), though it doesn't use 64-bit +instructions. The counts of bits set in the bytes is done in parallel, +and the sum total of the bits set in the bytes is computed by +multiplying by 0x1010101 and shifting right 24 bits. + +A generalization of the best bit counting method to integers of +bit-widths upto 128 (parameterized by type T) is this: + + v = v - ((v >> 1) & (T)~(T)0/3); // temp + v = (v & (T)~(T)0/15*3) + ((v >> 2) & (T)~(T)0/15*3); // temp + v = (v + (v >> 4)) & (T)~(T)0/255*15; // temp + c = (T)(v * ((T)~(T)0/255)) >> (sizeof(T) - 1) * CHAR_BIT; // count + +See [Ian Ashdown's nice newsgroup +post](http://groups.google.com/groups?q=reverse+bits&num=100&hl=en&group=comp.graphics.algorithms&imgsafe=off&safe=off&rnum=2&ic=1&selm=4fulhm%248dn%40atlas.uniserve.com) +for more information on counting the number of bits set (also known as +sideways addition). The best bit counting method was brought to my +attention on October 5, 2005 by [Andrew Shapira](http://onezero.org); he +found it in pages 187-188 of [Software Optimization Guide for AMD +Athlon™ 64 and Opteron™ +Processors](http://www.amd.com/us-en/assets/content_type/white_papers_and_tech_docs/25112.PDF). +Charlie Gordon suggested a way to shave off one operation from the +purely parallel version on December 14, 2005, and Don Clugston trimmed +three more from it on December 30, 2005. I made a typo with Don's +suggestion that Eric Cole spotted on January 8, 2006. Eric later +suggested the arbitrary bit-width generalization to the best method on +November 17, 2006. On April 5, 2007, Al Williams observed that I had a +line of dead code at the top of the first method. + +The following finds the the rank of a bit, meaning it returns the sum of +bits that are set to 1 from the most-signficant bit downto the bit at +the given +position. + +``` + uint64_t v; // Compute the rank (bits set) in v from the MSB to pos. + unsigned int pos; // Bit position to count bits upto. + uint64_t r; // Resulting rank of bit at pos goes here. + + // Shift out bits after given position. + r = v >> (sizeof(v) * CHAR_BIT - pos); + // Count set bits in parallel. + // r = (r & 0x5555...) + ((r >> 1) & 0x5555...); + r = r - ((r >> 1) & ~0UL/3); + // r = (r & 0x3333...) + ((r >> 2) & 0x3333...); + r = (r & ~0UL/5) + ((r >> 2) & ~0UL/5); + // r = (r & 0x0f0f...) + ((r >> 4) & 0x0f0f...); + r = (r + (r >> 4)) & ~0UL/17; + // r = r % 255; + r = (r * (~0UL/255)) >> ((sizeof(v) - 1) * CHAR_BIT); +``` + +Juha Järvi sent this to me on November 21, 2009 as an inverse operation +to the computing the bit position with the given rank, which follows. + +The following 64-bit code selects the position of the rth 1 bit when +counting from the left. In other words if we start at the most +significant bit and proceed to the right, counting the number of bits +set to 1 until we reach the desired rank, r, then the position where we +stop is returned. If the rank requested exceeds the count of bits set, +then 64 is returned. The code may be modified for 32-bit or counting +from the right. + +``` + uint64_t v; // Input value to find position with rank r. + unsigned int r; // Input: bit's desired rank [1-64]. + unsigned int s; // Output: Resulting position of bit with rank r [1-64] + uint64_t a, b, c, d; // Intermediate temporaries for bit count. + unsigned int t; // Bit count temporary. + + // Do a normal parallel bit count for a 64-bit integer, + // but store all intermediate steps. + // a = (v & 0x5555...) + ((v >> 1) & 0x5555...); + a = v - ((v >> 1) & ~0UL/3); + // b = (a & 0x3333...) + ((a >> 2) & 0x3333...); + b = (a & ~0UL/5) + ((a >> 2) & ~0UL/5); + // c = (b & 0x0f0f...) + ((b >> 4) & 0x0f0f...); + c = (b + (b >> 4)) & ~0UL/0x11; + // d = (c & 0x00ff...) + ((c >> 8) & 0x00ff...); + d = (c + (c >> 8)) & ~0UL/0x101; + t = (d >> 32) + (d >> 48); + // Now do branchless select! + s = 64; + // if (r > t) {s -= 32; r -= t;} + s -= ((t - r) & 256) >> 3; r -= (t & ((t - r) >> 8)); + t = (d >> (s - 16)) & 0xff; + // if (r > t) {s -= 16; r -= t;} + s -= ((t - r) & 256) >> 4; r -= (t & ((t - r) >> 8)); + t = (c >> (s - 8)) & 0xf; + // if (r > t) {s -= 8; r -= t;} + s -= ((t - r) & 256) >> 5; r -= (t & ((t - r) >> 8)); + t = (b >> (s - 4)) & 0x7; + // if (r > t) {s -= 4; r -= t;} + s -= ((t - r) & 256) >> 6; r -= (t & ((t - r) >> 8)); + t = (a >> (s - 2)) & 0x3; + // if (r > t) {s -= 2; r -= t;} + s -= ((t - r) & 256) >> 7; r -= (t & ((t - r) >> 8)); + t = (v >> (s - 1)) & 0x1; + // if (r > t) s--; + s -= ((t - r) & 256) >> 8; + s = 65 - s; +``` + +If branching is fast on your target CPU, consider uncommenting the +if-statements and commenting the lines that follow them. + +Juha Järvi sent this to me on November 21, 2009. + + unsigned int v; // word value to compute the parity of + bool parity = false; // parity will be the parity of v + + while (v) + { + parity = !parity; + v = v & (v - 1); + } + +The above code uses an approach like Brian Kernigan's bit counting, +above. The time it takes is proportional to the number of bits set. + + static const bool ParityTable256[256] = + { + # define P2(n) n, n^1, n^1, n + # define P4(n) P2(n), P2(n^1), P2(n^1), P2(n) + # define P6(n) P4(n), P4(n^1), P4(n^1), P4(n) + P6(0), P6(1), P6(1), P6(0) + }; + + unsigned char b; // byte value to compute the parity of + bool parity = ParityTable256[b]; + + // OR, for 32-bit words: + unsigned int v; + v ^= v >> 16; + v ^= v >> 8; + bool parity = ParityTable256[v & 0xff]; + + // Variation: + unsigned char * p = (unsigned char *) &v; + parity = ParityTable256[p[0] ^ p[1] ^ p[2] ^ p[3]]; + +Randal E. Bryant encouraged the addition of the (admittedly) obvious +last variation with variable p on May 3, 2005. Bruce Rawles found a typo +in an instance of the table variable's name on September 27, 2005, and +he received a $10 bug bounty. On October 9, 2006, Fabrice Bellard +suggested the 32-bit variations above, which require only one table +lookup; the previous version had four lookups (one per byte) and were +slower. On July 14, 2009 Hallvard Furuseth suggested the macro compacted +table. + + unsigned char b; // byte value to compute the parity of + bool parity = + (((b * 0x0101010101010101ULL) & 0x8040201008040201ULL) % 0x1FF) & 1; + +The method above takes around 4 operations, but only works on bytes. + +The following method computes the parity of the 32-bit value in only 8 +operations using a multiply. + +``` + unsigned int v; // 32-bit word + v ^= v >> 1; + v ^= v >> 2; + v = (v & 0x11111111U) * 0x11111111U; + return (v >> 28) & 1; +``` + +Also for 64-bits, 8 operations are still enough. + +``` + unsigned long long v; // 64-bit word + v ^= v >> 1; + v ^= v >> 2; + v = (v & 0x1111111111111111UL) * 0x1111111111111111UL; + return (v >> 60) & 1; +``` + +Andrew Shapira came up with this and sent it to me on Sept. 2, 2007. + + unsigned int v; // word value to compute the parity of + v ^= v >> 16; + v ^= v >> 8; + v ^= v >> 4; + v &= 0xf; + return (0x6996 >> v) & 1; + +The method above takes around 9 operations, and works for 32-bit words. +It may be optimized to work just on bytes in 5 operations by removing +the two lines immediately following "unsigned int v;". The method first +shifts and XORs the eight nibbles of the 32-bit value together, leaving +the result in the lowest nibble of v. Next, the binary number 0110 1001 +1001 0110 (0x6996 in hex) is shifted to the right by the value +represented in the lowest nibble of v. This number is like a miniature +16-bit parity-table indexed by the low four bits in v. The result has +the parity of v in bit 1, which is masked and returned. + +Thanks to Mathew Hendry for pointing out the shift-lookup idea at the +end on Dec. 15, 2002. That optimization shaves two operations off using +only shifting and XORing to find the parity. + + #define SWAP(a, b) ((&(a) == &(b)) || \ + (((a) -= (b)), ((b) += (a)), ((a) = (b) - (a)))) + +This swaps the values of a and b without using a temporary variable. The +initial check for a and b being the same location in memory may be +omitted when you know this can't happen. (The compiler may omit it +anyway as an optimization.) If you enable overflows exceptions, then +pass unsigned values so an exception isn't thrown. The XOR method that +follows may be slightly faster on some machines. Don't use this with +floating-point numbers (unless you operate on their raw integer +representations). + +Sanjeev Sivasankaran suggested I add this on June 12, 2007. Vincent +Lefèvre pointed out the potential for overflow exceptions on July 9, +2008 + + #define SWAP(a, b) (((a) ^= (b)), ((b) ^= (a)), ((a) ^= (b))) + +This is an old trick to exchange the values of the variables a and b +without using extra space for a temporary variable. + +On January 20, 2005, Iain A. Fleming pointed out that the macro above +doesn't work when you swap with the same memory location, such as +SWAP(a\[i\], a\[j\]) with i == j. So if that may occur, consider +defining the macro as (((a) == (b)) || (((a) ^= (b)), ((b) ^= (a)), ((a) +^= (b)))). On July 14, 2009, Hallvard Furuseth suggested that on some +machines, (((a) ^ (b)) && ((b) ^= (a) ^= (b), (a) ^= (b))) might be +faster, since the (a) ^ (b) expression is reused. + + unsigned int i, j; // positions of bit sequences to swap + unsigned int n; // number of consecutive bits in each sequence + unsigned int b; // bits to swap reside in b + unsigned int r; // bit-swapped result goes here + + unsigned int x = ((b >> i) ^ (b >> j)) & ((1U << n) - 1); // XOR temporary + r = b ^ ((x << i) | (x << j)); + +As an example of swapping ranges of bits suppose we have have b = +**001**0**111**1 (expressed in binary) and we want to swap the n = 3 +consecutive bits starting at i = 1 (the second bit from the right) with +the 3 consecutive bits starting at j = 5; the result would be r = +**111**0**001**1 (binary). + +This method of swapping is similar to the general purpose XOR swap +trick, but intended for operating on individual bits.  The variable x +stores the result of XORing the pairs of bit values we want to swap, and +then the bits are set to the result of themselves XORed with x.  Of +course, the result is undefined if the sequences overlap. + +On July 14, 2009 Hallvard Furuseth suggested that I change the 1 \<\< n +to 1U \<\< n because the value was being assigned to an unsigned and to +avoid shifting into a sign bit. + + unsigned int v; // input bits to be reversed + unsigned int r = v; // r will be reversed bits of v; first get LSB of v + int s = sizeof(v) * CHAR_BIT - 1; // extra shift needed at end + + for (v >>= 1; v; v >>= 1) + { + r <<= 1; + r |= v & 1; + s--; + } + r <<= s; // shift when v's highest bits are zero + +On October 15, 2004, Michael Hoisie pointed out a bug in the original +version. Randal E. Bryant suggested removing an extra operation on May +3, 2005. Behdad Esfabod suggested a slight change that eliminated one +iteration of the loop on May 18, 2005. Then, on February 6, 2007, Liyong +Zhou suggested a better version that loops while v is not 0, so rather +than iterating over all bits it stops early. + + static const unsigned char BitReverseTable256[256] = + { + # define R2(n) n, n + 2*64, n + 1*64, n + 3*64 + # define R4(n) R2(n), R2(n + 2*16), R2(n + 1*16), R2(n + 3*16) + # define R6(n) R4(n), R4(n + 2*4 ), R4(n + 1*4 ), R4(n + 3*4 ) + R6(0), R6(2), R6(1), R6(3) + }; + + unsigned int v; // reverse 32-bit value, 8 bits at time + unsigned int c; // c will get v reversed + + // Option 1: + c = (BitReverseTable256[v & 0xff] << 24) | + (BitReverseTable256[(v >> 8) & 0xff] << 16) | + (BitReverseTable256[(v >> 16) & 0xff] << 8) | + (BitReverseTable256[(v >> 24) & 0xff]); + + // Option 2: + unsigned char * p = (unsigned char *) &v; + unsigned char * q = (unsigned char *) &c; + q[3] = BitReverseTable256[p[0]]; + q[2] = BitReverseTable256[p[1]]; + q[1] = BitReverseTable256[p[2]]; + q[0] = BitReverseTable256[p[3]]; + +The first method takes about 17 operations, and the second takes about +12, assuming your CPU can load and store bytes easily. + +On July 14, 2009 Hallvard Furuseth suggested the macro compacted table. + + unsigned char b; // reverse this (8-bit) byte + + b = (b * 0x0202020202ULL & 0x010884422010ULL) % 1023; + +The multiply operation creates five separate copies of the 8-bit byte +pattern to fan-out into a 64-bit value. The AND operation selects the +bits that are in the correct (reversed) positions, relative to each +10-bit groups of bits. The multiply and the AND operations copy the bits +from the original byte so they each appear in only one of the 10-bit +sets. The reversed positions of the bits from the original byte coincide +with their relative positions within any 10-bit set. The last step, +which involves modulus division by 2^10 - 1, has the effect of merging +together each set of 10 bits (from positions 0-9, 10-19, 20-29, ...) in +the 64-bit value. They do not overlap, so the addition steps underlying +the modulus division behave like or operations. + +This method was attributed to Rich Schroeppel in the Programming Hacks +section of [Beeler, M., Gosper, R. W., and Schroeppel, R. HAKMEM. MIT AI +Memo 239, Feb. 29, +1972.](http://www.inwap.com/pdp10/hbaker/hakmem/hakmem.html) + + unsigned char b; // reverse this byte + + b = ((b * 0x80200802ULL) & 0x0884422110ULL) * 0x0101010101ULL >> 32; + +The following shows the flow of the bit values with the boolean +variables `a, b, c, d, e, f, g,` and `h`, which comprise an 8-bit byte. +Notice how the first multiply fans out the bit pattern to multiple +copies, while the last multiply combines them in the fifth byte from the +right. + +``` + abcd efgh (-> hgfe dcba) +* 1000 0000 0010 0000 0000 1000 0000 0010 (0x80200802) +------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + 0abc defg h00a bcde fgh0 0abc defg h00a bcde fgh0 +& 0000 1000 1000 0100 0100 0010 0010 0001 0001 0000 (0x0884422110) +------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + 0000 d000 h000 0c00 0g00 00b0 00f0 000a 000e 0000 +* 0000 0001 0000 0001 0000 0001 0000 0001 0000 0001 (0x0101010101) +------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + 0000 d000 h000 0c00 0g00 00b0 00f0 000a 000e 0000 + 0000 d000 h000 0c00 0g00 00b0 00f0 000a 000e 0000 + 0000 d000 h000 0c00 0g00 00b0 00f0 000a 000e 0000 + 0000 d000 h000 0c00 0g00 00b0 00f0 000a 000e 0000 +0000 d000 h000 0c00 0g00 00b0 00f0 000a 000e 0000 +------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- +0000 d000 h000 dc00 hg00 dcb0 hgf0 dcba hgfe dcba hgfe 0cba 0gfe 00ba 00fe 000a 000e 0000 +>> 32 +------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + 0000 d000 h000 dc00 hg00 dcb0 hgf0 dcba hgfe dcba +& 1111 1111 +------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + hgfe dcba +``` + +Note that the last two steps can be combined on some processors because +the registers can be accessed as bytes; just multiply so that a register +stores the upper 32 bits of the result and the take the low byte. Thus, +it may take only 6 operations. + +Devised by Sean Anderson, July 13, + 2001. + + b = ((b * 0x0802LU & 0x22110LU) | (b * 0x8020LU & 0x88440LU)) * 0x10101LU >> 16; + +Make sure you assign or cast the result to an unsigned char to remove +garbage in the higher bits. Devised by Sean Anderson, July 13, 2001. +Typo spotted and correction supplied by Mike Keith, January 3, 2002. + + unsigned int v; // 32-bit word to reverse bit order + + // swap odd and even bits + v = ((v >> 1) & 0x55555555) | ((v & 0x55555555) << 1); + // swap consecutive pairs + v = ((v >> 2) & 0x33333333) | ((v & 0x33333333) << 2); + // swap nibbles ... + v = ((v >> 4) & 0x0F0F0F0F) | ((v & 0x0F0F0F0F) << 4); + // swap bytes + v = ((v >> 8) & 0x00FF00FF) | ((v & 0x00FF00FF) << 8); + // swap 2-byte long pairs + v = ( v >> 16 ) | ( v << 16); + +The following variation is also O(lg(N)), however it requires more +operations to reverse v. Its virtue is in taking less slightly memory by +computing the constants on the + fly. + + unsigned int s = sizeof(v) * CHAR_BIT; // bit size; must be power of 2 + unsigned int mask = ~0; + while ((s >>= 1) > 0) + { + mask ^= (mask << s); + v = ((v >> s) & mask) | ((v << s) & ~mask); + } + +These methods above are best suited to situations where N is large. If +you use the above with 64-bit ints (or larger), then you need to add +more lines (following the pattern); otherwise only the lower 32 bits +will be reversed and the result will be in the lower 32 bits. + +See Dr. Dobb's Journal 1983, Edwin Freed's article on Binary Magic +Numbers for more information. The second variation was suggested by Ken +Raeburn on September 13, 2005. Veldmeijer mentioned that the first +version could do without ANDS in the last line on March 19, 2006. + + const unsigned int n; // numerator + const unsigned int s; + const unsigned int d = 1U << s; // So d will be one of: 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, ... + unsigned int m; // m will be n % d + m = n & (d - 1); + +Most programmers learn this trick early, but it was included for the +sake of completeness. + + unsigned int n; // numerator + const unsigned int s; // s > 0 + const unsigned int d = (1 << s) - 1; // so d is either 1, 3, 7, 15, 31, ...). + unsigned int m; // n % d goes here. + + for (m = n; n > d; n = m) + { + for (m = 0; n; n >>= s) + { + m += n & d; + } + } + // Now m is a value from 0 to d, but since with modulus division + // we want m to be 0 when it is d. + m = m == d ? 0 : m; + +This method of modulus division by an integer that is one less than a +power of 2 takes at most 5 + (4 + 5 \* ceil(N / s)) \* ceil(lg(N / s)) +operations, where N is the number of bits in the numerator. In other +words, it takes at most O(N \* lg(N)) time. + +Devised by Sean Anderson, August 15, 2001. Before Sean A. Irvine +corrected me on June 17, 2004, I mistakenly commented that we could +alternatively assign `m = ((m + 1) & d) - 1;` at the end. Michael Miller +spotted a typo in the code April 25, 2005. + +``` + +// The following is for a word size of 32 bits! + +static const unsigned int M[] = +{ + 0x00000000, 0x55555555, 0x33333333, 0xc71c71c7, + 0x0f0f0f0f, 0xc1f07c1f, 0x3f03f03f, 0xf01fc07f, + 0x00ff00ff, 0x07fc01ff, 0x3ff003ff, 0xffc007ff, + 0xff000fff, 0xfc001fff, 0xf0003fff, 0xc0007fff, + 0x0000ffff, 0x0001ffff, 0x0003ffff, 0x0007ffff, + 0x000fffff, 0x001fffff, 0x003fffff, 0x007fffff, + 0x00ffffff, 0x01ffffff, 0x03ffffff, 0x07ffffff, + 0x0fffffff, 0x1fffffff, 0x3fffffff, 0x7fffffff +}; + +static const unsigned int Q[][6] = +{ + { 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0}, {16, 8, 4, 2, 1, 1}, {16, 8, 4, 2, 2, 2}, + {15, 6, 3, 3, 3, 3}, {16, 8, 4, 4, 4, 4}, {15, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5}, + {12, 6, 6, 6 , 6, 6}, {14, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7}, {16, 8, 8, 8, 8, 8}, + { 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9}, {10, 10, 10, 10, 10, 10}, {11, 11, 11, 11, 11, 11}, + {12, 12, 12, 12, 12, 12}, {13, 13, 13, 13, 13, 13}, {14, 14, 14, 14, 14, 14}, + {15, 15, 15, 15, 15, 15}, {16, 16, 16, 16, 16, 16}, {17, 17, 17, 17, 17, 17}, + {18, 18, 18, 18, 18, 18}, {19, 19, 19, 19, 19, 19}, {20, 20, 20, 20, 20, 20}, + {21, 21, 21, 21, 21, 21}, {22, 22, 22, 22, 22, 22}, {23, 23, 23, 23, 23, 23}, + {24, 24, 24, 24, 24, 24}, {25, 25, 25, 25, 25, 25}, {26, 26, 26, 26, 26, 26}, + {27, 27, 27, 27, 27, 27}, {28, 28, 28, 28, 28, 28}, {29, 29, 29, 29, 29, 29}, + {30, 30, 30, 30, 30, 30}, {31, 31, 31, 31, 31, 31} +}; + +static const unsigned int R[][6] = +{ + {0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000}, + {0x0000ffff, 0x000000ff, 0x0000000f, 0x00000003, 0x00000001, 0x00000001}, + {0x0000ffff, 0x000000ff, 0x0000000f, 0x00000003, 0x00000003, 0x00000003}, + {0x00007fff, 0x0000003f, 0x00000007, 0x00000007, 0x00000007, 0x00000007}, + {0x0000ffff, 0x000000ff, 0x0000000f, 0x0000000f, 0x0000000f, 0x0000000f}, + {0x00007fff, 0x0000001f, 0x0000001f, 0x0000001f, 0x0000001f, 0x0000001f}, + {0x00000fff, 0x0000003f, 0x0000003f, 0x0000003f, 0x0000003f, 0x0000003f}, + {0x00003fff, 0x0000007f, 0x0000007f, 0x0000007f, 0x0000007f, 0x0000007f}, + {0x0000ffff, 0x000000ff, 0x000000ff, 0x000000ff, 0x000000ff, 0x000000ff}, + {0x000001ff, 0x000001ff, 0x000001ff, 0x000001ff, 0x000001ff, 0x000001ff}, + {0x000003ff, 0x000003ff, 0x000003ff, 0x000003ff, 0x000003ff, 0x000003ff}, + {0x000007ff, 0x000007ff, 0x000007ff, 0x000007ff, 0x000007ff, 0x000007ff}, + {0x00000fff, 0x00000fff, 0x00000fff, 0x00000fff, 0x00000fff, 0x00000fff}, + {0x00001fff, 0x00001fff, 0x00001fff, 0x00001fff, 0x00001fff, 0x00001fff}, + {0x00003fff, 0x00003fff, 0x00003fff, 0x00003fff, 0x00003fff, 0x00003fff}, + {0x00007fff, 0x00007fff, 0x00007fff, 0x00007fff, 0x00007fff, 0x00007fff}, + {0x0000ffff, 0x0000ffff, 0x0000ffff, 0x0000ffff, 0x0000ffff, 0x0000ffff}, + {0x0001ffff, 0x0001ffff, 0x0001ffff, 0x0001ffff, 0x0001ffff, 0x0001ffff}, + {0x0003ffff, 0x0003ffff, 0x0003ffff, 0x0003ffff, 0x0003ffff, 0x0003ffff}, + {0x0007ffff, 0x0007ffff, 0x0007ffff, 0x0007ffff, 0x0007ffff, 0x0007ffff}, + {0x000fffff, 0x000fffff, 0x000fffff, 0x000fffff, 0x000fffff, 0x000fffff}, + {0x001fffff, 0x001fffff, 0x001fffff, 0x001fffff, 0x001fffff, 0x001fffff}, + {0x003fffff, 0x003fffff, 0x003fffff, 0x003fffff, 0x003fffff, 0x003fffff}, + {0x007fffff, 0x007fffff, 0x007fffff, 0x007fffff, 0x007fffff, 0x007fffff}, + {0x00ffffff, 0x00ffffff, 0x00ffffff, 0x00ffffff, 0x00ffffff, 0x00ffffff}, + {0x01ffffff, 0x01ffffff, 0x01ffffff, 0x01ffffff, 0x01ffffff, 0x01ffffff}, + {0x03ffffff, 0x03ffffff, 0x03ffffff, 0x03ffffff, 0x03ffffff, 0x03ffffff}, + {0x07ffffff, 0x07ffffff, 0x07ffffff, 0x07ffffff, 0x07ffffff, 0x07ffffff}, + {0x0fffffff, 0x0fffffff, 0x0fffffff, 0x0fffffff, 0x0fffffff, 0x0fffffff}, + {0x1fffffff, 0x1fffffff, 0x1fffffff, 0x1fffffff, 0x1fffffff, 0x1fffffff}, + {0x3fffffff, 0x3fffffff, 0x3fffffff, 0x3fffffff, 0x3fffffff, 0x3fffffff}, + {0x7fffffff, 0x7fffffff, 0x7fffffff, 0x7fffffff, 0x7fffffff, 0x7fffffff} +}; + +unsigned int n; // numerator +const unsigned int s; // s > 0 +const unsigned int d = (1 << s) - 1; // so d is either 1, 3, 7, 15, 31, ...). +unsigned int m; // n % d goes here. + +m = (n & M[s]) + ((n >> s) & M[s]); + +for (const unsigned int * q = &Q[s][0], * r = &R[s][0]; m > d; q++, r++) +{ + m = (m >> *q) + (m & *r); +} +m = m == d ? 0 : m; // OR, less portably: m = m & -((signed)(m - d) >> s); +``` + +This method of finding modulus division by an integer that is one less +than a power of 2 takes at most O(lg(N)) time, where N is the number of +bits in the numerator (32 bits, for the code above). The number of +operations is at most 12 + 9 \* ceil(lg(N)). The tables may be removed +if you know the denominator at compile time; just extract the few +relevent entries and unroll the loop. It may be easily extended to more +bits. + +It finds the result by summing the values in base (1 \<\< s) in +parallel. First every other base (1 \<\< s) value is added to the +previous one. Imagine that the result is written on a piece of paper. +Cut the paper in half, so that half the values are on each cut piece. +Align the values and sum them onto a new piece of paper. Repeat by +cutting this paper in half (which will be a quarter of the size of the +previous one) and summing, until you cannot cut further. After +performing lg(N/s/2) cuts, we cut no more; just continue to add the +values and put the result onto a new piece of paper as before, while +there are at least two s-bit values. + +Devised by Sean Anderson, August 20, 2001. A typo was spotted by Randy +E. Bryant on May 3, 2005 (after pasting the code, I had later added +"unsinged" to a variable declaration). As in the previous hack, I +mistakenly commented that we could alternatively assign `m = ((m + 1) & +d) - 1;` at the end, and Don Knuth corrected me on April 19, 2006 and +suggested `m = m & -((signed)(m - d) >> s)`. On June 18, 2009 Sean +Irvine proposed a change that used `((n >> s) & M[s])` instead of `((n & +~M[s]) >> s)`, which typically requires fewer operations because the +M\[s\] constant is already loaded. + + unsigned int v; // 32-bit word to find the log base 2 of + unsigned int r = 0; // r will be lg(v) + + while (v >>= 1) // unroll for more speed... + { + r++; + } + +The log base 2 of an integer is the same as the position of the highest +bit set (or most significant bit set, MSB). The following log base 2 +methods are faster than this one. + + int v; // 32-bit integer to find the log base 2 of + int r; // result of log_2(v) goes here + union { unsigned int u[2]; double d; } t; // temp + + t.u[__FLOAT_WORD_ORDER==LITTLE_ENDIAN] = 0x43300000; + t.u[__FLOAT_WORD_ORDER!=LITTLE_ENDIAN] = v; + t.d -= 4503599627370496.0; + r = (t.u[__FLOAT_WORD_ORDER==LITTLE_ENDIAN] >> 20) - 0x3FF; + +The code above loads a 64-bit (IEEE-754 floating-point) double with a +32-bit integer (with no paddding bits) by storing the integer in the +mantissa while the exponent is set to 252. From this newly minted +double, 252 (expressed as a double) is subtracted, which sets the +resulting exponent to the log base 2 of the input value, v. All that is +left is shifting the exponent bits into position (20 bits right) and +subtracting the bias, 0x3FF (which is 1023 decimal). This technique only +takes 5 operations, but many CPUs are slow at manipulating doubles, and +the endianess of the architecture must be accommodated. + +Eric Cole sent me this on January 15, 2006. Evan Felix pointed out a +typo on April 4, 2006. Vincent Lefèvre told me on July 9, 2008 to change +the endian check to use the float's endian, which could differ from the +integer's endian. + + static const char LogTable256[256] = + { + #define LT(n) n, n, n, n, n, n, n, n, n, n, n, n, n, n, n, n + -1, 0, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, + LT(4), LT(5), LT(5), LT(6), LT(6), LT(6), LT(6), + LT(7), LT(7), LT(7), LT(7), LT(7), LT(7), LT(7), LT(7) + }; + + unsigned int v; // 32-bit word to find the log of + unsigned r; // r will be lg(v) + register unsigned int t, tt; // temporaries + + if (tt = v >> 16) + { + r = (t = tt >> 8) ? 24 + LogTable256[t] : 16 + LogTable256[tt]; + } + else + { + r = (t = v >> 8) ? 8 + LogTable256[t] : LogTable256[v]; + } + +The lookup table method takes only about 7 operations to find the log of +a 32-bit value. If extended for 64-bit quantities, it would take roughly +9 operations. Another operation can be trimmed off by using four tables, +with the possible additions incorporated into each. Using int table +elements may be faster, depending on your architecture. + +The code above is tuned to uniformly distributed output values. If your +inputs are evenly distributed across all 32-bit values, then consider +using the following: + + if (tt = v >> 24) + { + r = 24 + LogTable256[tt]; + } + else if (tt = v >> 16) + { + r = 16 + LogTable256[tt]; + } + else if (tt = v >> 8) + { + r = 8 + LogTable256[tt]; + } + else + { + r = LogTable256[v]; + } + +To initially generate the log table algorithmically: + + LogTable256[0] = LogTable256[1] = 0; + for (int i = 2; i < 256; i++) + { + LogTable256[i] = 1 + LogTable256[i / 2]; + } + LogTable256[0] = -1; // if you want log(0) to return -1 + +Behdad Esfahbod and I shaved off a fraction of an operation (on average) +on May 18, 2005. Yet another fraction of an operation was removed on +November 14, 2006 by Emanuel Hoogeveen. The variation that is tuned to +evenly distributed input values was suggested by David A. Butterfield on +September 19, 2008. Venkat Reddy told me on January 5, 2009 that log(0) +should return -1 to indicate an error, so I changed the first entry in +the table to that. + + unsigned int v; // 32-bit value to find the log2 of + const unsigned int b[] = {0x2, 0xC, 0xF0, 0xFF00, 0xFFFF0000}; + const unsigned int S[] = {1, 2, 4, 8, 16}; + int i; + + register unsigned int r = 0; // result of log2(v) will go here + for (i = 4; i >= 0; i--) // unroll for speed... + { + if (v & b[i]) + { + v >>= S[i]; + r |= S[i]; + } + } + + + // OR (IF YOUR CPU BRANCHES SLOWLY): + + unsigned int v; // 32-bit value to find the log2 of + register unsigned int r; // result of log2(v) will go here + register unsigned int shift; + + r = (v > 0xFFFF) << 4; v >>= r; + shift = (v > 0xFF ) << 3; v >>= shift; r |= shift; + shift = (v > 0xF ) << 2; v >>= shift; r |= shift; + shift = (v > 0x3 ) << 1; v >>= shift; r |= shift; + r |= (v >> 1); + + + // OR (IF YOU KNOW v IS A POWER OF 2): + + unsigned int v; // 32-bit value to find the log2 of + static const unsigned int b[] = {0xAAAAAAAA, 0xCCCCCCCC, 0xF0F0F0F0, + 0xFF00FF00, 0xFFFF0000}; + register unsigned int r = (v & b[0]) != 0; + for (i = 4; i > 0; i--) // unroll for speed... + { + r |= ((v & b[i]) != 0) << i; + } + +Of course, to extend the code to find the log of a 33- to 64-bit number, +we would append another element, 0xFFFFFFFF00000000, to b, append 32 to +S, and loop from 5 to 0. This method is much slower than the earlier +table-lookup version, but if you don't want big table or your +architecture is slow to access memory, it's a good choice. The second +variation involves slightly more operations, but it may be faster on +machines with high branch costs (e.g. PowerPC). + +The second version was sent to me by [Eric +Cole](http://www.balance-software.com/ec/) on January 7, 2006. Andrew +Shapira subsequently trimmed a few operations off of it and sent me his +variation (above) on Sept. 1, 2007. The third variation was suggested to +me by [John Owens](http://www.ece.ucdavis.edu/~jowens/) on April 24, +2002; it's faster, but it is only suitable when the input is known to be +a power of 2. On May 25, 2003, Ken Raeburn suggested improving the +general case by using smaller numbers for b\[\], which load faster on +some architectures (for instance if the word size is 16 bits, then only +one load instruction may be needed). These values work for the general +version, but not for the special-case version below it, where v is a +power of 2; Glenn Slayden brought this oversight to my attention on +December 12, 2003. + + uint32_t v; // find the log base 2 of 32-bit v + int r; // result goes here + + static const int MultiplyDeBruijnBitPosition[32] = + { + 0, 9, 1, 10, 13, 21, 2, 29, 11, 14, 16, 18, 22, 25, 3, 30, + 8, 12, 20, 28, 15, 17, 24, 7, 19, 27, 23, 6, 26, 5, 4, 31 + }; + + v |= v >> 1; // first round down to one less than a power of 2 + v |= v >> 2; + v |= v >> 4; + v |= v >> 8; + v |= v >> 16; + + r = MultiplyDeBruijnBitPosition[(uint32_t)(v * 0x07C4ACDDU) >> 27]; + +The code above computes the log base 2 of a 32-bit integer with a small +table lookup and multiply. It requires only 13 operations, compared to +(up to) 20 for the previous method. The purely table-based method +requires the fewest operations, but this offers a reasonable compromise +between table size and speed. + +If you know that v is a power of 2, then you only need the following: + + static const int MultiplyDeBruijnBitPosition2[32] = + { + 0, 1, 28, 2, 29, 14, 24, 3, 30, 22, 20, 15, 25, 17, 4, 8, + 31, 27, 13, 23, 21, 19, 16, 7, 26, 12, 18, 6, 11, 5, 10, 9 + }; + r = MultiplyDeBruijnBitPosition2[(uint32_t)(v * 0x077CB531U) >> 27]; + +Eric Cole devised this January 8, 2006 after reading about the entry +below to [round up to a power of 2](#RoundUpPowerOf2) and the method +below for [computing the number of trailing bits with a multiply and +lookup](#ZerosOnRightMultLookup) using a DeBruijn sequence. On December +10, 2009, Mark Dickinson shaved off a couple operations by requiring v +be rounded up to one less than the next power of 2 rather than the power +of + 2. + + unsigned int v; // non-zero 32-bit integer value to compute the log base 10 of + int r; // result goes here + int t; // temporary + + static unsigned int const PowersOf10[] = + {1, 10, 100, 1000, 10000, 100000, + 1000000, 10000000, 100000000, 1000000000}; + + t = (IntegerLogBase2(v) + 1) * 1233 >> 12; // (use a lg2 method from above) + r = t - (v < PowersOf10[t]); + +The integer log base 10 is computed by first using one of the techniques +above for finding the log base 2. By the relationship log10(v) = log2(v) +/ log2(10), we need to multiply it by 1/log2(10), which is approximately +1233/4096, or 1233 followed by a right shift of 12. Adding one is needed +because the IntegerLogBase2 rounds down. Finally, since the value t is +only an approximation that may be off by one, the exact value is found +by subtracting the result of v \< PowersOf10\[t\]. + +This method takes 6 more operations than IntegerLogBase2. It may be sped +up (on machines with fast memory access) by modifying the log base 2 +table-lookup method above so that the entries hold what is computed for +t (that is, pre-add, -mulitply, and -shift). Doing so would require a +total of only 9 operations to find the log base 10, assuming 4 tables +were used (one for each byte of v). + +Eric Cole suggested I add a version of this on January 7, + 2006. + + unsigned int v; // non-zero 32-bit integer value to compute the log base 10 of + int r; // result goes here + + r = (v >= 1000000000) ? 9 : (v >= 100000000) ? 8 : (v >= 10000000) ? 7 : + (v >= 1000000) ? 6 : (v >= 100000) ? 5 : (v >= 10000) ? 4 : + (v >= 1000) ? 3 : (v >= 100) ? 2 : (v >= 10) ? 1 : 0; + +This method works well when the input is uniformly distributed over +32-bit values because 76% of the inputs are caught by the first compare, +21% are caught by the second compare, 2% are caught by the third, and so +on (chopping the remaining down by 90% with each comparision). As a +result, less than 2.6 operations are needed on average. + +On April 18, 2007, Emanuel Hoogeveen suggested a variation on this where +the conditions used divisions, which were not as fast as simple +comparisons. + + const float v; // find int(log2(v)), where v > 0.0 && finite(v) && isnormal(v) + int c; // 32-bit int c gets the result; + + c = *(const int *) &v; // OR, for portability: memcpy(&c, &v, sizeof c); + c = (c >> 23) - 127; + +The above is fast, but IEEE 754-compliant architectures utilize +subnormal (also called denormal) floating point numbers. These have the +exponent bits set to zero (signifying pow(2,-127)), and the mantissa is +not normalized, so it contains leading zeros and thus the log2 must be +computed from the mantissa. To accomodate for subnormal numbers, use the +following: + + const float v; // find int(log2(v)), where v > 0.0 && finite(v) + int c; // 32-bit int c gets the result; + int x = *(const int *) &v; // OR, for portability: memcpy(&x, &v, sizeof x); + + c = x >> 23; + + if (c) + { + c -= 127; + } + else + { // subnormal, so recompute using mantissa: c = intlog2(x) - 149; + register unsigned int t; // temporary + // Note that LogTable256 was defined earlier + if (t = x >> 16) + { + c = LogTable256[t] - 133; + } + else + { + c = (t = x >> 8) ? LogTable256[t] - 141 : LogTable256[x] - 149; + } + } + +On June 20, 2004, Sean A. Irvine suggested that I include code to handle +subnormal numbers. On June 11, 2005, Falk Hüffner pointed out that ISO +C99 6.5/7 specified undefined behavior for the common type punning idiom +\*(int \*)&, though it has worked on 99.9% of C compilers. He proposed +using memcpy for maximum portability or a union with a float and an int +for better code generation than memcpy on some compilers. + + const int r; + const float v; // find int(log2(pow((double) v, 1. / pow(2, r)))), + // where isnormal(v) and v > 0 + int c; // 32-bit int c gets the result; + + c = *(const int *) &v; // OR, for portability: memcpy(&c, &v, sizeof c); + c = ((((c - 0x3f800000) >> r) + 0x3f800000) >> 23) - 127; + +So, if r is 0, for example, we have c = int(log2((double) v)). If r is +1, then we have c = int(log2(sqrt((double) v))). If r is 2, then we have +c = int(log2(pow((double) v, 1./4))). + +On June 11, 2005, Falk Hüffner pointed out that ISO C99 6.5/7 left the +type punning idiom \*(int \*)& undefined, and he suggested using memcpy. + + unsigned int v; // input to count trailing zero bits + int c; // output: c will count v's trailing zero bits, + // so if v is 1101000 (base 2), then c will be 3 + if (v) + { + v = (v ^ (v - 1)) >> 1; // Set v's trailing 0s to 1s and zero rest + for (c = 0; v; c++) + { + v >>= 1; + } + } + else + { + c = CHAR_BIT * sizeof(v); + } + +The average number of trailing zero bits in a (uniformly distributed) +random binary number is one, so this O(trailing zeros) solution isn't +that bad compared to the faster methods below. + +Jim Cole suggested I add a linear-time method for counting the trailing +zeros on August 15, 2007. On October 22, 2007, Jason Cunningham pointed +out that I had neglected to paste the unsigned modifier for + v. + + unsigned int v; // 32-bit word input to count zero bits on right + unsigned int c = 32; // c will be the number of zero bits on the right + v &= -signed(v); + if (v) c--; + if (v & 0x0000FFFF) c -= 16; + if (v & 0x00FF00FF) c -= 8; + if (v & 0x0F0F0F0F) c -= 4; + if (v & 0x33333333) c -= 2; + if (v & 0x55555555) c -= 1; + +Here, we are basically doing the same operations as finding the log base +2 in parallel, but we first isolate the lowest 1 bit, and then proceed +with c starting at the maximum and decreasing. The number of operations +is at most 3 \* lg(N) + 4, roughly, for N bit words. + +Bill Burdick suggested an optimization, reducing the time from 4 \* +lg(N) on February 4, 2011. + +``` +unsigned int v; // 32-bit word input to count zero bits on right +unsigned int c; // c will be the number of zero bits on the right, + // so if v is 1101000 (base 2), then c will be 3 +// NOTE: if 0 == v, then c = 31. +if (v & 0x1) +{ + // special case for odd v (assumed to happen half of the time) + c = 0; +} +else +{ + c = 1; + if ((v & 0xffff) == 0) + { + v >>= 16; + c += 16; + } + if ((v & 0xff) == 0) + { + v >>= 8; + c += 8; + } + if ((v & 0xf) == 0) + { + v >>= 4; + c += 4; + } + if ((v & 0x3) == 0) + { + v >>= 2; + c += 2; + } + c -= v & 0x1; +} +``` + +The code above is similar to the previous method, but it computes the +number of trailing zeros by accumulating c in a manner akin to binary +search. In the first step, it checks if the bottom 16 bits of v are +zeros, and if so, shifts v right 16 bits and adds 16 to c, which reduces +the number of bits in v to consider by half. Each of the subsequent +conditional steps likewise halves the number of bits until there is only +1. This method is faster than the last one (by about 33%) because the +bodies of the if statements are executed less often. + +Matt Whitlock suggested this on January 25, 2006. Andrew Shapira shaved +a couple operations off on Sept. 5, 2007 (by setting c=1 and +unconditionally subtracting at the end). + + unsigned int v; // find the number of trailing zeros in v + int r; // the result goes here + float f = (float)(v & -v); // cast the least significant bit in v to a float + r = (*(uint32_t *)&f >> 23) - 0x7f; + +Although this only takes about 6 operations, the time to convert an +integer to a float can be high on some machines. The exponent of the +32-bit IEEE floating point representation is shifted down, and the bias +is subtracted to give the position of the least significant 1 bit set in +v. If v is zero, then the result is -127. + + unsigned int v; // find the number of trailing zeros in v + int r; // put the result in r + static const int Mod37BitPosition[] = // map a bit value mod 37 to its position + { + 32, 0, 1, 26, 2, 23, 27, 0, 3, 16, 24, 30, 28, 11, 0, 13, 4, + 7, 17, 0, 25, 22, 31, 15, 29, 10, 12, 6, 0, 21, 14, 9, 5, + 20, 8, 19, 18 + }; + r = Mod37BitPosition[(-v & v) % 37]; + +The code above finds the number of zeros that are trailing on the right, +so binary 0100 would produce 2. It makes use of the fact that the first +32 bit position values are relatively prime with 37, so performing a +modulus division with 37 gives a unique number from 0 to 36 for each. +These numbers may then be mapped to the number of zeros using a small +lookup table. It uses only 4 operations, however indexing into a table +and performing modulus division may make it unsuitable for some +situations. I came up with this independently and then searched for a +subsequence of the table values, and found it was invented earlier by +Reiser, according to [Hacker's +Delight](http://www.hackersdelight.org/HDcode/ntz.c.txt). + + unsigned int v; // find the number of trailing zeros in 32-bit v + int r; // result goes here + static const int MultiplyDeBruijnBitPosition[32] = + { + 0, 1, 28, 2, 29, 14, 24, 3, 30, 22, 20, 15, 25, 17, 4, 8, + 31, 27, 13, 23, 21, 19, 16, 7, 26, 12, 18, 6, 11, 5, 10, 9 + }; + r = MultiplyDeBruijnBitPosition[((uint32_t)((v & -v) * 0x077CB531U)) >> 27]; + +Converting bit vectors to indices of set bits is an example use for +this. It requires one more operation than the earlier one involving +modulus division, but the multiply may be faster. The expression (v & +-v) extracts the least significant 1 bit from v. The constant +0x077CB531UL is a de Bruijn sequence, which produces a unique pattern of +bits into the high 5 bits for each possible bit position that it is +multiplied against. When there are no bits set, it returns 0. More +information can be found by reading the paper [Using de Bruijn Sequences +to Index 1 in a Computer +Word](http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/leiserson98using.html) by Charles E. +Leiserson, Harald Prokof, and Keith H. Randall. + +On October 8, 2005 [Andrew Shapira](http://onezero.org) suggested I add +this. Dustin Spicuzza asked me on April 14, 2009 to cast the result of +the multiply to a 32-bit type so it would work when compiled with 64-bit +ints. + + unsigned int const v; // Round this 32-bit value to the next highest power of 2 + unsigned int r; // Put the result here. (So v=3 -> r=4; v=8 -> r=8) + + if (v > 1) + { + float f = (float)v; + unsigned int const t = 1U << ((*(unsigned int *)&f >> 23) - 0x7f); + r = t << (t < v); + } + else + { + r = 1; + } + +The code above uses 8 operations, but works on all v \<= (1\<\<31). + +Quick and dirty version, for domain of 1 \< v \< (1\<\<25): + + float f = (float)(v - 1); + r = 1U << ((*(unsigned int*)(&f) >> 23) - 126); + +Although the quick and dirty version only uses around 6 operations, it +is roughly three times slower than the [technique +below](#RoundUpPowerOf2) (which involves 12 operations) when benchmarked +on an Athlon™ XP 2100+ CPU. Some CPUs will fare better with it, though. + +On September 27, 2005 Andi Smithers suggested I include a technique for +casting to floats to find the lg of a number for rounding up to a power +of 2. Similar to the quick and dirty version here, his version worked +with values less than (1\<\<25), due to mantissa rounding, but it used +one more operation. + + unsigned int v; // compute the next highest power of 2 of 32-bit v + + v--; + v |= v >> 1; + v |= v >> 2; + v |= v >> 4; + v |= v >> 8; + v |= v >> 16; + v++; + +In 12 operations, this code computes the next highest power of 2 for a +32-bit integer. The result may be expressed by the formula 1U \<\< (lg(v +- 1) + 1). Note that in the edge case where v is 0, it returns 0, which +isn't a power of 2; you might append the expression v += (v == 0) to +remedy this if it matters. It would be faster by 2 operations to use the +formula and the log base 2 method that uses a lookup table, but in some +situations, lookup tables are not suitable, so the above code may be +best. (On a Athlon™ XP 2100+ I've found the above shift-left and then OR +code is as fast as using a single BSR assembly language instruction, +which scans in reverse to find the highest set bit.) It works by copying +the highest set bit to all of the lower bits, and then adding one, which +results in carries that set all of the lower bits to 0 and one bit +beyond the highest set bit to 1. If the original number was a power of +2, then the decrement will reduce it to one less, so that we round up to +the same original value. + +You might alternatively compute the next higher power of 2 in only 8 or +9 operations using a lookup table for floor(lg(v)) and then evaluating +1\<\<(1+floor(lg(v))); Atul Divekar suggested I mention this on +September 5, 2010. + +Devised by Sean Anderson, Sepember 14, 2001. Pete Hart pointed me to [a +couple newsgroup +posts](http://groups.google.com/group/comp.lang.python/browse_thread/thread/c4d3aae0df917df5/6fdae3872f9de79d?lnk=st&q=comp.lang.python+zeddy&rnum=6#6fdae3872f9de79d) +by him and William Lewis in February of 1997, where they arrive at the +same + algorithm. + + unsigned short x; // Interleave bits of x and y, so that all of the + unsigned short y; // bits of x are in the even positions and y in the odd; + unsigned int z = 0; // z gets the resulting Morton Number. + + for (int i = 0; i < sizeof(x) * CHAR_BIT; i++) // unroll for more speed... + { + z |= (x & 1U << i) << i | (y & 1U << i) << (i + 1); + } + +Interleaved bits (aka Morton numbers) are useful for linearizing 2D +integer coordinates, so x and y are combined into a single number that +can be compared easily and has the property that a number is usually +close to another if their x and y values are close. + + static const unsigned short MortonTable256[256] = + { + 0x0000, 0x0001, 0x0004, 0x0005, 0x0010, 0x0011, 0x0014, 0x0015, + 0x0040, 0x0041, 0x0044, 0x0045, 0x0050, 0x0051, 0x0054, 0x0055, + 0x0100, 0x0101, 0x0104, 0x0105, 0x0110, 0x0111, 0x0114, 0x0115, + 0x0140, 0x0141, 0x0144, 0x0145, 0x0150, 0x0151, 0x0154, 0x0155, + 0x0400, 0x0401, 0x0404, 0x0405, 0x0410, 0x0411, 0x0414, 0x0415, + 0x0440, 0x0441, 0x0444, 0x0445, 0x0450, 0x0451, 0x0454, 0x0455, + 0x0500, 0x0501, 0x0504, 0x0505, 0x0510, 0x0511, 0x0514, 0x0515, + 0x0540, 0x0541, 0x0544, 0x0545, 0x0550, 0x0551, 0x0554, 0x0555, + 0x1000, 0x1001, 0x1004, 0x1005, 0x1010, 0x1011, 0x1014, 0x1015, + 0x1040, 0x1041, 0x1044, 0x1045, 0x1050, 0x1051, 0x1054, 0x1055, + 0x1100, 0x1101, 0x1104, 0x1105, 0x1110, 0x1111, 0x1114, 0x1115, + 0x1140, 0x1141, 0x1144, 0x1145, 0x1150, 0x1151, 0x1154, 0x1155, + 0x1400, 0x1401, 0x1404, 0x1405, 0x1410, 0x1411, 0x1414, 0x1415, + 0x1440, 0x1441, 0x1444, 0x1445, 0x1450, 0x1451, 0x1454, 0x1455, + 0x1500, 0x1501, 0x1504, 0x1505, 0x1510, 0x1511, 0x1514, 0x1515, + 0x1540, 0x1541, 0x1544, 0x1545, 0x1550, 0x1551, 0x1554, 0x1555, + 0x4000, 0x4001, 0x4004, 0x4005, 0x4010, 0x4011, 0x4014, 0x4015, + 0x4040, 0x4041, 0x4044, 0x4045, 0x4050, 0x4051, 0x4054, 0x4055, + 0x4100, 0x4101, 0x4104, 0x4105, 0x4110, 0x4111, 0x4114, 0x4115, + 0x4140, 0x4141, 0x4144, 0x4145, 0x4150, 0x4151, 0x4154, 0x4155, + 0x4400, 0x4401, 0x4404, 0x4405, 0x4410, 0x4411, 0x4414, 0x4415, + 0x4440, 0x4441, 0x4444, 0x4445, 0x4450, 0x4451, 0x4454, 0x4455, + 0x4500, 0x4501, 0x4504, 0x4505, 0x4510, 0x4511, 0x4514, 0x4515, + 0x4540, 0x4541, 0x4544, 0x4545, 0x4550, 0x4551, 0x4554, 0x4555, + 0x5000, 0x5001, 0x5004, 0x5005, 0x5010, 0x5011, 0x5014, 0x5015, + 0x5040, 0x5041, 0x5044, 0x5045, 0x5050, 0x5051, 0x5054, 0x5055, + 0x5100, 0x5101, 0x5104, 0x5105, 0x5110, 0x5111, 0x5114, 0x5115, + 0x5140, 0x5141, 0x5144, 0x5145, 0x5150, 0x5151, 0x5154, 0x5155, + 0x5400, 0x5401, 0x5404, 0x5405, 0x5410, 0x5411, 0x5414, 0x5415, + 0x5440, 0x5441, 0x5444, 0x5445, 0x5450, 0x5451, 0x5454, 0x5455, + 0x5500, 0x5501, 0x5504, 0x5505, 0x5510, 0x5511, 0x5514, 0x5515, + 0x5540, 0x5541, 0x5544, 0x5545, 0x5550, 0x5551, 0x5554, 0x5555 + }; + + unsigned short x; // Interleave bits of x and y, so that all of the + unsigned short y; // bits of x are in the even positions and y in the odd; + unsigned int z; // z gets the resulting 32-bit Morton Number. + + z = MortonTable256[y >> 8] << 17 | + MortonTable256[x >> 8] << 16 | + MortonTable256[y & 0xFF] << 1 | + MortonTable256[x & 0xFF]; + +For more speed, use an additional table with values that are +MortonTable256 pre-shifted one bit to the left. This second table could +then be used for the y lookups, thus reducing the operations by two, but +almost doubling the memory required. Extending this same idea, four +tables could be used, with two of them pre-shifted by 16 to the left of +the previous two, so that we would only need 11 operations total. In 11 +operations, this version interleaves bits of two bytes (rather than +shorts, as in the other versions), but many of the operations are 64-bit +multiplies so it isn't appropriate for all machines. The input +parameters, x and y, should be less than + 256. + + unsigned char x; // Interleave bits of (8-bit) x and y, so that all of the + unsigned char y; // bits of x are in the even positions and y in the odd; + unsigned short z; // z gets the resulting 16-bit Morton Number. + + z = ((x * 0x0101010101010101ULL & 0x8040201008040201ULL) * + 0x0102040810204081ULL >> 49) & 0x5555 | + ((y * 0x0101010101010101ULL & 0x8040201008040201ULL) * + 0x0102040810204081ULL >> 48) & 0xAAAA; + +Holger Bettag was inspired to suggest this technique on October 10, 2004 +after reading the multiply-based bit reversals + here. + + static const unsigned int B[] = {0x55555555, 0x33333333, 0x0F0F0F0F, 0x00FF00FF}; + static const unsigned int S[] = {1, 2, 4, 8}; + + unsigned int x; // Interleave lower 16 bits of x and y, so the bits of x + unsigned int y; // are in the even positions and bits from y in the odd; + unsigned int z; // z gets the resulting 32-bit Morton Number. + // x and y must initially be less than 65536. + + x = (x | (x << S[3])) & B[3]; + x = (x | (x << S[2])) & B[2]; + x = (x | (x << S[1])) & B[1]; + x = (x | (x << S[0])) & B[0]; + + y = (y | (y << S[3])) & B[3]; + y = (y | (y << S[2])) & B[2]; + y = (y | (y << S[1])) & B[1]; + y = (y | (y << S[0])) & B[0]; + + z = x | (y << 1); + + // Fewer operations: + unsigned int v; // 32-bit word to check if any 8-bit byte in it is 0 + bool hasZeroByte = ~((((v & 0x7F7F7F7F) + 0x7F7F7F7F) | v) | 0x7F7F7F7F); + +The code above may be useful when doing a fast string copy in which a +word is copied at a time; it uses 5 operations. On the other hand, +testing for a null byte in the obvious ways (which follow) have at least +7 operations (when counted in the most sparing way), and at most 12. + + // More operations: + bool hasNoZeroByte = ((v & 0xff) && (v & 0xff00) && (v & 0xff0000) && (v & 0xff000000)) + // OR: + unsigned char * p = (unsigned char *) &v; + bool hasNoZeroByte = *p && *(p + 1) && *(p + 2) && *(p + 3); + +The code at the beginning of this section (labeled "Fewer operations") +works by first zeroing the high bits of the 4 bytes in the word. +Subsequently, it adds a number that will result in an overflow to the +high bit of a byte if any of the low bits were initialy set. Next the +high bits of the original word are ORed with these values; thus, the +high bit of a byte is set iff any bit in the byte was set. Finally, we +determine if any of these high bits are zero by ORing with ones +everywhere except the high bits and inverting the result. Extending to +64 bits is trivial; simply increase the constants to be +0x7F7F7F7F7F7F7F7F. + +For an additional improvement, a fast pretest that requires only 4 +operations may be performed to determine if the word may have a zero +byte. The test also returns true if the high byte is 0x80, so there are +occasional false positives, but the slower and more reliable version +above may then be used on candidates for an overall increase in speed +with correct output. + + bool hasZeroByte = ((v + 0x7efefeff) ^ ~v) & 0x81010100; + if (hasZeroByte) // or may just have 0x80 in the high byte + { + hasZeroByte = ~((((v & 0x7F7F7F7F) + 0x7F7F7F7F) | v) | 0x7F7F7F7F); + } + +There is yet a faster method — use [`hasless`](#HasLessInWord)(v, 1), +which is defined below; it works in 4 operations and requires no +subsquent verification. It simplifies to + + #define haszero(v) (((v) - 0x01010101UL) & ~(v) & 0x80808080UL) + +The subexpression (v - 0x01010101UL), evaluates to a high bit set in any +byte whenever the corresponding byte in v is zero or greater than 0x80. +The sub-expression ~v & 0x80808080UL evaluates to high bits set in bytes +where the byte of v doesn't have its high bit set (so the byte was less +than 0x80). Finally, by ANDing these two sub-expressions the result is +the high bits set where the bytes in v were zero, since the high bits +set due to a value greater than 0x80 in the first sub-expression are +masked off by the second. + +Paul Messmer suggested the fast pretest improvement on October 2, 2004. +Juha Järvi later suggested `hasless(v, 1)` on April 6, 2005, which he +found on [Paul Hsieh's Assembly +Lab](http://www.azillionmonkeys.com/qed/asmexample.html); previously it +was written in a newsgroup post on April 27, 1987 by Alan Mycroft. + +We may want to know if any byte in a word has a specific value. To do +so, we can XOR the value to test with a word that has been filled with +the byte values in which we're interested. Because XORing a value with +itself results in a zero byte and nonzero otherwise, we can pass the +result to `haszero`. + + #define hasvalue(x,n) \ + (haszero((x) ^ (~0UL/255 * (n)))) + +Stephen M Bennet suggested this on December 13, 2009 after reading the +entry for `haszero`. + +Test if a word x contains an unsigned byte with value \< n. +Specifically for n=1, it can be used to find a 0-byte by examining one +long at a time, or any byte by XORing x with a mask first. Uses 4 +arithmetic/logical operations when n is constant. + +Requirements: x\>=0; 0\<=n\<=128 + + #define hasless(x,n) (((x)-~0UL/255*(n))&~(x)&~0UL/255*128) + +To count the number of bytes in x that are less than n in 7 operations, +use + + #define countless(x,n) \ + (((~0UL/255*(127+(n))-((x)&~0UL/255*127))&~(x)&~0UL/255*128)/128%255) + +Juha Järvi sent this clever technique to me on April 6, 2005. The +`countless` macro was added by Sean Anderson on April 10, 2005, inspired +by Juha's `countmore`, below. + +Test if a word x contains an unsigned byte with value \> n. Uses 3 +arithmetic/logical operations when n is constant. + +Requirements: x\>=0; 0\<=n\<=127 + + #define hasmore(x,n) (((x)+~0UL/255*(127-(n))|(x))&~0UL/255*128) + +To count the number of bytes in x that are more than n in 6 operations, +use: + + #define countmore(x,n) \ + (((((x)&~0UL/255*127)+~0UL/255*(127-(n))|(x))&~0UL/255*128)/128%255) + +The macro `hasmore` was suggested by Juha Järvi on April 6, 2005, and he +added `countmore` on April 8, 2005. + +When m \< n, this technique tests if a word x contains an unsigned byte +value, such that m \< value \< n. It uses 7 arithmetic/logical +operations when n and m are constant. + +Note: Bytes that equal n can be reported by `likelyhasbetween` as false +positives, so this should be checked by character if a certain result is +needed. + +Requirements: x\>=0; 0\<=m\<=127; 0\<=n\<=128 + + #define likelyhasbetween(x,m,n) \ + ((((x)-~0UL/255*(n))&~(x)&((x)&~0UL/255*127)+~0UL/255*(127-(m)))&~0UL/255*128) + +This technique would be suitable for a fast pretest. A variation that +takes one more operation (8 total for constant m and n) but provides the +exact answer is: + + #define hasbetween(x,m,n) \ + ((~0UL/255*(127+(n))-((x)&~0UL/255*127)&~(x)&((x)&~0UL/255*127)+~0UL/255*(127-(m)))&~0UL/255*128) + +To count the number of bytes in x that are between m and n (exclusive) +in 10 operations, use: + + #define countbetween(x,m,n) (hasbetween(x,m,n)/128%255) + +Juha Järvi suggested `likelyhasbetween` on April 6, 2005. From there, +Sean Anderson created `hasbetween` and `countbetween` on April 10, 2005. + +Suppose we have a pattern of N bits set to 1 in an integer and we want +the next permutation of N 1 bits in a lexicographical sense. For +example, if N is 3 and the bit pattern is 00010011, the next patterns +would be 00010101, 00010110, 00011001,00011010, 00011100, 00100011, and +so forth. The following is a fast way to compute the next permutation. + +``` +unsigned int v; // current permutation of bits +unsigned int w; // next permutation of bits + +unsigned int t = v | (v - 1); // t gets v's least significant 0 bits set to 1 +// Next set to 1 the most significant bit to change, +// set to 0 the least significant ones, and add the necessary 1 bits. +w = (t + 1) | (((~t & -~t) - 1) >> (__builtin_ctz(v) + 1)); +``` + +The \_\_builtin\_ctz(v) GNU C compiler intrinsic for x86 CPUs returns +the number of trailing zeros. If you are using Microsoft compilers for +x86, the intrinsic is \_BitScanForward. These both emit a bsf +instruction, but equivalents may be available for other architectures. +If not, then consider using one of the methods for counting the +consecutive zero bits mentioned earlier. + +Here is another version that tends to be slower because of its division +operator, but it does not require counting the trailing zeros. + +``` +unsigned int t = (v | (v - 1)) + 1; +w = t | ((((t & -t) / (v & -v)) >> 1) - 1); +``` + +Thanks to Dario Sneidermanis of Argentina, who provided this on November +28, 2009. + +[A Belorussian +translation](http://webhostingrating.com/libs/bithacks-be) (provided by +[Webhostingrating](http://webhostingrating.com/)) is available. diff --git a/_stories/2005/1205935.md b/_stories/2005/1205935.md index ac9691e..9462c6a 100644 --- a/_stories/2005/1205935.md +++ b/_stories/2005/1205935.md @@ -19,7 +19,7 @@ _tags: objectID: '1205935' --- -[Source](http://www.rollingstone.com/news/story/7683923/kid_cannabis "Permalink to ") - - +U2 Plan Vinyl Reissues for 'Pop,' 'All That You Can't Leave Behind' +Rockers' 1985 EP 'Wide Awake in America' also remastered and pressed +onto 180-gram LP diff --git a/_stories/2005/12072089.md b/_stories/2005/12072089.md index b14f120..e79f199 100644 --- a/_stories/2005/12072089.md +++ b/_stories/2005/12072089.md @@ -19,7 +19,213 @@ _tags: objectID: '12072089' --- -[Source](https://www.wired.com/my-time-with-richard-feynman-8e15ef968e75 "Permalink to ") +#### “You and I are very lucky,” he said to me once. “Because whatever else is going on, we’ve always got our physics.” +![](https://www.wired.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/13Ct8DXLHQRJxNXQWbk6yFQ-1.jpeg) +Richard Feynman and Stephen WolframTranscribed from a talk given at the +Boston Public Library, April 2005. This essay is in Stephen Wolfram’s +[Idea Makers: Personal Perspectives on the Lives & Ideas of Some Notable +People](https://www.amazon.com/Idea-Makers-Personal-Perspectives-Notable/dp/1579550037/wolframresearch-20?tag=w050b-20) +![](https://www.wired.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/1t6Jsgbu_bU84ZZkgxw8G8A-2.png)I +[**first met Richard +Feynman**](http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=richard+feynman) when I +was 18, and he was 60. And over the course of ten years, I think I got +to know him fairly well. First when I was in the physics group at +Caltech. And then later when we both consulted for a once-thriving +Boston company called Thinking Machines Corporation. I actually don’t +think I’ve ever talked about Feynman in public before. And there’s +really so much to say, I’m not sure where to start. +But if there’s one moment that summarizes Richard Feynman and my +relationship with him, perhaps it’s this. It was probably 1982. I’d been +at Feynman’s house, and our conversation had turned to some kind of +unpleasant situation that was going on. I was about to leave. And +Feynman stopped me and said, “You know, you and I are very lucky. +Because whatever else is going on, we’ve always got our physics.” + +Feynman loved doing physics. I think what he loved most was the process +of it. Of calculating. Of figuring things out. It didn’t seem to matter +to him so much if what came out was big and important. Or esoteric and +weird. What mattered to him was the process of finding it. And he was +often quite competitive about it. + +Some scientists (myself probably included) are driven by the ambition to +build grand intellectual edifices. I think Feynman — at least in the +years I knew him — was much more driven by the pure pleasure of actually +doing the science. He seemed to like best to spend his time figuring +things out, and calculating. And he was a great calculator. All around +perhaps the best human calculator there’s ever been. + +Here’s a page from my files: quintessential Feynman. Calculating a +Feynman +diagram: + +![](https://www.wired.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/1hiQFvQlRoLLcGqDU5-lD8g-1.gif)It’s +kind of interesting to look at. His style was always very much the same. +He always just used regular calculus and things. Essentially +nineteenth-century mathematics. He never trusted much else. But wherever +one could go with that, Feynman could go. Like no one else. + +I always found it incredible. He would start with some problem, and fill +up pages with calculations. And at the end of it, he would actually get +the right answer\! But he usually wasn’t satisfied with that. Once he’d +gotten the answer, he’d go back and try to figure out why it was +obvious. And often he’d come up with one of those classic Feynman +straightforward-sounding explanations. And he’d never tell people about +all the calculations behind it. Sometimes it was kind of a game for him: +having people be flabbergasted by his seemingly instant physical +intuition, not knowing that really it was based on some long, hard +calculation he’d done. + +He always had a fantastic formal intuition about the innards of his +calculations. Knowing what kind of result some integral should have, +whether some special case should matter, and so on. And he was always +trying to sharpen his intuition. + +You know, I remember a time — it must have been the summer of 1985 — +when I’d just discovered a thing called rule 30. That’s probably my own +all-time favorite scientific discovery. And that’s what launched a lot +of the whole new kind of science that I’ve spent 20 years building (and +wrote about in [my +book](http://www.wolframscience.com/nksonline/page-27) A New Kind of +Science). + +![](https://www.wired.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/1y3Svp15U9vEJkG0ofbf2qg-1.gif)Well, +Feynman and I were both visiting Boston, and we’d spent much of an +afternoon talking about rule 30. About how it manages to go from that +little black square at the top to make all this complicated stuff. And +about what that means for physics and so on. \[See A New Kind of +Science, +[page 30](http://www.wolframscience.com/nksonline/page-30).\] + +![](https://www.wired.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/16zzy5bIva5rtm0lVIUVbyQ-1.gif)Well, +we’d just been crawling around the floor — with help from some other +people — trying to use meter rules to measure some feature of a giant +printout of it. And Feynman took me aside, rather conspiratorially, and +said, “Look, I just want to ask you one thing: how did you know rule 30 +would do all this crazy stuff?” “You know me,” I said. “I didn’t. I just +had a computer try all the possible rules. And I found it.” “Ah,” he +said, “now I feel much better. I was worried you had some way to figure +it out.” + +Feynman and I talked a bunch more about rule 30. He really wanted to get +an intuition for how it worked. He tried bashing it with all his usual +tools. Like he tried to work out what the slope of the line between +order and chaos is. And he calculated. Using all his usual calculus and +so on. He and his son Carl even spent a bunch of time trying to crack +rule 30 using a +computer. + +![](https://www.wired.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/1-cqmdmHwYU9PtWNRQ-Yf1Q-1.jpeg)![](https://www.wired.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/1lPDhsgXyfSoTAO7QLd42bA-1.jpeg)And +one day he calls me and says, “OK, Wolfram, I can’t crack it. I think +you’re on to something.” Which was very encouraging. + +Feynman and I tried to work together on a bunch of things over the +years. On quantum computers before anyone had ever heard of those. On +trying to make a chip that would generate perfect physical randomness — +or eventually showing that that wasn’t possible. On whether all the +computation needed to evaluate Feynman diagrams really was necessary. On +whether it was a coincidence or not that there’s an e^–H t in +statistical mechanics and an e^iH t in quantum mechanics. On what the +simplest essential phenomenon of quantum mechanics really is. + +I remember often when we were both consulting for Thinking Machines in +Boston, Feynman would say, “Let’s hide away and do some physics.” This +was a typical scenario. Yes, I think we thought nobody was noticing that +we were off at the back of a press conference about a new computer +system talking about the nonlinear sigma model. Typically, Feynman would +do some calculation. With me continually protesting that we should just +go and use a computer. Eventually I’d do that. Then I’d get some +results. And he’d get some results. And then we’d have an argument about +whose intuition about the results was better. + +I should say, by the way, that it wasn’t that Feynman didn’t like +computers. He even had gone to some trouble to get an early Commodore +PET personal computer, and enjoyed doing things with it. And in 1979, +when I started working on the forerunner of what would become +Mathematica, he was very interested. We talked a lot about how it should +work. He was keen to explain his methodologies for solving problems: for +doing integrals, for notation, for organizing his work. I even managed +to get him a little interested in the problem of language design. Though +I don’t think there’s anything directly from Feynman that has survived +in Mathematica. But his favorite integrals we can certainly +do. + +![](https://www.wired.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/172MJCYWzvpS0AogmfRg_og-1.gif)![](https://www.wired.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/1WfJHqFINZMzwSZcEd-lEyA-1.jpeg)You +know, it was sometimes a bit of a liability having Feynman involved. +Like when I was working on SMP — the forerunner of Mathematica — I +organized some seminars by people who’d worked on other systems. And +Feynman used to come. And one day a chap from a well-known computer +science department came to speak. I think he was a little tired, and he +ended up giving what was admittedly not a good talk. And it degenerated +at some point into essentially telling puns about the name of the system +they’d built. Well, Feynman got more and more annoyed. And eventually +stood up and gave a whole speech about how “If this is what computer +science is about, it’s all nonsense….” I think the chap who gave the +talk thought I’d put Feynman up to this. And has hated me for 25 years… + +You know, in many ways, Feynman was a loner. Other than for social +reasons, he really didn’t like to work with other people. And he was +mostly interested in his own work. He didn’t read or listen too much; he +wanted the pleasure of doing things himself. He did used to come to +physics seminars, though. Although he had rather a habit of using them +as problem-solving exercises. And he wasn’t always incredibly sensitive +to the speakers. In fact, there was a period of time when I organized +the theoretical physics seminars at Caltech. And he often egged me on to +compete to find fatal flaws in what the speakers were saying. Which led +to some very unfortunate incidents. But also led to some interesting +science. + +One thing about Feynman is that he went to some trouble to arrange his +life so that he wasn’t particularly busy — and so he could just work on +what he felt like. Usually he had a good supply of problems. Though +sometimes his long-time assistant would say: “You should go and talk to +him. Or he’s going to start working on trying to decode Mayan +hieroglyphs again.” He always cultivated an air of irresponsibility. +Though I would say more towards institutions than people. + +And I was certainly very grateful that he spent considerable time trying +to give me advice — even if I was not always great at taking it. One of +the things he often said was that “peace of mind is the most important +prerequisite for creative work.” And he thought one should do everything +one could to achieve that. And he thought that meant, among other +things, that one should always stay away from anything worldly, like +management. + +Feynman himself, of course, spent his life in academia — though I think +he found most academics rather dull. And I don’t think he liked their +standard view of the outside world very much. And he himself often +preferred more unusual folk. + +Quite often he’d introduce me to the odd characters who’d visit him. I +remember once we ended up having dinner with the rather charismatic +founder of a semi-cult called EST. It was a curious dinner. And +afterwards, Feynman and I talked for hours about leadership. About +leaders like Robert Oppenheimer. And Brigham Young. He was fascinated — +and mystified — by what it is that lets great leaders lead people to do +incredible things. He wanted to get an intuition for that. + +You know, it’s funny. For all Feynman’s independence, he was +surprisingly diligent. I remember once he was preparing some fairly +minor conference talk. He was quite concerned about it. I said, “You’re +a great speaker; what are you worrying about?” He said, “Yes, everyone +thinks I’m a great speaker. So that means they expect more from me.” And +in fact, sometimes it was those throwaway conference talks that have +ended up being some of Feynman’s most popular pieces. On nanotechnology. +Or foundations of quantum theory. Or other things. + +You know, Feynman spent most of his life working on prominent current +problems in physics. But he was a confident problem solver. And +occasionally he would venture outside, bringing his “one can solve any +problem just by thinking about it” attitude with him. It did have some +limits, though. I think he never really believed it applied to human +affairs, for example. Like when we were both consulting for Thinking +Machines in Boston, I would always be jumping up and down about how if +the management of the company didn’t do this or that, they would fail. +He would just say, “Why don’t you let these people run their company; we +can’t figure out this kind of stuff.” Sadly, the company did in the end +fail. But that’s another +story. + +![](https://www.wired.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/1uW_l9n54f47SZbPxRBEq2A-3.png) diff --git a/_stories/2005/12849798.md b/_stories/2005/12849798.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d411824 --- /dev/null +++ b/_stories/2005/12849798.md @@ -0,0 +1,1484 @@ +--- +created_at: '2016-11-01T20:35:08.000Z' +title: Randomness Requirements for Security (2005) +url: http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc4086 +author: Tomte +points: 42 +story_text: +comment_text: +num_comments: 19 +story_id: +story_title: +story_url: +parent_id: +created_at_i: 1478032508 +_tags: +- story +- author_Tomte +- story_12849798 +objectID: '12849798' + +--- + + + + +BEST CURRENT PRACTICE + + + +Errata + Exist + + + + Network Working Group D. Eastlake, 3rd + Request for Comments: 4086 Motorola Laboratories + BCP: 106 J. Schiller + Obsoletes: 1750 MIT + Category: Best Current Practice S. Crocker + June 2005 + + Randomness Requirements for Security + + Status of This Memo + + This document specifies an Internet Best Current Practices for the + Internet Community, and requests discussion and suggestions for + improvements. Distribution of this memo is unlimited. + + Copyright Notice + + Copyright (C) The Internet Society (2005). + + Abstract + + Security systems are built on strong cryptographic algorithms that + foil pattern analysis attempts. However, the security of these + systems is dependent on generating secret quantities for passwords, + cryptographic keys, and similar quantities. The use of pseudo-random + processes to generate secret quantities can result in pseudo- + security. A sophisticated attacker may find it easier to reproduce + the environment that produced the secret quantities and to search the + resulting small set of possibilities than to locate the quantities in + the whole of the potential number space. + + Choosing random quantities to foil a resourceful and motivated + adversary is surprisingly difficult. This document points out many + pitfalls in using poor entropy sources or traditional pseudo-random + number generation techniques for generating such quantities. It + recommends the use of truly random hardware techniques and shows that + the existing hardware on many systems can be used for this purpose. + It provides suggestions to ameliorate the problem when a hardware + solution is not available, and it gives examples of how large such + quantities need to be for some applications. + + + + + + + + + + + + Eastlake, et al. Standards Track [Page 1] + +``` newpage + +RFC 4086 Randomness Requirements for Security June 20051. Introduction and Overview .......................................3 + 2. General Requirements ............................................4 + 3. Entropy Sources .................................................7 + 3.1. Volume Required ............................................7 + 3.2. Existing Hardware Can Be Used For Randomness ...............8 + 3.2.1. Using Existing Sound/Video Input ....................8 + 3.2.2. Using Existing Disk Drives ..........................8 + 3.3. Ring Oscillator Sources ....................................9 + 3.4. Problems with Clocks and Serial Numbers ...................10 + 3.5. Timing and Value of External Events .......................11 + 3.6. Non-hardware Sources of Randomness ........................12 + 4. De-skewing .....................................................12 + 4.1. Using Stream Parity to De-Skew ............................13 + 4.2. Using Transition Mappings to De-Skew ......................14 + 4.3. Using FFT to De-Skew ......................................15 + 4.4. Using Compression to De-Skew ..............................15 + 5. Mixing .........................................................16 + 5.1. A Trivial Mixing Function .................................17 + 5.2. Stronger Mixing Functions .................................18 + 5.3. Using S-Boxes for Mixing ..................................19 + 5.4. Diffie-Hellman as a Mixing Function .......................19 + 5.5. Using a Mixing Function to Stretch Random Bits ............20 + 5.6. Other Factors in Choosing a Mixing Function ...............20 + 6. Pseudo-random Number Generators ................................21 + 6.1. Some Bad Ideas ............................................21 + 6.1.1. The Fallacy of Complex Manipulation ................21 + 6.1.2. The Fallacy of Selection from a Large Database .....22 + 6.1.3. Traditional Pseudo-random Sequences ................23 + 6.2. Cryptographically Strong Sequences ........................24 + 6.2.1. OFB and CTR Sequences ..............................25 + 6.2.2. The Blum Blum Shub Sequence Generator ..............26 + 6.3. Entropy Pool Techniques ...................................27 + 7. Randomness Generation Examples and Standards ...................28 + 7.1. Complete Randomness Generators ............................28 + 7.1.1. US DoD Recommendations for Password Generation .....28 + 7.1.2. The /dev/random Device .............................29 + 7.1.3. Windows CryptGenRandom .............................30 + 7.2. Generators Assuming a Source of Entropy ...................31 + 7.2.1. X9.82 Pseudo-Random Number Generation ..............31 + 7.2.2. X9.17 Key Generation ...............................33 + 7.2.3. DSS Pseudo-random Number Generation ................34 + 8. Examples of Randomness Required ................................34 + 8.1. Password Generation .......................................35 + 8.2. A Very High Security Cryptographic Key ....................36 + 9. Conclusion .....................................................38 + 10. Security Considerations ........................................38 + + + +Eastlake, et al. Standards Track [Page 2] +``` + +``` newpage + +RFC 4086 Randomness Requirements for Security June 200511. Acknowledgments ................................................39 + Appendix A: Changes from RFC 1750 ..................................40 + Informative References .............................................41 + +1 . Introduction and OverviewSSH] [IPSEC] [TLS] [S/MIME] + [MAIL_PGP*] [DNSSEC*]. For comparison, when the previous version of + this document [RFC1750] was issued in 1994, the only Internet + cryptographic security specification in the IETF was the Privacy + Enhanced Mail protocol [MAIL_PEM*]. + + These systems provide substantial protection against snooping and + spoofing. However, there is a potential flaw. At the heart of all + cryptographic systems is the generation of secret, unguessable (i.e., + random) numbers. + + The lack of generally available facilities for generating such random + numbers (that is, the lack of general availability of truly + unpredictable sources) forms an open wound in the design of + cryptographic software. For the software developer who wants to + build a key or password generation procedure that runs on a wide + range of hardware, this is a very real problem. + + Note that the requirement is for data that an adversary has a very + low probability of guessing or determining. This can easily fail if + pseudo-random data is used that meets only traditional statistical + tests for randomness, or that is based on limited-range sources such + as clocks. Sometimes such pseudo-random quantities can be guessed by + an adversary searching through an embarrassingly small space of + possibilities. + + This Best Current Practice document describes techniques for + producing random quantities that will be resistant to attack. It + recommends that future systems include hardware random number + generation or provide access to existing hardware that can be used + for this purpose. It suggests methods for use if such hardware is + not available, and it gives some estimates of the number of random + bits required for sample applications. + + + + + + + + + +Eastlake, et al. Standards Track [Page 3] +``` + +``` newpage + +RFC 4086 Randomness Requirements for Security June 20052 . General RequirementsRFC1948]. + + Generally speaking, the above examples also illustrate two different + types of random quantities that may be wanted. In the case of + human-usable passwords, the only important characteristic is that + they be unguessable. It is not important that they may be composed + of ASCII characters, so the top bit of every byte is zero, for + example. On the other hand, for fixed length keys and the like, one + normally wants quantities that appear to be truly random, that is, + quantities whose bits will pass statistical randomness tests. + + In some cases, such as the use of symmetric encryption with the one- + time pads or an algorithm like the US Advanced Encryption Standard + [AES], the parties who wish to communicate confidentially and/or with + authentication must all know the same secret key. In other cases, + where asymmetric or "public key" cryptographic techniques are used, + keys come in pairs. One key of the pair is private and must be kept + secret by one party; the other is public and can be published to the + world. It is computationally infeasible to determine the private key + from the public key, and knowledge of the public key is of no help to + an adversary [ASYMMETRIC]. See general references [SCHNEIER, + FERGUSON, KAUFMAN]. + + The frequency and volume of the requirement for random quantities + differs greatly for different cryptographic systems. With pure RSA, + random quantities are required only when a new key pair is generated; + thereafter, any number of messages can be signed without a further + need for randomness. The public key Digital Signature Algorithm + devised by the US National Institute of Standards and Technology + (NIST) requires good random numbers for each signature [DSS]. And + + + +Eastlake, et al. Standards Track [Page 4] +``` + +``` newpage + +RFC 4086 Randomness Requirements for Security June 2005SHANNON]. This depends on the number of + different secret values possible and the probability of each value, + as follows: + + ----- + \ + Bits of information = \ - p * log ( p ) + / i 2 i + / + ----- + + where i counts from 1 to the number of possible secret values and p + sub i is the probability of the value numbered i. (Because p sub i + is less than one, the log will be negative, so each term in the sum + will be non-negative.) + + If there are 2^n different values of equal probability, then n bits + of information are present and an adversary would have to try, on the + average, half of the values, or 2^(n-1), before guessing the secret + quantity. If the probability of different values is unequal, then + there is less information present, and fewer guesses will, on + average, be required by an adversary. In particular, any values that + an adversary can know to be impossible or of low probability can be + initially ignored by the adversary, who will search through the more + probable values first. + + For example, consider a cryptographic system that uses 128-bit keys. + If these keys are derived using a fixed pseudo-random number + generator that is seeded with an 8-bit seed, then an adversary needs + to search through only 256 keys (by running the pseudo-random number + generator with every possible seed), not 2^128 keys as may at first + appear to be the case. Only 8 bits of "information" are in these + 128-bit keys. + + + + + + +Eastlake, et al. Standards Track [Page 5] +``` + +``` newpage + +RFC 4086 Randomness Requirements for Security June 2005LUBY]. + + Statistically tested randomness in the traditional sense is NOT the + same as the unpredictability required for security use. + + For example, the use of a widely available constant sequence, such as + the random table from the CRC Standard Mathematical Tables, is very + weak against an adversary. An adversary who learns of or guesses it + can easily break all security, future and past, based on the sequence + [CRC]. As another example, using AES with a constant key to encrypt + successive integers such as 1, 2, 3, ... will produce output that + also has excellent statistical randomness properties but is + predictable. On the other hand, taking successive rolls of a six- + sided die and encoding the resulting values in ASCII would produce + statistically poor output with a substantial unpredictable component. + So note that passing or failing statistical tests doesn't reveal + whether something is unpredictable or predictable. + + + + + + + + +Eastlake, et al. Standards Track [Page 6] +``` + +``` newpage + +RFC 4086 Randomness Requirements for Security June 20053 . Entropy Sources6 and 7, after being de-skewed + or mixed as necessary, as described in Sections 4 and 5. + + Is there any hope for true, strong, portable randomness in the + future? There might be. All that's needed is a physical source of + unpredictable numbers. + + Thermal noise (sometimes called Johnson noise in integrated circuits) + or a radioactive decay source and a fast, free-running oscillator + would do the trick directly [GIFFORD]. This is a trivial amount of + hardware, and it could easily be included as a standard part of a + computer system's architecture. Most audio (or video) input devices + are usable [TURBID]. Furthermore, any system with a spinning disk or + ring oscillator and a stable (crystal) time source or the like has an + adequate source of randomness ([DAVIS] and Section 3.3). All that's + needed is the common perception among computer vendors that this + small additional hardware and the software to access it is necessary + and useful. + + ANSI X9 is currently developing a standard that includes a part + devoted to entropy sources. See Part 2 of [X9.82]. + +3.1 . Volume RequiredSection 8, even the + highest security system is unlikely to require strong keying material + of much over 200 bits. If a series of keys is needed, they can be + generated from a strong random seed (starting value) using a + cryptographically strong sequence, as explained in Section 6.2. A + few hundred random bits generated at start-up or once a day is enough + if such techniques are used. Even if the random bits are generated + as slowly as one per second and it is not possible to overlap the + generation process, it should be tolerable in most high-security + applications to wait 200 seconds occasionally. + + These numbers are trivial to achieve. It could be achieved by a + person repeatedly tossing a coin, and almost any hardware based + process is likely to be much faster. + + + + +Eastlake, et al. Standards Track [Page 7] +``` + +``` newpage + +RFC 4086 Randomness Requirements for Security June 20053.2 . Existing Hardware Can Be Used For Randomness3.2.1 . Using Existing Sound/Video InputSection 4), + one can generate a huge amount of medium-quality random data with the + UNIX-style command line: + + cat /dev/audio | compress - >random-bits-file + + A detailed examination of this type of randomness source appears in + [TURBID]. + +3.2.2 . Using Existing Disk DrivesDAVIS, Jakobsson]. The addition of + low-level disk seek-time instrumentation produces a series of + measurements that contain this randomness. Such data is usually + highly correlated, so significant processing is needed, as described + in Section 5.2 below. Nevertheless, experimentation a decade ago + showed that, with such processing, even slow disk drives on the + slower computers of that day could easily produce 100 bits a minute + or more of excellent random data. + + Every increase in processor speed, which increases the resolution + with which disk motion can be timed or increases the rate of disk + seeks, increases the rate of random bit generation possible with this + technique. At the time of this paper and with modern hardware, a + more typical rate of random bit production would be in excess of + + + +Eastlake, et al. Standards Track [Page 8] +``` + +``` newpage + +RFC 4086 Randomness Requirements for Security June 20053.3 . Ring Oscillator SourcesSection 4). An engineering study + would be needed to determine the amount of entropy being produced + depending on the particular design. In any case, these can be good + sources whose cost is a trivial amount of hardware by modern + standards. + + As an example, IEEE 802.11i suggests the circuit below, with due + attention in the design to isolation of the rings from each other and + from clocked circuits to avoid undesired synchronization, etc., and + with extensive post processing [IEEE_802.11i]. + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +Eastlake, et al. Standards Track [Page 9] +``` + +``` newpage + +RFC 4086 Randomness Requirements for Security June 20053.4 . Problems with Clocks and Serial NumbersEastlake, et al. Standards Track [Page 10] +``` + +``` newpage + +RFC 4086 Randomness Requirements for Security June 20053.5 . Timing and Value of External EventsEastlake, et al. Standards Track [Page 11] +``` + +``` newpage + +RFC 4086 Randomness Requirements for Security June 20053.6 . Non-hardware Sources of Randomness4 . De-skewingEastlake, et al. Standards Track [Page 12] +``` + +``` newpage + +RFC 4086 Randomness Requirements for Security June 2005section 5.2, + there are much stronger techniques that extract more of the available + entropy. + +4.2 . Using Transition Mappings to De-SkewVON_NEUMANN], is to + examine a bit stream as a sequence of non-overlapping pairs. One + could then discard any 00 or 11 pairs found, interpret 01 as a 0 and + 10 as a 1. Assume that the probability of a 1 is 0.5+E and that the + probability of a 0 is 0.5-E, where E is the eccentricity of the + source as described in the previous section. Then the probability of + each pair is shown in the following table: + + +------+-----------------------------------------+ + | pair | probability | + +------+-----------------------------------------+ + | 00 | (0.5 - E)^2 = 0.25 - E + E^2 | + | 01 | (0.5 - E)*(0.5 + E) = 0.25 - E^2 | + | 10 | (0.5 + E)*(0.5 - E) = 0.25 - E^2 | + | 11 | (0.5 + E)^2 = 0.25 + E + E^2 | + +------+-----------------------------------------+ + + + + +Eastlake, et al. Standards Track [Page 14] +``` + +``` newpage + +RFC 4086 Randomness Requirements for Security June 20054.3 . Using FFT to De-Skewsection 5.2 below. + + Using the Fourier transform of the data or its optimized variant, the + FFT, is interesting primarily for theoretical reasons. It can be + shown that this technique will discard strong correlations. If + adequate data is processed and if remaining correlations decay, + spectral lines that approach statistical independence and normally + distributed randomness can be produced [BRILLINGER]. + +4.4 . Using Compression to De-SkewSection 2 for + the amount of information in a sequence. Since the compression is + reversible, the same amount of information must be present in the + shorter output as was present in the longer input. By the Shannon + information equation, this is only possible if, on average, the + probabilities of the different shorter sequences are more uniformly + distributed than were the probabilities of the longer sequences. + Therefore, the shorter sequences must be de-skewed relative to the + input. + + + +Eastlake, et al. Standards Track [Page 15] +``` + +``` newpage + +RFC 4086 Randomness Requirements for Security June 2005Section 5.2. At a minimum, the + beginning of the compressed sequence should be skipped and only later + bits should used for applications requiring roughly-random bits. + +5 . MixingSection 3, and mixed them as described in this section, one has a + strong seed. This can then be used to produce large quantities of + cryptographically strong material as described in Sections 6 and 7. + + A strong mixing function is one that combines inputs and produces an + output in which each output bit is a different complex non-linear + function of all the input bits. On average, changing any input bit + will change about half the output bits. But because the relationship + is complex and non-linear, no particular output bit is guaranteed to + change when any particular input bit is changed. + + Consider the problem of converting a stream of bits that is skewed + towards 0 or 1 or which has a somewhat predictable pattern to a + shorter stream which is more random, as discussed in Section 4. This + is simply another case where a strong mixing function is desired, to + mix the input bits and produce a smaller number of output bits. The + technique given in Section 4.1, using the parity of a number of bits, + is simply the result of successively XORing them. This is examined + as a trivial mixing function, immediately below. Use of stronger + mixing functions to extract more of the randomness in a stream of + skewed bits is examined in Section 5.2. See also [NASLUND]. + + + + + + + + +Eastlake, et al. Standards Track [Page 16] +``` + +``` newpage + +RFC 4086 Randomness Requirements for Security June 20055.1 . A Trivial Mixing FunctionSection + 4.1 above, then the output eccentricity relates to the input + eccentricity as follows: + + E = 2 * E * E + output input 1 input 2 + + Since E is never greater than 1/2, the eccentricity is always + improved, except in the case in which at least one input is a totally + skewed constant. This is illustrated in the following table, where + the top and left side values are the two input eccentricities and the + entries are the output eccentricity: + + +--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+ + | E | 0.00 | 0.10 | 0.20 | 0.30 | 0.40 | 0.50 | + +--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+ + | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | + | 0.10 | 0.00 | 0.02 | 0.04 | 0.06 | 0.08 | 0.10 | + | 0.20 | 0.00 | 0.04 | 0.08 | 0.12 | 0.16 | 0.20 | + | 0.30 | 0.00 | 0.06 | 0.12 | 0.18 | 0.24 | 0.30 | + | 0.40 | 0.00 | 0.08 | 0.16 | 0.24 | 0.32 | 0.40 | + | 0.50 | 0.00 | 0.10 | 0.20 | 0.30 | 0.40 | 0.50 | + +--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+ + + However, note that the above calculations assume that the inputs are + not correlated. If the inputs were, say, the parity of the number of + minutes from midnight on two clocks accurate to a few seconds, then + each might appear random if sampled at random intervals much longer + + + +Eastlake, et al. Standards Track [Page 17] +``` + +``` newpage + +RFC 4086 Randomness Requirements for Security June 20055.2 . Stronger Mixing FunctionsAES] is an example of + a strong mixing function for multiple bit quantities. It takes up to + 384 bits of input (128 bits of "data" and 256 bits of "key") and + produces 128 bits of output, each of which is dependent on a complex + non-linear function of all input bits. Other encryption functions + with this characteristic, such as [DES], can also be used by + considering them to mix all of their key and data input bits. + + Another good family of mixing functions is the "message digest" or + hashing functions such as the US Government Secure Hash Standards + [SHA*] and the MD4, MD5 [MD4, MD5] series. These functions all take + a practically unlimited amount of input and produce a relatively + short fixed-length output mixing all the input bits. The MD* series + produces 128 bits of output, SHA-1 produces 160 bits, and other SHA + functions produce up to 512 bits. + + Although the message digest functions are designed for variable + amounts of input, AES and other encryption functions can also be used + to combine any number of inputs. If 128 bits of output is adequate, + the inputs can be packed into a 128-bit data quantity and successive + AES "keys", padding with zeros if needed; the quantity is then + successively encrypted by the "keys" using AES in Electronic Codebook + Mode. Alternatively, the input could be packed into one 128-bit key + and multiple data blocks and a CBC-MAC could be calculated [MODES]. + + More complex mixing should be used if more than 128 bits of output + are needed and one wants to employ AES (but note that it is + absolutely impossible to get more bits of "randomness" out than are + put in). For example, suppose that inputs are packed into three + quantities, A, B, and C. One may use AES to encrypt A with B and + then with C as keys to produce the first part of the output, then + encrypt B with C and then A for more output and, if necessary, + encrypt C with A and then B for yet more output. Still more output + can be produced by reversing the order of the keys given above. The + same can be done with the hash functions, hashing various subsets of + the input data or different copies of the input data with different + prefixes and/or suffixes to produce multiple outputs. + + For an example of using a strong mixing function, reconsider the case + of a string of 308 bits, each of which is biased 99% toward zero. + The parity technique given in Section 4.1 reduces this to one bit, + with only a 1/1000 deviance from being equally likely a zero or one. + But, applying the equation for information given in Section 2, this + + + +Eastlake, et al. Standards Track [Page 18] +``` + +``` newpage + +RFC 4086 Randomness Requirements for Security June 20055.3 . Using S-Boxes for MixingSBOX1, SBOX2]. + +5.4 . Diffie-Hellman as a Mixing FunctionD-H]. + + If these initial quantities are random and uncorrelated, then the + shared secret combines their entropy but, of course, can not produce + more randomness than the size of the shared secret generated. + + Although this is true if the Diffie-Hellman computation is performed + privately, an adversary who can observe either of the public keys and + knows the modulus being used need only search through the space of + the other secret key in order to be able to calculate the shared + secret [D-H]. So, conservatively, it would be best to consider + public Diffie-Hellman to produce a quantity whose guessability + corresponds to the worse of the two inputs. Because of this and the + fact that Diffie-Hellman is computationally intensive, its use as a + mixing function is not recommended. + + + +Eastlake, et al. Standards Track [Page 19] +``` + +``` newpage + +RFC 4086 Randomness Requirements for Security June 20055.5 . Using a Mixing Function to Stretch Random BitsSection 5.1 shows that mixing a random bit with a + constant bit with Exclusive Or will produce a random bit. While this + is true, it does not provide a way to "stretch" one random bit into + more than one. If, for example, a random bit is mixed with a 0 and + then with a 1, this produces a two bit sequence but it will always be + either 01 or 10. Since there are only two possible values, there is + still only the one bit of original randomness. + +5.6 . Other Factors in Choosing a Mixing FunctionEastlake, et al. Standards Track [Page 20] +``` + +``` newpage + +RFC 4086 Randomness Requirements for Security June 20056 . Pseudo-random Number GeneratorsSection 3 and possibly de-skewed and mixed as described in Sections 4 + and 5, one can algorithmically extend that seed to produce a large + number of cryptographically-strong random quantities. Such + algorithms are platform independent and can operate in the same + fashion on any computer. For the algorithms to be secure, their + input and internal workings must be protected from adversarial + observation. + + The design of such pseudo-random number generation algorithms, like + the design of symmetric encryption algorithms, is not a task for + amateurs. Section 6.1 below lists a number of bad ideas that failed + algorithms have used. To learn what works, skip Section 6.1 and just + read the remainder of this section and Section 7, which describes and + references some standard pseudo random number generation algorithms. + See Section 7 and Part 3 of [X9.82]. + +6.1 . Some Bad Ideas6.1.1 . The Fallacy of Complex ManipulationEastlake, et al. Standards Track [Page 21] +``` + +``` newpage + +RFC 4086 Randomness Requirements for Security June 2005KNUTH], where the author describes a + complex algorithm. It was intended that the machine language program + corresponding to the algorithm would be so complicated that a person + trying to read the code without comments wouldn't know what the + program was doing. Unfortunately, actual use of this algorithm + showed that it almost immediately converged to a single repeated + value in one case and a small cycle of values in another case. + + Not only does complex manipulation not help you if you have a limited + range of seeds, but blindly-chosen complex manipulation can destroy + the entropy in a good seed! + +6.1.2 . The Fallacy of Selection from a Large DatabaseUSENET_1, USENET_2]. Assume that a + random quantity was selected by fetching 32 bytes of data from a + random starting point in this data. This does not yield 32*8 = 256 + bits worth of unguessability. Even if much of the data is human + language that contains no more than 2 or 3 bits of information per + byte, it doesn't yield 32*2 = 64 bits of unguessability. For an + adversary with access to the same Usenet database, the unguessability + rests only on the starting point of the selection. That is perhaps a + little over a couple of dozen bits of unguessability. + + The same argument applies to selecting sequences from the data on a + publicly available CD/DVD recording or any other large public + database. If the adversary has access to the same database, this + "selection from a large volume of data" step buys little. However, + if a selection can be made from data to which the adversary has no + access, such as system buffers on an active multi-user system, it may + be of help. + + + +Eastlake, et al. Standards Track [Page 22] +``` + +``` newpage + +RFC 4086 Randomness Requirements for Security June 20056.1.3 . Traditional Pseudo-random SequencesKNUTH] has a classic exposition on pseudo-random numbers. + Applications he mentions are simulations of natural phenomena, + sampling, numerical analysis, testing computer programs, decision + making, and games. None of these have the same characteristics as + the sorts of security uses we are talking about. Only in the last + two could there be an adversary trying to find the random quantity. + However, in these cases, the adversary normally has only a single + chance to use a guessed value. In guessing passwords or attempting + to break an encryption scheme, the adversary normally has many, + perhaps unlimited, chances at guessing the correct value. Sometimes + the adversary can store the message to be broken and repeatedly + attack it. Adversaries are also be assumed to be aided by a + computer. + + For testing the "randomness" of numbers, Knuth suggests a variety of + measures, including statistical and spectral. These tests check + things like autocorrelation between different parts of a "random" + sequence or distribution of its values. But these tests could be met + by a constant stored random sequence, such as the "random" sequence + printed in the CRC Standard Mathematical Tables [CRC]. Despite + meeting all the tests suggested by Knuth, that sequence is unsuitable + for cryptographic us, as adversaries must be assumed to have copies + of all commonly published "random" sequences and to be able to spot + the source and predict future values. + + A typical pseudo-random number generation technique is the linear + congruence pseudo-random number generator. This technique uses + modular arithmetic, where the value numbered N+1 is calculated from + the value numbered N by + + V = ( V * a + b )(Mod c) + N+1 N + + The above technique has a strong relationship to linear shift + register pseudo-random number generators, which are well understood + cryptographically [SHIFT*]. In such generators, bits are introduced + at one end of a shift register as the Exclusive Or (binary sum + without carry) of bits from selected fixed taps into the register. + For example, consider the following: + + + +Eastlake, et al. Standards Track [Page 23] +``` + +``` newpage + +RFC 4086 Randomness Requirements for Security June 2005SCHNEIER, STERN]. For example, with + the generators above, one can determine V(n+1) given knowledge of + V(n). In fact, it has been shown that with these techniques, even if + only one bit of the pseudo-random values are released, the seed can + be determined from short sequences. + + Not only have linear congruent generators been broken, but techniques + are now known for breaking all polynomial congruent generators + [KRAWCZYK]. + +6.2 . Cryptographically Strong SequencesFERGUSON, SCHNEIER], + and not to reveal the complete state of the generator in the sequence + elements. If each value in the sequence can be calculated in a fixed + + + +Eastlake, et al. Standards Track [Page 24] +``` + +``` newpage + +RFC 4086 Randomness Requirements for Security June 20056.2.1 . OFB and CTR SequencesMODES]. + + An example is shown below in which shifting and masking are used to + combine part of the output feedback with part of the old input. This + type of partial feedback should be avoided for reasons described + below. + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +Eastlake, et al. Standards Track [Page 25] +``` + +``` newpage + +RFC 4086 Randomness Requirements for Security June 2005Section 6.1.3, but with the all- + important difference that the feedback is determined by a complex + non-linear function of all bits rather than by a simple linear or + polynomial combination of output from a few bit position taps. + + Donald W. Davies showed that this sort of shifted partial output + feedback significantly weakens an algorithm, compared to feeding all + the output bits back as input. In particular, for DES, repeatedly + encrypting a full 64-bit quantity will give an expected repeat in + about 2^63 iterations. Feeding back anything less than 64 (and more + than 0) bits will give an expected repeat in between 2^31 and 2^32 + iterations! + + To predict values of a sequence from others when the sequence was + generated by these techniques is equivalent to breaking the + cryptosystem or to inverting the "non-invertible" hashing with only + partial information available. The less information revealed in each + iteration, the harder it will be for an adversary to predict the + sequence. Thus it is best to use only one bit from each value. It + has been shown that in some cases this makes it impossible to break a + system even when the cryptographic system is invertible and could be + broken if all of each generated value were revealed. + +6.2.2 . The Blum Blum Shub Sequence GeneratorBBS]. It is also very simple and is based on quadratic + residues. Its only disadvantage is that it is computationally + intensive compared to the traditional techniques given in Section + 6.1.3. This is not a major drawback if it is used for moderately- + infrequent purposes, such as generating session keys. + + + +Eastlake, et al. Standards Track [Page 26] +``` + +``` newpage + +RFC 4086 Randomness Requirements for Security June 20056.3 . Entropy Pool Techniques7.1.2 and 7.1.3 utilize the technique of maintaining a + "pool" of bits and providing operations for strongly mixing input + with some randomness into the pool and extracting pseudo-random bits + from the pool. This is illustrated in the figure below. + + + + + + + + +Eastlake, et al. Standards Track [Page 27] +``` + +``` newpage + +RFC 4086 Randomness Requirements for Security June 2005RSA_BULL1] for similar + suggestions. + +7 . Randomness Generation Examples and Standardssection 7.1, include an entropy source. + Others, described in section 7.2, provide the pseudo-random number + strong-sequence generator but assume the input of a random seed or + input from a source of entropy. + +7.1 . Complete Randomness GeneratorsDES]. The third is + a more modern and stronger standard based on SHA-1 [SHA*]. Lastly, + the widely deployed modern UNIX and Windows random number generators + are described. + +7.1.1 . US DoD Recommendations for Password GenerationDoD]. It suggests using the US Data + Encryption Standard [DES] in Output Feedback Mode [MODES] as follows: + + + + + + + + + + + +Eastlake, et al. Standards Track [Page 28] +``` + +``` newpage + +RFC 4086 Randomness Requirements for Security June 20057.1.2 . The /dev/random DeviceEastlake, et al. Standards Track [Page 29] +``` + +``` newpage + +RFC 4086 Randomness Requirements for Security June 20057.1.3 . Windows CryptGenRandomEastlake, et al. Standards Track [Page 30] +``` + +``` newpage + +RFC 4086 Randomness Requirements for Security June 2005WSC]. + +7.2 . Generators Assuming a Source of EntropySection + 6.2) from that seed. + +7.2.1 . X9.82 Pseudo-Random Number GenerationRFC2104]. The + draft version of this generator is described below, omitting a number + of optional features [X9.82]. + + In the subsections below, the HMAC hash construct is simply referred + to as HMAC but, of course, a particular standard SHA function must be + selected in an particular use. Generally speaking, if the strength + of the pseudo-random values to be generated is to be N bits, the SHA + function chosen must generate N or more bits of output, and a source + of at least N bits of input entropy will be required. The same hash + function must be used throughout an instantiation of this generator. + + + + + + + + +Eastlake, et al. Standards Track [Page 31] +``` + +``` newpage + +RFC 4086 Randomness Requirements for Security June 20057.2.2 . X9.17 Key GenerationX9.17]: + + s is the initial 64 bit seed. + 0 + + g is the sequence of generated 64-bit key quantities + n + + k is a random key reserved for generating this key sequence. + + t is the time at which a key is generated, to as fine a resolution + as is available (up to 64 bits). + + DES ( K, Q ) is the DES encryption of quantity Q with key K. + + Then: + + g = DES ( k, DES ( k, t ) XOR s ) + n n + + s = DES ( k, DES ( k, t ) XOR g ) + n+1 n + + + If g sub n is to be used as a DES key, then every eighth bit should + be adjusted for parity for that use, but the entire 64 bit unmodified + g should be used in calculating the next s. + + + + + + +Eastlake, et al. Standards Track [Page 33] +``` + +``` newpage + +RFC 4086 Randomness Requirements for Security June 20057.2.3 . DSS Pseudo-random Number GenerationDSS] provides a + method of producing a sequence of pseudo-random 160 bit quantities + for use as private keys or the like. This has been modified by + Change Notice 1 [DSS_CN1] to produce the following algorithm for + generating general-purpose pseudo-random numbers: + + t = 0x 67452301 EFCDAB89 98BADCFE 10325476 C3D2E1F0 + + XKEY = initial seed + 0 + + For j = 0 to ... + + XVAL = ( XKEY + optional user input ) (Mod 2^512) + j + + X = G( t, XVAL ) + j + + XKEY = ( 1 + XKEY + X ) (Mod 2^512) + j+1 j j + + + The quantities X thus produced are the pseudo-random sequence of + 160-bit values. Two functions can be used for "G" above. Each + produces a 160-bit value and takes two arguments, a 160-bit value and + a 512 bit value. + + The first is based on SHA-1 and works by setting the 5 linking + variables, denoted H with subscripts in the SHA-1 specification, to + the first argument divided into fifths. Then steps (a) through (e) + of section 7 of the NIST SHA-1 specification are run over the second + argument as if it were a 512-bit data block. The values of the + linking variable after those steps are then concatenated to produce + the output of G [SHA*]. + + As an alternative method, NIST also defined an alternate G function + based on multiple applications of the DES encryption function [DSS]. + +8 . Examples of Randomness RequiredEastlake, et al. Standards Track [Page 34] +``` + +``` newpage + +RFC 4086 Randomness Requirements for Security June 2005ORMAN] and [RSA_BULL13] provide information on the + public key lengths that should be used for exchanging symmetric keys. + +8.1 . Password Generationsection 7.1). Using a list of 1,000 + words, the password could be expressed as a three-word phrase + (1,000,000,000 possibilities). By using case-insensitive letters and + digits, six characters would suffice ((26+10)^6 = 2,176,782,336 + possibilities). + + For a higher-security password, the number of bits required goes up. + To decrease the probability by 1,000 requires increasing the universe + of passwords by the same factor, which adds about 10 bits. Thus, to + have only a one in a million chance of a password being guessed under + the above scenario would require 39 bits of randomness and a password + that was a four-word phrase from a 1,000 word list, or eight + letters/digits. To go to a one-in-10^9 chance, 49 bits of randomness + are needed, implying a five-word phrase or a ten-letter/digit + password. + + In a real system, of course, there are other factors. For example, + the larger and harder to remember passwords are, the more likely + users will bed to write them down, resulting in an additional risk of + compromise. + + + + + + + +Eastlake, et al. Standards Track [Page 35] +``` + +``` newpage + +RFC 4086 Randomness Requirements for Security June 20058.2 . A Very High Security Cryptographic Key8.2.1 . Effort per Key TrialKeyStudy] that was sponsored by the Business Software Alliance. It + concluded that a reasonable key length in 1995 for very high security + is in the range of 75 to 90 bits and, since the cost of cryptography + does not vary much with the key size, it recommends 90 bits. To + update these recommendations, just add 2/3 of a bit per year for + Moore's law [MOORE]. This translates to a determination, in the year + 2004, a reasonable key length is in the 81- to 96-bit range. In + fact, today, it is increasingly common to use keys longer than 96 + + + + +Eastlake, et al. Standards Track [Page 36] +``` + +``` newpage + +RFC 4086 Randomness Requirements for Security June 20058.2.2 . Meet-in-the-Middle AttacksKeyStudy] + analysis. + + This amount of randomness is well beyond the limit of that in the + inputs recommended by the US DoD for password generation and could + require user-typing timing, hardware random number generation, or + other sources of randomness. + + The meet-in-the-middle attack assumes that the cryptographic + algorithm can be decomposed in this way. Hopefully no modern + algorithm has this weakness, but there may be cases where we are not + sure of that or even of what algorithm a key will be used with. Even + if a basic algorithm is not subject to a meet-in-the-middle attack, + an attempt to produce a stronger algorithm by applying the basic + algorithm twice (or two different algorithms sequentially) with + different keys will gain less added security than would be expected. + Such a composite algorithm would be subject to a meet-in-the-middle + attack. + + Enormous resources may be required to mount a meet-in-the-middle + attack, but they are probably within the range of the national + security services of a major nation. Essentially all nations spy on + other nations' traffic. + + + +Eastlake, et al. Standards Track [Page 37] +``` + +``` newpage + +RFC 4086 Randomness Requirements for Security June 20058.2.3 . Other ConsiderationsKeyStudy] also considers the possibilities of special-purpose code- + breaking hardware and having an adequate safety margin. + + Note that key length calculations such as those above are + controversial and depend on various assumptions about the + cryptographic algorithms in use. In some cases, a professional with + a deep knowledge of algorithm-breaking techniques and of the strength + of the algorithm in use could be satisfied with less than half of the + 192 bit key size derived above. + + For further examples of conservative design principles, see + [FERGUSON]. + +9 . Conclusion10 . Security ConsiderationsEastlake, et al. Standards Track [Page 38] +``` + +``` newpage + +RFC 4086 Randomness Requirements for Security June 200511 . AcknowledgementsRFC 1750, + the predecessor of this document: + + David M. Balenson, Don T. Davis, Carl Ellison, Marc Horowitz, + Christian Huitema, Charlie Kaufman, Steve Kent, Hal Murray, Neil + Haller, Richard Pitkin, Tim Redmond, and Doug Tygar. + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +Eastlake, et al. Standards Track [Page 39] +``` + +``` newpage + +RFC 4086 Randomness Requirements for Security June 2005RFC 1750 + + 1. Additional acknowledgements have been added. + + 2. Insertion of section 5.3 on mixing with S-boxes. + + 3. Addition of section 3.3 on Ring Oscillator randomness sources. + + 4. Addition of AES and the members of the SHA series producing more + than 160 bits. Use of AES has been emphasized and the use of DES + de-emphasized. + + 5. Addition of section 6.3 on entropy pool techniques. + + 6. Addition of section 7.2.3 on the pseudo-random number generation + techniques given in FIPS 186-2 (with Change Notice 1), 7.2.1 on + those given in X9.82, section 7.1.2 on the random number + generation techniques of the /dev/random device in Linux and other + UNIX systems, and section 7.1.3 on random number generation + techniques in the Windows operating system. + + 7. Addition of references to the "Minimal Key Lengths for Symmetric + Ciphers to Provide Adequate Commercial Security" study published + in January 1996 [KeyStudy] and to [RFC1948]. + + 8. Added caveats to using Diffie-Hellman as a mixing function and, + because of those caveats and its computationally intensive nature, + recommend against its use. + + 9. Addition of references to the X9.82 effort and the [TURBID] and + [NASLUND] papers. + + 10. Addition of discussion of min-entropy and Renyi entropy and + references to the [LUBY] book. + + 11. Major restructuring, minor wording changes, and a variety of + reference updates. + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +Eastlake, et al. Standards Track [Page 40] +``` + +``` newpage + +RFC 4086 Randomness Requirements for Security June 2005AES] "Specification of the Advanced Encryption Standard + (AES)", United States of America, US National + Institute of Standards and Technology, FIPS 197, + November 2001. + + [ASYMMETRIC] Simmons, G., Ed., "Secure Communications and + Asymmetric Cryptosystems", AAAS Selected Symposium + 69, ISBN 0-86531-338-5, Westview Press, 1982. + + [BBS] Blum, L., Blum, M., and M. Shub, "A Simple + Unpredictable Pseudo-Random Number Generator", SIAM + Journal on Computing, v. 15, n. 2, 1986. + + [BRILLINGER] Brillinger, D., "Time Series: Data Analysis and + Theory", Holden-Day, 1981. + + [CRC] "C.R.C. Standard Mathematical Tables", Chemical + Rubber Publishing Company. + + [DAVIS] Davis, D., Ihaka, R., and P. Fenstermacher, + "Cryptographic Randomness from Air Turbulence in Disk + Drives", Advances in Cryptology - Crypto '94, + Springer-Verlag Lecture Notes in Computer Science + #839, 1984. + + [DES] "Data Encryption Standard", US National Institute of + Standards and Technology, FIPS 46-3, October 1999. + Also, "Data Encryption Algorithm", American National + Standards Institute, ANSI X3.92-1981. See also FIPS + 112, "Password Usage", which includes FORTRAN code + for performing DES. + + [D-H] Rescorla, E., "Diffie-Hellman Key Agreement Method", + RFC 2631, June 1999. + + [DNSSEC1] Arends, R., Austein, R., Larson, M., Massey, D., and + S. Rose, "DNS Security Introduction and + Requirements", RFC 4033, March 2005. + + [DNSSEC2] Arends, R., Austein, R., Larson, M., Massey, D., and + S. Rose, "Resource Records for the DNS Security + Extensions", RFC 4034, March 2005. + + [DNSSEC3] Arends, R., Austein, R., Larson, M., Massey, D., and + S. Rose, "Protocol Modifications for the DNS Security + Extensions", RFC 4035, March 2005. + + + +Eastlake, et al. Standards Track [Page 41] +``` + +``` newpage + +RFC 4086 Randomness Requirements for Security June 2005DoD] "Password Management Guideline", United States of + America, Department of Defense, Computer Security + Center, CSC-STD-002-85, April 1885. + + (See also "Password Usage", FIPS 112, which + incorporates CSC-STD-002-85 as one of its appendices. + FIPS 112 is currently available at: + http://www.idl.nist.gov/fipspubs/fip112.htm.) + + [DSS] "Digital Signature Standard (DSS)", US National + Institute of Standards and Technology, FIPS 186-2, + January 2000. + + [DSS_CN1] "Digital Signature Standard Change Notice 1", US + National Institute of Standards and Technology, FIPS + 186-2 Change Notice 1, 5, October 2001. + + [FERGUSON] Ferguson, N. and B. Schneier, "Practical + Cryptography", Wiley Publishing Inc., ISBN + 047122894X, April 2003. + + [GIFFORD] Gifford, D., "Natural Random Number", MIT/LCS/TM-371, + September 1988. + + [IEEE_802.11i] "Amendment to Standard for Telecommunications and + Information Exchange Between Systems - LAN/MAN + Specific Requirements - Part 11: Wireless Medium + Access Control (MAC) and physical layer (PHY) + specifications: Medium Access Control (MAC) Security + Enhancements", IEEE, January 2004. + + [IPSEC] Kent, S. and R. Atkinson, "Security Architecture for + the Internet Protocol", RFC 2401, November 1998. + + [Jakobsson] Jakobsson, M., Shriver, E., Hillyer, B., and A. + Juels, "A practical secure random bit generator", + Proceedings of the Fifth ACM Conference on Computer + and Communications Security, 1998. + + [KAUFMAN] Kaufman, C., Perlman, R., and M. Speciner, "Network + Security: Private Communication in a Public World", + Prentis Hall PTR, ISBN 0-13-046019-2, 2nd Edition + 2002. + + + + + + + + +Eastlake, et al. Standards Track [Page 42] +``` + +``` newpage + +RFC 4086 Randomness Requirements for Security June 2005RFC2104] Krawczyk, H., Bellare, M., and R. Canetti, "HMAC: + Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication", RFC 2104, + February 1997. + + [RSA_BULL1] "Suggestions for Random Number Generation in + Software", RSA Laboratories Bulletin #1, January + 1996. + + [RSA_BULL13] Silverman, R., "A Cost-Based Security Analysis of + Symmetric and Asymmetric Key Lengths", RSA + Laboratories Bulletin #13, April 2000 (revised + November 2001). + + [SBOX1] Mister, S. and C. Adams, "Practical S-box Design", + Selected Areas in Cryptography, 1996. + + [SBOX2] Nyberg, K., "Perfect Non-linear S-boxes", Advances in + Cryptography, Eurocrypt '91 Proceedings, Springer- + Verland, 1991. + + [SCHNEIER] Schneier, B., "Applied Cryptography: Protocols, + Algorithms, and Source Code in C", 2nd Edition, John + Wiley & Sons, 1996. + + [SHANNON] Shannon, C., "The Mathematical Theory of + Communication", University of Illinois Press, 1963. + Originally from: Bell System Technical Journal, July + and October, 1948. + + [SHIFT1] Golub, S., "Shift Register Sequences", Aegean Park + Press, Revised Edition, 1982. + + [SHIFT2] Barker, W., "Cryptanalysis of Shift-Register + Generated Stream Cypher Systems", Aegean Park Press, + 1984. + + [SHA] "Secure Hash Standard", US National Institute of + Science and Technology, FIPS 180-2, 1 August 2002. + + [SHA_RFC] Eastlake 3rd, D. and P. Jones, "US Secure Hash + Algorithm 1 (SHA1)", RFC 3174, September 2001. + + [SSH] Products of the SECSH Working Group, Works in + Progress, 2005. + + [STERN] Stern, J., "Secret Linear Congruential Generators are + not Cryptographically Secure", Proc. IEEE STOC, 1987. + + + + +Eastlake, et al. Standards Track [Page 45] +``` + +``` newpage + +RFC 4086 Randomness Requirements for Security June 2005TLS] Dierks, T. and C. Allen, "The TLS Protocol Version + 1.0", RFC 2246, January 1999. + + [TURBID] Denker, J., "High Entropy Symbol Generator", + , 2003. + + [USENET_1] Kantor, B. and P. Lapsley, "Network News Transfer + Protocol", RFC 977, February 1986. + + [USENET_2] Barber, S., "Common NNTP Extensions", RFC 2980, + October 2000. + + [VON_NEUMANN] Von Nuemann, J., "Various techniques used in + connection with random digits", Von Neumann's + Collected Works, Vol. 5, Pergamon Press, 1963. + + [WSC] Howard, M. and D. LeBlanc, "Writing Secure Code, + Second Edition", Microsoft Press, ISBN 0735617228, + December 2002. + + [X9.17] "American National Standard for Financial Institution + Key Management (Wholesale)", American Bankers + Association, 1985. + + [X9.82] "Random Number Generation", American National + Standards Institute, ANSI X9F1, Work in Progress. + Part 1 - Overview and General Principles. + Part 2 - Non-Deterministic Random Bit Generators + Part 3 - Deterministic Random Bit Generators + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +Eastlake, et al. Standards Track [Page 46] +``` + +``` newpage + +RFC 4086 Randomness Requirements for Security June 2005Eastlake, et al. Standards Track [Page 47] +``` + +``` newpage + +RFC 4086 Randomness Requirements for Security June 2005BCP 78, and except as set forth therein, the authors + retain all their rights. + + This document and the information contained herein are provided on an + "AS IS" basis and THE CONTRIBUTOR, THE ORGANIZATION HE/SHE REPRESENTS + OR IS SPONSORED BY (IF ANY), THE INTERNET SOCIETY AND THE INTERNET + ENGINEERING TASK FORCE DISCLAIM ALL WARRANTIES, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, + INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO ANY WARRANTY THAT THE USE OF THE + INFORMATION HEREIN WILL NOT INFRINGE ANY RIGHTS OR ANY IMPLIED + WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. + +Intellectual Property + + The IETF takes no position regarding the validity or scope of any + Intellectual Property Rights or other rights that might be claimed to + pertain to the implementation or use of the technology described in + this document or the extent to which any license under such rights + might or might not be available; nor does it represent that it has + made any independent effort to identify any such rights. Information + on the procedures with respect to rights in RFC documents can be + found in BCP 78 and BCP 79. + + Copies of IPR disclosures made to the IETF Secretariat and any + assurances of licenses to be made available, or the result of an + attempt made to obtain a general license or permission for the use of + such proprietary rights by implementers or users of this + specification can be obtained from the IETF on-line IPR repository at + http://www.ietf.org/ipr. + + The IETF invites any interested party to bring to its attention any + copyrights, patents or patent applications, or other proprietary + rights that may cover technology that may be required to implement + this standard. Please address the information to the IETF at ietf- + ipr@ietf.org. + +Acknowledgement + + Funding for the RFC Editor function is currently provided by the + Internet Society. + + + + + + + +Eastlake, et al. Standards Track [Page 48] +``` + + +Html markup produced by rfcmarkup 1.126, available from + diff --git a/_stories/2005/13040111.md b/_stories/2005/13040111.md deleted file mode 100644 index 48afbc4..0000000 --- a/_stories/2005/13040111.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,25 +0,0 @@ ---- -created_at: '2016-11-25T21:49:08.000Z' -title: Vim :smile (2005) -url: https://github.com/vim/vim/commit/86e179dbe75010e9545e1a2fcc92a15d57bf27fd -author: tambourine_man -points: 69 -story_text: -comment_text: -num_comments: 23 -story_id: -story_title: -story_url: -parent_id: -created_at_i: 1480110548 -_tags: -- story -- author_tambourine_man -- story_13040111 -objectID: '13040111' - ---- -[Source](https://github.com/vim/vim/commit/86e179dbe75010e9545e1a2fcc92a15d57bf27fd "Permalink to ") - - - diff --git a/_stories/2005/1533274.md b/_stories/2005/1533274.md index bd47fe2..61d5147 100644 --- a/_stories/2005/1533274.md +++ b/_stories/2005/1533274.md @@ -19,7 +19,11 @@ _tags: objectID: '1533274' --- -[Source](http://benjismith.net/index.php/2005/09/30/hate-frameworks/ "Permalink to ") - +We couldn't find the page you were looking for. This is either because: + - There is an error in the URL entered into your web browser. Please + check the URL and try again. + - The page you are looking for has been moved or deleted. +You can return to our homepage by [clicking here](/), or you can try +searching for the content you are seeking by [clicking here](/search). diff --git a/_stories/2005/15578238.md b/_stories/2005/15578238.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..5e42b8a --- /dev/null +++ b/_stories/2005/15578238.md @@ -0,0 +1,224 @@ +--- +created_at: '2017-10-29T06:46:44.000Z' +title: Advantages of Tcl over Lisp (2005) +url: https://wiki.tcl.tk/13410 +author: tonyjstark +points: 75 +story_text: +comment_text: +num_comments: 41 +story_id: +story_title: +story_url: +parent_id: +created_at_i: 1509259604 +_tags: +- story +- author_tonyjstark +- story_15578238 +objectID: '15578238' + +--- +25Jan2005: + +It's well known that many + +It's well known that many [Lisp](/1657) dialects, like [Scheme](/2254) , +have features that Tcl does not have. For example first class +[continuation](/13232) s, automatic [tail call optimization](/1348) , +more speed. This page is instead my personal opinion about what in Tcl +is better than in [Lisp](/1657) + +I used + +I used [Scheme](/2254) to write Web applications for some time before to +switch to Tcl, mostly for the reasons below. Note that I like +[Lisp](/1657) a lot, I'm a great fan of it. One reason why I like Tcl is +that I find it similar to [Lisp](/1657) in some aspect, similar to what +I enjoyed of [Lisp](/1657) , I mean. + +This is my list of things I like more in Tcl over + +This is my list of things I like more in Tcl over [Lisp](/1657) + + - Tcl is a programmable programming language like [Lisp](/1657), in + both you can write new control structures, and more generally it's + possible to specialize both the languages. But while in + [Lisp](/1657) is usually needed to write macros, in Tcl you have to + write normal procedures. + - [Lisp](/1657) has types, more or less like [Python](/1395) and + [Ruby](/1386). For example in order to use a number as argument of a + string manipulation function, there is to convert from one type to + the other. + - In Tcl serialization just happens for many types because almost + everything has a string representation. You can write a Tcl list in + a file just with: puts $fd $list. This is not possible in + [Lisp](/1657), where you need to perform serialization. + - [Lisp](/1657) central data type is the list, while Tcl central data + type is the string. Tcl also makes a lot of use of lists that are + just special strings. In today's world, to have strings as base type + is usually more useful, because many thinks like [HTML](/777), + [XML](/1740), Networking Protocols, are about strings more than they + are about lists. To deal with strings in [Lisp](/1657) is not as + natural as with Tcl. On the other side, Tcl lists features allow to + exploit many programming paradigms used in [Lisp](/1657). For + example to convert a string into a list of characters, and + manipulate it as a list when is more convenient. + - The Tcl world is less fragmented. There aren't a big number of + implementations of Tcl, and there is a bigger default library. + - Tcl has built-in event-driven programming, integrated with the I/O + library. To write complex networking programs with just what is + provided in the core language is so simple it's funny. + +Please feel free to comment, especially if you think some of the points +are not fair. + +Please feel free to comment, especially if you think some of the points +are not fair. + +\--The \#scheme room on irc.freenode.com responds thusly; comments +please + +``` + There are still people that use Tcl? + Ok, got it. + slack_tcl: Argument 1, Macros: Tcl represents everything + as strings (formally). That makes optimization horrible, and requires + a runtime interpreter. Argument 2, auto-type-conversion: Nice for small + stuff, leads to annoying bugs in bigger programs. Argument 3, serialization: + Use WRITE to serialize data structures. Argument 4, Strings: + A list is a compound data type, a string is not compound, but needs + a parser to be so; the basi + c data type of a language should be a compound type; + Scheme has wonderful support for HTML/XML, because HTML/XML + is not about strings, but about structure, which Scheme can + represent very well. Argument 5, less fragmentation: True + (whether that's a pro or con is subjective). Argument 6, + event-driven programming: True; Tcl has a better standard + library than R5RS; most scheme implementations have a good + one as well, and using cont + inuations, event-driven programming can be + abstracted away, which is even better than a basic foundation, + which also can be implemented easily in Scheme. ;-) + ``Years ago at an X conference in San Jose, + Ousterhout gave a talk on Tcl/Tk. I came away from the talk + thinking "Man, what a poorly implemented Lisp interpreter that is!" (Mike McDonald)'' +``` + +\--The \#scheme room on irc.freenode.com responds thusly; comments +please +[http://wiki.tcl.tk/13410![](/ext.png)](https://wiki.tcl.tk/13410) + +[RS](/1683) [HTML](/777)/[XML](/1740) is of course about strings, which +express structure; and Tcl can work on strings perfectly, as well as on +the expressed structures when represented as nested [list](/440) s... +And lists are not just strings, at heart they are dynamic vectors of +references to objects, which again can be lists, or integers, or +doubles... but every object can be represented as a string, too. + +What I like most about Tcl, compared to + +What I like most about Tcl, compared to [Lisp](/1657) , is the +simplification by unifying concepts: + + - **commands** work as functions, special forms, macros (well, sort + of) + - **lists** cover the uses of [Lisp](/1657) lists, vectors, arrays, + structs... + +my replies: + + - 1\) Optimization is not horrible but via dual-ported objects with a + well defined semantic. Interpretation is not needed, actually Tcl8.x + is byte-compiled. Also I feel shocked that [Scheme](/2254) people + are talking about implementation details instead to talk about + abstraction power ;) In Tcl metaprogramming is more abstract, you + always requires Tcl procedures for every kind of work, being it a + new control structure, or a procedure to sum two numbers. in + [Lisp](/1657) there is less abstraction because to do some work you + need to perform a source level transformation, for others you need a + function. + - 2\) In Tcl is less likely that auto conversion turns to bugs, + because the auto conversion works checking that the format of the + string is compatible with the destination type. This means that if I + try to sum "12" with "foobar" there will be a runtime error because + "foobar" is not a valid representation for an integer. + - 3\) WRITE: nice abstraction, but you are requiring a layer that do + the conversion like any other language where objects are + semantically typed. + - 4\) Note that in Tcl strings and lists are both central data types, + for instance every Tcl list is also a valid Tcl command, but a list + is in turn a string. In order to model the structure of HTML/XML a + Tcl list is indeed more appropriate, but there are many other tasks + when you need to work directly with the string: in this contexts + variable/command interpolation, no type conversion, makes it a non + problem. [Scheme](/2254) is truly generic, this makes it cool and + ready to face every kind of problem in theory but there is a price + for this: simpler problems are often more complex to solve in + [Scheme](/2254) than in other languages with explicit support for + such problems. + - 5\) This is very questionable, fragmentation may also mean faster + evolution, but too fragmentation may just mean that there are far + more [Scheme](/2254) implementation and wasted efforts than needed. + Btw I'm not fully against fragmentation if it has a good reason, in + fact I'm writing the [Jim](/13693) interpreter, an implementation of + Tcl with some changes. + - 6\) [Continuations](/3453): good point. Still event driven is many + times a fast and comfortable way to model problems, the Tcl + implementation of event driven programming is very abstract. For + example with non-blocking sockets you can write to a socket without + to care at all if it is writable or not and Tcl will try in the + background to check for write buffer availability to feed the data + to the socket when possible. Also the [after](/808) command makes + Tcl one of the few languages that support the notion of time in the + default library in a decent way. Btw I agree this are features not + about the language itself but about the library that can implemented + in many other languages. + +About Tcl being a bad implementation of + +About Tcl being a bad implementation of [Lisp](/1657) , I don't think so +of course. Surely [Lisp](/1657) was in the mind of [John +Ousterhout](/36) , as he wrote in the usenix paper that was shipped with +the first versions of Tcl. Note that many users here think that +[Lisp](/1657) in general and [Scheme](/2254) in particular is something +of very interesting to look at. Many [Lisp](/1657) idioms, and bottom-up +programming itself are the Tcl way to program too. Just Tcl tries to be +more practical for many of us, supporting at the same time a mix of +functional, imperative and object oriented programming, similarly to +Common Lisp. Also many real world problems are simpler to solve because +of more support inside the language. Of course there are many things +that may be better solved using [Lisp](/1657) , especially when complex +linked data structures are needed, or abstractions like +[continuations](/3453) + + - 7\) ... also note that many features of [Lisp](/1657) that are not + in [Tcl](/445) may appear later or in a different implementation of + [Tcl](/445). For example the [Jim](/13693) interpreter has closures + (see [Jim Closures](/13840)), garbage collecting [lambda](/8704), + more functional programming support and other interesting features. + +"The thing about both Lisp and Smalltalk that keeps making me feel +alienated is that their power seems much weaker beyond their kingdom. +The outside world does not have an object browser, nor is it made of +s-expressions. + +"The thing about both Lisp and Smalltalk that keeps making me feel +alienated is that their power seems much weaker beyond their kingdom. +The outside world does not have an object browser, nor is it made of +s-expressions. + +"Tcl occupies a very nice place in this regard: its homoiconicity and +symmetry (and late binding) come from text. The outside world, to a very +close approximation, is also made of text. Subprocesses, sockets, FFI, +files and user interaction just feel more native - in the image-oriented +languages, I always find myself fighting the ambassador who imperfectly +represents these things in forms the kingdom understands." \[ + +"Tcl occupies a very nice place in this regard: its homoiconicity and +symmetry (and late binding) come from text. The outside world, to a very +close approximation, is also made of text. Subprocesses, sockets, FFI, +files and user interaction just feel more native - in the image-oriented +languages, I always find myself fighting the ambassador who imperfectly +represents these things in forms the kingdom understands." \[ +[1](https://news.ycombinator.com/item?id=14335325) diff --git a/_stories/2005/15734119.md b/_stories/2005/15734119.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..455c073 --- /dev/null +++ b/_stories/2005/15734119.md @@ -0,0 +1,1867 @@ +--- +created_at: '2017-11-19T14:55:13.000Z' +title: Bit Twiddling Hacks (2005) +url: https://graphics.stanford.edu/~seander/bithacks.html +author: kercker +points: 66 +story_text: +comment_text: +num_comments: 3 +story_id: +story_title: +story_url: +parent_id: +created_at_i: 1511103313 +_tags: +- story +- author_kercker +- story_15734119 +objectID: '15734119' + +--- +## Bit Twiddling Hacks + +### By Sean Eron Anderson +seander@cs. stanford.edu + +Individually, the **code snippets here are in the public domain** +(unless otherwise noted) — feel free to use them however you please. The +aggregate collection and descriptions are © 1997-2005 Sean Eron +Anderson. The code and descriptions are distributed in the hope that +they will be useful, but **WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY** and without even the +implied warranty of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. +As of May 5, 2005, all the code has been tested thoroughly. Thousands of +people have read it. Moreover, [Professor Randal +Bryant](http://www-2.cs.cmu.edu/~bryant/), the Dean of Computer Science +at Carnegie Mellon University, has personally tested almost everything +with his [Uclid code verification +system](http://www-2.cs.cmu.edu/~uclid/). What he hasn't tested, I have +checked against all possible inputs on a 32-bit machine. **To the first +person to inform me of a legitimate bug in the code, I'll pay a bounty +of US$10 (by check or Paypal)**. If directed to a charity, I'll pay +US$20. + +### Contents + +When totaling the number of operations for algorithms here, any C +operator is counted as one operation. Intermediate assignments, which +need not be written to RAM, are not counted. Of course, this operation +counting approach only serves as an approximation of the actual number +of machine instructions and CPU time. All operations are assumed to take +the same amount of time, which is not true in reality, but CPUs have +been heading increasingly in this direction over time. There are many +nuances that determine how fast a system will run a given sample of +code, such as cache sizes, memory bandwidths, instruction sets, etc. In +the end, benchmarking is the best way to determine whether one method is +really faster than another, so consider the techniques below as +possibilities to test on your target architecture. + + int v; // we want to find the sign of v + int sign; // the result goes here + + // CHAR_BIT is the number of bits per byte (normally 8). + sign = -(v < 0); // if v < 0 then -1, else 0. + // or, to avoid branching on CPUs with flag registers (IA32): + sign = -(int)((unsigned int)((int)v) >> (sizeof(int) * CHAR_BIT - 1)); + // or, for one less instruction (but not portable): + sign = v >> (sizeof(int) * CHAR_BIT - 1); + +The last expression above evaluates to sign = v \>\> 31 for 32-bit +integers. This is one operation faster than the obvious way, sign = -(v +\< 0). This trick works because when signed integers are shifted right, +the value of the far left bit is copied to the other bits. The far left +bit is 1 when the value is negative and 0 otherwise; all 1 bits gives +-1. Unfortunately, this behavior is architecture-specific. + +Alternatively, if you prefer the result be either -1 or +1, then + use: + + sign = +1 | (v >> (sizeof(int) * CHAR_BIT - 1)); // if v < 0 then -1, else +1 + +On the other hand, if you prefer the result be either -1, 0, or +1, then +use: + + sign = (v != 0) | -(int)((unsigned int)((int)v) >> (sizeof(int) * CHAR_BIT - 1)); + // Or, for more speed but less portability: + sign = (v != 0) | (v >> (sizeof(int) * CHAR_BIT - 1)); // -1, 0, or +1 + // Or, for portability, brevity, and (perhaps) speed: + sign = (v > 0) - (v < 0); // -1, 0, or +1 + +If instead you want to know if something is non-negative, resulting in ++1 or else 0, then + use: + + sign = 1 ^ ((unsigned int)v >> (sizeof(int) * CHAR_BIT - 1)); // if v < 0 then 0, else 1 + +Caveat: On March 7, 2003, Angus Duggan pointed out that the 1989 ANSI C +specification leaves the result of signed right-shift +implementation-defined, so on some systems this hack might not work. For +greater portability, Toby Speight suggested on September 28, 2005 that +CHAR\_BIT be used here and throughout rather than assuming bytes were 8 +bits long. Angus recommended the more portable versions above, involving +casting on March 4, 2006. [Rohit Garg](http://rpg-314.blogspot.com/) +suggested the version for non-negative integers on September 12, 2009. + + int x, y; // input values to compare signs + + bool f = ((x ^ y) < 0); // true iff x and y have opposite signs + +Manfred Weis suggested I add this entry on November 26, 2009. + + int v; // we want to find the absolute value of v + unsigned int r; // the result goes here + int const mask = v >> sizeof(int) * CHAR_BIT - 1; + + r = (v + mask) ^ mask; + +Patented variation: + + r = (v ^ mask) - mask; + +Some CPUs don't have an integer absolute value instruction (or the +compiler fails to use them). On machines where branching is expensive, +the above expression can be faster than the obvious approach, r = (v \< +0) ? -(unsigned)v : v, even though the number of operations is the same. + +On March 7, 2003, Angus Duggan pointed out that the 1989 ANSI C +specification leaves the result of signed right-shift +implementation-defined, so on some systems this hack might not work. +I've read that ANSI C does not require values to be represented as two's +complement, so it may not work for that reason as well (on a +diminishingly small number of old machines that still use one's +complement). On March 14, 2004, Keith H. Duggar sent me the patented +variation above; it is superior to the one I initially came up with, +`r=(+1|(v>>(sizeof(int)*CHAR_BIT-1)))*v`, because a multiply is not +used. Unfortunately, this method has been +[patented](http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect1=PTO2&Sect2=HITOFF&p=1&u=/netahtml/search-adv.htm&r=1&f=G&l=50&d=ptxt&S1=6073150&OS=6073150&RS=6073150) +in the USA on June 6, 2000 by Vladimir Yu Volkonsky and assigned to [Sun +Microsystems](http://www.sun.com/). On August 13, 2006, Yuriy Kaminskiy +told me that the patent is likely invalid because the method was +published well before the patent was even filed, such as in [How to +Optimize for the Pentium +Processor](http://www.goof.com/pcg/doc/pentopt.txt) by Agner Fog, dated +November, 9, 1996. Yuriy also mentioned that this document was +translated to Russian in 1997, which Vladimir could have read. Moreover, +the Internet Archive also has an old +[link](http://web.archive.org/web/19961201174141/www.x86.org/ftp/articles/pentopt/PENTOPT.TXT) +to it. On January 30, 2007, Peter Kankowski shared with me an [abs +version](http://smallcode.weblogs.us/2007/01/31/microsoft-probably-uses-the-abs-function-patented-by-sun/) +he discovered that was inspired by Microsoft's Visual C++ compiler +output. It is featured here as the primary solution. On December 6, +2007, Hai Jin complained that the result was signed, so when computing +the abs of the most negative value, it was still negative. On April 15, +2008 Andrew Shapira pointed out that the obvious approach could +overflow, as it lacked an (unsigned) cast then; for maximum portability +he suggested `(v < 0) ? (1 + ((unsigned)(-1-v))) : (unsigned)v`. But +citing the ISO C99 spec on July 9, 2008, Vincent Lefèvre convinced me to +remove it becasue even on non-2s-complement machines -(unsigned)v will +do the right thing. The evaluation of -(unsigned)v first converts the +negative value of v to an unsigned by adding 2\*\*N, yielding a 2s +complement representation of v's value that I'll call U. Then, U is +negated, giving the desired result, -U = 0 - U = 2\*\*N - U = 2\*\*N - +(v+2\*\*N) = -v = abs(v). + + int x; // we want to find the minimum of x and y + int y; + int r; // the result goes here + + r = y ^ ((x ^ y) & -(x < y)); // min(x, y) + +On some rare machines where branching is very expensive and no condition +move instructions exist, the above expression might be faster than the +obvious approach, r = (x \< y) ? x : y, even though it involves two more +instructions. (Typically, the obvious approach is best, though.) It +works because if x \< y, then -(x  To find the maximum, use: + + r = x ^ ((x ^ y) & -(x < y)); // max(x, y) + +#### Quick and dirty versions: + +If you know that INT\_MIN \<= x - y \<= INT\_MAX, then you can use the +following, which are faster because (x - y) only needs to be evaluated +once. + + r = y + ((x - y) & ((x - y) >> (sizeof(int) * CHAR_BIT - 1))); // min(x, y) + r = x - ((x - y) & ((x - y) >> (sizeof(int) * CHAR_BIT - 1))); // max(x, y) + +Note that the 1989 ANSI C specification doesn't specify the result of +signed right-shift, so these aren't portable. If exceptions are thrown +on overflows, then the values of x and y should be unsigned or cast to +unsigned for the subtractions to avoid unnecessarily throwing an +exception, however the right-shift needs a signed operand to produce all +one bits when negative, so cast to signed there. + +On March 7, 2003, Angus Duggan pointed out the right-shift portability +issue. On May 3, 2005, Randal E. Bryant alerted me to the need for the +precondition, INT\_MIN \<= x - y \<= INT\_MAX, and suggested the +non-quick and dirty version as a fix. Both of these issues concern only +the quick and dirty version. Nigel Horspoon observed on July 6, 2005 +that gcc produced the same code on a Pentium as the obvious solution +because of how it evaluates (x \< y). On July 9, 2008 Vincent Lefèvre +pointed out the potential for overflow exceptions with subtractions in r += y + ((x - y) & -(x \< y)), which was the previous version. Timothy B. +Terriberry suggested using xor rather than add and subract to avoid +casting and the risk of overflows on June 2, 2009. + + unsigned int v; // we want to see if v is a power of 2 + bool f; // the result goes here + + f = (v & (v - 1)) == 0; + +Note that 0 is incorrectly considered a power of 2 here. To remedy this, +use: + + f = v && !(v & (v - 1)); + +Sign extension is automatic for built-in types, such as chars and ints. +But suppose you have a signed two's complement number, x, that is stored +using only b bits. Moreover, suppose you want to convert x to an int, +which has more than b bits. A simple copy will work if x is positive, +but if negative, the sign must be extended. For example, if we have only +4 bits to store a number, then -3 is represented as 1101 in binary. If +we have 8 bits, then -3 is 11111101. The most-significant bit of the +4-bit representation is replicated sinistrally to fill in the +destination when we convert to a representation with more bits; this is +sign extending. In C, sign extension from a constant bit-width is +trivial, since bit fields may be specified in structs or unions. For +example, to convert from 5 bits to an full integer: + + int x; // convert this from using 5 bits to a full int + int r; // resulting sign extended number goes here + struct {signed int x:5;} s; + r = s.x = x; + +The following is a C++ template function that uses the same language +feature to convert from B bits in one operation (though the compiler is +generating more, of course). + + template + inline T signextend(const T x) + { + struct {T x:B;} s; + return s.x = x; + } + + int r = signextend(x); // sign extend 5 bit number x to r + +John Byrd caught a typo in the code (attributed to html formatting) on +May 2, 2005. On March 4, 2006, Pat Wood pointed out that the ANSI C +standard requires that the bitfield have the keyword "signed" to be +signed; otherwise, the sign is undefined. + +Sometimes we need to extend the sign of a number but we don't know a +priori the number of bits, b, in which it is represented. (Or we could +be programming in a language like Java, which lacks bitfields.) + + unsigned b; // number of bits representing the number in x + int x; // sign extend this b-bit number to r + int r; // resulting sign-extended number + int const m = 1U << (b - 1); // mask can be pre-computed if b is fixed + + x = x & ((1U << b) - 1); // (Skip this if bits in x above position b are already zero.) + r = (x ^ m) - m; + +The code above requires four operations, but when the bitwidth is a +constant rather than variable, it requires only two fast operations, +assuming the upper bits are already zeroes. + +A slightly faster but less portable method that doesn't depend on the +bits in x above position b being zero is: + + int const m = CHAR_BIT * sizeof(x) - b; + r = (x << m) >> m; + +Sean A. Irvine suggested that I add sign extension methods to this page +on June 13, 2004, and he provided `m = (1 << (b - 1)) - 1; r = -(x & ~m) +| x;` as a starting point from which I optimized to get m = 1U \<\< (b - +1); r = -(x & m) | x. But then on May 11, 2007, Shay Green suggested the +version above, which requires one less operation than mine. Vipin Sharma +suggested I add a step to deal with situations where x had possible ones +in bits other than the b bits we wanted to sign-extend on Oct. 15, 2008. +On December 31, 2009 Chris Pirazzi suggested I add the faster version, +which requires two operations for constant bit-widths and three for +variable widths. + +The following may be slow on some machines, due to the effort required +for multiplication and division. This version is 4 operations. If you +know that your initial bit-width, b, is greater than 1, you might do +this type of sign extension in 3 operations by using r = (x \* +multipliers\[b\]) / multipliers\[b\], which requires only one array +lookup. + + unsigned b; // number of bits representing the number in x + int x; // sign extend this b-bit number to r + int r; // resulting sign-extended number + #define M(B) (1U << ((sizeof(x) * CHAR_BIT) - B)) // CHAR_BIT=bits/byte + static int const multipliers[] = + { + 0, M(1), M(2), M(3), M(4), M(5), M(6), M(7), + M(8), M(9), M(10), M(11), M(12), M(13), M(14), M(15), + M(16), M(17), M(18), M(19), M(20), M(21), M(22), M(23), + M(24), M(25), M(26), M(27), M(28), M(29), M(30), M(31), + M(32) + }; // (add more if using more than 64 bits) + static int const divisors[] = + { + 1, ~M(1), M(2), M(3), M(4), M(5), M(6), M(7), + M(8), M(9), M(10), M(11), M(12), M(13), M(14), M(15), + M(16), M(17), M(18), M(19), M(20), M(21), M(22), M(23), + M(24), M(25), M(26), M(27), M(28), M(29), M(30), M(31), + M(32) + }; // (add more for 64 bits) + #undef M + r = (x * multipliers[b]) / divisors[b]; + +The following variation is not portable, but on architectures that +employ an arithmetic right-shift, maintaining the sign, it should be +fast. + + const int s = -b; // OR: sizeof(x) * CHAR_BIT - b; + r = (x << s) >> s; + +Randal E. Bryant pointed out a bug on May 3, 2005 in an earlier version +(that used multipliers\[\] for divisors\[\]), where it failed on the +case of x=1 and b=1. + + bool f; // conditional flag + unsigned int m; // the bit mask + unsigned int w; // the word to modify: if (f) w |= m; else w &= ~m; + + w ^= (-f ^ w) & m; + + // OR, for superscalar CPUs: + w = (w & ~m) | (-f & m); + +On some architectures, the lack of branching can more than make up for +what appears to be twice as many operations. For instance, informal +speed tests on an AMD Athlon™ XP 2100+ indicated it was 5-10% faster. An +Intel Core 2 Duo ran the superscalar version about 16% faster than the +first. Glenn Slayden informed me of the first expression on December 11, +2003. Marco Yu shared the superscalar version with me on April 3, 2007 +and alerted me to a typo 2 days later. + +If you need to negate only when a flag is false, then use the following +to avoid branching: + + bool fDontNegate; // Flag indicating we should not negate v. + int v; // Input value to negate if fDontNegate is false. + int r; // result = fDontNegate ? v : -v; + + r = (fDontNegate ^ (fDontNegate - 1)) * v; + +If you need to negate only when a flag is true, then use this: + + bool fNegate; // Flag indicating if we should negate v. + int v; // Input value to negate if fNegate is true. + int r; // result = fNegate ? -v : v; + + r = (v ^ -fNegate) + fNegate; + +Avraham Plotnitzky suggested I add the first version on June 2, 2009. +Motivated to avoid the multiply, I came up with the second version on +June 8, 2009. Alfonso De Gregorio pointed out that some parens were +missing on November 26, 2009, and received a bug bounty. + + unsigned int a; // value to merge in non-masked bits + unsigned int b; // value to merge in masked bits + unsigned int mask; // 1 where bits from b should be selected; 0 where from a. + unsigned int r; // result of (a & ~mask) | (b & mask) goes here + + r = a ^ ((a ^ b) & mask); + +This shaves one operation from the obvious way of combining two sets of +bits according to a bit mask. If the mask is a constant, then there may +be no advantage. + +Ron Jeffery sent this to me on February 9, 2006. + + unsigned int v; // count the number of bits set in v + unsigned int c; // c accumulates the total bits set in v + + for (c = 0; v; v >>= 1) + { + c += v & 1; + } + +The naive approach requires one iteration per bit, until no more bits +are set. So on a 32-bit word with only the high set, it will go through +32 iterations. + + static const unsigned char BitsSetTable256[256] = + { + # define B2(n) n, n+1, n+1, n+2 + # define B4(n) B2(n), B2(n+1), B2(n+1), B2(n+2) + # define B6(n) B4(n), B4(n+1), B4(n+1), B4(n+2) + B6(0), B6(1), B6(1), B6(2) + }; + + unsigned int v; // count the number of bits set in 32-bit value v + unsigned int c; // c is the total bits set in v + + // Option 1: + c = BitsSetTable256[v & 0xff] + + BitsSetTable256[(v >> 8) & 0xff] + + BitsSetTable256[(v >> 16) & 0xff] + + BitsSetTable256[v >> 24]; + + // Option 2: + unsigned char * p = (unsigned char *) &v; + c = BitsSetTable256[p[0]] + + BitsSetTable256[p[1]] + + BitsSetTable256[p[2]] + + BitsSetTable256[p[3]]; + + + // To initially generate the table algorithmically: + BitsSetTable256[0] = 0; + for (int i = 0; i < 256; i++) + { + BitsSetTable256[i] = (i & 1) + BitsSetTable256[i / 2]; + } + +On July 14, 2009 Hallvard Furuseth suggested the macro compacted table. + + unsigned int v; // count the number of bits set in v + unsigned int c; // c accumulates the total bits set in v + for (c = 0; v; c++) + { + v &= v - 1; // clear the least significant bit set + } + +Brian Kernighan's method goes through as many iterations as there are +set bits. So if we have a 32-bit word with only the high bit set, then +it will only go once through the loop. + +Published in 1988, the C Programming Language 2nd Ed. (by Brian W. +Kernighan and Dennis M. Ritchie) mentions this in exercise 2-9. On April +19, 2006 Don Knuth pointed out to me that this method "was first +published by Peter Wegner in CACM 3 (1960), 322. (Also discovered +independently by Derrick Lehmer and published in 1964 in a book edited +by Beckenbach.)" + + unsigned int v; // count the number of bits set in v + unsigned int c; // c accumulates the total bits set in v + + // option 1, for at most 14-bit values in v: + c = (v * 0x200040008001ULL & 0x111111111111111ULL) % 0xf; + + // option 2, for at most 24-bit values in v: + c = ((v & 0xfff) * 0x1001001001001ULL & 0x84210842108421ULL) % 0x1f; + c += (((v & 0xfff000) >> 12) * 0x1001001001001ULL & 0x84210842108421ULL) + % 0x1f; + + // option 3, for at most 32-bit values in v: + c = ((v & 0xfff) * 0x1001001001001ULL & 0x84210842108421ULL) % 0x1f; + c += (((v & 0xfff000) >> 12) * 0x1001001001001ULL & 0x84210842108421ULL) % + 0x1f; + c += ((v >> 24) * 0x1001001001001ULL & 0x84210842108421ULL) % 0x1f; + +This method requires a 64-bit CPU with fast modulus division to be +efficient. The first option takes only 3 operations; the second option +takes 10; and the third option takes 15. + +Rich Schroeppel originally created a 9-bit version, similiar to option +1; see the Programming Hacks section of [Beeler, M., Gosper, R. W., and +Schroeppel, R. HAKMEM. MIT AI Memo 239, Feb. 29, +1972.](http://www.inwap.com/pdp10/hbaker/hakmem/hakmem.html) His method +was the inspiration for the variants above, devised by Sean Anderson. +Randal E. Bryant offered a couple bug fixes on May 3, 2005. Bruce Dawson +tweaked what had been a 12-bit version and made it suitable for 14 bits +using the same number of operations on Feburary 1, 2007. + + unsigned int v; // count bits set in this (32-bit value) + unsigned int c; // store the total here + static const int S[] = {1, 2, 4, 8, 16}; // Magic Binary Numbers + static const int B[] = {0x55555555, 0x33333333, 0x0F0F0F0F, 0x00FF00FF, 0x0000FFFF}; + + c = v - ((v >> 1) & B[0]); + c = ((c >> S[1]) & B[1]) + (c & B[1]); + c = ((c >> S[2]) + c) & B[2]; + c = ((c >> S[3]) + c) & B[3]; + c = ((c >> S[4]) + c) & B[4]; + +The B array, expressed as binary, is: + + B[0] = 0x55555555 = 01010101 01010101 01010101 01010101 + B[1] = 0x33333333 = 00110011 00110011 00110011 00110011 + B[2] = 0x0F0F0F0F = 00001111 00001111 00001111 00001111 + B[3] = 0x00FF00FF = 00000000 11111111 00000000 11111111 + B[4] = 0x0000FFFF = 00000000 00000000 11111111 11111111 + +We can adjust the method for larger integer sizes by continuing with the +patterns for the Binary Magic Numbers, B and S. If there are k bits, +then we need the arrays S and B to be ceil(lg(k)) elements long, and we +must compute the same number of expressions for c as S or B are long. +For a 32-bit v, 16 operations are used. + +The best method for counting bits in a 32-bit integer v is the +following: + + v = v - ((v >> 1) & 0x55555555); // reuse input as temporary + v = (v & 0x33333333) + ((v >> 2) & 0x33333333); // temp + c = ((v + (v >> 4) & 0xF0F0F0F) * 0x1010101) >> 24; // count + +The best bit counting method takes only 12 operations, which is the same +as the lookup-table method, but avoids the memory and potential cache +misses of a table. It is a hybrid between the purely parallel method +above and the earlier methods using multiplies (in the section on +counting bits with 64-bit instructions), though it doesn't use 64-bit +instructions. The counts of bits set in the bytes is done in parallel, +and the sum total of the bits set in the bytes is computed by +multiplying by 0x1010101 and shifting right 24 bits. + +A generalization of the best bit counting method to integers of +bit-widths upto 128 (parameterized by type T) is this: + + v = v - ((v >> 1) & (T)~(T)0/3); // temp + v = (v & (T)~(T)0/15*3) + ((v >> 2) & (T)~(T)0/15*3); // temp + v = (v + (v >> 4)) & (T)~(T)0/255*15; // temp + c = (T)(v * ((T)~(T)0/255)) >> (sizeof(T) - 1) * CHAR_BIT; // count + +See [Ian Ashdown's nice newsgroup +post](http://groups.google.com/groups?q=reverse+bits&num=100&hl=en&group=comp.graphics.algorithms&imgsafe=off&safe=off&rnum=2&ic=1&selm=4fulhm%248dn%40atlas.uniserve.com) +for more information on counting the number of bits set (also known as +sideways addition). The best bit counting method was brought to my +attention on October 5, 2005 by [Andrew Shapira](http://onezero.org); he +found it in pages 187-188 of [Software Optimization Guide for AMD +Athlon™ 64 and Opteron™ +Processors](http://www.amd.com/us-en/assets/content_type/white_papers_and_tech_docs/25112.PDF). +Charlie Gordon suggested a way to shave off one operation from the +purely parallel version on December 14, 2005, and Don Clugston trimmed +three more from it on December 30, 2005. I made a typo with Don's +suggestion that Eric Cole spotted on January 8, 2006. Eric later +suggested the arbitrary bit-width generalization to the best method on +November 17, 2006. On April 5, 2007, Al Williams observed that I had a +line of dead code at the top of the first method. + +The following finds the the rank of a bit, meaning it returns the sum of +bits that are set to 1 from the most-signficant bit downto the bit at +the given +position. + +``` + uint64_t v; // Compute the rank (bits set) in v from the MSB to pos. + unsigned int pos; // Bit position to count bits upto. + uint64_t r; // Resulting rank of bit at pos goes here. + + // Shift out bits after given position. + r = v >> (sizeof(v) * CHAR_BIT - pos); + // Count set bits in parallel. + // r = (r & 0x5555...) + ((r >> 1) & 0x5555...); + r = r - ((r >> 1) & ~0UL/3); + // r = (r & 0x3333...) + ((r >> 2) & 0x3333...); + r = (r & ~0UL/5) + ((r >> 2) & ~0UL/5); + // r = (r & 0x0f0f...) + ((r >> 4) & 0x0f0f...); + r = (r + (r >> 4)) & ~0UL/17; + // r = r % 255; + r = (r * (~0UL/255)) >> ((sizeof(v) - 1) * CHAR_BIT); +``` + +Juha Järvi sent this to me on November 21, 2009 as an inverse operation +to the computing the bit position with the given rank, which follows. + +The following 64-bit code selects the position of the rth 1 bit when +counting from the left. In other words if we start at the most +significant bit and proceed to the right, counting the number of bits +set to 1 until we reach the desired rank, r, then the position where we +stop is returned. If the rank requested exceeds the count of bits set, +then 64 is returned. The code may be modified for 32-bit or counting +from the right. + +``` + uint64_t v; // Input value to find position with rank r. + unsigned int r; // Input: bit's desired rank [1-64]. + unsigned int s; // Output: Resulting position of bit with rank r [1-64] + uint64_t a, b, c, d; // Intermediate temporaries for bit count. + unsigned int t; // Bit count temporary. + + // Do a normal parallel bit count for a 64-bit integer, + // but store all intermediate steps. + // a = (v & 0x5555...) + ((v >> 1) & 0x5555...); + a = v - ((v >> 1) & ~0UL/3); + // b = (a & 0x3333...) + ((a >> 2) & 0x3333...); + b = (a & ~0UL/5) + ((a >> 2) & ~0UL/5); + // c = (b & 0x0f0f...) + ((b >> 4) & 0x0f0f...); + c = (b + (b >> 4)) & ~0UL/0x11; + // d = (c & 0x00ff...) + ((c >> 8) & 0x00ff...); + d = (c + (c >> 8)) & ~0UL/0x101; + t = (d >> 32) + (d >> 48); + // Now do branchless select! + s = 64; + // if (r > t) {s -= 32; r -= t;} + s -= ((t - r) & 256) >> 3; r -= (t & ((t - r) >> 8)); + t = (d >> (s - 16)) & 0xff; + // if (r > t) {s -= 16; r -= t;} + s -= ((t - r) & 256) >> 4; r -= (t & ((t - r) >> 8)); + t = (c >> (s - 8)) & 0xf; + // if (r > t) {s -= 8; r -= t;} + s -= ((t - r) & 256) >> 5; r -= (t & ((t - r) >> 8)); + t = (b >> (s - 4)) & 0x7; + // if (r > t) {s -= 4; r -= t;} + s -= ((t - r) & 256) >> 6; r -= (t & ((t - r) >> 8)); + t = (a >> (s - 2)) & 0x3; + // if (r > t) {s -= 2; r -= t;} + s -= ((t - r) & 256) >> 7; r -= (t & ((t - r) >> 8)); + t = (v >> (s - 1)) & 0x1; + // if (r > t) s--; + s -= ((t - r) & 256) >> 8; + s = 65 - s; +``` + +If branching is fast on your target CPU, consider uncommenting the +if-statements and commenting the lines that follow them. + +Juha Järvi sent this to me on November 21, 2009. + + unsigned int v; // word value to compute the parity of + bool parity = false; // parity will be the parity of v + + while (v) + { + parity = !parity; + v = v & (v - 1); + } + +The above code uses an approach like Brian Kernigan's bit counting, +above. The time it takes is proportional to the number of bits set. + + static const bool ParityTable256[256] = + { + # define P2(n) n, n^1, n^1, n + # define P4(n) P2(n), P2(n^1), P2(n^1), P2(n) + # define P6(n) P4(n), P4(n^1), P4(n^1), P4(n) + P6(0), P6(1), P6(1), P6(0) + }; + + unsigned char b; // byte value to compute the parity of + bool parity = ParityTable256[b]; + + // OR, for 32-bit words: + unsigned int v; + v ^= v >> 16; + v ^= v >> 8; + bool parity = ParityTable256[v & 0xff]; + + // Variation: + unsigned char * p = (unsigned char *) &v; + parity = ParityTable256[p[0] ^ p[1] ^ p[2] ^ p[3]]; + +Randal E. Bryant encouraged the addition of the (admittedly) obvious +last variation with variable p on May 3, 2005. Bruce Rawles found a typo +in an instance of the table variable's name on September 27, 2005, and +he received a $10 bug bounty. On October 9, 2006, Fabrice Bellard +suggested the 32-bit variations above, which require only one table +lookup; the previous version had four lookups (one per byte) and were +slower. On July 14, 2009 Hallvard Furuseth suggested the macro compacted +table. + + unsigned char b; // byte value to compute the parity of + bool parity = + (((b * 0x0101010101010101ULL) & 0x8040201008040201ULL) % 0x1FF) & 1; + +The method above takes around 4 operations, but only works on bytes. + +The following method computes the parity of the 32-bit value in only 8 +operations using a multiply. + +``` + unsigned int v; // 32-bit word + v ^= v >> 1; + v ^= v >> 2; + v = (v & 0x11111111U) * 0x11111111U; + return (v >> 28) & 1; +``` + +Also for 64-bits, 8 operations are still enough. + +``` + unsigned long long v; // 64-bit word + v ^= v >> 1; + v ^= v >> 2; + v = (v & 0x1111111111111111UL) * 0x1111111111111111UL; + return (v >> 60) & 1; +``` + +Andrew Shapira came up with this and sent it to me on Sept. 2, 2007. + + unsigned int v; // word value to compute the parity of + v ^= v >> 16; + v ^= v >> 8; + v ^= v >> 4; + v &= 0xf; + return (0x6996 >> v) & 1; + +The method above takes around 9 operations, and works for 32-bit words. +It may be optimized to work just on bytes in 5 operations by removing +the two lines immediately following "unsigned int v;". The method first +shifts and XORs the eight nibbles of the 32-bit value together, leaving +the result in the lowest nibble of v. Next, the binary number 0110 1001 +1001 0110 (0x6996 in hex) is shifted to the right by the value +represented in the lowest nibble of v. This number is like a miniature +16-bit parity-table indexed by the low four bits in v. The result has +the parity of v in bit 1, which is masked and returned. + +Thanks to Mathew Hendry for pointing out the shift-lookup idea at the +end on Dec. 15, 2002. That optimization shaves two operations off using +only shifting and XORing to find the parity. + + #define SWAP(a, b) ((&(a) == &(b)) || \ + (((a) -= (b)), ((b) += (a)), ((a) = (b) - (a)))) + +This swaps the values of a and b without using a temporary variable. The +initial check for a and b being the same location in memory may be +omitted when you know this can't happen. (The compiler may omit it +anyway as an optimization.) If you enable overflows exceptions, then +pass unsigned values so an exception isn't thrown. The XOR method that +follows may be slightly faster on some machines. Don't use this with +floating-point numbers (unless you operate on their raw integer +representations). + +Sanjeev Sivasankaran suggested I add this on June 12, 2007. Vincent +Lefèvre pointed out the potential for overflow exceptions on July 9, +2008 + + #define SWAP(a, b) (((a) ^= (b)), ((b) ^= (a)), ((a) ^= (b))) + +This is an old trick to exchange the values of the variables a and b +without using extra space for a temporary variable. + +On January 20, 2005, Iain A. Fleming pointed out that the macro above +doesn't work when you swap with the same memory location, such as +SWAP(a\[i\], a\[j\]) with i == j. So if that may occur, consider +defining the macro as (((a) == (b)) || (((a) ^= (b)), ((b) ^= (a)), ((a) +^= (b)))). On July 14, 2009, Hallvard Furuseth suggested that on some +machines, (((a) ^ (b)) && ((b) ^= (a) ^= (b), (a) ^= (b))) might be +faster, since the (a) ^ (b) expression is reused. + + unsigned int i, j; // positions of bit sequences to swap + unsigned int n; // number of consecutive bits in each sequence + unsigned int b; // bits to swap reside in b + unsigned int r; // bit-swapped result goes here + + unsigned int x = ((b >> i) ^ (b >> j)) & ((1U << n) - 1); // XOR temporary + r = b ^ ((x << i) | (x << j)); + +As an example of swapping ranges of bits suppose we have have b = +**001**0**111**1 (expressed in binary) and we want to swap the n = 3 +consecutive bits starting at i = 1 (the second bit from the right) with +the 3 consecutive bits starting at j = 5; the result would be r = +**111**0**001**1 (binary). + +This method of swapping is similar to the general purpose XOR swap +trick, but intended for operating on individual bits.  The variable x +stores the result of XORing the pairs of bit values we want to swap, and +then the bits are set to the result of themselves XORed with x.  Of +course, the result is undefined if the sequences overlap. + +On July 14, 2009 Hallvard Furuseth suggested that I change the 1 \<\< n +to 1U \<\< n because the value was being assigned to an unsigned and to +avoid shifting into a sign bit. + + unsigned int v; // input bits to be reversed + unsigned int r = v; // r will be reversed bits of v; first get LSB of v + int s = sizeof(v) * CHAR_BIT - 1; // extra shift needed at end + + for (v >>= 1; v; v >>= 1) + { + r <<= 1; + r |= v & 1; + s--; + } + r <<= s; // shift when v's highest bits are zero + +On October 15, 2004, Michael Hoisie pointed out a bug in the original +version. Randal E. Bryant suggested removing an extra operation on May +3, 2005. Behdad Esfabod suggested a slight change that eliminated one +iteration of the loop on May 18, 2005. Then, on February 6, 2007, Liyong +Zhou suggested a better version that loops while v is not 0, so rather +than iterating over all bits it stops early. + + static const unsigned char BitReverseTable256[256] = + { + # define R2(n) n, n + 2*64, n + 1*64, n + 3*64 + # define R4(n) R2(n), R2(n + 2*16), R2(n + 1*16), R2(n + 3*16) + # define R6(n) R4(n), R4(n + 2*4 ), R4(n + 1*4 ), R4(n + 3*4 ) + R6(0), R6(2), R6(1), R6(3) + }; + + unsigned int v; // reverse 32-bit value, 8 bits at time + unsigned int c; // c will get v reversed + + // Option 1: + c = (BitReverseTable256[v & 0xff] << 24) | + (BitReverseTable256[(v >> 8) & 0xff] << 16) | + (BitReverseTable256[(v >> 16) & 0xff] << 8) | + (BitReverseTable256[(v >> 24) & 0xff]); + + // Option 2: + unsigned char * p = (unsigned char *) &v; + unsigned char * q = (unsigned char *) &c; + q[3] = BitReverseTable256[p[0]]; + q[2] = BitReverseTable256[p[1]]; + q[1] = BitReverseTable256[p[2]]; + q[0] = BitReverseTable256[p[3]]; + +The first method takes about 17 operations, and the second takes about +12, assuming your CPU can load and store bytes easily. + +On July 14, 2009 Hallvard Furuseth suggested the macro compacted table. + + unsigned char b; // reverse this (8-bit) byte + + b = (b * 0x0202020202ULL & 0x010884422010ULL) % 1023; + +The multiply operation creates five separate copies of the 8-bit byte +pattern to fan-out into a 64-bit value. The AND operation selects the +bits that are in the correct (reversed) positions, relative to each +10-bit groups of bits. The multiply and the AND operations copy the bits +from the original byte so they each appear in only one of the 10-bit +sets. The reversed positions of the bits from the original byte coincide +with their relative positions within any 10-bit set. The last step, +which involves modulus division by 2^10 - 1, has the effect of merging +together each set of 10 bits (from positions 0-9, 10-19, 20-29, ...) in +the 64-bit value. They do not overlap, so the addition steps underlying +the modulus division behave like or operations. + +This method was attributed to Rich Schroeppel in the Programming Hacks +section of [Beeler, M., Gosper, R. W., and Schroeppel, R. HAKMEM. MIT AI +Memo 239, Feb. 29, +1972.](http://www.inwap.com/pdp10/hbaker/hakmem/hakmem.html) + + unsigned char b; // reverse this byte + + b = ((b * 0x80200802ULL) & 0x0884422110ULL) * 0x0101010101ULL >> 32; + +The following shows the flow of the bit values with the boolean +variables `a, b, c, d, e, f, g,` and `h`, which comprise an 8-bit byte. +Notice how the first multiply fans out the bit pattern to multiple +copies, while the last multiply combines them in the fifth byte from the +right. + +``` + abcd efgh (-> hgfe dcba) +* 1000 0000 0010 0000 0000 1000 0000 0010 (0x80200802) +------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + 0abc defg h00a bcde fgh0 0abc defg h00a bcde fgh0 +& 0000 1000 1000 0100 0100 0010 0010 0001 0001 0000 (0x0884422110) +------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + 0000 d000 h000 0c00 0g00 00b0 00f0 000a 000e 0000 +* 0000 0001 0000 0001 0000 0001 0000 0001 0000 0001 (0x0101010101) +------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + 0000 d000 h000 0c00 0g00 00b0 00f0 000a 000e 0000 + 0000 d000 h000 0c00 0g00 00b0 00f0 000a 000e 0000 + 0000 d000 h000 0c00 0g00 00b0 00f0 000a 000e 0000 + 0000 d000 h000 0c00 0g00 00b0 00f0 000a 000e 0000 +0000 d000 h000 0c00 0g00 00b0 00f0 000a 000e 0000 +------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- +0000 d000 h000 dc00 hg00 dcb0 hgf0 dcba hgfe dcba hgfe 0cba 0gfe 00ba 00fe 000a 000e 0000 +>> 32 +------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + 0000 d000 h000 dc00 hg00 dcb0 hgf0 dcba hgfe dcba +& 1111 1111 +------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + hgfe dcba +``` + +Note that the last two steps can be combined on some processors because +the registers can be accessed as bytes; just multiply so that a register +stores the upper 32 bits of the result and the take the low byte. Thus, +it may take only 6 operations. + +Devised by Sean Anderson, July 13, + 2001. + + b = ((b * 0x0802LU & 0x22110LU) | (b * 0x8020LU & 0x88440LU)) * 0x10101LU >> 16; + +Make sure you assign or cast the result to an unsigned char to remove +garbage in the higher bits. Devised by Sean Anderson, July 13, 2001. +Typo spotted and correction supplied by Mike Keith, January 3, 2002. + + unsigned int v; // 32-bit word to reverse bit order + + // swap odd and even bits + v = ((v >> 1) & 0x55555555) | ((v & 0x55555555) << 1); + // swap consecutive pairs + v = ((v >> 2) & 0x33333333) | ((v & 0x33333333) << 2); + // swap nibbles ... + v = ((v >> 4) & 0x0F0F0F0F) | ((v & 0x0F0F0F0F) << 4); + // swap bytes + v = ((v >> 8) & 0x00FF00FF) | ((v & 0x00FF00FF) << 8); + // swap 2-byte long pairs + v = ( v >> 16 ) | ( v << 16); + +The following variation is also O(lg(N)), however it requires more +operations to reverse v. Its virtue is in taking less slightly memory by +computing the constants on the + fly. + + unsigned int s = sizeof(v) * CHAR_BIT; // bit size; must be power of 2 + unsigned int mask = ~0; + while ((s >>= 1) > 0) + { + mask ^= (mask << s); + v = ((v >> s) & mask) | ((v << s) & ~mask); + } + +These methods above are best suited to situations where N is large. If +you use the above with 64-bit ints (or larger), then you need to add +more lines (following the pattern); otherwise only the lower 32 bits +will be reversed and the result will be in the lower 32 bits. + +See Dr. Dobb's Journal 1983, Edwin Freed's article on Binary Magic +Numbers for more information. The second variation was suggested by Ken +Raeburn on September 13, 2005. Veldmeijer mentioned that the first +version could do without ANDS in the last line on March 19, 2006. + + const unsigned int n; // numerator + const unsigned int s; + const unsigned int d = 1U << s; // So d will be one of: 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, ... + unsigned int m; // m will be n % d + m = n & (d - 1); + +Most programmers learn this trick early, but it was included for the +sake of completeness. + + unsigned int n; // numerator + const unsigned int s; // s > 0 + const unsigned int d = (1 << s) - 1; // so d is either 1, 3, 7, 15, 31, ...). + unsigned int m; // n % d goes here. + + for (m = n; n > d; n = m) + { + for (m = 0; n; n >>= s) + { + m += n & d; + } + } + // Now m is a value from 0 to d, but since with modulus division + // we want m to be 0 when it is d. + m = m == d ? 0 : m; + +This method of modulus division by an integer that is one less than a +power of 2 takes at most 5 + (4 + 5 \* ceil(N / s)) \* ceil(lg(N / s)) +operations, where N is the number of bits in the numerator. In other +words, it takes at most O(N \* lg(N)) time. + +Devised by Sean Anderson, August 15, 2001. Before Sean A. Irvine +corrected me on June 17, 2004, I mistakenly commented that we could +alternatively assign `m = ((m + 1) & d) - 1;` at the end. Michael Miller +spotted a typo in the code April 25, 2005. + +``` + +// The following is for a word size of 32 bits! + +static const unsigned int M[] = +{ + 0x00000000, 0x55555555, 0x33333333, 0xc71c71c7, + 0x0f0f0f0f, 0xc1f07c1f, 0x3f03f03f, 0xf01fc07f, + 0x00ff00ff, 0x07fc01ff, 0x3ff003ff, 0xffc007ff, + 0xff000fff, 0xfc001fff, 0xf0003fff, 0xc0007fff, + 0x0000ffff, 0x0001ffff, 0x0003ffff, 0x0007ffff, + 0x000fffff, 0x001fffff, 0x003fffff, 0x007fffff, + 0x00ffffff, 0x01ffffff, 0x03ffffff, 0x07ffffff, + 0x0fffffff, 0x1fffffff, 0x3fffffff, 0x7fffffff +}; + +static const unsigned int Q[][6] = +{ + { 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0}, {16, 8, 4, 2, 1, 1}, {16, 8, 4, 2, 2, 2}, + {15, 6, 3, 3, 3, 3}, {16, 8, 4, 4, 4, 4}, {15, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5}, + {12, 6, 6, 6 , 6, 6}, {14, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7}, {16, 8, 8, 8, 8, 8}, + { 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9}, {10, 10, 10, 10, 10, 10}, {11, 11, 11, 11, 11, 11}, + {12, 12, 12, 12, 12, 12}, {13, 13, 13, 13, 13, 13}, {14, 14, 14, 14, 14, 14}, + {15, 15, 15, 15, 15, 15}, {16, 16, 16, 16, 16, 16}, {17, 17, 17, 17, 17, 17}, + {18, 18, 18, 18, 18, 18}, {19, 19, 19, 19, 19, 19}, {20, 20, 20, 20, 20, 20}, + {21, 21, 21, 21, 21, 21}, {22, 22, 22, 22, 22, 22}, {23, 23, 23, 23, 23, 23}, + {24, 24, 24, 24, 24, 24}, {25, 25, 25, 25, 25, 25}, {26, 26, 26, 26, 26, 26}, + {27, 27, 27, 27, 27, 27}, {28, 28, 28, 28, 28, 28}, {29, 29, 29, 29, 29, 29}, + {30, 30, 30, 30, 30, 30}, {31, 31, 31, 31, 31, 31} +}; + +static const unsigned int R[][6] = +{ + {0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000}, + {0x0000ffff, 0x000000ff, 0x0000000f, 0x00000003, 0x00000001, 0x00000001}, + {0x0000ffff, 0x000000ff, 0x0000000f, 0x00000003, 0x00000003, 0x00000003}, + {0x00007fff, 0x0000003f, 0x00000007, 0x00000007, 0x00000007, 0x00000007}, + {0x0000ffff, 0x000000ff, 0x0000000f, 0x0000000f, 0x0000000f, 0x0000000f}, + {0x00007fff, 0x0000001f, 0x0000001f, 0x0000001f, 0x0000001f, 0x0000001f}, + {0x00000fff, 0x0000003f, 0x0000003f, 0x0000003f, 0x0000003f, 0x0000003f}, + {0x00003fff, 0x0000007f, 0x0000007f, 0x0000007f, 0x0000007f, 0x0000007f}, + {0x0000ffff, 0x000000ff, 0x000000ff, 0x000000ff, 0x000000ff, 0x000000ff}, + {0x000001ff, 0x000001ff, 0x000001ff, 0x000001ff, 0x000001ff, 0x000001ff}, + {0x000003ff, 0x000003ff, 0x000003ff, 0x000003ff, 0x000003ff, 0x000003ff}, + {0x000007ff, 0x000007ff, 0x000007ff, 0x000007ff, 0x000007ff, 0x000007ff}, + {0x00000fff, 0x00000fff, 0x00000fff, 0x00000fff, 0x00000fff, 0x00000fff}, + {0x00001fff, 0x00001fff, 0x00001fff, 0x00001fff, 0x00001fff, 0x00001fff}, + {0x00003fff, 0x00003fff, 0x00003fff, 0x00003fff, 0x00003fff, 0x00003fff}, + {0x00007fff, 0x00007fff, 0x00007fff, 0x00007fff, 0x00007fff, 0x00007fff}, + {0x0000ffff, 0x0000ffff, 0x0000ffff, 0x0000ffff, 0x0000ffff, 0x0000ffff}, + {0x0001ffff, 0x0001ffff, 0x0001ffff, 0x0001ffff, 0x0001ffff, 0x0001ffff}, + {0x0003ffff, 0x0003ffff, 0x0003ffff, 0x0003ffff, 0x0003ffff, 0x0003ffff}, + {0x0007ffff, 0x0007ffff, 0x0007ffff, 0x0007ffff, 0x0007ffff, 0x0007ffff}, + {0x000fffff, 0x000fffff, 0x000fffff, 0x000fffff, 0x000fffff, 0x000fffff}, + {0x001fffff, 0x001fffff, 0x001fffff, 0x001fffff, 0x001fffff, 0x001fffff}, + {0x003fffff, 0x003fffff, 0x003fffff, 0x003fffff, 0x003fffff, 0x003fffff}, + {0x007fffff, 0x007fffff, 0x007fffff, 0x007fffff, 0x007fffff, 0x007fffff}, + {0x00ffffff, 0x00ffffff, 0x00ffffff, 0x00ffffff, 0x00ffffff, 0x00ffffff}, + {0x01ffffff, 0x01ffffff, 0x01ffffff, 0x01ffffff, 0x01ffffff, 0x01ffffff}, + {0x03ffffff, 0x03ffffff, 0x03ffffff, 0x03ffffff, 0x03ffffff, 0x03ffffff}, + {0x07ffffff, 0x07ffffff, 0x07ffffff, 0x07ffffff, 0x07ffffff, 0x07ffffff}, + {0x0fffffff, 0x0fffffff, 0x0fffffff, 0x0fffffff, 0x0fffffff, 0x0fffffff}, + {0x1fffffff, 0x1fffffff, 0x1fffffff, 0x1fffffff, 0x1fffffff, 0x1fffffff}, + {0x3fffffff, 0x3fffffff, 0x3fffffff, 0x3fffffff, 0x3fffffff, 0x3fffffff}, + {0x7fffffff, 0x7fffffff, 0x7fffffff, 0x7fffffff, 0x7fffffff, 0x7fffffff} +}; + +unsigned int n; // numerator +const unsigned int s; // s > 0 +const unsigned int d = (1 << s) - 1; // so d is either 1, 3, 7, 15, 31, ...). +unsigned int m; // n % d goes here. + +m = (n & M[s]) + ((n >> s) & M[s]); + +for (const unsigned int * q = &Q[s][0], * r = &R[s][0]; m > d; q++, r++) +{ + m = (m >> *q) + (m & *r); +} +m = m == d ? 0 : m; // OR, less portably: m = m & -((signed)(m - d) >> s); +``` + +This method of finding modulus division by an integer that is one less +than a power of 2 takes at most O(lg(N)) time, where N is the number of +bits in the numerator (32 bits, for the code above). The number of +operations is at most 12 + 9 \* ceil(lg(N)). The tables may be removed +if you know the denominator at compile time; just extract the few +relevent entries and unroll the loop. It may be easily extended to more +bits. + +It finds the result by summing the values in base (1 \<\< s) in +parallel. First every other base (1 \<\< s) value is added to the +previous one. Imagine that the result is written on a piece of paper. +Cut the paper in half, so that half the values are on each cut piece. +Align the values and sum them onto a new piece of paper. Repeat by +cutting this paper in half (which will be a quarter of the size of the +previous one) and summing, until you cannot cut further. After +performing lg(N/s/2) cuts, we cut no more; just continue to add the +values and put the result onto a new piece of paper as before, while +there are at least two s-bit values. + +Devised by Sean Anderson, August 20, 2001. A typo was spotted by Randy +E. Bryant on May 3, 2005 (after pasting the code, I had later added +"unsinged" to a variable declaration). As in the previous hack, I +mistakenly commented that we could alternatively assign `m = ((m + 1) & +d) - 1;` at the end, and Don Knuth corrected me on April 19, 2006 and +suggested `m = m & -((signed)(m - d) >> s)`. On June 18, 2009 Sean +Irvine proposed a change that used `((n >> s) & M[s])` instead of `((n & +~M[s]) >> s)`, which typically requires fewer operations because the +M\[s\] constant is already loaded. + + unsigned int v; // 32-bit word to find the log base 2 of + unsigned int r = 0; // r will be lg(v) + + while (v >>= 1) // unroll for more speed... + { + r++; + } + +The log base 2 of an integer is the same as the position of the highest +bit set (or most significant bit set, MSB). The following log base 2 +methods are faster than this one. + + int v; // 32-bit integer to find the log base 2 of + int r; // result of log_2(v) goes here + union { unsigned int u[2]; double d; } t; // temp + + t.u[__FLOAT_WORD_ORDER==LITTLE_ENDIAN] = 0x43300000; + t.u[__FLOAT_WORD_ORDER!=LITTLE_ENDIAN] = v; + t.d -= 4503599627370496.0; + r = (t.u[__FLOAT_WORD_ORDER==LITTLE_ENDIAN] >> 20) - 0x3FF; + +The code above loads a 64-bit (IEEE-754 floating-point) double with a +32-bit integer (with no paddding bits) by storing the integer in the +mantissa while the exponent is set to 252. From this newly minted +double, 252 (expressed as a double) is subtracted, which sets the +resulting exponent to the log base 2 of the input value, v. All that is +left is shifting the exponent bits into position (20 bits right) and +subtracting the bias, 0x3FF (which is 1023 decimal). This technique only +takes 5 operations, but many CPUs are slow at manipulating doubles, and +the endianess of the architecture must be accommodated. + +Eric Cole sent me this on January 15, 2006. Evan Felix pointed out a +typo on April 4, 2006. Vincent Lefèvre told me on July 9, 2008 to change +the endian check to use the float's endian, which could differ from the +integer's endian. + + static const char LogTable256[256] = + { + #define LT(n) n, n, n, n, n, n, n, n, n, n, n, n, n, n, n, n + -1, 0, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, + LT(4), LT(5), LT(5), LT(6), LT(6), LT(6), LT(6), + LT(7), LT(7), LT(7), LT(7), LT(7), LT(7), LT(7), LT(7) + }; + + unsigned int v; // 32-bit word to find the log of + unsigned r; // r will be lg(v) + register unsigned int t, tt; // temporaries + + if (tt = v >> 16) + { + r = (t = tt >> 8) ? 24 + LogTable256[t] : 16 + LogTable256[tt]; + } + else + { + r = (t = v >> 8) ? 8 + LogTable256[t] : LogTable256[v]; + } + +The lookup table method takes only about 7 operations to find the log of +a 32-bit value. If extended for 64-bit quantities, it would take roughly +9 operations. Another operation can be trimmed off by using four tables, +with the possible additions incorporated into each. Using int table +elements may be faster, depending on your architecture. + +The code above is tuned to uniformly distributed output values. If your +inputs are evenly distributed across all 32-bit values, then consider +using the following: + + if (tt = v >> 24) + { + r = 24 + LogTable256[tt]; + } + else if (tt = v >> 16) + { + r = 16 + LogTable256[tt]; + } + else if (tt = v >> 8) + { + r = 8 + LogTable256[tt]; + } + else + { + r = LogTable256[v]; + } + +To initially generate the log table algorithmically: + + LogTable256[0] = LogTable256[1] = 0; + for (int i = 2; i < 256; i++) + { + LogTable256[i] = 1 + LogTable256[i / 2]; + } + LogTable256[0] = -1; // if you want log(0) to return -1 + +Behdad Esfahbod and I shaved off a fraction of an operation (on average) +on May 18, 2005. Yet another fraction of an operation was removed on +November 14, 2006 by Emanuel Hoogeveen. The variation that is tuned to +evenly distributed input values was suggested by David A. Butterfield on +September 19, 2008. Venkat Reddy told me on January 5, 2009 that log(0) +should return -1 to indicate an error, so I changed the first entry in +the table to that. + + unsigned int v; // 32-bit value to find the log2 of + const unsigned int b[] = {0x2, 0xC, 0xF0, 0xFF00, 0xFFFF0000}; + const unsigned int S[] = {1, 2, 4, 8, 16}; + int i; + + register unsigned int r = 0; // result of log2(v) will go here + for (i = 4; i >= 0; i--) // unroll for speed... + { + if (v & b[i]) + { + v >>= S[i]; + r |= S[i]; + } + } + + + // OR (IF YOUR CPU BRANCHES SLOWLY): + + unsigned int v; // 32-bit value to find the log2 of + register unsigned int r; // result of log2(v) will go here + register unsigned int shift; + + r = (v > 0xFFFF) << 4; v >>= r; + shift = (v > 0xFF ) << 3; v >>= shift; r |= shift; + shift = (v > 0xF ) << 2; v >>= shift; r |= shift; + shift = (v > 0x3 ) << 1; v >>= shift; r |= shift; + r |= (v >> 1); + + + // OR (IF YOU KNOW v IS A POWER OF 2): + + unsigned int v; // 32-bit value to find the log2 of + static const unsigned int b[] = {0xAAAAAAAA, 0xCCCCCCCC, 0xF0F0F0F0, + 0xFF00FF00, 0xFFFF0000}; + register unsigned int r = (v & b[0]) != 0; + for (i = 4; i > 0; i--) // unroll for speed... + { + r |= ((v & b[i]) != 0) << i; + } + +Of course, to extend the code to find the log of a 33- to 64-bit number, +we would append another element, 0xFFFFFFFF00000000, to b, append 32 to +S, and loop from 5 to 0. This method is much slower than the earlier +table-lookup version, but if you don't want big table or your +architecture is slow to access memory, it's a good choice. The second +variation involves slightly more operations, but it may be faster on +machines with high branch costs (e.g. PowerPC). + +The second version was sent to me by [Eric +Cole](http://www.balance-software.com/ec/) on January 7, 2006. Andrew +Shapira subsequently trimmed a few operations off of it and sent me his +variation (above) on Sept. 1, 2007. The third variation was suggested to +me by [John Owens](http://www.ece.ucdavis.edu/~jowens/) on April 24, +2002; it's faster, but it is only suitable when the input is known to be +a power of 2. On May 25, 2003, Ken Raeburn suggested improving the +general case by using smaller numbers for b\[\], which load faster on +some architectures (for instance if the word size is 16 bits, then only +one load instruction may be needed). These values work for the general +version, but not for the special-case version below it, where v is a +power of 2; Glenn Slayden brought this oversight to my attention on +December 12, 2003. + + uint32_t v; // find the log base 2 of 32-bit v + int r; // result goes here + + static const int MultiplyDeBruijnBitPosition[32] = + { + 0, 9, 1, 10, 13, 21, 2, 29, 11, 14, 16, 18, 22, 25, 3, 30, + 8, 12, 20, 28, 15, 17, 24, 7, 19, 27, 23, 6, 26, 5, 4, 31 + }; + + v |= v >> 1; // first round down to one less than a power of 2 + v |= v >> 2; + v |= v >> 4; + v |= v >> 8; + v |= v >> 16; + + r = MultiplyDeBruijnBitPosition[(uint32_t)(v * 0x07C4ACDDU) >> 27]; + +The code above computes the log base 2 of a 32-bit integer with a small +table lookup and multiply. It requires only 13 operations, compared to +(up to) 20 for the previous method. The purely table-based method +requires the fewest operations, but this offers a reasonable compromise +between table size and speed. + +If you know that v is a power of 2, then you only need the following: + + static const int MultiplyDeBruijnBitPosition2[32] = + { + 0, 1, 28, 2, 29, 14, 24, 3, 30, 22, 20, 15, 25, 17, 4, 8, + 31, 27, 13, 23, 21, 19, 16, 7, 26, 12, 18, 6, 11, 5, 10, 9 + }; + r = MultiplyDeBruijnBitPosition2[(uint32_t)(v * 0x077CB531U) >> 27]; + +Eric Cole devised this January 8, 2006 after reading about the entry +below to [round up to a power of 2](#RoundUpPowerOf2) and the method +below for [computing the number of trailing bits with a multiply and +lookup](#ZerosOnRightMultLookup) using a DeBruijn sequence. On December +10, 2009, Mark Dickinson shaved off a couple operations by requiring v +be rounded up to one less than the next power of 2 rather than the power +of + 2. + + unsigned int v; // non-zero 32-bit integer value to compute the log base 10 of + int r; // result goes here + int t; // temporary + + static unsigned int const PowersOf10[] = + {1, 10, 100, 1000, 10000, 100000, + 1000000, 10000000, 100000000, 1000000000}; + + t = (IntegerLogBase2(v) + 1) * 1233 >> 12; // (use a lg2 method from above) + r = t - (v < PowersOf10[t]); + +The integer log base 10 is computed by first using one of the techniques +above for finding the log base 2. By the relationship log10(v) = log2(v) +/ log2(10), we need to multiply it by 1/log2(10), which is approximately +1233/4096, or 1233 followed by a right shift of 12. Adding one is needed +because the IntegerLogBase2 rounds down. Finally, since the value t is +only an approximation that may be off by one, the exact value is found +by subtracting the result of v \< PowersOf10\[t\]. + +This method takes 6 more operations than IntegerLogBase2. It may be sped +up (on machines with fast memory access) by modifying the log base 2 +table-lookup method above so that the entries hold what is computed for +t (that is, pre-add, -mulitply, and -shift). Doing so would require a +total of only 9 operations to find the log base 10, assuming 4 tables +were used (one for each byte of v). + +Eric Cole suggested I add a version of this on January 7, + 2006. + + unsigned int v; // non-zero 32-bit integer value to compute the log base 10 of + int r; // result goes here + + r = (v >= 1000000000) ? 9 : (v >= 100000000) ? 8 : (v >= 10000000) ? 7 : + (v >= 1000000) ? 6 : (v >= 100000) ? 5 : (v >= 10000) ? 4 : + (v >= 1000) ? 3 : (v >= 100) ? 2 : (v >= 10) ? 1 : 0; + +This method works well when the input is uniformly distributed over +32-bit values because 76% of the inputs are caught by the first compare, +21% are caught by the second compare, 2% are caught by the third, and so +on (chopping the remaining down by 90% with each comparision). As a +result, less than 2.6 operations are needed on average. + +On April 18, 2007, Emanuel Hoogeveen suggested a variation on this where +the conditions used divisions, which were not as fast as simple +comparisons. + + const float v; // find int(log2(v)), where v > 0.0 && finite(v) && isnormal(v) + int c; // 32-bit int c gets the result; + + c = *(const int *) &v; // OR, for portability: memcpy(&c, &v, sizeof c); + c = (c >> 23) - 127; + +The above is fast, but IEEE 754-compliant architectures utilize +subnormal (also called denormal) floating point numbers. These have the +exponent bits set to zero (signifying pow(2,-127)), and the mantissa is +not normalized, so it contains leading zeros and thus the log2 must be +computed from the mantissa. To accomodate for subnormal numbers, use the +following: + + const float v; // find int(log2(v)), where v > 0.0 && finite(v) + int c; // 32-bit int c gets the result; + int x = *(const int *) &v; // OR, for portability: memcpy(&x, &v, sizeof x); + + c = x >> 23; + + if (c) + { + c -= 127; + } + else + { // subnormal, so recompute using mantissa: c = intlog2(x) - 149; + register unsigned int t; // temporary + // Note that LogTable256 was defined earlier + if (t = x >> 16) + { + c = LogTable256[t] - 133; + } + else + { + c = (t = x >> 8) ? LogTable256[t] - 141 : LogTable256[x] - 149; + } + } + +On June 20, 2004, Sean A. Irvine suggested that I include code to handle +subnormal numbers. On June 11, 2005, Falk Hüffner pointed out that ISO +C99 6.5/7 specified undefined behavior for the common type punning idiom +\*(int \*)&, though it has worked on 99.9% of C compilers. He proposed +using memcpy for maximum portability or a union with a float and an int +for better code generation than memcpy on some compilers. + + const int r; + const float v; // find int(log2(pow((double) v, 1. / pow(2, r)))), + // where isnormal(v) and v > 0 + int c; // 32-bit int c gets the result; + + c = *(const int *) &v; // OR, for portability: memcpy(&c, &v, sizeof c); + c = ((((c - 0x3f800000) >> r) + 0x3f800000) >> 23) - 127; + +So, if r is 0, for example, we have c = int(log2((double) v)). If r is +1, then we have c = int(log2(sqrt((double) v))). If r is 2, then we have +c = int(log2(pow((double) v, 1./4))). + +On June 11, 2005, Falk Hüffner pointed out that ISO C99 6.5/7 left the +type punning idiom \*(int \*)& undefined, and he suggested using memcpy. + + unsigned int v; // input to count trailing zero bits + int c; // output: c will count v's trailing zero bits, + // so if v is 1101000 (base 2), then c will be 3 + if (v) + { + v = (v ^ (v - 1)) >> 1; // Set v's trailing 0s to 1s and zero rest + for (c = 0; v; c++) + { + v >>= 1; + } + } + else + { + c = CHAR_BIT * sizeof(v); + } + +The average number of trailing zero bits in a (uniformly distributed) +random binary number is one, so this O(trailing zeros) solution isn't +that bad compared to the faster methods below. + +Jim Cole suggested I add a linear-time method for counting the trailing +zeros on August 15, 2007. On October 22, 2007, Jason Cunningham pointed +out that I had neglected to paste the unsigned modifier for + v. + + unsigned int v; // 32-bit word input to count zero bits on right + unsigned int c = 32; // c will be the number of zero bits on the right + v &= -signed(v); + if (v) c--; + if (v & 0x0000FFFF) c -= 16; + if (v & 0x00FF00FF) c -= 8; + if (v & 0x0F0F0F0F) c -= 4; + if (v & 0x33333333) c -= 2; + if (v & 0x55555555) c -= 1; + +Here, we are basically doing the same operations as finding the log base +2 in parallel, but we first isolate the lowest 1 bit, and then proceed +with c starting at the maximum and decreasing. The number of operations +is at most 3 \* lg(N) + 4, roughly, for N bit words. + +Bill Burdick suggested an optimization, reducing the time from 4 \* +lg(N) on February 4, 2011. + +``` +unsigned int v; // 32-bit word input to count zero bits on right +unsigned int c; // c will be the number of zero bits on the right, + // so if v is 1101000 (base 2), then c will be 3 +// NOTE: if 0 == v, then c = 31. +if (v & 0x1) +{ + // special case for odd v (assumed to happen half of the time) + c = 0; +} +else +{ + c = 1; + if ((v & 0xffff) == 0) + { + v >>= 16; + c += 16; + } + if ((v & 0xff) == 0) + { + v >>= 8; + c += 8; + } + if ((v & 0xf) == 0) + { + v >>= 4; + c += 4; + } + if ((v & 0x3) == 0) + { + v >>= 2; + c += 2; + } + c -= v & 0x1; +} +``` + +The code above is similar to the previous method, but it computes the +number of trailing zeros by accumulating c in a manner akin to binary +search. In the first step, it checks if the bottom 16 bits of v are +zeros, and if so, shifts v right 16 bits and adds 16 to c, which reduces +the number of bits in v to consider by half. Each of the subsequent +conditional steps likewise halves the number of bits until there is only +1. This method is faster than the last one (by about 33%) because the +bodies of the if statements are executed less often. + +Matt Whitlock suggested this on January 25, 2006. Andrew Shapira shaved +a couple operations off on Sept. 5, 2007 (by setting c=1 and +unconditionally subtracting at the end). + + unsigned int v; // find the number of trailing zeros in v + int r; // the result goes here + float f = (float)(v & -v); // cast the least significant bit in v to a float + r = (*(uint32_t *)&f >> 23) - 0x7f; + +Although this only takes about 6 operations, the time to convert an +integer to a float can be high on some machines. The exponent of the +32-bit IEEE floating point representation is shifted down, and the bias +is subtracted to give the position of the least significant 1 bit set in +v. If v is zero, then the result is -127. + + unsigned int v; // find the number of trailing zeros in v + int r; // put the result in r + static const int Mod37BitPosition[] = // map a bit value mod 37 to its position + { + 32, 0, 1, 26, 2, 23, 27, 0, 3, 16, 24, 30, 28, 11, 0, 13, 4, + 7, 17, 0, 25, 22, 31, 15, 29, 10, 12, 6, 0, 21, 14, 9, 5, + 20, 8, 19, 18 + }; + r = Mod37BitPosition[(-v & v) % 37]; + +The code above finds the number of zeros that are trailing on the right, +so binary 0100 would produce 2. It makes use of the fact that the first +32 bit position values are relatively prime with 37, so performing a +modulus division with 37 gives a unique number from 0 to 36 for each. +These numbers may then be mapped to the number of zeros using a small +lookup table. It uses only 4 operations, however indexing into a table +and performing modulus division may make it unsuitable for some +situations. I came up with this independently and then searched for a +subsequence of the table values, and found it was invented earlier by +Reiser, according to [Hacker's +Delight](http://www.hackersdelight.org/HDcode/ntz.c.txt). + + unsigned int v; // find the number of trailing zeros in 32-bit v + int r; // result goes here + static const int MultiplyDeBruijnBitPosition[32] = + { + 0, 1, 28, 2, 29, 14, 24, 3, 30, 22, 20, 15, 25, 17, 4, 8, + 31, 27, 13, 23, 21, 19, 16, 7, 26, 12, 18, 6, 11, 5, 10, 9 + }; + r = MultiplyDeBruijnBitPosition[((uint32_t)((v & -v) * 0x077CB531U)) >> 27]; + +Converting bit vectors to indices of set bits is an example use for +this. It requires one more operation than the earlier one involving +modulus division, but the multiply may be faster. The expression (v & +-v) extracts the least significant 1 bit from v. The constant +0x077CB531UL is a de Bruijn sequence, which produces a unique pattern of +bits into the high 5 bits for each possible bit position that it is +multiplied against. When there are no bits set, it returns 0. More +information can be found by reading the paper [Using de Bruijn Sequences +to Index 1 in a Computer +Word](http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/leiserson98using.html) by Charles E. +Leiserson, Harald Prokof, and Keith H. Randall. + +On October 8, 2005 [Andrew Shapira](http://onezero.org) suggested I add +this. Dustin Spicuzza asked me on April 14, 2009 to cast the result of +the multiply to a 32-bit type so it would work when compiled with 64-bit +ints. + + unsigned int const v; // Round this 32-bit value to the next highest power of 2 + unsigned int r; // Put the result here. (So v=3 -> r=4; v=8 -> r=8) + + if (v > 1) + { + float f = (float)v; + unsigned int const t = 1U << ((*(unsigned int *)&f >> 23) - 0x7f); + r = t << (t < v); + } + else + { + r = 1; + } + +The code above uses 8 operations, but works on all v \<= (1\<\<31). + +Quick and dirty version, for domain of 1 \< v \< (1\<\<25): + + float f = (float)(v - 1); + r = 1U << ((*(unsigned int*)(&f) >> 23) - 126); + +Although the quick and dirty version only uses around 6 operations, it +is roughly three times slower than the [technique +below](#RoundUpPowerOf2) (which involves 12 operations) when benchmarked +on an Athlon™ XP 2100+ CPU. Some CPUs will fare better with it, though. + +On September 27, 2005 Andi Smithers suggested I include a technique for +casting to floats to find the lg of a number for rounding up to a power +of 2. Similar to the quick and dirty version here, his version worked +with values less than (1\<\<25), due to mantissa rounding, but it used +one more operation. + + unsigned int v; // compute the next highest power of 2 of 32-bit v + + v--; + v |= v >> 1; + v |= v >> 2; + v |= v >> 4; + v |= v >> 8; + v |= v >> 16; + v++; + +In 12 operations, this code computes the next highest power of 2 for a +32-bit integer. The result may be expressed by the formula 1U \<\< (lg(v +- 1) + 1). Note that in the edge case where v is 0, it returns 0, which +isn't a power of 2; you might append the expression v += (v == 0) to +remedy this if it matters. It would be faster by 2 operations to use the +formula and the log base 2 method that uses a lookup table, but in some +situations, lookup tables are not suitable, so the above code may be +best. (On a Athlon™ XP 2100+ I've found the above shift-left and then OR +code is as fast as using a single BSR assembly language instruction, +which scans in reverse to find the highest set bit.) It works by copying +the highest set bit to all of the lower bits, and then adding one, which +results in carries that set all of the lower bits to 0 and one bit +beyond the highest set bit to 1. If the original number was a power of +2, then the decrement will reduce it to one less, so that we round up to +the same original value. + +You might alternatively compute the next higher power of 2 in only 8 or +9 operations using a lookup table for floor(lg(v)) and then evaluating +1\<\<(1+floor(lg(v))); Atul Divekar suggested I mention this on +September 5, 2010. + +Devised by Sean Anderson, Sepember 14, 2001. Pete Hart pointed me to [a +couple newsgroup +posts](http://groups.google.com/group/comp.lang.python/browse_thread/thread/c4d3aae0df917df5/6fdae3872f9de79d?lnk=st&q=comp.lang.python+zeddy&rnum=6#6fdae3872f9de79d) +by him and William Lewis in February of 1997, where they arrive at the +same + algorithm. + + unsigned short x; // Interleave bits of x and y, so that all of the + unsigned short y; // bits of x are in the even positions and y in the odd; + unsigned int z = 0; // z gets the resulting Morton Number. + + for (int i = 0; i < sizeof(x) * CHAR_BIT; i++) // unroll for more speed... + { + z |= (x & 1U << i) << i | (y & 1U << i) << (i + 1); + } + +Interleaved bits (aka Morton numbers) are useful for linearizing 2D +integer coordinates, so x and y are combined into a single number that +can be compared easily and has the property that a number is usually +close to another if their x and y values are close. + + static const unsigned short MortonTable256[256] = + { + 0x0000, 0x0001, 0x0004, 0x0005, 0x0010, 0x0011, 0x0014, 0x0015, + 0x0040, 0x0041, 0x0044, 0x0045, 0x0050, 0x0051, 0x0054, 0x0055, + 0x0100, 0x0101, 0x0104, 0x0105, 0x0110, 0x0111, 0x0114, 0x0115, + 0x0140, 0x0141, 0x0144, 0x0145, 0x0150, 0x0151, 0x0154, 0x0155, + 0x0400, 0x0401, 0x0404, 0x0405, 0x0410, 0x0411, 0x0414, 0x0415, + 0x0440, 0x0441, 0x0444, 0x0445, 0x0450, 0x0451, 0x0454, 0x0455, + 0x0500, 0x0501, 0x0504, 0x0505, 0x0510, 0x0511, 0x0514, 0x0515, + 0x0540, 0x0541, 0x0544, 0x0545, 0x0550, 0x0551, 0x0554, 0x0555, + 0x1000, 0x1001, 0x1004, 0x1005, 0x1010, 0x1011, 0x1014, 0x1015, + 0x1040, 0x1041, 0x1044, 0x1045, 0x1050, 0x1051, 0x1054, 0x1055, + 0x1100, 0x1101, 0x1104, 0x1105, 0x1110, 0x1111, 0x1114, 0x1115, + 0x1140, 0x1141, 0x1144, 0x1145, 0x1150, 0x1151, 0x1154, 0x1155, + 0x1400, 0x1401, 0x1404, 0x1405, 0x1410, 0x1411, 0x1414, 0x1415, + 0x1440, 0x1441, 0x1444, 0x1445, 0x1450, 0x1451, 0x1454, 0x1455, + 0x1500, 0x1501, 0x1504, 0x1505, 0x1510, 0x1511, 0x1514, 0x1515, + 0x1540, 0x1541, 0x1544, 0x1545, 0x1550, 0x1551, 0x1554, 0x1555, + 0x4000, 0x4001, 0x4004, 0x4005, 0x4010, 0x4011, 0x4014, 0x4015, + 0x4040, 0x4041, 0x4044, 0x4045, 0x4050, 0x4051, 0x4054, 0x4055, + 0x4100, 0x4101, 0x4104, 0x4105, 0x4110, 0x4111, 0x4114, 0x4115, + 0x4140, 0x4141, 0x4144, 0x4145, 0x4150, 0x4151, 0x4154, 0x4155, + 0x4400, 0x4401, 0x4404, 0x4405, 0x4410, 0x4411, 0x4414, 0x4415, + 0x4440, 0x4441, 0x4444, 0x4445, 0x4450, 0x4451, 0x4454, 0x4455, + 0x4500, 0x4501, 0x4504, 0x4505, 0x4510, 0x4511, 0x4514, 0x4515, + 0x4540, 0x4541, 0x4544, 0x4545, 0x4550, 0x4551, 0x4554, 0x4555, + 0x5000, 0x5001, 0x5004, 0x5005, 0x5010, 0x5011, 0x5014, 0x5015, + 0x5040, 0x5041, 0x5044, 0x5045, 0x5050, 0x5051, 0x5054, 0x5055, + 0x5100, 0x5101, 0x5104, 0x5105, 0x5110, 0x5111, 0x5114, 0x5115, + 0x5140, 0x5141, 0x5144, 0x5145, 0x5150, 0x5151, 0x5154, 0x5155, + 0x5400, 0x5401, 0x5404, 0x5405, 0x5410, 0x5411, 0x5414, 0x5415, + 0x5440, 0x5441, 0x5444, 0x5445, 0x5450, 0x5451, 0x5454, 0x5455, + 0x5500, 0x5501, 0x5504, 0x5505, 0x5510, 0x5511, 0x5514, 0x5515, + 0x5540, 0x5541, 0x5544, 0x5545, 0x5550, 0x5551, 0x5554, 0x5555 + }; + + unsigned short x; // Interleave bits of x and y, so that all of the + unsigned short y; // bits of x are in the even positions and y in the odd; + unsigned int z; // z gets the resulting 32-bit Morton Number. + + z = MortonTable256[y >> 8] << 17 | + MortonTable256[x >> 8] << 16 | + MortonTable256[y & 0xFF] << 1 | + MortonTable256[x & 0xFF]; + +For more speed, use an additional table with values that are +MortonTable256 pre-shifted one bit to the left. This second table could +then be used for the y lookups, thus reducing the operations by two, but +almost doubling the memory required. Extending this same idea, four +tables could be used, with two of them pre-shifted by 16 to the left of +the previous two, so that we would only need 11 operations total. In 11 +operations, this version interleaves bits of two bytes (rather than +shorts, as in the other versions), but many of the operations are 64-bit +multiplies so it isn't appropriate for all machines. The input +parameters, x and y, should be less than + 256. + + unsigned char x; // Interleave bits of (8-bit) x and y, so that all of the + unsigned char y; // bits of x are in the even positions and y in the odd; + unsigned short z; // z gets the resulting 16-bit Morton Number. + + z = ((x * 0x0101010101010101ULL & 0x8040201008040201ULL) * + 0x0102040810204081ULL >> 49) & 0x5555 | + ((y * 0x0101010101010101ULL & 0x8040201008040201ULL) * + 0x0102040810204081ULL >> 48) & 0xAAAA; + +Holger Bettag was inspired to suggest this technique on October 10, 2004 +after reading the multiply-based bit reversals + here. + + static const unsigned int B[] = {0x55555555, 0x33333333, 0x0F0F0F0F, 0x00FF00FF}; + static const unsigned int S[] = {1, 2, 4, 8}; + + unsigned int x; // Interleave lower 16 bits of x and y, so the bits of x + unsigned int y; // are in the even positions and bits from y in the odd; + unsigned int z; // z gets the resulting 32-bit Morton Number. + // x and y must initially be less than 65536. + + x = (x | (x << S[3])) & B[3]; + x = (x | (x << S[2])) & B[2]; + x = (x | (x << S[1])) & B[1]; + x = (x | (x << S[0])) & B[0]; + + y = (y | (y << S[3])) & B[3]; + y = (y | (y << S[2])) & B[2]; + y = (y | (y << S[1])) & B[1]; + y = (y | (y << S[0])) & B[0]; + + z = x | (y << 1); + + // Fewer operations: + unsigned int v; // 32-bit word to check if any 8-bit byte in it is 0 + bool hasZeroByte = ~((((v & 0x7F7F7F7F) + 0x7F7F7F7F) | v) | 0x7F7F7F7F); + +The code above may be useful when doing a fast string copy in which a +word is copied at a time; it uses 5 operations. On the other hand, +testing for a null byte in the obvious ways (which follow) have at least +7 operations (when counted in the most sparing way), and at most 12. + + // More operations: + bool hasNoZeroByte = ((v & 0xff) && (v & 0xff00) && (v & 0xff0000) && (v & 0xff000000)) + // OR: + unsigned char * p = (unsigned char *) &v; + bool hasNoZeroByte = *p && *(p + 1) && *(p + 2) && *(p + 3); + +The code at the beginning of this section (labeled "Fewer operations") +works by first zeroing the high bits of the 4 bytes in the word. +Subsequently, it adds a number that will result in an overflow to the +high bit of a byte if any of the low bits were initialy set. Next the +high bits of the original word are ORed with these values; thus, the +high bit of a byte is set iff any bit in the byte was set. Finally, we +determine if any of these high bits are zero by ORing with ones +everywhere except the high bits and inverting the result. Extending to +64 bits is trivial; simply increase the constants to be +0x7F7F7F7F7F7F7F7F. + +For an additional improvement, a fast pretest that requires only 4 +operations may be performed to determine if the word may have a zero +byte. The test also returns true if the high byte is 0x80, so there are +occasional false positives, but the slower and more reliable version +above may then be used on candidates for an overall increase in speed +with correct output. + + bool hasZeroByte = ((v + 0x7efefeff) ^ ~v) & 0x81010100; + if (hasZeroByte) // or may just have 0x80 in the high byte + { + hasZeroByte = ~((((v & 0x7F7F7F7F) + 0x7F7F7F7F) | v) | 0x7F7F7F7F); + } + +There is yet a faster method — use [`hasless`](#HasLessInWord)(v, 1), +which is defined below; it works in 4 operations and requires no +subsquent verification. It simplifies to + + #define haszero(v) (((v) - 0x01010101UL) & ~(v) & 0x80808080UL) + +The subexpression (v - 0x01010101UL), evaluates to a high bit set in any +byte whenever the corresponding byte in v is zero or greater than 0x80. +The sub-expression ~v & 0x80808080UL evaluates to high bits set in bytes +where the byte of v doesn't have its high bit set (so the byte was less +than 0x80). Finally, by ANDing these two sub-expressions the result is +the high bits set where the bytes in v were zero, since the high bits +set due to a value greater than 0x80 in the first sub-expression are +masked off by the second. + +Paul Messmer suggested the fast pretest improvement on October 2, 2004. +Juha Järvi later suggested `hasless(v, 1)` on April 6, 2005, which he +found on [Paul Hsieh's Assembly +Lab](http://www.azillionmonkeys.com/qed/asmexample.html); previously it +was written in a newsgroup post on April 27, 1987 by Alan Mycroft. + +We may want to know if any byte in a word has a specific value. To do +so, we can XOR the value to test with a word that has been filled with +the byte values in which we're interested. Because XORing a value with +itself results in a zero byte and nonzero otherwise, we can pass the +result to `haszero`. + + #define hasvalue(x,n) \ + (haszero((x) ^ (~0UL/255 * (n)))) + +Stephen M Bennet suggested this on December 13, 2009 after reading the +entry for `haszero`. + +Test if a word x contains an unsigned byte with value \< n. +Specifically for n=1, it can be used to find a 0-byte by examining one +long at a time, or any byte by XORing x with a mask first. Uses 4 +arithmetic/logical operations when n is constant. + +Requirements: x\>=0; 0\<=n\<=128 + + #define hasless(x,n) (((x)-~0UL/255*(n))&~(x)&~0UL/255*128) + +To count the number of bytes in x that are less than n in 7 operations, +use + + #define countless(x,n) \ + (((~0UL/255*(127+(n))-((x)&~0UL/255*127))&~(x)&~0UL/255*128)/128%255) + +Juha Järvi sent this clever technique to me on April 6, 2005. The +`countless` macro was added by Sean Anderson on April 10, 2005, inspired +by Juha's `countmore`, below. + +Test if a word x contains an unsigned byte with value \> n. Uses 3 +arithmetic/logical operations when n is constant. + +Requirements: x\>=0; 0\<=n\<=127 + + #define hasmore(x,n) (((x)+~0UL/255*(127-(n))|(x))&~0UL/255*128) + +To count the number of bytes in x that are more than n in 6 operations, +use: + + #define countmore(x,n) \ + (((((x)&~0UL/255*127)+~0UL/255*(127-(n))|(x))&~0UL/255*128)/128%255) + +The macro `hasmore` was suggested by Juha Järvi on April 6, 2005, and he +added `countmore` on April 8, 2005. + +When m \< n, this technique tests if a word x contains an unsigned byte +value, such that m \< value \< n. It uses 7 arithmetic/logical +operations when n and m are constant. + +Note: Bytes that equal n can be reported by `likelyhasbetween` as false +positives, so this should be checked by character if a certain result is +needed. + +Requirements: x\>=0; 0\<=m\<=127; 0\<=n\<=128 + + #define likelyhasbetween(x,m,n) \ + ((((x)-~0UL/255*(n))&~(x)&((x)&~0UL/255*127)+~0UL/255*(127-(m)))&~0UL/255*128) + +This technique would be suitable for a fast pretest. A variation that +takes one more operation (8 total for constant m and n) but provides the +exact answer is: + + #define hasbetween(x,m,n) \ + ((~0UL/255*(127+(n))-((x)&~0UL/255*127)&~(x)&((x)&~0UL/255*127)+~0UL/255*(127-(m)))&~0UL/255*128) + +To count the number of bytes in x that are between m and n (exclusive) +in 10 operations, use: + + #define countbetween(x,m,n) (hasbetween(x,m,n)/128%255) + +Juha Järvi suggested `likelyhasbetween` on April 6, 2005. From there, +Sean Anderson created `hasbetween` and `countbetween` on April 10, 2005. + +Suppose we have a pattern of N bits set to 1 in an integer and we want +the next permutation of N 1 bits in a lexicographical sense. For +example, if N is 3 and the bit pattern is 00010011, the next patterns +would be 00010101, 00010110, 00011001,00011010, 00011100, 00100011, and +so forth. The following is a fast way to compute the next permutation. + +``` +unsigned int v; // current permutation of bits +unsigned int w; // next permutation of bits + +unsigned int t = v | (v - 1); // t gets v's least significant 0 bits set to 1 +// Next set to 1 the most significant bit to change, +// set to 0 the least significant ones, and add the necessary 1 bits. +w = (t + 1) | (((~t & -~t) - 1) >> (__builtin_ctz(v) + 1)); +``` + +The \_\_builtin\_ctz(v) GNU C compiler intrinsic for x86 CPUs returns +the number of trailing zeros. If you are using Microsoft compilers for +x86, the intrinsic is \_BitScanForward. These both emit a bsf +instruction, but equivalents may be available for other architectures. +If not, then consider using one of the methods for counting the +consecutive zero bits mentioned earlier. + +Here is another version that tends to be slower because of its division +operator, but it does not require counting the trailing zeros. + +``` +unsigned int t = (v | (v - 1)) + 1; +w = t | ((((t & -t) / (v & -v)) >> 1) - 1); +``` + +Thanks to Dario Sneidermanis of Argentina, who provided this on November +28, 2009. + +[A Belorussian +translation](http://webhostingrating.com/libs/bithacks-be) (provided by +[Webhostingrating](http://webhostingrating.com/)) is available. diff --git a/_stories/2005/3815491.md b/_stories/2005/3815491.md index be39262..9d55bd6 100644 --- a/_stories/2005/3815491.md +++ b/_stories/2005/3815491.md @@ -19,7 +19,80 @@ _tags: objectID: '3815491' --- -[Source](https://blog.reddit.com/2005/12/on-lisp.html "Permalink to ") +After reading the comments on the last post, figuring out how to +articulate the reasons for our switch from Lisp to Python feels very +much like figuring out how to articulate breaking up with one’s +girlfriend. Thoughts like “It’s not you, it’s me,” “No, i haven’t had +Python in my head this whole time,” “Lisp was a lot of fun. Really, I’ll +always cherish these memories,” keeping parading about in my head. +Lisp is an amazing language. After spending the entire summer working +entirely in Lisp, it’s nearly impossible to work in another language and +not say to myself, “If only this were Lisp…” Lisp has many goodies that +make programming in it a joy: the REPL, macros and the lack of syntax +are some. I won’t go into the details, but rest assured, it’s cool. +People become Lisp zealots for a reason. +On a side note: Please ignore the comments that claim the Lisp community +is harsh on beginners. The guys on comp.lang.lisp are very helpful (as +with any newsgroup, you will get flamed for asking a question that can +be answered with a single Google query, trying to cheat on your +homework, or picking a fight). In addition, the bloggers who contribute +to planet.lisp.org are all working on interesting things and are a great +resource. The Lisp community may be small, but it is a good and helpful +community nonetheless. +On that note, if you have been considering writing a web application in +Lisp, go for it. It will be tough if you’re not already a Lisper, but +you will learn a lot along the way, and it will be worth it I am sure. +Lisp is especially great for projects where the end goal is unknown +because it’s so easy to steer in different directions. Lisp will never +get in your way, although sometimes the environment will. + +Emacs and SLIME are a killer combination, but I develop on a Mac, and +reddit.com is a FreeBSD box. On my Mac, my choices of threaded Lisp +implementations was limited to OpenMCL, and in FreeBSD it’s CMUCL. +Because of the low-level socket and threading code we had to write, +reddit would not run on my Mac, and I was always tethered to our FreeBSD +development server. Not being able to program offline is a pain. + +If Lisp is so great, why did we stop using it? One of the biggest issues +was the lack of widely used and tested libraries. Sure, there is a CL +library for basically any task, but there is rarely more than one, and +often the libraries are not widely used or well documented. Since we’re +building a site largely by standing on the shoulders of others, this +made things a little tougher. There just aren’t as many shoulders on +which to stand. + +I am a little saddened to see so many posts along the lines of, “I’m so +disappointed.” And I’m actually surprised so many people care about the +implementation language in the first place. But I guess it was Lisp, +after all 🙂 + +So why Python? + +We were already familiar with Python. It’s fast, development in Python +is fast, and the code is clear. In most cases, the Lisp code translated +very easily into Python. Lots of people have written web applications in +Python, and there’s plenty of code from which to learn. It’s been fun so +far, so we’ll see where it takes us. + +Regardless of Python, reddit was begging for a rewrite. Whether it was +the best decision to do it all at once is up for debate, but I’m very +pleased at the way it turned out. We nabbed a number of lingering +glitches at once– glitches that would have been messy to fix +incrementally because they were rooted in the early designs of reddit. +Given that the reddit code itself is not incredibly complex, and we +could use almost all of the old HTML, Javascript, and CSS from the +original version, a rewrite seemed the easiest solution. The entire task +took less than a week, with 80% of the code written in a single weekend. +Yes, there a bugs we will have to fix again, and plenty of new ones as +well, but in the long run it’ll be worth it. + +All that being said, we’ve got a lot of cool new things on the way that +were excited about. I can’t wait to introduce some of the new bugs we’ve +been working on as well. + +PS – If there’s any interest, we could always document the process we +went through developing the Lisp version of reddit so others trying to +learn Lisp can learn what we know. diff --git a/_stories/2005/3959567.md b/_stories/2005/3959567.md index bad4900..a72970f 100644 --- a/_stories/2005/3959567.md +++ b/_stories/2005/3959567.md @@ -19,113 +19,80 @@ _tags: objectID: '3959567' --- -[Source](http://www.nytimes.com/2005/11/28/technology/writing-the-fastest-code-by-hand-for-fun-a-human-computer-keeps.html "Permalink to Writing the Fastest Code, by Hand, for Fun: A Human Computer Keeps Speeding Up Chips - The New York Times") +In the most recent ranking of supercomputers, I.B.M. machines overtook a +number of supercomputers using Mr. Goto's software to capture the top +three spots in the fastest computer rankings. Still, the Goto Basic +Linear Algebra Subroutines, or BLAS, as his programs are known, were +used by 4 of the world's 11 fastest computers. -# Writing the Fastest Code, by Hand, for Fun: A Human Computer Keeps Speeding Up Chips - The New York Times +Mr. Goto has become a legend in the supercomputing community because of +his solitary crusade. And he shows no signs of flagging in the contest +to wring every ounce of computing speed from the world's fastest +microprocessor chips. -__NYTimes.com no longer supports Internet Explorer 9 or earlier. Please upgrade your browser. [LEARN MORE »][1] +But for all the acclaim he has received, Mr. Goto is a relative newcomer +to the supercomputing field, having made his breakthrough about a decade +ago. -__Sections __ Home __Search [Skip to content][2] [Skip to navigation][3] [View mobile version][4] +"At first I didn't know anything," he said in an interview at the annual +supercomputing conference held in Seattle in mid-November. "This was all +trial and error, but now I have experience." -## [ The New York Times ][5] +The value of his work goes far beyond setting speed records. Because his +programs can more efficiently solve complex linear equations, they can +offer better solutions to virtually every computational science and +engineering problem. For example, the subroutines are used in simulation +programs to model the flow of air over the surface of a plane or a car +more precisely. -###### [Technology][6]|Writing the Fastest Code, by Hand, for Fun: A Human Computer Keeps Speeding Up Chips +One of Mr. Goto's principal rivals is a software project known as Atlas, +created by a group of researchers working with Jack Dongarra, a computer +scientist at the University of Tennessee. Atlas is an automated effort +to find the most efficient way to solve linear algebra functions for +specific microprocessors -- a task that Mr. Goto does meticulously by +hand. -__Search - -Subscribe Now Log In __0 __Settings - -__Close search - -## Site Search Navigation - -Search NYTimes.com - -__Clear this text input - -Go - -1. Loading... - -See next articles - -See previous articles - -## Site Navigation - -## Site Mobile Navigation +Like chess-playing software, the Atlas project tries to overcome the +shortcomings of different kinds of computer designs by systematically +testing thousands of solutions for each chip to find the most efficient +one for each type of microprocessor. Advertisement -Supported by +[Continue reading the main story](#story-continues-4) -### [Technology][6] | TECHNOLOGY +By contrast, Mr. Goto uses only a program called a software debugger +that allows him to track how data moves among different components of a +microprocessor. -# Writing the Fastest Code, by Hand, for Fun: A Human Computer Keeps Speeding Up Chips +He then reorganizes the individual software instructions so that his +subroutines perform crucial algebraic functions more quickly to gain +small amounts of processing speed from a specific type of computer chip. -By [JOHN MARKOFF][7]NOV. 28, 2005 +Typically these are highly repetitive operations that can consume vast +amounts of computing capacity. For example, one challenging type of +calculation requires the microprocessor to multiply numbers from two +tables stored in memory together. -[Continue reading the main story][8] Share This Page +Mr. Dongarra acknowledges that Mr. Goto's hand-tuned programs are more +efficient and can still outperform Atlas. -[Continue reading the main story][8] +"I tell them that if they want the fastest they should still turn to Mr. +Goto," said Mr. Dongarra, who is one of the researchers who maintains +the Top 500 listing of the world's fastest-performing computers from a +computing speed race held twice a year. -SEATTLE - There was a time long ago when the word "computer" was a job description referring to the humans who performed the tedious mathematical calculations for huge military and engineering projects. +Mr. Goto came to his passion for supercomputing almost by accident. +Educated in power engineering at Waseda University in Tokyo, he worked +as an employee of the Japanese Patent Office, doing research on early +inventions like video recorders. -It is in the same sense that Kazushige Goto's business card says simply "high performance computing." - -Mr. Goto, who is 37, might even be called the John Henry of the information age. - -But instead of competing against a steam drill, Mr. Goto, a research associate at the Texas Advanced Computing Center at the University of Texas at Austin, has bested the work of a powerful automated system and entire teams of software developers in producing programs that run the world's fastest supercomputers. - -He has done it alone at his keyboard the old-fashioned way -- by writing code that reorders, one at a time, the instructions given to microprocessor chips. - -Advertisement - -[Continue reading the main story][8] - -At one point recently, Mr. Goto's software -- collections of programs called subroutines -- dominated the rarefied machines competing for the title of the world's fastest supercomputer. In 2003 his handmade code was used by 7 of the 10 fastest supercomputers. (The Japanese Earth Simulator, which was then the world's fastest machine, however, did not use his software.) - -[Continue reading the main story][9] - -Advertisement - -[Continue reading the main story][10] - -In the most recent ranking of supercomputers, I.B.M. machines overtook a number of supercomputers using Mr. Goto's software to capture the top three spots in the fastest computer rankings. Still, the Goto Basic Linear Algebra Subroutines, or BLAS, as his programs are known, were used by 4 of the world's 11 fastest computers. - -Mr. Goto has become a legend in the supercomputing community because of his solitary crusade. And he shows no signs of flagging in the contest to wring every ounce of computing speed from the world's fastest microprocessor chips. - -But for all the acclaim he has received, Mr. Goto is a relative newcomer to the supercomputing field, having made his breakthrough about a decade ago. - -"At first I didn't know anything," he said in an interview at the annual supercomputing conference held in Seattle in mid-November. "This was all trial and error, but now I have experience." - -The value of his work goes far beyond setting speed records. Because his programs can more efficiently solve complex linear equations, they can offer better solutions to virtually every computational science and engineering problem. For example, the subroutines are used in simulation programs to model the flow of air over the surface of a plane or a car more precisely. - -One of Mr. Goto's principal rivals is a software project known as Atlas, created by a group of researchers working with Jack Dongarra, a computer scientist at the University of Tennessee. Atlas is an automated effort to find the most efficient way to solve linear algebra functions for specific microprocessors -- a task that Mr. Goto does meticulously by hand. - -Like chess-playing software, the Atlas project tries to overcome the shortcomings of different kinds of computer designs by systematically testing thousands of solutions for each chip to find the most efficient one for each type of microprocessor. - -Advertisement - -[Continue reading the main story][11] - -By contrast, Mr. Goto uses only a program called a software debugger that allows him to track how data moves among different components of a microprocessor. - -He then reorganizes the individual software instructions so that his subroutines perform crucial algebraic functions more quickly to gain small amounts of processing speed from a specific type of computer chip. - -Typically these are highly repetitive operations that can consume vast amounts of computing capacity. For example, one challenging type of calculation requires the microprocessor to multiply numbers from two tables stored in memory together. - -Mr. Dongarra acknowledges that Mr. Goto's hand-tuned programs are more efficient and can still outperform Atlas. - -"I tell them that if they want the fastest they should still turn to Mr. Goto," said Mr. Dongarra, who is one of the researchers who maintains the Top 500 listing of the world's fastest-performing computers from a computing speed race held twice a year. - -Mr. Goto came to his passion for supercomputing almost by accident. Educated in power engineering at Waseda University in Tokyo, he worked as an employee of the Japanese Patent Office, doing research on early inventions like video recorders. - -To help in his work, Mr. Goto purchased a Digital Equipment workstation based on the Alpha microprocessor in 1994 to perform a simulation. +To help in his work, Mr. Goto purchased a Digital Equipment workstation +based on the Alpha microprocessor in 1994 to perform a simulation. ## Newsletter Sign Up -[Continue reading the main story][12] +[Continue reading the main story](#continues-post-newsletter) ### @@ -135,293 +102,107 @@ Invalid email address. Please re-enter. You must select a newsletter to subscribe to. -Sign Up - -You agree to receive occasional updates and special offers for The New York Times's products and services. +You agree to receive occasional updates and special offers for The New +York Times's products and services. ### Thank you for subscribing. ### An error has occurred. Please try again later. -### You are already subscribed to this email. +[View all New York Times newsletters.](/newsletters) -[View all New York Times newsletters.][13] +But when it arrived he could not understand why it was performing so +slowly. So he explored the Alpha's design to see where the performance +bottlenecks were. -* [See Sample][14] -* [Manage Email Preferences][15] -* [Not you?][16] -* [Privacy Policy][17] -* Opt out or [contact us][18] anytime - -But when it arrived he could not understand why it was performing so slowly. So he explored the Alpha's design to see where the performance bottlenecks were. - -He later purchased a second Alpha-based computer and by rewriting the crucial subroutines was able to improve its performance to 78 percent of its theoretical peak calculating speed, up from 44 percent. +He later purchased a second Alpha-based computer and by rewriting the +crucial subroutines was able to improve its performance to 78 percent of +its theoretical peak calculating speed, up from 44 percent. Advertisement -[Continue reading the main story][19] +[Continue reading the main story](#story-continues-5) -Although he was not formally trained in computer or software design, he perfected his craft by learning from programmers on an Internet mailing list focusing on the Linux operating system for the Alpha chip. His curiosity quickly became a passion that he pursued in his free time and during his twice daily two-hour train commute between his job in Tokyo and his home in Kanagawa Prefecture. +Although he was not formally trained in computer or software design, he +perfected his craft by learning from programmers on an Internet mailing +list focusing on the Linux operating system for the Alpha chip. His +curiosity quickly became a passion that he pursued in his free time and +during his twice daily two-hour train commute between his job in Tokyo +and his home in Kanagawa Prefecture. -"I would frequently work on these problems until midnight," he said. "I did it to relax." +"I would frequently work on these problems until midnight," he said. "I +did it to relax." -As a teenager, Mr. Goto developed a passion for electronic design, building his own stereo equipment from the most basic components. +As a teenager, Mr. Goto developed a passion for electronic design, +building his own stereo equipment from the most basic components. -His current interest, he says, is not in the pure mathematics of the linear equations, but rather in finding clever ways to overcome the shortcomings of the architecture and internal organization of microprocessors that are used in every kind of computer, from hand-held devices to supercomputers. +His current interest, he says, is not in the pure mathematics of the +linear equations, but rather in finding clever ways to overcome the +shortcomings of the architecture and internal organization of +microprocessors that are used in every kind of computer, from hand-held +devices to supercomputers. -Modern computers are organized to offer the programmer a hierarchical series of data storage areas that range from the computer's disk drive DRAM memory, as well as relatively small temporary memory areas called caches. Typically, the fastest memories are also the smallest. +Modern computers are organized to offer the programmer a hierarchical +series of data storage areas that range from the computer's disk drive +DRAM memory, as well as relatively small temporary memory areas called +caches. Typically, the fastest memories are also the smallest. -One of the simplest ways to speed a program is to keep the calculation in the memory unit, which is closest to the microprocessor's calculating engine. +One of the simplest ways to speed a program is to keep the calculation +in the memory unit, which is closest to the microprocessor's calculating +engine. -Every time the calculation engine is required to stop what it is doing to get new data from a more distant memory area, processing speed slows. But in some cases, keeping data in the closest memory cache may not be as efficient as keeping it in a larger cache that is farther away. +Every time the calculation engine is required to stop what it is doing +to get new data from a more distant memory area, processing speed slows. +But in some cases, keeping data in the closest memory cache may not be +as efficient as keeping it in a larger cache that is farther away. -Robert A. van de Geijin, a computer scientist who works with Mr. Goto at the Texas Center, said that Mr. Goto's special skill was in the step-by-step reordering of software instructions to take the greatest advantage of the performance trade-offs offered by each type of chip. +Robert A. van de Geijin, a computer scientist who works with Mr. Goto at +the Texas Center, said that Mr. Goto's special skill was in the +step-by-step reordering of software instructions to take the greatest +advantage of the performance trade-offs offered by each type of chip. -"He combines both scientific insight and engineering skills," Mr. van de Geijin said. +"He combines both scientific insight and engineering skills," Mr. van de +Geijin said. -They met in 2002 when Mr. Goto took a sabbatical from his job at the patent office to spend a year at the Texas center. (He has since resigned from the patent office.) +They met in 2002 when Mr. Goto took a sabbatical from his job at the +patent office to spend a year at the Texas center. (He has since +resigned from the patent office.) Advertisement -[Continue reading the main story][20] +[Continue reading the main story](#story-continues-6) -Once Mr. Goto arrived in Texas, he turned his attention to optimizing the speed of the Pentium 4 microprocessor. When computer scientists at the University at Buffalo added Goto BLAS to their Pentium-based supercomputer, the calculating power of the system jumped from 1.5 trillion to 2 trillion mathematical operations per second out of a theoretical limit of 3 trillion. +Once Mr. Goto arrived in Texas, he turned his attention to optimizing +the speed of the Pentium 4 microprocessor. When computer scientists at +the University at Buffalo added Goto BLAS to their Pentium-based +supercomputer, the calculating power of the system jumped from 1.5 +trillion to 2 trillion mathematical operations per second out of a +theoretical limit of 3 trillion. -The increase was so astounding that the record keepers for supercomputing Top 500 called the researchers in Buffalo because they did not think such a speed was credible. +The increase was so astounding that the record keepers for +supercomputing Top 500 called the researchers in Buffalo because they +did not think such a speed was credible. -"I teased them and suggested that the speed of light was faster in Buffalo than it was in Tennessee," Mr. van de Geijin recalled. +"I teased them and suggested that the speed of light was faster in +Buffalo than it was in Tennessee," Mr. van de Geijin recalled. -Recently there has been a quiet controversy around the Goto BLAS because Mr. Goto has been slow to offer his work as open-source software, the free model of software distribution. +Recently there has been a quiet controversy around the Goto BLAS because +Mr. Goto has been slow to offer his work as open-source software, the +free model of software distribution. -Some programmers have suggested that Mr. Goto has not joined the open-source movement because he wants to protect his secrets and strategies from competitors. +Some programmers have suggested that Mr. Goto has not joined the +open-source movement because he wants to protect his secrets and +strategies from competitors. -That is not so, he said recently, noting that the Goto BLAS software is freely available for noncommercial use. And he said he was preparing an open-source version. +That is not so, he said recently, noting that the Goto BLAS software is +freely available for noncommercial use. And he said he was preparing an +open-source version. -He said his next big challenge was to expose chip designers to his ideas to help speed their processors. +He said his next big challenge was to expose chip designers to his ideas +to help speed their processors. -"Computer architects are stubborn," he observed. "They have their own ideas." 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https://www.nytimes.com/content/help/rights/copyright/copyright-notice.html -[85]: https://www.nytimes.com -[86]: http://query.nytimes.com/search/sitesearch/#/ -[87]: mailto:accessibility%40nytimes.com -[88]: https://www.nytimes.com/ref/membercenter/help/infoservdirectory.html -[89]: http://www.nytco.com/careers -[90]: http://nytmediakit.com/ -[91]: https://www.nytimes.com/content/help/rights/privacy/policy/privacy-policy.html#pp -[92]: https://www.nytimes.com/privacy -[93]: https://www.nytimes.com/ref/membercenter/help/agree.html -[94]: https://www.nytimes.com/content/help/rights/sale/terms-of-sale.html -[95]: http://spiderbites.nytimes.com -[96]: https://www.nytimes.com/membercenter/sitehelp.html -[97]: https://myaccount.nytimes.com/membercenter/feedback.html -[98]: https://www.nytimes.com/subscriptions/Multiproduct/lp5558.html?campaignId=37WXW +"Computer architects are stubborn," he observed. "They have their own +ideas." His ideas on computing efficiency, he said, speak for +themselves. +[Continue reading the main story](#whats-next) diff --git a/_stories/2005/5954743.md b/_stories/2005/5954743.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d5849ee --- /dev/null +++ b/_stories/2005/5954743.md @@ -0,0 +1,151 @@ +--- +created_at: '2013-06-27T21:15:01.000Z' +title: AES timing variability at a glance (2005) +url: http://cr.yp.to/mac/variability1.html +author: ColinWright +points: 59 +story_text: '' +comment_text: +num_comments: 7 +story_id: +story_title: +story_url: +parent_id: +created_at_i: 1372367701 +_tags: +- story +- author_ColinWright +- story_5954743 +objectID: '5954743' + +--- +AES timing variability at a glance [D. J. Bernstein](../djb.html) +[Authenticators and signatures](../antiforgery.html) +[A state-of-the-art message-authentication code](../mac.html) + +# AES timing variability at a glance + +[Introduction](#intro) +[Understanding the pictures](#understanding) +[AMD Athlon](#athlon) +[Intel Pentium III](#piii) +[Intel Pentium M](#pm) +[IBM PowerPC RS64 IV](#sstar) +[Sun UltraSPARC III](#ultrasparciii) + +## Introduction + +The Rijndael designers and the NIST AES selectors claimed that it was +easy to make AES---in particular, the AES table lookups---run in +constant time. That claim was, and is, incorrect. The following pictures +demonstrate, in a visually obvious way, that common AES implementations +have data-dependent timings on a wide variety of platforms, even when +the timing software makes no special effort to knock AES table entries +out of cache. + +These pictures also include my own AES software, which goes to a +tremendous amount of CPU-specific effort to reduce the timing +variability. I say \`\`reduce'' rather than \`\`eliminate'' for three +reasons: first, without help from the operating system, it's impossible +to guarantee that the AES tables are in cache throughout the AES +computation; second, even if the AES tables are in cache, there may be +timing variability too small to appear in these pictures and too obscure +to be documented by the CPU manufacturers; third, even if the in-cache +timings really are data-independent for these CPUs, other CPUs may pose +new problems. On the bright side, my software clearly has much less +timing variability than other AES libraries. + +To understand why this is important, read my paper [Cache-timing attacks +on AES](../papers.html#cachetiming). + +## Understanding the pictures + +Each picture is a 256x256 array of 4x3 blocks, occupying 1024x768 pixels +overall. The inline images on this page are the first 512x384 pixels; +click to see the full pictures. + +Each row of the picture is an AES key. Each column of the picture is an +AES input. Each key was applied repeatedly to each input, 3100 times on +average, in a random order. Each 4x3 block reflects the distribution of +AES cycle counts for one key and one input. + +The 36 color intensities in each block (3 colors for 4x3 pixels) are +assigned, in a complicated order, to 36 AES cycle counts surrounding a +typical AES cycle count. Cycle counts outside this 36-cycle range are +clipped to the bottom and top. + +\`\`Good'' pictures are regular 256x256 lattices, showing that every +(key,input) pair has the same distribution of cycle counts. Warning: +browsers that scale pictures to the screen size are likely to spoil the +pattern; make sure to view each picture at 1 dot per pixel. + +\`\`Bad'' pictures are irregular, showing that different (key,input) +pairs have different distributions of cycle counts. Three examples, in +increasing order of irregularity: OpenSSL on the UltraSPARC has varying +colors in each column, showing key-dependent timings, and occasional +variance within rows, showing data-dependent timings for each key; +OpenSSL on the PowerPC RS64 IV is a complicated red-green pattern, +showing that half of the (key,input) pairs have one cycle count and the +other half have another; the OpenSSL and Gladman implementations on the +Athlon are random jumbles of dots, showing a tremendous amount of +data-dependent variability. + +Here's how to generate your own pictures: + +``` + ./v1 > v1.out + pnmcolormap 256 < v1.out > v1.palette + pnmremap -map=v1.palette < v1.out | ppmtogif > v1.gif +``` + +## AMD Athlon + +OpenSSL: +[![](v1-thoth-openssl-2.gif)](v1-thoth-openssl.gif) + +Gladman: +[![](v1-thoth-gladman-2.gif)](v1-thoth-gladman.gif) + +Gladman, using 1K tables: +[![](v1-thoth-gladman1k-2.gif)](v1-thoth-gladman1k.gif) + +My `aes_athlon`: +[![](v1-thoth-athlon-2.gif)](v1-thoth-athlon.gif) + +## Intel Pentium III + +OpenSSL: +[![](v1-silverton-openssl-2.gif)](v1-silverton-openssl.gif) + +My `aes_ppro`: +[![](v1-silverton-ppro-2.gif)](v1-silverton-ppro.gif) + +## Intel Pentium M + +OpenSSL: +[![](v1-whisper-openssl-2.gif)](v1-whisper-openssl.gif) + +Gladman: +[![](v1-whisper-gladman-2.gif)](v1-whisper-gladman.gif) + +Gladman, using 1K tables: +[![](v1-whisper-gladman1k-2.gif)](v1-whisper-gladman1k.gif) + +My `aes_ppro`: +[![](v1-whisper-ppro-2.gif)](v1-whisper-ppro.gif) + +## IBM PowerPC RS64 IV + +OpenSSL: +[![](v1-tigger-openssl-2.gif)](v1-tigger-openssl.gif) + +My `aes_aix`: +[![](v1-tigger-aix-2.gif)](v1-tigger-aix.gif) + +## Sun UltraSPARC III + +OpenSSL: +[![](v1-icarus-openssl-2.gif)](v1-icarus-openssl.gif) + +My `aes_sparc`: +[![](v1-icarus-sparc-2.gif)](v1-icarus-sparc.gif) diff --git a/_stories/2005/652650.md b/_stories/2005/652650.md index 5b2118a..68d0884 100644 --- a/_stories/2005/652650.md +++ b/_stories/2005/652650.md @@ -19,7 +19,118 @@ _tags: objectID: '652650' --- -[Source](https://www.stevepavlina.com/blog/2005/10/polyphasic-sleep/ "Permalink to ") +A couple days ago, I saw a post about **polyphasic sleep** on +[LifeHack.org](http://www.lifehack.org/articles/lifehack/information-list-of-polyphasic-sleep.html). +Since then I’ve been emailed about this topic as well, probably because +I’ve written previously about [becoming an early +riser](https://www.stevepavlina.com/blog/2005/05/how-to-become-an-early-riser/). +Polyphasic sleep involves taking multiple short sleep periods throughout +the day instead of getting all your sleep in one long chunk. A popular +form of polyphasic sleep, the [Uberman sleep +schedule](http://www.kuro5hin.org/story/2002/4/15/103358/720), suggests +that you sleep 20-30 minutes six times per day, with equally spaced naps +every 4 hours around the clock. This means you’re only sleeping 2-3 +hours per day. I’d previously heard of polyphasic sleep, but until now I +hadn’t come across practical schedules that people seem to be reporting +interesting results with. +Under this sleep schedule, your sleep times might be at 2am, 6am, 10am, +2pm, 6pm, and 10pm. And each time you’d sleep for only 20-30 minutes. +This is nice because the times are the same whether AM or PM, and +they’re consistent from day to day as well, so you can still maintain +a regular daily schedule, albeit a very different one. +How can this sleep schedule work? Supposedly it takes about a week to +adjust to it. A normal sleep cycle is 90 minutes, and REM sleep occurs +late in this cycle. REM is the most important phase of sleep, the one in +which you experience dreams, and when deprived of REM for too long, you +suffer serious negative consequences. Polyphasic sleep conditions your +body to learn to enter REM sleep immediately when you begin sleeping +instead of much later in the sleep cycle. So during the first week you +experience sleep deprivation as your body learns to adapt to shorter +sleep cycles, but after the adaptation you’ll feel fine, maybe even +better than before. + +It requires some discipline to successfully transition to this cycle, as +well as a flexible schedule that allows it. While you’ll be sleeping a +lot less, apparently it’s very important to sleep at the required times +and not miss naps. + +It was interesting to read some of the +[posts](http://www.everything2.com/index.pl?node_id=892542) from people +who’ve tried this sleep cycle. They reported higher alertness and +energy, more vivid dreams and more lucid dreams, and of course lots of +extra free time. I also read of failures, but in each case the person +wasn’t strict about the nap schedule and overslept on occasion. A side +effect of this sleep schedule is that you need to eat more, since you’re +spending more time moving around. It appears that the long term health +effects of this sleep pattern aren’t well known. That’s irrelevant to me +though because I find that being a long-term vegan, I can’t rely much on +long-term studies done on non-vegans anyway. Some say that hormones in +animal products negatively affect sleep patterns, and more restful sleep +is commonly reported after making dietary improvements. So long-term +studies on people eating average diets wouldn’t be of much use to me +personally. + +The downside to this sleep schedule is that it can be inflexible. I’ve +read that you can delay naps by an hour if necessary, but missing a nap +can cause a rapid crash that takes a while to recover from. This means +you only have about 3.5 hours of waking time between naps, 4.5 hours if +you push it. So this can restrict your options a bit. Of course, you +have to balance that sacrifice against the gain of many extra hours per +day, every day. Interesting trade off…. It reminds me of something you’d +find in The Book of Questions. + +Plus it’s just plain weird. So naturally I want to try it. 🙂 + +Since I work from home and have control over my schedule, I’ve decided +to test polyphasic sleep to see what it’s like. I’m already good at +falling asleep fast (within a few minutes), and I often have dreams +during 15-20 minute naps, so I wonder if I’ve partially conditioned +myself to enter REM rapidly. This test obviously requires a bit of +adjustment, but I’ve managed to work things out with my wife to make it +practical enough. Since I’ve read that energy and alertness plummet +during the first week, I’ve kept next week’s schedule very light +mentally (no meetings, speeches, or major projects). Depending on how +functional and coherent I am during the adjustment period, I’ll be doing +mostly domestic projects like organizing the garage — nothing involving +power tools. 🙂 + +I’m starting this polyphasic sleep schedule today, so last night was my +last night of “normal” sleep for a while. I still got up at 5am this +morning, and then I’ll begin doing the naps every 4 hours starting this +afternoon. I’ll use a countdown timer alarm set for 30 minutes, so I +won’t oversleep. I’ve decided that my sleep times will be 1am, 5am, +9am, 1pm, 5pm, and 9pm. I aim to continue at least until Halloween… or +death, whichever comes first. If it seems to be going well and I retain +basic functionality, then I’ll decide whether I want to continue with +it. + +My main motivation for trying this is curiosity, and it seems like it +would be a fun test of self-discipline. Plus it meshes nicely with my +own general weirdness. Whether the experiment succeeds or fails, it +should be an interesting learning experience. + +Of course I’ll be sure to blog about this experience, but if I start +making posts about seeing dead people, then you’ll know I’ve become +delusional due to sleep deprivation. 😉 + +What would you do with an extra 30-40 hours of free time per week? + +[Read more about polyphasic sleep on +Wikipedia.](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyphasic_sleep) + +Edit 4/14/06: For your convenience, here are links to all of my +polyphasic sleep log entries in order (each link will open in a new +window). This is a treasure trove of free information for anyone +interested in learning about my trial of polyphasic sleep. To my +knowledge these are the most detailed polyphasic sleep logs you’ll be +able to find anywhere on the web. + +Sleep well\! + +Receive Steve's [new articles by +email](https://www.stevepavlina.com/blog-posts-by-email/). + +### Read related articles: diff --git a/_stories/2005/656713.md b/_stories/2005/656713.md index ac72618..7a77213 100644 --- a/_stories/2005/656713.md +++ b/_stories/2005/656713.md @@ -19,7 +19,693 @@ _tags: objectID: '656713' --- -[Source](https://www.nickbostrom.com/fable/dragon.html "Permalink to ") - - - +> Once upon a time, the planet was tyrannized by a giant dragon. The +> dragon stood taller than the largest cathedral, and it was covered +> with thick black scales. Its red eyes glowed with hate, and from its +> terrible jaws flowed an incessant stream of evil-smelling +> yellowish-green slime. It demanded from humankind a blood-curdling +> tribute: to satisfy its enormous appetite, ten thousand men and women +> had to be delivered every evening at the onset of dark to the foot of +> the mountain where the dragon-tyrant lived. Sometimes the dragon would +> devour these unfortunate souls upon arrival; sometimes again it would +> lock them up in the mountain where they would wither away for months +> or years before eventually being consumed. +> +> The misery inflicted by the dragon-tyrant was incalculable. In +> addition to the ten thousand who were gruesomely slaughtered each day, +> there were the mothers, fathers, wives, husbands, children, and +> friends that were left behind to grieve the loss of their departed +> loved ones. +> +> Some people tried to fight the dragon, but whether they were brave or +> foolish was difficult to say. Priests and magicians called down +> curses, to no avail. Warriors, armed with roaring courage and the best +> weapons the smiths could produce, attacked it, but were incinerated by +> its fire before coming close enough to strike. Chemists concocted +> toxic brews and tricked the dragon into swallowing them, but the only +> apparent effect was to further stimulate its appetite. The dragon’s +> claws, jaws, and fire were so effective, its scaly armor so +> impregnable, and its whole nature so robust, as to make it invincible +> to any human assault. +> +> Seeing that defeating the tyrant was impossible, humans had no choice +> but to obey its commands and pay the grisly tribute. The fatalities +> selected were always elders. Although senior people were as vigorous +> and healthy as the young, and sometimes wiser, the thinking was that +> they had at least already enjoyed a few decades of life. The wealthy +> might gain a brief reprieve by bribing the press gangs that came to +> fetch them; but, by constitutional law, nobody, not even the king +> himself, could put off their turn indefinitely. +> +> Spiritual men sought to comfort those who were afraid of being eaten +> by the dragon (which included almost everyone, although many denied it +> in public) by promising another life after death, a life that would be +> free from the dragon-scourge. Other orators argued that the dragon has +> its place in the natural order and a moral right to be fed. They said +> that it was part of the very meaning of being human to end up in the +> dragon’s stomach. Others still maintained that the dragon was good for +> the human species because it kept the population size down. To what +> extent these arguments convinced the worried souls is not known. Most +> people tried to cope by not thinking about the grim end that awaited +> them. +> +> For many centuries this desperate state of affairs continued. Nobody +> kept count any longer of the cumulative death toll, nor of the number +> of tears shed by the bereft. Expectations had gradually adjusted and +> the dragon-tyrant had become a fact of life. In view of the evident +> futility of resistance, attempts to kill the dragon had ceased. +> Instead, efforts now focused on placating it. While the dragon would +> occasionally raid the cities, it was found that the punctual delivery +> to the mountain of its quota of life reduced the frequency of these +> incursions. +> +> Knowing that their turn to become dragon-fodder was always impending, +> people began having children earlier and more often. It was not +> uncommon for a girl to be pregnant by her sixteenth birthday. Couples +> often spawned a dozen children. The human population was thus kept +> from shrinking, and the dragon was kept from going hungry. +> +> Over the course of these centuries, the dragon, being well fed, slowly +> but steadily grew bigger. It had become almost as large as the +> mountain on which it lived. And its appetite had increased +> proportionately. Ten thousand human bodies were no longer enough to +> fill its belly. It now demanded eighty thousand, to be delivered to +> the foot of the mountain every evening at the onset of dark. +> +> What occupied the king’s mind more than the deaths and the dragon +> itself was the logistics of collecting and transporting so many people +> to the mountain every day. This was not an easy task. +> +> To facilitate the process, the king had a railway track constructed: +> two straight lines of glistening steel leading up to the dragon’s +> abode. Every twenty minutes, a train would arrive at the mountain +> terminal crammed with people, and would return empty. On moonlit +> nights, the passengers traveling on this train, if there had been +> windows for them to stick their heads out of, would have been able to +> see in front of them the double silhouette of the dragon and the +> mountain, and two glowing red eyes, like the beams from a pair of +> giant lighthouses, pointing the way to annihilation. +> +> Servants were employed by the king in large numbers to administer the +> tribute. There were registrars who kept track of whose turn it was to +> be sent. There were people-collectors who would be dispatched in +> special carts to fetch the designated people. Often traveling at +> breakneck speed, they would rush their cargo either to a railway +> station or directly to the mountain. There were clerks who +> administered the pensions paid to the decimated families who were no +> longer able to support themselves. There were comforters who would +> travel with the doomed on their way to the dragon, trying to ease +> their anguish with spirits and drugs. +> +> There was, moreover, a cadre of dragonologists who studied how these +> logistic processes could be made more efficient. Some dragonologists +> also conducted studies of the dragon’s physiology and behavior, and +> collected samples – its shed scales, the slime that drooled from its +> jaws, its lost teeth, and its excrements, which were specked with +> fragments of human bone. All these items were painstakingly annotated +> and archived. The more the beast was understood, the more the general +> perception of its invincibility was confirmed. Its black scales, in +> particular, were harder than any material known to man, and there +> seemed no way to make as much as a scratch in its armor. +> +> To finance all these activities, the king levied heavy taxes on his +> people. Dragon-related expenditures, already accounting for one +> seventh of the economy, were growing even faster than the dragon +> itself. +> +> Humanity is a curious species. Every once in a while, somebody gets a +> good idea. Others copy the idea, adding to it their own improvements. +> Over time, many wondrous tools and systems are developed. Some of +> these devices – calculators, thermometers, microscopes, and the glass +> vials that the chemists use to boil and distil liquids – serve to make +> it easier to generate and try out new ideas, including ideas that +> expedite the process of idea-generation. +> +> Thus the great wheel of invention, which had turned at an almost +> imperceptibly slow pace in the older ages, gradually began to +> accelerate. +> +> Sages predicted that a day would come when technology would enable +> humans to fly and do many other astonishing things. One of the sages, +> who was held in high esteem by some of the other sages but whose +> eccentric manners had made him a social outcast and recluse, went so +> far as to predict that technology would eventually make it possible to +> build a contraption that could kill the dragon-tyrant. +> +> The king’s scholars, however, dismissed these ideas. They said that +> humans were far too heavy to fly and in any case lacked feathers. And +> as for the impossible notion that the dragon-tyrant could be killed, +> history books recounted hundreds of attempts to do just that, not one +> of which had been successful. “We all know that this man had some +> irresponsible ideas,” a scholar of letters later wrote in his obituary +> of the reclusive sage who had by then been sent off to be devoured by +> the beast whose demise he had foretold, “but his writings were quite +> entertaining and perhaps we should be grateful to the dragon for +> making possible the interesting genre of dragon-bashing literature +> which reveals so much about the culture of angst\!” +> +> Meanwhile, the wheel of invention kept turning. Mere decades later, +> humans did fly and accomplished many other astonishing things. +> +> A few iconoclastic dragonologists began arguing for a new attack on +> the dragon-tyrant. Killing the dragon would not be easy, they said, +> but if some material could be invented that was harder than the +> dragon’s armor, and if this material could be fashioned into some +> kind of projectile, then maybe the feat would be possible. At first, +> the iconoclasts’ ideas were rejected by their dragonologist peers on +> grounds that no known material was harder than dragon scales. But +> after working on the problem for many years, one of the iconoclasts +> succeeded in demonstrating that a dragon scale could be pierced by an +> object made of a certain composite material. Many dragonologists who +> had previously been skeptical now joined the iconoclasts. Engineers +> calculated that a huge projectile could be made of this material and +> launched with sufficient force to penetrate the dragon’s armor. +> However, the manufacture of the needed quantity of the composite +> material would be expensive. +> +> A group of several eminent engineers and dragonologists sent a +> petition to the king asking for funding to build the anti-dragon +> projectile. At time when the petition was sent, the king was +> preoccupied with leading his army into war against a tiger. The tiger +> had killed a farmer and subsequently disappeared into the jungle. +> There was widespread fear in the countryside that the tiger might come +> out and strike again. The king had the jungle surrounded and ordered +> his troops to begin slashing their way through it. At the conclusion +> of the campaign, the king could announce that all 163 tigers in the +> jungle, including presumably the murderous one, had been hunted down +> and killed. During the tumult of the war, however, the petition had +> been lost or forgotten. +> +> The petitioners therefore sent another appeal. This time they received +> a reply from one of the king’s secretaries saying that the king would +> consider their request after he was done reviewing the annual +> dragon-administration budget. This year’s budget was the largest to +> date and included funding for a new railway track to the mountain. A +> second track was deemed necessary, as the original track could no +> longer support the increasing traffic. (The tribute demanded by the +> dragon-tyrant had increased to one hundred thousand human beings, to +> be delivered to the foot of the mountain every evening at the onset of +> dark.) When the budget was finally approved, however, reports were +> coming from a remote part of the country that a village was suffering +> from a rattlesnake infestation. The king had to leave urgently to +> mobilize his army and ride off to defeat this new threat. The +> anti-dragonists’ appeal was filed away in a dusty cabinet in the +> castle basement. +> +> The anti-dragonists met again to decide what was to be done. The +> debate was animated and continued long into the night. It was almost +> daybreak when they finally resolved to take the matter to the people. +> Over the following weeks, they traveled around the country, gave +> public lectures, and explained their proposal to anyone who would +> listen. At first, people were skeptical. They had been taught in +> school that the dragon-tyrant was invincible and that the sacrifices +> it demanded had to be accepted as a fact of life. Yet when they learnt +> about the new composite material and about the designs for the +> projectile, many became intrigued. In increasing numbers, citizens +> flocked to the anti-dragonist lectures. Activists started organizing +> public rallies in support of the proposal. +> +> When the king read about these meetings in the newspaper, he summoned +> his advisors and asked them what they thought about it. They informed +> him about the petitions that had been sent but told him that the +> anti-dragonists were troublemakers whose teachings were causing public +> unrest. It was much better for the social order, they said, that the +> people accepted the inevitability of the dragon-tyrant tribute. The +> dragon-administration provided many jobs that would be lost if the +> dragon was slaughtered. There was no known social good coming from the +> conquest of the dragon. In any case, the king’s coffers were currently +> nearly empty after the two military campaigns and the funding set +> aside for the second railway line. The king, who was at the time +> enjoying great popularity for having vanquished the rattlesnake +> infestation, listened to his advisors’ arguments but worried that he +> might lose some of his popular support if was seen to ignore the +> anti-dragonist petition. He therefore decided to hold an open hearing. +> Leading dragonologists, ministers of the state, and interested members +> of the public were invited to attend. +> +> The meeting took place on the darkest day of the year, just before the +> Christmas holidays, in the largest hall of the royal castle. The hall +> was packed to the last seat and people were crowding in the aisles. +> The mood was charged with an earnest intensity normally reserved for +> pivotal wartime sessions. +> +> After the king had welcomed everyone, he gave the floor to the leading +> scientist behind the anti-dragonist proposal, a woman with a serious, +> almost stern expression on her face. She proceeded to explain in clear +> language how the proposed device would work and how the requisite +> amount of the composite material could be manufactured. Given the +> requested amount of funding, it should be possible to complete the +> work in fifteen to twenty years. With an even greater amount of +> funding, it might be possible to do it in as little as twelve years. +> However, there could be no absolute guarantee that it would work. The +> crowd followed her presentation intently. +> +> Next to speak was the king’s chief advisor for morality, a man with a +> booming voice that easily filled the auditorium: +> +> “Let us grant that this woman is correct about the science and that +> the project is technologically possible, although I don’t think that +> has actually been proven. Now she desires that we get rid of the +> dragon. Presumably, she thinks she’s got the right not to be chewed up +> by the dragon. How willful and presumptuous. The finitude of human +> life is a blessing for every individual, whether he knows it or not. +> Getting rid of the dragon, which might seem like such a convenient +> thing to do, would undermine our human dignity. The preoccupation with +> killing the dragon will deflect us from realizing more fully the +> aspirations to which our lives naturally point, from living well +> rather than merely staying alive. It is debasing, yes debasing, for a +> person to want to continue his or her mediocre life for as long as +> possible without worrying about some of the higher questions about +> what life is to be used for. But I tell you, the nature of the dragon +> is to eat humans, and our own species-specified nature is truly and +> nobly fulfilled only by getting eaten by it...” +> +> The audience listened respectfully to this highly decorated speaker. +> The phrases were so eloquent that it was hard to resist the feeling +> that some deep thoughts must lurk behind them, although nobody could +> quite grasp what they were. Surely, words coming from such a +> distinguished appointee of the king must have profound substance. +> +> The speaker next in line was a spiritual sage who was widely respected +> for his kindness and gentleness as well as for his devotion. As he +> strode to the podium, a small boy yelled out from the audience: “The +> dragon is bad\!” +> +> The boy’s parents turned bright red and began hushing and scolding the +> child. But the sage said, “Let the boy speak. He is probably wiser +> than an old fool like me.” +> +> At first, the boy was too scared and confused to move. But when he saw +> the genuinely friendly smile on the sage’s face and the outreached +> hand, he obediently took it and followed the sage up to the podium. +> “Now, there’s a brave little man,” said the sage. “Are you afraid of +> the dragon?“ +> +> “I want my granny back,” said the boy. +> +> “Did the dragon take your granny away?” +> +> “Yes,” the boy said, tears welling up in his large frightened eyes. +> “Granny promised that she would teach me how to bake gingerbread +> cookies for Christmas. She said that we would make a little house out +> of gingerbread and little gingerbread men that would live in it. Then +> those people in white clothes came and took Granny away to the +> dragon... The dragon is bad and it eats people… I want my Granny +> back\!” +> +> At this point the child was crying so hard that the sage had to return +> him to his parents. +> +> There were several other speakers that evening, but the child’s simple +> testimony had punctured the rhetorical balloon that the king’s +> ministers had tried to inflate. The people were backing the +> anti-dragonists, and by the end of the evening even the king had come +> to recognize the reason and the humanity of their cause. In his +> closing statement, he simply said: “Let’s do it\!” +> +> As the news spread, celebrations erupted in the streets. Those who had +> been campaigning for the anti-dragonists toasted each other and drank +> to the future of humanity. +> +> The next morning, a billion people woke up and realized that their +> turn to be sent to the dragon would come before the projectile would +> be completed. A tipping point was reached. Whereas before, active +> support for the anti-dragonist cause had been limited to a small group +> of visionaries, it now became the number one priority and concern on +> everybody’s mind. The abstract notion of “the general will” took on an +> almost tangible intensity and concreteness. Mass rallies raised money +> for the projectile project and urged the king to increase the level of +> state support. The king responded to these appeals. In his New Year +> address, he announced that he would pass an extra appropriations bill +> to support the project at a high level of funding; additionally, he +> would sell off his summer castle and some of his land and make a large +> personal donation. “I believe that this nation should commit itself to +> achieving the goal, before this decade is out, of freeing the world +> from the ancient scourge of the dragon-tyrant.” +> +> Thus started a great technological race against time. The concept of +> an anti-dragon projectile was simple, but to make it a reality +> required solutions to a thousand smaller technical problems, each of +> which required dozens of time-consuming steps and missteps. +> Test-missiles were fired but fell dead to the ground or flew off in +> the wrong direction. In one tragic accident, a wayward missile landed +> on a hospital and killed several hundred patients and staff. But there +> was now a real seriousness of purpose, and the tests continued even as +> the corpses were being dug out from the debris. +> +> Despite almost unlimited funding and round-the-clock work by the +> technicians, the king’s deadline could not be met. The decade +> concluded and the dragon was still alive and well. But the effort was +> getting closer. A prototype missile had been successfully test fired. +> Production of the core, made of the expensive composite material, was +> on schedule for its completion to coincide with the finishing of the +> fully tested and debugged missile shell into which it was to be +> loaded. The launch date was set to the following year’s New Year’s +> Eve, exactly twelve years after the project’s official inauguration. +> The best-selling Christmas gift that year was a calendar that counted +> down the days to time zero, the proceeds going to the projectile +> project. +> +> The king had undergone a personal transformation from his earlier +> frivolous and thoughtless self. He now spent as much time as he could +> in the laboratories and the manufacturing plants, encouraging the +> workers and praising their toil. Sometimes he would bring a sleeping +> bag and spend the night on a noisy machine floor. He even studied and +> tried to understand the technical aspects of their work. Yet he +> confined himself to giving moral support and refrained from meddling +> in technical and managerial matters. +> +> Seven days before New Year, the woman who had made the case for the +> project almost twelve years earlier, and was now its chief executive, +> came to the royal castle and requested an urgent audience with the +> king. When the king got her note, he excused himself to the foreign +> dignitaries whom he was reluctantly entertaining at the annual +> Christmas dinner and hurried off to the private room where the +> scientist was waiting. As always of late, she looked pale and worn +> from her long working hours. This evening, however, the king also +> thought he could detect a ray of relief and satisfaction in her eyes. +> +> She told him that the missile had been deployed, the core had been +> loaded, everything had been triple-checked, they were ready to launch, +> and would the king give his final go-ahead. The king sank down in an +> armchair and closed his eyes. He was thinking hard. By launching the +> projectile tonight, one week early, seven hundred thousand people +> would be saved. Yet if something went wrong, if it missed its target +> and hit the mountain instead, it would be a disaster. A new core would +> have to be constructed from scratch and the project would be set back +> by some four years. He sat there, silently, for almost an hour. Just +> as the scientist had become convinced that he had fallen asleep, he +> opened his eyes and said in a firm voice: “No. I want you to go right +> back to the lab. I want you to check and then re-check everything +> again.” The scientist could not help a sigh escaping her; but she +> nodded and left. +> +> The last day of the year was cold and overcast, but there was no wind, +> which meant good launch conditions. The sun was setting. Technicians +> were scuttling around making the final adjustments and giving +> everything one last check. The king and his closest advisors were +> observing from a platform close to the launch pad. Further away, +> behind a fence, large numbers of the public had assembled to witness +> the great event. A large clock was showing the countdown: fifty +> minutes to go. +> +> An advisor tapped the king on the shoulder and drew his attention to +> the fence. There was some tumult. Somebody had apparently jumped the +> fence and was running towards the platform where the king sat. +> Security quickly caught up with him. He was handcuffed and taken away. +> The king turned his attention back to the launch pad, and to the +> mountain in the background. In front of it, he could see the dark +> slumped profile of the dragon. It was eating. +> +> Some twenty minutes later, the king was surprised to see the +> handcuffed man reappearing a short distance from the platform. His +> nose was bleeding and he was accompanied by two security guards. The +> man appeared to be in frenzied state. When he spotted the king, he +> began shouting at the top of his lungs: “The last train\! The last +> train\! Stop the last train\!” +> +> “Who is this young man?” said the king. “His face seems familiar, but +> I cannot quite place him. What does he want? Let him come up.” +> +> The young man was a junior clerk in the ministry of transportation, +> and the reason for his frenzy was that he had discovered that his +> father was on the last train to the mountain. The king had ordered the +> train traffic to continue, fearing that any disruption might cause the +> dragon to stir and leave the open field in front of the mountain where +> it now spent most of its time. The young man begged the king to issue +> a recall-order for the last train, which was due to arrive at the +> mountain terminal five minutes before time zero. +> +> “I cannot do it,” said the king, “I cannot take the risk.” +> +> “But the trains frequently run five minutes late. The dragon won’t +> notice\! Please\!” +> +> The young man was kneeling before the king, imploring him to save his +> father’s life and the lives of the other thousand passengers onboard +> that last train. +> +> The king looked down at the pleading, bloodied face of the young man. +> But he bit his lip, and shook his head. The young man continued to +> wail even as the guards carried him off the platform: “Please\! Stop +> the last train\! Please\!” +> +> The king stood silent and motionless, until, after while, the wailing +> suddenly ceased. The king looked up and glanced over at the countdown +> clock: five minutes remaining. +> +> Four minutes. Three minutes. Two minutes. +> +> The last technician left the launch pad. +> +> 30 seconds. 20 seconds. Ten, nine, eight… +> +> As a ball of fire enveloped the launch pad and the missile shot out, +> the spectators instinctively rose to the tips of their toes, and all +> eyes fixated at the front end of the white flame from the rocket’s +> afterburners heading towards the distant mountain. The masses, the +> king, the low and the high, the young and the old, it was as if at +> this moment they shared a single awareness, a single conscious +> experience: that white flame, shooting into the dark, embodying the +> human spirit, its fear and its hope… striking at the heart of evil. +> The silhouette on the horizon tumbled, and fell. Thousand voices of +> pure joy rose from the assembled masses, joined seconds later by a +> deafening drawn-out thud from the collapsing monster as if the Earth +> itself was drawing a sigh of relief. After centuries of oppression, +> humanity at last was free from the cruel tyranny of the dragon. +> +> The joy cry resolved into a jubilating chant: “Long live the king\! +> Long live us all\!” The king’s advisors, like everybody that night, +> were as happy as children; they embraced each other and congratulated +> the king: “We did it\! We did it\!” +> +> But the king answered in a broken voice: “Yes, we did it, we killed +> the dragon today. But damn, why did we start so late? This could have +> been done five, maybe ten years ago\! Millions of people wouldn’t have +> had to die.” +> +> The king stepped off the platform and walked up to the young man in +> handcuffs, who was sitting on the ground. There he fell down on his +> knees. “Forgive me\! Oh my God, please forgive me\!” +> +> The rain started falling, in large, heavy drops, turning the ground +> into mud, drenching the king’s purple robes, and dissolving the blood +> on the young man’s face. “I am so very sorry about your father,” said +> the king. +> +> “It’s not your fault,” replied the young man. “Do you remember twelve +> years ago in the castle? That crying little boy who wanted you to +> bring back his grandmother – that was me. I didn’t realize then that +> you couldn’t possibly do what I asked for. Today I wanted you to save +> my father. Yet it was impossible to do that now, without jeopardizing +> the launch. But you have saved my life, and my mother and my sister. +> How can we ever thank you enough for that?” +> +> “Listen to them,” said the king, gesturing towards the crowds. “They +> are cheering me for what happened tonight. But the hero is you. You +> cried out. You rallied us against evil.” The king signaled a guard to +> come and unlock the handcuffs. “Now, go to your mother and sister. You +> and your family shall always be welcome at the court, and anything you +> wish for – if it be within my power – shall be granted.” +> +> The young man left, and the royal entourage, huddling in the downpour, +> accumulated around their monarch who was still kneeling in the mud. +> Amongst the fancy couture, which was being increasingly ruined by the +> rain, a bunch of powdered faces expressed a superposition of joy, +> relief, and discombobulation. So much had changed in the last hour: +> the right to an open future had been regained, a primordial fear had +> been abolished, and many a long-held assumption had been overturned. +> Unsure now about what was required of them in this unfamiliar +> situation, they stood there tentatively, as if probing whether the +> ground would still hold, exchanging glances, and waiting for some kind +> of indication. +> +> Finally, the king rose, wiping his hands on the sides of his pants. +> +> “Your majesty, what do we do now?” ventured the most senior courtier. +> +> “My dear friends,” said the king, “we have come a long way… yet our +> journey has only just begun. Our species is young on this planet. +> Today we are like children again. The future lies open before us. We +> shall go into this future and try to do better than we have done in +> the past. We have time now – time to get things right, time to grow +> up, time to learn from our mistakes, time for the slow process of +> building a better world, and time to get settled in it. Tonight, let +> all the bells in the kingdom ring until midnight, in remembrance of +> our dead forbears, and then after midnight let us celebrate till the +> sun comes up. And in the coming days… I believe we have some +> reorganization to do\!” +> +>   +> +> \* \* \* +> +>   +> +> MORAL +> +> Stories about aging have traditionally focused on the need for +> graceful accommodation. The recommended solution to diminishing vigor +> and impending death was resignation coupled with an effort to achieve +> closure in practical affairs and personal relationships. Given that +> nothing could be done to prevent or retard aging, this focus made +> sense. Rather than fretting about the inevitable, one could aim for +> peace of mind. +> +> Today we face a different situation. While we still lack effective and +> acceptable means for slowing the aging process[\[1\]](#_ftn1), we can +> identify research directions that might lead to the development of +> such means in the foreseeable future. “Deathist” stories and +> ideologies, which counsel passive acceptance, are no longer harmless +> sources of consolation. They are fatal barriers to urgently needed +> action. +> +> Many distinguished technologists and scientists tell us that it will +> become possible to retard, and eventually to halt and reverse, human +> senescence.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) At present, there is little agreement about +> the time-scale or the specific means, nor is there a consensus that +> the goal is even achievable in principle. In relation to the fable +> (where aging is, of course, represented by the dragon), we are +> therefore at a stage somewhere between that at which the lone sage +> predicted the dragon’s eventual demise and that at which the +> iconoclast dragonologists convinced their peers by demonstrating a +> composite material that was harder than dragon scales. +> +> The ethical argument that the fable presents is simple: There are +> obvious and compelling moral reasons for the people in the fable to +> get rid of the dragon. Our situation with regard to human senescence +> is closely analogous and ethically isomorphic to the situation of the +> people in the fable with regard to the dragon. Therefore, we have +> compelling moral reasons to get rid of human senescence. +> +> The argument is not in favor or life-span extension *per se*. Adding +> extra years of sickness and debility at the end of life would be +> pointless. The argument is in favor of extending, as far as possible, +> the human *health-span*. By slowing or halting the aging process, the +> healthy human life span would be extended. Individuals would be able +> to remain healthy, vigorous, and productive at ages at which they +> would otherwise be dead. +> +> In addition to this general moral, there are a number of more specific +> lessons: +> +> *(1)  A recurrent tragedy became a fact of life, a statistic*. In the +> fable, people’s expectations adapted to the existence of the dragon, +> to the extent that many became unable to perceive its badness. Aging, +> too, has become a mere “fact of life” – despite being the principal +> cause of an unfathomable amount of human suffering and death. +> +> *(2)  A static view of technology*. People reasoned that it would +> never become possible to kill the dragon because all attempts had +> failed in the past. They failed to take into account accelerated +> technological progress. Is a similar mistake leading us to +> underestimate the chances of a cure for aging? +> +> *(3) * *Administration became its own purpose*. One seventh of the +> economy went to dragon-administration (which is also the fraction of +> its GDP that the U.S. spends on healthcare). Damage-limitation became +> such an exclusive focus that it made people neglect the underlying +> cause. Instead of a massive publicly-funded research program to halt +> aging, we spend almost our entire health budget on health-care and on +> researching individual diseases. +> +> *(4) * *The social good became detached from the good for people*. The +> king’s advisors worried about the possible social problems that could +> be caused by the anti-dragonists. They said that no known social good +> would come from the demise of the dragon. Ultimately, however, social +> orders exist for the benefit of people, and it is generally good for +> people if their lives are saved. +> +> *(5) * *The lack of a sense of proportion.* A tiger killed a farmer. A +> rhumba of rattlesnakes plagued a village. The king got rid of the +> tiger and the rattlesnakes, and thereby did his people a service. Yet +> he was at fault, because he got his priorities wrong. +> +> *(6) * *Fine phrases and hollow rhetoric*. The king’s morality advisor +> spoke eloquently about human dignity and our species-specified nature, +> in phrases lifted, mostly verbatim, from the advisor’s contemporary +> equivalents.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) Yet the rhetoric was a smoke screen that +> hid rather than revealed moral reality. The boy’s inarticulate but +> honest testimony, by contrast, points to the central fact of the case: +> the dragon is bad; it destroys people. This is also the basic truth +> about human senescence. +> +> *(7) * *Failure to appreciate the urgency.* Until very late in the +> story, nobody fully realized what was at stake. Only as the king was +> staring into the bloodied face of the young pleading man does the +> extent of the tragedy sink in. Searching for a cure for aging is not +> just a nice thing that we should perhaps one day get around to. It is +> an urgent, screaming moral imperative. The sooner we start a focused +> research program, the sooner we will get results. It matters if we get +> the cure in 25 years rather than in 24 years: a population greater +> than that of Canada would die as a result. In this matter, time equals +> life, at a rate of approximately 70 lives per minute. With the meter +> ticking at such a furious rate, we should stop faffing about. +> +> *(8) * *“And in the coming days… I believe we have some reorganization +> to do\!”* The king and his people will face some major challenges when +> they recover from their celebration. Their society has been so +> conditioned and deformed by the presence of the dragon that a +> frightening void now exists. They will have to work creatively, on +> both an individual and a societal level, to develop conditions that +> will keep lives flourishingly dynamic and meaningful beyond the +> accustomed three-score-years-and-ten. Luckily, the human spirit is +> good at adapting. Another issue that they may eventually confront is +> overpopulation. Maybe people will have to learn to have children later +> and less frequently. Maybe they can find ways to sustain a larger +> population by using more efficient technology. Maybe they will one day +> develop spaceships and begin to colonize the cosmos. We can leave, for +> now, the long-lived fable people to grapple with these new challenges, +> while we try to make some progress in our own +> adventure.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) +> +>   +> +> +> +> [](#_ftnref1) +> +> \[1\] +> +> Calorie restriction (a diet low in calories but high in nutrients) +> extends maximal lifespan and delays the onset of age-related illnesses +> in all species that have been tested. Preliminary results from an +> ongoing study on rhesus and squirrel monkeys show similar effects. It +> seems quite likely that calorie restriction would work for our species +> too. Few humans, however, would be willing to put themselves through a +> lifelong hunger-diet. Some researchers are searching for +> calorie-restriction mimetics – compounds that elicit the desirable +> effects of lowered caloric intake without us having to go hungry. (See +> e.g. Lane, M. et al. (1999) “Nutritional modulation of aging in +> nonhuman primates,” *J. Nutr. Health & Aging*, 3(2): 69-76.) +> +> [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) A recent straw poll at the 10th Congress of the +> International Association of Biomedical Gerontology revealed that the +> majority of the participants thought it either probable or “not +> improbable” that comprehensive functional rejuvenation of middle-aged +> mice would be possible within 10-20 years (de Grey, A. (2004), “Report +> of open discussion on the future of life extension research,” (Annals +> NY Acad. Sci., 1019, in press)). See also e.g. de Grey, A., B. Ames, +> et al. (2002) “Time to talk SENS: critiquing the immutability of human +> aging,” *Increasing Healthy Life Span: Conventional Measures and +> Slowing the Innate Aging Process: Ninth Congress of the International +> Association of Biomedical Gerontology*, ed. D. Harman (Annals NY Acad. +> Sci. 959: 452-462); and Freitas Jr., R. A., *Nanomedicine, Vol. 1* +> (Landes Bioscience: Georgetown, TX, 1999). +> +> [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) See, e.g. Kass, L. (2003) “Ageless Bodies, Happy +> Souls: Biotechnology and the Pursuit of Perfection,” *The New +> Atlantis*, 1. +> +> [](#_ftnref4) +> +> \[4\] +> +> I’m grateful to many people for comments on earlier drafts, including +> especially Heather Bradshaw, Roger Crisp, Aubrey de Grey, Katrien +> Devolder, Joel Garreau, John Harris, Andrea Landfried, Toby Ord, Susan +> Rogers, Julian Savulescu, Ian Watson, and Kip Werking. I am also very +> grateful to Adi Berman, Pierino Forno, Didier Coeurnelle, and others +> who have translated the fable into other languages, and everybody who +> has helped spread the word or who have given encouragement. Thank +> you\! diff --git a/_stories/2005/6622841.md b/_stories/2005/6622841.md index f0e2a43..836f81f 100644 --- a/_stories/2005/6622841.md +++ b/_stories/2005/6622841.md @@ -19,7 +19,24 @@ _tags: objectID: '6622841' --- -[Source](https://www.autonlab.org/tutorials/ "Permalink to ") +tutorials +# Tutorial Slides by Andrew Moore +# A Tutorial On Using the Vizier Memory-Based Learning System +By: Jeff Schneider, Mary Soon Lee, Andrew Moore + +Description: A tutorial on using the Windows Vizier software, which +provides a GUI for doing fast and autonomous locally weighted learning +and nearest neighbor style learning. The Vizier software itself is +available for free download at +[http://www.cs.cmu.edu/~awm/vizier](http://www.cs.cmu.edu/~awm/vizier "http://www.cs.cmu.edu/~awm/vizier"), +where you will find more details. + +# Auton Lab Coding Tutorial + +Description: This is a link to the Auton Coding tutorial. This is a +static copy that was uploaded on 2008-09-26. The most recent version is +going to be in the tutorial project in Auton CVS. Here is the +[PDF](http://autonlab.org/daisy/18553 "http://autonlab.org/daisy/18553") diff --git a/_stories/2005/7649063.md b/_stories/2005/7649063.md deleted file mode 100644 index 794cef5..0000000 --- a/_stories/2005/7649063.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,25 +0,0 @@ ---- -created_at: '2014-04-25T21:12:05.000Z' -title: Why USB sucks (2005) -url: http://www.technozeal.com/topic2.html -author: rograndom -points: 60 -story_text: '' -comment_text: -num_comments: 99 -story_id: -story_title: -story_url: -parent_id: -created_at_i: 1398460325 -_tags: -- story -- author_rograndom -- story_7649063 -objectID: '7649063' - ---- -[Source](http://www.technozeal.com/topic2.html "Permalink to ") - - - diff --git a/_stories/2005/778339.md b/_stories/2005/778339.md index c08b809..d10808d 100644 --- a/_stories/2005/778339.md +++ b/_stories/2005/778339.md @@ -19,7 +19,1366 @@ _tags: objectID: '778339' --- -[Source](http://steve.yegge.googlepages.com/scheming-is-believing "Permalink to ") +After maybe 13 years of messing around with Lisp, on and off, I'm +finally starting to like it. +Oh, sure, I've been lightly acquainted with Lisp's technical merits (at +least some of them) for maybe a year now. I've been playing around with +various Lisps and Schemes, and reading some books on them. And I've +always done a moderate amount of Emacs-Lisp hacking. But until recently +I never really liked Lisp. Even when I did my little Emacs typing-test +application back in July, I only thought Lisp was so-so. +There were a few things I liked about it, sure. Most languages have a +few areas where they really shine. Well, some do, anyway. But I've +always felt like I was fighting with Lisp and Scheme, and when I really +need to get something done, except in Emacs where you have no choice, +I've always found it easier and more natural to work in Java or Perl or +whatever. +I'm starting to like Lisp, though, and I'm finding I particularly like +Scheme. It's quite different from elisp and Common Lisp. But I still +think of them all as "Lisp", and I think that in spite of all the +squabbling between Lispers and Schemers, they really are still Lisp. + +In fact, fighting over them is like arguing the relative merits of, say, +skiing vs. snowboarding. They're both a lot of fun. Skiers and boarders +target each other for jokes, complaints, etc. That's natural, since +they're the only ones on the slopes. They've got an entirely different +set of problems than the kids on the inner tubes down by the parking +lot. + +### The Functional Skiing Community + +Actually, skiers and boarders aren't entirely alone on the slopes, just +as Lispers and Schemers aren't entirely alone in their problem space. +There's the occasional Haskell-lover on snowblades, or an OCaml person +on telemark skis. Lispers and Schemers consider them part of the family +— it's hard not to when they're there on the same slopes, going off +the same jumps with you, looking weird but competent. But they're a +fairly small minority. + +Is it just me, or do those telemark skiers always look like they're +world-class? I'm talking about those [long +skis](http://www.telemarkski.com/) where the heels lift way out of the +bindings, so they have an entirely different style than Alpine/downhill +skiiers. They always seem to be coming down out of the forest above the +runs I'm on. Maybe you have to be world-class if you want to master +something not many others are doing. + +They also look pretty lonely. Snowboarders clump together with other +boarders, skiers with skiers, and so on. This is partly just +(sub-)cultural — boarders like the baggy clothes and all that — but also +partly because the natural arcs skiers and boarders make coming down the +mountain are different, so they have an unfortunate tendency to collide +at high speeds. Telemarkers' tracks are different from both. So +telemarkers, at least in the ski resorts I've frequented, seem to be out +on their own most of the time. But they certainly know their stuff. + +I remember it took me a few years before I really loved snowboarding. It +didn't happen until I was fairly advanced, and could go down any "sane" +slope (i.e. some double-blacks — no sharp rocks or 20-foot sheer drops +for me, thanks) without fear. I thought I loved boarding early on, but +each year it kept getting better, as I got better. + +I never got past intermediate level as a skier. I only did it for 2 or 3 +seasons, and always used rental skis, so I wasn't comfortable on +black-diamond slopes. I've been boarding for 12 or 13 seasons now, and +after taking some advanced lessons, my technique got dramatically +better. You never really notice how much energy you're wasting by doing +things inefficiently, at least until someone actually shows you. That's +true of boarding, and programming, and probably just about everything +else as well. + +I've sometimes wondered how master-level techniques are discovered for +totally new skill domains. Maybe some people are just naturally good at +it, and a few are articulate enough to show other people what they're +doing. Maybe some people have skills that carry over from other domains, +so initially the best boarders might have been surfers or skiers or +skateboarders. And maybe some people have just figured out that there +are universal concepts like efficiency and economy of motion that apply +to mastering just about anything. Who knows. + +Obviously the experts and masters of any skill have a much richer, +deeper appreciation for it than a beginner. I suspect that in general, +that deep appreciation allows them to derive more enjoyment from their +art/sport/craft than people who are less skilled in it. I don't know +that for sure, but it's what all the circumstantial evidence seems to +say. Clearly non-masters can have a lot of fun too. But most things seem +to become more enjoyable as you get better at them, and spend less time +fighting with insufficient knowledge or bad technique. You can focus +that much more on doing cool stuff. + +If your art or sport or whatever is demanding enough, so that even the +masters can continue to improve, then it rarely loses its novelty. You +can have fun sliding down a slope on an inner tube, and I suppose some +people can enjoy the experience for their whole lives. But when you +learn how to ski (and it's a lot of painful work\!), new vistas open up +that you probably weren't expecting. To kids on inner tubes, it looks +like skiers are just going up and down crowded slopes, so it's hard to +imagine that it's any more fun than tubing and building snowmen. + +Even most skiers and boarders never become skilled enough to experience +the breathtaking beauty and solitude of the back-country. Or the +profound satisfaction of controlling your path through moguls, jumps, +trees, and high-speed chutes. But it just keeps getting more fun, and +it's clear that the boarders better than me are loving it even more than +I am. Struggling takes a lot of the fun out of things. + +### Late-Night Scheming + +Lisp and Scheme basically snuck up on me. Until very recently, even +though I've been studying and using them both quite a bit, I still +preferred Java and Ruby, and even C++ or Perl, over Lisp for real work. +I just hadn't discovered that back-country wilderness yet. Part of the +key to understanding Lisp is realizing that you won't ever see its +strengths if you just try to write your usual stuff in it. Down on the +beginner slopes, telemark skis and world-class artistry are fairly +useless, because all you can really do is slide along at 10 mph. You +don't need any real sophistication until you try tackling the the +mountaintops. + +I stayed up late last night doing programming exercises in Scheme. +That's certainly not what I'd planned on doing. But finally, after +months of reading (books, websites, source code) and experimentation, +something "clicked". All of the sudden I was obsessed with it. It was +almost like I was discovering programming for the first time. + +That didn't happen with, say, Ruby. It only took a few days to learn a +substantial amount of Ruby, and I immediately felt happier about solving +the problems I used to solve with Perl. Same with Java: it was just a +better C++, and Perl had been a better awk/sed/sh, etc. I got very +excited about all of them, and I still am, to some extent — you can't +help but love all languages a little, after doing 5 years of nothing but +hardcore assembly-language programming. But learning those languages +didn't feel like rediscovering programming. + +I'll confess readily: Lisp me took a long time to learn. I've screwed +around with Lisp for years without liking it much — at least not enough +to want to do any day-to-day programming in it. And even after embarking +on a serious undertaking to become proficient with it, it still took me +more than a year of reading and practicing before I finally started to +really like it. And then it happened more or less all at once. In that +sense, it really was like learning my first language. + +One big difference may have been my switching to focus more on Scheme, +recently, but it's hard to say. Maybe it just takes a long time. Or +maybe you don't actually try as hard to learn things until you really +believe, deep down, that it will be valuable. I do distinctly remember +when I decided that I really was going to use Lisp or Scheme for +something major, the books got a lot more interesting. It was a weird, +instant transformation from "academically interesting" to "I want to +learn this stuff right now." + +Even after I'd committed to really learning it, Lisp still felt, +compared to languages like Java and Ruby, a bit like trying to go from +tubing to telemarking. It wasn't intuitive, it didn't make me feel +comfortable or happy, and it didn't seem to offer much value over other +languages. + +Anyway, once I finally got excited about it, which I'd put right around +"yesterday", I started making my way through the exercises in various +textbooks, even doing those 3-star ones at the chapter ends that nobody +ever does. I also made up my own challenges as I went. I spent an hour +writing three or four versions of quicksort, and I can assure you I've +never before had the urge to implement quicksort for the "fun" of it. + +Another exercise from one of the books was to walk a code tree and +compute the lexical-address info for all the identifiers, annotate the +tree with it, and then reconstruct the variable name from its address +later. Um. I typically like to write web sites and games and scripts and +stuff — not pieces of compiler back-ends. But last night I wrote +countless tree-walkers, mini theorem provers, all kinds of things that +I'd heard of but never implemented, except maybe for specific course +projects back in school, after which I promptly and eagerly forgot +everything about them. + +Last night, in one night, I did stuff that probably would have taken a +week or two in Java, a language I'm vastly more familiar with. I'll +never know for sure, though, because I'd never want to implement any of +those things in Java. They just wouldn't be fun. I tried doing a few of +them in Ruby, and it wasn't too bad, but it definitely wasn't "fun". The +same algorithm, right after I'd done it in Lisp, felt like work in Ruby. +Evidently the problems that Lisp is immediately suited for, right out of +the box, are problems that are fairly painful in Java or C++, and none +too fun in Perl, Ruby or Python either. + +That's one realization, but it's far from the full picture. What's also +become clear is that Lisp is better at adapting to new problem domains +than any other language I've used. And I haven't used other functional +languages like Haskell and OCaml much, but I suspect Lisp beats them in +adaptability as well. + +### Evolution is King + +Perl began as a scripting language, but it quickly adapted itself (via +libraries and language extensions) to become a good language for Web +programming as well. Perl was really the first flag planted on that new +moon, most likely because of its strong text-processing capabilities and +Unix integration. But Perl tends not to be used as much for the Web +these days; it's nowhere near as popular for building websites as PHP, a +Perl-like language made specifically for the web. They probably wouldn't +have felt the need to create PHP if Perl had been sufficiently +adaptable. + +As another example, Perl has never made significant inroads into the +embedded-language space. Perl ought to be an excellent language for +embedding in other applications; i.e. an " app scripting" language, +which is after all very similar to Perl's original purpose. But it turns +out to be a lousy embedded language for lots of reasons, most of them +boiling down to Perl's lack of adaptability, which most people don't +notice because it's got so many shortcuts for Unix scripting and Web +programming. So cleaner languages like Python, Tcl, Lua and even Visual +Basic now have the lion's share of the embedded-language space. + +Java has proven itself to be a moderately adaptable language — either +that, or it's just had a lot of people muscling it forward. It began +life intended as a replacement for C++ on embedded devices, detoured as +a rich web-client language, and wound up taking a good deal of the +enterprise-server space (and other domains). And it's well on its way +towards achieving its original goal of being the dominant application +platform for mobile devices. Java must be doing something right. + +C is even more adaptable than Java. It's everywhere, and you can do +anything with it, although it really starts to break down at a certain +size system — perhaps a million lines at most. Java scales to much +larger code bases, although it unfortunately eats away much of this +advantage by being inescapably verbose. Like my blog\! + +C++ is much less adaptable than C. It's large, nonstandard, ungainly, +and nonportable, and it has horrible linking problems, regrettable +name-mangling, a template system that's too complex for what you can do +with it, and so on, and on. These things all hurt its ability to evolve +towards suitability for new (or specialized) problem domains. C++ was +able to move into the application-programming domain during a temporary +historical anomaly, from the mid-80's to mid-90's, during which software +demands outpaced Moore's Law for a while. The balance is restored, but +C++ is still hanging around like a crusty old aunt, because of all the +legacy app code out there. How C++ made it onto the server-side of the +web, I'll never know. It's hit the Peter Principle for languages big +time: promoted far beyond its capabilities. + +### Designing for growth + +What makes a language adaptable? Well, languages are how you say things, +so if you need to start expressing new concepts, your language needs to +be able to grow to express them. In particular, you have to be able to +express them cleanly, without having to jump through strange hoops, mix +in a bunch of historical gunk, and write tons of comments that say: +"warning: severe hack ahead". So that rules out Perl and C++. + +A language also needs to be well-specified. If nobody's exactly sure how +the language is supposed to work, then it's difficult for people to +build tools for it, develop implementations on new platforms, and build +a community around it. Having a rigorous language spec was a huge part +of Java's success. C++'s spec is very large, but is still filled with +holes. Perl's spec is a printout of Larry's source code, which looks the +same in ascii, ebcdic, and gzipped binary form. + +It's easiest to make a solid language specification if the language is +small, orthogonal, and consistent. Again, this rules out both C++ and +Perl. If the language has highly complex syntax and semantics, then +you've got a lot of writing ahead of you, and your spec may still never +be very solid. Java has only moderately complicated syntax and +semantics, and the language specification was created by some of the +world's leading Lisp experts (Gosling, Joy, Steele, and others), so they +were able to do a first-rate job. + +In addition to relative simplicity (at least syntactic simplicity) and a +thorough spec, another key element of adaptability is that the language +needs to be extensible. If a particular feature of the language is +getting in your way in some new problem domain, then you need to be able +to change it, or soon you'll be looking around for a new language. + +C provides a simple but reasonably effective extension mechanism via its +preprocessor macros. These proved very useful for a wide variety of +problems not addressed by the language, such as feature-conditional +compilation. In the long term, though, it doesn't scale very well, being +neither very expressive nor very well-integrated with the language and +tools. + +But at least C has a macro system. Java has absolutely nothing in this +space — admittedly the C preprocessor wasn't something you'd want to +copy, and C++ templates are just about the ugliest thing ever invented +by the hand of man, but that doesn't mean you should leave the problem +entirely unsolved. Now there are all kinds of Java preprocessors, code +generators, huge frameworks like AspectJ, new languages for the JVM and +so on, sprouting up everywhere, all designed to give you the ability to +make Java flex a little. + +The lack of a macro system may well be the thing that finally kills +Java, in ten years or however long it's got left. Don't get me wrong: I +think Java's a very strong platform, with lots going for it, and Java +introduced (or at least packaged together) a lot of novel ideas that +people take for granted now. But a language has to bend or break, and +Java's not doing much bending. Very little of the innovation in Java +these days is with the language, and almost none of it has fundamentally +improved its expressive power or its extensibility. Java's turning out +to be the New Pascal. + +Python's a very adaptable language, and does well in just about all of +the categories above except for macros. It does offer metaprogramming, +which lets you solve similar classes of problems, albeit not with any +assistance from the compiler. So it's found lots of niches and has a +pretty good user following. Good examples of its adaptability include +Jython (a port of Python to the Java VM) and Stackless Python, which +uses continuation-passing for its control flow. Python's also frequently +used as an embedded scripting language. All in all, it's a pretty darn +good language. Google uses it a lot, or so I've heard. + +Unfortunately Python has some flaws that may prove fatal, and which have +undoubtedly kept it from being more widely adopted. One is that the user +community consists mostly of frigid, distrustful, arrogant, unfriendly +jerks. Wasn't it Thomas Hobbes who first observed that communities and +organizations tend to reflect the personalities of their leaders? Python +has other problems, such as the lack of optional static types, although +they're talking a lot about adding that in. But most of Python's +technical problems would be easily surmountable if they weren't such a +bunch of kneebiters. + +I could go on comparing other languages, but you get the idea. Times +change, and new problems arise, but languages generally don't evolve +very quickly: they always have backward-compatibility issues, ones that +grow more onerous as time goes by. The only way to keep up is to provide +users with language-extensibility mechanisms. + +Of course, defining functions and types is the main way people grow +their languages to fit their problem domains. Those two mechanisms +(functions and an extensible type system) can carry you a very long way. +The Java community has gotten pretty far with Java's simple class +system, mostly through sheer willpower. + +But for Java it's beginning to break down. People are using code +generators (EJB, WSDL, IDL, etc.), and they're offloading processing +that should logically have been in Java into XML, e.g. Ant and Jelly, to +cite but two examples. Java has sprouted a powerful 3rd-party +metaprogramming system called AspectJ, and it's on the verge of becoming +accepted by the majority, which means Sun is losing control of the +language. Many other languages are appearing for the JVM, not to mention +templating preprocessors like JSP. Java interfaces and code bases are +becoming so huge that they have turned towards "refactoring tools" as a +way to help them move masses of similar-looking code around. + +If Java's so fugging cool, then why does all this stuff exist? + +That's not a rhetorical question. I really want to know. + +Some people claim that Java is just naturally the best language for +solving large-scale business problems, so Java happens to be tackling +the biggest problems in the world, and it's hitting scaling walls long +before other languages will see them. + +That's not what I think. My theory is that Java naturally makes things +large and complicated. So large and complicated, in fact, that it +requires unusually sophisticated automation tools just to keep +normal-sized projects under control. + +Take a look at any large Java framework these days (they only come in +one size) and you'll see what see what I mean. JMX is a good random +example, since it just got added to Java 5. It's hundreds of classes, +thousands of interface methods, and several large-ish mini-languages +passed around in String objects. For what, you ask? Well, it provides a +mechanism for you to monitor your app remotely. Er, sort of. It actually +provides a mechanism for you to build remote monitors. I'd have thought +that would be a relatively straightforward problem, and more importantly +one that's already been solved in various ways. But JMX is all-new, and +all-huge, and it's not even generic or reusable, at least according to +its documentation. + +Actually, I'll get sidetracked if I spend too long on Java frameworks. +I'll save it for another blog someday, maybe. Besides, I don't want to +come down too hard on Java, because it has a LOT of things going for it +that it does really well. And, ironically, AspectJ may well turn out to +be the thing that keeps Java in the game. I had no idea just how +powerful or mature it was until Gregor came and gave his talk, and even +then his talk didn't do it justice. I just happened to be assigned as +his "buddy" from Dev Services, so I grilled him for half an hour before +the talk, and again for half an hour afterwards, and listened to other +people grilling him as well. I'm convinced now, big time, but even so, +it's going to take a lot of slow, careful experimentation before I feel +really comfortable about its suitability for production work. + +And besides, Java's not the only language that has limitations. C++ +broke down a loooong time ago. It's just a body shop now. The standard +quantity of measurement for C++ tasks is the "body", and the units +typically range from dozens to hundreds. + +### Complexity Boundaries + +The reality is that every language has a natural, built-in limit to its +ability to help humans manage complexity before it poops out. Every +language has a natural maximum size for systems that can be written in +that language. Up to that maximum size, things go really well, and you +spend a lot of time focusing on solving the business problem. + +As the system grows beyond the language's natural complexity boundary, +people start to spend more and more time wrestling with problems caused +by the language itself. The code base gets huge, and the perpetual bug +count grows linearly (at least) with the size of the code. All kinds of +inertia sets in, as people begin to realize that making certain changes +will require modifying thousands of files, potentially not in an +automated way, because tools can generally help you with syntactic +problems, but not so much with semantic or architectural ones. It starts +to become overwhelming, and eventually progress slows to a trickle. + +This has happened to me twice now outside of Amazon. The first time was +at Geoworks. We wrote everything by hand in assembly language: apps, +libraries, drivers, kernel — an entire desktop (and eventually handheld) +operating system and application suite. The system eventually collapsed +under its own weight. Many Geoworks people still don't like to admit it, +but that's what happened. You can laugh it up, saying how foolish we +were to write everything in assembly language for performance reasons. + +But you're doing it right now at Amazon. Same justification, same +approach, and already some of the same outcomes. C++ is assembly +language: low-level, non-portable, occupying no useful niche; squeezed +out on the low end by straight C, squeezed on the high end by Java and +even higher-level languages that are now shining as Moore's Law runs +ahead. + +I know, I know: you and lots of smart people you know disagree. That's +fine. You're welcome to disagree. I can't blame you: I and everyone else +at Geoworks felt the same way about assembly language. We were doing +great things with it. C was for wimps, and C++ was for Visual Basic +pansies. Performance was King. We all have a blind spot for performance, +you know. All programmers have it. It's in our bones, and we're very +superstitious about it. So I hear you, and I'm not going to try to +change your mind. Everyone has to figure it out for themselves. + +I didn't figure it out until it had happened to me again, seven years +later, after building a [very large Java +application](http://www.cabochon.com) mostly by myself. At some +indefinable point, the bulk of my effort had shifted from extending the +application to maintaining it. Never satisfied, I did several months of +deep analysis on the code, and finally concluded that many/most of the +problems were intrinsic to Java, hence unavoidable. I had been immersed +for seven years in blind devotion to Java, seeing as it was actually +kinda nice compared to the old assembly-language gig, and my findings +were surprising and frustrating. + +So I spent another year or so of my free time on a massive quest, +searching for a Java replacement. It wasn't as easy as I'd hoped. Lots +of promise, lots of potential, but precious few high-level languages +that actually deliver the vast number of tools and features you need for +building production systens. Given that AOP can help with about half the +problems I was having, Java is still a very solid choice. There's really +only one other contender, one I probably should have been using from the +beginning. + +But I won't bore you with the details. The point I was trying to make in +this section is that all languages have a natural system-size limit, +beyond which your innovation starts to slow down dramatically. It +happens regardless of how well you've engineered your system, and +regardless of whether your team is one person or a thousand. Overall +productivity never goes to zero, but that's moot; the point is that you +started out strong and now you're weak. + +The natural complexity boundary for any given language is also a +function of your engineering quality, but that can only reduce the upper +bound. The natural limit I'm talking about is the one you hit even if +your system is engineered almost perfectly. Adding engineers can help up +to a point, but eventually communication, code-sharing, and other +people-related issues outweigh the benefits. + +You might think your problem domain determines the upper complexity +bound more than the programming language you're using. I don't think so, +though, because eventually all systems grow to the point where they're +huge, sprawling, distributed/networked, multi-functional platforms. Back +in the 70's and 80's, Unix people joked that all applications eventually +grow to the point where they can read mail, and any that don't are +replaced by ones that can. There was some truth to that. Today, systems +grow to the point where they speak Web Services and other protocols, or +they're replaced by ones that can. I don't think your problem domain +matters anywhere near as much as the language, because in some sense +we're all converging towards the same kinds of systems. + +What language-level features contribute to a language's scalability? +What makes one language capable of growing large systems, while a +similar system in another language spends all its time languishing in +maintenance-mode? + +### Type Systems + +If my 18 months of intense study have answered any question at all, it's +what data types are exactly, how they work, and why I'm always +struggling with whether I prefer strong or weak typing. + +The design of the static type system is an important determinant of +language scalability. Static type annotations improve system safety (in +the quality sense, if not necessarily in the security sense). They also +help the compiler produce optimized code. They can help improve program +readability if you don't overdo them. And type tags help your editor/IDE +and other tools figure out the structure of your code, since type tags +are essentially metadata. + +So languages without at least the option of declaring (or at least +automatically inferring) static types tend to have lower complexity +ceilings, even in the presense of good tools and extensive unit testing. + +You might think C++ and Java are strongly typed. You'd be wrong. Ada and +ML are strongly typed. C++ and Java have some static typing, but they +both provide you with lots of ways to bypass the type system. To be +honest, though, I think that's good thing; type-checker algorithms are +often not very smart, and sometimes you need them to get out of your +way. In the end, if your strongly-typed system becomes too much of a +pain, you'll find ways around it — e.g. passing XML parameters as +strings through your IDL interfaces, or whatever. + +It might seem odd that type systems yield such great benefits, yet when +you make them too strict, nobody can stand them anymore. The problem is +deeper than you might suspect, particularly if you subscribe to the view +that Object-Oriented Programming is the be-all, end-all of type systems. +Take another look at that JMX interface. It's strongly typed — +superficially, at any rate. But if you dig one or two levels deeper, +you'll see they gave up on the rigorous typing and highly-specialized +32-letter identifier names. At the lowest level, it's all weakly-typed +string parameters and oddly generic-sounding classes like "Query" and +"Role". Almost as if there's a query language frozen in that mass of OOP +interfaces, like Han Solo's face sticking out of the carbonite. + +The whole interface is massively overcomplicated, and it seems to +exhibit a sort of struggle between strong and weak static typing, right +there in the same framework. What's going on? Is this really so hard? + +The problem is that types really are just a classification scheme to +help us (and our tools) understand our semantic intent. They don't +actually change the semantics; they just describe or explain the +(intended) semantics. You can add type information to anything; in fact +you can tag things until you're blue in the face. You can continue +adding fine-grained distinctions to your code and data almost +indefinitely, specializing on anything you feel like: time of day, what +kind of people will be calling your APIs, anything you want. + +The hard part is knowing when to stop. If you're struggling over whether +to call a method getCustomersWithRedHairAndBlueNoses or +getCustomersByHairAndNoseType(HairType.RED, NoseColor.BLUE), then you've +officially entered barkingUpWrongTreeTerritory. Over-zealous typing is a +dead giveaway that someone junior is doing the design. At the other +exteme, not putting in enough static type information is certain to +create problems for you, as you muddle through your nests of untyped +lists and hashes, trying to discern the overall structure. + +This is the central problem of Object-Oriented design, and of program +and system design in general. + +And if designing your own types is hard, getting a language's type +system right is much harder, because there really is no "right" — it's +different for different people. Some people clean their homes until +every last speck of dust is gone, and some people are a bit sloppier, +but we all manage to get by. It's mostly a matter of personal +preference. This is why advocates of "weak" typing don't see any +advantage to Java's interface declarations and fine-grained primitive +types. They're going to unit-test it all anyway; the type system is just +redundant bureaucracy to them. + +Why do you need ints and longs, for instance? A good system should +automatically use the smallest representation it needs, and grow it on +demand, rather than overflowing and introducing horrible bugs, as Java +and C++ both do. Having fine-grained types for numeric precision just +gets people into trouble. In the real world, numbers have distinct, +naturally-occurring types that don't really map to the primitives you +find in popular languages, most of which chose their built-in types +based on machine word-sizes. In nature, we have whole numbers, natural +numbers, integers, rational numbers, real numbers, complex numbers, and +then an infinite chain of matrices of increasing dimensionality. That's +just how it works, and you sort of want your programming language to +work that way too, if you think about it. + +### Java's Type System + +Many Java advocates are very excited by the notion of +automatically-generated API documentation. Gosh, I guess I am too. But +because JavaDoc does such a great job, and we rely on it so heavily, +many people tend to confuse Java's type system with the doc-generation +system, and they think that you can't have that kind of documentation +without being able to declare Java-style interfaces. + +It's simply not true. Java definitely raised the bar on +auto-documentation. But Javadoc's output quality isn't better because of +the interface signatures; the quality is almost entirely due to the +JavaDoc tags, which you fill in by hand. The documentation written by +humans is far more useful than the dubious declaration that a function +takes two ints, or two Strings, or even two Person objects. You still +need to know what it does with them, and whether there are any +constraints on the data that aren't expressed by the type signatures — +e.g. whether can you pass in the full range of 32-bit integers to the +function. + +But many Java enthusiasts have latched onto interfaces, and they appear +to think of interfaces as the holy grail of type systems. They know, +deep down, that Java's type system is non-orthogonal, inflexible, and +not very expressive, and they ask questions about how to get around +problems with it on a daily basis. But they're used to assuming it's how +the universe works, so you don't question it, any more than you question +why you have to commute to work when you ought to be able to teleport +there instantly. (The physical universe's constraint system sucks, too.) + +It would take a whole book to explain all the problems with Java's type +system, but I'll try to throw out a few examples. + +One obvious problem is that Java's type extension mechanism is limited +to defining classes and interfaces. You can't create new primitive +types, and there are severe limitations on what you can do with classes +and interfaces. As a random example, you can't subclass a static method +— a feature that would occasionally be extremely useful, and which is +present in other languages. And a class can't get its own name at +compile-time, e.g. to pass to a static logger. (Jeez.) + +One that really irks me: there's no such thing as a "static interface" — +an interface full of static methods that a Class object promises to +implement. So you have to use reflection to look up factory methods, +hardwire class names in your code, and so on. The whole situation is +actually quite awful. + +As a result of Java's whimsical limitations, you often find objects or +situations in the real world that are very difficult to express in +Java's type system (or C++'s, for that matter, on which Java's is +modeled). Many Design Patterns are in fact elaborate mechanisms for +working around very serious limitations of the C++ and Java type +systems. + +An even more subtle point is that every single element of a programming +language has a type, even though the language doesn't actually recognize +them as distinct entities, let alone typed ones. + +Here's an example of what I mean by being able to tag things until +you're blue in the face: Take a for-loop. It's got a type, of course: +for-loop is a type of loop. It can also be viewed as a type of language +construct that introduces a new scope. And it's a type that can fork +program control-flow, and also a type that's introduced by a keyword and +has at least two auxiliary keywords (break and continue). + +You could even think of a for-loop as a type that has lots of types, as +opposed to a construct like the break statement, which doesn't exhibit +as much interesting and potentially type-worthy behavior. A type is just +a description of something's properties and/or behavior, so you can +really get carried away with overengineering your type declarations. In +extreme cases, you can wind up with a separate Java interface for nearly +every different method on a class. It's pretty clear why Python and Ruby +are moving towards "duck typing", where you simply ask an object at +runtime whether it responds to a particular message. If the object says +yes, then voila — it's the right type. Case closed. + +Ironically, even though every single Java language construct has many +(possible) types, Java itself is oblivious to them. Even Java's runtime +reflection system is only capable of expressing the types provided by +the OO mechanism (plus some stragglers like the primitive types). +Reflection has no visibility inside of methods. If you want to write +Java code that reads or writes Java code, then you have to come up with +your own object model first, and potentially wrestle with complex parser +generators and so on. + +Many languages that don't offer you much in the way of static type +annotations (e.g. Ruby, Python, Perl) still have tremendously rich type +systems. They provide you with more flexibility in defining your types, +using far less code, and still providing the same level of safety and +automatic documentation. Declaring a bunch of types doesn't make your +code safe, and not declaring them doesn't make it unsafe. Types are just +helpers, and making the right type choices is a fuzzy art, one that +boils down to taste. + +This is one reason OO design (and, by extension, service interface +design) is so difficult, and why interview candidates are often so "bad" +at it. I'll have more to say about types in a future essay, I'm sure. + +I went slightly off-course in this section. My goal was to illustrate +that there's life beyond Java, that Perl programmers aren't quite as +disorganized as most Java folks would like to believe, and of course +that a language's type system is one of the most important contributors +to how well the language "scales". + +### Language Scalability + +I could list other factors that contribute to language scalability: the +complexity of the syntax, for instance, is a real barrier to scaling, +for many reasons. You really don't want a complicated syntax; it'll come +back to bite you. Perl, C++ and Java all have artificially complicated +syntax: too much for too little semantic benefit. Java is the least +bitten of the three, but it still inherits a lot of cruft from C++, +which was designed by a rank amateur. (As was Perl.) + +The module system is another big one. Runtime introspection support is +another. In fact, all of the choices made in designing a language, +whether explicit or inadvertent, have some impact on how far the +language will scale before your system becomes too complex for human +beings to keep evolving it. + +But all of these contributors pale in comparison to extensibility — +i.e., the extent to which users can customize or change the behavior of +the language itself to suit their needs. + +And all languages, bar none, pale in comparison to Lisp when it comes to +extensibility (or adaptability, as I was calling this property earlier). +It doesn't matter how cool or sophisticated or far-reaching you think +your favorite language's extension mechanisms are: compared to Lisp, all +other languages are orders of magnitude less capable of evolution. + +### Lisp is DNA + +Alan Kay (co-inventor of Smalltalk and OOP) said of Lisp: "it's not a +language, it's a building material." Some authors have called it a +"programmable programming language". Some people say: "it looks like +fingernail clippings in oatmeal." People have in fact said all sorts of +amusing and interesting things about Lisp. + +All of the descriptions fall short of the mark, though. And mine very +likely will, too. But I'll try. Or at least I'll try to give you the +barest outline in the next few paragraphs. + +Every programming language runs on a machine. That machine is NOT the +hardware, because all languages can be made to run on different machines +— even assembly language, which can be run on emulators. Programming +languages are built atop an abstract machine conceived by the language +designer. This machine that may or may not be very well specified. For +instance, many languages have at least a few constructs whose behavior +relies on the implementation of a system-dependent system call. + +All languages have at least part of their underlying machine's +functionality implemented in software. Even C and C++ have software +runtime environments, and of course both languages also rely heavily on +OS services, which are also implemented in software and supported by the +hardware. In fact, all programs run on a tower of machines. Even the +hardware, which you might think of as pretty "low level", is actually +constructed out of smaller machines, all the way down to the level of +quantum mechanics. + +OK. Got it. Programs in all languages run on virtual machines. + +Languages also provide some amount of syntax: a set of input symbols you +can use for constructing your program, a set of mostly-formal rules +governing how you may arrange those symbols, and a set of +mostly-informal descriptions of how your symbol arrangements will be +interpreted. + +Most languages limit you to the symbols in the ASCII character set, for +historical reasons, and they're gradually migrating toward Unicode. But +a symbol could be anything at all, as long as it can be distinguished +from all other symbols used by the language. It's just a unique string +of bits, usually with a predetermined way of displaying and/or entering +it. + +The machine interprets your program's symbols according to the language +rules. Hence, all machines are interpreters. Some of the interpreting +goes on in hardware, and some in software. The hardware/software +boundary is flexible. For instance, CPUs have started offering +floating-point arithmetic in hardware, and video cards now offer polygon +rendering and other algorithms that used to be pure software. + +With me so far? + +Compilers are just programs that pre-interpret as much of your program +as possible. Technically they're unnecessary; you can interpret any +language directly from the input symbols. Compilers are a performance +optimization. They're quite useful, and we grossly under-utilize them, +but talking about performance would take me a bit too far afield today. +I'll have more to say about performance at some point, I'm sure. + +Hardware is also a performance optimization, if you separate the notions +of storage and computation. Ultimately computations can be performed by +people or any other kind of physical process that knows how to interpret +your program. When you hand-simulate your program, you're the machine. + +So "interpreters" are a much more fundamental notion than hardware or +compilers. An interpreter is a tower of machines, some software and some +hardware, running at different times, all working together to execute +your program. + +And your program is just a bunch of instructions, specified by your +arrangement of the language's symbols according to the rules of the +language. Languages and interpreters go hand in hand. + +Some programming languages are designed with the goal of being +interpreted directly by the hardware, with as little intervention from +software as possible. C is such a language. This approach has the +advantage of being pretty fast on current hardware. It has all the +disadvantages attendant to premature optimization, but I can't get +started on performance; I've already deleted about ten paragraphs about +it. I'll leave it for another blog. + +Some languages, e.g. C++ and Java, are designed to run on more abstract +machines. C++'s abstract machine is a superset of the C machine, and +includes some OOP abstractions. C++ has very complex syntax, partly due +to inexperienced design, and partly because it made many concessions to +hardware performance over people performance. Java runs on a virtual +machine, but it was designed to map very closely to existing hardware, +so in reality it's not so far removed from the bare metal as people tend +to think. + +Perl has its own complex, baroque, ad-hoc machine: the Perl interpreter. +Perl has a very complex syntax, with many shortcuts for common +operations. + +When you create classes and functions and libraries, you're not +extending the programming language. You're extending the machine. The +language stays the same. If it was hard to say certain things before, +then adding libraries of classes and functions doesn't really help. + +For instance, in Java you must double-escape all the metacharacters in +your regular expressions, not to mention create Pattern and Matcher +objects, all because you can't make any changes to Java's syntax. Unless +you want to use the hundreds of non-standard preprocessors that have +sprouted up precisely for reasons like this one. + +Another example: you can't write logging, tracing, or debugging +statements intelligently in Java. For instance, if you want to write +something like this: + +``` + debug("An error occurred with this object: " + obj); +``` + +where "debug" is a function that checks whether a debugging flag is set, +and if so, prints the message somewhere. + +If you do this, someone will happily point out that in Java, function +arguments are evaluated before calling the function, so even if +debugging is turned off, you're doing a bunch of work with that string +concatenation: creating a StringBuffer object, copying in the string +literal, calling a polymorphic toString() function on obj, creating a +new string to hold the object's description, which possibly involves +more StringBuffers and concatenation, then returning the StringBuffer on +the stack, where its contents are appended to the first StringBuffer, +possibly resulting in a reallocation of the memory to make room, and +then you're passing that argument on the stack to the debug() function, +only to find that debugging is off. + +Oops. + +And that's the best-case scenario. In the worst case, you could trigger +a thread context switch, or a garbage collection, or an unneeded +operating system page-cache fetch, or any number of other things that +you really don't want happening in production because of that debug +line, at least when debugging is off. + +There's no way to fix this. Even a preprocessor couldn't do it for you. +The standard hacky workaround is to write something like this instead: + +``` + if (DEBUG) debug("An error occurred with this object: " + obj); +``` + +where "DEBUG" is a constant in your code somewhere. This approach is +fraught with problems. The debug flag may need to be shared across +multiple classes, so you need to either declare it in each class, or +export it from one of them. The name of the flag appears right there, +inlined with your code, and there's no way to avoid typing it in +hundreds of places (unless you use AspectJ). And it's just plain ugly. + +My third and final Java example: sometimes you really do need multiple +inheritance. If you make a game, and you have a LightSource interface +and a Weapon interface, and behind each interface is a large +implementation class, then in Java you're screwed if you want to make a +Glowing Sword. You have no recourse but to manually instantiate weapon +and light-source implementation objects, store them in your instance +data, implement both interfaces, manually stub out every single call to +delegate to the appropriate instance, and hope the interface doesn't +change very often. And even then, you haven't fully solved the problem, +because the language inheritance rules may not work properly if someone +subclasses your GlowingSword. + +The regexp-escaping problem is a lexical problem: an eval-time or +compile-time macro system won't help you, because the lexical analyzer +has already done its dirty work before the parser ever sees the string. +If you wanted to provide a way around this in Java, without using a +preprocessor (which is a hack), you'd need an API that allows you to +interact with the lexer. That's all. Just an API, and a way to arrange +to invoke it before the rest of your code is lexed. + +The debug-flag problem is an evaluation-time problem. You can fix +problems like this either by adding support for lazy evaluation to your +language, or by adding a macro system. They amount to mostly the same +thing, except a macro system lets you add some syntactic sugar as well, +which is sometimes appropriate. + +The multiple-inheritance/delegation problem is a problem with the +interpreter semantics not being flexible enough. It manifests later than +eval-time, and it's conceivable that you could fix it without needing to +change the language syntax. For instance, if Java simply had a +methodMissing method in java.lang.Object, one that was called every time +someone tried to invoke a nonexistent method on you, then you could very +easily implement your own delegation strategy. It would be far easier to +code, far more resilient to interface changes, and it would even allow +you to abstract your delegation policy into another class, so you could +share it with other classes. + +Because no syntax changes are needed, the third problem illustrates a +class of problems that can be solved using metaprogramming, which lets +you change the built-in behavior of classes, e.g. by adding methods or +properties, overriding built-in methods, and so on. + +Three problem classes, three different techniques: Lexer (or "Reader") +macros, evaluator macros, and metaprogramming. + +C++ lets you do a little of all three of these things with its Template +system, and with its operator overloading, which is a limited (but often +useful) form of metaprogramming. Not enough with any of them, sadly, and +it's too hard to implement what little flexibility it allows you. But +it's much better than C's preprocessor, and it's a thousand times better +than Java's big fat nothing. It of course would be infinitely better, +being a divide-by-zero error, except that we'll give Java some credit +for at least not copying C++'s broken templates. + +Ruby and Python offer fairly flexible metaprogramming models, but no +macros or reader-macros. So they're both susceptible to the first two +kinds of problem I mentioned. + +Perl has... I dunno. Something. A whole mess of somethings. I know they +don't have macros, since they were discussing adding them on the Perl +newsgroups a year ago. Perl has some metaprogramming features, but +they're relatively limited in scope. And I don't think it has reader +macros, although it may offer some sort of preprocessor. + +I hope I've demonstrated that reader macros, compiler macros and +metaprogramming really can make your code a lot smaller, a lot faster, +and a lot more robust. Like any other language feature, you can abuse +them horribly. Unlike other language features, however, you can use +macros and metaprogramming to fix broken language features, and in fact +make the other features less easily abused. + +No language is perfect. The perfect language doesn't exist. A language +perfect for one domain can be awful for another. A language that's +pretty good today can be awful tomorrow. Because languages aren't +perfect, they need to provide mechanisms to let you evolve them to suit +your needs. A language's extensibility is one of the most critical keys +to its long-term survival. + +Again, Java programmers wouldn't be using XML-based build systems, weird +HTML/Java templating systems, code generators and all those zillions of +other frameworks and tools out there, if Java had been capable of +adapting to meet the needs of those users. + +Why don't most language implementers add macros and metaprogramming? +They know that ultimately their language will face extinction if the +users can't evolve it. So what are they thinking? + +Sometimes they say that it's to protect the users, or make the language +friendlier to beginners. That's almost always a baldfaced lie, because +they then proceed to pile on horribly confusing features for "experts +only". In a few rare cases (Python, Basic and Cobol come to mind), they +may actually mean it. + +Most of the time, though, it's because they've made it way too hard to +implement. The language designer tries really hard to guess which +features you'd like, and they create a nice big abstract machine, and a +bunch of syntax rules (and parsers for those rules), and semantic rules +for interpreting the syntax. After they've piled all that stuff on, +their interpreter and/or compiler becomes horribly complex, and the +language spec is horribly inconsistent, and they spend all of their time +trying to think of ways to fix their busted language. + +I tell you: they'd add extensibility if they could. But extensibility +has to be designed in from the ground up, and it makes your system many +times harder to build. As if designing a language isn't hard enough +already. + +### Wasn't this blog supposed to be about Lisp? + +Yup. And now I think I'm finally in a position to explain why Lisp is +the king of evolution among programming languages. + +In stark contrast with every other language out there, Lisp only has two +syntactic forms, atoms (i.e. symbols, numbers, strings) and the +s-expression (which stands for "symbol expression"), which looks like +this: + + (I am an s-expression.) + +They can be nested to arbitrary depth: + + (I am an s-expression. + (I am a sub-expression. + (We make a tree, actually.) + (Pleased to meet you!))) + +OK, that's Lisp's syntax. Most versions of Lisp add in a small handful +of shortcuts, as long as they don't change the overall tree-structure of +the code. + +And Lisp's runtime machine only needs to support a handful of things: + +1. anonymous functions, also called "lambda" expressions +2. named variables +3. nested scopes, one per lambda expression +4. a single control-flow construct called a "continuation" +5. some kind of I/O + +Lisp runtimes provide far more than this, of course, but what I've +described is the core of Lisp, and it's all you need. In theory, you +don't even need special support for strings or numbers; they can be +represented by chains of (and compositions of) lambda functions. All +operators and control-flow constructs, including conditional logic, +loops, exception handling, multithreading, preemptive multitasking, +object-oriented programming, everything can be implemented using only +the five constructs above, and all using the world's simplest syntax. + +Try describing the "core of Perl" in anything under a thousand pages — +and you still won't be successful. + +The system above gives you more metaprogramming ability than any other +language, but just in case that's not enough power for you, Lisp has +macros: both reader macros and compiler macros. + +With reader macros, there's an API to hook into the reader's token +stream and make any changes you like before handing the result back to +the reader. You can implement preprocessors this way — not just \*do\* +preprocessor stuff, but actually implement arbitrary preprocessors for +other people to use. You can change the language syntax however you +like: [remove all the +parens](http://srfi.schemers.org/srfi-49/srfi-49.html) and use +whitespace for indentation, for instance, if that's what's most +appropriate for your problem domain. + +With compiler macros, you can pretty much change anything you like about +the language. This scares a lot of people. They prefer their current, +very real pain to some imagined possibility of a different kind of pain. +Weird, but all too common. Me, I'll take the flexibility of macros, only +hire great people, and make sure we all write good code. Problem solved. + +I've learned how to use Lisp and Scheme macros, or at least I'm getting +a good feel for them, and they're a LOT easier (and more powerful) than +C++ templates. Scheme macros use pattern-matching and template +substitution. It's similar to XSLT and isn't much harder to learn than +XSLT. Lisp macros are just pure Lisp, and are very easy to learn, +although it can take a long time to fully appreciate them. + +The result: Lisp is pure DNA. You can build anything with it, and you +always have the ability to evolve even large existing systems in new +directions. And that's exactly what you need, because your problem +domain is unique. + +### But I don't like all those parens\! + +I know. I didn't either. I only started getting used to them maybe a few +months ago, and I only started to prefer Lisp to other languages a few +days ago. Don't blame ya. + +But with what you know now, it should be clear that Lisp's syntax is a +technical advantage. + +For starters, macros need to parse and generate code, right? That's why +C++ templates are so dang complicated. There are a zillion edge-cases to +worry about, and that's just in the syntax; there are also lots of +ill-specified semantic problems with them. If you have a complex syntax, +then it's hard for you to implement macros, and it's hard for people to +use them. Most languages, in trying to give you lots of syntactic +options, have actually limited you permanently to using only those +options. + +And Lisp is tree-structured code (and data). It's just lists of lists of +lists... it's way simpler syntactically than XML, and we all love XML, +right? Well, most people evidently do. Even XML, with its allegedly +"ultra-simple" syntax, is still kinda complicated, and working with SAX +and DOM parsers isn't entirely trivial. But it beats working with +C++/Java/Perl/Python parsers hands-down. Trees are just data structures. +We know how to deal with data structures programmatically. But most +languages need to have their syntax converted tortuously into a tree +structure in order to operate on it programmatically, and by then it's +far less recognizable than the original language. + +With half a day of work, you could implement XPath expressions to +operate on your Lisp code, and start building your own refactoring and +analysis tools, rather than waiting around for months, hoping someone +else will build them for your Java IDE. In fact, traversing Lisp code is +simple enough to do almost trivially in any language — but it's far +easier in Lisp. So writing Lisp macros and evolving the language to suit +your needs is so natural that you wind up doing it all the time, almost +from the beginning of a project. + +The upshot is that your language gradually winds up being tailored +precisely to the system you're building. That's why Emacs-Lisp looks so +different from Common Lisp. It's not so different, really, and it +supports many features of Common Lisp, even though they differ in a few +core areas (as elisp is older, and RMS doesn't care for CL). But +Emacs-Lisp has tons of specialized language features designed +specifically for editors. + +In fact, although I don't have firsthand evidence of this yet, I suspect +that the size of Lisp systems tends to grow logarithmically with the +size of the feature set. Or maybe an nth-root function. But definitely +less than linearly, because unlike in Java, where refactoring tends to +make the code base larger, refactoring Lisp code makes it smaller. Lisp +has far more abstraction power than Java. + +I noticed ten years ago that even though Perl seems superficially +concise and expressive, the reality is that adding more features to a +Perl system makes the code base grow (roughly) linearly. Need a feature, +add a function. Need a system, add a module. It never seems to get +easier as your system grows. And Java is even worse; the code grows at a +(slightly) greater-than-linear rate as a function of the feature set, +because unanticipated design changes can't be bridged with programming +or macros, and you wind up having to build the bridges using huge +frameworks of objects and interfaces. + +So Lisp may seem like it's no better than Perl or Java for small +programs — possibly worse, depending on the program. But that's missing +the point: Lisp only shines when you use it to build a system that would +have been huge in another language. Every sufficiently large problem +domain (from JMX to ordering coffee at Starbucks) is best expressed +using custom mini-languages, and Lisp lets you build them easily and +naturally. + +### OK, fine. But I don't want to implement a whole language. + +Just because you can implement specialized language extensions in Lisp +doesn't mean that you need to. Common Lisp and Scheme implementations +have huge libraries of carefully-chosen, powerful features. Many of +these features are unavailable in Java and C++, and some can be +expressed in those languages only indirectly. + +Hence, ironically, Java and C++ programmers wind up implementing new +languages, very awkwardly, using "design patterns" and other heavy +frameworks, layering on classes and interfaces in an attempt to build a +machine powerful enough to emulate a subset of Common Lisp. + +As a language platform, Common Lisp is on par with C++ or Java. It's the +only language I've found, out of the 20 or 30 that I investigated, that +I'd consider to be "production quality". Even Erlang, which is very +mature, still worries me a bit. And Common Lisp is Lisp, which means it +will gradually change its shape to fit your problem space in the most +natural way. + +Common Lisp and many Scheme implementations sport powerful compilers, +state-of-the-art garbage collectors, rich IDEs, documentation +generators, profilers, and all the other stuff you've come to expect of +production-quality languages. They have powerful type systems with the +ability to declare static types as desired, to improve performance or +readability. There are multiple commercial and free/open-source +implementations for both languages. Common Lisp is production-quality +and has been for at least as long as C++; Scheme is less ready for +prime-time, although it's gradually getting there. + +If I were using Common Lisp, I'd definitely miss one or two features +from Java, and I'd have to take a few days to implement them. + +### After all that, I still don't believe you. You're weird. + +I know. Don't sweat it. It's just a +blog. + +### I disagree with the previous caller. I want to use Common Lisp at Amazon\! + +In a word: No. + +Languages need large communities on site to do well. And you shouldn't +underestimate the difficulty of learning Lisp. It generally takes longer +to master than even C++ or Perl. Well, about as long, anyway. + +We do have a fair number of experienced Lispers scattered about Amazon — +maybe thirty or so, more if you count Emacs-Lisp hackers. But you'd +really need a bunch of them in your group, not just scattered around, in +order to get the right critical mass on your team. + +And even then, it would be a highly questionable decision. People would +be watching you constantly, waiting for you to fail, because most people +don't like Lisp and they don't want it to succeed. I was one of those +people not too long ago. I was looking for the perfect language, and I +never suspected the best candidate would be the one that looks like +oatmeal with fingernail clippings. I know \*exactly\* how Lisp-dislikers +feel, and I don't really blame them. + +And when you failed, e.g. your service had some sort of highly public +outage (as ALL services do, but that would be overlooked), Common Lisp +would go on trial, and would be ceremoniously burned at the stake, as a +warning to any other would-be Lispers out there. It has happened at many +other companies (Yahoo, NASA and JPL come to mind, but there are many of +them), and it would happen here. If you somehow managed to get a team of +good Lisp hackers together, and you somehow hid the fact that you're +using it, and you were lucky enough to have C++ neighbors who have all +the outages, then you might get away with it. + +But if you didn't get away with it, Lispers would hate you for giving it +a bad (well, worse) name. Languages are religions, political campaigns, +and social communities, all rolled into one. Never underestimate the +ability of one language community to gang up and kill another one. Java, +Perl and C++ only thrived here after well over a hundred people per +language more or less simultaneously just started using them, and screw +you if you think they're not doing their job. + +Incidentally, none of our core three languages were allowed at Amazon +for the first few years. The only languages allowed were C and Lisp. +Lisp was mostly used for huge, much-loved customer-service application +called Mailman. Mailman was later hastily rewritten as a somewhat +less-loved customer-service application: one that didn't have quite as +much mail-composition functionality, but at least it was in Java, which +solved the embarrassing problem that nobody in CS Apps at the time knew +much Lisp. + +The point is that C++, Perl and Java didn't just show up, they barged +right through the front door: first Perl, then C++, then Java, and it +took a LONG time before Java folks were viewed as first-class citizens. +It's taken them even longer to try to integrate with the existing +systems, e.g. the build systems, which were written mostly to solve +horrible build/link problems with C++ that don't really exist in Java. + +You really don't want to go there. One individual recently tried doing a +highly visible internal project in Ruby, and it barfed in a highly +public way on its first day of operation; now the Ruby community is mad +because it makes Ruby look bad, when Ruby had nothing to do with it. It +was a poor decision on the engineer's part. Not because there's anything +wrong with Ruby, but because we don't have enough experience with it at +Amazon to understand its idioms and performance characteristics, and +also because very few people have much experience with it here. + +Languages need to "bake" for a few years before they become ready for +prime-time at Amazon. They need to be available for personal scripting +and productivity tools, and eventually people will start dabbling with +getting their feet wet with small systems. Over time, as the systems +prove themselves, larger ones are built, and eventually the painful +transition to "trusted, first-class language" completes, typically about +five years after its first introduction. + +Today, there are only three languages that have been well-tested enough +in our environment to be considered stable: C, Java, and Perl. And I +suppose some people use C++, even though "stable" isn't a very good word +for the systems produced with it. For general-purpose programming, and +particularly for services that other teams rely on, those are the only +languages \*I\* would use. If a hundred people stood up and announced +they were going to start using Common Lisp, I'd probably stand up with +them — after asking around to see how well they actually knew it. + +But it ain't gonna happen. So don't get too carried away. This is just a +speculative blog. Lisp is a cool language, or at least it appears to +have great potential. It's worth a look, and maybe even a second look. +But don't touch, just look\! That Ruby incident has made all the +language enthusiasts a bit paranoid, and we're going to be a little +extra jumpy for a while. + +(Published Feb 07, 2005) + +Comments + +"Compiler macro" actually means something specific in Common Lisp (see +the second paragraph): + + + +What you refer to as compiler macros are normally called "macros" +without special qualifications. You can probably safely call them +"interpreter macros". + +Didn't we actually compile our early C code with a C++ compiler, to get +better typechecking? + +Posted by: Derek U. at February 7, 2005 08:54 PM + +Xurf kuzl farq lozy\! + +You don't understand? Well, I'm taking advantage of a hypothetical +framework for extending English in fundamental ways. Unbeknownst to you, +"kuzl" is part of a new grammatical construct that makes expressing +recursive ideas much more natural. + +I have heard enough smart people describe the profundity of their +experiences with LISP to believe that it's a lot more awesome than I +currently realize. But when the selling point is how radically you can +redefine the language, I feel like they miss the value of language +consistency, which translates into being able to read foreign code and +know what the hell is going on. + +In your first Java example, you wrote one line of code, and with that +alone you were able to explain exactly what Java does to evaluate that +line. Any experienced Java programmer in the world would be able to tell +you the same thing, just by looking at that one line. + +Now pretend that you're up at 2AM trying to debug some system that you +just inherited, the guy who wrote it is no longer with the company, you +know he's a smart guy but sometimes too clever for his own good. And you +have somehow localized the problem to this line: + +(make-it-happen (widget-functor asin) (map make-it-happen data)) + +I don't know enough crazy things you can do with LISP to come up with a +plausible example, but you get the idea. How much other code will you +have to read to even discover what \*sort\* of thing this does? + +I believe there is value in language consistency, namely that it makes +it very transparent what your code is actually doing. Not that you +necessarily understand \*why\* it's doing what it's doing, but you at +least know \*what\* it's doing. + +If LISP really gives you the expressive power to implement Perl with +LISP macros, then I hardly see how it could be consistent enough to +allow a large group of people to share/maintain LISP code. Unless you +restrain yourself from making these deep extensions to the language, but +then why waste your time writing clunky things like (setq x 1) when you +could just write x = 1? + +Posted by: Josh H. at February 7, 2005 11:56 PM + +Hey Steve, + +Which Scheme environment have you been using? I've been playing around +with a couple of them. PLTScheme, Scheme48/scsh and SISC appear to be +the more complete ones I've found so far. + +Posted by: Daniel C. at February 8, 2005 12:03 AM + +Josh: I put a comment here that tried to do some more explaining. Then I +re-read my entry, and I see now that I'd just be repeating myself. + +I don't think it's possible to be convinced of the benefits of Lisp by +reading about it, or by tinkering a little with it. You just have to do +a bunch of it. Lots. Tons. Then eventually it clicks. That's why I +called this blog "Scheming is Believing." + +So if my explanations weren't compelling, and I seriously doubt they +were, then don't sweat it. It's just a blog. + +Posted by: Steve Yegge at February 8, 2005 12:25 AM + +Daniel — I've been mostly using Kawa, a Scheme for the JVM that compiles +to bytecodes, although I wouldn't really recommend it. It's not a full +Scheme implementation yet — e.g. continuations are upward-only, and it +has an incomplete set of SRFIs, and lots of bugs in general. + +Kawa's got a lot of long-term potential, but it's not useful for +production-quality work in either Java or Scheme. + +I looked at the info pages for MIT Scheme recently, and they've +implemented a LOT of features from other languages — e.g. list +comprehensions like Haskell's. + +For commercial implementations, Chez Scheme is allegedly the best. Fast, +complete, portable, and actively developed. + +All the Schemes implement a different feature set, and the code from one +doesn't always run immediately on another. This is a serious problem +with Scheme in general, and I believe it currently renders Scheme +unsuitable for production work. + +But I'm gradually working on figuring out if any of them is promising +enough to try to work with. + +Posted by: Steve Yegge at February 8, 2005 01:18 AM + +In response to Josh Haberman's comment about considering this line of +code: + +(make-it-happen (widget-functor asin) (map make-it-happen data)) + +What would you do if you were staring at this line of code: + +if ( (\*self-\>mark\_funcs\[d\])(self, changed\_field\_number) \!= +SUCCESS) return FAILURE; + +{pointer to actual Amazon function containing this code} + +...trying to figure out why the tax was computed incorrectly\! My point +is that any language can be obfuscated and it seems to be pretty popular +in both perl and C. + +Steve - I completely agree that lisp's macro system sets it apart and +gives the language more power. Also, I like the fact that scheme is so +"light-weight" because it comes with a tiny library. + +However, big bulky libraries are also power. It can become difficult to +integrate many different libraries into your application if they have +over-lapping problem domains (with different implementations). So, +Common Lisp is very nice in the fact that many common functions are +already available to you. + +Of course small vs big libraries is a problem with any language. + +So, when is the Scheme Codigo implementation going to be ready? + +Posted by: Brian M. at February 9, 2005 10:33 PM diff --git a/_stories/2005/8140401.md b/_stories/2005/8140401.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..0690e25 --- /dev/null +++ b/_stories/2005/8140401.md @@ -0,0 +1,610 @@ +--- +created_at: '2014-08-06T00:57:54.000Z' +title: Pissed off about functional programming (2005) +url: http://www.perlmonks.org/?node_id=450922 +author: yiransheng +points: 102 +story_text: '' +comment_text: +num_comments: 62 +story_id: +story_title: +story_url: +parent_id: +created_at_i: 1407286674 +_tags: +- story +- author_yiransheng +- story_8140401 +objectID: '8140401' + +--- +Okay.. fair warning: I'm venting. + +I just had an long and **very** frustrating conversation with a young +programmer who recently discovered functional programming, and thinks it +can solve every problem in the world. + +Before I go any farther, let me make one thing clear: **I do not hate +functional programming.** On the contrary, I agree with every guru out +there who says that you can't become a Real Programmer without learning +functional programming. FP, in my never humble opinion, doth rock. + +But I have to call bullshit on some of the misleading things that are +commonly said about FP, because I've just had my head slammed against +them in their most clueless and trivial form. + +## Myth \#1 - Functional programming is Lambda Calculus + +This is true for a specific value of 'true'.. the same one we use for +the statement, 'computers do integer math'. + +The limits of this truth become obvious when you try to store the value +(2^N)+1 in an N-bit integer. The pedantically correct statement is, +'computers do integer math for operations whose values fall within a +certain range'. We generally leave off the qualifier for convenience, +but its importance can be summed up in three letters: **Y2K**. Or in +terms of more recent events, 'Comair database'. + +Functional programming approximates lambda calculus the way computers +approximate integer math. It works just fine in the range where it's +defined to work just fine, and blows chunks everywhere else. This is +hardly a fatal limitation, but it does mean we should know where the +limits are, and what they mean. + +For functional programming, the limits mean you have to be aware of the +simultaneity constraints inherent in lambda calculus, and the way they +interact with the lazy evaluation techniques that are fundamentally +necessary to implement FP in any kind of real-world computer. + +Okay.. that's two pieces of vocabulary.. + +**Simultaneity** means that we assume a statement in lambda calculus is +evaluated all at once. The trivial function: + +defines an infinite sequence of whatever you plug in for x (I'm using +the caret as a substitute for lambda because I'm not in a mood to mess +with non-7-bit ASCII values at the moment). The stepwise expansion looks +like this: + +``` code + 0 - f(x) + 1 - x f(x) + 2 - x x f(x) + 3 - x x x f(x) + ... +[download] +``` + +and so on. + +The point is that we have to assume that the 'f()' and 'x' in step three +million have the same meaning they did in step one. + +*At this point, those of you who know something about FP are muttering +"referential transparency" under your collective breath. I know. I'll +beat up on that in a minute. For now, just suspend your disbelief enough +to admit that the constraint does exist, and the aardvark won't get +hurt.* + +The problem with infinite expansions in a real-world computer is that.. +well.. they're *infinite.* As in, "infinite loop" infinite. You can't +evaluate every term of an infinite sequence before moving on to the next +evaluation unless you're planning to take a **really** long coffee break +while you wait for the answers. + +Fortunately, theoretical logic comes to the rescue and tells us that +preorder evaluation will always give us the same results as postorder +evaluation. + +More vocabulary.. need another function for this.. fortunately, it's a +simple one: + +``` code + ^g(x) ::= x x +[download] +``` + +Now.. when we make the statement: + +**Preorder** evaluation says we have to expand f(x) completely before +plugging it into g(). But that takes forever, which is.. inconvenient. +**Postorder** evaluation says we can do this: + +``` code + 0 - g(f(x)) + 1 - f(x) f(x) + 2 - x f(x) x f(x) + 3 - x x f(x) x x f(x) + ... +[download] +``` + +which is a heck of a lot nicer. + +The technique of **lazy evaluation** takes the theoretical correctness +of postorder evaluation and applies it to the execution of code. The +basic idea is that the language interpreter won't execute the code +necessary to evaluate expansion step 300 until some part of the program +actually calls for that value. This technique amortizes *quite* nicely, +since it saves us, on average, an infinite amount of labor for each +function. + +Now.. with those definitions in place, you can see how the relationship +between simultaneity and lazy evaluation isn't quite as simple as it +appears at first glance. It's theoretically possible that the 'f()' or +'x' might change between the lazy evaluation of step one and the lazy +evaluation of step three million. Trying to prevent that is what we +programmers call a 'hard' problem. + +Lambda calculus doesn't have this problem, the way integer math doesn't +have register overflow issues. In lambda calculus, the infinite +expansion of every function occurs instantly, and there's no way that +any of the functions can possibly change because there's no time for +them *to* change. Lazy evaluation brings time into the picture, and +introduces order-of-execution issues. Trying to run functional logic in +two or more simultaneous threads can raise serious problems, for +instance. + +In point of fact, the simultaneity constraints inherent in lambda +calculus have been shown to make it unsuitable for issues involving +concurrency (like multithreading), and for problems like that, it's +better to use +pi-calculus. + +## Myth \#2 - Functional programming is 'different from' imperative programming. + +There's some operator overloading in this issue, because 'imperative +programming' has two different meanings. + +On one hand, 'imperative' means 'a list of operations that produce a +sequence of results'. We contrast that with 'declarative programming', +which means 'a list of results which are calculated (somehow) each step +of the way'. Mathematical proofs and SQL queries are declarative. Most +of the things we think of as programming languages are 'imperative' by +this meaning, though, including most functional languages. No matter how +you slice it, Haskell is **not** declarative. + +On the other hand, 'imperative' is also used as a contrast to +'functional', on the basis of really poorly defined terms. The most +common version runs something like, "imperative languages use +assignment, functional languages don't".. a concept I'll jump up and +down upon later. But I'm getting backlogged, so we'll queue that one up +and move on. + +Getting back to the current myth, this is another one of those +statements that's true for a given value of 'true'. In this case, it's +the same value we use for the statement, "red M\&Ms are 'different from' +green M\&Ms." + +Church's thesis, upon which we base our whole definition of 'computing', +explicitly states that Turing machines, lambda calculus, while programs, +Post systems, mu-recursive grammars, blah-de-blah-de-blah, **are all +equivalent.** + +*For those quick thinkers out there who've noticed that this puts Myth +\#2 in direct contradiction with Myth \#1, **KA-CHING\!** you've just +won our grand prize\! Please contact one of the operators standing by to +tell us how you'd like your sheepdog wrapped.* + +Yes, the syntactic sugar of functional programming is somewhat different +from the syntactic sugar of non-functional programming. Yes, functional +programming does encourage a different set of techniques for solving +problems. Yes, those techniques encourage different ways of thinking +about problems and data. + +No, functional programming is not some kind of magic pixie dust you can +sprinkle on a computer and banish all problems associated with the +business of programming. It's a mindset-altering philosophy and/or +worldview, not a completely novel theory of computation. Accept that. Be +happy about it. At least friggin' COPE. + +## Myth \#3 - Functional programming is referentially transparent + +This one is just flat-out wrong. It's also the myth that pisses me off +the most, because the correct statement looks very similar and says +something *incredibly* important about functional programming. + +Referential transparency is a subtle concept, which is founded on two +other concepts: **substitutability** and **frames of reference.** + +More vocabulary.. + +**Substitutability** means you can replace a reference (like a variable) +with its referent (the value) without breaking anything. It's sort of +the opposite of removing magic numbers from your code, and is easier to +demonstrate in violation than in action: + +``` code + my $x = 3; + my $y = 3; + + if (3 == $x) { # substitutability works + print "$x equals $y.\n"; + } + + $x++; + + if (3 == $y) { # substitutability fails + print "$x equals $y.\n"; + } +[download] +``` + +Mutable storage (aka: assigning values to variables) offers an infinite +variety of ways to make that kind of mistake, each more heavily +obfuscated than the last. Assigning values to global variables in +several different functions is a favorite. Embedding values (using $x to +calculate some value that gets stored in $z, changing $x, and forgetting +to update $z) is another. These problems are so common, and are such a +bitch to deal with, that programmers have spent decades searching for +ways to avoid them. + +**Frames of reference** have a nice, clear definition in predicate +calculus, but it doesn't carry over to programming. Instead, we have two +equally good alternatives. On one hand, it can mean the scope of a +variable. On the other hand, it can mean the scope of a value stored in +a variable: + +``` code + my $x = 3; # start frame of reference for variable $x + # start frame of reference for value $x==3 + + my $y = 3; # start frame of reference for variable $y + # start frame of reference for value $y==3 + + if (3 == $x) { + print "$x equals $y.\n"; + } + + # end frame of reference for value $x==3 + $x++; # start frame of reference for value $x==4 + + if (3 == $y) { + print "$x equals $y.\n"; + } + + # end frame of reference for value $x==4 + # end frame of reference for variable $x + # end frame of reference for value $y==3 + # end frame of reference for variable $y +[download] +``` + +The notation above shows exactly why substitutabiliy fails in the second +conditional. The frame of reference for the value $x==3 ends and a new +one begins, but it happens implicitly, which means it's hard to see. + +But there's another problem. If you look at that list of 'end' +statements at the bottom, you'll notice that the frames of reference for +$x and $y are improperly nested. The frame of reference for $x comes +into existence before $y, and goes out of existence before $y. Granted, +I did that specifically so I could talk about the problem, but you can +do all sorts of obscene things to the nesting of value frames of +reference with three or more variables. + +Stepping back for a second, it's clear that substitutability is only +guaranteed to work when all the values are in the same frame of +reference as when they started. As soon as any value changes its frame +of reference, though, all bets are off. + +This is one of the biggest kludge-nightmares associated with mutable +storage. Frames of reference for values pop in and out of existence, can +be implicitly created or destroyed any time you add/delete/move/change a +line of code, and get munged into relationships that defy rational +description. + +And don't even get me started on what conditionals do to them. It's like +Schrodinger's cat on bad acid. + +Functional programming changes that by declaring that the frame of +reference for a variable and the frame of reference for its value **will +always be the same.** The frame of reference for a value equals the +scope of its variable, which means that **every block is a well-defined +frame of reference** and **substitutability is always guaranteed to work +within a given block.** + +This is what functional programming *really* has over mutable storage. +But it isn't referential transparency. + +Y'see, referential transparency is a property that applies to frames of +reference, not to referents and references. To demonstrate this in terms +of formal logic, let me define the following symbols: + +``` code + p1 ::= 'the morning star' equals 'the planet venus' + p2 ::= 'the evening star' equals 'the planet venus' + p3 ::= 'the morning star' equals 'the evening star' + + (+) ::= an operator that means 'two things which equal + the same thing, equal each other' + + => ::= an operator which means 'this rule produces this result' +[download] +``` + +With those, we can generate the following statements: + +``` code + p1 (+) p2 => p3 + p1 (+) p3 => p2 + p2 (+) p3 => p1 +[download] +``` + +which is all well and good. **But,** if we add the following symbols: + +``` code + j1 ::= john knows 'the morning star' equals 'the planet venus' + j2 ::= john knows 'the evening star' equals 'the planet venus' + j3 ::= john knows 'the morning star' equals 'the evening star' +[download] +``` + +we can **not** legally generate the following statements: + +``` code + j1 (+) p2 => j3 + p1 (+) j2 => j3 + j1 (+) p3 => j2 + p1 (+) j3 => j2 + j2 (+) p3 => j1 + p2 (+) j3 => j1 +[download] +``` + +The word 'knows' makes the 'j' frame of reference referentially opaque. +That means we can't assume that the 'p' statements are automatically +true within the 'j' frame of reference. + +So what does this have to do with functional programming? Two words: +**dynamic scoping.** Granted the following is Perl code, but it obeys +the constraint that every value remains constant within the scope of its +variable: + +``` code + sub outer_1 { + local ($x) = 1; + return (inner ($_[0])); + } + + sub outer_2 { + local ($x) = 2; + return (innner ($_[0])); + } + + sub inner { + my $y = shift; + return ($x + $y); + } +[download] +``` + +The function inner() is referentially opaque because it relies on a +dynamically scoped variable. With a little work, we could replace $x +with locally scoped functions and get the same result from code that +passes the 'doesn't use assignment' rule with flying colors. + +And that's just the trivial version. There's also the issue of quoting +and defining equivalence between different representations of the same +value. The following function defines equivalence between numbers and +strings: + +``` code + sub equals { + my ($str, $num) = @_; + + my %lut = ( + 'one' => 1, + 'two' => 2, + 'three' => 3, + ... + ); + + if ($num == $lut{ $str }) { + return 1; + } else { + return 0; + } + } +[download] +``` + +but even though equals('three',3) is true, length('three') does not +equal length(3). Once again, we've killed referential transparency in a +way that has nothing to do with assigning values to mutable storage. + +The fact of the matter is, referential transparency isn't all that +desirable a property for a programming language. It imposes such +incredibly tight constraints on what you can do with your symbols that +you end up being unable to do anything terribly interesting. And +propagating the myth that functional programming allows universal +substitutability is just plain evil, because it sets people up to have +examples like these two blow up in their faces. + +Functional programming defines the block as a frame of reference. All +frames of reference are immediately visible from trivial inspection of +the code. All symbols are substitutable within the same frame of +reference. These things are GOOD\! Learn them. Live them. Love them. +Rejoice in them. Accept them for what they are and don't try to inflate +them into something that sounds cooler but really isn't worth having. + +## Myth \#4 - Functional programming doesn't support variable assignment + +It's been said that C lets you shoot yourself in the foot. + +It's said that C++ makes it harder, but when you do, you blow your whole +leg off. + +I'm personally of the opinion that functional programming makes it even +harder to shoot yourself in the foot, but when you do, all that's left +are a few strands of red goo dangling from the shattered remains of your +brain pan. + +Statements like the one above are the reason I hold that opinion. + +Let's go back to Myth \#2, shall we? According to Church's thesis, all +programming languages are computationally equivalent. They all do the +same things, and only the syntactic sugar is different. + +In this case, the syntactic sugar is *so* different that people can end +up using variable assignment without knowing they're doing it, all the +while smugly assuming they're free from the evils of imperative +programming. + +To understand how that can happen, let's take a good hard look at what +'variable assignment' actually means. For the sake of discussion, I'm +going to use the term 'lvalue' instead of 'variable', because an lvalue +is explicitly something to which you can assign values. Using that term, +we can restate this myth as "functional programming doesn't support +lvalues." + +So.. what's an lvalue? In terms of implementation, it's a register where +values are stored, but what is it functionally? How does the rest of the +program see it? + +Well, what the rest of the program sees is a symbol that gets associated +with a series of different values. + +So, theoretically, we could collect all the values that are stored in an +lvalue during its life in the program, and store them in a list. Instead +of saying just plain $x, we could look up the value +$x\[[$t](?node=%24t)\], where $t indicates the number of changes the +value goes through before it reaches the value we want. + +That fact defines the bridge between functional and imperative +programming. We can simulate any lvalue with a list that contains the +same sequence of values, and never violate the functional 'doesn't use +assignment' rule. + +But we can make our simulation even more interesting by realizing that +each new value in the list is usually the result of a calculation +applied to the previous value. The idea of building a new list by +sequentially applying a list of operations to an initial value is a +*very* functional programming idea. The following code uses that idea to +implement an integer counter: + +``` code + my $inc = sub { return ($_[0] + 1) }; + my $dec = sub { return ($_[0] - 1) }; + my $zero = sub { return (0) }; + + sub apply { + my ($val, $func, @etc) = @_; + + if (@etc) { + return ($val, apply ($func->($val), @etc)); + } else { + return ($val, $func->($val)); + } + } + + sub counter { + return apply (0, @_); + } + + my @ops = ( + $inc, $inc, $inc, $dec, + $inc, $dec, $dec, $inc, + $zero, $inc, $inc, $inc + ); + + print join (' ', counter (@ops)); + + ---- + + output == '0 1 2 3 2 3 2 1 2 0 1 2 3' +[download] +``` + +in about as functional a way as you can manage in Perl. A decent +functional programmer would have no trouble porting that idea over to +their functional language of choice. + +Thing is, most people wouldn't think of code like that when they think +'++', '--', '=0'. + +Now, the list returned by counter() does have the bookkeeping-friendly +feature that all the values are there simultaneously, in the same frame +of reference. We could change that by dynamically scoping the list @ops, +and distributing its contents across a whole series of evaluation +contexts. + +Even if all the values do exist in the same frame of reference, though, +we still run into the same problems that make lvalues such a nuisance. +If we tweak apply() so it only returns the final calculated value: + +``` code + sub apply { + my ($val, $func, @etc) = @_; + + if (@etc) { + return (apply ($func->($val), @etc)); + } else { + return ($func->($val)); + } + } +[download] +``` + +this code: + +``` code + my @x = ($inc, $inc, $inc); + my @y = ($inc, $inc, $inc); + + if (3 == counter (@x)) { + printf "%d equals %d.\n", counter (@x), counter (@y); + } + + do { + my @x = (@x, $inc); + + if (3 == counter (@y)) { + printf "%d equals %d.\n", counter (@x), counter (@y); + } + } +[download] +``` + +demonstrates the same failure of substitutability that I used above, but +in functional style. This version does have the advantage that the +change from one frame of reference to another is immediately visible, +but you can still screw around with the values in ways that aren't +immediately obvious. This is the simple form of the problem. As with the +lvalue version above, you can obfuscate it until your head explodes. + +And that brings me to the way functional languages politely abuse the +principle of lazy evaluation to handle user input. They pull basically +the same kind of trick by treating the user input stream as a list where +all the values are theoretically defined as soon as the program starts, +but we don't have to prove it for any specific item of input until the +user actually types it in. We can define the @ops list in terms of the +(theoretically) defined user input list, and produce what amounts to an +integer counter that responds to user input. + +I don't object to the fact that functional programming allows these +things to happen. I JUST WANT PEOPLE TO BE AWARE OF IT, AND STOP +TREATING FP LIKE SOME KIND OF MAGIC BULLET BECAUSE IT SUPERFICIALLY +APPEARS NOT TO DO THINGS THAT IT ACTUALLY DOES QUITE HAPPILY, THANK YOU +VERY MUCH. + +## Winding down + +Okay.. I feel better, now. + +So that's my current spin on functional programming. 'Blocks equal +frames of reference'? Way cool. Big thumbs up. 'Capacity to hide value +storage in places where even the gurus don't go if they don't have to'? +Not so cool. Beware of arbitrarily multicontextual dog. As a worldview +and way of thinking about programming? Love it. As a body of advocacy? +Please, please, puh-leeeease learn enough about it to explain it to the +newbies without lying to them in ways that will make their heads go boom +some time in the future. + +Make their heads go boom now. It's more fun to watch, and it keeps them +out of my hair. + +Considered by [bradcathey](?node=bradcathey) - Tone down language, like +title: FP, pros and cons +Unconsidered by [castaway](?node=castaway) - Keep/Edit/Delete: 34/11/0 diff --git a/_stories/2005/8226508.md b/_stories/2005/8226508.md deleted file mode 100644 index 463d4d9..0000000 --- a/_stories/2005/8226508.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,25 +0,0 @@ ---- -created_at: '2014-08-26T11:07:08.000Z' -title: Why Crunch Mode Doesn't Work (2005) -url: http://legacy.igda.org/why-crunch-modes-doesnt-work-six-lessons -author: support_ribbons -points: 97 -story_text: '' -comment_text: -num_comments: 58 -story_id: -story_title: -story_url: -parent_id: -created_at_i: 1409051228 -_tags: -- story -- author_support_ribbons -- story_8226508 -objectID: '8226508' - ---- -[Source](http://legacy.igda.org/why-crunch-modes-doesnt-work-six-lessons "Permalink to ") - - - diff --git a/_stories/2005/8370508.md b/_stories/2005/8370508.md index f55969f..97a0491 100644 --- a/_stories/2005/8370508.md +++ b/_stories/2005/8370508.md @@ -19,7 +19,655 @@ _tags: objectID: '8370508' --- -[Source](https://blogs.msdn.microsoft.com/b/techtalk/archive/2005/12/16/504872.aspx "Permalink to ") +While at Stanford this week I was asked by a number of PM (program +manager) candidates to talk about the PM role at Microsoft.  The PM role +is unique to Microsoft and was actually created in response to +developing software that is more usable and at the same time pushes the +state of the art of technology.  So when we talk about PM at Microsoft, +we're talking from a perspective of creating and evolving the role over +the lifetime of the PC industry. + +I have been both a PM and an +[SDE](http://www.microsoft.com/college/ft_softdeseng.mspx) (software +design engineer) during my career at Microsoft.  When I was recruited I +started off as an SDE candidate and then I learned about PM during the +course of my interviews and I thought "COOL\!" that has to be a job for +me--after all it sure sounds like an incredibly cool role, since it has +the title "manager" in it and if you read/hear the +[description](http://www.microsoft.com/college/ft_pm.mspx) it sure +sounds like you're running the show. The job title "program manager" is +a bit of a misnomer, since program managers do not program nor do they +manage--go figure.  I went with SDE because I wanted to write code in my +job.  After being an SDE for 4 years I moved to program management.  I +think that was a good move for me because while I like to think I was +competent at development, I was probably never going to hit it out of +the park with my ability to write code, but I think what I wasn’t able +to do in writing code I made up for with the skills required of a +program manager 🙂 + + +What follows is a description of program management from a PM +perspective -- that means through the lens of a PM.  It is also an +analytical description based on my experience.  I'm not trying to hype +the job or make it seem too over the top.  In fact, I've recently talked +with an number of candidates who have been told of PM roles at other +companies and my feeling is that they are not being told the whole +story.  So with my blog I try to be a bit more complete and not "sell".  +This might make it seem like there's no room for change or to impact the +definition of the role, but that is not the case.  What I'm describing +is in constant evolution and it is the members of the team that are +constantly evolving the role.  PM is a role that has a lot of +responsibility but you also define it--working in partnership with +expert designers, clever developers, super smart testers, etc. you all +work together to define the product AND the responsibilities each of you +have.  **PM is one equal part of a whole system. ** + + + +Program managers got started at Microsoft while developing Excel for the +Macintosh.  The challenge the company saw was that we were stretched +thin trying to push the state of the art in technology (in this case +develop for a brand new OS using brand new Graphical User Interface +concepts) and so the developers were very busy just trying to make +things like printing, display, graphics, etc. work as well as trying to +develop new algorithms for spreadsheets and modeling.  That meant that +the place where we were not focusing enough attention was on the +usability or the scenarios for how people would use the software.  In a +very classic sense the high order bit of our development was the +code--this is pretty classic in most organizations today where you +really only see development and test (sometimes called QA) and to the +degree that there is input from users/customers this is usually done by +the demand generation or marketing team (called product managers in +Silicon Valley).  So at Microsoft a new role was created in Program +Management with the explicit goal of partnering with development and +working through the entire product cycle as the advocate for end-users +and customers.  + + + +The challenge of trying to write code using the latest technologies and +bringing ever more complex scenarios to end-users in a simple way +continues today as we build web sites (OfficeOnline), server products +like SharePoint, and entirely new products like OneNote, as well as +build whole new user experiences to replace the aging menus/toolbar +paradigm. + + + +Up front I would say that the PM role at Microsoft is both unique and +one that has unlimited potential -- it is PMs that can bring together a +team and rally them around a new idea and bring it to market (like +OneNote, InfoPath).  It is PMs that can tackle a business problem and +work with marketing and sales to really solve a big customer issue with +unique and innovative software (like SharePoint Portal Server).  It is +PMs that can take a technology like XML or graphics and turn it into an +end-user feature benefitting 400 million people (Office Open XML format +or the new graphics functionality in Office12).  I could go on and paint +a very emotional picture, but let's spend some time digging into the +more analytical aspects of the job. + + + +Where developers were focused on code, architecture, performance, and +engineering, the PM would focus on the big picture of "what are we +trying to do" and on the details of the user experience, the feature +set, the way the product will get used.  In fact the job has matured +significantly and it is almost impossible to document a complete list of +the responsibilities of program management.  One way to do that is to +list the sections of a specification for features in Office that a PM +would complete before the code gets written which includes nailing the +scenario you are solving for, the worldwide implications (will your work +make sense to customers in China, India, Estonia), how will developer +customers extend the product (object models, programmability), is the +product secure and is privacy maintained, what are the other features +your work interacts with, will the feature be responsive and performant, +and more.  These are critical parts of the design of any product, and +when you will have 400 million potential customers thinking these +through before you start the work is critical. + + + +As an aside a lot has been said lately about "agile development".  A key +benefit of program management is that we are far more agile because we +have program management.  That can be counter-intuitive (even for many +developers at Microsoft who might be waiting for their PM to iron out +the spec).  But the idea that you can just start writing code without +having a clear view of the details and specification is a recipe for a +poorly architected features.  A great PM knows when the details are +thought through enough to begin and a great developer knows when they +can start coding even without the details for sure.  But like building a +house--you don't start without the plans.  While software is "soft" the +cost of remodeling or rebuilding is no different than if you decide the +walls are in the wrong place or you forgot to leave room for the HVAC +system--sometimes because we don't have material costs in software we +think that "rewriting" is perfectly ok.  That generally works super well +in two cases.  First, if the program is small then of course you can +rewrite it.  In the commercial software world most software projects are +not the work of one or two people--in fact one way to think of it is +that if a project is only the work of one or two people (or is only a +100KLOC) then the economic value (and thus the impact) of that product +is probably pretty finite (at the very least a competitor is likely to +catch up very quickly).  And second, rewriting works well when you are +looking backwards and re-doing what has been done (like cloning an +existing product, implementing something for the n-th time).  When +you're doing innovative work, the time spent on design and analysis pays +off handsomely in the ability to develop a complete program and to have +something of lasting economic value.  AND when you have a process that +embraces design and up front thinking you also find your development +much more agile because when you do get the code in the hands of +customers--after 2 months or 2 years--there is time to respond and react +with changes because you are not overwhelmed with the basics. + + + +The last point is worth re-emphasizing.  There's a school of thought +that just getting your software out in beta and then "reacting" to the +feedback is the best way to get the product done.  Again, this tends to +work for products that already have a definition you are chasing of if +you're interested in incremental feedback.  So if you're building an +email experience and release it in beta, your customers/users can help +you to prioritize which features in the universe of email to add next +assuming you did not have all of them up front.  But if you're doing +something new and innovative or more importantly if you want more than +incremental feedback then you need to have much more sophisticated +mechanisms than just beta feedback from power users.  Most importantly, +the role of PM is to represent all customers, not just the ones who do +beta tests or the ones who take the time to send in feedback or use +early products.  A key skill of program management is to have empathy +with a broad range of customers.  Often when you are just getting +started you will see how easy it is to over-emphasize early power user +feedback or anecdotes over broad based feedback.  Don't get me wrong, +power users are great but they are just one type of user.  A great +advocate for the "little guy" is [Walt +Mossberg](http://online.wsj.com/article/personal_technology.html) and he +really does point out when you're missing the mark on a product and too +focused on "techies" as he calls them.  The bottom line is that most +people are not techies, but most beta customers and most early adopters +are so you as a PM have to do the leg work to validate your work with a +broader audience.  + + + +Before talking about what PM does specifically it is important to look +at PM in the context of the relationships with the others that +contribute to building products.  A PM serves as the coordinating point +where all the disciplines come together--this is why you can think of +the PM as being the hub.  What is critical about the Microsoft PM role +is that all the different people serve as a "virtual team" building the +product--the PM does not have to go pull them together but rather has to +help get everyone aligned.  The resources for a project are dedicated to +the project--these resources include development, test, product +planning, usability, and product design.  Each role brings a unique +perspective a unique set of skills to the product development process.  +While you can often be someone who has an affinity for another +discipline, rarely can any one person bring all of these skills and +experiences.  And I can promise that any project of significance really +needs the specialized skills to do a world class job and build a +sustainable and uniquely innovative product.  I should probably write a +blog like this on each role--maybe after the holidays\! + + + + - **Development** -- developers write the code.  They are in charge of + the code's architecture, the performance, the reliability, the + security, and getting the functionality into the product. Of course + development is at the core of what we do as a software company, but + it cannot stand on its own. + - **Test** -- software design engineers in test insure the quality of + the product but more importantly that the product ultimately meets + the needs of the customer we set out to meet.  SDETs will review all + specifications as first class members of the team and use their + perspective and experience in working with PM and SDEs to insure + that the product is not going to be fragile and that it will be + possible to insure a successful implementation. + - **Usability** -- usability engineers validate the designs of our + software and incorporate the statistical understanding of customers + into the process. Microsoft was an early pioneer in integrating + usability in the product development process (though some might say + how in the world we released the Hot Dog Stand theme if we had + usability).  Many usability team members have PhDs in HCI or related + research areas such as anthropology, and many are undergraduates + with a HCI or psychology background.  These team members design + mechanisms to test and validate designs and design assumptions. + - **Product Design** -- Design work in partnership with PM to develop + the interaction model for our products and also own the overall + product look and feel.  While many companies use design for + "graphical design" (which we do) our designers are expert in + computer interaction--many have studied at programs like + [Delft](http://www.tudelft.nl/live/pagina.jsp?id=b4c76e5e-3a59-4be9-a050-c847d3a5fbb2&lang=en)'s + or [CMU](http://www.design.cmu.edu/show_program.php?s=1&t=4).  When + you look at the new user interface in Office12 what you see is a + strong collaboration between the PM experts and the Design and + Usability experts. + - **Product Planning** -- our planners are experts in understanding + the market place and understanding what our customers need from + software.  Planners own research and communicating that research to + the product team PMs and to the executives deciding the overall + goals of a release.  Planners are assigned to broad technology and + business areas (collaboration, business intelligence) where they + become expert in all the products and solutions on the market and + how Microsoft can offer customers improvements over what is in the + market.  Many planners have business background and have worked in + marketing before. + + + +Many companies will "sell" you on being able to do many of these +different things from one job.  This is just not a reality that exists +and I always feel a bit bad for folks who believe this.  There are two +times I hear this a bunch.  First is at startups you hear "come join us +from college and you can own all of this".  Of course at a startup the +real experience is that you are the college hire, which means you will +do the grunt work while the founders and the venture people do all the +strategic work--so you might find yourself setting up the build machines +rather than interacting with customers.  Second, I hear this a lot when +companies are selling against Microsoft and point out that "at our +company we do not specialize and everyone does everything".  This is +another "well in reality..." situation, since of course even when I have +seen companies that claim to do the specifications or customer research +and up front planning they do that work from Product Management, and +those people are just as specialized, they just report to the marketing +team.  And we know what that means, which is when push comes to shove +the marketing team will need to use every hand to get out there and +generate the business and sell--so even if there is a single group that +does the work, those roles are specialized, and rarely dedicated +specifically to the role.  These are my experiences and of course your +specific situation might be different.  I've just seen these patterns +repeat themselves over many years of hiring students and having them +come back to Microsoft after a short experience with something like +that. + + + +It is worth talking about the size of the PM team for a bit.  In Office +our PM teams are small (our dev teams are usually about 20-30 developers +as talked about +[previously](/techtalk/archive/2005/09/24/473599.aspx)).  The entire +user interface for Office12 was developed by a team of about 12 program +managers--imagine that 12 program managers did all the work to totally +define the new interaction model for 400M customers of Office.  But +along with the fact that the team is small is the fact that a team like +this is also one where even the newest members of the team receive +significant mentorship and training from a very senior member of +Microsoft (you can watch this +[video](https://channel9.msdn.com/showpost.aspx?postid=114720) to meet +the head of the user interface PM team).  So you have the biggest impact +you could have in designing software while receiving a very high level +of management attention.  And then of course each PM has developers they +are responsible to equip with features and specs -- the whole user +interface development team was less than 30 people (so about 2 devs for +each PM).  A critical part about PM (also one that is unique for +Microsoft) is that as a PM you have dedicated developers for your +feature area--your job is to get the most out of those developers in +terms of bang for the buck by having great feature ideas and great specs +to get them done.  + + + +So what does a program manager do?  Well there are three phases to +program management: learn, convince, spec, refine.  These roughly mirror +the [product development +timeline](/techtalk/archive/2005/11/03/488850.aspx)written about +previously.  Do keep in mind that the timeline is not fixed--rather the +phases of the timeline are.  So if we're doing a 12 month project then +the time is divided accordingly, same as if the project is 24 or 30 +months. + + + +## **Learn --\> Output of learning is a prototype** + + + +During the learn phase, program managers spend their time learning about +customer problems and learning about the products and technologies out +there that are relevant to these problems.  There is a lot of work with +planning to understand competitive products or new products in the +marketplace.  As you can imagine, customers have huge challenges in +getting their computing systems to do what they need.  So often we will +spend days at a customer's place of business learning from them and +watching them trying to get their work done.  A great example of this is +the work we did to understand how customers manage documents in an +organization.  It is easy to see that organizations like law firms or +pharmaceuticals are heavily dependent on the flow of documents in an +organization (contracts, drug approval and research) and so the systems +are both mission critical and elaborate.  Companies really want to +automate more and to make things more usable and reliable.  The work of +program management was to deeply understand how to model the flow of +documents in an organization--spending time at big drug companies, small +startups, big law firms, local law firms, Public Relations agencies that +produce press releases, or government offices that produce legislation +to name a few.  Out of this work PM and Planning developed a conceptual +model called the "document lifecycle" (DLC).  This helped us to frame +the way that customers would like features to work.  So for this work +the PM needs to be really good at working directly with customers, +learning from them, listening, being open minded to different ways of +working, etc.  When you're hired from college you will participate in +this work for your area. + + + +At the same time there are deep technical problems to solve.  We need to +solve the control and access to information (drug test results and +contracts need a high degree of security, yet they need to be +collaboratively authored).  PMs spent a lot of time working with the +Windows platform team who develop platform technologies like our Rights +Management Server or the Windows Workflow Foundation (WinWF).  These +technologies are critical to enabling a robust and extensible +implementation of the DLC. So in this phase of learning, the PM has to +become well-versed in new platform technologies or in how to apply +existing technologies.  Often this is where some people say "it would be +easier to roll our own" -- which of course in the immediate term it is +(just build your own linked list and event source/sink) but what you +miss out on is the expertise and leverage that comes from a deep +platform technology.  For example, by learning the WinWF and being an +ISV of that technology we can take advantage of advances in workflow, +integration with Visual Studio, and a very robust and scalable server +without us doing any work--just like when developers reuse the process +model of Windows, or the client side drawing code of GDI. + + + +With this information at hand the role of the PM is to synthesize this +learning into a series of prototypes.  These prototypes are of varying +fidelity.  This is where the analogy to architecture holds--sometimes +you do a drawing, sometimes you do a high fidelity diagram, and +sometimes you build a model.  In software we sometimes build static +screen shots, we sometimes prototype in tools like VB.NET, sometimes we +prototype in a series of static bitmaps that illustrate a scenario.  For +our new user experience in Office12 we went through a series of high +fidelity prototypes development first in PowerPoint (you'd be amazed at +the depth of interaction you can do) and then in more high-end design +oriented tools.  By the time we were ready to exit the learning phase, +we had a full mockup of the user interface (which I have shown at my +campus tech talks this year). + + + +The output of this phase is a prototype upon which we will author +specifications. + + + +## **Convince --\> Output of convince phase is a plan and goals** + + + +Once you've learned a lot you have to go out and convince your peers, +your manager, and the dev team that your ideas are worth pursuing.  This +is where being a solid communicator and someone who is able to bring +together customer needs, technologies, and scenarios really comes +together.  + + + +As an aside, a lot of companies will tell you that you can come and +pursue your ideas.  That is probably not a good plan -- that is a recipe +for chaos.  But more importantly, if you can do whatever you want there +is a good chance someone else in the company has the right to come in +and tell you to change.  If there is this level of empowerment it means +the management team is empowered as well 🙂  The ability to just start at +a company and pursue your own agenda is much more of a lore than any +reality--all companies have a strategy and a business framework that the +work needs to fit within.  At the very least, eventually shareholders +will want a return on your R\&D investment. + + + +So at Microsoft the convince phase is really where your entrepreneurial +skills come to play.  While you will always have work to do, during this +phase you are working to expand your vision and get as many lined up +behind your area as you can handle.  Your ability to convince people of +your ideas is a lot like trying to get funding from venture capital +folks.  That is why if you have a great conviction of your ideas and a +lot of energy you probably have the makings of a great PM. + + + +The best part about this is that the teams you work with are all working +in unison on the vision and everyone is on board trying to make sure the +ideas come together super well.  In particular your mentor is there to +work with you.  But ultimately, the ideas will succeed based on your own +initiative and ability to convince the team of the chances for success +and the high priority nature of the work.  + + + +The output of this phase is the set of objectives for the project area.  +What follows is developing things at the next level of +detail. + + + +## **Spec --\> Output of spec phase are a series of written specifications** + + + +The first thing people always think of is "specs are for bureaucrats".  +That drives me a bit crazy.  I know as Americans we have a tendency to +use new products without reading the instructions, but it is lunacy to +develop a new product without first writing down the goals.  The mere +process of writing is thinking, and the thinking will always push you to +uncover more issues sooner before it is way too expensive to change +things.  For all the talk about agile development, few ever talk about +specifications as being the most important step in agility.  It is way +easier to change a bitmap or do some editing of English in Word than it +is to move around and rearchitect code.  + + + +Yet at the same time we do not sell our specifications, we only sell our +code.  So while we work to be very hardcore about having up front +planning we do not develop our specifications to the point that they are +the full documentation of the product.  It is too much work and not +enough of a pay off.  So if you make a late breaking design change we +might document the change in the change log but we don't go back and +redo all the words in the spec.  Another fun one for reading specs from +a long time ago is that the actual feature name used in the product is +never what we named it during development--the Office Assistant was +famously named TFC during development.  The "C" stood for clown.  I will +let your active imagination figure out what the TF stood for. + + + +So in writing a specification, the PM that worked on the learn phase now +has to turn that learning into an experience that customers will have.  +This is where the entire series of features, user interactions, boundary +conditions, localization, ISV opportunity, and all the details are +filled in.  A specification is how a developer will estimate the amount +of time it will take to write the code.  So if your spec omits a lot of +details and developers need to guess, then there is a good chance you +will end up not being able to realize all of your dreams because too +many things needed to get filled in a the last minute, plus your +developers will not be very happy working with you.  So doing a good job +on the spec is important.  + + + +A great program manager will take their whole feature area and divide it +up into specifications that match the developers or break the feature up +into workable "chunks".  On average a PM writes about 8-10 specs for +their area, and each one can be 30-50 pages depending on how visual (how +many pictures).  Some specs are significantly longer and some PMs choose +to write a larger number of smaller specs.  + + + +Specs are not just for developers.  But the usability, product +designers, and testers are all contributors to and refiners of the +specifications.  In fact while the output of the Spec phase is the +document, the final output is an "inspected specification".  If you've +ever gone through a code review with a professor or mentor (as an +intern) a spec inspection is like a code review.  During this time +testers might push on you about boundary conditions or compatibility +with existing products.  Product designers might work with you to +improve the way the spec describes the overall interaction.  Usability +might research the instrumentation from in-market products and use that +to refine the priorities for the feature.  In fact the role of data is +critical to Office PMs--if you run a web site you have click streams and +logs, and Office through the [Office Customer Experience +Program](http://office.microsoft.com/en-us/assistance/HA011402431033.aspx) +has exactly the same--usage information for millions of volunteers +(anonymous and private of course) and that educates us immensely on how +to design features (Jensen's blog describes this as well).  So the spec, +while owned by PM, is a work product of many contributors. + + + +It is worth noting that many times along with a spec is a more detailed +prototype.  This is particularly true for heavily interactive features.  +In this case product design and PM work together to develop detailed +prototypes of the work (often these will be tested in the labs with +customers as well). + + + +When the spec is complete the core part of development begins.  PM then +transitions to refining the product. + + + +## **Refine --\> Output is the product** + + + +During the development of the product, PMs are constantly refining the +details, working with development and test to determine what needs more +clarity and what is working better than expected (that can happen) and +what is going less well (that happens more).  PMs are on call to answer +questions and "unblock" development. + + + +More importantly as the real code becomes available, PM is anxious to +try it out and make sure it is meeting their own design expectations.  +Once the real code creeps along we will bring that into our usability +labs to further understand how the product works.  A famous story of +this phase of developing the PM role was that the first PMs were trying +to improve a feature under development and ran some usability tests.  +The feature bombed.  The PMs tried to explain this to the developers, +but the developers insisted that the PM just picked "dumb users" because +the feature was great.  So after a few rounds of this the PM dragged the +Dev to the tests to watch 10 out of 10 users fail to use the feature.  +The developer finally relented and the feature was fixed.  Today, +developers can watch tests via streams or go downstairs to our usability +labs and watch the tests in person.  Almost all developers I know are +keenly interested in how their features are doing (and how the PMs are +doing designing those features\!)  + + + +Another aspect of refinement is working with customers who use the early +code.  While it is cool to throw a product out to beta and get some +instrumentation and maybe get some qualitative input via mail, the only +true way to understand how the product is doing is by deep engagement +with real world users.  We do this this through a number of mechanisms +that gradually expand the number of customers involved. + + + +Early in the process we meet with a very small number (10-20) customers +who spend days with us here on campus and learn about the product.  We +walk them through all the details and solicit their feedback and input.  +We did this for Office12 last summer and it was critical to our ability +to get to Beta1 with a product that reflects real world usage and +learning.  As a PM you will be responsible for getting together with +these customers and learning from them.  We often follow up on site. + + + +Another group we learn from that is a bit larger are our MVPs -- the +most valued professionals.  These folks are the power users of Office. +Our PMs all got involved with the MVP summit on campus and again worked +with the MVPs in small groups to get their feedback and expertise into +Office12.  The MVPs know more about Office than any other customers on +earth--they are a wealth of information. + + + +We're currently in the phase of learning from a broad set of beta1 +customers.  We are doing this through newsgroups and through direct +communication.  + + + +You might also notice that many of our PMs are blogging (see the links +to the right).  This is new for us (well for everyone) and also a great +source of information and a great way that PMs are connecting with the +web community. + + + +Of course our senior program managers are also responsible for working +with the press and product management.  So a lot of time is spent on +communicating Office12.  There are a lot of reporters interested in +Office and a lot of information to get out there.  + + + +All of this Refine work feeds back into the developers where we +prioritize and make sure that the very best product is built.  Of course +that doesn't end with RTM since we're always refining and listening to +customers (even though we're not "Web 2.0").  As I mentioned previously, +we make over 100 changes every month to Office based on customer input +-- so the product is always improving, and we're always learning\! + + + +## PM Attributes + + + +So those are the phases of program management and what you do as a PM in +Office.  I would say that there are many unique elements to the role of +PM in Office that are not emulated by other companies who have tried to +create this role.  A good book that describes the uniqueness of PM at +Microsoft is Michael Cussumano's book "Microsoft Secrets" or his new +book, "The Business of Software".  If you're considering a PM role at +Microsoft (or Office), from my perspective a couple of things you will +get: + + + + - A small team dedicated to solving customer problems and bringing the + best technologies to the table + - Access to dedicated developers who are there to implement your ideas + if you can live up to creating a great idea and making sure the + details are thought through + - A very strong mentor who as part of small team will be there for you + on a daily basis + + + +If I had to think of the qualities that make a great PM I might list a +few, but your recruiter and the interviews will help out a lot so don't +let these discourage you from applying: + + + + - Strong interest in what computing can do -- a great interest in + technology and how to apply that to problems people have in life and + work + - Great communication skills -- you do a lot of writing, presenting, + and convincing + - Strong views on what is right, but very open to new ideas -- the + best PMs are not necessarily those with the best ideas, but those + that insure the best ideas get done + - Selfless -- PM is about making sure the best work gets done by the + team, not that your ideas get done.  + - Empathy -- As a PM you are the voice of the customer so you have to + really understand their point of view and context  + - Entrepreneur -- as a PM you need to get out there and convince + others of your ideas, so being able to is a good skill + + + +PM is unique to Microsoft and I think it is fair to say this is a role +that is often copied but never duplicated. + + + +\--Steven diff --git a/_stories/2005/8754904.md b/_stories/2005/8754904.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..0db5d7e --- /dev/null +++ b/_stories/2005/8754904.md @@ -0,0 +1,1867 @@ +--- +created_at: '2014-12-15T22:36:52.000Z' +title: Bit Twiddling Hacks (2005) +url: http://graphics.stanford.edu/~seander/bithacks.html +author: thealphanerd +points: 49 +story_text: '' +comment_text: +num_comments: 6 +story_id: +story_title: +story_url: +parent_id: +created_at_i: 1418683012 +_tags: +- story +- author_thealphanerd +- story_8754904 +objectID: '8754904' + +--- +## Bit Twiddling Hacks + +### By Sean Eron Anderson +seander@cs. stanford.edu + +Individually, the **code snippets here are in the public domain** +(unless otherwise noted) — feel free to use them however you please. The +aggregate collection and descriptions are © 1997-2005 Sean Eron +Anderson. The code and descriptions are distributed in the hope that +they will be useful, but **WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY** and without even the +implied warranty of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. +As of May 5, 2005, all the code has been tested thoroughly. Thousands of +people have read it. Moreover, [Professor Randal +Bryant](http://www-2.cs.cmu.edu/~bryant/), the Dean of Computer Science +at Carnegie Mellon University, has personally tested almost everything +with his [Uclid code verification +system](http://www-2.cs.cmu.edu/~uclid/). What he hasn't tested, I have +checked against all possible inputs on a 32-bit machine. **To the first +person to inform me of a legitimate bug in the code, I'll pay a bounty +of US$10 (by check or Paypal)**. If directed to a charity, I'll pay +US$20. + +### Contents + +When totaling the number of operations for algorithms here, any C +operator is counted as one operation. Intermediate assignments, which +need not be written to RAM, are not counted. Of course, this operation +counting approach only serves as an approximation of the actual number +of machine instructions and CPU time. All operations are assumed to take +the same amount of time, which is not true in reality, but CPUs have +been heading increasingly in this direction over time. There are many +nuances that determine how fast a system will run a given sample of +code, such as cache sizes, memory bandwidths, instruction sets, etc. In +the end, benchmarking is the best way to determine whether one method is +really faster than another, so consider the techniques below as +possibilities to test on your target architecture. + + int v; // we want to find the sign of v + int sign; // the result goes here + + // CHAR_BIT is the number of bits per byte (normally 8). + sign = -(v < 0); // if v < 0 then -1, else 0. + // or, to avoid branching on CPUs with flag registers (IA32): + sign = -(int)((unsigned int)((int)v) >> (sizeof(int) * CHAR_BIT - 1)); + // or, for one less instruction (but not portable): + sign = v >> (sizeof(int) * CHAR_BIT - 1); + +The last expression above evaluates to sign = v \>\> 31 for 32-bit +integers. This is one operation faster than the obvious way, sign = -(v +\< 0). This trick works because when signed integers are shifted right, +the value of the far left bit is copied to the other bits. The far left +bit is 1 when the value is negative and 0 otherwise; all 1 bits gives +-1. Unfortunately, this behavior is architecture-specific. + +Alternatively, if you prefer the result be either -1 or +1, then + use: + + sign = +1 | (v >> (sizeof(int) * CHAR_BIT - 1)); // if v < 0 then -1, else +1 + +On the other hand, if you prefer the result be either -1, 0, or +1, then +use: + + sign = (v != 0) | -(int)((unsigned int)((int)v) >> (sizeof(int) * CHAR_BIT - 1)); + // Or, for more speed but less portability: + sign = (v != 0) | (v >> (sizeof(int) * CHAR_BIT - 1)); // -1, 0, or +1 + // Or, for portability, brevity, and (perhaps) speed: + sign = (v > 0) - (v < 0); // -1, 0, or +1 + +If instead you want to know if something is non-negative, resulting in ++1 or else 0, then + use: + + sign = 1 ^ ((unsigned int)v >> (sizeof(int) * CHAR_BIT - 1)); // if v < 0 then 0, else 1 + +Caveat: On March 7, 2003, Angus Duggan pointed out that the 1989 ANSI C +specification leaves the result of signed right-shift +implementation-defined, so on some systems this hack might not work. For +greater portability, Toby Speight suggested on September 28, 2005 that +CHAR\_BIT be used here and throughout rather than assuming bytes were 8 +bits long. Angus recommended the more portable versions above, involving +casting on March 4, 2006. [Rohit Garg](http://rpg-314.blogspot.com/) +suggested the version for non-negative integers on September 12, 2009. + + int x, y; // input values to compare signs + + bool f = ((x ^ y) < 0); // true iff x and y have opposite signs + +Manfred Weis suggested I add this entry on November 26, 2009. + + int v; // we want to find the absolute value of v + unsigned int r; // the result goes here + int const mask = v >> sizeof(int) * CHAR_BIT - 1; + + r = (v + mask) ^ mask; + +Patented variation: + + r = (v ^ mask) - mask; + +Some CPUs don't have an integer absolute value instruction (or the +compiler fails to use them). On machines where branching is expensive, +the above expression can be faster than the obvious approach, r = (v \< +0) ? -(unsigned)v : v, even though the number of operations is the same. + +On March 7, 2003, Angus Duggan pointed out that the 1989 ANSI C +specification leaves the result of signed right-shift +implementation-defined, so on some systems this hack might not work. +I've read that ANSI C does not require values to be represented as two's +complement, so it may not work for that reason as well (on a +diminishingly small number of old machines that still use one's +complement). On March 14, 2004, Keith H. Duggar sent me the patented +variation above; it is superior to the one I initially came up with, +`r=(+1|(v>>(sizeof(int)*CHAR_BIT-1)))*v`, because a multiply is not +used. Unfortunately, this method has been +[patented](http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect1=PTO2&Sect2=HITOFF&p=1&u=/netahtml/search-adv.htm&r=1&f=G&l=50&d=ptxt&S1=6073150&OS=6073150&RS=6073150) +in the USA on June 6, 2000 by Vladimir Yu Volkonsky and assigned to [Sun +Microsystems](http://www.sun.com/). On August 13, 2006, Yuriy Kaminskiy +told me that the patent is likely invalid because the method was +published well before the patent was even filed, such as in [How to +Optimize for the Pentium +Processor](http://www.goof.com/pcg/doc/pentopt.txt) by Agner Fog, dated +November, 9, 1996. Yuriy also mentioned that this document was +translated to Russian in 1997, which Vladimir could have read. Moreover, +the Internet Archive also has an old +[link](http://web.archive.org/web/19961201174141/www.x86.org/ftp/articles/pentopt/PENTOPT.TXT) +to it. On January 30, 2007, Peter Kankowski shared with me an [abs +version](http://smallcode.weblogs.us/2007/01/31/microsoft-probably-uses-the-abs-function-patented-by-sun/) +he discovered that was inspired by Microsoft's Visual C++ compiler +output. It is featured here as the primary solution. On December 6, +2007, Hai Jin complained that the result was signed, so when computing +the abs of the most negative value, it was still negative. On April 15, +2008 Andrew Shapira pointed out that the obvious approach could +overflow, as it lacked an (unsigned) cast then; for maximum portability +he suggested `(v < 0) ? (1 + ((unsigned)(-1-v))) : (unsigned)v`. But +citing the ISO C99 spec on July 9, 2008, Vincent Lefèvre convinced me to +remove it becasue even on non-2s-complement machines -(unsigned)v will +do the right thing. The evaluation of -(unsigned)v first converts the +negative value of v to an unsigned by adding 2\*\*N, yielding a 2s +complement representation of v's value that I'll call U. Then, U is +negated, giving the desired result, -U = 0 - U = 2\*\*N - U = 2\*\*N - +(v+2\*\*N) = -v = abs(v). + + int x; // we want to find the minimum of x and y + int y; + int r; // the result goes here + + r = y ^ ((x ^ y) & -(x < y)); // min(x, y) + +On some rare machines where branching is very expensive and no condition +move instructions exist, the above expression might be faster than the +obvious approach, r = (x \< y) ? x : y, even though it involves two more +instructions. (Typically, the obvious approach is best, though.) It +works because if x \< y, then -(x  To find the maximum, use: + + r = x ^ ((x ^ y) & -(x < y)); // max(x, y) + +#### Quick and dirty versions: + +If you know that INT\_MIN \<= x - y \<= INT\_MAX, then you can use the +following, which are faster because (x - y) only needs to be evaluated +once. + + r = y + ((x - y) & ((x - y) >> (sizeof(int) * CHAR_BIT - 1))); // min(x, y) + r = x - ((x - y) & ((x - y) >> (sizeof(int) * CHAR_BIT - 1))); // max(x, y) + +Note that the 1989 ANSI C specification doesn't specify the result of +signed right-shift, so these aren't portable. If exceptions are thrown +on overflows, then the values of x and y should be unsigned or cast to +unsigned for the subtractions to avoid unnecessarily throwing an +exception, however the right-shift needs a signed operand to produce all +one bits when negative, so cast to signed there. + +On March 7, 2003, Angus Duggan pointed out the right-shift portability +issue. On May 3, 2005, Randal E. Bryant alerted me to the need for the +precondition, INT\_MIN \<= x - y \<= INT\_MAX, and suggested the +non-quick and dirty version as a fix. Both of these issues concern only +the quick and dirty version. Nigel Horspoon observed on July 6, 2005 +that gcc produced the same code on a Pentium as the obvious solution +because of how it evaluates (x \< y). On July 9, 2008 Vincent Lefèvre +pointed out the potential for overflow exceptions with subtractions in r += y + ((x - y) & -(x \< y)), which was the previous version. Timothy B. +Terriberry suggested using xor rather than add and subract to avoid +casting and the risk of overflows on June 2, 2009. + + unsigned int v; // we want to see if v is a power of 2 + bool f; // the result goes here + + f = (v & (v - 1)) == 0; + +Note that 0 is incorrectly considered a power of 2 here. To remedy this, +use: + + f = v && !(v & (v - 1)); + +Sign extension is automatic for built-in types, such as chars and ints. +But suppose you have a signed two's complement number, x, that is stored +using only b bits. Moreover, suppose you want to convert x to an int, +which has more than b bits. A simple copy will work if x is positive, +but if negative, the sign must be extended. For example, if we have only +4 bits to store a number, then -3 is represented as 1101 in binary. If +we have 8 bits, then -3 is 11111101. The most-significant bit of the +4-bit representation is replicated sinistrally to fill in the +destination when we convert to a representation with more bits; this is +sign extending. In C, sign extension from a constant bit-width is +trivial, since bit fields may be specified in structs or unions. For +example, to convert from 5 bits to an full integer: + + int x; // convert this from using 5 bits to a full int + int r; // resulting sign extended number goes here + struct {signed int x:5;} s; + r = s.x = x; + +The following is a C++ template function that uses the same language +feature to convert from B bits in one operation (though the compiler is +generating more, of course). + + template + inline T signextend(const T x) + { + struct {T x:B;} s; + return s.x = x; + } + + int r = signextend(x); // sign extend 5 bit number x to r + +John Byrd caught a typo in the code (attributed to html formatting) on +May 2, 2005. On March 4, 2006, Pat Wood pointed out that the ANSI C +standard requires that the bitfield have the keyword "signed" to be +signed; otherwise, the sign is undefined. + +Sometimes we need to extend the sign of a number but we don't know a +priori the number of bits, b, in which it is represented. (Or we could +be programming in a language like Java, which lacks bitfields.) + + unsigned b; // number of bits representing the number in x + int x; // sign extend this b-bit number to r + int r; // resulting sign-extended number + int const m = 1U << (b - 1); // mask can be pre-computed if b is fixed + + x = x & ((1U << b) - 1); // (Skip this if bits in x above position b are already zero.) + r = (x ^ m) - m; + +The code above requires four operations, but when the bitwidth is a +constant rather than variable, it requires only two fast operations, +assuming the upper bits are already zeroes. + +A slightly faster but less portable method that doesn't depend on the +bits in x above position b being zero is: + + int const m = CHAR_BIT * sizeof(x) - b; + r = (x << m) >> m; + +Sean A. Irvine suggested that I add sign extension methods to this page +on June 13, 2004, and he provided `m = (1 << (b - 1)) - 1; r = -(x & ~m) +| x;` as a starting point from which I optimized to get m = 1U \<\< (b - +1); r = -(x & m) | x. But then on May 11, 2007, Shay Green suggested the +version above, which requires one less operation than mine. Vipin Sharma +suggested I add a step to deal with situations where x had possible ones +in bits other than the b bits we wanted to sign-extend on Oct. 15, 2008. +On December 31, 2009 Chris Pirazzi suggested I add the faster version, +which requires two operations for constant bit-widths and three for +variable widths. + +The following may be slow on some machines, due to the effort required +for multiplication and division. This version is 4 operations. If you +know that your initial bit-width, b, is greater than 1, you might do +this type of sign extension in 3 operations by using r = (x \* +multipliers\[b\]) / multipliers\[b\], which requires only one array +lookup. + + unsigned b; // number of bits representing the number in x + int x; // sign extend this b-bit number to r + int r; // resulting sign-extended number + #define M(B) (1U << ((sizeof(x) * CHAR_BIT) - B)) // CHAR_BIT=bits/byte + static int const multipliers[] = + { + 0, M(1), M(2), M(3), M(4), M(5), M(6), M(7), + M(8), M(9), M(10), M(11), M(12), M(13), M(14), M(15), + M(16), M(17), M(18), M(19), M(20), M(21), M(22), M(23), + M(24), M(25), M(26), M(27), M(28), M(29), M(30), M(31), + M(32) + }; // (add more if using more than 64 bits) + static int const divisors[] = + { + 1, ~M(1), M(2), M(3), M(4), M(5), M(6), M(7), + M(8), M(9), M(10), M(11), M(12), M(13), M(14), M(15), + M(16), M(17), M(18), M(19), M(20), M(21), M(22), M(23), + M(24), M(25), M(26), M(27), M(28), M(29), M(30), M(31), + M(32) + }; // (add more for 64 bits) + #undef M + r = (x * multipliers[b]) / divisors[b]; + +The following variation is not portable, but on architectures that +employ an arithmetic right-shift, maintaining the sign, it should be +fast. + + const int s = -b; // OR: sizeof(x) * CHAR_BIT - b; + r = (x << s) >> s; + +Randal E. Bryant pointed out a bug on May 3, 2005 in an earlier version +(that used multipliers\[\] for divisors\[\]), where it failed on the +case of x=1 and b=1. + + bool f; // conditional flag + unsigned int m; // the bit mask + unsigned int w; // the word to modify: if (f) w |= m; else w &= ~m; + + w ^= (-f ^ w) & m; + + // OR, for superscalar CPUs: + w = (w & ~m) | (-f & m); + +On some architectures, the lack of branching can more than make up for +what appears to be twice as many operations. For instance, informal +speed tests on an AMD Athlon™ XP 2100+ indicated it was 5-10% faster. An +Intel Core 2 Duo ran the superscalar version about 16% faster than the +first. Glenn Slayden informed me of the first expression on December 11, +2003. Marco Yu shared the superscalar version with me on April 3, 2007 +and alerted me to a typo 2 days later. + +If you need to negate only when a flag is false, then use the following +to avoid branching: + + bool fDontNegate; // Flag indicating we should not negate v. + int v; // Input value to negate if fDontNegate is false. + int r; // result = fDontNegate ? v : -v; + + r = (fDontNegate ^ (fDontNegate - 1)) * v; + +If you need to negate only when a flag is true, then use this: + + bool fNegate; // Flag indicating if we should negate v. + int v; // Input value to negate if fNegate is true. + int r; // result = fNegate ? -v : v; + + r = (v ^ -fNegate) + fNegate; + +Avraham Plotnitzky suggested I add the first version on June 2, 2009. +Motivated to avoid the multiply, I came up with the second version on +June 8, 2009. Alfonso De Gregorio pointed out that some parens were +missing on November 26, 2009, and received a bug bounty. + + unsigned int a; // value to merge in non-masked bits + unsigned int b; // value to merge in masked bits + unsigned int mask; // 1 where bits from b should be selected; 0 where from a. + unsigned int r; // result of (a & ~mask) | (b & mask) goes here + + r = a ^ ((a ^ b) & mask); + +This shaves one operation from the obvious way of combining two sets of +bits according to a bit mask. If the mask is a constant, then there may +be no advantage. + +Ron Jeffery sent this to me on February 9, 2006. + + unsigned int v; // count the number of bits set in v + unsigned int c; // c accumulates the total bits set in v + + for (c = 0; v; v >>= 1) + { + c += v & 1; + } + +The naive approach requires one iteration per bit, until no more bits +are set. So on a 32-bit word with only the high set, it will go through +32 iterations. + + static const unsigned char BitsSetTable256[256] = + { + # define B2(n) n, n+1, n+1, n+2 + # define B4(n) B2(n), B2(n+1), B2(n+1), B2(n+2) + # define B6(n) B4(n), B4(n+1), B4(n+1), B4(n+2) + B6(0), B6(1), B6(1), B6(2) + }; + + unsigned int v; // count the number of bits set in 32-bit value v + unsigned int c; // c is the total bits set in v + + // Option 1: + c = BitsSetTable256[v & 0xff] + + BitsSetTable256[(v >> 8) & 0xff] + + BitsSetTable256[(v >> 16) & 0xff] + + BitsSetTable256[v >> 24]; + + // Option 2: + unsigned char * p = (unsigned char *) &v; + c = BitsSetTable256[p[0]] + + BitsSetTable256[p[1]] + + BitsSetTable256[p[2]] + + BitsSetTable256[p[3]]; + + + // To initially generate the table algorithmically: + BitsSetTable256[0] = 0; + for (int i = 0; i < 256; i++) + { + BitsSetTable256[i] = (i & 1) + BitsSetTable256[i / 2]; + } + +On July 14, 2009 Hallvard Furuseth suggested the macro compacted table. + + unsigned int v; // count the number of bits set in v + unsigned int c; // c accumulates the total bits set in v + for (c = 0; v; c++) + { + v &= v - 1; // clear the least significant bit set + } + +Brian Kernighan's method goes through as many iterations as there are +set bits. So if we have a 32-bit word with only the high bit set, then +it will only go once through the loop. + +Published in 1988, the C Programming Language 2nd Ed. (by Brian W. +Kernighan and Dennis M. Ritchie) mentions this in exercise 2-9. On April +19, 2006 Don Knuth pointed out to me that this method "was first +published by Peter Wegner in CACM 3 (1960), 322. (Also discovered +independently by Derrick Lehmer and published in 1964 in a book edited +by Beckenbach.)" + + unsigned int v; // count the number of bits set in v + unsigned int c; // c accumulates the total bits set in v + + // option 1, for at most 14-bit values in v: + c = (v * 0x200040008001ULL & 0x111111111111111ULL) % 0xf; + + // option 2, for at most 24-bit values in v: + c = ((v & 0xfff) * 0x1001001001001ULL & 0x84210842108421ULL) % 0x1f; + c += (((v & 0xfff000) >> 12) * 0x1001001001001ULL & 0x84210842108421ULL) + % 0x1f; + + // option 3, for at most 32-bit values in v: + c = ((v & 0xfff) * 0x1001001001001ULL & 0x84210842108421ULL) % 0x1f; + c += (((v & 0xfff000) >> 12) * 0x1001001001001ULL & 0x84210842108421ULL) % + 0x1f; + c += ((v >> 24) * 0x1001001001001ULL & 0x84210842108421ULL) % 0x1f; + +This method requires a 64-bit CPU with fast modulus division to be +efficient. The first option takes only 3 operations; the second option +takes 10; and the third option takes 15. + +Rich Schroeppel originally created a 9-bit version, similiar to option +1; see the Programming Hacks section of [Beeler, M., Gosper, R. W., and +Schroeppel, R. HAKMEM. MIT AI Memo 239, Feb. 29, +1972.](http://www.inwap.com/pdp10/hbaker/hakmem/hakmem.html) His method +was the inspiration for the variants above, devised by Sean Anderson. +Randal E. Bryant offered a couple bug fixes on May 3, 2005. Bruce Dawson +tweaked what had been a 12-bit version and made it suitable for 14 bits +using the same number of operations on Feburary 1, 2007. + + unsigned int v; // count bits set in this (32-bit value) + unsigned int c; // store the total here + static const int S[] = {1, 2, 4, 8, 16}; // Magic Binary Numbers + static const int B[] = {0x55555555, 0x33333333, 0x0F0F0F0F, 0x00FF00FF, 0x0000FFFF}; + + c = v - ((v >> 1) & B[0]); + c = ((c >> S[1]) & B[1]) + (c & B[1]); + c = ((c >> S[2]) + c) & B[2]; + c = ((c >> S[3]) + c) & B[3]; + c = ((c >> S[4]) + c) & B[4]; + +The B array, expressed as binary, is: + + B[0] = 0x55555555 = 01010101 01010101 01010101 01010101 + B[1] = 0x33333333 = 00110011 00110011 00110011 00110011 + B[2] = 0x0F0F0F0F = 00001111 00001111 00001111 00001111 + B[3] = 0x00FF00FF = 00000000 11111111 00000000 11111111 + B[4] = 0x0000FFFF = 00000000 00000000 11111111 11111111 + +We can adjust the method for larger integer sizes by continuing with the +patterns for the Binary Magic Numbers, B and S. If there are k bits, +then we need the arrays S and B to be ceil(lg(k)) elements long, and we +must compute the same number of expressions for c as S or B are long. +For a 32-bit v, 16 operations are used. + +The best method for counting bits in a 32-bit integer v is the +following: + + v = v - ((v >> 1) & 0x55555555); // reuse input as temporary + v = (v & 0x33333333) + ((v >> 2) & 0x33333333); // temp + c = ((v + (v >> 4) & 0xF0F0F0F) * 0x1010101) >> 24; // count + +The best bit counting method takes only 12 operations, which is the same +as the lookup-table method, but avoids the memory and potential cache +misses of a table. It is a hybrid between the purely parallel method +above and the earlier methods using multiplies (in the section on +counting bits with 64-bit instructions), though it doesn't use 64-bit +instructions. The counts of bits set in the bytes is done in parallel, +and the sum total of the bits set in the bytes is computed by +multiplying by 0x1010101 and shifting right 24 bits. + +A generalization of the best bit counting method to integers of +bit-widths upto 128 (parameterized by type T) is this: + + v = v - ((v >> 1) & (T)~(T)0/3); // temp + v = (v & (T)~(T)0/15*3) + ((v >> 2) & (T)~(T)0/15*3); // temp + v = (v + (v >> 4)) & (T)~(T)0/255*15; // temp + c = (T)(v * ((T)~(T)0/255)) >> (sizeof(T) - 1) * CHAR_BIT; // count + +See [Ian Ashdown's nice newsgroup +post](http://groups.google.com/groups?q=reverse+bits&num=100&hl=en&group=comp.graphics.algorithms&imgsafe=off&safe=off&rnum=2&ic=1&selm=4fulhm%248dn%40atlas.uniserve.com) +for more information on counting the number of bits set (also known as +sideways addition). The best bit counting method was brought to my +attention on October 5, 2005 by [Andrew Shapira](http://onezero.org); he +found it in pages 187-188 of [Software Optimization Guide for AMD +Athlon™ 64 and Opteron™ +Processors](http://www.amd.com/us-en/assets/content_type/white_papers_and_tech_docs/25112.PDF). +Charlie Gordon suggested a way to shave off one operation from the +purely parallel version on December 14, 2005, and Don Clugston trimmed +three more from it on December 30, 2005. I made a typo with Don's +suggestion that Eric Cole spotted on January 8, 2006. Eric later +suggested the arbitrary bit-width generalization to the best method on +November 17, 2006. On April 5, 2007, Al Williams observed that I had a +line of dead code at the top of the first method. + +The following finds the the rank of a bit, meaning it returns the sum of +bits that are set to 1 from the most-signficant bit downto the bit at +the given +position. + +``` + uint64_t v; // Compute the rank (bits set) in v from the MSB to pos. + unsigned int pos; // Bit position to count bits upto. + uint64_t r; // Resulting rank of bit at pos goes here. + + // Shift out bits after given position. + r = v >> (sizeof(v) * CHAR_BIT - pos); + // Count set bits in parallel. + // r = (r & 0x5555...) + ((r >> 1) & 0x5555...); + r = r - ((r >> 1) & ~0UL/3); + // r = (r & 0x3333...) + ((r >> 2) & 0x3333...); + r = (r & ~0UL/5) + ((r >> 2) & ~0UL/5); + // r = (r & 0x0f0f...) + ((r >> 4) & 0x0f0f...); + r = (r + (r >> 4)) & ~0UL/17; + // r = r % 255; + r = (r * (~0UL/255)) >> ((sizeof(v) - 1) * CHAR_BIT); +``` + +Juha Järvi sent this to me on November 21, 2009 as an inverse operation +to the computing the bit position with the given rank, which follows. + +The following 64-bit code selects the position of the rth 1 bit when +counting from the left. In other words if we start at the most +significant bit and proceed to the right, counting the number of bits +set to 1 until we reach the desired rank, r, then the position where we +stop is returned. If the rank requested exceeds the count of bits set, +then 64 is returned. The code may be modified for 32-bit or counting +from the right. + +``` + uint64_t v; // Input value to find position with rank r. + unsigned int r; // Input: bit's desired rank [1-64]. + unsigned int s; // Output: Resulting position of bit with rank r [1-64] + uint64_t a, b, c, d; // Intermediate temporaries for bit count. + unsigned int t; // Bit count temporary. + + // Do a normal parallel bit count for a 64-bit integer, + // but store all intermediate steps. + // a = (v & 0x5555...) + ((v >> 1) & 0x5555...); + a = v - ((v >> 1) & ~0UL/3); + // b = (a & 0x3333...) + ((a >> 2) & 0x3333...); + b = (a & ~0UL/5) + ((a >> 2) & ~0UL/5); + // c = (b & 0x0f0f...) + ((b >> 4) & 0x0f0f...); + c = (b + (b >> 4)) & ~0UL/0x11; + // d = (c & 0x00ff...) + ((c >> 8) & 0x00ff...); + d = (c + (c >> 8)) & ~0UL/0x101; + t = (d >> 32) + (d >> 48); + // Now do branchless select! + s = 64; + // if (r > t) {s -= 32; r -= t;} + s -= ((t - r) & 256) >> 3; r -= (t & ((t - r) >> 8)); + t = (d >> (s - 16)) & 0xff; + // if (r > t) {s -= 16; r -= t;} + s -= ((t - r) & 256) >> 4; r -= (t & ((t - r) >> 8)); + t = (c >> (s - 8)) & 0xf; + // if (r > t) {s -= 8; r -= t;} + s -= ((t - r) & 256) >> 5; r -= (t & ((t - r) >> 8)); + t = (b >> (s - 4)) & 0x7; + // if (r > t) {s -= 4; r -= t;} + s -= ((t - r) & 256) >> 6; r -= (t & ((t - r) >> 8)); + t = (a >> (s - 2)) & 0x3; + // if (r > t) {s -= 2; r -= t;} + s -= ((t - r) & 256) >> 7; r -= (t & ((t - r) >> 8)); + t = (v >> (s - 1)) & 0x1; + // if (r > t) s--; + s -= ((t - r) & 256) >> 8; + s = 65 - s; +``` + +If branching is fast on your target CPU, consider uncommenting the +if-statements and commenting the lines that follow them. + +Juha Järvi sent this to me on November 21, 2009. + + unsigned int v; // word value to compute the parity of + bool parity = false; // parity will be the parity of v + + while (v) + { + parity = !parity; + v = v & (v - 1); + } + +The above code uses an approach like Brian Kernigan's bit counting, +above. The time it takes is proportional to the number of bits set. + + static const bool ParityTable256[256] = + { + # define P2(n) n, n^1, n^1, n + # define P4(n) P2(n), P2(n^1), P2(n^1), P2(n) + # define P6(n) P4(n), P4(n^1), P4(n^1), P4(n) + P6(0), P6(1), P6(1), P6(0) + }; + + unsigned char b; // byte value to compute the parity of + bool parity = ParityTable256[b]; + + // OR, for 32-bit words: + unsigned int v; + v ^= v >> 16; + v ^= v >> 8; + bool parity = ParityTable256[v & 0xff]; + + // Variation: + unsigned char * p = (unsigned char *) &v; + parity = ParityTable256[p[0] ^ p[1] ^ p[2] ^ p[3]]; + +Randal E. Bryant encouraged the addition of the (admittedly) obvious +last variation with variable p on May 3, 2005. Bruce Rawles found a typo +in an instance of the table variable's name on September 27, 2005, and +he received a $10 bug bounty. On October 9, 2006, Fabrice Bellard +suggested the 32-bit variations above, which require only one table +lookup; the previous version had four lookups (one per byte) and were +slower. On July 14, 2009 Hallvard Furuseth suggested the macro compacted +table. + + unsigned char b; // byte value to compute the parity of + bool parity = + (((b * 0x0101010101010101ULL) & 0x8040201008040201ULL) % 0x1FF) & 1; + +The method above takes around 4 operations, but only works on bytes. + +The following method computes the parity of the 32-bit value in only 8 +operations using a multiply. + +``` + unsigned int v; // 32-bit word + v ^= v >> 1; + v ^= v >> 2; + v = (v & 0x11111111U) * 0x11111111U; + return (v >> 28) & 1; +``` + +Also for 64-bits, 8 operations are still enough. + +``` + unsigned long long v; // 64-bit word + v ^= v >> 1; + v ^= v >> 2; + v = (v & 0x1111111111111111UL) * 0x1111111111111111UL; + return (v >> 60) & 1; +``` + +Andrew Shapira came up with this and sent it to me on Sept. 2, 2007. + + unsigned int v; // word value to compute the parity of + v ^= v >> 16; + v ^= v >> 8; + v ^= v >> 4; + v &= 0xf; + return (0x6996 >> v) & 1; + +The method above takes around 9 operations, and works for 32-bit words. +It may be optimized to work just on bytes in 5 operations by removing +the two lines immediately following "unsigned int v;". The method first +shifts and XORs the eight nibbles of the 32-bit value together, leaving +the result in the lowest nibble of v. Next, the binary number 0110 1001 +1001 0110 (0x6996 in hex) is shifted to the right by the value +represented in the lowest nibble of v. This number is like a miniature +16-bit parity-table indexed by the low four bits in v. The result has +the parity of v in bit 1, which is masked and returned. + +Thanks to Mathew Hendry for pointing out the shift-lookup idea at the +end on Dec. 15, 2002. That optimization shaves two operations off using +only shifting and XORing to find the parity. + + #define SWAP(a, b) ((&(a) == &(b)) || \ + (((a) -= (b)), ((b) += (a)), ((a) = (b) - (a)))) + +This swaps the values of a and b without using a temporary variable. The +initial check for a and b being the same location in memory may be +omitted when you know this can't happen. (The compiler may omit it +anyway as an optimization.) If you enable overflows exceptions, then +pass unsigned values so an exception isn't thrown. The XOR method that +follows may be slightly faster on some machines. Don't use this with +floating-point numbers (unless you operate on their raw integer +representations). + +Sanjeev Sivasankaran suggested I add this on June 12, 2007. Vincent +Lefèvre pointed out the potential for overflow exceptions on July 9, +2008 + + #define SWAP(a, b) (((a) ^= (b)), ((b) ^= (a)), ((a) ^= (b))) + +This is an old trick to exchange the values of the variables a and b +without using extra space for a temporary variable. + +On January 20, 2005, Iain A. Fleming pointed out that the macro above +doesn't work when you swap with the same memory location, such as +SWAP(a\[i\], a\[j\]) with i == j. So if that may occur, consider +defining the macro as (((a) == (b)) || (((a) ^= (b)), ((b) ^= (a)), ((a) +^= (b)))). On July 14, 2009, Hallvard Furuseth suggested that on some +machines, (((a) ^ (b)) && ((b) ^= (a) ^= (b), (a) ^= (b))) might be +faster, since the (a) ^ (b) expression is reused. + + unsigned int i, j; // positions of bit sequences to swap + unsigned int n; // number of consecutive bits in each sequence + unsigned int b; // bits to swap reside in b + unsigned int r; // bit-swapped result goes here + + unsigned int x = ((b >> i) ^ (b >> j)) & ((1U << n) - 1); // XOR temporary + r = b ^ ((x << i) | (x << j)); + +As an example of swapping ranges of bits suppose we have have b = +**001**0**111**1 (expressed in binary) and we want to swap the n = 3 +consecutive bits starting at i = 1 (the second bit from the right) with +the 3 consecutive bits starting at j = 5; the result would be r = +**111**0**001**1 (binary). + +This method of swapping is similar to the general purpose XOR swap +trick, but intended for operating on individual bits.  The variable x +stores the result of XORing the pairs of bit values we want to swap, and +then the bits are set to the result of themselves XORed with x.  Of +course, the result is undefined if the sequences overlap. + +On July 14, 2009 Hallvard Furuseth suggested that I change the 1 \<\< n +to 1U \<\< n because the value was being assigned to an unsigned and to +avoid shifting into a sign bit. + + unsigned int v; // input bits to be reversed + unsigned int r = v; // r will be reversed bits of v; first get LSB of v + int s = sizeof(v) * CHAR_BIT - 1; // extra shift needed at end + + for (v >>= 1; v; v >>= 1) + { + r <<= 1; + r |= v & 1; + s--; + } + r <<= s; // shift when v's highest bits are zero + +On October 15, 2004, Michael Hoisie pointed out a bug in the original +version. Randal E. Bryant suggested removing an extra operation on May +3, 2005. Behdad Esfabod suggested a slight change that eliminated one +iteration of the loop on May 18, 2005. Then, on February 6, 2007, Liyong +Zhou suggested a better version that loops while v is not 0, so rather +than iterating over all bits it stops early. + + static const unsigned char BitReverseTable256[256] = + { + # define R2(n) n, n + 2*64, n + 1*64, n + 3*64 + # define R4(n) R2(n), R2(n + 2*16), R2(n + 1*16), R2(n + 3*16) + # define R6(n) R4(n), R4(n + 2*4 ), R4(n + 1*4 ), R4(n + 3*4 ) + R6(0), R6(2), R6(1), R6(3) + }; + + unsigned int v; // reverse 32-bit value, 8 bits at time + unsigned int c; // c will get v reversed + + // Option 1: + c = (BitReverseTable256[v & 0xff] << 24) | + (BitReverseTable256[(v >> 8) & 0xff] << 16) | + (BitReverseTable256[(v >> 16) & 0xff] << 8) | + (BitReverseTable256[(v >> 24) & 0xff]); + + // Option 2: + unsigned char * p = (unsigned char *) &v; + unsigned char * q = (unsigned char *) &c; + q[3] = BitReverseTable256[p[0]]; + q[2] = BitReverseTable256[p[1]]; + q[1] = BitReverseTable256[p[2]]; + q[0] = BitReverseTable256[p[3]]; + +The first method takes about 17 operations, and the second takes about +12, assuming your CPU can load and store bytes easily. + +On July 14, 2009 Hallvard Furuseth suggested the macro compacted table. + + unsigned char b; // reverse this (8-bit) byte + + b = (b * 0x0202020202ULL & 0x010884422010ULL) % 1023; + +The multiply operation creates five separate copies of the 8-bit byte +pattern to fan-out into a 64-bit value. The AND operation selects the +bits that are in the correct (reversed) positions, relative to each +10-bit groups of bits. The multiply and the AND operations copy the bits +from the original byte so they each appear in only one of the 10-bit +sets. The reversed positions of the bits from the original byte coincide +with their relative positions within any 10-bit set. The last step, +which involves modulus division by 2^10 - 1, has the effect of merging +together each set of 10 bits (from positions 0-9, 10-19, 20-29, ...) in +the 64-bit value. They do not overlap, so the addition steps underlying +the modulus division behave like or operations. + +This method was attributed to Rich Schroeppel in the Programming Hacks +section of [Beeler, M., Gosper, R. W., and Schroeppel, R. HAKMEM. MIT AI +Memo 239, Feb. 29, +1972.](http://www.inwap.com/pdp10/hbaker/hakmem/hakmem.html) + + unsigned char b; // reverse this byte + + b = ((b * 0x80200802ULL) & 0x0884422110ULL) * 0x0101010101ULL >> 32; + +The following shows the flow of the bit values with the boolean +variables `a, b, c, d, e, f, g,` and `h`, which comprise an 8-bit byte. +Notice how the first multiply fans out the bit pattern to multiple +copies, while the last multiply combines them in the fifth byte from the +right. + +``` + abcd efgh (-> hgfe dcba) +* 1000 0000 0010 0000 0000 1000 0000 0010 (0x80200802) +------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + 0abc defg h00a bcde fgh0 0abc defg h00a bcde fgh0 +& 0000 1000 1000 0100 0100 0010 0010 0001 0001 0000 (0x0884422110) +------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + 0000 d000 h000 0c00 0g00 00b0 00f0 000a 000e 0000 +* 0000 0001 0000 0001 0000 0001 0000 0001 0000 0001 (0x0101010101) +------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + 0000 d000 h000 0c00 0g00 00b0 00f0 000a 000e 0000 + 0000 d000 h000 0c00 0g00 00b0 00f0 000a 000e 0000 + 0000 d000 h000 0c00 0g00 00b0 00f0 000a 000e 0000 + 0000 d000 h000 0c00 0g00 00b0 00f0 000a 000e 0000 +0000 d000 h000 0c00 0g00 00b0 00f0 000a 000e 0000 +------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- +0000 d000 h000 dc00 hg00 dcb0 hgf0 dcba hgfe dcba hgfe 0cba 0gfe 00ba 00fe 000a 000e 0000 +>> 32 +------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + 0000 d000 h000 dc00 hg00 dcb0 hgf0 dcba hgfe dcba +& 1111 1111 +------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + hgfe dcba +``` + +Note that the last two steps can be combined on some processors because +the registers can be accessed as bytes; just multiply so that a register +stores the upper 32 bits of the result and the take the low byte. Thus, +it may take only 6 operations. + +Devised by Sean Anderson, July 13, + 2001. + + b = ((b * 0x0802LU & 0x22110LU) | (b * 0x8020LU & 0x88440LU)) * 0x10101LU >> 16; + +Make sure you assign or cast the result to an unsigned char to remove +garbage in the higher bits. Devised by Sean Anderson, July 13, 2001. +Typo spotted and correction supplied by Mike Keith, January 3, 2002. + + unsigned int v; // 32-bit word to reverse bit order + + // swap odd and even bits + v = ((v >> 1) & 0x55555555) | ((v & 0x55555555) << 1); + // swap consecutive pairs + v = ((v >> 2) & 0x33333333) | ((v & 0x33333333) << 2); + // swap nibbles ... + v = ((v >> 4) & 0x0F0F0F0F) | ((v & 0x0F0F0F0F) << 4); + // swap bytes + v = ((v >> 8) & 0x00FF00FF) | ((v & 0x00FF00FF) << 8); + // swap 2-byte long pairs + v = ( v >> 16 ) | ( v << 16); + +The following variation is also O(lg(N)), however it requires more +operations to reverse v. Its virtue is in taking less slightly memory by +computing the constants on the + fly. + + unsigned int s = sizeof(v) * CHAR_BIT; // bit size; must be power of 2 + unsigned int mask = ~0; + while ((s >>= 1) > 0) + { + mask ^= (mask << s); + v = ((v >> s) & mask) | ((v << s) & ~mask); + } + +These methods above are best suited to situations where N is large. If +you use the above with 64-bit ints (or larger), then you need to add +more lines (following the pattern); otherwise only the lower 32 bits +will be reversed and the result will be in the lower 32 bits. + +See Dr. Dobb's Journal 1983, Edwin Freed's article on Binary Magic +Numbers for more information. The second variation was suggested by Ken +Raeburn on September 13, 2005. Veldmeijer mentioned that the first +version could do without ANDS in the last line on March 19, 2006. + + const unsigned int n; // numerator + const unsigned int s; + const unsigned int d = 1U << s; // So d will be one of: 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, ... + unsigned int m; // m will be n % d + m = n & (d - 1); + +Most programmers learn this trick early, but it was included for the +sake of completeness. + + unsigned int n; // numerator + const unsigned int s; // s > 0 + const unsigned int d = (1 << s) - 1; // so d is either 1, 3, 7, 15, 31, ...). + unsigned int m; // n % d goes here. + + for (m = n; n > d; n = m) + { + for (m = 0; n; n >>= s) + { + m += n & d; + } + } + // Now m is a value from 0 to d, but since with modulus division + // we want m to be 0 when it is d. + m = m == d ? 0 : m; + +This method of modulus division by an integer that is one less than a +power of 2 takes at most 5 + (4 + 5 \* ceil(N / s)) \* ceil(lg(N / s)) +operations, where N is the number of bits in the numerator. In other +words, it takes at most O(N \* lg(N)) time. + +Devised by Sean Anderson, August 15, 2001. Before Sean A. Irvine +corrected me on June 17, 2004, I mistakenly commented that we could +alternatively assign `m = ((m + 1) & d) - 1;` at the end. Michael Miller +spotted a typo in the code April 25, 2005. + +``` + +// The following is for a word size of 32 bits! + +static const unsigned int M[] = +{ + 0x00000000, 0x55555555, 0x33333333, 0xc71c71c7, + 0x0f0f0f0f, 0xc1f07c1f, 0x3f03f03f, 0xf01fc07f, + 0x00ff00ff, 0x07fc01ff, 0x3ff003ff, 0xffc007ff, + 0xff000fff, 0xfc001fff, 0xf0003fff, 0xc0007fff, + 0x0000ffff, 0x0001ffff, 0x0003ffff, 0x0007ffff, + 0x000fffff, 0x001fffff, 0x003fffff, 0x007fffff, + 0x00ffffff, 0x01ffffff, 0x03ffffff, 0x07ffffff, + 0x0fffffff, 0x1fffffff, 0x3fffffff, 0x7fffffff +}; + +static const unsigned int Q[][6] = +{ + { 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0}, {16, 8, 4, 2, 1, 1}, {16, 8, 4, 2, 2, 2}, + {15, 6, 3, 3, 3, 3}, {16, 8, 4, 4, 4, 4}, {15, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5}, + {12, 6, 6, 6 , 6, 6}, {14, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7}, {16, 8, 8, 8, 8, 8}, + { 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9}, {10, 10, 10, 10, 10, 10}, {11, 11, 11, 11, 11, 11}, + {12, 12, 12, 12, 12, 12}, {13, 13, 13, 13, 13, 13}, {14, 14, 14, 14, 14, 14}, + {15, 15, 15, 15, 15, 15}, {16, 16, 16, 16, 16, 16}, {17, 17, 17, 17, 17, 17}, + {18, 18, 18, 18, 18, 18}, {19, 19, 19, 19, 19, 19}, {20, 20, 20, 20, 20, 20}, + {21, 21, 21, 21, 21, 21}, {22, 22, 22, 22, 22, 22}, {23, 23, 23, 23, 23, 23}, + {24, 24, 24, 24, 24, 24}, {25, 25, 25, 25, 25, 25}, {26, 26, 26, 26, 26, 26}, + {27, 27, 27, 27, 27, 27}, {28, 28, 28, 28, 28, 28}, {29, 29, 29, 29, 29, 29}, + {30, 30, 30, 30, 30, 30}, {31, 31, 31, 31, 31, 31} +}; + +static const unsigned int R[][6] = +{ + {0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000}, + {0x0000ffff, 0x000000ff, 0x0000000f, 0x00000003, 0x00000001, 0x00000001}, + {0x0000ffff, 0x000000ff, 0x0000000f, 0x00000003, 0x00000003, 0x00000003}, + {0x00007fff, 0x0000003f, 0x00000007, 0x00000007, 0x00000007, 0x00000007}, + {0x0000ffff, 0x000000ff, 0x0000000f, 0x0000000f, 0x0000000f, 0x0000000f}, + {0x00007fff, 0x0000001f, 0x0000001f, 0x0000001f, 0x0000001f, 0x0000001f}, + {0x00000fff, 0x0000003f, 0x0000003f, 0x0000003f, 0x0000003f, 0x0000003f}, + {0x00003fff, 0x0000007f, 0x0000007f, 0x0000007f, 0x0000007f, 0x0000007f}, + {0x0000ffff, 0x000000ff, 0x000000ff, 0x000000ff, 0x000000ff, 0x000000ff}, + {0x000001ff, 0x000001ff, 0x000001ff, 0x000001ff, 0x000001ff, 0x000001ff}, + {0x000003ff, 0x000003ff, 0x000003ff, 0x000003ff, 0x000003ff, 0x000003ff}, + {0x000007ff, 0x000007ff, 0x000007ff, 0x000007ff, 0x000007ff, 0x000007ff}, + {0x00000fff, 0x00000fff, 0x00000fff, 0x00000fff, 0x00000fff, 0x00000fff}, + {0x00001fff, 0x00001fff, 0x00001fff, 0x00001fff, 0x00001fff, 0x00001fff}, + {0x00003fff, 0x00003fff, 0x00003fff, 0x00003fff, 0x00003fff, 0x00003fff}, + {0x00007fff, 0x00007fff, 0x00007fff, 0x00007fff, 0x00007fff, 0x00007fff}, + {0x0000ffff, 0x0000ffff, 0x0000ffff, 0x0000ffff, 0x0000ffff, 0x0000ffff}, + {0x0001ffff, 0x0001ffff, 0x0001ffff, 0x0001ffff, 0x0001ffff, 0x0001ffff}, + {0x0003ffff, 0x0003ffff, 0x0003ffff, 0x0003ffff, 0x0003ffff, 0x0003ffff}, + {0x0007ffff, 0x0007ffff, 0x0007ffff, 0x0007ffff, 0x0007ffff, 0x0007ffff}, + {0x000fffff, 0x000fffff, 0x000fffff, 0x000fffff, 0x000fffff, 0x000fffff}, + {0x001fffff, 0x001fffff, 0x001fffff, 0x001fffff, 0x001fffff, 0x001fffff}, + {0x003fffff, 0x003fffff, 0x003fffff, 0x003fffff, 0x003fffff, 0x003fffff}, + {0x007fffff, 0x007fffff, 0x007fffff, 0x007fffff, 0x007fffff, 0x007fffff}, + {0x00ffffff, 0x00ffffff, 0x00ffffff, 0x00ffffff, 0x00ffffff, 0x00ffffff}, + {0x01ffffff, 0x01ffffff, 0x01ffffff, 0x01ffffff, 0x01ffffff, 0x01ffffff}, + {0x03ffffff, 0x03ffffff, 0x03ffffff, 0x03ffffff, 0x03ffffff, 0x03ffffff}, + {0x07ffffff, 0x07ffffff, 0x07ffffff, 0x07ffffff, 0x07ffffff, 0x07ffffff}, + {0x0fffffff, 0x0fffffff, 0x0fffffff, 0x0fffffff, 0x0fffffff, 0x0fffffff}, + {0x1fffffff, 0x1fffffff, 0x1fffffff, 0x1fffffff, 0x1fffffff, 0x1fffffff}, + {0x3fffffff, 0x3fffffff, 0x3fffffff, 0x3fffffff, 0x3fffffff, 0x3fffffff}, + {0x7fffffff, 0x7fffffff, 0x7fffffff, 0x7fffffff, 0x7fffffff, 0x7fffffff} +}; + +unsigned int n; // numerator +const unsigned int s; // s > 0 +const unsigned int d = (1 << s) - 1; // so d is either 1, 3, 7, 15, 31, ...). +unsigned int m; // n % d goes here. + +m = (n & M[s]) + ((n >> s) & M[s]); + +for (const unsigned int * q = &Q[s][0], * r = &R[s][0]; m > d; q++, r++) +{ + m = (m >> *q) + (m & *r); +} +m = m == d ? 0 : m; // OR, less portably: m = m & -((signed)(m - d) >> s); +``` + +This method of finding modulus division by an integer that is one less +than a power of 2 takes at most O(lg(N)) time, where N is the number of +bits in the numerator (32 bits, for the code above). The number of +operations is at most 12 + 9 \* ceil(lg(N)). The tables may be removed +if you know the denominator at compile time; just extract the few +relevent entries and unroll the loop. It may be easily extended to more +bits. + +It finds the result by summing the values in base (1 \<\< s) in +parallel. First every other base (1 \<\< s) value is added to the +previous one. Imagine that the result is written on a piece of paper. +Cut the paper in half, so that half the values are on each cut piece. +Align the values and sum them onto a new piece of paper. Repeat by +cutting this paper in half (which will be a quarter of the size of the +previous one) and summing, until you cannot cut further. After +performing lg(N/s/2) cuts, we cut no more; just continue to add the +values and put the result onto a new piece of paper as before, while +there are at least two s-bit values. + +Devised by Sean Anderson, August 20, 2001. A typo was spotted by Randy +E. Bryant on May 3, 2005 (after pasting the code, I had later added +"unsinged" to a variable declaration). As in the previous hack, I +mistakenly commented that we could alternatively assign `m = ((m + 1) & +d) - 1;` at the end, and Don Knuth corrected me on April 19, 2006 and +suggested `m = m & -((signed)(m - d) >> s)`. On June 18, 2009 Sean +Irvine proposed a change that used `((n >> s) & M[s])` instead of `((n & +~M[s]) >> s)`, which typically requires fewer operations because the +M\[s\] constant is already loaded. + + unsigned int v; // 32-bit word to find the log base 2 of + unsigned int r = 0; // r will be lg(v) + + while (v >>= 1) // unroll for more speed... + { + r++; + } + +The log base 2 of an integer is the same as the position of the highest +bit set (or most significant bit set, MSB). The following log base 2 +methods are faster than this one. + + int v; // 32-bit integer to find the log base 2 of + int r; // result of log_2(v) goes here + union { unsigned int u[2]; double d; } t; // temp + + t.u[__FLOAT_WORD_ORDER==LITTLE_ENDIAN] = 0x43300000; + t.u[__FLOAT_WORD_ORDER!=LITTLE_ENDIAN] = v; + t.d -= 4503599627370496.0; + r = (t.u[__FLOAT_WORD_ORDER==LITTLE_ENDIAN] >> 20) - 0x3FF; + +The code above loads a 64-bit (IEEE-754 floating-point) double with a +32-bit integer (with no paddding bits) by storing the integer in the +mantissa while the exponent is set to 252. From this newly minted +double, 252 (expressed as a double) is subtracted, which sets the +resulting exponent to the log base 2 of the input value, v. All that is +left is shifting the exponent bits into position (20 bits right) and +subtracting the bias, 0x3FF (which is 1023 decimal). This technique only +takes 5 operations, but many CPUs are slow at manipulating doubles, and +the endianess of the architecture must be accommodated. + +Eric Cole sent me this on January 15, 2006. Evan Felix pointed out a +typo on April 4, 2006. Vincent Lefèvre told me on July 9, 2008 to change +the endian check to use the float's endian, which could differ from the +integer's endian. + + static const char LogTable256[256] = + { + #define LT(n) n, n, n, n, n, n, n, n, n, n, n, n, n, n, n, n + -1, 0, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, + LT(4), LT(5), LT(5), LT(6), LT(6), LT(6), LT(6), + LT(7), LT(7), LT(7), LT(7), LT(7), LT(7), LT(7), LT(7) + }; + + unsigned int v; // 32-bit word to find the log of + unsigned r; // r will be lg(v) + register unsigned int t, tt; // temporaries + + if (tt = v >> 16) + { + r = (t = tt >> 8) ? 24 + LogTable256[t] : 16 + LogTable256[tt]; + } + else + { + r = (t = v >> 8) ? 8 + LogTable256[t] : LogTable256[v]; + } + +The lookup table method takes only about 7 operations to find the log of +a 32-bit value. If extended for 64-bit quantities, it would take roughly +9 operations. Another operation can be trimmed off by using four tables, +with the possible additions incorporated into each. Using int table +elements may be faster, depending on your architecture. + +The code above is tuned to uniformly distributed output values. If your +inputs are evenly distributed across all 32-bit values, then consider +using the following: + + if (tt = v >> 24) + { + r = 24 + LogTable256[tt]; + } + else if (tt = v >> 16) + { + r = 16 + LogTable256[tt]; + } + else if (tt = v >> 8) + { + r = 8 + LogTable256[tt]; + } + else + { + r = LogTable256[v]; + } + +To initially generate the log table algorithmically: + + LogTable256[0] = LogTable256[1] = 0; + for (int i = 2; i < 256; i++) + { + LogTable256[i] = 1 + LogTable256[i / 2]; + } + LogTable256[0] = -1; // if you want log(0) to return -1 + +Behdad Esfahbod and I shaved off a fraction of an operation (on average) +on May 18, 2005. Yet another fraction of an operation was removed on +November 14, 2006 by Emanuel Hoogeveen. The variation that is tuned to +evenly distributed input values was suggested by David A. Butterfield on +September 19, 2008. Venkat Reddy told me on January 5, 2009 that log(0) +should return -1 to indicate an error, so I changed the first entry in +the table to that. + + unsigned int v; // 32-bit value to find the log2 of + const unsigned int b[] = {0x2, 0xC, 0xF0, 0xFF00, 0xFFFF0000}; + const unsigned int S[] = {1, 2, 4, 8, 16}; + int i; + + register unsigned int r = 0; // result of log2(v) will go here + for (i = 4; i >= 0; i--) // unroll for speed... + { + if (v & b[i]) + { + v >>= S[i]; + r |= S[i]; + } + } + + + // OR (IF YOUR CPU BRANCHES SLOWLY): + + unsigned int v; // 32-bit value to find the log2 of + register unsigned int r; // result of log2(v) will go here + register unsigned int shift; + + r = (v > 0xFFFF) << 4; v >>= r; + shift = (v > 0xFF ) << 3; v >>= shift; r |= shift; + shift = (v > 0xF ) << 2; v >>= shift; r |= shift; + shift = (v > 0x3 ) << 1; v >>= shift; r |= shift; + r |= (v >> 1); + + + // OR (IF YOU KNOW v IS A POWER OF 2): + + unsigned int v; // 32-bit value to find the log2 of + static const unsigned int b[] = {0xAAAAAAAA, 0xCCCCCCCC, 0xF0F0F0F0, + 0xFF00FF00, 0xFFFF0000}; + register unsigned int r = (v & b[0]) != 0; + for (i = 4; i > 0; i--) // unroll for speed... + { + r |= ((v & b[i]) != 0) << i; + } + +Of course, to extend the code to find the log of a 33- to 64-bit number, +we would append another element, 0xFFFFFFFF00000000, to b, append 32 to +S, and loop from 5 to 0. This method is much slower than the earlier +table-lookup version, but if you don't want big table or your +architecture is slow to access memory, it's a good choice. The second +variation involves slightly more operations, but it may be faster on +machines with high branch costs (e.g. PowerPC). + +The second version was sent to me by [Eric +Cole](http://www.balance-software.com/ec/) on January 7, 2006. Andrew +Shapira subsequently trimmed a few operations off of it and sent me his +variation (above) on Sept. 1, 2007. The third variation was suggested to +me by [John Owens](http://www.ece.ucdavis.edu/~jowens/) on April 24, +2002; it's faster, but it is only suitable when the input is known to be +a power of 2. On May 25, 2003, Ken Raeburn suggested improving the +general case by using smaller numbers for b\[\], which load faster on +some architectures (for instance if the word size is 16 bits, then only +one load instruction may be needed). These values work for the general +version, but not for the special-case version below it, where v is a +power of 2; Glenn Slayden brought this oversight to my attention on +December 12, 2003. + + uint32_t v; // find the log base 2 of 32-bit v + int r; // result goes here + + static const int MultiplyDeBruijnBitPosition[32] = + { + 0, 9, 1, 10, 13, 21, 2, 29, 11, 14, 16, 18, 22, 25, 3, 30, + 8, 12, 20, 28, 15, 17, 24, 7, 19, 27, 23, 6, 26, 5, 4, 31 + }; + + v |= v >> 1; // first round down to one less than a power of 2 + v |= v >> 2; + v |= v >> 4; + v |= v >> 8; + v |= v >> 16; + + r = MultiplyDeBruijnBitPosition[(uint32_t)(v * 0x07C4ACDDU) >> 27]; + +The code above computes the log base 2 of a 32-bit integer with a small +table lookup and multiply. It requires only 13 operations, compared to +(up to) 20 for the previous method. The purely table-based method +requires the fewest operations, but this offers a reasonable compromise +between table size and speed. + +If you know that v is a power of 2, then you only need the following: + + static const int MultiplyDeBruijnBitPosition2[32] = + { + 0, 1, 28, 2, 29, 14, 24, 3, 30, 22, 20, 15, 25, 17, 4, 8, + 31, 27, 13, 23, 21, 19, 16, 7, 26, 12, 18, 6, 11, 5, 10, 9 + }; + r = MultiplyDeBruijnBitPosition2[(uint32_t)(v * 0x077CB531U) >> 27]; + +Eric Cole devised this January 8, 2006 after reading about the entry +below to [round up to a power of 2](#RoundUpPowerOf2) and the method +below for [computing the number of trailing bits with a multiply and +lookup](#ZerosOnRightMultLookup) using a DeBruijn sequence. On December +10, 2009, Mark Dickinson shaved off a couple operations by requiring v +be rounded up to one less than the next power of 2 rather than the power +of + 2. + + unsigned int v; // non-zero 32-bit integer value to compute the log base 10 of + int r; // result goes here + int t; // temporary + + static unsigned int const PowersOf10[] = + {1, 10, 100, 1000, 10000, 100000, + 1000000, 10000000, 100000000, 1000000000}; + + t = (IntegerLogBase2(v) + 1) * 1233 >> 12; // (use a lg2 method from above) + r = t - (v < PowersOf10[t]); + +The integer log base 10 is computed by first using one of the techniques +above for finding the log base 2. By the relationship log10(v) = log2(v) +/ log2(10), we need to multiply it by 1/log2(10), which is approximately +1233/4096, or 1233 followed by a right shift of 12. Adding one is needed +because the IntegerLogBase2 rounds down. Finally, since the value t is +only an approximation that may be off by one, the exact value is found +by subtracting the result of v \< PowersOf10\[t\]. + +This method takes 6 more operations than IntegerLogBase2. It may be sped +up (on machines with fast memory access) by modifying the log base 2 +table-lookup method above so that the entries hold what is computed for +t (that is, pre-add, -mulitply, and -shift). Doing so would require a +total of only 9 operations to find the log base 10, assuming 4 tables +were used (one for each byte of v). + +Eric Cole suggested I add a version of this on January 7, + 2006. + + unsigned int v; // non-zero 32-bit integer value to compute the log base 10 of + int r; // result goes here + + r = (v >= 1000000000) ? 9 : (v >= 100000000) ? 8 : (v >= 10000000) ? 7 : + (v >= 1000000) ? 6 : (v >= 100000) ? 5 : (v >= 10000) ? 4 : + (v >= 1000) ? 3 : (v >= 100) ? 2 : (v >= 10) ? 1 : 0; + +This method works well when the input is uniformly distributed over +32-bit values because 76% of the inputs are caught by the first compare, +21% are caught by the second compare, 2% are caught by the third, and so +on (chopping the remaining down by 90% with each comparision). As a +result, less than 2.6 operations are needed on average. + +On April 18, 2007, Emanuel Hoogeveen suggested a variation on this where +the conditions used divisions, which were not as fast as simple +comparisons. + + const float v; // find int(log2(v)), where v > 0.0 && finite(v) && isnormal(v) + int c; // 32-bit int c gets the result; + + c = *(const int *) &v; // OR, for portability: memcpy(&c, &v, sizeof c); + c = (c >> 23) - 127; + +The above is fast, but IEEE 754-compliant architectures utilize +subnormal (also called denormal) floating point numbers. These have the +exponent bits set to zero (signifying pow(2,-127)), and the mantissa is +not normalized, so it contains leading zeros and thus the log2 must be +computed from the mantissa. To accomodate for subnormal numbers, use the +following: + + const float v; // find int(log2(v)), where v > 0.0 && finite(v) + int c; // 32-bit int c gets the result; + int x = *(const int *) &v; // OR, for portability: memcpy(&x, &v, sizeof x); + + c = x >> 23; + + if (c) + { + c -= 127; + } + else + { // subnormal, so recompute using mantissa: c = intlog2(x) - 149; + register unsigned int t; // temporary + // Note that LogTable256 was defined earlier + if (t = x >> 16) + { + c = LogTable256[t] - 133; + } + else + { + c = (t = x >> 8) ? LogTable256[t] - 141 : LogTable256[x] - 149; + } + } + +On June 20, 2004, Sean A. Irvine suggested that I include code to handle +subnormal numbers. On June 11, 2005, Falk Hüffner pointed out that ISO +C99 6.5/7 specified undefined behavior for the common type punning idiom +\*(int \*)&, though it has worked on 99.9% of C compilers. He proposed +using memcpy for maximum portability or a union with a float and an int +for better code generation than memcpy on some compilers. + + const int r; + const float v; // find int(log2(pow((double) v, 1. / pow(2, r)))), + // where isnormal(v) and v > 0 + int c; // 32-bit int c gets the result; + + c = *(const int *) &v; // OR, for portability: memcpy(&c, &v, sizeof c); + c = ((((c - 0x3f800000) >> r) + 0x3f800000) >> 23) - 127; + +So, if r is 0, for example, we have c = int(log2((double) v)). If r is +1, then we have c = int(log2(sqrt((double) v))). If r is 2, then we have +c = int(log2(pow((double) v, 1./4))). + +On June 11, 2005, Falk Hüffner pointed out that ISO C99 6.5/7 left the +type punning idiom \*(int \*)& undefined, and he suggested using memcpy. + + unsigned int v; // input to count trailing zero bits + int c; // output: c will count v's trailing zero bits, + // so if v is 1101000 (base 2), then c will be 3 + if (v) + { + v = (v ^ (v - 1)) >> 1; // Set v's trailing 0s to 1s and zero rest + for (c = 0; v; c++) + { + v >>= 1; + } + } + else + { + c = CHAR_BIT * sizeof(v); + } + +The average number of trailing zero bits in a (uniformly distributed) +random binary number is one, so this O(trailing zeros) solution isn't +that bad compared to the faster methods below. + +Jim Cole suggested I add a linear-time method for counting the trailing +zeros on August 15, 2007. On October 22, 2007, Jason Cunningham pointed +out that I had neglected to paste the unsigned modifier for + v. + + unsigned int v; // 32-bit word input to count zero bits on right + unsigned int c = 32; // c will be the number of zero bits on the right + v &= -signed(v); + if (v) c--; + if (v & 0x0000FFFF) c -= 16; + if (v & 0x00FF00FF) c -= 8; + if (v & 0x0F0F0F0F) c -= 4; + if (v & 0x33333333) c -= 2; + if (v & 0x55555555) c -= 1; + +Here, we are basically doing the same operations as finding the log base +2 in parallel, but we first isolate the lowest 1 bit, and then proceed +with c starting at the maximum and decreasing. The number of operations +is at most 3 \* lg(N) + 4, roughly, for N bit words. + +Bill Burdick suggested an optimization, reducing the time from 4 \* +lg(N) on February 4, 2011. + +``` +unsigned int v; // 32-bit word input to count zero bits on right +unsigned int c; // c will be the number of zero bits on the right, + // so if v is 1101000 (base 2), then c will be 3 +// NOTE: if 0 == v, then c = 31. +if (v & 0x1) +{ + // special case for odd v (assumed to happen half of the time) + c = 0; +} +else +{ + c = 1; + if ((v & 0xffff) == 0) + { + v >>= 16; + c += 16; + } + if ((v & 0xff) == 0) + { + v >>= 8; + c += 8; + } + if ((v & 0xf) == 0) + { + v >>= 4; + c += 4; + } + if ((v & 0x3) == 0) + { + v >>= 2; + c += 2; + } + c -= v & 0x1; +} +``` + +The code above is similar to the previous method, but it computes the +number of trailing zeros by accumulating c in a manner akin to binary +search. In the first step, it checks if the bottom 16 bits of v are +zeros, and if so, shifts v right 16 bits and adds 16 to c, which reduces +the number of bits in v to consider by half. Each of the subsequent +conditional steps likewise halves the number of bits until there is only +1. This method is faster than the last one (by about 33%) because the +bodies of the if statements are executed less often. + +Matt Whitlock suggested this on January 25, 2006. Andrew Shapira shaved +a couple operations off on Sept. 5, 2007 (by setting c=1 and +unconditionally subtracting at the end). + + unsigned int v; // find the number of trailing zeros in v + int r; // the result goes here + float f = (float)(v & -v); // cast the least significant bit in v to a float + r = (*(uint32_t *)&f >> 23) - 0x7f; + +Although this only takes about 6 operations, the time to convert an +integer to a float can be high on some machines. The exponent of the +32-bit IEEE floating point representation is shifted down, and the bias +is subtracted to give the position of the least significant 1 bit set in +v. If v is zero, then the result is -127. + + unsigned int v; // find the number of trailing zeros in v + int r; // put the result in r + static const int Mod37BitPosition[] = // map a bit value mod 37 to its position + { + 32, 0, 1, 26, 2, 23, 27, 0, 3, 16, 24, 30, 28, 11, 0, 13, 4, + 7, 17, 0, 25, 22, 31, 15, 29, 10, 12, 6, 0, 21, 14, 9, 5, + 20, 8, 19, 18 + }; + r = Mod37BitPosition[(-v & v) % 37]; + +The code above finds the number of zeros that are trailing on the right, +so binary 0100 would produce 2. It makes use of the fact that the first +32 bit position values are relatively prime with 37, so performing a +modulus division with 37 gives a unique number from 0 to 36 for each. +These numbers may then be mapped to the number of zeros using a small +lookup table. It uses only 4 operations, however indexing into a table +and performing modulus division may make it unsuitable for some +situations. I came up with this independently and then searched for a +subsequence of the table values, and found it was invented earlier by +Reiser, according to [Hacker's +Delight](http://www.hackersdelight.org/HDcode/ntz.c.txt). + + unsigned int v; // find the number of trailing zeros in 32-bit v + int r; // result goes here + static const int MultiplyDeBruijnBitPosition[32] = + { + 0, 1, 28, 2, 29, 14, 24, 3, 30, 22, 20, 15, 25, 17, 4, 8, + 31, 27, 13, 23, 21, 19, 16, 7, 26, 12, 18, 6, 11, 5, 10, 9 + }; + r = MultiplyDeBruijnBitPosition[((uint32_t)((v & -v) * 0x077CB531U)) >> 27]; + +Converting bit vectors to indices of set bits is an example use for +this. It requires one more operation than the earlier one involving +modulus division, but the multiply may be faster. The expression (v & +-v) extracts the least significant 1 bit from v. The constant +0x077CB531UL is a de Bruijn sequence, which produces a unique pattern of +bits into the high 5 bits for each possible bit position that it is +multiplied against. When there are no bits set, it returns 0. More +information can be found by reading the paper [Using de Bruijn Sequences +to Index 1 in a Computer +Word](http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/leiserson98using.html) by Charles E. +Leiserson, Harald Prokof, and Keith H. Randall. + +On October 8, 2005 [Andrew Shapira](http://onezero.org) suggested I add +this. Dustin Spicuzza asked me on April 14, 2009 to cast the result of +the multiply to a 32-bit type so it would work when compiled with 64-bit +ints. + + unsigned int const v; // Round this 32-bit value to the next highest power of 2 + unsigned int r; // Put the result here. (So v=3 -> r=4; v=8 -> r=8) + + if (v > 1) + { + float f = (float)v; + unsigned int const t = 1U << ((*(unsigned int *)&f >> 23) - 0x7f); + r = t << (t < v); + } + else + { + r = 1; + } + +The code above uses 8 operations, but works on all v \<= (1\<\<31). + +Quick and dirty version, for domain of 1 \< v \< (1\<\<25): + + float f = (float)(v - 1); + r = 1U << ((*(unsigned int*)(&f) >> 23) - 126); + +Although the quick and dirty version only uses around 6 operations, it +is roughly three times slower than the [technique +below](#RoundUpPowerOf2) (which involves 12 operations) when benchmarked +on an Athlon™ XP 2100+ CPU. Some CPUs will fare better with it, though. + +On September 27, 2005 Andi Smithers suggested I include a technique for +casting to floats to find the lg of a number for rounding up to a power +of 2. Similar to the quick and dirty version here, his version worked +with values less than (1\<\<25), due to mantissa rounding, but it used +one more operation. + + unsigned int v; // compute the next highest power of 2 of 32-bit v + + v--; + v |= v >> 1; + v |= v >> 2; + v |= v >> 4; + v |= v >> 8; + v |= v >> 16; + v++; + +In 12 operations, this code computes the next highest power of 2 for a +32-bit integer. The result may be expressed by the formula 1U \<\< (lg(v +- 1) + 1). Note that in the edge case where v is 0, it returns 0, which +isn't a power of 2; you might append the expression v += (v == 0) to +remedy this if it matters. It would be faster by 2 operations to use the +formula and the log base 2 method that uses a lookup table, but in some +situations, lookup tables are not suitable, so the above code may be +best. (On a Athlon™ XP 2100+ I've found the above shift-left and then OR +code is as fast as using a single BSR assembly language instruction, +which scans in reverse to find the highest set bit.) It works by copying +the highest set bit to all of the lower bits, and then adding one, which +results in carries that set all of the lower bits to 0 and one bit +beyond the highest set bit to 1. If the original number was a power of +2, then the decrement will reduce it to one less, so that we round up to +the same original value. + +You might alternatively compute the next higher power of 2 in only 8 or +9 operations using a lookup table for floor(lg(v)) and then evaluating +1\<\<(1+floor(lg(v))); Atul Divekar suggested I mention this on +September 5, 2010. + +Devised by Sean Anderson, Sepember 14, 2001. Pete Hart pointed me to [a +couple newsgroup +posts](http://groups.google.com/group/comp.lang.python/browse_thread/thread/c4d3aae0df917df5/6fdae3872f9de79d?lnk=st&q=comp.lang.python+zeddy&rnum=6#6fdae3872f9de79d) +by him and William Lewis in February of 1997, where they arrive at the +same + algorithm. + + unsigned short x; // Interleave bits of x and y, so that all of the + unsigned short y; // bits of x are in the even positions and y in the odd; + unsigned int z = 0; // z gets the resulting Morton Number. + + for (int i = 0; i < sizeof(x) * CHAR_BIT; i++) // unroll for more speed... + { + z |= (x & 1U << i) << i | (y & 1U << i) << (i + 1); + } + +Interleaved bits (aka Morton numbers) are useful for linearizing 2D +integer coordinates, so x and y are combined into a single number that +can be compared easily and has the property that a number is usually +close to another if their x and y values are close. + + static const unsigned short MortonTable256[256] = + { + 0x0000, 0x0001, 0x0004, 0x0005, 0x0010, 0x0011, 0x0014, 0x0015, + 0x0040, 0x0041, 0x0044, 0x0045, 0x0050, 0x0051, 0x0054, 0x0055, + 0x0100, 0x0101, 0x0104, 0x0105, 0x0110, 0x0111, 0x0114, 0x0115, + 0x0140, 0x0141, 0x0144, 0x0145, 0x0150, 0x0151, 0x0154, 0x0155, + 0x0400, 0x0401, 0x0404, 0x0405, 0x0410, 0x0411, 0x0414, 0x0415, + 0x0440, 0x0441, 0x0444, 0x0445, 0x0450, 0x0451, 0x0454, 0x0455, + 0x0500, 0x0501, 0x0504, 0x0505, 0x0510, 0x0511, 0x0514, 0x0515, + 0x0540, 0x0541, 0x0544, 0x0545, 0x0550, 0x0551, 0x0554, 0x0555, + 0x1000, 0x1001, 0x1004, 0x1005, 0x1010, 0x1011, 0x1014, 0x1015, + 0x1040, 0x1041, 0x1044, 0x1045, 0x1050, 0x1051, 0x1054, 0x1055, + 0x1100, 0x1101, 0x1104, 0x1105, 0x1110, 0x1111, 0x1114, 0x1115, + 0x1140, 0x1141, 0x1144, 0x1145, 0x1150, 0x1151, 0x1154, 0x1155, + 0x1400, 0x1401, 0x1404, 0x1405, 0x1410, 0x1411, 0x1414, 0x1415, + 0x1440, 0x1441, 0x1444, 0x1445, 0x1450, 0x1451, 0x1454, 0x1455, + 0x1500, 0x1501, 0x1504, 0x1505, 0x1510, 0x1511, 0x1514, 0x1515, + 0x1540, 0x1541, 0x1544, 0x1545, 0x1550, 0x1551, 0x1554, 0x1555, + 0x4000, 0x4001, 0x4004, 0x4005, 0x4010, 0x4011, 0x4014, 0x4015, + 0x4040, 0x4041, 0x4044, 0x4045, 0x4050, 0x4051, 0x4054, 0x4055, + 0x4100, 0x4101, 0x4104, 0x4105, 0x4110, 0x4111, 0x4114, 0x4115, + 0x4140, 0x4141, 0x4144, 0x4145, 0x4150, 0x4151, 0x4154, 0x4155, + 0x4400, 0x4401, 0x4404, 0x4405, 0x4410, 0x4411, 0x4414, 0x4415, + 0x4440, 0x4441, 0x4444, 0x4445, 0x4450, 0x4451, 0x4454, 0x4455, + 0x4500, 0x4501, 0x4504, 0x4505, 0x4510, 0x4511, 0x4514, 0x4515, + 0x4540, 0x4541, 0x4544, 0x4545, 0x4550, 0x4551, 0x4554, 0x4555, + 0x5000, 0x5001, 0x5004, 0x5005, 0x5010, 0x5011, 0x5014, 0x5015, + 0x5040, 0x5041, 0x5044, 0x5045, 0x5050, 0x5051, 0x5054, 0x5055, + 0x5100, 0x5101, 0x5104, 0x5105, 0x5110, 0x5111, 0x5114, 0x5115, + 0x5140, 0x5141, 0x5144, 0x5145, 0x5150, 0x5151, 0x5154, 0x5155, + 0x5400, 0x5401, 0x5404, 0x5405, 0x5410, 0x5411, 0x5414, 0x5415, + 0x5440, 0x5441, 0x5444, 0x5445, 0x5450, 0x5451, 0x5454, 0x5455, + 0x5500, 0x5501, 0x5504, 0x5505, 0x5510, 0x5511, 0x5514, 0x5515, + 0x5540, 0x5541, 0x5544, 0x5545, 0x5550, 0x5551, 0x5554, 0x5555 + }; + + unsigned short x; // Interleave bits of x and y, so that all of the + unsigned short y; // bits of x are in the even positions and y in the odd; + unsigned int z; // z gets the resulting 32-bit Morton Number. + + z = MortonTable256[y >> 8] << 17 | + MortonTable256[x >> 8] << 16 | + MortonTable256[y & 0xFF] << 1 | + MortonTable256[x & 0xFF]; + +For more speed, use an additional table with values that are +MortonTable256 pre-shifted one bit to the left. This second table could +then be used for the y lookups, thus reducing the operations by two, but +almost doubling the memory required. Extending this same idea, four +tables could be used, with two of them pre-shifted by 16 to the left of +the previous two, so that we would only need 11 operations total. In 11 +operations, this version interleaves bits of two bytes (rather than +shorts, as in the other versions), but many of the operations are 64-bit +multiplies so it isn't appropriate for all machines. The input +parameters, x and y, should be less than + 256. + + unsigned char x; // Interleave bits of (8-bit) x and y, so that all of the + unsigned char y; // bits of x are in the even positions and y in the odd; + unsigned short z; // z gets the resulting 16-bit Morton Number. + + z = ((x * 0x0101010101010101ULL & 0x8040201008040201ULL) * + 0x0102040810204081ULL >> 49) & 0x5555 | + ((y * 0x0101010101010101ULL & 0x8040201008040201ULL) * + 0x0102040810204081ULL >> 48) & 0xAAAA; + +Holger Bettag was inspired to suggest this technique on October 10, 2004 +after reading the multiply-based bit reversals + here. + + static const unsigned int B[] = {0x55555555, 0x33333333, 0x0F0F0F0F, 0x00FF00FF}; + static const unsigned int S[] = {1, 2, 4, 8}; + + unsigned int x; // Interleave lower 16 bits of x and y, so the bits of x + unsigned int y; // are in the even positions and bits from y in the odd; + unsigned int z; // z gets the resulting 32-bit Morton Number. + // x and y must initially be less than 65536. + + x = (x | (x << S[3])) & B[3]; + x = (x | (x << S[2])) & B[2]; + x = (x | (x << S[1])) & B[1]; + x = (x | (x << S[0])) & B[0]; + + y = (y | (y << S[3])) & B[3]; + y = (y | (y << S[2])) & B[2]; + y = (y | (y << S[1])) & B[1]; + y = (y | (y << S[0])) & B[0]; + + z = x | (y << 1); + + // Fewer operations: + unsigned int v; // 32-bit word to check if any 8-bit byte in it is 0 + bool hasZeroByte = ~((((v & 0x7F7F7F7F) + 0x7F7F7F7F) | v) | 0x7F7F7F7F); + +The code above may be useful when doing a fast string copy in which a +word is copied at a time; it uses 5 operations. On the other hand, +testing for a null byte in the obvious ways (which follow) have at least +7 operations (when counted in the most sparing way), and at most 12. + + // More operations: + bool hasNoZeroByte = ((v & 0xff) && (v & 0xff00) && (v & 0xff0000) && (v & 0xff000000)) + // OR: + unsigned char * p = (unsigned char *) &v; + bool hasNoZeroByte = *p && *(p + 1) && *(p + 2) && *(p + 3); + +The code at the beginning of this section (labeled "Fewer operations") +works by first zeroing the high bits of the 4 bytes in the word. +Subsequently, it adds a number that will result in an overflow to the +high bit of a byte if any of the low bits were initialy set. Next the +high bits of the original word are ORed with these values; thus, the +high bit of a byte is set iff any bit in the byte was set. Finally, we +determine if any of these high bits are zero by ORing with ones +everywhere except the high bits and inverting the result. Extending to +64 bits is trivial; simply increase the constants to be +0x7F7F7F7F7F7F7F7F. + +For an additional improvement, a fast pretest that requires only 4 +operations may be performed to determine if the word may have a zero +byte. The test also returns true if the high byte is 0x80, so there are +occasional false positives, but the slower and more reliable version +above may then be used on candidates for an overall increase in speed +with correct output. + + bool hasZeroByte = ((v + 0x7efefeff) ^ ~v) & 0x81010100; + if (hasZeroByte) // or may just have 0x80 in the high byte + { + hasZeroByte = ~((((v & 0x7F7F7F7F) + 0x7F7F7F7F) | v) | 0x7F7F7F7F); + } + +There is yet a faster method — use [`hasless`](#HasLessInWord)(v, 1), +which is defined below; it works in 4 operations and requires no +subsquent verification. It simplifies to + + #define haszero(v) (((v) - 0x01010101UL) & ~(v) & 0x80808080UL) + +The subexpression (v - 0x01010101UL), evaluates to a high bit set in any +byte whenever the corresponding byte in v is zero or greater than 0x80. +The sub-expression ~v & 0x80808080UL evaluates to high bits set in bytes +where the byte of v doesn't have its high bit set (so the byte was less +than 0x80). Finally, by ANDing these two sub-expressions the result is +the high bits set where the bytes in v were zero, since the high bits +set due to a value greater than 0x80 in the first sub-expression are +masked off by the second. + +Paul Messmer suggested the fast pretest improvement on October 2, 2004. +Juha Järvi later suggested `hasless(v, 1)` on April 6, 2005, which he +found on [Paul Hsieh's Assembly +Lab](http://www.azillionmonkeys.com/qed/asmexample.html); previously it +was written in a newsgroup post on April 27, 1987 by Alan Mycroft. + +We may want to know if any byte in a word has a specific value. To do +so, we can XOR the value to test with a word that has been filled with +the byte values in which we're interested. Because XORing a value with +itself results in a zero byte and nonzero otherwise, we can pass the +result to `haszero`. + + #define hasvalue(x,n) \ + (haszero((x) ^ (~0UL/255 * (n)))) + +Stephen M Bennet suggested this on December 13, 2009 after reading the +entry for `haszero`. + +Test if a word x contains an unsigned byte with value \< n. +Specifically for n=1, it can be used to find a 0-byte by examining one +long at a time, or any byte by XORing x with a mask first. Uses 4 +arithmetic/logical operations when n is constant. + +Requirements: x\>=0; 0\<=n\<=128 + + #define hasless(x,n) (((x)-~0UL/255*(n))&~(x)&~0UL/255*128) + +To count the number of bytes in x that are less than n in 7 operations, +use + + #define countless(x,n) \ + (((~0UL/255*(127+(n))-((x)&~0UL/255*127))&~(x)&~0UL/255*128)/128%255) + +Juha Järvi sent this clever technique to me on April 6, 2005. The +`countless` macro was added by Sean Anderson on April 10, 2005, inspired +by Juha's `countmore`, below. + +Test if a word x contains an unsigned byte with value \> n. Uses 3 +arithmetic/logical operations when n is constant. + +Requirements: x\>=0; 0\<=n\<=127 + + #define hasmore(x,n) (((x)+~0UL/255*(127-(n))|(x))&~0UL/255*128) + +To count the number of bytes in x that are more than n in 6 operations, +use: + + #define countmore(x,n) \ + (((((x)&~0UL/255*127)+~0UL/255*(127-(n))|(x))&~0UL/255*128)/128%255) + +The macro `hasmore` was suggested by Juha Järvi on April 6, 2005, and he +added `countmore` on April 8, 2005. + +When m \< n, this technique tests if a word x contains an unsigned byte +value, such that m \< value \< n. It uses 7 arithmetic/logical +operations when n and m are constant. + +Note: Bytes that equal n can be reported by `likelyhasbetween` as false +positives, so this should be checked by character if a certain result is +needed. + +Requirements: x\>=0; 0\<=m\<=127; 0\<=n\<=128 + + #define likelyhasbetween(x,m,n) \ + ((((x)-~0UL/255*(n))&~(x)&((x)&~0UL/255*127)+~0UL/255*(127-(m)))&~0UL/255*128) + +This technique would be suitable for a fast pretest. A variation that +takes one more operation (8 total for constant m and n) but provides the +exact answer is: + + #define hasbetween(x,m,n) \ + ((~0UL/255*(127+(n))-((x)&~0UL/255*127)&~(x)&((x)&~0UL/255*127)+~0UL/255*(127-(m)))&~0UL/255*128) + +To count the number of bytes in x that are between m and n (exclusive) +in 10 operations, use: + + #define countbetween(x,m,n) (hasbetween(x,m,n)/128%255) + +Juha Järvi suggested `likelyhasbetween` on April 6, 2005. From there, +Sean Anderson created `hasbetween` and `countbetween` on April 10, 2005. + +Suppose we have a pattern of N bits set to 1 in an integer and we want +the next permutation of N 1 bits in a lexicographical sense. For +example, if N is 3 and the bit pattern is 00010011, the next patterns +would be 00010101, 00010110, 00011001,00011010, 00011100, 00100011, and +so forth. The following is a fast way to compute the next permutation. + +``` +unsigned int v; // current permutation of bits +unsigned int w; // next permutation of bits + +unsigned int t = v | (v - 1); // t gets v's least significant 0 bits set to 1 +// Next set to 1 the most significant bit to change, +// set to 0 the least significant ones, and add the necessary 1 bits. +w = (t + 1) | (((~t & -~t) - 1) >> (__builtin_ctz(v) + 1)); +``` + +The \_\_builtin\_ctz(v) GNU C compiler intrinsic for x86 CPUs returns +the number of trailing zeros. If you are using Microsoft compilers for +x86, the intrinsic is \_BitScanForward. These both emit a bsf +instruction, but equivalents may be available for other architectures. +If not, then consider using one of the methods for counting the +consecutive zero bits mentioned earlier. + +Here is another version that tends to be slower because of its division +operator, but it does not require counting the trailing zeros. + +``` +unsigned int t = (v | (v - 1)) + 1; +w = t | ((((t & -t) / (v & -v)) >> 1) - 1); +``` + +Thanks to Dario Sneidermanis of Argentina, who provided this on November +28, 2009. + +[A Belorussian +translation](http://webhostingrating.com/libs/bithacks-be) (provided by +[Webhostingrating](http://webhostingrating.com/)) is available. diff --git a/_stories/2005/9559360.md b/_stories/2005/9559360.md index abc7858..63582e6 100644 --- a/_stories/2005/9559360.md +++ b/_stories/2005/9559360.md @@ -19,7 +19,693 @@ _tags: objectID: '9559360' --- -[Source](https://www.nickbostrom.com/fable/dragon.html "Permalink to ") - - - +> Once upon a time, the planet was tyrannized by a giant dragon. The +> dragon stood taller than the largest cathedral, and it was covered +> with thick black scales. Its red eyes glowed with hate, and from its +> terrible jaws flowed an incessant stream of evil-smelling +> yellowish-green slime. It demanded from humankind a blood-curdling +> tribute: to satisfy its enormous appetite, ten thousand men and women +> had to be delivered every evening at the onset of dark to the foot of +> the mountain where the dragon-tyrant lived. Sometimes the dragon would +> devour these unfortunate souls upon arrival; sometimes again it would +> lock them up in the mountain where they would wither away for months +> or years before eventually being consumed. +> +> The misery inflicted by the dragon-tyrant was incalculable. In +> addition to the ten thousand who were gruesomely slaughtered each day, +> there were the mothers, fathers, wives, husbands, children, and +> friends that were left behind to grieve the loss of their departed +> loved ones. +> +> Some people tried to fight the dragon, but whether they were brave or +> foolish was difficult to say. Priests and magicians called down +> curses, to no avail. Warriors, armed with roaring courage and the best +> weapons the smiths could produce, attacked it, but were incinerated by +> its fire before coming close enough to strike. Chemists concocted +> toxic brews and tricked the dragon into swallowing them, but the only +> apparent effect was to further stimulate its appetite. The dragon’s +> claws, jaws, and fire were so effective, its scaly armor so +> impregnable, and its whole nature so robust, as to make it invincible +> to any human assault. +> +> Seeing that defeating the tyrant was impossible, humans had no choice +> but to obey its commands and pay the grisly tribute. The fatalities +> selected were always elders. Although senior people were as vigorous +> and healthy as the young, and sometimes wiser, the thinking was that +> they had at least already enjoyed a few decades of life. The wealthy +> might gain a brief reprieve by bribing the press gangs that came to +> fetch them; but, by constitutional law, nobody, not even the king +> himself, could put off their turn indefinitely. +> +> Spiritual men sought to comfort those who were afraid of being eaten +> by the dragon (which included almost everyone, although many denied it +> in public) by promising another life after death, a life that would be +> free from the dragon-scourge. Other orators argued that the dragon has +> its place in the natural order and a moral right to be fed. They said +> that it was part of the very meaning of being human to end up in the +> dragon’s stomach. Others still maintained that the dragon was good for +> the human species because it kept the population size down. To what +> extent these arguments convinced the worried souls is not known. Most +> people tried to cope by not thinking about the grim end that awaited +> them. +> +> For many centuries this desperate state of affairs continued. Nobody +> kept count any longer of the cumulative death toll, nor of the number +> of tears shed by the bereft. Expectations had gradually adjusted and +> the dragon-tyrant had become a fact of life. In view of the evident +> futility of resistance, attempts to kill the dragon had ceased. +> Instead, efforts now focused on placating it. While the dragon would +> occasionally raid the cities, it was found that the punctual delivery +> to the mountain of its quota of life reduced the frequency of these +> incursions. +> +> Knowing that their turn to become dragon-fodder was always impending, +> people began having children earlier and more often. It was not +> uncommon for a girl to be pregnant by her sixteenth birthday. Couples +> often spawned a dozen children. The human population was thus kept +> from shrinking, and the dragon was kept from going hungry. +> +> Over the course of these centuries, the dragon, being well fed, slowly +> but steadily grew bigger. It had become almost as large as the +> mountain on which it lived. And its appetite had increased +> proportionately. Ten thousand human bodies were no longer enough to +> fill its belly. It now demanded eighty thousand, to be delivered to +> the foot of the mountain every evening at the onset of dark. +> +> What occupied the king’s mind more than the deaths and the dragon +> itself was the logistics of collecting and transporting so many people +> to the mountain every day. This was not an easy task. +> +> To facilitate the process, the king had a railway track constructed: +> two straight lines of glistening steel leading up to the dragon’s +> abode. Every twenty minutes, a train would arrive at the mountain +> terminal crammed with people, and would return empty. On moonlit +> nights, the passengers traveling on this train, if there had been +> windows for them to stick their heads out of, would have been able to +> see in front of them the double silhouette of the dragon and the +> mountain, and two glowing red eyes, like the beams from a pair of +> giant lighthouses, pointing the way to annihilation. +> +> Servants were employed by the king in large numbers to administer the +> tribute. There were registrars who kept track of whose turn it was to +> be sent. There were people-collectors who would be dispatched in +> special carts to fetch the designated people. Often traveling at +> breakneck speed, they would rush their cargo either to a railway +> station or directly to the mountain. There were clerks who +> administered the pensions paid to the decimated families who were no +> longer able to support themselves. There were comforters who would +> travel with the doomed on their way to the dragon, trying to ease +> their anguish with spirits and drugs. +> +> There was, moreover, a cadre of dragonologists who studied how these +> logistic processes could be made more efficient. Some dragonologists +> also conducted studies of the dragon’s physiology and behavior, and +> collected samples – its shed scales, the slime that drooled from its +> jaws, its lost teeth, and its excrements, which were specked with +> fragments of human bone. All these items were painstakingly annotated +> and archived. The more the beast was understood, the more the general +> perception of its invincibility was confirmed. Its black scales, in +> particular, were harder than any material known to man, and there +> seemed no way to make as much as a scratch in its armor. +> +> To finance all these activities, the king levied heavy taxes on his +> people. Dragon-related expenditures, already accounting for one +> seventh of the economy, were growing even faster than the dragon +> itself. +> +> Humanity is a curious species. Every once in a while, somebody gets a +> good idea. Others copy the idea, adding to it their own improvements. +> Over time, many wondrous tools and systems are developed. Some of +> these devices – calculators, thermometers, microscopes, and the glass +> vials that the chemists use to boil and distil liquids – serve to make +> it easier to generate and try out new ideas, including ideas that +> expedite the process of idea-generation. +> +> Thus the great wheel of invention, which had turned at an almost +> imperceptibly slow pace in the older ages, gradually began to +> accelerate. +> +> Sages predicted that a day would come when technology would enable +> humans to fly and do many other astonishing things. One of the sages, +> who was held in high esteem by some of the other sages but whose +> eccentric manners had made him a social outcast and recluse, went so +> far as to predict that technology would eventually make it possible to +> build a contraption that could kill the dragon-tyrant. +> +> The king’s scholars, however, dismissed these ideas. They said that +> humans were far too heavy to fly and in any case lacked feathers. And +> as for the impossible notion that the dragon-tyrant could be killed, +> history books recounted hundreds of attempts to do just that, not one +> of which had been successful. “We all know that this man had some +> irresponsible ideas,” a scholar of letters later wrote in his obituary +> of the reclusive sage who had by then been sent off to be devoured by +> the beast whose demise he had foretold, “but his writings were quite +> entertaining and perhaps we should be grateful to the dragon for +> making possible the interesting genre of dragon-bashing literature +> which reveals so much about the culture of angst\!” +> +> Meanwhile, the wheel of invention kept turning. Mere decades later, +> humans did fly and accomplished many other astonishing things. +> +> A few iconoclastic dragonologists began arguing for a new attack on +> the dragon-tyrant. Killing the dragon would not be easy, they said, +> but if some material could be invented that was harder than the +> dragon’s armor, and if this material could be fashioned into some +> kind of projectile, then maybe the feat would be possible. At first, +> the iconoclasts’ ideas were rejected by their dragonologist peers on +> grounds that no known material was harder than dragon scales. But +> after working on the problem for many years, one of the iconoclasts +> succeeded in demonstrating that a dragon scale could be pierced by an +> object made of a certain composite material. Many dragonologists who +> had previously been skeptical now joined the iconoclasts. Engineers +> calculated that a huge projectile could be made of this material and +> launched with sufficient force to penetrate the dragon’s armor. +> However, the manufacture of the needed quantity of the composite +> material would be expensive. +> +> A group of several eminent engineers and dragonologists sent a +> petition to the king asking for funding to build the anti-dragon +> projectile. At time when the petition was sent, the king was +> preoccupied with leading his army into war against a tiger. The tiger +> had killed a farmer and subsequently disappeared into the jungle. +> There was widespread fear in the countryside that the tiger might come +> out and strike again. The king had the jungle surrounded and ordered +> his troops to begin slashing their way through it. At the conclusion +> of the campaign, the king could announce that all 163 tigers in the +> jungle, including presumably the murderous one, had been hunted down +> and killed. During the tumult of the war, however, the petition had +> been lost or forgotten. +> +> The petitioners therefore sent another appeal. This time they received +> a reply from one of the king’s secretaries saying that the king would +> consider their request after he was done reviewing the annual +> dragon-administration budget. This year’s budget was the largest to +> date and included funding for a new railway track to the mountain. A +> second track was deemed necessary, as the original track could no +> longer support the increasing traffic. (The tribute demanded by the +> dragon-tyrant had increased to one hundred thousand human beings, to +> be delivered to the foot of the mountain every evening at the onset of +> dark.) When the budget was finally approved, however, reports were +> coming from a remote part of the country that a village was suffering +> from a rattlesnake infestation. The king had to leave urgently to +> mobilize his army and ride off to defeat this new threat. The +> anti-dragonists’ appeal was filed away in a dusty cabinet in the +> castle basement. +> +> The anti-dragonists met again to decide what was to be done. The +> debate was animated and continued long into the night. It was almost +> daybreak when they finally resolved to take the matter to the people. +> Over the following weeks, they traveled around the country, gave +> public lectures, and explained their proposal to anyone who would +> listen. At first, people were skeptical. They had been taught in +> school that the dragon-tyrant was invincible and that the sacrifices +> it demanded had to be accepted as a fact of life. Yet when they learnt +> about the new composite material and about the designs for the +> projectile, many became intrigued. In increasing numbers, citizens +> flocked to the anti-dragonist lectures. Activists started organizing +> public rallies in support of the proposal. +> +> When the king read about these meetings in the newspaper, he summoned +> his advisors and asked them what they thought about it. They informed +> him about the petitions that had been sent but told him that the +> anti-dragonists were troublemakers whose teachings were causing public +> unrest. It was much better for the social order, they said, that the +> people accepted the inevitability of the dragon-tyrant tribute. The +> dragon-administration provided many jobs that would be lost if the +> dragon was slaughtered. There was no known social good coming from the +> conquest of the dragon. In any case, the king’s coffers were currently +> nearly empty after the two military campaigns and the funding set +> aside for the second railway line. The king, who was at the time +> enjoying great popularity for having vanquished the rattlesnake +> infestation, listened to his advisors’ arguments but worried that he +> might lose some of his popular support if was seen to ignore the +> anti-dragonist petition. He therefore decided to hold an open hearing. +> Leading dragonologists, ministers of the state, and interested members +> of the public were invited to attend. +> +> The meeting took place on the darkest day of the year, just before the +> Christmas holidays, in the largest hall of the royal castle. The hall +> was packed to the last seat and people were crowding in the aisles. +> The mood was charged with an earnest intensity normally reserved for +> pivotal wartime sessions. +> +> After the king had welcomed everyone, he gave the floor to the leading +> scientist behind the anti-dragonist proposal, a woman with a serious, +> almost stern expression on her face. She proceeded to explain in clear +> language how the proposed device would work and how the requisite +> amount of the composite material could be manufactured. Given the +> requested amount of funding, it should be possible to complete the +> work in fifteen to twenty years. With an even greater amount of +> funding, it might be possible to do it in as little as twelve years. +> However, there could be no absolute guarantee that it would work. The +> crowd followed her presentation intently. +> +> Next to speak was the king’s chief advisor for morality, a man with a +> booming voice that easily filled the auditorium: +> +> “Let us grant that this woman is correct about the science and that +> the project is technologically possible, although I don’t think that +> has actually been proven. Now she desires that we get rid of the +> dragon. Presumably, she thinks she’s got the right not to be chewed up +> by the dragon. How willful and presumptuous. The finitude of human +> life is a blessing for every individual, whether he knows it or not. +> Getting rid of the dragon, which might seem like such a convenient +> thing to do, would undermine our human dignity. The preoccupation with +> killing the dragon will deflect us from realizing more fully the +> aspirations to which our lives naturally point, from living well +> rather than merely staying alive. It is debasing, yes debasing, for a +> person to want to continue his or her mediocre life for as long as +> possible without worrying about some of the higher questions about +> what life is to be used for. But I tell you, the nature of the dragon +> is to eat humans, and our own species-specified nature is truly and +> nobly fulfilled only by getting eaten by it...” +> +> The audience listened respectfully to this highly decorated speaker. +> The phrases were so eloquent that it was hard to resist the feeling +> that some deep thoughts must lurk behind them, although nobody could +> quite grasp what they were. Surely, words coming from such a +> distinguished appointee of the king must have profound substance. +> +> The speaker next in line was a spiritual sage who was widely respected +> for his kindness and gentleness as well as for his devotion. As he +> strode to the podium, a small boy yelled out from the audience: “The +> dragon is bad\!” +> +> The boy’s parents turned bright red and began hushing and scolding the +> child. But the sage said, “Let the boy speak. He is probably wiser +> than an old fool like me.” +> +> At first, the boy was too scared and confused to move. But when he saw +> the genuinely friendly smile on the sage’s face and the outreached +> hand, he obediently took it and followed the sage up to the podium. +> “Now, there’s a brave little man,” said the sage. “Are you afraid of +> the dragon?“ +> +> “I want my granny back,” said the boy. +> +> “Did the dragon take your granny away?” +> +> “Yes,” the boy said, tears welling up in his large frightened eyes. +> “Granny promised that she would teach me how to bake gingerbread +> cookies for Christmas. She said that we would make a little house out +> of gingerbread and little gingerbread men that would live in it. Then +> those people in white clothes came and took Granny away to the +> dragon... The dragon is bad and it eats people… I want my Granny +> back\!” +> +> At this point the child was crying so hard that the sage had to return +> him to his parents. +> +> There were several other speakers that evening, but the child’s simple +> testimony had punctured the rhetorical balloon that the king’s +> ministers had tried to inflate. The people were backing the +> anti-dragonists, and by the end of the evening even the king had come +> to recognize the reason and the humanity of their cause. In his +> closing statement, he simply said: “Let’s do it\!” +> +> As the news spread, celebrations erupted in the streets. Those who had +> been campaigning for the anti-dragonists toasted each other and drank +> to the future of humanity. +> +> The next morning, a billion people woke up and realized that their +> turn to be sent to the dragon would come before the projectile would +> be completed. A tipping point was reached. Whereas before, active +> support for the anti-dragonist cause had been limited to a small group +> of visionaries, it now became the number one priority and concern on +> everybody’s mind. The abstract notion of “the general will” took on an +> almost tangible intensity and concreteness. Mass rallies raised money +> for the projectile project and urged the king to increase the level of +> state support. The king responded to these appeals. In his New Year +> address, he announced that he would pass an extra appropriations bill +> to support the project at a high level of funding; additionally, he +> would sell off his summer castle and some of his land and make a large +> personal donation. “I believe that this nation should commit itself to +> achieving the goal, before this decade is out, of freeing the world +> from the ancient scourge of the dragon-tyrant.” +> +> Thus started a great technological race against time. The concept of +> an anti-dragon projectile was simple, but to make it a reality +> required solutions to a thousand smaller technical problems, each of +> which required dozens of time-consuming steps and missteps. +> Test-missiles were fired but fell dead to the ground or flew off in +> the wrong direction. In one tragic accident, a wayward missile landed +> on a hospital and killed several hundred patients and staff. But there +> was now a real seriousness of purpose, and the tests continued even as +> the corpses were being dug out from the debris. +> +> Despite almost unlimited funding and round-the-clock work by the +> technicians, the king’s deadline could not be met. The decade +> concluded and the dragon was still alive and well. But the effort was +> getting closer. A prototype missile had been successfully test fired. +> Production of the core, made of the expensive composite material, was +> on schedule for its completion to coincide with the finishing of the +> fully tested and debugged missile shell into which it was to be +> loaded. The launch date was set to the following year’s New Year’s +> Eve, exactly twelve years after the project’s official inauguration. +> The best-selling Christmas gift that year was a calendar that counted +> down the days to time zero, the proceeds going to the projectile +> project. +> +> The king had undergone a personal transformation from his earlier +> frivolous and thoughtless self. He now spent as much time as he could +> in the laboratories and the manufacturing plants, encouraging the +> workers and praising their toil. Sometimes he would bring a sleeping +> bag and spend the night on a noisy machine floor. He even studied and +> tried to understand the technical aspects of their work. Yet he +> confined himself to giving moral support and refrained from meddling +> in technical and managerial matters. +> +> Seven days before New Year, the woman who had made the case for the +> project almost twelve years earlier, and was now its chief executive, +> came to the royal castle and requested an urgent audience with the +> king. When the king got her note, he excused himself to the foreign +> dignitaries whom he was reluctantly entertaining at the annual +> Christmas dinner and hurried off to the private room where the +> scientist was waiting. As always of late, she looked pale and worn +> from her long working hours. This evening, however, the king also +> thought he could detect a ray of relief and satisfaction in her eyes. +> +> She told him that the missile had been deployed, the core had been +> loaded, everything had been triple-checked, they were ready to launch, +> and would the king give his final go-ahead. The king sank down in an +> armchair and closed his eyes. He was thinking hard. By launching the +> projectile tonight, one week early, seven hundred thousand people +> would be saved. Yet if something went wrong, if it missed its target +> and hit the mountain instead, it would be a disaster. A new core would +> have to be constructed from scratch and the project would be set back +> by some four years. He sat there, silently, for almost an hour. Just +> as the scientist had become convinced that he had fallen asleep, he +> opened his eyes and said in a firm voice: “No. I want you to go right +> back to the lab. I want you to check and then re-check everything +> again.” The scientist could not help a sigh escaping her; but she +> nodded and left. +> +> The last day of the year was cold and overcast, but there was no wind, +> which meant good launch conditions. The sun was setting. Technicians +> were scuttling around making the final adjustments and giving +> everything one last check. The king and his closest advisors were +> observing from a platform close to the launch pad. Further away, +> behind a fence, large numbers of the public had assembled to witness +> the great event. A large clock was showing the countdown: fifty +> minutes to go. +> +> An advisor tapped the king on the shoulder and drew his attention to +> the fence. There was some tumult. Somebody had apparently jumped the +> fence and was running towards the platform where the king sat. +> Security quickly caught up with him. He was handcuffed and taken away. +> The king turned his attention back to the launch pad, and to the +> mountain in the background. In front of it, he could see the dark +> slumped profile of the dragon. It was eating. +> +> Some twenty minutes later, the king was surprised to see the +> handcuffed man reappearing a short distance from the platform. His +> nose was bleeding and he was accompanied by two security guards. The +> man appeared to be in frenzied state. When he spotted the king, he +> began shouting at the top of his lungs: “The last train\! The last +> train\! Stop the last train\!” +> +> “Who is this young man?” said the king. “His face seems familiar, but +> I cannot quite place him. What does he want? Let him come up.” +> +> The young man was a junior clerk in the ministry of transportation, +> and the reason for his frenzy was that he had discovered that his +> father was on the last train to the mountain. The king had ordered the +> train traffic to continue, fearing that any disruption might cause the +> dragon to stir and leave the open field in front of the mountain where +> it now spent most of its time. The young man begged the king to issue +> a recall-order for the last train, which was due to arrive at the +> mountain terminal five minutes before time zero. +> +> “I cannot do it,” said the king, “I cannot take the risk.” +> +> “But the trains frequently run five minutes late. The dragon won’t +> notice\! Please\!” +> +> The young man was kneeling before the king, imploring him to save his +> father’s life and the lives of the other thousand passengers onboard +> that last train. +> +> The king looked down at the pleading, bloodied face of the young man. +> But he bit his lip, and shook his head. The young man continued to +> wail even as the guards carried him off the platform: “Please\! Stop +> the last train\! Please\!” +> +> The king stood silent and motionless, until, after while, the wailing +> suddenly ceased. The king looked up and glanced over at the countdown +> clock: five minutes remaining. +> +> Four minutes. Three minutes. Two minutes. +> +> The last technician left the launch pad. +> +> 30 seconds. 20 seconds. Ten, nine, eight… +> +> As a ball of fire enveloped the launch pad and the missile shot out, +> the spectators instinctively rose to the tips of their toes, and all +> eyes fixated at the front end of the white flame from the rocket’s +> afterburners heading towards the distant mountain. The masses, the +> king, the low and the high, the young and the old, it was as if at +> this moment they shared a single awareness, a single conscious +> experience: that white flame, shooting into the dark, embodying the +> human spirit, its fear and its hope… striking at the heart of evil. +> The silhouette on the horizon tumbled, and fell. Thousand voices of +> pure joy rose from the assembled masses, joined seconds later by a +> deafening drawn-out thud from the collapsing monster as if the Earth +> itself was drawing a sigh of relief. After centuries of oppression, +> humanity at last was free from the cruel tyranny of the dragon. +> +> The joy cry resolved into a jubilating chant: “Long live the king\! +> Long live us all\!” The king’s advisors, like everybody that night, +> were as happy as children; they embraced each other and congratulated +> the king: “We did it\! We did it\!” +> +> But the king answered in a broken voice: “Yes, we did it, we killed +> the dragon today. But damn, why did we start so late? This could have +> been done five, maybe ten years ago\! Millions of people wouldn’t have +> had to die.” +> +> The king stepped off the platform and walked up to the young man in +> handcuffs, who was sitting on the ground. There he fell down on his +> knees. “Forgive me\! Oh my God, please forgive me\!” +> +> The rain started falling, in large, heavy drops, turning the ground +> into mud, drenching the king’s purple robes, and dissolving the blood +> on the young man’s face. “I am so very sorry about your father,” said +> the king. +> +> “It’s not your fault,” replied the young man. “Do you remember twelve +> years ago in the castle? That crying little boy who wanted you to +> bring back his grandmother – that was me. I didn’t realize then that +> you couldn’t possibly do what I asked for. Today I wanted you to save +> my father. Yet it was impossible to do that now, without jeopardizing +> the launch. But you have saved my life, and my mother and my sister. +> How can we ever thank you enough for that?” +> +> “Listen to them,” said the king, gesturing towards the crowds. “They +> are cheering me for what happened tonight. But the hero is you. You +> cried out. You rallied us against evil.” The king signaled a guard to +> come and unlock the handcuffs. “Now, go to your mother and sister. You +> and your family shall always be welcome at the court, and anything you +> wish for – if it be within my power – shall be granted.” +> +> The young man left, and the royal entourage, huddling in the downpour, +> accumulated around their monarch who was still kneeling in the mud. +> Amongst the fancy couture, which was being increasingly ruined by the +> rain, a bunch of powdered faces expressed a superposition of joy, +> relief, and discombobulation. So much had changed in the last hour: +> the right to an open future had been regained, a primordial fear had +> been abolished, and many a long-held assumption had been overturned. +> Unsure now about what was required of them in this unfamiliar +> situation, they stood there tentatively, as if probing whether the +> ground would still hold, exchanging glances, and waiting for some kind +> of indication. +> +> Finally, the king rose, wiping his hands on the sides of his pants. +> +> “Your majesty, what do we do now?” ventured the most senior courtier. +> +> “My dear friends,” said the king, “we have come a long way… yet our +> journey has only just begun. Our species is young on this planet. +> Today we are like children again. The future lies open before us. We +> shall go into this future and try to do better than we have done in +> the past. We have time now – time to get things right, time to grow +> up, time to learn from our mistakes, time for the slow process of +> building a better world, and time to get settled in it. Tonight, let +> all the bells in the kingdom ring until midnight, in remembrance of +> our dead forbears, and then after midnight let us celebrate till the +> sun comes up. And in the coming days… I believe we have some +> reorganization to do\!” +> +>   +> +> \* \* \* +> +>   +> +> MORAL +> +> Stories about aging have traditionally focused on the need for +> graceful accommodation. The recommended solution to diminishing vigor +> and impending death was resignation coupled with an effort to achieve +> closure in practical affairs and personal relationships. Given that +> nothing could be done to prevent or retard aging, this focus made +> sense. Rather than fretting about the inevitable, one could aim for +> peace of mind. +> +> Today we face a different situation. While we still lack effective and +> acceptable means for slowing the aging process[\[1\]](#_ftn1), we can +> identify research directions that might lead to the development of +> such means in the foreseeable future. “Deathist” stories and +> ideologies, which counsel passive acceptance, are no longer harmless +> sources of consolation. They are fatal barriers to urgently needed +> action. +> +> Many distinguished technologists and scientists tell us that it will +> become possible to retard, and eventually to halt and reverse, human +> senescence.[\[2\]](#_ftn2) At present, there is little agreement about +> the time-scale or the specific means, nor is there a consensus that +> the goal is even achievable in principle. In relation to the fable +> (where aging is, of course, represented by the dragon), we are +> therefore at a stage somewhere between that at which the lone sage +> predicted the dragon’s eventual demise and that at which the +> iconoclast dragonologists convinced their peers by demonstrating a +> composite material that was harder than dragon scales. +> +> The ethical argument that the fable presents is simple: There are +> obvious and compelling moral reasons for the people in the fable to +> get rid of the dragon. Our situation with regard to human senescence +> is closely analogous and ethically isomorphic to the situation of the +> people in the fable with regard to the dragon. Therefore, we have +> compelling moral reasons to get rid of human senescence. +> +> The argument is not in favor or life-span extension *per se*. Adding +> extra years of sickness and debility at the end of life would be +> pointless. The argument is in favor of extending, as far as possible, +> the human *health-span*. By slowing or halting the aging process, the +> healthy human life span would be extended. Individuals would be able +> to remain healthy, vigorous, and productive at ages at which they +> would otherwise be dead. +> +> In addition to this general moral, there are a number of more specific +> lessons: +> +> *(1)  A recurrent tragedy became a fact of life, a statistic*. In the +> fable, people’s expectations adapted to the existence of the dragon, +> to the extent that many became unable to perceive its badness. Aging, +> too, has become a mere “fact of life” – despite being the principal +> cause of an unfathomable amount of human suffering and death. +> +> *(2)  A static view of technology*. People reasoned that it would +> never become possible to kill the dragon because all attempts had +> failed in the past. They failed to take into account accelerated +> technological progress. Is a similar mistake leading us to +> underestimate the chances of a cure for aging? +> +> *(3) * *Administration became its own purpose*. One seventh of the +> economy went to dragon-administration (which is also the fraction of +> its GDP that the U.S. spends on healthcare). Damage-limitation became +> such an exclusive focus that it made people neglect the underlying +> cause. Instead of a massive publicly-funded research program to halt +> aging, we spend almost our entire health budget on health-care and on +> researching individual diseases. +> +> *(4) * *The social good became detached from the good for people*. The +> king’s advisors worried about the possible social problems that could +> be caused by the anti-dragonists. They said that no known social good +> would come from the demise of the dragon. Ultimately, however, social +> orders exist for the benefit of people, and it is generally good for +> people if their lives are saved. +> +> *(5) * *The lack of a sense of proportion.* A tiger killed a farmer. A +> rhumba of rattlesnakes plagued a village. The king got rid of the +> tiger and the rattlesnakes, and thereby did his people a service. Yet +> he was at fault, because he got his priorities wrong. +> +> *(6) * *Fine phrases and hollow rhetoric*. The king’s morality advisor +> spoke eloquently about human dignity and our species-specified nature, +> in phrases lifted, mostly verbatim, from the advisor’s contemporary +> equivalents.[\[3\]](#_ftn3) Yet the rhetoric was a smoke screen that +> hid rather than revealed moral reality. The boy’s inarticulate but +> honest testimony, by contrast, points to the central fact of the case: +> the dragon is bad; it destroys people. This is also the basic truth +> about human senescence. +> +> *(7) * *Failure to appreciate the urgency.* Until very late in the +> story, nobody fully realized what was at stake. Only as the king was +> staring into the bloodied face of the young pleading man does the +> extent of the tragedy sink in. Searching for a cure for aging is not +> just a nice thing that we should perhaps one day get around to. It is +> an urgent, screaming moral imperative. The sooner we start a focused +> research program, the sooner we will get results. It matters if we get +> the cure in 25 years rather than in 24 years: a population greater +> than that of Canada would die as a result. In this matter, time equals +> life, at a rate of approximately 70 lives per minute. With the meter +> ticking at such a furious rate, we should stop faffing about. +> +> *(8) * *“And in the coming days… I believe we have some reorganization +> to do\!”* The king and his people will face some major challenges when +> they recover from their celebration. Their society has been so +> conditioned and deformed by the presence of the dragon that a +> frightening void now exists. They will have to work creatively, on +> both an individual and a societal level, to develop conditions that +> will keep lives flourishingly dynamic and meaningful beyond the +> accustomed three-score-years-and-ten. Luckily, the human spirit is +> good at adapting. Another issue that they may eventually confront is +> overpopulation. Maybe people will have to learn to have children later +> and less frequently. Maybe they can find ways to sustain a larger +> population by using more efficient technology. Maybe they will one day +> develop spaceships and begin to colonize the cosmos. We can leave, for +> now, the long-lived fable people to grapple with these new challenges, +> while we try to make some progress in our own +> adventure.[\[4\]](#_ftn4) +> +>   +> +> +> +> [](#_ftnref1) +> +> \[1\] +> +> Calorie restriction (a diet low in calories but high in nutrients) +> extends maximal lifespan and delays the onset of age-related illnesses +> in all species that have been tested. Preliminary results from an +> ongoing study on rhesus and squirrel monkeys show similar effects. It +> seems quite likely that calorie restriction would work for our species +> too. Few humans, however, would be willing to put themselves through a +> lifelong hunger-diet. Some researchers are searching for +> calorie-restriction mimetics – compounds that elicit the desirable +> effects of lowered caloric intake without us having to go hungry. (See +> e.g. Lane, M. et al. (1999) “Nutritional modulation of aging in +> nonhuman primates,” *J. Nutr. Health & Aging*, 3(2): 69-76.) +> +> [\[2\]](#_ftnref2) A recent straw poll at the 10th Congress of the +> International Association of Biomedical Gerontology revealed that the +> majority of the participants thought it either probable or “not +> improbable” that comprehensive functional rejuvenation of middle-aged +> mice would be possible within 10-20 years (de Grey, A. (2004), “Report +> of open discussion on the future of life extension research,” (Annals +> NY Acad. Sci., 1019, in press)). See also e.g. de Grey, A., B. Ames, +> et al. (2002) “Time to talk SENS: critiquing the immutability of human +> aging,” *Increasing Healthy Life Span: Conventional Measures and +> Slowing the Innate Aging Process: Ninth Congress of the International +> Association of Biomedical Gerontology*, ed. D. Harman (Annals NY Acad. +> Sci. 959: 452-462); and Freitas Jr., R. A., *Nanomedicine, Vol. 1* +> (Landes Bioscience: Georgetown, TX, 1999). +> +> [\[3\]](#_ftnref3) See, e.g. Kass, L. (2003) “Ageless Bodies, Happy +> Souls: Biotechnology and the Pursuit of Perfection,” *The New +> Atlantis*, 1. +> +> [](#_ftnref4) +> +> \[4\] +> +> I’m grateful to many people for comments on earlier drafts, including +> especially Heather Bradshaw, Roger Crisp, Aubrey de Grey, Katrien +> Devolder, Joel Garreau, John Harris, Andrea Landfried, Toby Ord, Susan +> Rogers, Julian Savulescu, Ian Watson, and Kip Werking. I am also very +> grateful to Adi Berman, Pierino Forno, Didier Coeurnelle, and others +> who have translated the fable into other languages, and everybody who +> has helped spread the word or who have given encouragement. Thank +> you\! diff --git a/_stories/2005/9630502.md b/_stories/2005/9630502.md deleted file mode 100644 index 4316162..0000000 --- a/_stories/2005/9630502.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,25 +0,0 @@ ---- -created_at: '2015-05-30T15:40:05.000Z' -title: How I Walked Every Block in Manhattan in 10 Weeks (2005) -url: http://linkage.cpmc.columbia.edu/Manhattan_Walk/Walk.html -author: scottmcdot -points: 55 -story_text: '' -comment_text: -num_comments: 10 -story_id: -story_title: -story_url: -parent_id: -created_at_i: 1433000405 -_tags: -- story -- author_scottmcdot -- story_9630502 -objectID: '9630502' - ---- -[Source](http://linkage.cpmc.columbia.edu/Manhattan_Walk/Walk.html "Permalink to ") - - - diff --git a/_stories/2005/9669881.md b/_stories/2005/9669881.md deleted file mode 100644 index 56f7a51..0000000 --- a/_stories/2005/9669881.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,219 +0,0 @@ ---- -created_at: '2015-06-06T05:56:18.000Z' -title: Statistical Data Mining Tutorials (2005) -url: http://www.autonlab.org/tutorials/list.html -author: ValentineSmith -points: 56 -story_text: -comment_text: -num_comments: 5 -story_id: -story_title: -story_url: -parent_id: -created_at_i: 1433570178 -_tags: -- story -- author_ValentineSmith -- story_9669881 -objectID: '9669881' - ---- -[Source](https://www.autonlab.org/tutorials/list.html "Permalink to tutorials:list.html [Auton Lab]") - -# tutorials:list.html [Auton Lab] - -* [skip to content][1] - -# ![][2][ Auton Lab][3] - -### User Tools - -* [Log In][4] - -### Site Tools - -Search - -ToolsShow pagesourceOld revisionsBacklinksRecent ChangesMedia ManagerSitemapLog In> - -* [Recent Changes][5] -* [Media Manager][6] -* [Sitemap][7] - -You are here: [start][8] » [tutorials][9] » [list.html][10] - -* * * - -### Sidebar - -# About Us - -* [People][11] -* [Research][12] -* [Projects][13] -* [Sponsors][14] -* [Jobs][15] -* [Awards][16] - -# Library - -* [Papers][17] -* [Videos][18] -* [Talks][19] -* [Technical Reports][20] -* 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b9468c6..fc961e2 100644 --- a/_stories/2005/9987361.md +++ b/_stories/2005/9987361.md @@ -19,7 +19,187 @@ _tags: objectID: '9987361' --- -[Source](https://www.wired.com/software/coolapps/news/2005/11/69355?currentPage=all "Permalink to ") +Last month automaker Toyota announced a recall of 160,000 of its Prius +hybrid vehicles following reports of vehicle warning lights illuminating +for no reason, and cars' gasoline engines stalling unexpectedly. But +unlike the large-scale auto recalls of years past, the root of the Prius +issue wasn't a hardware problem – it was a programming error in the +smart car's embedded code. The Prius had a software bug. +With that recall, the Prius joined the ranks of the buggy computer – a +club that began in 1945 when engineers found a moth in Panel F, Relay +\#70 of the Harvard Mark II system.The computer was running a test of +its multiplier and adder when the engineers noticed something was wrong. +The moth was trapped, removed and taped into the computer's logbook with +the words: "first actual case of a bug being found." +Sixty years later, computer bugs are still with us, and show no sign of +going extinct. As the line between software and hardware blurs, coding +errors are increasingly playing tricks on our daily lives. Bugs don't +just inhabit our operating systems and applications – today they lurk +within our cell phones and our pacemakers, our power plants and medical +equipment. And now, in our cars. +But which are the worst? + +It's all too easy to come up with a list of bugs that have wreaked +havoc. It's harder to rate their severity. Which is worse – a security +vulnerability that's exploited by a computer worm to shut down the +internet for a few days or a typo that triggers a day-long crash of the +nation's phone system? The answer depends on whether you want to make a +phone call or check your e-mail. + +Many people believe the worst bugs are those that cause fatalities. To +be sure, there haven't been many, but cases like the +[Therac-25](http://courses.cs.vt.edu/~cs3604/lib/Therac_25/Therac_1.html) +are widely seen as warnings against the widespread deployment of +software in safety critical applications. Experts who study such +systems, though, warn that even though the software might kill a few +people, focusing on these fatalities risks inhibiting the migration of +technology into areas where smarter processing is sorely needed. In the +end, they say, the lack of software might kill more people than the +inevitable bugs. + +What seems certain is that bugs are here to stay. Here, in chronological +order, is the Wired News list of the 10 worst software bugs of all time +… so far. + +**July 28, 1962 – Mariner I space probe.** A bug in the flight software +for the [Mariner 1](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mariner_1) causes the +rocket to divert from its intended path on launch. Mission control +destroys the rocket over the Atlantic Ocean. The investigation into the +accident discovers that a formula written on paper in pencil was +improperly transcribed into computer code, causing the computer to +miscalculate the rocket's trajectory. + +**1982 – Soviet gas pipeline.** Operatives working for the Central +Intelligence Agency +[allegedly](http://www.loyola.edu/dept/politics/intel/farewell_dossier.pdf) +(.pdf) plant a bug in a Canadian computer system purchased to control +the trans-Siberian gas pipeline. The Soviets had obtained the system as +part of a wide-ranging effort to covertly purchase or steal sensitive +U.S. technology. The CIA reportedly found out about the program and +decided to [make it backfire](http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/4394002) with +equipment that would pass Soviet inspection and then fail once in +operation. The resulting event is reportedly the largest non-nuclear +explosion in the planet's history. + +**1985-1987 – Therac-25 medical accelerator.** A radiation therapy +device malfunctions and delivers lethal radiation doses at several +medical facilities. Based upon a previous design, the +[Therac-25](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Therac-25) was an "improved" +therapy system that could deliver two different kinds of radiation: +either a low-power electron beam (beta particles) or X-rays. The +Therac-25's X-rays were generated by smashing high-power electrons into +a metal target positioned between the electron gun and the patient. A +second "improvement" was the replacement of the older Therac-20's +electromechanical safety interlocks with software control, a decision +made because software was perceived to be more reliable. + +What engineers didn't know was that both the 20 and the 25 were built +upon an operating system that had been kludged together by a programmer +with no formal training. Because of a subtle bug called a "[race +condition](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race_condition)," a +quick-fingered typist could accidentally configure the Therac-25 so the +electron beam would fire in high-power mode but with the metal X-ray +target out of position. At least five patients die; others are seriously +injured. + +**1988 – Buffer overflow in Berkeley Unix finger daemon.** The first +internet worm (the so-called [Morris +Worm](http://www.eweek.com/article2/0,1895,1245602,00.asp)) infects +between 2,000 and 6,000 computers in less than a day by taking advantage +of a buffer overflow. The specific code is a function in the standard +input/output library routine called +[gets()](http://developer.apple.com/documentation/Darwin/Reference/ManPages/man3/gets.3.html) +designed to get a line of text over the network. Unfortunately, gets() +has no provision to limit its input, and an overly large input allows +the worm to take over any machine to which it can connect. + +Programmers respond by attempting to stamp out the gets() function in +working code, but they refuse to remove it from the C programming +language's standard input/output library, where it remains to this day. + +**1988-1996 – Kerberos Random Number Generator.** The authors of the +Kerberos security system neglect to properly "seed" the program's random +number generator with a truly random seed. As a +[result](http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/dole97misplaced.html), for eight +years it is possible to trivially break into any computer that relies on +Kerberos for authentication. It is unknown if this bug was ever actually +exploited. + +**January 15, 1990 – AT\&T Network Outage.** A bug in a new release of +the software that controls AT\&T's \#4ESS long distance switches causes +these mammoth computers to crash when they receive a specific message +from one of their neighboring machines – a message that the neighbors +send out when they recover from a crash. + +One day a switch in New York crashes and reboots, causing its +neighboring switches to +[crash](http://www.cs.berkeley.edu/~nikitab/courses/cs294-8/hw1.html), +then their neighbors' neighbors, and so on. Soon, 114 switches are +crashing and rebooting every six seconds, leaving an estimated 60 +thousand people without long distance service for nine hours. The fix: +engineers load the previous software release. + +**1993 – Intel Pentium floating point divide.** A silicon error causes +Intel's highly promoted Pentium chip to [make +mistakes](http://www.willamette.edu/~mjaneba/pentprob.html) when +dividing floating-point numbers that occur within a specific range. For +example, dividing 4195835.0/3145727.0 yields 1.33374 instead of 1.33382, +an error of 0.006 percent. Although the bug affects few users, it +becomes a public relations nightmare. With an estimated 3 million to 5 +million defective chips in circulation, at first Intel only offers to +replace Pentium chips for consumers who can prove that they need high +accuracy; eventually the company relents and agrees to replace the chips +for anyone who complains. The bug ultimately costs Intel $475 million. + +**1995/1996 – The Ping of Death.** A lack of sanity checks and error +handling in the IP fragmentation reassembly code makes it [possible to +crash](http://www.cert.org/advisories/CA-1996-26.html) a wide variety of +operating systems by sending a malformed "ping" packet from anywhere on +the internet. Most obviously affected are computers running Windows, +which lock up and display the so-called "blue screen of death" when they +receive these packets. But the attack also affects many Macintosh and +Unix systems as well. + +**June 4, 1996 – Ariane 5 Flight 501.** Working code for the Ariane 4 +rocket is reused in the Ariane 5, but the Ariane 5's faster engines +trigger a bug in an arithmetic routine inside the rocket's flight +computer. The error is in the code that converts a 64-bit floating-point +number to a 16-bit signed integer. The faster engines cause the 64-bit +numbers to be larger in the Ariane 5 than in the Ariane 4, triggering an +overflow condition that results in the flight computer crashing. + +First Flight 501's backup computer crashes, followed 0.05 seconds later +by a crash of the primary computer. As a result of these [crashed +computers](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ariane_5_Flight_501), the +rocket's primary processor overpowers the rocket's engines and causes +the rocket to +[disintegrate](http://www.dcs.ed.ac.uk/home/pxs/Book/ariane5rep.html) 40 +seconds after launch. + +**November 2000 – National Cancer Institute, Panama City.** In a series +of accidents, therapy planning software created by Multidata Systems +International, a U.S. firm, miscalculates the proper dosage of radiation +for patients undergoing radiation therapy. + +Multidata's software allows a radiation therapist to draw on a computer +screen the placement of metal shields called "blocks" designed to +protect healthy tissue from the radiation. But the software will only +allow technicians to use four shielding blocks, and the Panamanian +doctors wish to use five. + +The doctors discover that they can trick the software by drawing all +five blocks as a single large block with a hole in the middle. What the +doctors [don't +realize](http://www.baselinemag.com/article2/0,1397,1544403,00.asp) is +that the Multidata software gives different answers in this +configuration depending on how the hole is drawn: draw it in one +direction and the correct dose is calculated, draw in another direction +and the software recommends twice the necessary exposure. + +At least eight patients die, while another 20 receive overdoses likely +to cause significant health problems. The physicians, who were legally +required to double-check the computer's calculations by hand, are +indicted for murder. diff --git a/_stories/2006/10716112.md b/_stories/2006/10716112.md index e2932e9..135bec8 100644 --- a/_stories/2006/10716112.md +++ b/_stories/2006/10716112.md @@ -19,7 +19,94 @@ _tags: objectID: '10716112' --- -[Source](https://blogs.msdn.microsoft.com/b/steverowe/archive/2006/12/19/secret-santa-is-np-complete.aspx "Permalink to ") +Every year my group of friends undertakes a Secret Santa gift exchange.  +When we started we each drew names from a hat and bought a gift for the +names we drew.  Being budding programmers, we soon dispensed with the +hat and wrote a program to do the work for us.  In 1999 a friend and I +wrote a C++ app to do the work.  Though we've been running it every +year, the code hasn't much changed in the intervening seven years.  It +is getting dated and needs reworking.  +Toward that end, I've been contemplating the match routine lately.  The +current one does something naive like: +> Pick a person +> +> Choose a match at random +> +> If there is a conflict with that person, slide to the next one on the +> list. +> +> Once a match is found, remove those people from the relative lists and +> pick a new person. +> +> If a match cannot be made, start the process over. +With a small number of people and not a lot of blacklisting (husband +shouldn't draw wife's name, etc.), this algorithm will work.  However, +for a complicated list of people, this algorithm is nondeterministic and +could theoretically run forever.  I was thus searching for a better +algorithm.  One which was faster than a complete enumeration of all +options and deterministic in nature. + +This weekend I took the final for my Formal Models of Computation +course.  (Yes, this ties in with the above--be patient) The last thing +we covered was complexity classes and the concepts of P and NP.  What +follows is a brief description of this concept.  For a more formal +handling of the subject, check out the Wikipedia +[entry](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complexity_classes_P_and_NP).  + +In theoretical computer science, they don't use real computers.  Rather, +they use formal models called [Turing +Machines](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turing_machines).  These have the +same power to solve problems that modern computers do, just a bit less +efficiently.  They are a good proxy for real computers.  The speed of +these machines is measured roughly in terms of the input.  So given an +input of length n, a [linear](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_time) +algorithm would take O(cn) time, where c is a constant.  We usually +ignore these constants and just call it O(n) time.  + +There is a class of problems called P or +[Polynomial-time](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polynomial_time) which +represent those problems that can be solved by a Turing machine in a +time which is a polynomial of the input length.  That is, O(n^2), +O(n^3), ... , O(n^k).  These are generally thought of as those problems +that computers can efficiently solve. + +There is another class of problems called NP or +Nondeterministic-Polynomial-time.  These represent those problems that +can be solved by a nondeterministic Turing machine in polynomial time.  +A nondeterministic Turing machine is bascially one that can do more than +one thing at once.  When it comes to a fork in the algorithm, it can +take both forks simultaneously.  + +It is assumed that NP describes a bigger universe of problems than P.  +That is, P \!=NP.  What takes nondeterministic Turing machines +polynomial time takes regular Turing machines [exponential +time](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exponential_time).  That is, they +take something like O(2^n) time. + +Back to my Secret Santa problem.  It was just after my final that I +turned my thoughts back to solving this problem.  It then hit me that +what I was trying to do was impossible.  There is a well-known NP-class +problem which involves finding a [Hamiltonian +circuit](http://mathworld.wolfram.com/HamiltonianCircuit.html).  A +Hamiltonian circuit is a path that traverses an entire graph by visting +each node exactly one time.  It turns out that this is exactly the +problem I was trying to solve.  Imagine my Secret Santa problem as a +graph where each person is a node and there are edges between all nodes +that are not blacklisted.  In this view of the problem, I'm trying to +find a path around the graph, visting each node once.  In theoretical +computer science this is known as a reduction. + +This analysis pretty much dashes my chances of finding an elegant +solution to the problem.  There is no true solution other than brute +force trying each combination.  With the small number of nodes in my +usual matching, this works but I still want something better.  All is +not lost, however.  There are +some [techniques](http://www.densis.fee.unicamp.br/~moscato/Hamilton.html) +I can use to get close to the solution without necessarily trying all of +the combinations which I intend to investigate.  I'll write about them +after I understand more. + +Wow.  I guess I did learn something practical in that class after all. diff --git a/_stories/2006/11138742.md b/_stories/2006/11138742.md index 4485513..330aded 100644 --- a/_stories/2006/11138742.md +++ b/_stories/2006/11138742.md @@ -19,129 +19,91 @@ _tags: objectID: '11138742' --- -[Source](http://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/09/us/09cemetery.html "Permalink to Colma, Calif., Is a Town of 2.2 Square Miles, Most of It 6 Feet Deep - The New York Times") +Still, 73 percent of Colma’s 2.2 square miles **** is zoned for +cemeteries — or “memorial parks,” as the operators call them. There are +17 such parks, including those that cater to Italians, Jews, Greek +Orthodox, Japanese and Serbs. -# Colma, Calif., Is a Town of 2.2 Square Miles, Most of It 6 Feet Deep - The New York Times - -__NYTimes.com no longer supports Internet Explorer 9 or earlier. Please upgrade your browser. [LEARN MORE »][1] - -__Sections __ Home __Search [Skip to content][2] [Skip to navigation][3] [View mobile version][4] - -## [ The New York Times ][5] - -###### [U.S.][6]|Colma, Calif., Is a Town of 2.2 Square Miles, Most of It 6 Feet Deep - -__Search - -Subscribe Now Log In __0 __Settings - -__Close search - -## Site Search Navigation - -Search NYTimes.com - -__Clear this text input - -Go - -1. Loading... - -See next articles - -See previous articles - -## Site Navigation - -## Site Mobile Navigation - -Advertisement - -Supported by - -### [U.S.][6] - -# Colma, Calif., Is a Town of 2.2 Square Miles, Most of It 6 Feet Deep - -By CAROL POGASHDEC. 9, 2006 - -[Continue reading the main story][7] Share This Page - -[Continue reading the main story][7] - -#### [Correction Appended][8] +Colma, where the two major property owners are a land holding company +and the Roman Catholic Church, is in a sense a place where an evolution +has come full circle. Photo -![][9] +“Most Americans used to live near a graveyard in the 18th century,” said +David C. Sloane, author of “The Last Great Necessity: Cemeteries in +American History.” “That changed in the 19th century, when big +cemeteries were on the edge of the cities and became destinations,” the +precursors to civic parks. But by the 20th century, Dr. Sloane said, an +aversion to dealing with death had made cemeteries places that people +“went out of their way not to go to.” -Colma was founded in 1924 as a necropolis, and has never failed in its intended purpose. Above, the Greek Orthodox cemetery there. Credit Jim Wilson/The New York Times +Given that environment, clusters of cemeteries in outlying areas may +seem only natural. Still, though one occasionally finds several +cemeteries grouped together these days, 17 in “a single place is very, +very unusual,” Dr. Sloane said. -COLMA, Calif., Dec. 3 — Years ago this tiny city's 18-hole golf course was sliced in half. Last spring the nine-hole course became a shorter nine. Next to feel the squeeze was the pet cemetery, which sacrificed half its two acres. +Here, hearses far outnumber hot rods. Colma’s museum has a cemetery +room, of course. Instead of the metal signs that customarily mark +boundaries between towns, new ones made of somber granite have been +ordered by town officials. Everyone knows that it is against the law to +cross a funeral procession. Wedding parties spill out of stretch +limousines to be photographed at Cypress Lawn Memorial Park’s duck pond, +and weddings themselves are held at the cemetery’s small chapel, next to +its crematorium. -Where did all the land go? To feed the major local growth industry: human burial grounds. +Colma’s motto is “It’s Great to Be Alive in Colma\!” And residents say +they are comfortable being alive among the mausoleums, the marble +obelisks and the tombstones. They express appreciation for the +tranquillity of their hometown, where a serene, occasionally whimsical +attitude toward death prevails. -Such is Colma, Calif., land of the dead for three-quarters of a century, and becoming more so all the time. - -"We have 1,500 aboveground residents," Mayor Helen Fisicaro said, "and 1.5 million underground." - -Colma was founded as a necropolis by cemetery operators in 1924, to protect graveyards from capricious acts of government. The businesses of many of those operators had been disrupted a decade earlier when the city of San Francisco, 10 miles to the north, evicted all but a couple of the 26 cemeteries there, along with the thousands of bodies they held. The city's politicians had argued that cemeteries spread disease, but the true reason for the eviction was the rising value of real estate, said San Francisco's archivist emeritus, Gladys Hansen. +Having grown up with death, Owen Molloy says that “it doesn’t creep me +out.” Mr. Molloy’s family owns the only bar in town, a mourners’ +gathering place two or three times a week, and he fondly recalls playing +hide-and-seek among the tombstones of various graveyards and sipping his +first beer, at age 12, among marble angels and Ionic columns. He marvels +at the view from the deck of his home, which overlooks Holy Cross +Cemetery. Advertisement -[Continue reading the main story][7] +[Continue reading the main story](#story-continues-4) -For the first few decades, Colma's residents were mainly gravediggers, flower growers and monument makers. But by the 1980s, other types of people and businesses were settling in next to the dead. Today the little city has many thriving businesses, including car dealerships, two Home Depots, shopping centers and a game room. +Living alongside the cemeteries “doesn’t matter” to Ashley Hurtubise, +16. “It’s just another part of town,” she said. -[Continue reading the main story][10] - -Advertisement - -[Continue reading the main story][11] - -Still, 73 percent of Colma's 2.2 square miles ** **is zoned for cemeteries — or "memorial parks," as the operators call them. There are 17 such parks, including those that cater to Italians, Jews, Greek Orthodox, Japanese and Serbs. - -Colma, where the two major property owners are a land holding company and the Roman Catholic Church, is in a sense a place where an evolution has come full circle. +City Councilwoman Joanne del Rosario does not give her underground +neighbors a second thought. “I’m more afraid of the living,” she said, +“than I am of the dead.” Photo -![][12] +In the way New Jersey students know that Thomas Edison’s laboratory is +in West Orange, the people of Colma know that Wyatt Earp’s ashes are +buried at Hills of Eternity, a Jewish cemetery (he wasn’t; his wife +was), and that Joe DiMaggio is at Holy Cross Cemetery, where visitors +often lean bats against his gravestone. -In addition to 17 cemeteries for people, there is one for pets. Credit Jim Wilson/The New York Times +Everybody knows that Tina Turner’s dog is wrapped in her fur coat at +Pet’s Rest Cemetery, the final stop for 13,000 dogs, cats, rabbits, +goldfish and cheetahs. Even after last summer’s downsizing, plots +remain, though they are so expensive ($550 to $850 and up, depending on +the size of the pet) that some families opt for cremation or for +stacking their dead pets vertically. Pet’s Rest draws so many mourners +that, says the owner, Phillip C’de Baca, some form carpools and +occasionally fall in love and marry. -"Most Americans used to live near a graveyard in the 18th century," said David C. Sloane, author of "The Last Great Necessity: Cemeteries in American History." "That changed in the 19th century, when big cemeteries were on the edge of the cities and became destinations," the precursors to civic parks. But by the 20th century, Dr. Sloane said, an aversion to dealing with death had made cemeteries places that people "went out of their way not to go to." - -Given that environment, clusters of cemeteries in outlying areas may seem only natural. Still, though one occasionally finds several cemeteries grouped together these days, 17 in "a single place is very, very unusual," Dr. Sloane said. - -Here, hearses far outnumber hot rods. Colma's museum has a cemetery room, of course. Instead of the metal signs that customarily mark boundaries between towns, new ones made of somber granite have been ordered by town officials. Everyone knows that it is against the law to cross a funeral procession. Wedding parties spill out of stretch limousines to be photographed at Cypress Lawn Memorial Park's duck pond, and weddings themselves are held at the cemetery's small chapel, next to its crematorium. - -Colma's motto is "It's Great to Be Alive in Colma!" And residents say they are comfortable being alive among the mausoleums, the marble obelisks and the tombstones. They express appreciation for the tranquillity of their hometown, where a serene, occasionally whimsical attitude toward death prevails. - -Having grown up with death, Owen Molloy says that "it doesn't creep me out." Mr. Molloy's family owns the only bar in town, a mourners' gathering place two or three times a week, and he fondly recalls playing hide-and-seek among the tombstones of various graveyards and sipping his first beer, at age 12, among marble angels and Ionic columns. He marvels at the view from the deck of his home, which overlooks Holy Cross Cemetery. - -Advertisement - -[Continue reading the main story][13] - -Living alongside the cemeteries "doesn't matter" to Ashley Hurtubise, 16. "It's just another part of town," she said. - -City Councilwoman Joanne del Rosario does not give her underground neighbors a second thought. "I'm more afraid of the living," she said, "than I am of the dead." - -Photo - -![][14] - -The town’s incongruous motto: “It’s Great to Be Alive in Colma!” Credit The New York Times - -In the way New Jersey students know that Thomas Edison's laboratory is in West Orange, the people of Colma know that Wyatt Earp's ashes are buried at Hills of Eternity, a Jewish cemetery (he wasn't; his wife was), and that Joe DiMaggio is at Holy Cross Cemetery, where visitors often lean bats against his gravestone. - -Everybody knows that Tina Turner's dog is wrapped in her fur coat at Pet's Rest Cemetery, the final stop for 13,000 dogs, cats, rabbits, goldfish and cheetahs. Even after last summer's downsizing, plots remain, though they are so expensive ($550 to $850 and up, depending on the size of the pet) that some families opt for cremation or for stacking their dead pets vertically. Pet's Rest draws so many mourners that, says the owner, Phillip C'de Baca, some form carpools and occasionally fall in love and marry. - -Dr. Sloane, an associate professor at the University of Southern California, says there is a growing demand for space at American cemeteries that is fueled in large part by immigrant families who insist on elaborate burials as a way to help establish their identity in a community. In Colma, so little undeveloped property remains that an acre sells for more than $2 million. +Dr. Sloane, an associate professor at the University of Southern +California, says there is a growing demand for space at American +cemeteries that is fueled in large part by immigrant families who insist +on elaborate burials as a way to help establish their identity in a +community. In Colma, so little undeveloped property remains that an acre +sells for more than $2 million. ## Newsletter Sign Up -[Continue reading the main story][15] +[Continue reading the main story](#continues-post-newsletter) ### @@ -151,265 +113,34 @@ Invalid email address. Please re-enter. You must select a newsletter to subscribe to. -Sign Up - -You agree to receive occasional updates and special offers for The New York Times's products and services. +You agree to receive occasional updates and special offers for The New +York Times's products and services. ### Thank you for subscribing. ### An error has occurred. Please try again later. -### You are already subscribed to this email. +[View all New York Times newsletters.](/newsletters) -[View all New York Times newsletters.][16] +The cemeteries have two choices, said Steve Doukas, general manager of +Greek Orthodox Memorial Park: build taller mausoleums or buy more land. +Either way, added costs are naturally passed along. -* [See Sample][17] -* [Manage Email Preferences][18] -* [Not you?][19] -* [Privacy Policy][20] -* Opt out or [contact us][21] anytime +“As expensive as it is to live in the Bay Area,” Mr. Doukas said, “it’s +also expensive to be buried here.” -The cemeteries have two choices, said Steve Doukas, general manager of Greek Orthodox Memorial Park: build taller mausoleums or buy more land. Either way, added costs are naturally passed along. +Cypress Lawn offers burial plots that cost as much as $20,000, or +$250,000 for a family plot, said Ken Varner, its president. -"As expensive as it is to live in the Bay Area," Mr. Doukas said, "it's also expensive to be buried here." +And what does a cemetery ultimately provide for that kind of money? +“Memory management,” Mr. Varner said. -Cypress Lawn offers burial plots that cost as much as $20,000, or $250,000 for a family plot, said Ken Varner, its president. +“Cemeteries,” he said, “are really for the living.” -And what does a cemetery ultimately provide for that kind of money? "Memory management," Mr. Varner said. +**Correction: December 14, 2006** -"Cemeteries," he said, "are really for the living." - -** Correction: December 14, 2006 ** - -An article on Saturday about Colma, Calif., a city whose primary business is cemeteries, misspelled the surname of a man whose family owns the town's only bar. He is Owen Molloy, not Malloy. - -A version of this article appears in print on , on Page A11 of the New York edition with the headline: Colma, Calif., Is a Town of 2.2 Square Miles, Most of It 6 Feet Deep. 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Saturday about Colma, Calif., a city whose primary +business is cemeteries, misspelled the surname of a man whose family +owns the town’s only bar. He is Owen Molloy, not Malloy. +[Continue reading the main story](#whats-next) diff --git a/_stories/2006/11419649.md b/_stories/2006/11419649.md index 4c11e7b..e1b3010 100644 --- a/_stories/2006/11419649.md +++ b/_stories/2006/11419649.md @@ -19,7 +19,154 @@ _tags: objectID: '11419649' --- -[Source](https://www.teslamotors.com/blog/secret-tesla-motors-master-plan-just-between-you-and-me "Permalink to ") +Background: My day job is running a space transportation company called +[SpaceX](http://www.spacex.com "SpaceX"), but on the side I am the +chairman of Tesla Motors and help formulate the business and product +strategy with Martin and the rest of the team. I have also been Tesla +Motor's primary funding source from when the company was just three +people and a business plan. +As you know, the initial product of Tesla Motors is a high performance +electric sports car called the Tesla Roadster. However, some readers may +not be aware of the fact that our long term plan is to build a wide +range of models, including affordably priced family cars. This is +because the overarching purpose of Tesla Motors (and the reason I am +funding the company) is to help expedite the move from a mine-and-burn +hydrocarbon economy towards a solar electric economy, which I believe to +be the primary, but not exclusive, sustainable solution. +Critical to making that happen is an electric car without compromises, +which is why the Tesla Roadster is designed to beat a gasoline sports +car like a Porsche or Ferrari in a head to head showdown. Then, over and +above that fact, it has twice the energy efficiency of a Prius. Even so, +some may question whether this actually does any good for the world. Are +we really in need of another high performance sports car? Will it +actually make a difference to global carbon emissions? +Well, the answers are no and not much. However, that misses the point, +unless you understand the secret master plan alluded to above. Almost +any new technology initially has high unit cost before it can be +optimized and this is no less true for electric cars. The strategy of +Tesla is to enter at the high end of the market, where customers are +prepared to pay a premium, and then drive down market as fast as +possible to higher unit volume and lower prices with each successive +model. + +Without giving away too much, I can say that the second model will be a +sporty four door family car at roughly half the $89k price point of the +Tesla Roadster and the third model will be even more affordable. In +keeping with a fast growing technology company, all free cash flow is +plowed back into R\&D to drive down the costs and bring the follow on +products to market as fast as possible. When someone buys the Tesla +Roadster sports car, they are actually helping pay for development of +the low cost family car. + +Now I’d like to address two repeated arguments against electric vehicles +— battery disposal and power plant emissions. The answer to the first is +short and simple, the second requires a bit of math: + +**Batteries that are not toxic to the environment\!** +I wouldn’t recommend them as a dessert topping, but the Tesla Motors +Lithium-Ion cells are not classified as hazardous and are landfill safe. +However, dumping them in the trash would be throwing money away, since +the battery pack can be sold to recycling companies (unsubsidized) at +the end of its greater than 100,000-mile design life. Moreover, the +battery isn’t dead at that point, it just has less range. + +**Power Plant Emissions aka “The Long Tailpipe”** +(For a more detailed version of this argument, please see the [white +paper](/display_data/twentyfirstcenturycar.pdf) written by Martin and +Marc.) + +A common rebuttal to electric vehicles as a solution to carbon emissions +is that they simply transfer the CO2 emissions to the power plant. The +obvious counter is that one can develop grid electric power from a +[variety of means](/efficiency/environmental_benefits.php), many of +which, like hydro, wind, geothermal, nuclear, solar, etc. involve no CO2 +emissions. However, let’s assume for the moment that the electricity is +generated from a hydrocarbon source like natural gas, the most popular +fuel for new US power plants in recent years. + +The H-System Combined Cycle Generator from General Electric is 60% +efficient in turning natural gas into electricity. "Combined Cycle" is +where the natural gas is burned to generate electricity and then the +waste heat is used to create steam that powers a second generator. +Natural gas recovery is 97.5% efficient, processing is also 97.5% +efficient and then transmission efficiency over the electric grid is 92% +on average. This gives us a well-to-electric-outlet efficiency of 97.5% +x 97.5% x 60% x 92% = 52.5%. + +Despite a body shape, tires and gearing aimed at high performance rather +than peak efficiency, the Tesla Roadster requires 0.4 MJ per kilometer +or, stated another way, will travel 2.53 km per mega-joule of +electricity. The full cycle charge and discharge efficiency of the Tesla +Roadster is 86%, which means that for every 100 MJ of electricity used +to charge the battery, about 86 MJ reaches the motor. + +Bringing the math together, we get the final figure of merit of 2.53 +km/MJ x 86% x 52.5% = 1.14 km/MJ. Let’s compare that to the Prius and a +few other options normally considered energy efficient. + +The fully considered well-to-wheel efficiency of a gasoline powered car +is equal to the energy content of gasoline (34.3 MJ/liter) minus the +refinement & transportation losses (18.3%), multiplied by the miles per +gallon or km per liter. The Prius at an EPA rated 55 mpg therefore has +an energy efficiency of 0.56 km/MJ. This is actually an excellent number +compared with a “normal” car like the Toyota Camry at 0.28 km/MJ. + +Note the term hybrid as applied to cars currently on the road is a +misnomer. They are really just gasoline powered cars with a little +battery assistance and, unless you are one of the handful who have an +aftermarket hack, the little battery has to be charged from the gasoline +engine. Therefore, they can be considered simply as slightly more +efficient gasoline powered cars. If the EPA certified mileage is 55 mpg, +then it is indistinguishable from a non-hybrid that achieves 55 mpg. As +a friend of mine says, a world 100% full of Prius drivers is still 100% +addicted to oil. + +The CO2 content of any given source fuel is well understood. Natural gas +is 14.4 grams of carbon per mega-joule and oil is 19.9 grams of carbon +per mega-joule. Applying those carbon content levels to the vehicle +efficiencies, including as a reference the Honda combusted natural gas +and Honda fuel cell natural gas vehicles, the hands down winner is pure +electric: + +**Car** **Energy Source** **CO2 Content** **Efficiency** **CO2 +Emissions** Honda CNG Natural Gas 14.4 g/MJ 0.32 km/MJ 45.0 g/km Honda +FCX Nat Gas-Fuel Cell 14.4 g/MJ 0.35 km/MJ 41.1 g/km Toyota Prius Oil +19.9 g/MJ 0.56 km/MJ 35.8 g/km Tesla Roadster Nat Gas-Electric 14.4 g/MJ +1.14 km/MJ 12.6 g/km + +  + +The Tesla Roadster still wins by a hefty margin if you assume the +average CO2 per joule of US power production. The higher CO2 content of +coal compared to natural gas is offset by the negligible CO2 content of +hydro, nuclear, geothermal, wind, solar, etc. The exact power production +mixture varies from one part of the country to another and is changing +over time, so natural gas is used here as a fixed yardstick. + +**Becoming Energy Positive** +I should mention that Tesla Motors will be co-marketing sustainable +energy products from other companies along with the car. For example, +among other choices, we will be offering a modestly sized and priced +solar panel from [SolarCity](http://www.solarcity.com/), a photovoltaics +company (where I am also the principal financier). This system can be +installed on your roof in an out of the way location, because of its +small size, or set up as a carport and will generate about 50 miles per +day of electricity. + +If you travel less than 350 miles per week, you will therefore be +“energy positive” with respect to your personal transportation. This +is a step beyond conserving or even nullifying your use of energy for +transport – you will actually be putting more energy back into the +system than you consume in transportation\! **So, in short, the master +plan is:** + +1. Build sports car +2. Use that money to build an affordable car +3. Use that money to build an even more affordable car +4. While doing above, also provide zero emission electric power + generation options + +Don't tell anyone. diff --git a/_stories/2006/1163625.md b/_stories/2006/1163625.md index fd21d8d..28edd8a 100644 --- a/_stories/2006/1163625.md +++ b/_stories/2006/1163625.md @@ -19,7 +19,7 @@ _tags: objectID: '1163625' --- -[Source](http://www.rollingstone.com/politics/story/12840743/porks_dirty_secret_the_nations_top_hog_producer_is_also_one_of_americas_worst_polluters/print "Permalink to ") - - +Ranked on a scale from 1 to 10, the trending score reflects the number +of users reading a story in real time. +What is this? diff --git a/_stories/2006/11786859.md b/_stories/2006/11786859.md deleted file mode 100644 index 7a03b0e..0000000 --- a/_stories/2006/11786859.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,25 +0,0 @@ ---- -created_at: '2016-05-27T15:58:03.000Z' -title: Pulsed terawatt lasers have surprising effects when shone through the air (2006) -url: http://www.americanscientist.org/issues/feature/2006/2/filaments-of-light/99999 -author: kungfudoi -points: 73 -story_text: -comment_text: -num_comments: 30 -story_id: -story_title: -story_url: -parent_id: -created_at_i: 1464364683 -_tags: -- story -- author_kungfudoi -- story_11786859 -objectID: '11786859' - ---- -[Source](https://www.americanscientist.org/issues/feature/2006/2/filaments-of-light/99999 "Permalink to ") - - - diff --git a/_stories/2006/12047234.md b/_stories/2006/12047234.md deleted file mode 100644 index f542a59..0000000 --- a/_stories/2006/12047234.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,25 +0,0 @@ ---- -created_at: '2016-07-07T02:53:06.000Z' -title: Do Portia Spiders Have a Mind? (2006) -url: http://www.dichotomistic.com/mind_readings_spider%20minds.html -author: moyix -points: 130 -story_text: -comment_text: -num_comments: 53 -story_id: -story_title: -story_url: -parent_id: -created_at_i: 1467859986 -_tags: -- story -- author_moyix -- story_12047234 -objectID: '12047234' - ---- -[Source](http://www.dichotomistic.com/mind_readings_spider minds.html "Permalink to ") - - - diff --git a/_stories/2006/13263038.md b/_stories/2006/13263038.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..07ec596 --- /dev/null +++ b/_stories/2006/13263038.md @@ -0,0 +1,72 @@ +--- +created_at: '2016-12-27T13:36:08.000Z' +title: 'Finger Trees: A Simple General-Purpose Data Structure (2006)' +url: http://www.staff.city.ac.uk/~ross/papers/FingerTree.html +author: tosh +points: 267 +story_text: +comment_text: +num_comments: 75 +story_id: +story_title: +story_url: +parent_id: +created_at_i: 1482845768 +_tags: +- story +- author_tosh +- story_13263038 +objectID: '13263038' + +--- +# Finger Trees: A Simple General-purpose Data Structure + +[Ralf Hinze](http://www.cs.ox.ac.uk/ralf.hinze/) and [Ross +Paterson](http://www.soi.city.ac.uk/%7Eross/), [*Journal of Functional +Programming*](http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayJournal?jid=JFP) +16(2):197–217, 2006. +doi:[10.1017/S0956796805005769](https://doi.org/10.1017/S0956796805005769) + +## Summary + +We present 2-3 finger trees, a functional representation of persistent +sequences supporting access to the ends in amortized constant time, and +concatenation and splitting in time logarithmic in the size of the +smaller piece. Representations achieving these bounds have appeared +previously, but 2-3 finger trees are much simpler, as are the operations +on them. Further, by defining the split operation in a general form, we +obtain a general purpose data structure that can serve as a sequence, +priority queue, search tree, priority search queue and more. + +The basic structure is expressed as a non-regular (or nested) type: + + data FingerTree a = Empty + | Single a + | Deep (Digit a) (FingerTree (Node a)) (Digit a) + + data Digit a = One a | Two a a | Three a a a | Four a a a a + data Node a = Node2 a a | Node3 a a a + +This produces trees of 2-3 trees, with favoured access (fingers) at the +ends, like + +![](FingerTree/example-tree.svg) + +([more examples](FingerTree/more-trees.html)) and also supports +efficient concatenation. To support splitting and searching, we annotate +the internal nodes of the tree with values drawn from an +application-specific monoid. + + - [PDF](FingerTree.pdf), [gzipped + PostScript](FingerTree/FingerTree.ps.gz), + [BibTeX](FingerTree/FingerTree.bib). + - A sequence implementation based on the application discussed in + section 4.2 is included as a module + [Data.Sequence](http://hackage.haskell.org/package/containers/docs/Data-Sequence.html) + in the Glasgow Haskell Compiler and other Haskell implementations. + Note: The class `Reduce` in the paper is replaced by the class + [Foldable](http://hackage.haskell.org/package/base/docs/Data-Foldable.html). + - The [fingertree + package](http://hackage.haskell.org/package/fingertree) is a generic + finger tree structure, for use as a base for various container + types. diff --git a/_stories/2006/1392292.md b/_stories/2006/1392292.md deleted file mode 100644 index 3337a91..0000000 --- a/_stories/2006/1392292.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,25 +0,0 @@ ---- -created_at: '2010-05-31T10:57:20.000Z' -title: Lisp is Poetry and Most Programmers Want Prose (2006) -url: http://blogs.adventnet.com/svembu/2006/01/19/lisp-is-poetry-and-most-programmers-want-prose/ -author: ananthrk -points: 57 -story_text: '' -comment_text: -num_comments: 28 -story_id: -story_title: -story_url: -parent_id: -created_at_i: 1275303440 -_tags: -- story -- author_ananthrk -- story_1392292 -objectID: '1392292' - ---- -[Source](http://blogs.adventnet.com/svembu/2006/01/19/lisp-is-poetry-and-most-programmers-want-prose/ "Permalink to ") - - - diff --git a/_stories/2006/15103743.md b/_stories/2006/15103743.md index bbfc9f4..736d306 100644 --- a/_stories/2006/15103743.md +++ b/_stories/2006/15103743.md @@ -19,7 +19,1008 @@ _tags: objectID: '15103743' --- -[Source](https://www.believermag.com/issues/200609/?read=article_lafarge "Permalink to ") +PAUL LA FARGE +DISCUSSED: Basements as Dungeons, Middle-earth, War Games, Moral +Clarity, Vin Diesel, Biological Determinism, Death by Misadventure, +Freaks & Geeks, Tom Hanks, Castration Anxiety, Satanism, The Pantheon of +Cool Dangers, The Buck Rogers Fortune, Cthulhu Calamari, Tom Waits, The +Holy Scriptures, Orson Welles +# NOTE TO THE READER +This article is divided into two parts: a manual and a scenario. The +first part, the manual, is an exposition of the game Dungeons & Dragons: +what it is, how it’s played, how it came to be, and how it came to be +popular, at least, in certain circles. If you once played D\&D yourself +(no need to admit that you played a lot, or that you still play), you +may want to skim the [manual](#manual), or turn directly to the +[scenario](#scenario), which is an account of a trip my friend Wayne and +I took last spring to Lake Geneva, Wisconsin, in order to fulfill a wild +and uncool dream: to play D\&D with E. Gary Gygax, the man who invented +the game (more or less: see below). If it isn’t immediately clear why +this would be an interesting, or, to be frank, a fantastically exciting +and at the same time a curiously sad thing to do: well then, you’d +better start with the manual. + +**THE MANUAL** + +# 1.0 OUTSIDE THE CAVE + +You are standing outside the entrance to a dark and gloomy cave. If you +are anything like me, you have been here many, many times before. It +isn’t always the same cave: Once it was a “cave-like opening, somewhat +obscured by vegetation,” which led to the mystical Caverns of +Quasqueton; another time it was the Wizard’s Mouth, a fissure in the +side of an active volcano (“This cave actually seems to breathe, +exhaling a cloud of steam and then slowly inhaling, like a man breathing +on a cold day”). Once it was a passage from the throne room of Snurre, +the Fire Giant King, “extending endlessly under the earth.” Once, +memorably, the “cave” was made of metal: it was the outer airlock of a +spaceship which had crash-landed in the crags of the Barrier +Peaks.\[[1](#footnote1)\] You don’t know what lies in that darkness, but +you have heard rumors: there are troglodytes, dark elves, a long-dead +wizard, terrible creatures, treasure. You are here to learn the truth. +So strike a light: you’re going in. + +If you are not between the ages of eighteen and forty-five, or if you +happen to be a woman, you may not know what Dungeons & Dragons is, +exactly, or why you would want to get involved with it, even in the +context of an essay in a respectable magazine such as this one. This +introduction is for you, although, as it turns out, neither question is +easy to answer from outside the cave. TSR Hobbies, the company that used +to make D\&D,\[[2](#footnote2)\] once wrote a brochure for hobby-store +owners, in which they tried to explain what they were selling: + +> While one of the participants creates the whole world in which the +> adventures are to take place, the balance of the players—as few as two +> or as many as a dozen or more—create “characters” who will travel +> about in this make-believe world, interact with its peoples, and seek +> the fabulous treasures of magic and precious items guarded by dragons, +> giants, werewolves, and hundreds of other fearsome things. The game +> organizer, the participant who creates the whole and moderates these +> adventures, is known as the Dungeon Master, or DM. The other players +> have personae—fighters, magic-users, thieves, clerics, elves, dwarves, +> or what have you—who are known as player characters. Player characters +> have known attributes which are initially determined by rolling the +> dice… These attributes help to define the role and limits of each +> character… There is neither an end to the game nor any winner. Each +> session of play is merely an episode in an ongoing +> “world.”\[[3](#footnote3)\] + +This is what the cave sounds like when it speaks to outsiders: its +diction is erudite and occasionally awkward (“treasures of magic”); it +uses game terms as though their meaning will be obvious (what are +attributes?); it raises as many questions as it answers. You who have +never played could be forgiven for asking, what are the rules of D\&D? +If no one wins, how do you know if you’re playing well? Where’s the +board? OK, listen up: there is no board. You play a character, as in +theater, though you don’t usually act out your character’s words or +deeds. Rather, you communicate about your character with other players +and with the Dungeon Master, whose job is to speak for the world. You +tell the Dungeon Master what you do; someone rolls some dice; the DM +tells you what happens. Together you tell a story: a fantasy epic à la +Tolkien or whomever you will; or rather, given that the game has no +natural end, maybe we should call it a fantasy soap opera. Imagine for a +moment that Adam and Brian are players, and Charlie is the DM. Their +story might go like this: + +> CHARLIE: OK, you guys have just entered the mystical Caverns of +> Quasqueton. You’re in a 10-foot-wide corridor, which leads to a large +> wooden door. +> +> ADAM: I’m going to open the door. +> +> CHARLIE: Just like that? +> +> ADAM: OK, maybe not. Brian, have your elf check the door. +> +> BRIAN: Don’t tell my elf what to do. \[Pause.\] My elf checks the +> door. +> +> CHARLIE: \[Rolls dice.\] It appears to be a normal door. + +What may remain obscure, even now, is why people would choose to play +D\&D, all night, night after night, for years.\[[4](#footnote4)\] Why +intelligent human beings would find the actions of imaginary fighters, +thieves, dwarves, elves, etc., as they move through a space that exists +only notionally, and consists more often than not of dimly lit +corridors, ruined halls, and big, damp caves, more compelling than books +or movies or television, or sleep, or social acceptance, or sex. In +short, what’s so great about Dungeons & Dragons? + +# 2.0 THE HARLOT +ENCOUNTER TABLE + +The appeal of D\&D is superficially not very different from the appeal +of reading. You start outside something (Middle Earth; Dickens’s London; +the fascinating world of mosses and lichens), and you go in, bit by bit. +You forget where you are, what time it is, and what you were doing. +Along the way, you may have occasion to think, to doubt, or even to +learn. Then you come back; your work has piled up; it’s past your +bedtime; people may wonder what you have been doing. + +Once you set foot inside the cave, however, you see very quickly that +D\&D is quite different from a book, or movie, or soap opera. For one +thing, there are a lot more rules. I remember opening the Basic D\&D +rulebook—I was eight years old—and coming to the “Table of Bonus and +Penalties Due to Abilities,” which begins, + +Prime requisite 15 or more add 10% to earned experience Prime requisite +13-14 add 5% to earned experience Prime requisite 9-12 no bonus + +By reading the accompanying text, I figured out that my character’s +abilities—his strength, his intelligence, his wisdom or lack thereof, +and so on—were each determined by rolling three six-sided dice, and that +the “prime requisite” was the ability my character needed to do what he +did (a fighter’s prime requisite is strength; a magic-user’s is +intelligence, etc.). It would be several pages before I understood that +“earned experience” referred to the experience points a character +earns for killing monsters and amassing treasure, and which regulate his +promotion to ever-greater levels of power and ability. And I remember +how, as the meaning of these terms became clear, my bewilderment yielded +to delight. The rules guaranteed the reality of the game-world (how +could anything with so many rules not be real?), and, if they were hard +to understand, at least they were written out, guessable and debatable, +unlike the implicit, arbitrary, and often malign rules that people live +by in the actual world. + +D\&D is a game for people who like rules: in order to play even the +basic game, you had to make sense of roughly twenty pages of +instructions, which cover everything from “Adjusting Ability Scores” +(“Magic-users and clerics can reduce their strength scores by 3 points +and add 1 to their prime requisite”) to “Who Gets the First Blow?” (“The +character with the highest dexterity strikes first”). In fact, as I +wandered farther into the cave, and acquired the rulebooks for Advanced +Dungeons & Dragons, I found that there were rules for everything: what +kind of monsters you could meet in fresh water, what kind you could meet +in salt water, what wise men knew, what happened when you mixed two +magic potions together. If you happened to meet a harlot in the game, +you could roll two twenty-sided dice and consult a table which told you +what kind of harlot it was.\[[5](#footnote5)\] It would be a mistake to +think of these rules as an impediment to enjoying the game. Rather, the +rules are a necessary condition for enjoying the game, and this is true +whether you play by them or not. The rules induct you into the world of +D\&D; they are the long, difficult scramble from the mouth of the cave +to the first point where you can stand up and look +around.\[[6](#footnote6)\] + +# 2.1 THE INVENTION OF +DUNGEONS & DRAGONS + +D\&D gets its appetite for rules from wargames, which have been around +for thousands of years. The modern war game began in the late eighteenth +century, when a certain Helwig, the Master of Pages to the German Duke +of Brunswick, invented something called “War Chess”: instead of rooks +and knights and pawns it featured cavalry, artillery and infantry; +instead of castling it had rules for entrenchment and pontoons. The +Prussians adapted Helwig’s game to train their officers; the French +learned the value of wargames the hard way in 1870. In 1913, when the +Prussians were again rattling their sabers, the British writer H. G. +Wells came up with a game called Little Wars, which was played on a +tabletop, with miniature lead or tin soldiers. Then, in 1958, a fellow +named Charles Roberts founded the Avalon Hill game company, and +published a board game based on the battle of Gettysburg. Gettysburg and +its successors were wildly popular; all over America, college students +and other maladjusted types began to recreate, in their dorms and +basements and family rooms, the great battles of history. + +One of these enthusiasts was a high-school dropout named Ernest Gary +Gygax. In the late 1960s, Gygax was living in Lake Geneva, Wisconsin, +where he worked as an insurance underwriter. He was married to a Lake +Geneva girl and had four children, but he remained an active gamer: +together with a couple of friends, Gygax founded the grandly named +International Federation of Wargaming, the Castles & Crusades Society, +for medieval war gamers, and the Lake Geneva Tactical Studies +Association, which met weekly in his basement. In the course of these +meetings, he became friendly with a hobby-shop owner named Jeff Perren, +and they co-authored a set of rules for medieval miniatures +combat,\[[7](#footnote7)\] called Chainmail, which was published in +1971. + +Meanwhile, up in Minneapolis, a student named Dave Arneson was running +Napoleonic miniatures games in his parents’ basement.\[[8](#footnote8)\] +Arneson got a copy of the Chainmail rules; only it turned out that +medieval miniatures combat wasn’t very exciting,\[[9](#footnote9)\] and +Arneson and his fellow gamers looked for a way to spice it up. A fellow +named Dave Wesley gave each player a personal goal: now the figurine on +the table represented Sir So-and-So, and he had a rudimentary +personality. This was the dawn of tabletop role-playing. Then Arneson +issued a Star Trek phaser to a druid, much to the disgust of the other +players: this was the dawn of tabletop fantasy role-playing, although no +one seemed to realize it yet.\[[10](#footnote10)\] The phaser wasn’t +enough; Arneson spent a weekend eating popcorn and reading Conan novels, +and at the end of it, he had an idea. The next time the Napoleonic +miniatures people showed up in the Arnesons’ basement, they found a +model of a castle on the sand table. They thought it was going to be +some place in Poland, which they would storm or defend. Then Arneson +told them that they were looking at the ruined castle of the Barony of +Blackmoor, and that they were going to have to go into the dungeons and +poke around. The Napoleonic miniatures people weren’t thrilled; they +would have preferred to storm the castle. But they agreed to poke +around. And around, and around. + +In the fall of 1972, Arneson visited Lake Geneva and introduced Gygax to +Blackmoor. Gygax liked the game, and he and Arneson worked together to +develop a publishable version of the rules. The first edition of +Dungeons & Dragons appeared in 1974. Gygax and his business partners, +Don Kaye and Brian Blume, assembled the sets by hand in Gygax’s +basement:\[[11](#footnote11)\] they put stickers on the boxes, collated +the rulebooks, folded the reference sheets. Even so, they didn’t know +what they had on their hands. They called D\&D “rules for fantastic +medieval wargames,” and Gygax hoped to sell 50,000 copies, that being +the approximate size of the wargaming market. At first, D\&D seemed +unlikely to meet even these modest expectations. It took eleven months +for Tactical Studies Rules, which is what Gygax, Kaye and Blume called +their partnership, to sell out the first thousand copies. But news of +the game was traveling by word of mouth, from hobby shops to college +dorms, from dorms to high schools. People called Gygax in the middle of +the night to quiz him about the rules. The second thousand copies, also +hand-assembled, sold in six months, and from then on sales increased +exponentially. In 1975, Tactical Studies Rules incorporated and changed +its name to TSR Hobbies; in 1979, the company sold 7,000 copies of the +D\&D Basic Set each month. Their gross income for 1980 was $4.2 million. + +# 3.0 I’M A FIFTH-LEVEL +DARK ELF WITH A +\+2 SWORD.\[[12](#footnote12)\] + +What set D\&D apart from its cousins, the war games, was, first of all, +the thrill of “being” someone else. In 30 Years of Adventure: A +Celebration of Dungeons & Dragons, a volume published in 2004 by Wizards +of the Coast, celebrity gamer Vin Diesel remembers his twin brother +selling him on D\&D with the line that “\[it’s\] a game that allows you +to be anyone you want to be….” Games designer Harold Johnson heard from +a friend: “It’s a fantasy game. You get to play knights and wizards, +clerics and thieves.” The appeal isn’t hard to understand, especially if +“being” yourself isn’t all that much fun: if you are, say, a bookish +adolescent male with few social skills and no magical powers to speak +of.\[[13](#footnote13)\] What’s more, D\&D offers its players a moral +clarity rarely found in the real world: your character has an alignment; +he or she can be good or evil, lawful or chaotic. Most players choose +good; the paladin, a virtuous knight with magical powers, is a perennial +favorite, although the evil-leaning dark elf is also popular. + +In practice, though, the transformation of player into character often +turns out to be cosmetic: the fearless paladin and the sexy dark elf +both sound and act a lot like a thirteen-year-old boy named Ted. And +what Ted likes to do, mostly, is kill anything that crosses his path. +It’s little wonder that Dungeons & Dragons was uncool in the 1970s and +’80s. Under the guise of role-playing, the game condoned behaviors that +would get you ostracized (or worse) if you tried them in the real world. +The dungeon adventures which were the game’s mainstay in the early ’70s +had only two objectives: destroy all the monsters, and get all the +treasure.\[[14](#footnote14)\] Circa 1978, Gary Gygax wrote and +published a series of adventures with a narrative arc: the characters +begin by taking on a hill giant, and they are gradually drawn into the +underground world of the Drow, or dark elves, one of Gygax’s best-loved +creations. The story was compelling to the people who played the +adventures, but this may have had less to do with its complexity than +with the fact that there was a story at all. In any case, the ins and +outs of Drow society only slightly mitigated the game’s +bloody-mindedness; instead of destroying all monsters, the wise course +now was to destroy some monsters.\[[15](#footnote15)\] + +Women in the game—female players, female “non-player characters” who +turned up in bars and dungeon cells—fared little better. Gary Alan Fine, +a sociologist who published a book-length study of fantasy role-playing +games in 1983, reported that “in theory, female characters can be as +powerful as males; in practice, they are often treated as chattels.” +Indeed, one of the players Fine observed\[[16](#footnote16)\] reported +that he didn’t like playing with women, because they inhibited his +friends’ natural tendency to rape the (imaginary) women they met +in-game: + +> Because a lot of people I know go in and pick up a woman and just walk +> off…. Some people get a little carried away and rape other people…. +> Well, I’ve seen a lot of players just calm down because of +> \[females\].\[[17](#footnote17)\] + +You will not be surprised to learn that, in one 1978 survey of fantasy +role-playing gamers, only 2.3 percent of respondents were female; in +another, only 0.4 percent. Nor did TSR, in the early days, do much to +remedy this situation (I recall a print ad for D\&D, in which a tweenage +girl is pictured playing with some boys, and enjoying herself: now that +was a fantasy, I thought), perhaps because Gygax is a self-avowed +biological determinist who believes that “women’s brains are wired +differently… the reason they don’t play is that they’re not interested +in playing.” + +# 3.1 THIS IS B.A.D.D. + +In 1979, an average of 6,839 young men were picking up Dungeons & +Dragons each month: sooner or later there was bound to be trouble. And +sure enough, that same year, a Michigan State student named James Dallas +Egbert III disappeared after a game of D\&D. The thing was, Egbert and +his friends weren’t just rolling dice and moving lead miniatures around +on a card table; they had been acting out their characters’ exploits in +the university’s steam tunnels. It seemed possible that the game had +gone too far, and that Egbert had been killed, or died by misadventure. +A few weeks later, Egbert turned up in Morgan City, Louisiana, and +revealed that D\&D had nothing to do with his disappearance, but the +case caused a sensation. The private investigator hired to find Egbert +published a faintly lurid book called The Dungeon Master, which inspired +a lurid novel called Mazes and Monsters, which inspired a made-for-TV +movie of the same name, starring Tom Hanks. Meanwhile, in Washington +state, a seventeen-year-old boy shot himself in the head. Witnesses said +that he had been trying to summon “D\&D demons” just minutes before his +death. Was Dungeons & Dragons a blood sport? Was it a gateway to +Satanism? A woman named Pat Pulling, whose son, a D\&D player, had also +committed suicide, started an organization called Bothered About +Dungeons and Dragons, or, yes, B.A.D.D., and before long D\&D had joined +a pantheon of mostly cooler or at least more authentically dangerous +phenomena which were said to be corrupting America’s youth: marijuana, +rock and roll, free love, LSD, heavy metal. + +Even from the point of view of a teenage boy who would have liked +nothing better than to be corrupted by any of the phenomena listed +above, if corrupted meant meeting girls or even just getting out of the +house, the furore over D\&D was hard to understand. Didn’t the grown-ups +understand what losers we were? That all we did was roll dice and shout +and stuff our faces with snacks? Evidently not: in 1989, Bill +Schnoebelen, a reformed Milwaukee Satanist, wrote an article called +“Straight Talk on Dungeons and Dragons,” which can still be found on +Chick Ministries’ website.\[[18](#footnote18)\] He listed the +“brainwashing techniques” which D\&D uses to lure its players into the +devil’s world, among which are: + +> 1. Fear generation—via spells and mental imaging about fear-filled, +> emotional scenes, and threats to survival of FRP \[fantasy +> role-playing\] characters. +> +> 2. Isolation—psychological removal from traditional support +> structures (family, church, etc.) into an imaginary world. +> Physical isolation due to extremely time-consuming play activities +> outside the family atmosphere. +> +> 3. Physical torture and killings—images in the mind can be almost as +> real as the actual experiences. Focus of the games is upon +> killings and torture for power, acquisition of wealth, and +> survival of characters. +> +> 4. Erosion of family values—the Dungeon Master (DM) demands an +> all-encompassing and total loyalty, control and allegiance. + +Most of which is, of course, true, though I’d quibble at Schnoebelen’s +emphasis on torture—usually it was enough for us to kill the monsters +without torturing them first—and at the logic of No. 4: the DM could +demand total loyalty as much as he wanted, but he was unlikely to get it +from us; we were too busy finding ways to reduce his creation to rubble, +or eating ice cream. But the mention of “spells” in No. 1 is bizarre. +Did Schnoebelen think that the players were actually capable of working +magic? Further study of his article suggests that he did. “Just because +the people playing D\&D think they are playing a game doesn’t mean that +the evil spirits (who ARE very real) will regard it as a game. If you +are doing rituals or saying spells that invite them into your life, then +they will come—believe me\!”\[[19](#footnote19)\] This was every +player’s fantasy: that the magic in the game would work, that we would +become our characters, for real, and be rid once and for all of our +lowball ability scores, our pathetic skills, our humdrum real-life +equipment. If wishing, or talking, or even praying could have made it +so, then there would have been a lot of dark elves out there, +brandishing their +2 swords, and—perhaps the people at Chick Ministries +will find this reassuring—a lot of paladins, too, curing us of our +diseases, protecting us from evil within a ten-foot radius. + +Despite a near-total absence of evidence linking D\&D to Satanism, or +magic, or anything, really, except obesity and lower-back pain, Pat +Pulling and Gary Gygax appeared on a special investigative episode of 60 +Minutes, which left viewers with the impression that there was “strong +evidence” that Dungeons & Dragons could inspire teenagers to kill +themselves, or each other. Gygax started getting death threats in the +mail, and he hired a bodyguard. Yet notoriety had its advantages: in +1981, with the Egbert case still fresh in the public’s mind, TSR’s +revenues quadrupled, to $16.5 million. + +# 3.1.1 A FURTHER +NOTE ON RITUAL + +As silly as Schnoebelen’s fears may sound to us now, he did get one +thing right: Dungeons & Dragons is not a game. The French anthropologist +Claude Lévi-Strauss notes that “Games… appear to have a disjunctive +effect: they end in the establishment of a difference between individual +players or teams where originally there was no indication of inequality. +And at the end of the game they are distinguished into winners and +losers.” Which is, as noted above, not true of D\&D: “there is neither +an end to the game nor any winner.” But if D\&D isn’t a game, then what +is it, exactly? One theorist of fantasy role-playing games proposes, +following Lévi-Strauss, that D\&D is, in the strict sense of the term, a +ritual. “Ritual, on the other hand,” this is Lévi-Strauss again, “is the +exact inverse: it conjoins, for it brings about a union... or in any +case an organic relation between two initially separate +groups….”\[[20](#footnote20)\] D\&D conjoins: this is not the first +thing you notice when you enter the cave; nor is it mentioned very often +by the game’s recruiters (or by its detractors), who prefer to talk +about killing and money and other things the uninitiated can understand. +And yet it is an essential feature of the game—ritual—whatever you want +to call it. Adam’s fighter may be more powerful than Brian’s elf, but if +the fighter kills the elf, or even pisses him off seriously, who will +find the secret door? In order to get very far in the cave, the players +need to work together.\[[21](#footnote21)\] Which would make D\&D not +very different from any other team sport, if there were another team; +but there isn’t. The remarkable thing about D\&D is that everyone has to +play together. Even the DM, who plays all the monsters and villains, has +to cooperate; if he doesn’t—if he kills the entire party of adventurers, +or requires players not to cheat on life-or-death dice rolls—the chances +that he will be invited to run another session are small. + +Here I am tempted to advance a wild argument. It goes like this: in a +society that conditions people to compete, and rewards those who compete +successfully, Dungeons & Dragons is countercultural; its project, when +you think about it in these terms, is almost +utopian.\[[22](#footnote22)\] Show people how to have a good time, a +mind-blowing, life-changing, all-night-long good +time,\[[23](#footnote23)\] by cooperating with each other\! And perhaps +D\&D is socially unacceptable because it encourages its players to drop +out of the world of competition, in which the popular people win, and to +tune in to another world, where things work differently, and everyone +wins (or dies) together. You will object that a group of teenage boys +slaughtering orcs and raping women doesn’t sound like utopia. Granted. +But among teenage boys whose opportunities for social interaction were +otherwise not great, D\&D was like a door opening. Forget for a moment +that behind the door there were mostly monsters and darkness. For us, +for the people who played, what waited behind that door was a world, and +the world belonged to us. We could live in it as we really were; we +could argue about its rules; we could learn how, by working together, to +get the better of it. For some of us it was a lesson: the real world +could, on occasion, and by similar means, be bested. For others of us, +who never really left the game: at least we had a world. + +In fact, the ability to function in another world may be the game’s most +important legacy. D\&D provided a conceptual framework for some of the +most popular computer games of the 1980s: Wizardry, Ultima, and Zork all +involve poking around in dungeons and slaying monsters. Wizardry begat +Wolfenstein 3D, Wolfenstein begat Doom, Doom begat Quake, and Quake +begat Halo: it may be an exaggeration to say that these games could +never have existed without Dungeons & Dragons, but D\&D certainly showed +a lot of people what kind of fun they could have by participating in a +virtual reality. The game’s influence is even clearer on the massively +multiplayer online role-playing games: Everquest, Ultima Online, World +of Warcraft, and D\&D Online, which made its début early this year. +Almost every aspect of the old tabletop game has been recreated in these +pretty, expensive beasts, except the pleasure of being in the same room +with other human beings. Perhaps the people who spend thirty hours a +week playing World of Warcraft, the people who used to buy and sell +Everquest magic items for real dollars on eBay, and the people who buy +online characters that have been “leveled up” by workers in the Third +World, don’t miss the companionship. D\&D taught us to live in an +imaginary place—a literal utopia—and if that place is engrossing enough, +what does it matter if there are other people in your living room or +not? And yet it sounds lonely to me. The great thing about +old-fashioned, paper-and-pencil D\&D was that it straddled the virtual +world and the real one: when the game was over, the dungeons and dragons +went back to their notebooks, but you got to keep your friends. + +# 4.0 DADDY NEEDS A NEW +SWORD OF WOUNDING + +Even now, more than thirty years after its invention, people are still +playing Dungeons & Dragons. Not quite the game I played as a child: a +Second Edition appeared in 1989; it tidied up the hodgepodge of rules +which Advanced D\&D had become, stripped the paladin of many of his +powers, and was duly reviled by most old-school players. By then, Gygax +had lost control of TSR; he was replaced by Lorraine Dille Williams, the +heiress to the Buck Rogers fortune.\[[24](#footnote24)\] Williams was +not generally beloved by those who worked under her; nonetheless, the +company managed to publish some good material: the Goth-y Ravenloft +campaign setting, the killer Return to the Tomb of Horrors, and a number +of successful fantasy novels. But the market for the game had stopped +growing. Everyone who was going to buy the rulebooks had already done +so; in order to keep selling its products to gamers, TSR had to come up +with new rulebooks. Thus we got, among other things, The Complete Book +of Gnomes & Halflings, 127 pages on “The Myths of the Halflings,” “A +Typical Gnomish Village,” etc. + +Meanwhile, TSR spent a lot of money pursuing licensing deals and +starting lawsuits, several of them against Gygax, to protect its +copyrights. Changes in the bookselling industry further eroded the +company’s revenues; TSR went deeply into debt, and in 1997 Williams sold +the company to Wizards of the Coast, which was best known for a +collectible card game called Magic: The Gathering. In 2000, Wizards +published a third edition of Dungeons & Dragons, which systematized what +had been erratic or arbitrary in the first two editions. Reactions to +the Third Edition have generally been positive, although some players +grumble that the rules are now too consistent. William Connors, a +designer for TSR and, briefly, for Wizards, says that with the Third +Edition, “the heart and soul of the game was gone. To me, it wasn’t all +that much more exciting than playing with an Excel +spreadsheet.”\[[25](#footnote25)\] A gamer I talked to in a Manhattan +hobby shop says that he’s afraid the Third Edition is for “power +campaigners”: people who exploit the rules to make their characters as +powerful as possible, at the expense of role-playing plausibility or +narrative interest. Nor has the proliferation of rulebooks been checked. +Wizards of the Coast publishes about two dozen official rulebooks for +D\&D, not counting dozens of supplementary books by other publishers; +and the Third Edition rulebooks have already been superceded by Edition +3.5. + +Meanwhile, a stranger transformation has taken place: D\&D is no longer +uncool. In part, this is because the game has become more sophisticated, +more narrative-based, less single-mindedly devoted to the destruction of +monsters. A live-action role-playing game\[[26](#footnote26)\] called +Vampire: The Masquerade introduced members of the Goth subculture to +gaming; some of them switched over to D\&D, with the result that there +are more women gamers now, and they are in a position to make their own +version of the game.\[[27](#footnote27)\] Also, some of the people who +create mass culture now were once themselves gamers. There are graphic +depictions of D\&D in The X-Files and Freaks & Geeks and Buffy the +Vampire Slayer; Gary Gygax has even made a cameo appearance on Futurama. +Vin Diesel admits happily to being a gamer; Steven Colbert admits to +having been one. Mostly, though, D\&D has become acceptable because +people get used to things. As John Rateliff, who has worked on the game +since the early ’90s, puts it, “It’s kind of like rock music. All it +takes is time for people to get over their fear of the new and find out +whether it’s something they might actually enjoy trying themselves.” + +The question is, are new people joining the game? According to a recent +survey, there are four million D\&D players in the United States, and +that number hasn’t changed much in the last few years. The majority of +the players are between eighteen and twenty-four years old, then you +have the twelve- to seventeen-year-olds and the twenty-five- to +thirty-four-year-olds, who play in roughly equal numbers; then the +thirty-five to forty-five-year-olds, and finally the eight- to +eleven-year-olds, very few of whom play D\&D, or have even heard of the +game. The survey notes cheerily that a third of these tweenagers +expressed interest in learning about D\&D, but whether Wizards of the +Coast can translate this interest into sales—and players—remains to be +seen. Last summer I visited Gen Con, a gaming convention that has been +held annually since 1968 when Gary Gygax and his friends rented out the +Lake Geneva Horticultural Hall.\[[28](#footnote28)\] The convention has +grown to about 26,000 attendees annually, and it has moved, from Lake +Geneva to Milwaukee and now to Indianapolis, where it occupies the +convention center downtown, between the state house and the football +stadium. I didn’t see many twelve- to seventeen-year-olds, and the ones +I did see were gathered in the Xbox area, blowing each other away in +Halo 2. The people who filled the gaming rooms and prowled the Exhibit +Hall were men and women in their twenties and thirties, some of them in +doublets and hose, some in Goth regalia, most in shorts and T-shirts and +jeans and sneakers and sandals. If they had dispersed into the streets +of Indianapolis no one would have known them for anything but citizens, +if it weren’t for their convention badges and the fervent light in their +eyes. Of course, these were the people who loved gaming enough to travel +to central Indiana and spend several hundred dollars on entrance fees, +game tickets, hotels and restaurants, which, incidentally, were serving +special game-themed meals: whatever else gamers may be, they are +apparently willing to spend money on almost anything +game-related.\[[29](#footnote29)\] You wouldn’t expect a +fifteen-year-old to turn up here on his own—except that in the early +days of Gen Con, you heard stories about kids who did just that. They +came by bus and hitchhiked to the convention center; they gamed all day +and slept in the hallways at night because they couldn’t afford hotel +rooms. + +I didn’t play much D\&D while I was at Gen Con, in part because the +Third Edition rules are too different from the rules I grew up with, and +in part because tournament play isn’t my cup of tea: it’s goal-directed, +without much emphasis on role-playing.\[[30](#footnote30)\] However, +according to the same survey, the largest group of D\&D players are just +my age: thirty-five-year-old men make up almost 10 percent of the +D\&D-playing population (twenty-two-year-olds are next, at 7 percent, +then thirty-two-year-olds, at 5.5 percent). These are the people whose +adolescence corresponds to the peak of D\&D’s popularity, the ones who +were in college when Second Edition came out and the game’s popularity +surged again. At the risk of drawing false conclusions, I will venture +to speak for my demographic: we were hooked early, and the hooks went +deep into us. Few of the people I talked to or read about, who have been +involved with gaming since the early ’90s or longer, show any sign of +wanting to quit. John Rateliff says, “If I’m still alive \[at +seventy-five\], I’ll still be playing. Why not? I intend to still be +listening to the music I like and reading the books I like at \[that +age\], if I’m still able. Why shouldn’t I still be enjoying my favorite +hobby?” Skip Williams, who has been working on D\&D since First Edition +days, has left Wizards of the Coast, but he can’t seem to leave gaming; +right now he’s sprucing up a bunch of “classic monsters” for a new +monster book. Even Brian Blume, who left TSR after a bitter struggle +with Gary Gygax, and seems unlikely to have fond memories of those days, +was recently roped into a game of Boot Hill, the Wild-West-era +role-playing game he co-wrote in 1975. “I was at a games convention in +Des Moines, and a fellow was running a big barroom shootout, and I got +involved. It was a big nostalgic moment.” Apparently the referee begged +Blume to play the sheriff, the toughest role, because usually in those +situations the sheriff is the first one to be shot. “Were you shot?” I +asked. “I role-played it a little,” Blume said, and chuckled. “I got +about halfway through, and I’m happy with that.” + +If Wizards of the Coast can’t find a way to make Dungeons & Dragons +compelling to children, then the day will come when D\&D is the +equivalent of bingo or shuffleboard, played by forgetful old men in +retirement homes, community centers, and, yes, church basements. “I’m an +elf of some sort,” one of the players will say. “Where did I put that +character sheet?” But the best hope for D\&D’s future currency may be +that we thirty-five-year-olds will overcome our geekdom for at least +long enough to start families. “My kids are coming tomorrow,” said one +Gen Con visitor, a thirty-six-year-old man who had been playing D\&D for +twenty-four years. “They’ve never played before, but I thought I’d give +them the chance to try it out.” There’s no reason to think that children +have lost the desire to become elves, warriors, wizards, and thieves. If +we’re lucky, they’ll be willing to play with their parents. + +**THE SCENARIO, OR, +WAYNE AND I MEET +THE WIZARD** + +# BACKGROUND INFORMATION + +We are far enough into the cave now that I can tell you that I have +mixed feelings about Dungeons & Dragons. I played fantasy role-playing +games more or less incessantly from 1978, when my father brought home +the D\&D Basic Set, until 1985, when I changed high schools and fell out +of constant contact with my gamer friends. I played so much that it’s +hard for me to understand in retrospect how I managed to do anything +else, and the truth is that I didn’t do anything else. I was a mediocre +student; I didn’t see hardly any of New York City, where I lived; I knew +less about girls than I did about the Gelatinous Cube (immune to cold +and sleep; takes normal damage from fire). I played at friends’ houses; +I played in the school cafeteria; I played in the hallway between +classes; I cut class to play in whispers in the library. I hesitate to +say that I was addicted to role-playing games only because I never knew +what it was like to go without them; in D\&D I had found something I +loved more than life itself. Then a number of things happened, and for +fifteen years I didn’t think about D\&D at all. I was living in San +Francisco, where dungeon referred to something entirely different, and +life seemed mutable and good, like a game. In December 2001, I moved +back to New York, and soon afterward I began to think about D\&D again. +It turned out that my agent’s office was a block from the Compleat +Strategist, the hobby shop where I used to buy my role-playing games. I +wasn’t eager to revisit that part of my life, which I thought of as a +dangerous mire from which I had miraculously escaped, but I slunk into +the store. Nothing had changed: nothing. The same pads of hex +paper\[[31](#footnote31)\] stood in the same racks by the door, their +covers bleached by twenty years of sunlight. It was as if the place had +been preserved as a museum to the heyday of tabletop role-playing games; +it was as if someone had set out to demonstrate that you could go home +again. Maybe I wanted to come home; maybe I had never really left that +mire; maybe I needed to own up to an old love—an old habit—in order to +make my life whole. This thing of dorkness I acknowledge mine. All I +knew was that I had to do something about Dungeons & Dragons: put it +behind me once and for all, or return to its warm, embarrassing embrace. +For a long time I did neither. Then one day, when my friend Wayne and I +were talking about our gaming days, he said, why don’t you interview E. +Gary Gygax? It made sense. Gygax was the source of Dungeons & Dragons, +the wizard who cast the original spell.\[[32](#footnote32)\] Perhaps by +going to see him I could get the spell lifted at last. And besides, as +Wayne was quick to point out, how cool would it be to meet Gary Gygax? +Not to mention, he said, the possibility that we could convince him +somehow to play D\&D with us. We, he said, because of course it had to +be both of us. You need three people to play D\&D; besides, Wayne was +under the spell, too. + +# LAKE GENEVA + +Gary Gygax still lives in Lake Geneva, a resort town about two hours +northeast of Chicago. Incorporated in 1844, it has a cutesified little +downtown and a historical museum in which a street from Old Lake Geneva +is haphazardly recreated, down to the Indian arrowheads, barber poles, +and photographs of former firemen. There’s an excellent video arcade, +with a vintage Robotron console still in good working order. There’s a +place that sells Frozen Custard Butterburgers, two distinct Midwestern +delicacies, I hope. There’s a big lake, which freezes in winter; people +build a shantytown on the ice and go fishing for bass and cisco. Gygax +was born in Chicago, but he grew up here, and he returned to Lake Geneva +in his mid-twenties to raise his family. It’s not hard to see how +Dungeons & Dragons would come out of a place like this, a place where, +on a fine spring night, you can find the town’s youthful population +walking up and down Main Street, from the ice cream parlor to the +arcade, from the arcade to the lake. If you grew up here, you would need +to dream of something. + +Gygax and I agreed to meet on a Saturday in May. I said I’d come at +eleven; he said, come at nine, I’ll make you breakfast. So Wayne and I +found ourselves outside his big yellow house one gray morning, wondering +if we were worthy to meet the Wizard. Then he let us in. Gygax does not +look un-wizardly: he has a long white ponytail, a white beard and fierce +black eyebrows, like Gandalf. He is shorter than Gandalf, however, and +stouter, and more cheerful: picture him as a cross between Gandalf and +Bilbo Baggins.\[[33](#footnote33)\] A lifelong smoker, Gygax sounds a +bit like Tom Waits, especially when he laughs, and he laughs often. He +had a mild stroke in 2004, and his doctor ordered him to quit +cigarettes; now he smokes Monterrey Black and Mild cigarillos, one after +the other. He led us to a table at the corner of the screened porch, +which was cluttered with a long life’s worth of wicker furniture and +floor lamps. In the center of the table lay a big pleather-bound copy of +the Holy Scriptures: maybe it was there by accident, or maybe Gygax +wanted to reassure us that he wasn’t a Satanist. I had told him that I +was writing for a magazine called the Believer, after all. As we sat +down, his wife appeared from within the house, saw us, and cried, +“They’re two hours early\!” Gygax excused himself and conferred +within. Then he came out as if nothing had happened; he lit a cigarillo +and began to speak. + +E. Gary Gygax was born in 1938. His father, Ernst Gygax, came to America +from Switzerland; he settled in Chicago, and one summer he went to a +dance in Lake Geneva. There he met Almina Emilie Burdick, the daughter +of an old Lake Geneva family, married her, and returned to Chicago, not +necessarily in that order. Ernst wanted to play the violin, he put +himself through music school and for a time he played with the Chicago +Symphony Orchestra, but when he saw that he would never make first chair +he gave it up and sold clothes instead. He was, Gygax says, an attentive +father, and he must have been a permissive father also, because Gygax’s +childhood was marked by a disregard for rules and obligations. He went +to school half a block from his childhood house in Lake Geneva, but he +was rarely to be found there. “It was just dull and stupid,” he says, +“and you know, I had so many other things I wanted to do. I had a day +full of active going out with my friends, playing chess, hanging around, +trying to pick up girls, usually without any success whatsoever. What? +Sit home? Do school work? Unthinkable.” Instead he threw firecrackers at +the chief of the waterworks, shot .22s down empty streets, and haunted +the abandoned Oak Hill Sanatorium, a five-story brick building that +overlooked Lake Geneva. He played make-believe with the kids next door: +he was a cowboy named Jim Slade, and he got the drop on his friends so +often that they quit in disgust. + +Easygoing as he sounds, Gygax likes to win; there is in him more than a +little of the Ernst who would be first violin or nothing. You can hear +it in the way that he talks about the invention of Dungeons & Dragons. +Gygax and Dave Arneson are credited equally as authors of the original +game, but as Gygax tells it, Arneson had at most a minor role in the +process. When I asked him whether Arneson ran his Blackmoor campaign +before the D\&D rules were written—a fact which seems beyond doubt, and +which establishes Arneson’s involvement in the creation of the +game—Gygax answered evasively, “Um, he was up in Minneapolis, and he +ran a lot of game campaigns. He was using my Chainmail rules for a +campaign and I think that was called Blackmoor.” Arneson, for his part, +claims that he scrapped the Chainmail rules early on, in favor of a more +complex system derived from Civil War–era naval +simulations.\[[34](#footnote34)\] And the gloom thickens: Arneson sued +TSR more than once for royalties and a co-authorship credit on the +Advanced Dungeons & Dragons rulebooks; the court decided in his favor, +but as far as I know he never got the credit.\[[35](#footnote35)\] +Arneson is legally enjoined from discussing the matter, and Gygax +doesn’t like to talk about it either, perhaps because it reflects +badly on him, or perhaps because he is at heart a Midwesterner, and so +not disposed to speak ill of his fellow man. As we talked, though, it +became clear that Gygax thinks strategically about more or less +everything. He mentioned that his son Luke had served in the first Gulf +War: “I told him when he was over there for Desert Shield, I said, +‘Well, here’s what’s going to happen. The \[Coalition’s\] left flank +is gonna come around and pocket all those dummies\!’ And that’s exactly +what they did. I couldn’t believe it, you know? Boy, Saddam Hussein’s +not a general.” Wayne asked Gygax what he would have done in Saddam’s +place. Gygax thought about it, then answered, “I would have gotten right +out of Kuwait…. You’d have to slow ’em up and you’d try to fight a +guerilla war.” He conceded that against Allied airpower, the Iraqis +would have lost anyhow. But it didn’t stop him from figuring out how to +make the best of a weak position. + +Gygax’s own position at TSR had become weak by 1982. In order to finance +the publication of D\&D in 1974, he and his partner Don Kaye had brought +in a friend named Brian Blume, whose father, Melvin, was willing to +invest money in the company. Kaye died in 1976, and Brian got his +brother Kevin named to TSR’s board. Gygax was the president of TSR, but +the Blumes effectively controlled the company; to keep Gygax further in +check they brought in three outside directors, a lawyer and two +businessmen who knew nothing about gaming but always voted with the +Blumes. So Gygax moved to Los Angeles, and became president of Dungeons +& Dragons Entertainment, which produced a successful D\&D cartoon, and +set out to produce a D\&D movie. This was, to put it mildly, a strategic +retreat. Gygax rented King Vidor’s mansion, high up in Beverly Hills, +with a bar, a pool table, and a hot tub with a view of everything from +Hollywood to Catalina. He had a Cadillac and a driver; he had lunch with +Orson Welles, though he mentions with Gygaxian modesty that “I find no +greatness through association.”\[[36](#footnote36)\] Here a whiff of +scandal enters the story. Gygax had separated from his first wife, the +mother of five of his six children; he had not yet married his second +wife, Gail.\[[37](#footnote37)\] In the interim, well, it was Hollywood, +and Gygax was in possession of a desirable hot tub. Gygax refers to the +girlfriends who used to drive him around—he doesn’t drive; never has—and +to a certain party attended by the contestants of the Miss Beverly Hills +International Beauty Pageant. But he also mentions that he had a sand +table set up in the barn, where he and the screenwriters for the D\&D +cartoon used to play Chainmail miniatures. This is perhaps why Gygax, +unlike other men who leave their wives and run off to L.A., is not +odious: his love of winning is tempered by an even greater love of +playing, and of getting others to play along. He ends the story about +the beauty pageant girls with the observation that Luke, who was living +with him at the time, was in heaven, seated between Miss Germany and +Miss Finland. + +Gygax spent a lot of money in Hollywood. According to Brian Blume, he +paid the screenwriter James Goldman, best known for A Lion in Winter, +$500,000 for the script of the would-be D\&D movie, but a movie deal +remained elusive. Meanwhile, TSR had other problems: believing that it +would continue to grow indefinitely, the Blumes had overstaffed the +company; they invested in expensive computer equipment, office +furniture, a fleet of company cars. But TSR’s growth spurt was over. By +1984, the company was $1.5 million in debt, and the bank was ready to +perfect its liens on TSR’s trademarks: in effect, to repossess Dungeons +& Dragons. Gygax got word that the Blumes were trying to sell TSR, and +he returned to Lake Geneva, where he persuaded the board of directors to +fire Kevin Blume and published a new D\&D rulebook to raise +cash.\[[38](#footnote38)\] At the same time, Gygax looked for people to +invest in the company. While he was living in Los Angeles, he’d become +friends with a writer named Flint Dille, with whom he collaborated on a +series of choose-your-own-adventure-type novels. Flint arranged for +Gygax to meet his sister, Lorraine Dille Williams, who, in addition to +the Buck Rogers fortune, had experience in hospital and not-for-profit +administration. Gygax asked Williams to invest in TSR; Williams +demurred, but agreed to advise Gygax on how to get the company back on +its feet. + +In May, 1985, Gygax exercised a stock option which gave him a +controlling interest in TSR; he named himself CEO, and hired Williams as +a general manager. And here the darkness of the cave becomes so great +that almost nothing can be seen. Some time in the summer of 1985, +Williams, impressed by the potential value of TSR’s intellectual +property, decided to take control of the company. She bought out the +Blume brothers, who wanted to quit anyway; but first she got Brian Blume +to exercise his stock option, which meant that Williams ended up with a +majority of the shares of TSR. At this point, Brian Blume says, “ugly +things happened.” Blume says that Gygax tried to fire Williams and hire +Gail Carpenter (the future Mrs. E. Gary Gygax) in her place. Gygax says +that he wanted to fire Williams when she was still only a manager, but +was advised not to, and didn’t, until it was too late. Flint Dille +speculates that Gygax wanted the company for himself. “Gary was +interested in running TSR again. He was going to replace the board with +his then-girlfriend, family members, and pets. And Lorraine said, you +can’t do that. We don’t want to replace one tyranny with another.” + +For nearly a year after we met Gygax, Wayne and I entertained various +wild theories about what had really happened, and why. Then I found +Lorraine Williams. She has kept silent about TSR since she left the +company, in 1997, but she agreed to talk with me for some reason, +perhaps because I didn’t sound like a hard-core gamer, or because even +keeping silent no longer seems important to her after all these years. I +hoped for something extraordinary from our conversation: a revelation, a +glimmer of light in the dark heart of the cave. I was disappointed. +“There’s no great, hidden story,” Williams told me, “as much as people +would like there to be one.” She saw the potential for TSR to move +beyond the sluggish market for role-playing games: “If you look at the +track record of what has been published by TSR, and how many people in +the fantasy and science fiction area got their start publishing with +TSR, it’s impressive. And I found that exciting. I also saw an +opportunity that we were never really able to capitalize on, and that +was the ability to go in and develop intellectual property.” She moved +in. “And it was my intention at that time,” she said, “and I really +thought that Gary and I had actually worked out the deal, that he would +continue to have a very strong role, a leading role in the creative +process, and I would take over the management. But that didn’t work for +a bunch of really extraneous reasons.” Williams declined to say what +those reasons were, but her brother speculates, plausibly, that they had +to do with the Los Angeles operation: basically, Gygax didn’t want to +give up King Vidor’s mansion, not when a movie deal could come through +any day, not when he was having so much fun.\[[39](#footnote39)\] Gloom, +gloom. + +When Gygax learned that Williams had bought the Blumes’ shares, he tried +to block the sale in court. He lost. Lorraine Williams had outmaneuvered +him, and she would continue to do so through the 1980s and ’90s, +thwarting his attempts to create games which were, in her eyes, +infringements on TSR’s intellectual property.\[[40](#footnote40)\] Gygax +succumbed to the business equivalent of air superiority. In 1986, he +became the chairman of the board of directors of a company called New +Infinities Productions, which published the Cyborg Commando role-playing +game, which has been utterly lost, like most of the role-playing games +published in the 1980s. Not even the Compleat Strategist stocks it +anymore. + +King Vidor’s mansion has been torn down; Gary Gygax is back in an old, +cluttered house a few blocks from where he grew up. He has sold or +renounced his rights to Dungeons & Dragons, and the money he made in +TSR’s fat years seems mostly to be gone, too. He continues to write +D\&D supplements with names like Gary Gygax’s Fantasy Fortifications, +but the market for such work is small: a third-party D\&D title is doing +well if it sells 5,000 copies. Gygax is still designing his own games, +too. He worked for a while on a fantasy role-playing game called +Dangerous Journeys, and now he’s working on one called Lejendary +Adventures, a rules-lite alternative to the behemoth that Dungeons & +Dragons has become. I haven’t played Lejendary Adventures, but to judge +from the rulebook the game seems to be haunted by the specter of +copyright infringement: characters are called avatars; classes are +called orders; experience points are called merits; the elf has been +renamed the Ilf. This despite the fact that elf is uncopyrightable: it’s +as if Gygax were still dodging Lorraine Williams after all these years. +And yet he doesn’t seem to feel much rancor, or much regret. Perhaps +that’s because, win or lose, Gygax has made a whole life of playing +games; and he is still playing. He has a weekly game of Metamorphosis +Alpha, a science-fiction RPG, with Jim Ward, the game’s author. He plays +old-fashioned D\&D regularly with his son, Alex, and Ward, and sometimes +with fans who make pilgrimages to Lake Geneva. And no one ever comes to +ask why he isn’t in school\! No wonder he laughs so often. + +# THE TEETH OF +BARKASH-NOUR + +Wayne and I took Gygax to lunch at an Italian restaurant on the +outskirts of Lake Geneva: an expensive place, Gygax warned us. Our +sandwiches cost six or seven dollars each. After lunch, we returned to +his house to play some Dungeons & Dragons. Wayne and I felt curiously +listless; it had already been a long day of talking; Wayne wasn’t sure +he remembered how to play; I would have been happy to go back to our +motel room and sleep. This happens to me often: I decide that I want +something; I work and work at it; and just as the object of my quest +comes into view, it suddenly comes to seem less valuable, not valuable +at all. I can find no compelling reason to seize it and often I don’t. +(This has never been the case, curiously, in role-playing games, where +my excitement increases in a normal way as the end of the adventure +approaches. Which is probably another reason why I like the games more +than the life that goes on around them, and between them.) I wonder if +we would have turned back, if Gygax hadn’t already gone into the house +and come back with his purple velvet dice bag and a black binder, a +module he wrote for a tournament in 1975. This was before the Tolkien +estate threatened to sue TSR, and halflings were still called hobbits. +So I got to play a hobbit thief and a magic-user and Wayne played a +cleric and a fighter, and for four and a half hours we struggled through +a wilderness adventure in a looking-glass world of carnivorous plants, +invisible terrain, breathable water, and so on. All of which Gygax +presented with a minimum of fuss. The author of Dungeons & Dragons +doesn’t much care for role-playing: “If I want to do that,” he said, +“I’ll join an amateur theater group.” In fact, D\&D, as DM’ed by E. +Gary Gygax, is not unlike a miniatures combat game. We spent a lot of +time just moving around, looking for the fabled Teeth of Barkash-Nour, +which were supposed to lie in a direction indicated by the “tail of the +Great Bear’s pointing.” Our confusion at first was pitiable, almost +Beckettian. + +> GYGAX: You run down northeast along the ridge, and you can see the +> river to your north and to your northeast. So which way do you want to +> go? +> +> PAUL: The river is flowing south. +> +> WAYNE: Which is the direction we ultimately want to go, right? +> +> PAUL: We have to wend in the direction of the tail of the… +> +> PAUL, WAYNE: “Great Bear’s pointing.” +> +> PAUL: But we have no idea which way that is. +> +> WAYNE: Tail of the Great Bear’s pointing. Maybe we should go north. + +The sky clouds over; raindrops fall; the clouds part and the light turns +rich yellow. The screen porch smells of cigar smoke. I want to go +outside, to walk by Lake Geneva in early May, to follow the beautiful +woman Wayne and I saw walking by the shore, to meet a stranger, to live. +But I can’t get up. I roll the dice. I’m not tired anymore; I’m not +worried about making a fool of myself in front of Gygax, who obviously +couldn’t care less. And something strange is happening: Wayne and I are +starting to play well. We climb a cliff by means of a magic carpet; we +bargain with invisible creatures in an invisible lake. We steal eggs +from a hippogriff’s nest; we chase away giant crabs by threatening them +with the illusion of a giant, angry lobster.\[[41](#footnote41)\] The +scenario was designed for a group of six or eight characters, but by +dint of cooperation and sound tactics (basically, we avoid fighting any +monster that isn’t directly in our path) we make it through, from one +page of Gygax’s black binder to the next. So we come to the final foe, +the Slimy Horror, which turns our two spellcasters into vegetables; my +hobbit thief and Wayne’s fighter don’t stand a chance against it. “That +was pretty good,” Gygax says. He lets us read through the scenario, +noting all the monsters we didn’t kill, all the treasure that was never +ours. The Teeth of Barkash-Nour are very powerful: one of them increases +your character’s strength permanently; another transports you to a +different plane of existence. We were so close\! So close, Wayne and I +tell each other. We did better than we ever expected to; in fact, we +almost won. + +# POSTSCRIPT + +I would like to tell you that playing D\&D with Gary Gygax lifted +whatever spell I was under, and that when we left Lake Geneva, I +embarked on a new life, unhaunted by the past. But here, outside the +cave, things are rarely so simple. I still eye my weatherbeaten copy of +the Players Handbook, with Gygax’s face all over the cover, and think +about how much fun it would be to go in one more time. Wayne has moved +to another city, but he and I are talking about meeting up at Gen Con +this summer. In the meantime, we both have work to do. Maybe that’s all +the peace you can make with the past: you agree that it can come back, +but you make it meet you for just a weekend, at a convention center in a +city far from your home. Or maybe that’s just my way of making peace. + +I talked to Gary Gygax again in March of this year, to ask, among other +things, if there was any truth to the rumor that he was diagnosed with +stomach cancer in the early 1980s, and that he moved to L.A. because he +didn’t want to spend the last six months of his life fighting with the +Blume brothers in Lake Geneva. “No,” he said. “I have an abdominal +aortic aneurysm, though.” He told me that he’d found out about it in +January; the doctors tell him it’s inoperable. One day it will rupture +and that will be the end. “I’m in no hurry,” he said. And indeed, here +he was, telling me about Elastolin plastic miniatures, and a hobby-shop +owner named Harry Bodenstadt, who used to run a game called the Siege of +Bodenburg, in order to sell miniature castles to war gamers in Wisconsin +in the 1960s. From which you could conclude, I guess, that games are +everything for Gygax, or that everything is a game; but I don’t think +that would be quite right. I think that he has found a way to live. + +> Thanks to Michelle Vuckovich and Jennifer Estaris for their help +> researching this article, and of course to Wayne, for being a part of +> it. diff --git a/_stories/2006/1543105.md b/_stories/2006/1543105.md deleted file mode 100644 index 73837fc..0000000 --- a/_stories/2006/1543105.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,25 +0,0 @@ ---- -created_at: '2010-07-24T04:33:39.000Z' -title: Python at Google (2006) -url: http://panela.blog-city.com/python_at_google_greg_stein__sdforum.htm -author: rayvega -points: 41 -story_text: '' -comment_text: -num_comments: 9 -story_id: -story_title: -story_url: -parent_id: -created_at_i: 1279946019 -_tags: -- story -- author_rayvega -- story_1543105 -objectID: '1543105' - ---- -[Source](http://panela.blog-city.com/python_at_google_greg_stein__sdforum.htm "Permalink to ") - - - diff --git a/_stories/2006/15960133.md b/_stories/2006/15960133.md index fda0b54..c21d878 100644 --- a/_stories/2006/15960133.md +++ b/_stories/2006/15960133.md @@ -19,145 +19,124 @@ _tags: objectID: '15960133' --- -[Source](http://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/16/health/16iodine.html "Permalink to In Raising the World’s I.Q., the Secret’s in the Salt - The New York Times") +The most visible and severe effects — disabling goiters, cretinism and +dwarfism — affect a tiny minority, usually in mountain villages. But 16 +percent of the world’s people have at least mild goiter, a swollen +thyroid gland in the neck. -# In Raising the World’s I.Q., the Secret’s in the Salt - The New York Times +“Find me a mother who wouldn’t pawn her last blouse to get iodine if she +understood how it would affect her fetus,” said Jack C. S. Ling, +chairman of the International Council for Control of Iodine Deficiency +Disorders, a committee of about 350 scientists formed in 1985 to +champion iodization. -__NYTimes.com no longer supports Internet Explorer 9 or earlier. Please upgrade your browser. [LEARN MORE »][1] +The 1990 World Summit for Children called for the elimination of iodine +deficiency by 2000, and the subsequent effort was led by Professor +Ling’s organization along with Unicef, the World Health Organization, +Kiwanis International, the World Bank and the foreign aid agencies of +Canada, Australia, the Netherlands, the United States and others. -__Sections __ Home __Search [Skip to content][2] [Skip to navigation][3] [View mobile version][4] +Largely out of the public eye, they made terrific progress: 25 percent +of the world’s households consumed iodized salt in 1990. Now, about 66 +percent do. -## [ The New York Times ][5] +But the effort has been faltering lately. When victory was not achieved +by 2005, donor interest began to flag as +[AIDS](http://topics.nytimes.com/top/news/health/diseasesconditionsandhealthtopics/aids/index.html?inline=nyt-classifier "Recent and archival health news about AIDS/HIV."), +[avian +flu](http://topics.nytimes.com/top/news/health/diseasesconditionsandhealthtopics/avianinfluenza/index.html?inline=nyt-classifier "Recent and archival health news about avian influenza.") +and other threats got more attention. -###### [Health][6]|In Raising the World's I.Q., the Secret's in the Salt +And, like all such drives, it cost more than expected. In 1990, the +estimated price tag was $75 million — a bargain compared with, for +example, the fight against +[polio](http://topics.nytimes.com/top/news/health/diseasesconditionsandhealthtopics/poliomyelitis/index.html?inline=nyt-classifier "Recent and archival health news about polio."), +which has consumed about $4 billion. -__Search - -Subscribe Now Log In __0 __Settings - -__Close search - -## Site Search Navigation - -Search NYTimes.com - -__Clear this text input - -Go - -1. Loading... - -See next articles - -See previous articles - -## Site Navigation - -## Site Mobile Navigation +Since then, according to David P. Haxton, the iodine council’s executive +director, about $160 million has been spent, including $80 million from +Kiwanis and $15 million from the Gates Foundation, along with unknown +amounts spent on new equipment by salt companies. Advertisement -Supported by +[Continue reading the main story](#story-continues-4) -### [Health][6] | On the Brink +“Very often, I’ll talk to a salt producer at a meeting, and he’ll have +no idea he had this power in his product,” Mr. Haxton said. “He’ll say +‘Why didn’t you tell me? Sure, I’ll do it. I would have done it +sooner.’ ” -# In Raising the World's I.Q., the Secret's in the Salt +In many places, like Japan, people get iodine from seafood, seaweed, +vegetables grown in iodine-rich soil or animals that eat grass grown in +that soil. But even wealthy nations, including the United States and in +Europe, still need to supplement that by iodizing salt. -By [DONALD G. McNEIL Jr.][7]DEC. 16, 2006 +The cheap part, experts say, is spraying on the iodine. The expense is +always for the inevitable public relations battle. -[Continue reading the main story][8] Share This Page - -[Continue reading the main story][8] +In some nations, iodization becomes tarred as a government plot to +poison an essential of life — salt experts compare it to the furious +opposition by 1950s conservatives to fluoridation of American water. Photo -![][9] +In others, civil libertarians demand a right to choose plain salt, with +the result that the iodized kind rarely reaches the poor. Small salt +makers who fear extra expense often lobby against it. So do makers of +iodine pills who fear losing their market. -**MAKING A DIFFERENCE** Salt, excavated from a field at the Aral Tuz salt processing plant in Aral, Kazakhstan, in train carriages. In 1999, only 29 percent of the nation’s households were using iodized salt. Now, 94 percent are. Credit Joseph Sywenkyj for The New York Times - -ASTANA, [Kazakhstan][10] — Valentina Sivryukova knew her public service messages were hitting the mark when she heard how one Kazakh schoolboy called another stupid. "What are you," he sneered, "iodine-deficient or something?" - -Ms. Sivryukova, president of the national confederation of Kazakh charities, was delighted. It meant that the years spent trying to raise public awareness that iodized salt prevents brain damage in infants were working. If the campaign bore fruit, Kazakhstan's national I.Q. would be safeguarded. - -In fact, Kazakhstan has become an example of how even a vast and still-developing nation like this Central Asian country can achieve a remarkable public health success. In 1999, only 29 percent of its households were using iodized salt. Now, 94 percent are. Next year, the United Nations is expected to certify it officially free of iodine deficiency disorders. - -That turnabout was not easy. The Kazakh campaign had to overcome widespread suspicion of iodization, common in many places, even though putting iodine in salt, public health experts say, may be the simplest and most cost-effective health measure in the world. Each ton of salt needs about two ounces of potassium iodate, which costs about $1.15. - -Advertisement - -[Continue reading the main story][8] - -Worldwide, about two billion people — a third of the globe — get too little iodine, including hundreds of millions in India and China. Studies show that iodine deficiency is the leading preventable cause of [mental retardation][11]. Even moderate deficiency, especially in pregnant women and infants, lowers intelligence by 10 to 15 I.Q. points, shaving incalculable potential off a nation's development. - -[Continue reading the main story][12] - -Advertisement - -[Continue reading the main story][13] - -The most visible and severe effects — disabling goiters, cretinism and dwarfism — affect a tiny minority, usually in mountain villages. But 16 percent of the world's people have at least mild goiter, a swollen thyroid gland in the neck. - -"Find me a mother who wouldn't pawn her last blouse to get iodine if she understood how it would affect her fetus," said Jack C. S. Ling, chairman of the International Council for Control of Iodine Deficiency Disorders, a committee of about 350 scientists formed in 1985 to champion iodization. - -The 1990 World Summit for Children called for the elimination of iodine deficiency by 2000, and the subsequent effort was led by Professor Ling's organization along with Unicef, the World Health Organization, Kiwanis International, the World Bank and the foreign aid agencies of Canada, Australia, the Netherlands, the United States and others. - -Largely out of the public eye, they made terrific progress: 25 percent of the world's households consumed iodized salt in 1990. Now, about 66 percent do. - -But the effort has been faltering lately. When victory was not achieved by 2005, donor interest began to flag as [AIDS][14], [avian flu][15] and other threats got more attention. - -And, like all such drives, it cost more than expected. In 1990, the estimated price tag was $75 million — a bargain compared with, for example, the fight against [polio][16], which has consumed about $4 billion. - -Since then, according to David P. Haxton, the iodine council's executive director, about $160 million has been spent, including $80 million from Kiwanis and $15 million from the Gates Foundation, along with unknown amounts spent on new equipment by salt companies. - -Advertisement - -[Continue reading the main story][17] - -"Very often, I'll talk to a salt producer at a meeting, and he'll have no idea he had this power in his product," Mr. Haxton said. "He'll say 'Why didn't you tell me? Sure, I'll do it. I would have done it sooner.' " - -In many places, like Japan, people get iodine from seafood, seaweed, vegetables grown in iodine-rich soil or animals that eat grass grown in that soil. But even wealthy nations, including the United States and in Europe, still need to supplement that by iodizing salt. - -The cheap part, experts say, is spraying on the iodine. The expense is always for the inevitable public relations battle. - -In some nations, iodization becomes tarred as a government plot to poison an essential of life — salt experts compare it to the furious opposition by 1950s conservatives to fluoridation of American water. - -Photo - -![][18] - -GETTING THE WORD OUT In Kzyl-Orda, Kazakhstan, seventh graders passing information booklets to one another about the importance of iodized salt. Credit Joseph Swenkyj for The New York Times - -In others, civil libertarians demand a right to choose plain salt, with the result that the iodized kind rarely reaches the poor. Small salt makers who fear extra expense often lobby against it. So do makers of iodine pills who fear losing their market. - -Rumors inevitably swirl: iodine has been blamed for AIDS, [diabetes][19], seizures, impotence and peevishness. Iodized salt, according to different national rumor mills, will make pickled vegetables explode, ruin caviar or soften hard cheese. +Rumors inevitably swirl: iodine has been blamed for AIDS, +[diabetes](http://topics.nytimes.com/top/news/health/diseasesconditionsandhealthtopics/diabetes/index.html?inline=nyt-classifier "Recent and archival health news about diabetes."), +seizures, impotence and peevishness. Iodized salt, according to +different national rumor mills, will make pickled vegetables explode, +ruin caviar or soften hard cheese. Breaking down that resistance takes both money and leadership. -"For 5 cents per person per year, you can make the whole population smarter than before," said Dr. Gerald N. Burrow, a former dean of Yale's medical school and vice chairman of the iodine council. +“For 5 cents per person per year, you can make the whole population +smarter than before,” said Dr. Gerald N. Burrow, a former dean of Yale’s +medical school and vice chairman of the iodine council. -"That has to be good for a country. But you need a government with the political will to do it." +“That has to be good for a country. But you need a government with the +political will to do it.” -**'Scandal' of Stunted Children** +**‘Scandal’ of Stunted Children** Advertisement -[Continue reading the main story][20] +[Continue reading the main story](#story-continues-5) -In the 1990s, when the campaign for iodization began, the world's greatest concentration of iodine-deficient countries was in the landlocked former Soviet republics of Central Asia. +In the 1990s, when the campaign for iodization began, the world’s +greatest concentration of iodine-deficient countries was in the +landlocked former Soviet republics of Central Asia. -All of them — Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Kyrghzstan — saw their economies break down with the collapse of the Soviet Union. Across the region, only 28 percent of all households used iodized salt. +All of them — Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, +Kyrghzstan — saw their economies break down with the collapse of the +Soviet Union. Across the region, only 28 percent of all households used +iodized salt. -"With the collapse of the system, certain babies went out with the bathwater, and iodization was one of them," said Alexandre Zouev, chief Unicef representative in Kazakhstan. +“With the collapse of the system, certain babies went out with the +bathwater, and iodization was one of them,” said Alexandre Zouev, chief +Unicef representative in Kazakhstan. -Dr. Toregeldy Sharmanov, who was the Kazakh Republic's health minister from 1971 to 1982, when it was in the Soviet Union, said the problem was serious even then. But he had been unable to fix it because policy was set in Moscow. +Dr. Toregeldy Sharmanov, who was the Kazakh Republic’s health minister +from 1971 to 1982, when it was in the Soviet Union, said the problem was +serious even then. But he had been unable to fix it because policy was +set in Moscow. -"Kazakh children were stunted compared to the same-age Russian children," he said. "But they paid no attention. It was a scandal." +“Kazakh children were stunted compared to the same-age Russian +children,” he said. “But they paid no attention. It was a scandal.” -In 1996, Unicef, which focuses on the health of children, opened its first office in Kazakhstan and arranged for a survey of 5,000 households. It found that 10 percent of the children were stunted, opening the way for international aid. (Stunting can have many causes, but iodine deficiency is a prime culprit.) +In 1996, Unicef, which focuses on the health of children, opened its +first office in Kazakhstan and arranged for a survey of 5,000 +households. It found that 10 percent of the children were stunted, +opening the way for international aid. (Stunting can have many causes, +but iodine deficiency is a prime culprit.) ## Newsletter Sign Up -[Continue reading the main story][21] +[Continue reading the main story](#continues-post-newsletter) ### @@ -167,344 +146,163 @@ Invalid email address. 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Please try again later. -### You are already subscribed to this email. +[View all New York Times newsletters.](/newsletters) -[View all New York Times newsletters.][22] +In neighboring Turkmenistan, President Saparmurat Niyazov — a despot who +requires all clocks to bear his likeness and renamed the days of the +week after his family — solved the problem by simply declaring plain +salt illegal in 1996 and ordering shops to give each citizen 11 pounds +of iodized salt a year at state expense. -* [See Sample][23] -* [Manage Email Preferences][24] -* [Not you?][25] -* [Privacy Policy][26] -* Opt out or [contact us][27] anytime +In Kazakhstan, the democratic credentials of President Nursultan A. +Nazarbayev, who has ruled since 1991, have come under criticism, but he +does not rule by decree. “Those days are over,” said Ms. Sivryukova of +the confederation of Kazakh charities. “Businesses are private now. They +don’t follow the president’s orders.” -In neighboring Turkmenistan, President Saparmurat Niyazov — a despot who requires all clocks to bear his likeness and renamed the days of the week after his family — solved the problem by simply declaring plain salt illegal in 1996 and ordering shops to give each citizen 11 pounds of iodized salt a year at state expense. - -In Kazakhstan, the democratic credentials of President Nursultan A. Nazarbayev, who has ruled since 1991, have come under criticism, but he does not rule by decree. "Those days are over," said Ms. Sivryukova of the confederation of Kazakh charities. "Businesses are private now. They don't follow the president's orders." - -Importantly, however, the president was supportive. But even so, as soon as Parliament began debating mandatory iodization in 2002, strong lobbies formed against the measure. +Importantly, however, the president was supportive. But even so, as soon +as Parliament began debating mandatory iodization in 2002, strong +lobbies formed against the measure. Advertisement -[Continue reading the main story][28] +[Continue reading the main story](#story-continues-6) -The country's biggest salt company was initially reluctant to cooperate, fearing higher costs, a Unicef report said. Cardiologists argued against iodization, fearing it would encourage people to use more salt, which can raise [blood pressure][29]. More insidious, Dr. Sharmanov said, were private companies that sold iodine pills. +The country’s biggest salt company was initially reluctant to cooperate, +fearing higher costs, a Unicef report said. Cardiologists argued against +iodization, fearing it would encourage people to use more salt, which +can raise [blood +pressure](http://topics.nytimes.com/top/news/health/diseasesconditionsandhealthtopics/bloodpressure/index.html?inline=nyt-classifier "Recent and archival health news about blood pressure."). +More insidious, Dr. Sharmanov said, were private companies that sold +iodine pills. -"They promoted their products in the mass media, saying iodized salt was dangerous," he said, shaking his head. +“They promoted their products in the mass media, saying iodized salt was +dangerous,” he said, shaking his head. -So Dr. Sharmanov, the national Health Ministry, Ms. Sivryukova and others devised a marketing campaign — much of it paid for by American taxpayers, through money given to Unicef by the United States Agency for International Development. +So Dr. Sharmanov, the national Health Ministry, Ms. Sivryukova and +others devised a marketing campaign — much of it paid for by American +taxpayers, through money given to Unicef by the United States Agency for +International Development. -Comic strips starring a hooded crusader, Iodine Man, rescuing a slow-witted student from an enraged teacher were handed out across the country. +Comic strips starring a hooded crusader, Iodine Man, rescuing a +slow-witted student from an enraged teacher were handed out across the +country. Photo -![][30] +A logo was designed for food packages certified to contain iodized salt: +a red dot and a curved line in a circle, meant to represent a face with +a smile so big that the eyes are squeezed shut. -Credit The New York Times +Also, Ms. Sivryukova’s network of local charity women stepped in. As in +all ex-Soviet states, government advice is regarded with suspicion, +while civic organizations have credibility. -A logo was designed for food packages certified to contain iodized salt: a red dot and a curved line in a circle, meant to represent a face with a smile so big that the eyes are squeezed shut. +Her volunteers approached schools, asking teachers to create dictation +exercises about iodized salt and to have students bring salt from home +to test it for iodine in science class. -Also, Ms. Sivryukova's network of local charity women stepped in. As in all ex-Soviet states, government advice is regarded with suspicion, while civic organizations have credibility. - -Her volunteers approached schools, asking teachers to create dictation exercises about iodized salt and to have students bring salt from home to test it for iodine in science class. - -Ms. Sivryukova described one child's tears when he realized he was the only one in his class with noniodized salt. +Ms. Sivryukova described one child’s tears when he realized he was the +only one in his class with noniodized salt. Advertisement -[Continue reading the main story][31] +[Continue reading the main story](#story-continues-7) -The teacher, she said, reassured him that it was not his fault. "Children very quickly start telling their parents to buy the right salt," she said. +The teacher, she said, reassured him that it was not his fault. +“Children very quickly start telling their parents to buy the right +salt,” she said. -One female volunteer went to a bus company and rerecorded its "next-stop" announcements interspersed with short plugs for iodized salt. "She had a very sexy voice, and men would tell the drivers to play it again," Ms. Sivryukova said. +One female volunteer went to a bus company and rerecorded its +“next-stop” announcements interspersed with short plugs for iodized +salt. “She had a very sexy voice, and men would tell the drivers to play +it again,” Ms. Sivryukova said. -Even the former world chess champion Anatoly Karpov, who is a hero throughout the former Soviet Union for his years as champion, joined the fight. "Eat iodized salt," he advised schoolchildren in a television appearance, "and you will grow up to be grandmasters like me." +Even the former world chess champion Anatoly Karpov, who is a hero +throughout the former Soviet Union for his years as champion, joined the +fight. “Eat iodized salt,” he advised schoolchildren in a television +appearance, “and you will grow up to be grandmasters like me.” -Mr. Karpov, in particular, handled hostile journalists adeptly, Mr. Zouev said, deflecting inquiries as to why he did not advocate letting people choose iodized or plain salt by comparing it to the right to have two taps in every home, one for clean water and one for dirty. +Mr. Karpov, in particular, handled hostile journalists adeptly, Mr. +Zouev said, deflecting inquiries as to why he did not advocate letting +people choose iodized or plain salt by comparing it to the right to have +two taps in every home, one for clean water and one for dirty. By late 2003, the Parliament finally made iodization mandatory. **In Aral, Mountains Made of Salt** -Today in central Kazakhstan, a miniature mountain range rises over Aral, a decaying factory town on what was once the shore of the Aral Sea, a salt lake that has steadily shrunk as irrigation projects begun under Stalin drained the rivers that feed it. +Today in central Kazakhstan, a miniature mountain range rises over Aral, +a decaying factory town on what was once the shore of the Aral Sea, a +salt lake that has steadily shrunk as irrigation projects begun under +Stalin drained the rivers that feed it. -Drive closer and the sharp white peaks turn out to be a small Alps of salt — the Aral Tuz Company stockpile. Salt has been dug here for centuries. Nowadays, a great rail-mounted combine chews away at a 10-foot-thick layer of salt in the old seabed, before it is towed 11 miles back to the plant, and washed and ground. Before it reaches the packaging room, as the salt falls through a chute from one conveyor belt to another, a small pump sprays iodine into the grainy white cascade. The step is so simple that, if it were not for the women in white lab coats scooping up samples, it would be missed. +Drive closer and the sharp white peaks turn out to be a small Alps of +salt — the Aral Tuz Company stockpile. Salt has been dug here for +centuries. Nowadays, a great rail-mounted combine chews away at a +10-foot-thick layer of salt in the old seabed, before it is towed 11 +miles back to the plant, and washed and ground. Before it reaches the +packaging room, as the salt falls through a chute from one conveyor belt +to another, a small pump sprays iodine into the grainy white cascade. +The step is so simple that, if it were not for the women in white lab +coats scooping up samples, it would be missed. -The $15,000 tank and sprayer were donated by Unicef, which also used to supply the potassium iodate. Today Aral Tuz and its smaller rival, Pavlodar Salt, buy their own. +The $15,000 tank and sprayer were donated by Unicef, which also used to +supply the potassium iodate. Today Aral Tuz and its smaller rival, +Pavlodar Salt, buy their own. -Asked about the Unicef report saying that Aral Tuz initially resisted iodization on the grounds that it would eat up 7 percent of profits, the company's president, Ontalap Akhmetov, seemed puzzled. "I've only been president three years," he said. "But that makes no sense." The expense, he said, was minimal. "Only a few cents a ton." +Asked about the Unicef report saying that Aral Tuz initially resisted +iodization on the grounds that it would eat up 7 percent of profits, the +company’s president, Ontalap Akhmetov, seemed puzzled. “I’ve only been +president three years,” he said. “But that makes no sense.” The expense, +he said, was minimal. “Only a few cents a ton.” Advertisement -[Continue reading the main story][32] +[Continue reading the main story](#story-continues-8) -Kazakhstan was lucky. It had just the right mix of political and economic conditions for success: political support, 98 percent literacy, an economy helped along by rising prices for its oil and gas. Most important, perhaps, one company, Aral Tuz, makes 80 percent of the edible salt. +Kazakhstan was lucky. It had just the right mix of political and +economic conditions for success: political support, 98 percent literacy, +an economy helped along by rising prices for its oil and gas. Most +important, perhaps, one company, Aral Tuz, makes 80 percent of the +edible salt. -That combination is missing in many nations where iodine deficiency remains a health crisis. In nearby Pakistan, for instance, where 70 percent of households have no iodized salt, there are more than 600 small salt producers. +That combination is missing in many nations where iodine deficiency +remains a health crisis. In nearby Pakistan, for instance, where 70 +percent of households have no iodized salt, there are more than 600 +small salt producers. -"If a country has a reasonably well-organized salt system and only a couple of big producers who get on the bandwagon, iodization works," said Venkatesh Mannar, a former salt producer in India who now heads the Micronutrient Initiative in Ottawa, which seeks to fortify the foods of the world's poor with iodine, iron and other minerals. "If there are a lot of small producers, it doesn't." +“If a country has a reasonably well-organized salt system and only a +couple of big producers who get on the bandwagon, iodization works,” +said Venkatesh Mannar, a former salt producer in India who now heads the +Micronutrient Initiative in Ottawa, which seeks to fortify the foods of +the world’s poor with iodine, iron and other minerals. “If there are a +lot of small producers, it doesn’t.” -Now that Kazakhstan has its law, Ms. Sivryukova's volunteers have not let up their vigilance. They help enforce it by going to markets, buying salt and testing it on the spot. The government has trained customs agents to test salt imports and fenced some areas where people dug their own salt. Children still receive booklets and instruction. +Now that Kazakhstan has its law, Ms. Sivryukova’s volunteers have not +let up their vigilance. They help enforce it by going to markets, buying +salt and testing it on the spot. The government has trained customs +agents to test salt imports and fenced some areas where people dug their +own salt. Children still receive booklets and instruction. -Experts agree the country is unlikely to slip back into neglect. Surveys find consumers very aware of iodine, and the red-and-white logo is such a hit that food producers have asked for permission to use it on foods with added iron or folic acid, said Dr. Sharmanov, the former Kazakh Republic health minister. And the salt is working. In the 1999 survey that found stunted children, a smaller sampling of urine from women of child-bearing age found that 60 percent had suboptimal levels of iodine. +Experts agree the country is unlikely to slip back into neglect. Surveys +find consumers very aware of iodine, and the red-and-white logo is such +a hit that food producers have asked for permission to use it on foods +with added iron or folic acid, said Dr. Sharmanov, the former Kazakh +Republic health minister. And the salt is working. In the 1999 survey +that found stunted children, a smaller sampling of urine from women of +child-bearing age found that 60 percent had suboptimal levels of iodine. -"We just did a new study, which is not released yet," said Dr. Feruza Ospanova, head of the [nutrition][33] academy's laboratory. "The number was zero percent." - -A version of this article appears in print on , on Page A1 of the New York edition with the headline: In Raising the World's I.Q., the Secret's in the Salt. 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https://myaccount.nytimes.com/membercenter/feedback.html -[115]: https://www.nytimes.com/subscriptions/Multiproduct/lp5558.html?campaignId=37WXW +“We just did a new study, which is not released yet,” said Dr. Feruza +Ospanova, head of the +[nutrition](http://topics.nytimes.com/top/news/health/diseasesconditionsandhealthtopics/diet/index.html?inline=nyt-classifier "Recent and archival health news about diet and nutrition.") +academy’s laboratory. “The number was zero percent.” +[Continue reading the main story](#whats-next) diff --git a/_stories/2006/16079790.md b/_stories/2006/16079790.md deleted file mode 100644 index 713c4c7..0000000 --- a/_stories/2006/16079790.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,25 +0,0 @@ ---- -created_at: '2018-01-05T17:03:14.000Z' -title: Report from Iron Mountain (2006) -url: http://philipcoppens.com/ironmountain.html -author: nkurz -points: 67 -story_text: -comment_text: -num_comments: 12 -story_id: -story_title: -story_url: -parent_id: -created_at_i: 1515171794 -_tags: -- story -- author_nkurz -- story_16079790 -objectID: '16079790' - ---- -[Source](http://philipcoppens.com/ironmountain.html "Permalink to ") - - - diff --git a/_stories/2006/1608285.md b/_stories/2006/1608285.md deleted file mode 100644 index 257c7ed..0000000 --- a/_stories/2006/1608285.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,26 +0,0 @@ ---- -created_at: '2010-08-16T16:39:48.000Z' -title: 'Larry Ellison (2006): If an open source product gets good enough, we''ll take - it' -url: http://us.ft.com/ftgateway/superpage.ft?news_id=fto041820061306424713 -author: bensummers -points: 45 -story_text: '' -comment_text: -num_comments: 30 -story_id: -story_title: -story_url: -parent_id: -created_at_i: 1281976788 -_tags: -- story -- author_bensummers -- story_1608285 -objectID: '1608285' - ---- -[Source](http://us.ft.com/ftgateway/superpage.ft?news_id=fto041820061306424713 "Permalink to ") - - - diff --git a/_stories/2006/2507106.md b/_stories/2006/2507106.md index 679d116..58a1df1 100644 --- a/_stories/2006/2507106.md +++ b/_stories/2006/2507106.md @@ -19,7 +19,33 @@ _tags: objectID: '2507106' --- -[Source](https://blogs.msdn.microsoft.com/b/jmstall/archive/2006/09/13/baby-state-machine.aspx "Permalink to ") +My 19-month old daughter was quite the finite state machine today. + +She's recently become mobile and ended up getting her finger caught in a +door for the first time. It gave her a little blood blister and the new +experience inspired her to cry for a very very long time. My wife tried +everything to get her to stop crying. She eventually put her in her +crib. When she took her out of the crib, our daughter stopped crying. + + +Here's how I see it: Our daughter normally cries when first placed her +in crib, and stops crying when taken out. So that action triggers the +state transition ("crying because I'm in the crib" --\> "not crying"). +By placing our daughter in the crib, my wife got her from an unknown +state ("crying because I just hurt myself in a new way") to a known +state ("crying because I'm in the crib"). Once in a known state, she +could follow the known state transitions to get her to a more desirable +state ("not crying"). + + + +That's not what they teach you in the parenting classes, but since it +worked, I can't argue with success\! + + + +(This reminds me of [what my dog taught me about race +conditions](http://blogs.msdn.com/jmstall/archive/2005/08/01/sofie_race_condition.aspx).) diff --git a/_stories/2006/2773426.md b/_stories/2006/2773426.md index 8170521..760bff9 100644 --- a/_stories/2006/2773426.md +++ b/_stories/2006/2773426.md @@ -19,7 +19,168 @@ _tags: objectID: '2773426' --- -[Source](https://www.wired.com/politics/security/commentary/securitymatters/2006/08/71642 "Permalink to ") +On Aug. 16, two men were escorted off a plane headed for Manchester, +England, because some passengers thought they looked either Asian or +Middle Eastern, might have been talking Arabic, wore leather jackets, +and looked at their watches – and the passengers refused to fly with +them on board. +[The +men](http://www.dailymail.co.uk/pages/live/articles/news/news.html?in_article_id=401419%E2%88%88page_id=1770) +[were +questioned](http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/5267884.stm) for +several hours and then released. +On Aug. 15, an entire airport terminal was evacuated because someone's +cosmetics +[triggered](http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2006/08/17/national/main1906433.shtml) +a false positive for explosives. The same day, a Muslim man was +[removed](http://www.cbc.ca/story/canada/national/2006/08/18/doctor-winnipeg.html) +from an airplane in Denver for reciting prayers. The Transportation +Security Administration decided that the flight crew overreacted, but he +still had to spend the night in Denver before flying home the next day. +The next day, a Port of Seattle terminal was evacuated because a couple +of dogs gave a [false +alarm](http://www.heraldnet.com/stories/06/08/16/100wir_port1.cfm) for +explosives. + +On Aug. 19, a plane made an [emergency +landing](http://www.miami.com/mld/miamiherald/news/local/states/florida/counties/broward_county/15321870.htm) +in Tampa, Florida, after the crew became suspicious because two of the +lavatory doors were locked. The plane was searched, but nothing was +found. Meanwhile, a man who tampered with a bathroom smoke detector on a +flight to San Antonio was +[cleared](http://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2006-08-20-fbi-passenger_x.htm) +of terrorism, but only after having his house searched. + +On Aug. 16, a woman suffered a panic attack and became violent on a +flight from London to Washington, so the plane was +[escorted](http://www.theage.com.au/articles/2006/08/17/1155407916156.html) +to the Boston airport by fighter jets. "The woman was carrying hand +cream and matches but was not a terrorist threat," said the TSA +spokesman after the incident. + +And on Aug. 18, a plane flying from London to Egypt made an [emergency +landing](http://www.guardian.co.uk/uklatest/story/0,,-6024132,00.html) +in Italy when someone found a bomb threat scrawled on an air sickness +bag. Nothing was found on the plane, and no one knows how long the note +was on board. + +I'd like everyone to take a deep breath and listen for a minute. + +The point of terrorism is to cause terror, sometimes to further a +political goal and sometimes out of sheer hatred. The people terrorists +kill are not the targets; they are collateral damage. And blowing up +planes, trains, markets or buses is not the goal; those are just +tactics. + +The real targets of terrorism are the rest of us: the billions of us who +are not killed but are terrorized because of the killing. The real point +of terrorism is not the act itself, but our reaction to the act. + +And we're doing exactly what the terrorists want. + +We're all a little jumpy after the recent arrest of 23 terror suspects +in Great Britain. The men were reportedly plotting a liquid-explosive +attack on airplanes, and both the press and politicians have been +trumpeting the story ever since. + +In truth, it's doubtful that their plan would have succeeded; +[chemists](http://www.theregister.co.uk/2006/08/17/flying_toilet_terror_labs/print.html) +[have](http://www.interesting-people.org/archives/interesting-people/200608/msg00087.html) +[been](http://www.boingboing.net/2006/08/14/tatp_about_that_pyro.html) +[debunking](http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,2-2306994,00.html) +the idea since it became public. Certainly the suspects were [a long way +off](http://www.cnn.com/2006/US/08/10/us.security/index.html) from +trying: None had bought airline tickets, and some didn't even have +passports. + +Regardless of the threat, from the would-be bombers' perspective, the +explosives and planes were merely tactics. Their goal was to cause +terror, and in that they've succeeded. + +Imagine for a moment what would have happened if they had blown up 10 +planes. There would be canceled flights, chaos at airports, bans on +carry-on luggage, world leaders talking tough new security measures, +political posturing and all sorts of false alarms as jittery people +panicked. To a lesser degree, that's basically what's happening right +now. + +Our politicians help the terrorists every time they use fear as a +campaign tactic. The press helps every time it writes scare stories +about the plot and the threat. And if we're terrified, and we share that +fear, we help. All of these actions intensify and repeat the terrorists' +actions, and increase the effects of their terror. + +(I am not saying that the politicians and press are terrorists, or that +they share any of the blame for terrorist attacks. I'm not that stupid. +But the subject of terrorism is more complex than it appears, and +understanding its various causes and effects are vital for understanding +how to best deal with it.) + +The implausible plots and false alarms actually hurt us in two ways. Not +only do they increase the level of fear, but they also waste time and +resources that could be better spent fighting the real threats and +increasing actual security. I'll bet the terrorists are [laughing at +us](http://www.wondermark.com/d/220.html). + +Another thought experiment: Imagine for a moment that the British +government arrested the 23 suspects without fanfare. Imagine that the +TSA and its European counterparts didn't engage in +[pointless](http://www.schneier.com/essay-096.html) airline-security +measures like banning liquids. And imagine that the press didn't write +about it endlessly, and that the politicians didn't use the event to +remind us all how scared we should be. If we'd reacted that way, then +the terrorists would have truly failed. + +It's time we calm down and fight terror with antiterror. This does not +mean that we simply roll over and accept terrorism. There are things our +government [can and should](http://www.schneier.com/essay-038.html) do +to fight terrorism, most of them +[involving](http://www.schneier.com/blog/archives/2006/08/terrorism_secur.html) +intelligence and investigation – and not focusing on [specific +plots](http://www.schneier.com/essay-087.html). + +But our job is to remain steadfast in the face of terror, to [refuse to +be +terrorized](http://www.salon.com/opinion/feature/2006/08/17/airport_futility/). +Our job is to [not +panic](http://kfmonkey.blogspot.com/2006/08/wait-arent-you-scared.html) +every time two Muslims stand together checking their watches. There are +approximately 1 billion Muslims in the world, a large percentage of them +not Arab, and about 320 million Arabs in the Middle East, the +overwhelming majority of them not terrorists. Our job is to think +critically and rationally, and to ignore the cacophony of other +interests trying to use terrorism to advance political careers or +increase a television show's viewership. + +The surest defense against terrorism is to refuse to be terrorized. Our +job is to recognize that terrorism is just one of the risks we face, and +not a particularly common one at that. And our job is to fight those +politicians who use fear as an excuse to [take +away](http://www.schneier.com/essay-045.html) our liberties and promote +[security theater](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Security_theater) that +wastes money and doesn't make us any safer. + +\- - - + +Bruce Schneier is the CTO of Counterpane Internet Security and the +author of [Beyond Fear: Thinking Sensibly About Security in an Uncertain +World](http://www.schneier.com/bf.html). You can contact him through +[his website](http://www.schneier.com). + +[Liquids Loom as New Terror +Threat](https://www.wired.com/news/technology/0,71572-0.html) + +[The Scariest Terror Threat of +All](https://www.wired.com/news/technology/0,71152-0.html) + +[Nun Terrorized by Terror +Watch](https://www.wired.com/news/politics/privacy/0,68973-0.html) + +[Feds Fear Air Broadband +Terror](https://www.wired.com/news/technology/0,68147-0.html) + +[Stockpiling Antidotes to +Terror](https://www.wired.com/news/technology/0,64292-0.html) diff --git a/_stories/2006/471192.md b/_stories/2006/471192.md deleted file mode 100644 index 444398f..0000000 --- a/_stories/2006/471192.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,25 +0,0 @@ ---- -created_at: '2009-02-07T16:01:26.000Z' -title: When I invented the Web, I didn't have to ask anyone's permission (2006) -url: http://dig.csail.mit.edu/breadcrumbs/node/144 -author: vaksel -points: 80 -story_text: '' -comment_text: -num_comments: 37 -story_id: -story_title: -story_url: -parent_id: -created_at_i: 1234022486 -_tags: -- story -- author_vaksel -- story_471192 -objectID: '471192' - ---- -[Source](http://dig.csail.mit.edu/breadcrumbs/node/144 "Permalink to ") - - - diff --git a/_stories/2006/5310911.md b/_stories/2006/5310911.md index 05e425c..2db163b 100644 --- a/_stories/2006/5310911.md +++ b/_stories/2006/5310911.md @@ -19,7 +19,154 @@ _tags: objectID: '5310911' --- -[Source](https://www.teslamotors.com/blog/secret-tesla-motors-master-plan-just-between-you-and-me "Permalink to ") +Background: My day job is running a space transportation company called +[SpaceX](http://www.spacex.com "SpaceX"), but on the side I am the +chairman of Tesla Motors and help formulate the business and product +strategy with Martin and the rest of the team. I have also been Tesla +Motor's primary funding source from when the company was just three +people and a business plan. +As you know, the initial product of Tesla Motors is a high performance +electric sports car called the Tesla Roadster. However, some readers may +not be aware of the fact that our long term plan is to build a wide +range of models, including affordably priced family cars. This is +because the overarching purpose of Tesla Motors (and the reason I am +funding the company) is to help expedite the move from a mine-and-burn +hydrocarbon economy towards a solar electric economy, which I believe to +be the primary, but not exclusive, sustainable solution. +Critical to making that happen is an electric car without compromises, +which is why the Tesla Roadster is designed to beat a gasoline sports +car like a Porsche or Ferrari in a head to head showdown. Then, over and +above that fact, it has twice the energy efficiency of a Prius. Even so, +some may question whether this actually does any good for the world. Are +we really in need of another high performance sports car? Will it +actually make a difference to global carbon emissions? +Well, the answers are no and not much. However, that misses the point, +unless you understand the secret master plan alluded to above. Almost +any new technology initially has high unit cost before it can be +optimized and this is no less true for electric cars. The strategy of +Tesla is to enter at the high end of the market, where customers are +prepared to pay a premium, and then drive down market as fast as +possible to higher unit volume and lower prices with each successive +model. + +Without giving away too much, I can say that the second model will be a +sporty four door family car at roughly half the $89k price point of the +Tesla Roadster and the third model will be even more affordable. In +keeping with a fast growing technology company, all free cash flow is +plowed back into R\&D to drive down the costs and bring the follow on +products to market as fast as possible. When someone buys the Tesla +Roadster sports car, they are actually helping pay for development of +the low cost family car. + +Now I’d like to address two repeated arguments against electric vehicles +— battery disposal and power plant emissions. The answer to the first is +short and simple, the second requires a bit of math: + +**Batteries that are not toxic to the environment\!** +I wouldn’t recommend them as a dessert topping, but the Tesla Motors +Lithium-Ion cells are not classified as hazardous and are landfill safe. +However, dumping them in the trash would be throwing money away, since +the battery pack can be sold to recycling companies (unsubsidized) at +the end of its greater than 100,000-mile design life. Moreover, the +battery isn’t dead at that point, it just has less range. + +**Power Plant Emissions aka “The Long Tailpipe”** +(For a more detailed version of this argument, please see the [white +paper](/display_data/twentyfirstcenturycar.pdf) written by Martin and +Marc.) + +A common rebuttal to electric vehicles as a solution to carbon emissions +is that they simply transfer the CO2 emissions to the power plant. The +obvious counter is that one can develop grid electric power from a +[variety of means](/efficiency/environmental_benefits.php), many of +which, like hydro, wind, geothermal, nuclear, solar, etc. involve no CO2 +emissions. However, let’s assume for the moment that the electricity is +generated from a hydrocarbon source like natural gas, the most popular +fuel for new US power plants in recent years. + +The H-System Combined Cycle Generator from General Electric is 60% +efficient in turning natural gas into electricity. "Combined Cycle" is +where the natural gas is burned to generate electricity and then the +waste heat is used to create steam that powers a second generator. +Natural gas recovery is 97.5% efficient, processing is also 97.5% +efficient and then transmission efficiency over the electric grid is 92% +on average. This gives us a well-to-electric-outlet efficiency of 97.5% +x 97.5% x 60% x 92% = 52.5%. + +Despite a body shape, tires and gearing aimed at high performance rather +than peak efficiency, the Tesla Roadster requires 0.4 MJ per kilometer +or, stated another way, will travel 2.53 km per mega-joule of +electricity. The full cycle charge and discharge efficiency of the Tesla +Roadster is 86%, which means that for every 100 MJ of electricity used +to charge the battery, about 86 MJ reaches the motor. + +Bringing the math together, we get the final figure of merit of 2.53 +km/MJ x 86% x 52.5% = 1.14 km/MJ. Let’s compare that to the Prius and a +few other options normally considered energy efficient. + +The fully considered well-to-wheel efficiency of a gasoline powered car +is equal to the energy content of gasoline (34.3 MJ/liter) minus the +refinement & transportation losses (18.3%), multiplied by the miles per +gallon or km per liter. The Prius at an EPA rated 55 mpg therefore has +an energy efficiency of 0.56 km/MJ. This is actually an excellent number +compared with a “normal” car like the Toyota Camry at 0.28 km/MJ. + +Note the term hybrid as applied to cars currently on the road is a +misnomer. They are really just gasoline powered cars with a little +battery assistance and, unless you are one of the handful who have an +aftermarket hack, the little battery has to be charged from the gasoline +engine. Therefore, they can be considered simply as slightly more +efficient gasoline powered cars. If the EPA certified mileage is 55 mpg, +then it is indistinguishable from a non-hybrid that achieves 55 mpg. As +a friend of mine says, a world 100% full of Prius drivers is still 100% +addicted to oil. + +The CO2 content of any given source fuel is well understood. Natural gas +is 14.4 grams of carbon per mega-joule and oil is 19.9 grams of carbon +per mega-joule. Applying those carbon content levels to the vehicle +efficiencies, including as a reference the Honda combusted natural gas +and Honda fuel cell natural gas vehicles, the hands down winner is pure +electric: + +**Car** **Energy Source** **CO2 Content** **Efficiency** **CO2 +Emissions** Honda CNG Natural Gas 14.4 g/MJ 0.32 km/MJ 45.0 g/km Honda +FCX Nat Gas-Fuel Cell 14.4 g/MJ 0.35 km/MJ 41.1 g/km Toyota Prius Oil +19.9 g/MJ 0.56 km/MJ 35.8 g/km Tesla Roadster Nat Gas-Electric 14.4 g/MJ +1.14 km/MJ 12.6 g/km + +  + +The Tesla Roadster still wins by a hefty margin if you assume the +average CO2 per joule of US power production. The higher CO2 content of +coal compared to natural gas is offset by the negligible CO2 content of +hydro, nuclear, geothermal, wind, solar, etc. The exact power production +mixture varies from one part of the country to another and is changing +over time, so natural gas is used here as a fixed yardstick. + +**Becoming Energy Positive** +I should mention that Tesla Motors will be co-marketing sustainable +energy products from other companies along with the car. For example, +among other choices, we will be offering a modestly sized and priced +solar panel from [SolarCity](http://www.solarcity.com/), a photovoltaics +company (where I am also the principal financier). This system can be +installed on your roof in an out of the way location, because of its +small size, or set up as a carport and will generate about 50 miles per +day of electricity. + +If you travel less than 350 miles per week, you will therefore be +“energy positive” with respect to your personal transportation. This +is a step beyond conserving or even nullifying your use of energy for +transport – you will actually be putting more energy back into the +system than you consume in transportation\! **So, in short, the master +plan is:** + +1. Build sports car +2. Use that money to build an affordable car +3. Use that money to build an even more affordable car +4. While doing above, also provide zero emission electric power + generation options + +Don't tell anyone. diff --git a/_stories/2006/5863823.md b/_stories/2006/5863823.md index 8b447c8..cfc95e0 100644 --- a/_stories/2006/5863823.md +++ b/_stories/2006/5863823.md @@ -19,219 +19,7 @@ _tags: objectID: '5863823' --- -[Source](https://www.cbsnews.com/video/watch/?id=1613914n "Permalink to Page Not Found: -404 Not Found - CBS News -") - -# Page Not Found: -404 Not Found - CBS News - - -[ ][1] - -# [ CBS News Logo][2] - -* [ News ][2] - * [ Latest ][2] - - * [ Video ][3] - * [ US ][4] - - * [ World ][5] - - * [ Politics ][6] - - * [ Entertainment ][7] - - * [ Health ][8] - - * [ MoneyWatch ][9] - - * [ SciTech ][10] - - * [ Crime ][11] - - * [ Sports ][12] -* [ Shows ][13] - * [ CBS Evening News ][14] - * [ CBS This Morning ][15] - * [ 48 Hours ][16] - * [ 60 Minutes ][17] - * [ Sunday Morning ][18] - * [ Face The Nation ][19] -* [ Video ][3] -* [ CBSN ][20] - * [ Watch Live ][20] - * [ CBSN 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(2006)' -url: http://www.wired.com/gadgets/mac/commentary/cultofmac/2006/01/70072 -author: terpua -points: 43 -story_text: '' -comment_text: -num_comments: 17 -story_id: -story_title: -story_url: -parent_id: -created_at_i: 1249792041 -_tags: -- story -- author_terpua -- story_750325 -objectID: '750325' - ---- -[Source](https://www.wired.com/gadgets/mac/commentary/cultofmac/2006/01/70072 "Permalink to ") - - - diff --git a/_stories/2006/8929879.md b/_stories/2006/8929879.md index 415e505..c0cdbe0 100644 --- a/_stories/2006/8929879.md +++ b/_stories/2006/8929879.md @@ -19,7 +19,254 @@ _tags: objectID: '8929879' --- -[Source](https://www.joelonsoftware.com/items/2006/06/16.html "Permalink to ") +In the olden days, Excel had a very awkward programming language without +a name. “Excel Macros,” we called it. It was a severely dysfunctional +programming language without variables (you had to store values in cells +on a worksheet), without locals, without subroutine calls: in short it +was almost completely unmaintainable. It had advanced features like +“Goto” but the labels were actually physically invisible. +The only thing that made it look reasonable was that it looked great +compared to Lotus macros, which were nothing more than a sequence of +keystrokes entered as a long string into a worksheet cell. +On June 17, 1991, I started working for Microsoft on the Excel team. My +title was “Program Manager.” I was supposed to come up with a solution +to this problem. The implication was that the solution would have +something to do with the Basic programming language. +Basic? Yech\! + +I spend some time negotiating with various development groups. Visual +Basic 1.0 had just come out, and it was pretty friggin’ cool. There was +a misguided effort underway with the code name MacroMan, and another +effort to make Object-Oriented Basic code-named “Silver.” The Silver +team was told that they had one client for their product: Excel. The +marketing manager for Silver, Bob Wyman, yes that Bob Wyman, had only +one person he had to sell his technology to: me. + +MacroMan was, as I said, misguided, and it took some persuading, but it +was eventually shut down. The Excel team convinced the Basic team that +what we really needed was some kind of Visual Basic for Excel. I managed +to get four pet features added to Basic. I got them to add Variants, a +union data type that could hold any other type, because otherwise you +couldn’t store the contents of  a spreadsheet cell in a variable without +a switch statement. I got them to add late binding, which became known +as IDispatch, a.k.a. COM Automation, because the original design for +Silver required a deep understanding of type systems that the kinds of +people who program macros don’t care about. And I got two pet syntactic +features into the language: **For Each**, stolen from csh, and **With**, +stolen from Pascal. + +Then I sat down to write the Excel Basic spec, a huge document that grew +to hundreds of pages. I think it was 500 pages by the time it was done. +(“Waterfall,” you snicker; yeah yeah shut up.) + +In those days we used to have these things called BillG reviews. +Basically every major important feature got reviewed by Bill Gates. I +was told to send a copy of my spec to his office in preparation for the +review. It was basically one ream of laser-printed paper. + +I rushed to get the spec printed and sent it over to his office. + +Later that day, I had some time, so I started working on figuring out if +Basic had enough date and time functions to do all the things you could +do in Excel. + +In most modern programming environments, dates are stored as real +numbers. The integer part of the number is the number of days since some +agreed-upon date in the past, called the epoch. In Excel, today’s date, +June 16, 2006, is stored as 38884, counting days where January 1st, 1900 +is 1. + +I started working through the various date and time functions in Basic +and the date and time functions in Excel, trying things out, when I +noticed something strange in the Visual Basic documentation: Basic uses +December 31, 1899 as the epoch instead of January 1, 1900, but for some +reason, today’s date was the same in Excel as it was in Basic. + +Huh? + +I went to find an Excel developer who was old enough to remember why. Ed +Fries seemed to know the answer. + +“Oh,” he told me. “Check out February 28th, 1900.” + +“It’s 59,” I said. + +“Now try March 1st.” + +“It’s 61\!” + +“What happened to 60?” Ed asked. + +“February 29th. 1900 was a leap year\! It’s divisible by 4\!” + +“Good guess, but no cigar,” Ed said, and left me wondering for a while. + +Oops. I did some research. Years that are divisible by 100 are not leap +years, unless they’re also divisible by 400. + +1900 wasn’t a leap year. + +“It’s a bug in Excel\!” I exclaimed. + +“Well, not really,” said Ed. “We had to do it that way because we need +to be able to import Lotus 123 worksheets.” + +“So, it’s a bug in Lotus 123?” + +“Yeah, but probably an intentional one. Lotus had to fit in 640K. That’s +not a lot of memory. If you ignore 1900, you can figure out if a given +year is a leap year just by looking to see if the rightmost two bits are +zero. That’s really fast and easy. The Lotus guys probably figured it +didn’t matter to be wrong for those two months way in the past. It looks +like the Basic guys wanted to be anal about those two months, so they +moved the epoch one day back.” + +“Aargh\!” I said, and went off to study why there was a checkbox in the +options dialog called **1904 Date System**. + +The next day was the big BillG review. + +June 30, 1992. + +In those days, Microsoft was a lot less bureaucratic. Instead of the 11 +or 12 layers of management they have today, I reported to Mike Conte who +reported to Chris Graham who reported to Pete Higgins, who reported to +Mike Maples, who reported to Bill. About 6 layers from top to bottom. We +made fun of companies like General Motors with their eight layers of +management or whatever it was. + +In my BillG review meeting, the whole reporting hierarchy was there, +along with their cousins, sisters, and aunts, and a person who came +along from my team whose whole job during the meeting was to keep an +accurate count of how many times Bill said the F word. The lower the +f\*\*\*-count, the better. + +Bill came in. + +I thought about how strange it was that he had two legs, two arms, one +head, etc., almost exactly like a regular human being. + +He had my spec in his hand. + +He had my spec in his hand\! + +He sat down and exchanged witty banter with an executive I did not know +that made no sense to me. A few people laughed. + +Bill turned to me. + +I noticed that there were comments in the margins of my spec. He had +read the first page\! + +He had read the first page of my spec and written little notes in the +margin\! + +Considering that we only got him the spec about 24 hours earlier, he +must have read it the night before. + +He was asking questions. I was answering them. They were pretty easy, +but I can’t for the life of me remember what they were, because I +couldn’t stop noticing that he was flipping through the spec… + +He was flipping through the spec\! \[Calm down, what are you a little +girl?\] + +… and THERE WERE NOTES IN ALL THE MARGINS. ON EVERY PAGE OF THE SPEC. HE +HAD READ THE WHOLE GODDAMNED THING AND WRITTEN NOTES IN THE MARGINS. + +He Read The Whole Thing\! \[OMG SQUEEE\!\] + +The questions got harder and more detailed. + +They seemed a little bit random. By now I was used to thinking of Bill +as my buddy. He’s a nice guy\! He read my spec\! He probably just wants +to ask me a few questions about the comments in the margins\! I’ll open +a bug in the bug tracker for each of his comments and makes sure it gets +addressed, pronto\! + +Finally the killer question. + +“I don’t know, you guys,” Bill said, “Is anyone really looking into all +the details of how to do this? Like, all those date and time functions. +Excel has so many date and time functions. Is Basic going to have the +same functions? Will they all work the same way?” + +“Yes,” I said, “except for January and February, 1900.” + +Silence. + +The f\*\*\* counter and my boss exchanged astonished glances. How did I +know that? January and February WHAT? + +“OK. Well, good work,” said Bill. He took his marked up copy of the spec + +…wait\! I wanted that… + +and left. + +“Four,” announced the f\*\*\* counter, and everyone said, “wow, that’s +the lowest I can remember. Bill is getting mellow in his old age.” He +was, you know, 36. + +Later I had it explained to me. “Bill doesn’t really want to review your +spec, he just wants to make sure you’ve got it under control. His +standard M.O. is to ask harder and harder questions until you admit that +you don’t know, and then he can yell at you for being unprepared. Nobody +was really sure what happens if you answer the hardest question he can +come up with because it’s never happened before.” + +“Can you imagine if Jim Manzi had been in that meeting?” someone asked. +“‘What’s a date function?’ Manzi would have asked.” + +Jim Manzi was the MBA-type running Lotus into the ground. + +It was a good point. Bill Gates was amazingly technical. He understood +Variants, and COM objects, and IDispatch and why Automation is different +than vtables and why this might lead to dual interfaces. He worried +about date functions. He didn’t meddle in software if he trusted the +people who were working on it, but you couldn’t bullshit him for a +minute because he was a programmer. A real, actual, programmer. + +Watching non-programmers trying to run software companies is like +watching someone who doesn’t know how to surf trying to surf. + +“It’s ok\! I have great advisors standing on the shore telling me what +to do\!” they say, and then fall off the board, again and again. The +standard cry of the MBA who believes that management is a generic +function. Is Ballmer going to be another John Sculley, who nearly drove +Apple into extinction because the board of directors thought that +selling Pepsi was good preparation for running a computer company? The +cult of the MBA likes to believe that you can run organizations that do +things that you don’t understand. + +Over the years, Microsoft got big, Bill got overextended, and some shady +ethical decisions made it necessary to devote way too much management +attention to fighting the US government. Steve took over the CEO role on +the theory that this would allow Bill to spend more time doing what he +does best, running the software development organization, but that +didn’t seem to fix endemic problems caused by those 11 layers of +management, a culture of perpetual, permanent meetings, a stubborn +insistance on creating every possible product no matter what, (how many +billions of dollars has Microsoft lost, in R\&D, legal fees, and damage +to reputation, because they decided that not only do they have to make a +web browser, but they have to give it away free?), and a couple of +decades of sloppy, rapid hiring has ensured that the brainpower of the +median Microsoft employee has gone way down (Douglas Coupland, in +Microserfs: “They hired 3,100 people in 1992 alone, and you know not all +of them were gems.”) + +Oh well. The party has moved elsewhere. Excel Basic became Microsoft +Visual Basic for Applications for Microsoft Excel, with so many (TM)’s +and (R)’s I don’t know where to put them all. I left the company in +1994, assuming Bill had completely forgotten me, until I noticed a short +interview with Bill Gates in the Wall Street Journal, in which he +mentioned, almost in passing, something along the lines of how hard it +was to recruit, say, a good program manager for Excel. They don’t just +grow on trees, or something. + +Could he have been talking about me? Naw, it was probably someone else. + +Still. diff --git a/_stories/2006/8939333.md b/_stories/2006/8939333.md index d17251d..a0b4e64 100644 --- a/_stories/2006/8939333.md +++ b/_stories/2006/8939333.md @@ -19,7 +19,205 @@ _tags: objectID: '8939333' --- -[Source](https://www.wired.com/science/discoveries/news/2006/01/70015 "Permalink to ") +BASEL, Switzerland – When Kevin Herbert has a particularly intractable +programming problem, or finds himself pondering a big career decision, +he deploys a powerful mind expanding tool – LSD-25. +"It must be changing something about the internal communication in my +brain. Whatever my inner process is that lets me solve problems, it +works differently, or maybe different parts of my brain are used, " said +Herbert, 42, an early employee of Cisco Systems who says he solved his +toughest technical problems while tripping to drum solos by the Grateful +Dead – who were among the many artists inspired by LSD. +"When I'm on LSD and hearing something that's pure rhythm, it takes me +to another world and into anther brain state where I've stopped thinking +and started knowing," said Herbert who intervened to ban drug testing of +technologists at Cisco Systems. +Herbert, who lives in Santa Cruz, California, joined 2,000 researchers, +scientists, artists and historians gathered here over the weekend to +celebrate the 100th birthday of Albert Hofmann, the Swiss chemist who +discovered LSD here in 1938. The centenarian received a congratulatory +birthday letter from the Swiss president, roses and a spontaneous kiss +from a young woman in the crowd. + +In many ways, the conference, LSD: Problem Child and Wonder Drug, an +International Symposium on the Occasion of the 100th Birthday of Albert +Hofmann, was a scientific coming-out party for the drug Hofmann +fathered. + +"LSD wanted to tell me something," Hofmann told the gathering Friday. +"It gave me an inner joy, an open mindedness, a gratefulness, open eyes +and an internal sensitivity for the miracles of creation." + +Bent with age but still eloquent, Hofmann said he hoped the symposium +would encourage the renewed therapeutic and spiritual use of LSD in +supervised settings. + +Lysergic acid diethylamide, a derivative of lysergic acid found in the +alkaloids of the ergot grain fungus, has been illegal worldwide since +the mid-1960s and still generates controversy. The conference was +picketed Saturday by a splinter group from Scientology opposed to drug +use. + +The storied history of LSD as a mind-expanding tool began five years +after Hofmann discovered LSD-25, and had what he described as a +"peculiar presentiment" compelling him to resynthesize the drug. Without +ingesting the substance, Hofmann managed to accidentally absorb enough +of the chemical to experience its effects. In a second intentional trip, +Hoffman said he had a frightening experience that gave way to feelings +of rebirth. + +During the 1950s and 1960s, LSD was found to be a promising tool for +psychiatry and psychotherapy and was studied by the CIA as a potential +interrogation weapon. It was criminalized after it escaped from the lab +to be widely embraced by the youth culture. + +Hofmannn said millions of people have taken LSD, but some had bad +reactions when they took counterfeit drugs. He would like to see a +modern Eleusis, the ancient Greek site that held the rituals of +Eleusinian Mysteries which took place for two millennia beginning in +1500 BC. During the LSD symposium, mythologist Carl P. Ruck and chemist +Peter Webster presented their research suggesting that an ergot +preparation was the active ingredient for the Kykeon beverage used +during the ritual. + +"When Hofmann synthesized the chemical in LSD, he stumbled upon a +4,000-year-old secret," said Ruck, author of Road to Eleusis. + +In 1958, Hofmann was the first to isolate the psychoactive substances of +psilocybin and psilocin from Mexican magic mushrooms (psilocybe +mexicana) which were among a variety of sacred plants used around the +world to invite ecstatic and spiritual experiences. + +The United States Supreme Court is now considering an appeal brought by +the New Mexican chapter of the Uniao do Vegetal, or UDV, which uses the +outlawed ayahauska brew in its ceremonies and cites the Eleusinian +Mysteries as a precedent for a psychoactive Eucharist. + +At the symposium, presentations of electronic trance music and +psychedelic art by painter Alex Grey encouraged meditative and spiritual +reflection for participants – especially those in altered states of +consciousness. + +Participants eager to describe their modern-day spiritual LSD +experiences were encouraged to contribute to a +[library](http://www.erowid.org) of drug experiences on the Erowid +website. Earth and Fire Erowid, who operate the site, presented a +sampling of comments at the symposium and documented the two to five +known deaths that have been associated with LSD. + +Geri Beil of Cologne, Germany, who attended the symposium, recalled his +own ecstatic LSD experience on an Indian beach on New Year's day, 2000. +"I was crying from happiness, so thankful to my parents that they +created me," said Beil. "This experience has not disappeared; it has had +a lasting effect." + +Like Herbert, many scientists and engineers also report heightened +states of creativity while using LSD. During a press conference on +Friday, Hofmann revealed that he was told by Nobel-prize-winning chemist +Kary Mullis that LSD had helped him develop the polymerase chain +reaction that helps amplify specific DNA sequences. + +"When you study natural science and the miracles of creation, if you +don't turn into a mystic you are not a natural scientist," said Hofmann. + +In his presentation, artist Alex Grey noted that Nobel-prize-winner +Francis Crick, discoverer of the double helical structure of DNA, also +told friends he received inspiration for his ideas from LSD, according +to [news reports](http://www.mayanmajix.com/art1699.html). + +The gathering included a discussion of how early computer pioneers used +LSD for inspiration. Douglas Englebart, the inventor of the mouse, Myron +Stolaroff, a former Ampex engineer and LSD researcher who was attending +the symposium, and Apple-cofounder Steve Jobs were among them. In the +2005 book What the Dormouse Said, New York Times reporter John Markoff +quotes Jobs describing his LSD experience as "one of the two or three +most important things he has done in his life." + +But the symposium wasn't just a census of LSD-using notables. Attendees +included psychotherapists and psychiatrists who discussed research into +the therapeutic usefulness of psychedelic drugs. + +Dr. Michael Mithoefer presented the preliminary findings of his study in +Charleston, South Carolina, which is investigating whether MDMA is +effective for treating post-traumatic stress disorder in people +traumatized by crime or war. + +Harvard University professor, Dr. John Halpern, discussed his proposed +study – now awaiting DEA approval – using MDMA to treat anxiety in +cancer patients. + +The Florida-based Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies +(MAPS) is supporting studies and research in Canada investigating the +use of ibogain to treat drug addiction. + +And a [study](http://www.canceranxietystudy.org) at the Harbor-UCLA +Medical Center in Los Angeles, supported by the Heffter Research +Institute, is investigating whether psilocybin effectively eases the +anxiety of terminal cancer patients. Psychiatrist Charles Grob says his +research group has located six of the needed 12 subjects and is looking +for more participants. + +While the data has yet to be analyzed, Grob told seminar participants +that all the participants in the study have shown promising reactions, +and he applauded the opportunity to share the data in an international +gathering. + +"It's very encouraging to see such a large number of people, including +very knowledgeable people, getting together and sharing a common vision +that these compounds have tremendous potential to facilitate healing, +especially in areas that do not respond well to conventional +treatments," said Grob. "There is global healing in these compounds +which have been used for millennia by indigenous people that have much +to teach modern man and modern woman." + +MAPS founder Rick Doblin says his goal is to make psychedelic medicines +into prescription drugs, lamenting that LSD is not yet being studied for +therapeutic purposes. "We have been deeply touched by our experiences +with psychedelics and it is hard that there is not a single legal study +with LSD given to humans anywhere in the world," said Doblin. "We need +to bring what is underground and illegal back into a legal context." + +But Doblin notes that a group of people who say LSD provides relief from +their cluster headaches have [organized](http://www.clusterbusters.com) +online and are pushing for a study at Harvard to explore a possible +therapy using the drug. If Harvard accepts the MDMA study, Doblin says +it could pave the way for the symbolically important return of +psychedelic research at Harvard that halted during the tenure of +[Timothy Leary](http://www.roninpub.com/TimLea.html). His goal, says +Doblin, is to secure an LSD study in time for Hofmann's 101st birthday. + +Dr. Andrew Sewell, a psychiatrist and neurologist from the Harvard +Medical School who studies alcohol and drug abuse, says most problems +with LSD occur when users take an unknown dose they don't feel +comfortable with, in an uncontrolled setting, without supervision to +shield them from dangerous situations. + +"LSD flashbacks are well-confirmed phenomenon but they are relatively +rare and don't seem to cause as much trouble as the media would have you +believe," said Dr. Sewell at the LSD symposium. + +Dr. Sewell says people who have underlying mental disorders should not +take LSD because it could make their symptoms worse. "Like any powerful +drug, if LSD is used incorrectly it can cause more harm than good," said +Dr. Sewell. "LSD is a potentially dangerous drug and should be taken +under medical supervision." + +"There is no evidence that LSD causes permanent brain damage – and quite +a lot of evidence that it doesn't," said Sewell. "We are lucky that we +have over 1,000 papers written in the '50s and '60s when LSD was given +to thousands and thousands of research subjects so we have a pretty good +idea at this point what it does and does not do." + +Asked if the world needs his invention, Hofmann said he hoped that the +Basel LSD symposium would help create an appropriate place for LSD in +society. + +"I think that in human evolution it has never been as necessary to have +this substance LSD," said Hofmann. "It is just a tool to turn us into +what we are supposed to be." + +[See related +slideshow](https://www.wired.com/science/discoveries/multimedia/2006/01/70015) diff --git a/_stories/2006/9260169.md b/_stories/2006/9260169.md index 0da70fc..e59c7aa 100644 --- a/_stories/2006/9260169.md +++ b/_stories/2006/9260169.md @@ -19,7 +19,245 @@ _tags: objectID: '9260169' --- -[Source](https://www.varnish-cache.org/trac/wiki/ArchitectNotes "Permalink to ") +# Notes from the Architect +Once you start working with the Varnish source code, you will notice +that Varnish is not your average run of the mill application. +That is not a coincidence. +I have spent many years working on the FreeBSD kernel, and only rarely +did I venture into userland programming, but when I had occation to do +so, I invariably found that people programmed like it was still 1975. + +So when I was approached about the Varnish project I wasn't really +interested until I realized that this would be a good opportunity to try +to put some of all my knowledge of how hardware and kernels work to good +use, and now that we have reached alpha stage, I can say I have really +enjoyed it. + +## So what's wrong with 1975 programming ? + +The really short answer is that computers do not have two kinds of +storage any more. + +It used to be that you had the primary store, and it was anything from +acoustic delaylines filled with mercury via small magnetic dougnuts via +transistor flip-flops to dynamic RAM. + +And then there were the secondary store, paper tape, magnetic tape, disk +drives the size of houses, then the size of washing machines and these +days so small that girls get disappointed if think they got hold of +something else than the MP3 player you had in your pocket. + +And people program this way. + +They have variables in "memory" and move data to and from "disk". + +Take Squid for instance, a 1975 program if I ever saw one: You tell it +how much RAM it can use and how much disk it can use. It will then spend +inordinate amounts of time keeping track of what HTTP objects are in RAM +and which are on disk and it will move them forth and back depending on +traffic patterns. + +Well, today computers really only have one kind of storage, and it is +usually some sort of disk, the operating system and the virtual memory +management hardware has converted the RAM to a cache for the disk +storage. + +So what happens with squids elaborate memory management is that it gets +into fights with the kernels elaborate memory management, and like any +civil war, that never gets anything done. + +What happens is this: Squid creates a HTTP object in "RAM" and it gets +used some times rapidly after creation. Then after some time it get no +more hits and the kernel notices this. Then somebody tries to get memory +from the kernel for something and the kernel decides to push those +unused pages of memory out to swap space and use the (cache-RAM) more +sensibly for some data which is actually used by a program. This +however, is done without squid knowing about it. Squid still thinks that +these http objects are in RAM, and they will be, the very second it +tries to access them, but until then, the RAM is used for something +productive. + +This is what Virtual Memory is all about. + +If squid did nothing else, things would be fine, but this is where the +1975 programming kicks in. + +After some time, squid will also notice that these objects are unused, +and it decides to move them to disk so the RAM can be used for more busy +data. So squid goes out, creates a file and then it writes the http +objects to the file. + +Here we switch to the high-speed camera: Squid calls write(2), the +address i gives is a "virtual address" and the kernel has it marked as +"not at home". + +So the CPU hardwares paging unit will raise a trap, a sort of interrupt +to the operating system telling it "fix the memory please". + +The kernel tries to find a free page, if there are none, it will take a +little used page from somewhere, likely another little used squid +object, write it to the paging poll space on the disk (the "swap area") +when that write completes, it will read from another place in the paging +pool the data it "paged out" into the now unused RAM page, fix up the +paging tables, and retry the instruction which failed. + +Squid knows nothing about this, for squid it was just a single normal +memory acces. + +So now squid has the object in a page in RAM and written to the disk two +places: one copy in the operating systems paging space and one copy in +the filesystem. + +Squid now uses this RAM for something else but after some time, the HTTP +object gets a hit, so squid needs it back. + +First squid needs some RAM, so it may decide to push another HTTP object +out to disk (repeat above), then it reads the filesystem file back into +RAM, and then it sends the data on the network connections socket. + +Did any of that sound like wasted work to you ? + +Here is how Varnish does it: + +Varnish allocate some virtual memory, it tells the operating system to +back this memory with space from a disk file. When it needs to send the +object to a client, it simply refers to that piece of virtual memory and +leaves the rest to the kernel. + +If/when the kernel decides it needs to use RAM for something else, the +page will get written to the backing file and the RAM page reused +elsewhere. + +When Varnish next time refers to the virtual memory, the operating +system will find a RAM page, possibly freeing one, and read the contents +in from the backing file. + +And that's it. Varnish doesn't really try to control what is cached in +RAM and what is not, the kernel has code and hardware support to do a +good job at that, and it does a good job. + +Varnish also only has a single file on the disk whereas squid puts one +object in its own separate file. The HTTP objects are not needed as +filesystem objects, so there is no point in wasting time in the +filesystem name space (directories, filenames and all that) for each +object, all we need to have in Varnish is a pointer into virtual memory +and a length, the kernel does the rest. + +Virtual memory was meant to make it easier to program when data was +larger than the physical memory, but people have still not caught on. + +## More caches. + +But there are more caches around, the silicon mafia has more or less +stalled at 4GHz CPU clock and to get even that far they have had to put +level 1, 2 and sometimes 3 caches between the CPU and the RAM (which is +the level 4 cache), there are also things like write buffers, pipeline +and page-mode fetches involved, all to make it a tad less slow to pick +up something from memory. + +And since they have hit the 4GHz limit, but decreasing silicon feature +sizes give them more and more transistors to work with, multi-cpu +designs have become the fancy of the world, despite the fact that they +suck as a programming model. + +Multi-CPU systems is nothing new, but writing programs that use more +than one CPU at a time has always been tricky and it still is. + +Writing programs that perform well on multi-CPU systems is even +trickier. + +Imagine I have two statistics counters: + +``` wiki + unsigned n_foo; + unsigned n_bar; +``` + +So one CPU is chugging along and has to execute `n_foo++` + +To do that, it read n\_foo and then write n\_foo back. It may or may not +involve a load into a CPU register, but that is not important. + +To read a memory location means to check if we have it in the CPUs level +1 cache. It is unlikely to be unless it is very frequently used. Next +check the level two cache, and let us assume that is a miss as well. + +If this is a single CPU system, the game ends here, we pick it out of +RAM and move on. + +On a Multi-CPU system, and it doesn't matter if the CPUs share a socket +or have their own, we first have to check if any of the other CPUs have +a modified copy of n\_foo stored in their caches, so a special +bus-transaction goes out to find this out, if if some cpu comes back and +says "yeah, I have it" that cpu gets to write it to RAM. On good +hardware designs, our CPU will listen in on the bus during that write +operation, on bad designs it will have to do a memory read afterwards. + +Now the CPU can increment the value of n\_foo, and write it back. But it +is unlikely to go directly back to memory, we might need it again +quickly, so the modified value gets stored in our own L1 cache and then +at some point, it will end up in RAM. + +Now imagine that another CPU wants to `n_bar+++` at the same time, can +it do that ? No. Caches operate not on bytes but on some "linesize" of +bytes, typically from 8 to 128 bytes in each line. So since the first +cpu was busy dealing with `n_foo`, the second CPU will be trying to grab +the same cache-line, so it will have to wait, even through it is a +different variable. + +Starting to get the idea ? + +Yes, it's ugly. + +## How do we cope ? + +Avoid memory operations if at all possible. + +Here are some ways Varnish tries to do that: + +When we need to handle a HTTP request or response, we have an array of +pointers and a workspace. We do not call malloc(3) for each header. We +call it once for the entire workspace and then we pick space for the +headers from there. The nice thing about this is that we usually free +the entire header in one go and we can do that simply by resetting a +pointer to the start of the workspace. + +When we need to copy a HTTP header from one request to another (or from +a response to another) we don't copy the string, we just copy the +pointer to it. Provided we do not change or free the source headers, +this is perfectly safe, a good example is copying from the client +request to the request we will send to the backend. + +When the new header has a longer lifetime than the source, then we have +to copy it. For instance when we store headers in a cached object. But +in that case we build the new header in a workspace, and once we know +how big it will be, we do a single malloc(3) to get the space and then +we put the entire header in that space. + +We also try to reuse memory which is likely to be in the caches. + +The worker threads are used in "most recently busy" fashion, when a +workerthread becomes free it goes to the front of the queue where it is +most likely to get the next request, so that all the memory it already +has cached, stack space, variables etc, can be reused while in the +cache, instead of having the expensive fetches from RAM. + +We also give each worker thread a private set of variables it is likely +to need, all allocated on the stack of the thread. That way we are +certain that they occupy a page in RAM which none of the other CPUs will +ever think about touching as long as this thread runs on its own CPU. +That way they will not fight about the cachelines. + +If all this sounds foreign to you, let me just assure you that it works: +we spend less than 18 system calls on serving a cache hit, and even many +of those are calls tog get timestamps for statistics. + +These techniques are also nothing new, we have used them in the kernel +for more than a decade, now it's your turn to learn them :-) + +So Welcome to Varnish, a 2006 architecture program. + +Poul-Henning Kamp, Varnish architect and coder. diff --git a/_stories/2006/9901214.md b/_stories/2006/9901214.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..90f0532 --- /dev/null +++ b/_stories/2006/9901214.md @@ -0,0 +1,763 @@ +--- +created_at: '2015-07-17T03:55:01.000Z' +title: Solving Every Sudoku Puzzle (2006) +url: http://norvig.com/sudoku.html +author: srathi +points: 80 +story_text: '' +comment_text: +num_comments: 27 +story_id: +story_title: +story_url: +parent_id: +created_at_i: 1437105301 +_tags: +- story +- author_srathi +- story_9901214 +objectID: '9901214' + +--- +# Solving Every Sudoku Puzzle + +### by Peter Norvig + +In this essay I tackle the problem of solving every Sudoku puzzle. It +turns out to be quite easy (about [one page](sudopy.shtml) of code for +the main idea and two pages for embellishments) using two ideas: and . + +## Sudoku Notation and Preliminary Notions + +First we have to agree on some notation. A Sudoku puzzle is a *grid* of +81 squares; the majority of enthusiasts label the columns 1-9, the rows +A-I, and call a collection of nine squares (column, row, or box) a +*unit* and the squares that share a unit the *peers*. A puzzle leaves +some squares blank and fills others with digits, and the whole idea is: + +> *A puzzle is solved if the squares in each unit are filled with a +> permutation of the digits 1 to 9.* + +That is, no digit can appear twice in a unit, and every digit must +appear once. This implies that each square must have a different value +from any of its peers. Here are the names of the squares, a typical +puzzle, and the solution to the +puzzle: + +``` prettyprint + A1 A2 A3| A4 A5 A6| A7 A8 A9 4 . . |. . . |8 . 5 4 1 7 |3 6 9 |8 2 5 + B1 B2 B3| B4 B5 B6| B7 B8 B9 . 3 . |. . . |. . . 6 3 2 |1 5 8 |9 4 7 + C1 C2 C3| C4 C5 C6| C7 C8 C9 . . . |7 . . |. . . 9 5 8 |7 2 4 |3 1 6 +---------+---------+--------- ------+------+------ ------+------+------ + D1 D2 D3| D4 D5 D6| D7 D8 D9 . 2 . |. . . |. 6 . 8 2 5 |4 3 7 |1 6 9 + E1 E2 E3| E4 E5 E6| E7 E8 E9 . . . |. 8 . |4 . . 7 9 1 |5 8 6 |4 3 2 + F1 F2 F3| F4 F5 F6| F7 F8 F9 . . . |. 1 . |. . . 3 4 6 |9 1 2 |7 5 8 +---------+---------+--------- ------+------+------ ------+------+------ + G1 G2 G3| G4 G5 G6| G7 G8 G9 . . . |6 . 3 |. 7 . 2 8 9 |6 4 3 |5 7 1 + H1 H2 H3| H4 H5 H6| H7 H8 H9 5 . . |2 . . |. . . 5 7 3 |2 9 1 |6 8 4 + I1 I2 I3| I4 I5 I6| I7 I8 I9 1 . 4 |. . . |. . . 1 6 4 |8 7 5 |2 9 3 +``` + +Every square has exactly 3 units and 20 peers. For example, here are the +units and peers for the square +`C2`: + +``` prettyprint + A2 | | | | A1 A2 A3| | + B2 | | | | B1 B2 B3| | + C2 | | C1 C2 C3| C4 C5 C6| C7 C8 C9 C1 C2 C3| | +---------+---------+--------- ---------+---------+--------- ---------+---------+--------- + D2 | | | | | | + E2 | | | | | | + F2 | | | | | | +---------+---------+--------- ---------+---------+--------- ---------+---------+--------- + G2 | | | | | | + H2 | | | | | | + I2 | | | | | | +``` + +We can implement the notions of units, peers, and squares in the +programming language [Python](http://python.org) (2.5 or later) as +follows: + +``` prettyprint +def cross(A, B): + "Cross product of elements in A and elements in B." + return [a+b for a in A for b in B] + +digits = '123456789' +rows = 'ABCDEFGHI' +cols = digits +squares = cross(rows, cols) +unitlist = ([cross(rows, c) for c in cols] + + [cross(r, cols) for r in rows] + + [cross(rs, cs) for rs in ('ABC','DEF','GHI') for cs in ('123','456','789')]) +units = dict((s, [u for u in unitlist if s in u]) + for s in squares) +peers = dict((s, set(sum(units[s],[]))-set([s])) + for s in squares) +``` + +If you are not familiar with some of the features of Python, note that a +`dict` or dictionary is Python's name for a hash table that maps each +key to a value; that these are specified as a sequence of (key, value) +tuples; that `dict((s, [...]) for s in squares)` creates a dictionary +which maps each square `s` to a value that is the list `[...]`; and that +the expression `[u for u in unitlist if s in u]` means that this value +is the list of units `u` such that the square `s` is a member of `u`. So +read this assignment statement as "`units` is a dictionary where each +square maps to the list of units that contain the square". Similarly, +read the next assignment statement as "`peers` is a dictionary where +each square `s` maps to the set of squares formed by the union of the +squares in the units of `s`, but not `s` itself". + +It can't hurt to throw in some tests (they all pass): + +``` prettyprint +def test(): + "A set of unit tests." + assert len(squares) == 81 + assert len(unitlist) == 27 + assert all(len(units[s]) == 3 for s in squares) + assert all(len(peers[s]) == 20 for s in squares) + assert units['C2'] == [['A2', 'B2', 'C2', 'D2', 'E2', 'F2', 'G2', 'H2', 'I2'], + ['C1', 'C2', 'C3', 'C4', 'C5', 'C6', 'C7', 'C8', 'C9'], + ['A1', 'A2', 'A3', 'B1', 'B2', 'B3', 'C1', 'C2', 'C3']] + assert peers['C2'] == set(['A2', 'B2', 'D2', 'E2', 'F2', 'G2', 'H2', 'I2', + 'C1', 'C3', 'C4', 'C5', 'C6', 'C7', 'C8', 'C9', + 'A1', 'A3', 'B1', 'B3']) + print 'All tests pass.' +``` + +Now that we have squares, units, and peers, the next step is to define +the Sudoku playing grid. Actually we need two representations: First, a +textual format used to specify the initial state of a puzzle; we will +reserve the name *grid* for this. Second, an internal representation of +any state of a puzzle, partially solved or complete; this we will call a +*values* collection because it will give all the remaining possible +values for each square. For the textual format (*grid*) we'll allow a +string of characters with 1-9 indicating a digit, and a 0 or period +specifying an empty square. All other characters are ignored (including +spaces, newlines, dashes, and bars). So each of the following three grid +strings represent the same +puzzle: + +``` prettyprint +"4.....8.5.3..........7......2.....6.....8.4......1.......6.3.7.5..2.....1.4......" + +""" +400000805 +030000000 +000700000 +020000060 +000080400 +000010000 +000603070 +500200000 +104000000""" + +""" +4 . . |. . . |8 . 5 +. 3 . |. . . |. . . +. . . |7 . . |. . . +------+------+------ +. 2 . |. . . |. 6 . +. . . |. 8 . |4 . . +. . . |. 1 . |. . . +------+------+------ +. . . |6 . 3 |. 7 . +5 . . |2 . . |. . . +1 . 4 |. . . |. . . +""" +``` + +Now for *values*. One might think that a 9 x 9 array would be the +obvious data structure. But squares have names like `'A1'`, not `(0,0)`. +Therefore, *values* will be a dict with squares as keys. The value of +each key will be the possible digits for that square: a single digit if +it was given as part of the puzzle definition or if we have figured out +what it must be, and a collection of several digits if we are still +uncertain. This collection of digits could be represented by a Python +`set` or `list`, but I chose instead to use a string of digits (we'll +see why later). So a grid where `A1` is `7` and `C7` is empty would be +represented as `{'A1': '7', 'C7': '123456789', ...}`. + +Here is the code to parse a grid into a *values* dict: + +``` prettyprint +def parse_grid(grid): + """Convert grid to a dict of possible values, {square: digits}, or + return False if a contradiction is detected.""" + ## To start, every square can be any digit; then assign values from the grid. + values = dict((s, digits) for s in squares) + for s,d in grid_values(grid).items(): + if d in digits and not assign(values, s, d): + return False ## (Fail if we can't assign d to square s.) + return values + +def grid_values(grid): + "Convert grid into a dict of {square: char} with '0' or '.' for empties." + chars = [c for c in grid if c in digits or c in '0.'] + assert len(chars) == 81 + return dict(zip(squares, chars)) +``` + +## Constraint Propagation + +The function `parse_grid` calls `assign(values, s, d)`. We could +implement this as `values[s] = d`, but we can do more than just that. +Those with experience solving Sudoku puzzles know that there are two +important strategies that we can use to make progress towards filling in +all the squares: + +> *(1) If a square has only one possible value, then eliminate that +> value from the square's peers. +> (2) If a unit has only one possible place for a value, then put the +> value there.* + +As an example of strategy (1) if we assign 7 to `A1`, yielding `{'A1': +'7', 'A2':'123456789', ...}`, we see that `A1` has only one value, and +thus the 7 can be removed from its peer `A2` (and all other peers), +giving us `{'A1': '7', 'A2': '12345689', ...}`. As an example of +strategy (2), if it turns out that none of `A3` through `A9` has a 3 as +a possible value, then the 3 must belong in `A2`, and we can update to +`{'A1': '7', 'A2':'3', ...}`. These updates to `A2` may in turn cause +further updates to its peers, and the peers of those peers, and so on. +This process is called *constraint propagation*. + +The function `assign(values, s, d)` will return the updated *values* +(including the updates from constraint propagation), but if there is a +contradiction--if the assignment cannot be made consistently--then +`assign` returns `False`. For example, if a grid starts with the digits +`'77...'` then when we try to assign the 7 to `A2`, `assign` would +notice that 7 is not a possibility for `A2`, because it was eliminated +by the peer, `A1`. + +It turns out that the fundamental operation is not assigning a value, +but rather eliminating one of the possible values for a square, which we +implement with `eliminate(values, s, d)`. Once we have `eliminate`, then +`assign(values, s, d)` can be defined as "eliminate all the values from +`s` except `d`". + +``` prettyprint +def assign(values, s, d): + """Eliminate all the other values (except d) from values[s] and propagate. + Return values, except return False if a contradiction is detected.""" + other_values = values[s].replace(d, '') + if all(eliminate(values, s, d2) for d2 in other_values): + return values + else: + return False + +def eliminate(values, s, d): + """Eliminate d from values[s]; propagate when values or places <= 2. + Return values, except return False if a contradiction is detected.""" + if d not in values[s]: + return values ## Already eliminated + values[s] = values[s].replace(d,'') + ## (1) If a square s is reduced to one value d2, then eliminate d2 from the peers. + if len(values[s]) == 0: + return False ## Contradiction: removed last value + elif len(values[s]) == 1: + d2 = values[s] + if not all(eliminate(values, s2, d2) for s2 in peers[s]): + return False + ## (2) If a unit u is reduced to only one place for a value d, then put it there. + for u in units[s]: + dplaces = [s for s in u if d in values[s]] + if len(dplaces) == 0: + return False ## Contradiction: no place for this value + elif len(dplaces) == 1: + # d can only be in one place in unit; assign it there + if not assign(values, dplaces[0], d): + return False + return values +``` + +Now before we can go much further, we will need to display a puzzle: + +``` prettyprint +def display(values): + "Display these values as a 2-D grid." + width = 1+max(len(values[s]) for s in squares) + line = '+'.join(['-'*(width*3)]*3) + for r in rows: + print ''.join(values[r+c].center(width)+('|' if c in '36' else '') + for c in cols) + if r in 'CF': print line + print +``` + +Now we're ready to go. I picked the first example from a list of [easy +puzzles](easy50.txt) from the fine [Project +Euler](http://projecteuler.net) [Sudoku +problem](http://projecteuler.net/index.php?section=problems&id=96) and +tried +it: + +``` prettyprint +>>> grid1 = '003020600900305001001806400008102900700000008006708200002609500800203009005010300' + +>>> display(parse_grid(grid1)) +4 8 3 |9 2 1 |6 5 7 +9 6 7 |3 4 5 |8 2 1 +2 5 1 |8 7 6 |4 9 3 +------+------+------ +5 4 8 |1 3 2 |9 7 6 +7 2 9 |5 6 4 |1 3 8 +1 3 6 |7 9 8 |2 4 5 +------+------+------ +3 7 2 |6 8 9 |5 1 4 +8 1 4 |2 5 3 |7 6 9 +6 9 5 |4 1 7 |3 8 2 +``` + +In this case, the puzzle was completely solved by rote application of +strategies (1) and (2)\! Unfortunately, that will not always be the +case. Here is the first example from a list of [hard +puzzles](http://magictour.free.fr/top95): + +``` prettyprint +>>> grid2 = '4.....8.5.3..........7......2.....6.....8.4......1.......6.3.7.5..2.....1.4......' + +>>> display(parse_grid(grid2)) + 4 1679 12679 | 139 2369 269 | 8 1239 5 + 26789 3 1256789 | 14589 24569 245689 | 12679 1249 124679 + 2689 15689 125689 | 7 234569 245689 | 12369 12349 123469 +------------------------+------------------------+------------------------ + 3789 2 15789 | 3459 34579 4579 | 13579 6 13789 + 3679 15679 15679 | 359 8 25679 | 4 12359 12379 + 36789 4 56789 | 359 1 25679 | 23579 23589 23789 +------------------------+------------------------+------------------------ + 289 89 289 | 6 459 3 | 1259 7 12489 + 5 6789 3 | 2 479 1 | 69 489 4689 + 1 6789 4 | 589 579 5789 | 23569 23589 23689 +``` + +In this case, we are still a long way from solving the puzzle--61 +squares remain uncertain. What next? We could try to code [more +sophisticated +strategies](http://www.sudokudragon.com/sudokustrategy.htm). For +example, the *naked twins* strategy looks for two squares in the same +unit that both have the same two possible digits. Given `{'A5': '26', +'A6':'26', ...}`, we can conclude that 2 and 6 must be in `A5` and `A6` +(although we don't know which is where), and we can therefore eliminate +2 and 6 from every other square in the `A` row unit. We could code that +strategy in a few lines by adding an `elif len(values[s]) == 2` test to +`eliminate`. + +Coding up strategies like this is a possible route, but would require +hundreds of lines of code (there are dozens of these strategies), and +we'd never be sure if we could solve *every* puzzle. + +## Search + +The other route is to *search* for a solution: to systematically try all +possibilities until we hit one that works. The code for this is less +than a dozen lines, but we run another risk: that it might take forever +to run. Consider that in the `grid2` above, `A2` has 4 possibilities +(`1679`) and `A3` has 5 possibilities (`12679`); together that's 20, and +if we keep +[multiplying](http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=4*5*3*4*3*4*5*7*5*5*6*5*4*6*4*5*6*6*6*5*5*6*4*5*4*5*4*5*5*4*5*5*3*5*5*5*5*5*3*5*5*5*5*3*2*3*3*4*5*4*3*2*3*4*4*3*3*4*5*5*5), +we get 4.62838344192 × 1038 possibilities for the whole puzzle. How can +we cope with that? There are two choices. + +First, we could try a brute force approach. Suppose we have a very +efficient program that takes only one instruction to evaluate a +position, and that we have access to the next-generation computing +technology, let's say a 10GHz processor with 1024 cores, and let's say +we could afford a million of them, and while we're shopping, let's say +we also pick up a time machine and go back 13 billion years to the +origin of the universe and start our program running. We can then +[compute](http://www.google.com/search?&q=10+GHz+*+1024+*+1+million+*+13+billion+years+%2F+4.6e38+in+percent) +that we'd be almost 1% done with this one puzzle by now. + +The second choice is to somehow process much more than one possibility +per machine instruction. That seems impossible, but fortunately it is +exactly what constraint propagation does for us. We don't have to try +all 4 × 1038 possibilities because as soon as we try one we immediately +eliminate many other possibilities. For example, square H7 of this +puzzle has two possibilities, 6 and 9. We can try 9 and quickly see that +there is a contradiction. That means we've eliminated not just one +possibility, but fully *half* of the 4 × 1038 choices. + +In fact, it turns out that to solve this particular puzzle we need to +look at only 25 possibilities and we only have to explicitly search +through 9 of the 61 unfilled squares; constraint propagation does the +rest. For the list of 95 [hard puzzles](http://magictour.free.fr/top95), +on average we need to consider 64 possibilities per puzzle, and in no +case do we have to search more than 16 squares. + +What is the search algorithm? Simple: first make sure we haven't already +found a solution or a contradiction, and if not, choose one unfilled +square and consider all its possible values. One at a time, try +assigning the square each value, and searching from the resulting +position. In other words, we search for a value `d` such that we can +successfully search for a solution from the result of assigning square +`s` to `d`. If the search leads to an failed position, go back and +consider another value of `d`. This is a *recursive* search, and we call +it a *[depth-first](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth-first_search)* +search because we (recursively) consider all possibilities under +`values[s] = d` before we consider a different value for `s`. + +To avoid bookkeeping complications, we create a new copy of `values` for +each recursive call to `search`. This way each branch of the search tree +is independent, and doesn't confuse another branch. (This is why I chose +to implement the set of possible values for a square as a string: I can +copy `values` with `values.copy()` which is simple and efficient. If I +implemented a possibility as a Python `set` or `list` I would need to +use `copy.deepcopy(values)`, which is less efficient.) The alternative +is to keep track of each change to `values` and undo the change when we +hit a dead end. This is known as *[backtracking +search](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backtracking_search)*. It makes +sense when each step in the search is a single change to a large data +structure, but is complicated when each assignment can lead to many +other changes via constraint propagation. + +There are two choices we have to make in implementing the search: +*variable ordering* (which square do we try first?) and *value ordering* +(which digit do we try first for the square?). For variable ordering, we +will use a common heuristic called *minimum remaining values*, which +means that we choose the (or one of the) square with the minimum number +of possible values. Why? Consider `grid2` above. Suppose we chose `B3` +first. It has 7 possibilities (`1256789`), so we'd expect to guess wrong +with probability 6/7. If instead we chose `G2`, which only has 2 +possibilities (`89`), we'd expect to be wrong with probability only 1/2. +Thus we choose the square with the fewest possibilities and the best +chance of guessing right. For value ordering we won't do anything +special; we'll consider the digits in numeric order. + +Now we're ready to define the `solve` function in terms of the `search` +function: + +``` prettyprint +def solve(grid): return search(parse_grid(grid)) + +def search(values): + "Using depth-first search and propagation, try all possible values." + if values is False: + return False ## Failed earlier + if all(len(values[s]) == 1 for s in squares): + return values ## Solved! + ## Chose the unfilled square s with the fewest possibilities + n,s = min((len(values[s]), s) for s in squares if len(values[s]) > 1) + return some(search(assign(values.copy(), s, d)) + for d in values[s]) + +def some(seq): + "Return some element of seq that is true." + for e in seq: + if e: return e + return False +``` + +**That's it\!** We're done; it only took one page of code, and we can +now solve any Sudoku puzzle. + +## Results + +You can view the [complete program](sudopy.shtml). Below is the output +from running the program at the command line; it solves the two files of +[50 easy](http://projecteuler.net/project/sudoku.txt) and [95 hard +puzzles](top95.txt) (see also the [95 solutions](top95solutions.html)), +[eleven puzzles](hardest.txt) I found under a search for \[[hardest +sudoku](http://www.google.com/search?q=hardest+sudoku)\], and a +selection of random puzzles: + +``` prettyprint +% python sudo.py +All tests pass. +Solved 50 of 50 easy puzzles (avg 0.01 secs (86 Hz), max 0.03 secs). +Solved 95 of 95 hard puzzles (avg 0.04 secs (24 Hz), max 0.18 secs). +Solved 11 of 11 hardest puzzles (avg 0.01 secs (71 Hz), max 0.02 secs). +Solved 99 of 99 random puzzles (avg 0.01 secs (85 Hz), max 0.02 secs). +``` + +## Analysis + +Each of the puzzles above was solved in less than a fifth of a second. +What about really hard puzzles? Finnish mathematician Arto Inkala +described his [2006 +puzzle](http://www.usatoday.com/news/offbeat/2006-11-06-sudoku_x.htm) as +"the most difficult sudoku-puzzle known so far" and his [2010 +puzzle](http://www.mirror.co.uk/fun-games/sudoku/2010/08/19/world-s-hardest-sudoku-can-you-solve-dr-arto-inkala-s-puzzle-115875-22496946/) +as "the most difficult puzzle I've ever created." My program solves them +in 0.01 seconds each (`solve_all` will be defined below): + +``` prettyprint +>>> solve_all(from_file("hardest.txt")[0:2], 'Inkala') +8 5 . |. . 2 |4 . . +7 2 . |. . . |. . 9 +. . 4 |. . . |. . . +------+------+------ +. . . |1 . 7 |. . 2 +3 . 5 |. . . |9 . . +. 4 . |. . . |. . . +------+------+------ +. . . |. 8 . |. 7 . +. 1 7 |. . . |. . . +. . . |. 3 6 |. 4 . + +8 5 9 |6 1 2 |4 3 7 +7 2 3 |8 5 4 |1 6 9 +1 6 4 |3 7 9 |5 2 8 +------+------+------ +9 8 6 |1 4 7 |3 5 2 +3 7 5 |2 6 8 |9 1 4 +2 4 1 |5 9 3 |7 8 6 +------+------+------ +4 3 2 |9 8 1 |6 7 5 +6 1 7 |4 2 5 |8 9 3 +5 9 8 |7 3 6 |2 4 1 + +(0.01 seconds) + +. . 5 |3 . . |. . . +8 . . |. . . |. 2 . +. 7 . |. 1 . |5 . . +------+------+------ +4 . . |. . 5 |3 . . +. 1 . |. 7 . |. . 6 +. . 3 |2 . . |. 8 . +------+------+------ +. 6 . |5 . . |. . 9 +. . 4 |. . . |. 3 . +. . . |. . 9 |7 . . + +1 4 5 |3 2 7 |6 9 8 +8 3 9 |6 5 4 |1 2 7 +6 7 2 |9 1 8 |5 4 3 +------+------+------ +4 9 6 |1 8 5 |3 7 2 +2 1 8 |4 7 3 |9 5 6 +7 5 3 |2 9 6 |4 8 1 +------+------+------ +3 6 7 |5 4 2 |8 1 9 +9 8 4 |7 6 1 |2 3 5 +5 2 1 |8 3 9 |7 6 4 + +(0.01 seconds) + +Solved 2 of 2 Inkala puzzles (avg 0.01 secs (99 Hz), max 0.01 secs). +``` + +I guess if I want a really hard puzzle I'll have to make it myself. I +don't know how to make hard puzzles, so I generated a million random +puzzles. My algorithm for making a random puzzle is simple: first, +randomly shuffle the order of the squares. One by one, fill in each +square with a random digit, respecting the possible digit choices. If a +contradiction is reached, start over. If we fill at least 17 squares +with at least 8 different digits then we are done. (Note: with less than +17 squares filled in or less than 8 different digits it is known that +there will be duplicate solutions. Thanks to Olivier Grégoire for the +fine suggestion about 8 different digits.) Even with these checks, my +random puzzles are not guaranteed to have one unique solution. Many have +multiple solutions, and a few (about 0.2%) have no solution. Puzzles +that appear in books and newspapers always have one unique solution. + +The average time to solve a random puzzle is 0.01 seconds, and more than +99.95% took less than 0.1 seconds, but a few took much longer: + +> 0.032%(1 in 3,000)took more than 0.1 seconds 0.014%(1 in 7,000)took +> more than 1 second 0.003%(1 in 30,000)took more than 10 seconds +> 0.0001%(1 in 1,000,000)took more than 100 seconds + +Here are the times in seconds for the 139 out of a million puzzles that +took more than a second, sorted, on linear and log scales: ![](sudo.gif) + +It is hard to draw conclusions from this. Is the uptick in the last few +values significant? If I generated 10 million puzzles, would one take +1000 seconds? Here's the hardest (for my program) of the million random +puzzles: + +``` prettyprint +>>> hard1 = '.....6....59.....82....8....45........3........6..3.54...325..6..................' +>>> solve_all([hard1]) +. . . |. . 6 |. . . +. 5 9 |. . . |. . 8 +2 . . |. . 8 |. . . +------+------+------ +. 4 5 |. . . |. . . +. . 3 |. . . |. . . +. . 6 |. . 3 |. 5 4 +------+------+------ +. . . |3 2 5 |. . 6 +. . . |. . . |. . . +. . . |. . . |. . . + +4 3 8 |7 9 6 |2 1 5 +6 5 9 |1 3 2 |4 7 8 +2 7 1 |4 5 8 |6 9 3 +------+------+------ +8 4 5 |2 1 9 |3 6 7 +7 1 3 |5 6 4 |8 2 9 +9 2 6 |8 7 3 |1 5 4 +------+------+------ +1 9 4 |3 2 5 |7 8 6 +3 6 2 |9 8 7 |5 4 1 +5 8 7 |6 4 1 |9 3 2 + +(188.79 seconds) +``` + +Unfortunately, this is not a true Sudoku puzzle because it has multiple +solutions. (It was generated before I incorporated Olivier Grégoire's +suggestion about checking for 8 digits, so note that any solution to +this puzzle leads to another solution where the 1s and 7s are swapped.) +But is this an intrinsicly hard puzzle? Or is the difficulty an artifact +of the particular variable- and value-ordering scheme used by my +`search` routine? To test I randomized the value ordering (I changed +`for d in values[s]` in the last line of `search` to be `for d in +shuffled(values[s])` and implemented `shuffled` using `random.shuffle`). +The results were starkly bimodal: in 27 out of 30 trials the puzzle took +less than 0.02 seconds, while each of the other 3 trials took just about +190 seconds (about 10,000 times longer). There are multiple solutions to +this puzzle, and the randomized `search` found 13 different solutions. +My guess is that somewhere early in the search there is a sequence of +squares (probably two) such that if we choose the exact wrong +combination of values to fill the squares, it takes about 190 seconds to +discover that there is a contradiction. But if we make any other choice, +we very quickly either find a solution or find a contradiction and move +on to another choice. So the speed of the algorithm is determined by +whether it can avoid the deadly combination of value choices. + +Randomization works most of the time (27 out of 30), but perhaps we +could do even better by considering a better value ordering (one popular +heuristic is *least-constraining value*, which chooses first the value +that imposes the fewest constraints on peers), or by trying a smarter +variable ordering. + +More experimentation would be needed before I could give a good +characterization of the hard puzzles. I decided to experiment on another +million random puzzles, this time keeping statistics on the mean, 50th +(median), 90th and 99th percentiles, maximum and standard deviation of +run times. The results were similar, except this time I got two puzzles +that took over 100 seconds, and one took quite a bit longer: 1439 +seconds. It turns out this puzzle is one of the 0.2% that has no +solution, so maybe it doesn't count. But the main message is that the +mean and median stay about the same even as we sample more, but the +maximum keeps going up--dramatically. The standard deviation edges up +too, but mostly because of the very few very long times that are way out +beyond the 99th percentile. This is a *heavy-tailed* distribution, not a +normal one. + +For comparison, the tables below give the statistics for puzzle-solving +run times on the left, and for samples from a normal (Gaussian) +distribution with mean 0.014 and standard deviation 1.4794 on the right. +Note that with a million samples, the max of the Gaussian is 5 standard +deviations above the mean (roughly what you'd expect from a Gaussian), +while the maximum puzzle run time is 1000 standard deviations above the +mean. + +Samples of Puzzle Run TimeSamples of *N*(0.014, 1.4794) +Nmean50%90%99%maxstd. dev 10 0.012 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.0034 100 0.011 +0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.0029 1,000 0.011 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.0025 10,000 +0.011 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.68 0.0093 100,000 0.012 0.01 0.01 0.02 29.07 +0.1336 1,000,000 0.014 0.01 0.01 0.02 1439.81 1.4794    +Nmean50%90%99%maxstd. dev 10 0.312 1.24 1.62 1.62 1.62 1.4061 100 0.278 +0.18 2.33 4.15 4.15 1.4985 1,000 0.072 0.10 1.94 3.38 6.18 1.4973 10,000 +0.025 0.05 1.94 3.45 6.18 1.4983 100,000 0.017 0.02 1.91 3.47 7.07 +1.4820 1,000,000 0.014 0.01 1.91 3.46 7.80 1.4802 + +Here is the impossible puzzle that took 1439 seconds: + +``` prettyprint +. . . |. . 5 |. 8 . +. . . |6 . 1 |. 4 3 +. . . |. . . |. . . +------+------+------ +. 1 . |5 . . |. . . +. . . |1 . 6 |. . . +3 . . |. . . |. . 5 +------+------+------ +5 3 . |. . . |. 6 1 +. . . |. . . |. . 4 +. . . |. . . |. . . +``` + +Here is the code that defines `solve_all` and uses it to verify puzzles +from a file as well as random puzzles: + +``` prettyprint +import time, random + +def solve_all(grids, name='', showif=0.0): + """Attempt to solve a sequence of grids. Report results. + When showif is a number of seconds, display puzzles that take longer. + When showif is None, don't display any puzzles.""" + def time_solve(grid): + start = time.clock() + values = solve(grid) + t = time.clock()-start + ## Display puzzles that take long enough + if showif is not None and t > showif: + display(grid_values(grid)) + if values: display(values) + print '(%.2f seconds)\n' % t + return (t, solved(values)) + times, results = zip(*[time_solve(grid) for grid in grids]) + N = len(grids) + if N > 1: + print "Solved %d of %d %s puzzles (avg %.2f secs (%d Hz), max %.2f secs)." % ( + sum(results), N, name, sum(times)/N, N/sum(times), max(times)) + +def solved(values): + "A puzzle is solved if each unit is a permutation of the digits 1 to 9." + def unitsolved(unit): return set(values[s] for s in unit) == set(digits) + return values is not False and all(unitsolved(unit) for unit in unitlist) + +def from_file(filename, sep='\n'): + "Parse a file into a list of strings, separated by sep." + return file(filename).read().strip().split(sep) + +def random_puzzle(N=17): + """Make a random puzzle with N or more assignments. Restart on contradictions. + Note the resulting puzzle is not guaranteed to be solvable, but empirically + about 99.8% of them are solvable. Some have multiple solutions.""" + values = dict((s, digits) for s in squares) + for s in shuffled(squares): + if not assign(values, s, random.choice(values[s])): + break + ds = [values[s] for s in squares if len(values[s]) == 1] + if len(ds) >= N and len(set(ds)) >= 8: + return ''.join(values[s] if len(values[s])==1 else '.' for s in squares) + return random_puzzle(N) ## Give up and make a new puzzle + +def shuffled(seq): + "Return a randomly shuffled copy of the input sequence." + seq = list(seq) + random.shuffle(seq) + return seq + +grid1 = '003020600900305001001806400008102900700000008006708200002609500800203009005010300' +grid2 = '4.....8.5.3..........7......2.....6.....8.4......1.......6.3.7.5..2.....1.4......' +hard1 = '.....6....59.....82....8....45........3........6..3.54...325..6..................' + +if __name__ == '__main__': + test() + solve_all(from_file("easy50.txt", '========'), "easy", None) + solve_all(from_file("top95.txt"), "hard", None) + solve_all(from_file("hardest.txt"), "hardest", None) + solve_all([random_puzzle() for _ in range(99)], "random", 100.0) +``` + +## Why? + +Why did I do this? As computer security expert [Ben +Laurie](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ben_Laurie) has stated, Sudoku is +"a denial of service attack on human intellect". Several people I know +(including my wife) were infected by the virus, and I thought maybe this +would demonstrate that they didn't need to spend any more time on +Sudoku. It didn't work for my friends (although my wife has since +independently kicked the habit without my help), but at least one +stranger wrote and said this page worked for him, so I've made the world +more productive. And perhaps along the way I've taught something about +Python, constraint propagation, and search. + +## Translations + +This code has been reimplemented by several people in several languages: + +You can see a [Korean +translation](https://github.com/jongman/articles/wiki/solving-every-sudoku-puzzle) +of this article by JongMan Koo, or use the translation widget below: diff --git a/_stories/2007/10187248.md b/_stories/2007/10187248.md index 9d17c6e..8a41941 100644 --- a/_stories/2007/10187248.md +++ b/_stories/2007/10187248.md @@ -19,7 +19,15390 @@ _tags: objectID: '10187248' --- -[Source](https://github.com/nornagon/jonesforth/blob/master/jonesforth.S "Permalink to ") +/ +\* +A sometimes minimal FORTH compiler +and + +tutorial for Linux / i386 systems. + +\-\*- + +asm + +\-\*- + +By Richard W.M. Jones \ http://annexia.org/forth + +This is PUBLIC DOMAIN (see public domain release statement below). + +$ + +Id: jonesforth.S + +, + +v + +1 + +. + +47 + +2009 + +\- + +09 + +\- + +11 + +08 + +: + +33 + +: + +13 + +rich Exp $ + +gcc + +\- + +m32 + +\- + +nostdlib + +\- + +static + +\- + +Wl + +,- + +Ttext + +, + +0 + +\- + +Wl + +,-- + +build + +\- + +id=none + +\- + +o jonesforth jonesforth.S + +\* + +/ + +.set JONES\_VERSION + +, + +47 + +/ + +\* + +INTRODUCTION + +\---------------------------------------------------------------------- + +FORTH is one of those alien languages which most working programmers +regard + +in + +the same + +way as Haskell + +, + +LISP + +, + +and + +so on. Something so strange th + +at + +they'd rather any thoughts + +of it just go away so they can get on with writing this paying code. But +th + +at + +'s wrong + +and + +if you care + +at + +all about programming then you should + +at + +least understand all these + +languages + +, + +even if you will never use them. + +LISP is the ultimate high + +\- + +level language + +, + +and + +features from LISP are being added every + +decade to the more + +common + +languages. But FORTH is + +in + +some ways the ultimate + +in + +low level + +programming. + +Out + +of the box it lacks features like dynamic memory management + +and + +even + +strings. + +In + +fact + +, + +at + +its primitive level it lacks even basic concepts like IF + +\- + +statements + +and + +loops. + +Why then would you want to learn FORTH? There are several very good +reasons. First + +and + +foremost + +, + +FORTH is minimal. You really can write a complete FORTH + +in + +, + +say + +, + +2000 + +lines of code. I don't just mean a FORTH program + +, + +I mean a complete FORTH operating + +system + +, + +environment + +and + +language. You could boot such a FORTH on a bare PC + +and + +it would + +come up with a prompt where you could start doing useful work. The FORTH +you have here + +isn + +'t minimal and uses a Linux process as its ' + +base PC' (both for the purposes of making + +it a good tutorial). It's possible to completely understand the system. +Who can say they + +completely understand how Linux works + +, + +or + +gcc? + +Secondly FORTH has a peculiar bootstrapping property. By th + +at + +I mean th + +at + +after writing + +a little bit of assembly to talk to the hardware + +and + +implement a few primitives + +, + +all the + +rest + +of the language + +and + +compiler is written + +in + +FORTH itself. Remember I said before + +th + +at + +FORTH lacked IF + +\- + +statements + +and + +loops? Well of course it doesn't really because + +such a lanuage would be useless + +, + +but my point was rather th + +at + +IF + +\- + +statements + +and + +loops are + +written + +in + +FORTH itself. + +Now of course this is + +common + +in other languages as well + +, + +and + +in + +those languages we + +call + +them + +'libraries' + +. For example + +in + +C + +, + +'printf' + +is a library function written + +in + +C. But + +in + +FORTH this goes way beyond mere libraries. Can you imagine writing C + +'s ' + +if' + +in + +C? + +And + +th + +at + +brings me to my third reason: If you can write + +'if' + +in + +FORTH + +, + +then why restrict + +yourself to the usual if/while/for/switch constructs? You want a +construct th + +at + +iterates + +over every other element + +in + +a list of numbers? You can + +add + +it to the language. Wh + +at + +about an operator which pulls + +in + +variables directly from a configuration file + +and + +makes + +them available as FORTH variables? + +Or + +how about adding Makefile + +\- + +like dependencies to + +the language? No problem + +in + +FORTH. How about modifying the FORTH compiler to allow + +complex inlining strategies + +\-- + +simple. This concept isn't + +common + +in programming languages + +, + +but it has a name ( + +in + +fact two names): + +"macros" + +(by which I mean LISP + +\- + +style macros + +, + +not + +the lame C preprocessor) + +and + +"domain specific languages" + +(DSLs). + +This tutorial isn + +'t about learning FORTH as the language. I' + +ll point you to some references + +you should read if you're + +not + +familiar with using FORTH. This tutorial is about how to + +write FORTH. + +In + +fact + +, + +until you understand how FORTH is written + +, + +you'll have only a very + +superficial understanding of how to use it. + +So if you're + +not + +familiar with FORTH + +or + +want to refresh your memory here are some online + +references to read: + +http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forth\_%28programming\_language% + +29 + +http://galileo.phys.virginia.edu/classes/ + +551 + +.jvn.fall01/primer.htm + +http://wiki.laptop.org/go/Forth\_Lessons + +http://www.albany.net/~hello/simple.htm + +Here is another + +"Why FORTH?" + +essay: http://www.jwdt.com/~paysan/why + +\- + +forth.html + +Discussion + +and + +criticism of this FORTH here: http://lambda + +\- + +the + +\- + +ultimate.org/node/ + +2452 + +ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS + +\---------------------------------------------------------------------- + +This code draws heavily on the design of LINA FORTH +(http://home.hccnet.nl/a.w.m.van.der.horst/lina.html) + +by Albert van der Horst. Any similarities + +in + +the code are probably + +not + +accidental. + +Some parts of this FORTH are also based on this IOCCC entry from + +1992 + +: + +http://ftp.funet.fi/pub/doc/IOCCC/ + +1992 + +/buzzard. + +2 + +.design. + +I was very proud when Sean Barrett + +, + +the original author of the IOCCC entry + +, + +commented + +in + +the LtU thread + +http://lambda + +\- + +the + +\- + +ultimate.org/node/ + +2452 + +\#comment + +\- + +36818 + +about this FORTH. + +And + +finally I'd like to acknowledge the (possibly forgotten?) authors of +ARTIC FORTH because their + +original program which I still have on original cassette tape kept +nagging away + +at + +me all these years. + +http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artic\_Software + +PUBLIC DOMAIN + +\---------------------------------------------------------------------- + +I + +, + +the copyright holder of this work + +, + +hereby release it + +into + +the public domain. This applies worldwide. + +In + +case this is + +not + +legally possible + +, + +I grant any entity the right to use this work for any purpose + +, + +without any conditions + +, + +unless such conditions are required by law. + +SETTING UP + +\---------------------------------------------------------------------- + +Let's get a few housekeeping things + +out + +of the way. Firstly because I need to draw lots of + +ASCII + +\- + +art diagrams to explain concepts + +, + +the best way to look + +at + +this is using a window which + +uses a fixed width font + +and + +is + +at + +least this +wide: + +\< + +\------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +\> + +Secondly make sure TABS are set to + +8 + +characters. The following should be a vertical + +line. If + +not + +, + +sort + +out + +your tabs. + +| + +| + +| + +Thirdly I assume th + +at + +your screen is + +at + +least + +50 + +characters high. + +ASSEMBLING + +\---------------------------------------------------------------------- + +If you want to actually run this FORTH + +, + +rather than just read it + +, + +you will need Linux on an + +i386. Linux because instead of programming directly to the hardware on a +bare PC which I + +could have done + +, + +I went for a simpler tutorial by assuming th + +at + +the + +'hardware' + +is a Linux + +process with a few basic system calls (read + +, + +write + +and + +exit + +and + +th + +at + +'s about all). i386 + +is needed because I had to write the assembly for a processor + +, + +and + +i386 is by far the most + +common + +. (Of course when I say + +'i386' + +, + +any + +32 + +\- + +or + +64 + +\- + +bit x86 processor will do. I'm compiling + +this on a + +64 + +bit AMD Opteron). + +Again + +, + +to assemble this you will need gcc + +and + +gas (the GNU assembler). The commands to + +assemble + +and + +run the code (save this file as + +'jonesforth.S' + +) are: + +gcc + +\- + +m32 + +\- + +nostdlib + +\- + +static + +\- + +Wl + +,- + +Ttext + +, + +0 + +\- + +Wl + +,-- + +build + +\- + +id=none + +\- + +o jonesforth jonesforth.S + +c + +at + +jonesforth.f + +\- + +| ./jonesforth + +If you want to run your own FORTH programs you can do: + +c + +at + +jonesforth.f myprog.f | ./jonesforth + +If you want to load your own FORTH code + +and + +then continue reading user commands + +, + +you can do: + +c + +at + +jonesforth.f myfunctions.f + +\- + +| ./jonesforth + +ASSEMBLER + +\---------------------------------------------------------------------- + +(You can just skip to the next section + +\-- + +you don't need to be able to read assembler to + +follow this tutorial). + +However if you do want to read the assembly code here are a few notes +about gas (the GNU assembler): + +( + +1 + +) Register names are prefixed with + +'%' + +, + +so % + +eax + +is the + +32 + +bit i386 accumulator. The registers + +available on i386 are: % + +eax + +, + +% + +ebx + +, + +% + +ecx + +, + +% + +edx + +, + +% + +esi + +, + +% + +edi + +, + +% + +ebp + +and + +% + +esp + +, + +and + +most of them + +have special purposes. + +( + +2 + +) + +Add + +, + +mov + +, + +etc. take arguments + +in + +the form SRC + +, + +DEST. So + +mov + +% + +eax + +, + +% + +ecx + +moves % + +eax + +\- + +\> % + +ecx + +( + +3 + +) Constants are prefixed with + +'$' + +, + +and + +you mustn't forget it\! If you forget it then it + +causes a read from memory instead + +, + +so: + +mov + +$ + +2 + +, + +% + +eax + +moves number + +2 + +into + +% + +eax + +mov + +2 + +, + +% + +eax + +reads the + +32 + +bit word from address + +2 + +into + +% + +eax + +(ie. most likely a mistake) + +( + +4 + +) gas has a funky syntax for local labels + +, + +where + +'1f' + +(etc.) means label + +'1:' + +"forwards" + +and + +'1b' + +(etc.) means label + +'1:' + +"backwards" + +. Notice th + +at + +these labels might be mistaken + +for hex numbers (eg. you might confuse + +1b + +with + +$ + +0x1b + +). + +( + +5 + +) + +'ja' + +is + +"jump if above" + +, + +'jb' + +for + +"jump if below" + +, + +'je' + +"jump if equal" + +etc. + +( + +6 + +) gas has a reasonably nice .macro syntax + +, + +and + +I use them a lot to make the code shorter + +and + +less repetitive. + +For more help reading the assembler + +, + +do + +"info gas" + +at + +the Linux prompt. + +Now the tutorial starts + +in + +earnest. + +THE DICTIONARY + +\---------------------------------------------------------------------- + +In + +FORTH as you will know + +, + +functions are called + +"words" + +, + +and + +just as + +in + +other languages they + +have a name + +and + +a definition. Here are two FORTH words: + +: DOUBLE DUP + +\+ + +; \\ name is "DOUBLE", definition is "DUP +" + +: QUADRUPLE DOUBLE DOUBLE + +; \\ name is "QUADRUPLE", definition is "DOUBLE DOUBLE" + +Words + +, + +both built + +\- + +in + +ones + +and + +ones which the programmer defines later + +, + +are stored + +in + +a dictionary + +which is just a linked list of dictionary entries. + +\< + +\--- + +DICTIONARY ENTRY (HEADER) + +\----------------------- + +\> + +\+------------------------+--------+---------- + +\- + +\- + +\- + +\- + +\+----------- + +\- + +\- + +\- + +\- + +| LINK POINTER | LENGTH/| NAME | DEFINITION + +| | + +FLAGS + +| | + +\+--- + +( + +4 + +bytes) + +\----------+- + +byte + +\-+- + +n bytes + +\- + +\- + +\- + +\- + +\+----------- + +\- + +\- + +\- + +\- + +I'll come to the definition of the word later. For now just look + +at + +the header. The first + +4 + +bytes are the link pointer. This points back to the previous word + +in + +the dictionary + +, + +or + +, + +for + +the first word + +in + +the dictionary it is just a NULL pointer. Then comes a length/ + +flags + +byte. + +The length of the word can be up to + +31 + +characters ( + +5 + +bits used) + +and + +the top three bits are used + +for various + +flags + +which I'll come to later. This is followed by the name itself + +, + +and + +in + +this + +implementation the name is rounded up to a multiple of + +4 + +bytes by padding it with zero bytes. + +Th + +at + +'s just to ensure th + +at + +the definition starts on a + +32 + +bit boundary. + +A FORTH variable called LATEST contains a pointer to the most recently +defined word + +, + +in + +other words + +, + +the head of this linked list. + +DOUBLE + +and + +QUADRUPLE might look like this: + +pointer to previous word + +^ + +| + +\+-- + +| + +\------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+------------- + +\- + +\- + +\- + +\- + +| LINK | + +6 + +| D | O | U | B | L | E | + +0 + +| (definition ...) + +\+---------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+------------- + +\- + +\- + +\- + +\- + +^ len padding + +| + +\+-- + +| + +\------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+------------- + +\- + +\- + +\- + +\- + +| LINK | + +9 + +| Q | U | A | D | R | U | P | L | E | + +0 + +| + +0 + +| (definition +...) + +\+---------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+------------- + +\- + +\- + +\- + +\- + +^ len padding + +| + +| + +LATEST + +You should be able to see from this how you might implement functions to +find a word + +in + +the dictionary (just walk along the dictionary entries starting + +at + +LATEST + +and + +matching + +the names until you either find a match + +or + +hit the NULL pointer + +at + +the end of the dictionary) + +; + +and + +add + +a word to the dictionary (create a new definition + +, + +set its LINK to LATEST + +, + +and + +set + +LATEST to point to the new word). We'll see precisely these functions +implemented + +in + +assembly code later on. + +One interesting consequence of using a linked list is th + +at + +you can redefine words + +, + +and + +a newer definition of a word overrides an older one. This is an +important concept + +in + +FORTH because it means th + +at + +any word (even + +"built-in" + +or + +"standard" + +words) can be + +overridden with a new definition + +, + +either to enhance it + +, + +to make it faster + +or + +even to + +disable it. However because of the way th + +at + +FORTH words get compiled + +, + +which you'll + +understand below + +, + +words defined using the old definition of a word continue to use + +the old definition. Only words defined after the new definition use the +new definition. + +DIRECT THREADED CODE + +\---------------------------------------------------------------------- + +Now we'll get to the really crucial bit + +in + +understanding FORTH + +, + +so go + +and + +get a cup of tea + +or + +coffee + +and + +settle down. It + +'s fair to say that if you don' + +t understand this section + +, + +then you + +won + +'t " + +get" how FORTH works + +, + +and + +th + +at + +would be a failure on my part for + +not + +explaining it well. + +So if after reading this section a few times you don't understand it + +, + +please email me + +(rich@annexia.org). + +Let + +'s talk first about what " + +threaded code" means. Imagine a peculiar version of C where + +you are only allowed to + +call + +functions without arguments. (Don't worry for now th + +at + +such a + +language would be completely useless\!) So + +in + +our peculiar C + +, + +code would look like this: + +f () + +{ + +a () + +; + +b () + +; + +c () + +; + +} + +and + +so on. How would a function + +, + +say + +'f' + +above + +, + +be compiled by a standard C compiler? + +Probably + +into + +assembly code like this. On the right hand side I've written the actual + +i386 machine code. + +f: + +CALL + +a E8 + +08 + +00 + +00 + +00 + +CALL + +b E8 1C + +00 + +00 + +00 + +CALL + +c E8 2C + +00 + +00 + +00 + +; ignore the return from the function for now + +"E8" + +is the x86 machine code to + +"CALL" + +a function. + +In + +the first + +20 + +years of computing + +memory was hideously expensive + +and + +we might have worried about the wasted space being used + +by the repeated + +"E8" + +bytes. We can save + +20 + +% + +in + +code size ( + +and + +therefore + +, + +in + +expensive memory) + +by compressing this + +into + +just: + +08 + +00 + +00 + +00 + +Just the function addresses + +, + +without + +1C + +00 + +00 + +00 + +the + +CALL + +prefix. + +2C + +00 + +00 + +00 + +On a + +16 + +\- + +bit machine like the ones which originally ran FORTH the savings are +even greater + +\- + +33 + +%. + +\[ + +Historical note: If the execution model th + +at + +FORTH uses looks strange from the following + +paragraphs + +, + +then it was motivated entirely by the need to save memory on early +computers. + +This code compression isn't so important now when our machines have more +memory + +in + +their L1 + +caches than those early computers had + +in + +total + +, + +but the execution model still has some + +useful properties + +\] + +. + +Of course this code won't run directly on the + +CPU + +any more. Instead we need to write an + +interpreter which takes + +each + +set of bytes + +and + +calls it. + +On an i386 machine it turns + +out + +th + +at + +we can write this interpreter rather easily + +, + +in + +just + +two assembly instructions which turn + +into + +just + +3 + +bytes of machine code. Let's store the + +pointer to the next word to execute + +in + +the % + +esi + +register: + +08 + +00 + +00 + +00 + +\< + +\- + +We're executing this one now. % + +esi + +is the \_next\_ one to execute. + +% + +esi + +\- + +\> 1C + +00 + +00 + +00 + +2C + +00 + +00 + +00 + +The all + +\- + +important i386 instruction is called LODSL ( + +or + +in + +Intel manuals + +, + +LODSW + +). It does + +two things. Firstly it reads the memory + +at + +% + +esi + +into + +the accumulator (% + +eax + +). Secondly it + +increments % + +esi + +by + +4 + +bytes. So after LODSL + +, + +the situation now looks like this: + +08 + +00 + +00 + +00 + +\< + +\- + +We're still executing this one + +1C + +00 + +00 + +00 + +\< + +\- + +% + +eax + +now contains this address ( + +0x0000001C + +) + +% + +esi + +\- + +\> 2C + +00 + +00 + +00 + +Now we just need to jump to the address + +in + +% + +eax + +. This is again just a single x86 instruction + +written + +JMP + +\* + +(% + +eax + +). + +And + +after doing the jump + +, + +the situation looks like: + +08 + +00 + +00 + +00 + +1C + +00 + +00 + +00 + +\< + +\- + +Now we're executing this subroutine. + +% + +esi + +\- + +\> 2C + +00 + +00 + +00 + +To make this work + +, + +each + +subroutine is followed by the two instructions + +'LODSL; JMP \*(%eax)' + +which literally make the jump to the next subroutine. + +And + +th + +at + +brings us to our first piece of actual code\! Well + +, + +it's a macro. + +\* + +/ + +/ + +\* + +NEXT macro. + +\* + +/ + +.macro NEXT + +lodsl + +jmp + +\* + +(% + +eax + +) + +.endm + +/ + +\* + +The macro is called NEXT. Th + +at + +'s a FORTH + +\- + +ism. It expands to those two instructions. + +Every FORTH primitive th + +at + +we write has to be ended by NEXT. Think of it kind of like + +a return. + +The above describes wh + +at + +is known as direct threaded code. + +To sum up: We compress our function calls down to a list of addresses + +and + +use a somewh + +at + +magical macro to act as a + +"jump to next function in the list" + +. We also use one register (% + +esi + +) + +to act as a kind of instruction pointer + +, + +pointing to the next function + +in + +the list. + +I'll just give you a hint of wh + +at + +is to come by saying th + +at + +a FORTH definition such as: + +: QUADRUPLE DOUBLE DOUBLE + +; + +actually compiles (almost + +, + +not + +precisely but we'll see why + +in + +a moment) to a list of + +function addresses for DOUBLE + +, + +DOUBLE + +and + +a special function called EXIT to finish off. + +At + +this point + +, + +REALLY EAGLE + +\- + +EYED ASSEMBLY EXPERTS are saying + +"JONES, YOU' + +VE MADE A MISTAKE\!". + +I lied about + +JMP + +\* + +(% + +eax + +). + +INDIRECT THREADED CODE + +\---------------------------------------------------------------------- + +It turns + +out + +th + +at + +direct threaded code is interesting but only if you want to just execute + +a list of functions written + +in + +assembly language. So QUADRUPLE would work only if DOUBLE + +was an assembly language function. + +In + +the direct threaded code + +, + +QUADRUPLE would look like: + +\+------------------+ + +| addr of DOUBLE + +\-------------------- + +\> (assembly code to do the double) + +\+------------------+ + +NEXT + +% + +esi + +\- + +\> | addr of DOUBLE | + +\+------------------+ + +We can + +add + +an extra indirection to allow us to run both words written + +in + +assembly language + +(primitives written for speed) + +and + +words written + +in + +FORTH themselves as lists of addresses. + +The extra indirection is the reason for the brackets + +in + +JMP + +\* + +(% + +eax + +). + +Let's have a look + +at + +how QUADRUPLE + +and + +DOUBLE really look + +in + +FORTH: + +: QUADRUPLE DOUBLE DOUBLE + +; + +\+------------------+ + +| codeword | : DOUBLE DUP + +\+ + +; + +\+------------------+ + +| addr of DOUBLE + +\--------------- + +\> + +\+------------------+ + +\+------------------+ + +| codeword | + +| addr of DOUBLE | + +\+------------------+ + +\+------------------+ + +| addr of DUP + +\-------------- + +\> + +\+------------------+ + +| addr of EXIT | + +\+------------------+ + +| codeword + +\-------+ + +\+------------------+ + +% + +esi + +\- + +\> | addr of + +\+ + +\--------+ + +\+------------------+ + +| + +\+------------------+ + +| | assembly to \< + +\-----+ + +| addr of EXIT | | | implement DUP | + +\+------------------+ + +| | .. | + +| | .. | + +| | NEXT | + +| + +\+------------------+ + +| + +\+----- + +\> + +\+------------------+ + +| codeword + +\-------+ + +\+------------------+ + +| + +| assembly to \< + +\------+ + +| implement + +\+ + +| + +| .. | + +| .. | + +| NEXT | + +\+------------------+ + +This is the part where you may need an extra cup of tea/coffee/favourite +caffeinated + +beverage. Wh + +at + +has changed is th + +at + +I've added an extra pointer to the beginning of + +the definitions. + +In + +FORTH this is sometimes called the + +"codeword" + +. The codeword is + +a pointer to the interpreter to run the function. For primitives written + +in + +assembly language + +, + +the + +"interpreter" + +just points to the actual assembly code itself. + +They don't need interpreting + +, + +they just run. + +In + +words written + +in + +FORTH (like QUADRUPLE + +and + +DOUBLE) + +, + +the codeword points to an interpreter + +function. + +I + +'ll show you the interpreter function shortly, but let' + +s recall our indirect + +JMP + +\* + +(% + +eax + +) with the + +"extra" + +brackets. Take the case where we're executing DOUBLE + +as shown + +, + +and + +DUP has been called. Note th + +at + +% + +esi + +is pointing to the address of + +\+ + +The assembly code for DUP eventually does a NEXT. Th + +at + +: + +( + +1 + +) reads the address of + +\+ + +into + +% + +eax + +% + +eax + +points to the codeword of + +\+ + +( + +2 + +) increments % + +esi + +by + +4 + +( + +3 + +) jumps to the indirect % + +eax + +jumps to the address + +in + +the codeword of + +\+, + +ie. the assembly code to implement + +\+ + +\+------------------+ + +| codeword | + +\+------------------+ + +| addr of DOUBLE + +\--------------- + +\> + +\+------------------+ + +\+------------------+ + +| codeword | + +| addr of DOUBLE | + +\+------------------+ + +\+------------------+ + +| addr of DUP + +\-------------- + +\> + +\+------------------+ + +| addr of EXIT | + +\+------------------+ + +| codeword + +\-------+ + +\+------------------+ + +| addr of + +\+ + +\--------+ + +\+------------------+ + +| + +\+------------------+ + +| | assembly to \< + +\-----+ + +% + +esi + +\- + +\> | addr of EXIT | | | implement DUP | + +\+------------------+ + +| | .. | + +| | .. | + +| | NEXT | + +| + +\+------------------+ + +| + +\+----- + +\> + +\+------------------+ + +| codeword + +\-------+ + +\+------------------+ + +| + +now we're | assembly to \< + +\-----+ + +executing | implement + +\+ + +| + +this | .. | + +function | .. | + +| NEXT | + +\+------------------+ + +So I hope th + +at + +I + +'ve convinced you that NEXT does roughly what you' + +d expect. This is + +indirect threaded code. + +I've glossed over four things. I wonder if you can guess without reading +on wh + +at + +they are? + +. + +. + +. + +My list of four things are: ( + +1 + +) Wh + +at + +does + +"EXIT" + +do? ( + +2 + +) which is related to ( + +1 + +) is how do + +you + +call + +into + +a function + +, + +ie. how does % + +esi + +start off pointing + +at + +part of QUADRUPLE + +, + +but + +then point + +at + +part of DOUBLE. ( + +3 + +) Wh + +at + +goes + +in + +the codeword for the words which are written + +in + +FORTH? ( + +4 + +) How do you compile a function which does anything except + +call + +other functions + +ie. a function which contains a number like : DOUBLE + +2 + +\* + +; ? + +THE INTERPRETER + +AND + +RETURN STACK + +\------------------------------------------------------------ + +Going + +at + +these + +in + +no particular order + +, + +let's talk about issues ( + +3 + +) + +and + +( + +2 + +) + +, + +the interpreter + +and + +the return stack. + +Words which are defined + +in + +FORTH need a codeword which points to a little bit of code to + +give them a + +"helping hand" + +in + +life. They don't need much + +, + +but they do need wh + +at + +is known + +as an + +"interpreter" + +, + +although it doesn + +'t really " + +interpret" + +in + +the same way th + +at + +, + +say + +, + +Java bytecode used to be interpreted (ie. slowly). This interpreter just +sets up a few + +machine registers so th + +at + +the word can then execute + +at + +full speed using the indirect + +threaded model above. + +One of the things th + +at + +needs to happen when QUADRUPLE calls DOUBLE is th + +at + +we save the old + +% + +esi + +( + +"instruction pointer" + +) + +and + +create a new one pointing to the first word + +in + +DOUBLE. + +Because we will need to restore the old % + +esi + +at + +the end of DOUBLE (this is + +, + +after all + +, + +like + +a function + +call + +) + +, + +we will need a stack to store these + +"return addresses" + +(old values of % + +esi + +). + +As you will have seen + +in + +the background documentation + +, + +FORTH has two stacks + +, + +an ordinary + +stack for parameters + +, + +and + +a return stack which is a bit more mysterious. But our return + +stack is just the stack I talked about + +in + +the previous paragraph + +, + +used to save % + +esi + +when + +calling from a FORTH word + +into + +another FORTH word. + +In + +this FORTH + +, + +we are using the normal stack pointer (% + +esp + +) for the parameter stack. + +We will use the i386 + +'s " + +other + +" stack pointer (%ebp, usually called the " + +frame pointer") + +for our return stack. + +I've got two macros which just wrap up the details of using % + +ebp + +for the return stack. + +You use them as for example + +"PUSHRSP %eax" + +( + +push + +% + +eax + +on the return stack) + +or + +"POPRSP %ebx" + +( + +pop + +top of return stack + +into + +% + +ebx + +). + +\* + +/ + +/ + +\* + +Macros to deal with the return stack. + +\* + +/ + +.macro PUSHRSP reg + +lea + +\- + +4 + +(% + +ebp + +) + +, + +% + +ebp + +// + +push + +reg on to return stack + +movl \\reg + +, + +(% + +ebp + +) + +.endm + +.macro POPRSP reg + +mov + +(% + +ebp + +) + +, + +\\reg // + +pop + +top of return stack to reg + +lea + +4 + +(% + +ebp + +) + +, + +% + +ebp + +.endm + +/ + +\* + +And + +with th + +at + +we can now talk about the interpreter. + +In + +FORTH the interpreter function is often called DOCOL (I think it means + +"DO COLON" + +because + +all FORTH definitions start with a colon + +, + +as + +in + +: DOUBLE DUP + +\+ + +; + +The + +"interpreter" + +(it + +'s not really " + +interpreting") just needs to + +push + +the old % + +esi + +on the + +stack + +and + +set % + +esi + +to the first word + +in + +the definition. Remember th + +at + +we jumped to the + +function using + +JMP + +\* + +(% + +eax + +)? Well a consequence of th + +at + +is th + +at + +conveniently % + +eax + +contains + +the address of this codeword + +, + +so just by adding + +4 + +to it we get the address of the first + +data word. Finally after setting up % + +esi + +, + +it just does NEXT which causes th + +at + +first word + +to run. + +\* + +/ + +/ + +\* + +DOCOL + +\- + +the interpreter\! + +\* + +/ + +.text + +. + +align + +4 + +DOCOL: + +PUSHRSP % + +esi + +// + +push + +% + +esi + +on to the return stack + +addl + +$ + +4 + +, + +% + +eax + +// % + +eax + +points to codeword + +, + +so make + +movl % + +eax + +, + +% + +esi + +// % + +esi + +point to first data word + +NEXT + +/ + +\* + +Just to make this absolutely clear + +, + +let's see how DOCOL works when jumping from QUADRUPLE + +into + +DOUBLE: + +QUADRUPLE: + +\+------------------+ + +| codeword | + +\+------------------+ + +DOUBLE: + +| addr of DOUBLE + +\--------------- + +\> + +\+------------------+ + +\+------------------+ + +% + +eax + +\- + +\> | addr of DOCOL | + +% + +esi + +\- + +\> | addr of DOUBLE | + +\+------------------+ + +\+------------------+ + +| addr of DUP | + +| addr of EXIT | + +\+------------------+ + +\+------------------+ + +| etc. | + +First + +, + +the + +call + +to DOUBLE calls DOCOL (the codeword of DOUBLE). DOCOL does this: It + +pushes the old % + +esi + +on the return stack. % + +eax + +points to the codeword of DOUBLE + +, + +so we + +just + +add + +4 + +on to it to get our new % + +esi + +: + +QUADRUPLE: + +\+------------------+ + +| codeword | + +\+------------------+ + +DOUBLE: + +| addr of DOUBLE + +\--------------- + +\> + +\+------------------+ + +top of return + +\+------------------+ + +% + +eax + +\- + +\> | addr of DOCOL | + +stack points + +\- + +\> | addr of DOUBLE | + +\+ + +4 + +\= + +\+------------------+ + +\+------------------+ + +% + +esi + +\- + +\> | addr of DUP | + +| addr of EXIT | + +\+------------------+ + +\+------------------+ + +| etc. | + +Then we do NEXT + +, + +and + +because of the magic of threaded code th + +at + +increments % + +esi + +again + +and + +calls DUP. + +Well + +, + +it seems to work. + +One minor point here. Because DOCOL is the first bit of assembly +actually to be defined + +in + +this file (the others were just macros) + +, + +and + +because I usually compile this code with the + +text segment starting + +at + +address + +0 + +, + +DOCOL has address + +0 + +. So if you are disassembling the + +code + +and + +see a word with a codeword of + +0 + +, + +you will immediately know th + +at + +the word is + +written + +in + +FORTH (it's + +not + +an assembler primitive) + +and + +so uses DOCOL as the interpreter. + +STARTING UP + +\---------------------------------------------------------------------- + +Now let's get down to nuts + +and + +bolts. When we start the program we need to set up + +a few things like the return stack. But as soon as we can + +, + +we want to jump + +into + +FORTH + +code (albeit much of the + +"early" + +FORTH code will still need to be written as + +assembly language primitives). + +This is wh + +at + +the set up code does. Does a tiny bit of house + +\- + +keeping + +, + +sets up the + +separate return stack (NB: Linux gives us the ordinary parameter stack +already) + +, + +then + +immediately jumps to a FORTH word called QUIT. Despite its name + +, + +QUIT doesn't quit + +anything. It resets some internal state + +and + +starts reading + +and + +interpreting commands. + +(The reason it is called QUIT is because you can + +call + +QUIT from your own FORTH code + +to + +"quit" + +your program + +and + +go back to interpreting). + +\* + +/ + +/ + +\* + +Assembler entry point. + +\* + +/ + +.text + +.globl \_start + +\_start: + +cld + +mov + +% + +esp + +, + +var\_S0 // Save the initial data stack pointer + +in + +FORTH variable S0. + +mov + +$ + +return\_stack\_top + +, + +% + +ebp + +// Initialise the return stack. + +call + +set\_up\_data\_segment + +mov + +$ + +cold\_start + +, + +% + +esi + +// Initialise interpreter. + +NEXT // Run interpreter\! + +. + +section + +.rodata + +cold\_start: // High + +\- + +level code without a codeword. + +. + +int + +QUIT + +/ + +\* + +BUILT + +\- + +IN + +WORDS + +\---------------------------------------------------------------------- + +Remember our dictionary entries (headers)? Let's bring those together +with the codeword + +and + +data words to see how : DOUBLE DUP + +\+ + +; really looks in memory. + +pointer to previous +word + +^ + +| + +\+-- + +| + +\------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+------------+------------+------------+------------+ + +| LINK | + +6 + +| D | O | U | B | L | E | + +0 + +| DOCOL | DUP | + +\+ + +| EXIT | + +\+---------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+------------+-- + +| + +\---------+------------+------------+ + +^ len pad codeword | + +| V + +LINK + +in + +next word points to codeword of DUP + +Initially we can + +'t just write " + +: DOUBLE DUP + +\+ + +;" (ie. that literal string) here because we + +don't yet have anything to read the string + +, + +break it up + +at + +spaces + +, + +parse + +each + +word + +, + +etc. etc. + +So instead we will have to define built + +\- + +in + +words using the GNU assembler data constructors + +(like . + +int + +, + +.byte + +, + +.string + +, + +.ascii + +and + +so on + +\-- + +look them up + +in + +the gas info page if you are + +unsure of them). + +The long way would be: + +. + +int + +\ + +. + +byte + +6 + +// len + +.ascii + +"DOUBLE" + +// string + +. + +byte + +0 + +// padding + +DOUBLE: . + +int + +DOCOL // codeword + +. + +int + +DUP // pointer to codeword of DUP + +. + +int + +PLUS // pointer to codeword of + +\+ + +. + +int + +EXIT // pointer to codeword of EXIT + +Th + +at + +'s going to get quite tedious rather quickly + +, + +so here I define an assembler macro + +so th + +at + +I can just write: + +defword + +"DOUBLE" + +, + +6 + +,, + +DOUBLE + +. + +int + +DUP + +, + +PLUS + +, + +EXIT + +and + +I'll get exactly the same effect. + +Don + +'t worry too much about the exact implementation details of this macro - +it' + +s complicated\! + +\* + +/ + +/ + +\* + +Flags + +\- + +these are discussed later. + +\* + +/ + +.set F\_IMMED + +, + +0x80 + +.set F\_HIDDEN + +, + +0x20 + +.set F\_LENMASK + +, + +0x1f + +// length mask + +// Store the chain of links. + +.set link + +, + +0 + +.macro defword name + +, + +namelen + +, + +flags + +\= + +0 + +, + +label + +. + +section + +.rodata + +. + +align + +4 + +.globl name\_\\label + +name\_\\label : + +. + +int + +link // link + +.set link + +, + +name\_\\label + +. + +byte + +\\ + +flags + +\+ + +\\namelen // + +flags + +\+ + +length byte + +.ascii + +"\\name" + +// the name + +. + +align + +4 + +// padding to next + +4 + +byte boundary + +.globl \\label + +\\label : + +. + +int + +DOCOL // codeword + +\- + +the interpreter + +// list of word pointers follow + +.endm + +/ + +\* + +Similarly I want a way to write words written + +in + +assembly language. There will quite a few + +of these to start with because + +, + +well + +, + +everything has to start + +in + +assembly before there's + +enough + +"infrastructure" + +to be able to start writing FORTH words + +, + +but also I want to define + +some + +common + +FORTH words + +in + +assembly language for speed + +, + +even though I could write them + +in + +FORTH. + +This is wh + +at + +DUP looks like + +in + +memory: + +pointer to previous word + +^ + +| + +\+-- + +| + +\------+---+---+---+---+------------+ + +| LINK | + +3 + +| D | U | P | code\_DUP + +\--------------------- + +\> points to the assembly + +\+---------+---+---+---+---+------------+ + +code used to write DUP + +, + +^ len codeword which ends with NEXT. + +| + +LINK + +in + +next word + +Again + +, + +for brevity + +in + +writing the header I'm going to write an assembler macro called defcode. + +As with defword above + +, + +don't worry about the complicated details of the macro. + +\* + +/ + +.macro defcode name + +, + +namelen + +, + +flags + +\= + +0 + +, + +label + +. + +section + +.rodata + +. + +align + +4 + +.globl name\_\\label + +name\_\\label : + +. + +int + +link // link + +.set link + +, + +name\_\\label + +. + +byte + +\\ + +flags + +\+ + +\\namelen // + +flags + +\+ + +length byte + +.ascii + +"\\name" + +// the name + +. + +align + +4 + +// padding to next + +4 + +byte boundary + +.globl \\label + +\\label : + +. + +int + +code\_\\label // codeword + +.text + +//. + +align + +4 + +.globl code\_\\label + +code\_\\label : // assembler code follows + +.endm + +/ + +\* + +Now some easy FORTH primitives. These are written + +in + +assembly for speed. If you understand + +i386 assembly language then it is worth reading these. However if you +don't understand assembly + +you can skip the details. + +\* + +/ + +defcode + +"DROP" + +, + +4 + +,, + +DROP + +pop + +% + +eax + +// drop top of stack + +NEXT + +defcode + +"SWAP" + +, + +4 + +,, + +SWAP + +pop + +% + +eax + +// swap top two elements on stack + +pop + +% + +ebx + +push + +% + +eax + +push + +% + +ebx + +NEXT + +defcode + +"DUP" + +, + +3 + +,, + +DUP + +mov + +(% + +esp + +) + +, + +% + +eax + +// duplicate top of stack + +push + +% + +eax + +NEXT + +defcode + +"OVER" + +, + +4 + +,, + +OVER + +mov + +4 + +(% + +esp + +) + +, + +% + +eax + +// get the second element of stack + +push + +% + +eax + +// + +and + +push + +it on top + +NEXT + +defcode + +"ROT" + +, + +3 + +,, + +ROT + +pop + +% + +eax + +pop + +% + +ebx + +pop + +% + +ecx + +push + +% + +ebx + +push + +% + +eax + +push + +% + +ecx + +NEXT + +defcode + +"-ROT" + +, + +4 + +,, + +NROT + +pop + +% + +eax + +pop + +% + +ebx + +pop + +% + +ecx + +push + +% + +eax + +push + +% + +ecx + +push + +% + +ebx + +NEXT + +defcode + +"2DROP" + +, + +5 + +,, + +TWODROP // drop top two elements of stack + +pop + +% + +eax + +pop + +% + +eax + +NEXT + +defcode + +"2DUP" + +, + +4 + +,, + +TWODUP // duplicate top two elements of stack + +mov + +(% + +esp + +) + +, + +% + +eax + +mov + +4 + +(% + +esp + +) + +, + +% + +ebx + +push + +% + +ebx + +push + +% + +eax + +NEXT + +defcode + +"2SWAP" + +, + +5 + +,, + +TWOSWAP // swap top two pairs of elements of stack + +pop + +% + +eax + +pop + +% + +ebx + +pop + +% + +ecx + +pop + +% + +edx + +push + +% + +ebx + +push + +% + +eax + +push + +% + +edx + +push + +% + +ecx + +NEXT + +defcode + +"?DUP" + +, + +4 + +,, + +QDUP // duplicate top of stack if non + +\- + +zero + +movl (% + +esp + +) + +, + +% + +eax + +test + +% + +eax + +, + +% + +eax + +jz + +1f + +push + +% + +eax + +1 + +: NEXT + +defcode + +"1+" + +, + +2 + +,, + +INCR + +incl (% + +esp + +) // increment top of stack + +NEXT + +defcode + +"1-" + +, + +2 + +,, + +DECR + +decl (% + +esp + +) // decrement top of stack + +NEXT + +defcode + +"4+" + +, + +2 + +,, + +INCR4 + +addl + +$ + +4 + +, + +(% + +esp + +) // + +add + +4 + +to top of stack + +NEXT + +defcode + +"4-" + +, + +2 + +,, + +DECR4 + +subl + +$ + +4 + +, + +(% + +esp + +) // subtract + +4 + +from top of stack + +NEXT + +defcode + +"+" + +, + +1 + +,, + +ADD + +pop + +% + +eax + +// get top of stack + +addl % + +eax + +, + +(% + +esp + +) // + +and + +add + +it to next word on stack + +NEXT + +defcode + +"-" + +, + +1 + +,, + +SUB + +pop + +% + +eax + +// get top of stack + +subl % + +eax + +, + +(% + +esp + +) // + +and + +subtract it from next word on stack + +NEXT + +defcode + +"\*" + +, + +1 + +,, + +MUL + +pop + +% + +eax + +pop + +% + +ebx + +imull % + +ebx + +, + +% + +eax + +push + +% + +eax + +// ignore overflow + +NEXT + +/ + +\* + +In + +this FORTH + +, + +only /MOD is primitive. Later we will define the / + +and + +MOD words + +in + +terms of the primitive /MOD. The design of the i386 assembly instruction + +idiv + +which + +leaves both quotient + +and + +remainder makes this the obvious choice. + +\* + +/ + +defcode + +"/MOD" + +, + +4 + +,, + +DIVMOD + +xor + +% + +edx + +, + +% + +edx + +pop + +% + +ebx + +pop + +% + +eax + +idivl % + +ebx + +push + +% + +edx + +// + +push + +remainder + +push + +% + +eax + +// + +push + +quotient + +NEXT + +/ + +\* + +Lots of comparison operations like = + +, + +\< + +, + +\> + +, + +etc.. + +ANS FORTH says th + +at + +the comparison words should return all (binary) + +1 + +'s for + +TRUE + +and + +all + +0 + +'s for FALSE. However this is a bit of a strange convention + +so this FORTH breaks it + +and + +returns the more normal (for C programmers ...) + +1 + +meaning TRUE + +and + +0 + +meaning FALSE. + +\* + +/ + +defcode + +"=" + +, + +1 + +,, + +EQU // top two words are equal? + +pop + +% + +eax + +pop + +% + +ebx + +cmp + +% + +ebx + +, + +% + +eax + +sete + +% + +al + +movzbl % + +al + +, + +% + +eax + +pushl % + +eax + +NEXT + +defcode + +"\<\>" + +, + +2 + +,, + +NEQU // top two words are + +not + +equal? + +pop + +% + +eax + +pop + +% + +ebx + +cmp + +% + +ebx + +, + +% + +eax + +setne + +% + +al + +movzbl % + +al + +, + +% + +eax + +pushl % + +eax + +NEXT + +defcode + +"\<" + +, + +1 + +,, + +LT + +pop + +% + +eax + +pop + +% + +ebx + +cmp + +% + +eax + +, + +% + +ebx + +setl + +% + +al + +movzbl % + +al + +, + +% + +eax + +pushl % + +eax + +NEXT + +defcode + +"\>" + +, + +1 + +,, + +GT + +pop + +% + +eax + +pop + +% + +ebx + +cmp + +% + +eax + +, + +% + +ebx + +setg + +% + +al + +movzbl % + +al + +, + +% + +eax + +pushl % + +eax + +NEXT + +defcode + +"\<=" + +, + +2 + +,, + +LE + +pop + +% + +eax + +pop + +% + +ebx + +cmp + +% + +eax + +, + +% + +ebx + +setle + +% + +al + +movzbl % + +al + +, + +% + +eax + +pushl % + +eax + +NEXT + +defcode + +"\>=" + +, + +2 + +,, + +GE + +pop + +% + +eax + +pop + +% + +ebx + +cmp + +% + +eax + +, + +% + +ebx + +setge + +% + +al + +movzbl % + +al + +, + +% + +eax + +pushl % + +eax + +NEXT + +defcode + +"0=" + +, + +2 + +,, + +ZEQU // top of stack equals + +0 + +? + +pop + +% + +eax + +test + +% + +eax + +, + +% + +eax + +setz + +% + +al + +movzbl % + +al + +, + +% + +eax + +pushl % + +eax + +NEXT + +defcode + +"0\<\>" + +, + +3 + +,, + +ZNEQU // top of stack + +not + +0 + +? + +pop + +% + +eax + +test + +% + +eax + +, + +% + +eax + +setnz + +% + +al + +movzbl % + +al + +, + +% + +eax + +pushl % + +eax + +NEXT + +defcode + +"0\<" + +, + +2 + +,, + +ZLT // comparisons with + +0 + +pop + +% + +eax + +test + +% + +eax + +, + +% + +eax + +setl + +% + +al + +movzbl % + +al + +, + +% + +eax + +pushl % + +eax + +NEXT + +defcode + +"0\>" + +, + +2 + +,, + +ZGT + +pop + +% + +eax + +test + +% + +eax + +, + +% + +eax + +setg + +% + +al + +movzbl % + +al + +, + +% + +eax + +pushl % + +eax + +NEXT + +defcode + +"0\<=" + +, + +3 + +,, + +ZLE + +pop + +% + +eax + +test + +% + +eax + +, + +% + +eax + +setle + +% + +al + +movzbl % + +al + +, + +% + +eax + +pushl % + +eax + +NEXT + +defcode + +"0\>=" + +, + +3 + +,, + +ZGE + +pop + +% + +eax + +test + +% + +eax + +, + +% + +eax + +setge + +% + +al + +movzbl % + +al + +, + +% + +eax + +pushl % + +eax + +NEXT + +defcode + +"AND" + +, + +3 + +,, + +AND + +// bitwise + +AND + +pop + +% + +eax + +andl % + +eax + +, + +(% + +esp + +) + +NEXT + +defcode + +"OR" + +, + +2 + +,, + +OR + +// bitwise + +OR + +pop + +% + +eax + +orl % + +eax + +, + +(% + +esp + +) + +NEXT + +defcode + +"XOR" + +, + +3 + +,, + +XOR + +// bitwise + +XOR + +pop + +% + +eax + +xorl % + +eax + +, + +(% + +esp + +) + +NEXT + +defcode + +"INVERT" + +, + +6 + +,, + +INVERT // this is the FORTH bitwise + +"NOT" + +function (cf. NEGATE + +and + +NOT + +) + +notl (% + +esp + +) + +NEXT + +/ + +\* + +RETURNING FROM FORTH WORDS + +\---------------------------------------------------------------------- + +Time to talk about wh + +at + +happens when we EXIT a function. + +In + +this diagram QUADRUPLE has called + +DOUBLE + +, + +and + +DOUBLE is about to exit (look + +at + +where % + +esi + +is pointing): + +QUADRUPLE + +\+------------------+ + +| codeword | + +\+------------------+ + +DOUBLE + +| addr of DOUBLE + +\--------------- + +\> + +\+------------------+ + +\+------------------+ + +| codeword | + +| addr of DOUBLE | + +\+------------------+ + +\+------------------+ + +| addr of DUP | + +| addr of EXIT | + +\+------------------+ + +\+------------------+ + +| addr of + +\+ + +| + +\+------------------+ + +% + +esi + +\- + +\> | addr of EXIT | + +\+------------------+ + +Wh + +at + +happens when the + +\+ + +function does NEXT? Well + +, + +the following code is executed. + +\* + +/ + +defcode + +"EXIT" + +, + +4 + +,, + +EXIT + +POPRSP % + +esi + +// + +pop + +return stack + +into + +% + +esi + +NEXT + +/ + +\* + +EXIT gets the old % + +esi + +which we saved from before on the return stack + +, + +and + +puts it + +in + +% + +esi + +. + +So after this (but just before NEXT) we get: + +QUADRUPLE + +\+------------------+ + +| codeword | + +\+------------------+ + +DOUBLE + +| addr of DOUBLE + +\--------------- + +\> + +\+------------------+ + +\+------------------+ + +| codeword | + +% + +esi + +\- + +\> | addr of DOUBLE | + +\+------------------+ + +\+------------------+ + +| addr of DUP | + +| addr of EXIT | + +\+------------------+ + +\+------------------+ + +| addr of + +\+ + +| + +\+------------------+ + +| addr of EXIT | + +\+------------------+ + +And + +NEXT just completes the job by + +, + +well + +, + +in + +this case just by calling DOUBLE again : + +\- + +) + +LITERALS + +\---------------------------------------------------------------------- + +The final point I + +"glossed over" + +before was how to deal with functions th + +at + +do anything + +apart from calling other functions. For example + +, + +suppose th + +at + +DOUBLE was defined like this: + +: DOUBLE + +2 + +\* + +; + +It does the same thing + +, + +but how do we compile it since it contains the literal + +2 + +? One way + +would be to have a function called + +"2" + +(which you + +'d have to write in assembler), but you' + +d need + +a function for every single literal th + +at + +you wanted to use. + +FORTH solves this by compiling the function using a special word called +LIT: + +\+---------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ + +| (usual header of DOUBLE) | DOCOL | LIT | + +2 + +| + +\* + +| EXIT | + +\+---------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ + +LIT is executed + +in + +the normal way + +, + +but wh + +at + +it does next is definitely + +not + +normal. It + +looks + +at + +% + +esi + +(which now points to the number + +2 + +) + +, + +grabs it + +, + +pushes it on the stack + +, + +then + +manipulates % + +esi + +in + +order to skip the number as if it had never been there. + +Wh + +at + +'s ne + +at + +is th + +at + +the whole grab/manipulate can be done using a single byte single + +i386 instruction + +, + +our old fr + +iend + +LODSL. Rather than me drawing more ASCII + +\- + +art diagrams + +, + +see if you can find + +out + +how LIT works: + +\* + +/ + +defcode + +"LIT" + +, + +3 + +,, + +LIT + +// % + +esi + +points to the next command + +, + +but + +in + +this case it points to the next + +// literal + +32 + +bit integer. Get th + +at + +literal + +into + +% + +eax + +and + +increment % + +esi + +. + +// On x86 + +, + +it's a convenient single byte instruction\! (cf. NEXT macro) + +lodsl + +push + +% + +eax + +// + +push + +the literal number on to stack + +NEXT + +/ + +\* + +MEMORY + +\---------------------------------------------------------------------- + +As important point about FORTH is th + +at + +it gives you direct access to the lowest levels + +of the machine. Manipulating memory directly is done frequently + +in + +FORTH + +, + +and + +these are + +the primitive words for doing it. + +\* + +/ + +defcode + +"\!" + +, + +1 + +,, + +STORE + +pop + +% + +ebx + +// address to store + +at + +pop + +% + +eax + +// data to store there + +mov + +% + +eax + +, + +(% + +ebx + +) // store it + +NEXT + +defcode + +"@" + +, + +1 + +,, + +FETCH + +pop + +% + +ebx + +// address to fetch + +mov + +(% + +ebx + +) + +, + +% + +eax + +// fetch it + +push + +% + +eax + +// + +push + +value onto stack + +NEXT + +defcode + +"+\!" + +, + +2 + +,, + +ADDSTORE + +pop + +% + +ebx + +// address + +pop + +% + +eax + +// the amount to + +add + +addl % + +eax + +, + +(% + +ebx + +) // + +add + +it + +NEXT + +defcode + +"-\!" + +, + +2 + +,, + +SUBSTORE + +pop + +% + +ebx + +// address + +pop + +% + +eax + +// the amount to subtract + +subl % + +eax + +, + +(% + +ebx + +) // + +add + +it + +NEXT + +/ + +\* + +\! + +and + +@ (STORE + +and + +FETCH) store + +32 + +\- + +bit words. It's also useful to be able to read + +and + +write bytes + +so we also define standard words C@ + +and + +C\!. + +Byte + +\- + +oriented operations only work on architectures which permit them (i386 +is one of those). + +\* + +/ + +defcode + +"C\!" + +, + +2 + +,, + +STOREBYTE + +pop + +% + +ebx + +// address to store + +at + +pop + +% + +eax + +// data to store there + +movb % + +al + +, + +(% + +ebx + +) // store it + +NEXT + +defcode + +"C@" + +, + +2 + +,, + +FETCHBYTE + +pop + +% + +ebx + +// address to fetch + +xor + +% + +eax + +, + +% + +eax + +movb (% + +ebx + +) + +, + +% + +al + +// fetch it + +push + +% + +eax + +// + +push + +value onto stack + +NEXT + +/ + +\* + +C@C\! is a useful byte copy primitive. + +\* + +/ + +defcode + +"C@C\!" + +, + +4 + +,, + +CCOPY + +movl + +4 + +(% + +esp + +) + +, + +% + +ebx + +// source address + +movb (% + +ebx + +) + +, + +% + +al + +// get source character + +pop + +% + +edi + +// destination address + +stosb + +// copy to destination + +push + +% + +edi + +// increment destination address + +incl + +4 + +(% + +esp + +) // increment source address + +NEXT + +/ + +\* + +and + +CMOVE + +is a block copy operation. + +\* + +/ + +defcode + +"CMOVE" + +, + +5 + +,, + +CMOVE + +mov + +% + +esi + +, + +% + +edx + +// preserve % + +esi + +pop + +% + +ecx + +// length + +pop + +% + +edi + +// destination address + +pop + +% + +esi + +// source address + +rep + +movsb + +// copy source to destination + +mov + +% + +edx + +, + +% + +esi + +// restore % + +esi + +NEXT + +/ + +\* + +BUILT + +\- + +IN + +VARIABLES + +\---------------------------------------------------------------------- + +These are some built + +\- + +in + +variables + +and + +related standard FORTH words. Of these + +, + +the only one th + +at + +we + +have discussed so far was LATEST + +, + +which points to the last (most recently defined) word + +in + +the + +FORTH dictionary. LATEST is also a FORTH word which pushes the address +of LATEST (the variable) + +on to the stack + +, + +so you can read + +or + +write it using @ + +and + +\! operators. For example + +, + +to print + +the current value of LATEST ( + +and + +this can apply to any FORTH variable) you would do: + +LATEST @ . CR + +To make defining variables shorter + +, + +I'm using a macro called defvar + +, + +similar to defword + +and + +defcode above. ( + +In + +fact the defvar macro uses defcode to do the dictionary header). + +\* + +/ + +.macro defvar name + +, + +namelen + +, + +flags + +\= + +0 + +, + +label + +, + +initial= + +0 + +defcode \\name + +, + +\\namelen + +, + +\\ + +flags + +, + +\\label + +push + +$ + +var\_\\name + +NEXT + +.data + +. + +align + +4 + +var\_\\name : + +. + +int + +\\initial + +.endm + +/ + +\* + +The built + +\- + +in + +variables are: + +STATE Is the interpreter executing code ( + +0 + +) + +or + +compiling a word (non + +\- + +zero)? + +LATEST Points to the latest (most recently defined) word + +in + +the dictionary. + +HERE Points to the next free byte of memory. When compiling + +, + +compiled words go here. + +S0 Stores the address of the top of the parameter stack. + +BASE The current base for printing + +and + +reading numbers. + +\* + +/ + +defvar + +"STATE" + +, + +5 + +,, + +STATE + +defvar + +"HERE" + +, + +4 + +,, + +HERE + +defvar + +"LATEST" + +, + +6 + +,, + +LATEST + +, + +name\_SYSCALL0 // SYSCALL0 must be last + +in + +built + +\- + +in + +dictionary + +defvar + +"S0" + +, + +2 + +,, + +SZ + +defvar + +"BASE" + +, + +4 + +,, + +BASE + +, + +10 + +/ + +\* + +BUILT + +\- + +IN + +CONSTANTS + +\---------------------------------------------------------------------- + +It's also useful to expose a few constants to FORTH. When the word is +executed it pushes a + +constant value on the stack. + +The built + +\- + +in + +constants are: + +VERSION Is the current version of this FORTH. + +R0 The address of the top of the return stack. + +DOCOL Pointer to DOCOL. + +F\_IMMED The IMMEDIATE flag's actual value. + +F\_HIDDEN The HIDDEN flag's actual value. + +F\_LENMASK The length mask + +in + +the + +flags + +/len byte. + +SYS\_ + +\* + +and + +the numeric codes of various Linux syscalls (from \) + +\* + +/ + +//\#include \ // you might need this instead + +\#include \ + +.macro defconst name + +, + +namelen + +, + +flags + +\= + +0 + +, + +label + +, + +value + +defcode \\name + +, + +\\namelen + +, + +\\ + +flags + +, + +\\label + +push + +$\\value + +NEXT + +.endm + +defconst + +"VERSION" + +, + +7 + +,, + +VERSION + +, + +JONES\_VERSION + +defconst + +"R0" + +, + +2 + +,, + +RZ + +, + +return\_stack\_top + +defconst + +"DOCOL" + +, + +5 + +,, + +\_\_DOCOL + +, + +DOCOL + +defconst + +"F\_IMMED" + +, + +7 + +,, + +\_\_F\_IMMED + +, + +F\_IMMED + +defconst + +"F\_HIDDEN" + +, + +8 + +,, + +\_\_F\_HIDDEN + +, + +F\_HIDDEN + +defconst + +"F\_LENMASK" + +, + +9 + +,, + +\_\_F\_LENMASK + +, + +F\_LENMASK + +defconst + +"SYS\_EXIT" + +, + +8 + +,, + +SYS\_EXIT + +, + +\_\_NR\_exit + +defconst + +"SYS\_OPEN" + +, + +8 + +,, + +SYS\_OPEN + +, + +\_\_NR\_open + +defconst + +"SYS\_CLOSE" + +, + +9 + +,, + +SYS\_CLOSE + +, + +\_\_NR\_close + +defconst + +"SYS\_READ" + +, + +8 + +,, + +SYS\_READ + +, + +\_\_NR\_read + +defconst + +"SYS\_WRITE" + +, + +9 + +,, + +SYS\_WRITE + +, + +\_\_NR\_write + +defconst + +"SYS\_CREAT" + +, + +9 + +,, + +SYS\_CRE + +AT + +, + +\_\_NR\_cre + +at + +defconst + +"SYS\_BRK" + +, + +7 + +,, + +SYS\_BRK + +, + +\_\_NR\_brk + +defconst + +"O\_RDONLY" + +, + +8 + +,, + +\_\_O\_RDONLY + +, + +0 + +defconst + +"O\_WRONLY" + +, + +8 + +,, + +\_\_O\_WRONLY + +, + +1 + +defconst + +"O\_RDWR" + +, + +6 + +,, + +\_\_O\_RDWR + +, + +2 + +defconst + +"O\_CREAT" + +, + +7 + +,, + +\_\_O\_CRE + +AT + +, + +0100 + +defconst + +"O\_EXCL" + +, + +6 + +,, + +\_\_O\_EXCL + +, + +0200 + +defconst + +"O\_TRUNC" + +, + +7 + +,, + +\_\_O\_TRUNC + +, + +01000 + +defconst + +"O\_APPEND" + +, + +8 + +,, + +\_\_O\_APPEND + +, + +02000 + +defconst + +"O\_NONBLOCK" + +, + +10 + +,, + +\_\_O\_NONBLOCK + +, + +04000 + +/ + +\* + +RETURN STACK + +\---------------------------------------------------------------------- + +These words allow you to access the return stack. Recall th + +at + +the register % + +ebp + +always points to + +the top of the return stack. + +\* + +/ + +defcode + +"\>R" + +, + +2 + +,, + +TOR + +pop + +% + +eax + +// + +pop + +parameter stack + +into + +% + +eax + +PUSHRSP % + +eax + +// + +push + +it on to the return stack + +NEXT + +defcode + +"R\>" + +, + +2 + +,, + +FROMR + +POPRSP % + +eax + +// + +pop + +return stack on to % + +eax + +push + +% + +eax + +// + +and + +push + +on to parameter stack + +NEXT + +defcode + +"RSP@" + +, + +4 + +,, + +RSPFETCH + +push + +% + +ebp + +NEXT + +defcode + +"RSP\!" + +, + +4 + +,, + +RSPSTORE + +pop + +% + +ebp + +NEXT + +defcode + +"RDROP" + +, + +5 + +,, + +RDROP + +addl + +$ + +4 + +, + +% + +ebp + +// + +pop + +return stack + +and + +throw away + +NEXT + +/ + +\* + +PARAMETER (DATA) STACK + +\---------------------------------------------------------------------- + +These functions allow you to manipulate the parameter stack. Recall th + +at + +Linux sets up the parameter + +stack for us + +, + +and + +it is accessed through % + +esp + +. + +\* + +/ + +defcode + +"DSP@" + +, + +4 + +,, + +DSPFETCH + +mov + +% + +esp + +, + +% + +eax + +push + +% + +eax + +NEXT + +defcode + +"DSP\!" + +, + +4 + +,, + +DSPSTORE + +pop + +% + +esp + +NEXT + +/ + +\* + +INPUT + +AND + +OUTPUT + +\---------------------------------------------------------------------- + +These are our first really meaty/complicated FORTH primitives. I have +chosen to write them + +in + +assembler + +, + +but surprisingly + +in + +"real" + +FORTH implementations these are often written + +in + +terms + +of more fundamental FORTH primitives. I chose to avoid th + +at + +because I think th + +at + +just obscures + +the implementation. After all + +, + +you may + +not + +understand assembler but you can just think of it + +as an opaque block of code th + +at + +does wh + +at + +it says. + +Let's discuss input first. + +The FORTH word KEY reads the next byte from stdin ( + +and + +pushes it on the parameter stack). + +So if KEY is called + +and + +someone hits the space key + +, + +then the number + +32 + +(ASCII code of space) + +is pushed on the stack. + +In + +FORTH there is no distinction between reading code + +and + +reading input. We might be reading + +and + +compiling code + +, + +we might be reading words to execute + +, + +we might be asking for the user + +to type their name + +\-- + +ultimately it all comes + +in + +through KEY. + +The implementation of KEY uses an input buffer of a certain size +(defined + +at + +the end of this + +file). It calls the Linux read( + +2 + +) system + +call + +to fill this buffer + +and + +tracks its position + +in + +the buffer using a couple of variables + +, + +and + +if it runs + +out + +of input buffer then it refills + +it automatically. The other thing th + +at + +KEY does is if it detects th + +at + +stdin has closed + +, + +it + +exits the program + +, + +which is why when you hit ^D the FORTH system cleanly exits. + +buffer bufftop + +| | + +V +V + +\+-------------------------------+--------------------------------------+ + +| INPUT READ FROM STDIN ....... | unused part of the buffer +| + +\+-------------------------------+--------------------------------------+ + +^ + +| + +currkey (next character to read) + +\< + +\---------------------- + +BUFFER\_SIZE ( + +4096 + +bytes) + +\---------------------- + +\> + +\* + +/ + +defcode + +"KEY" + +, + +3 + +,, + +KEY + +call + +\_KEY + +push + +% + +eax + +// + +push + +return value on stack + +NEXT + +\_KEY: + +mov + +(currkey) + +, + +% + +ebx + +cmp + +(bufftop) + +, + +% + +ebx + +jge + +1f // exhausted the input buffer? + +xor + +% + +eax + +, + +% + +eax + +mov + +(% + +ebx + +) + +, + +% + +al + +// get next key from input buffer + +inc + +% + +ebx + +mov + +% + +ebx + +, + +(currkey) // increment currkey + +ret + +1 + +: // + +Out + +of input + +; use read(2) to fetch more input from stdin. + +xor + +% + +ebx + +, + +% + +ebx + +// 1st param: stdin + +mov + +$ + +buffer + +, + +% + +ecx + +// 2nd param: buffer + +mov + +% + +ecx + +, + +currkey + +mov + +$ + +BUFFER\_SIZE + +, + +% + +edx + +// 3rd param: max length + +mov + +$ + +\_\_NR\_read + +, + +% + +eax + +// + +syscall + +: read + +int + +$ + +0x80 + +test + +% + +eax + +, + +% + +eax + +// If % + +eax + +\<= + +0 + +, + +then exit. + +jbe + +2f + +addl % + +eax + +, + +% + +ecx + +// buffer + +\+ + +% + +eax + +\= bufftop + +mov + +% + +ecx + +, + +bufftop + +jmp + +\_KEY + +2 + +: // Error + +or + +end of input: exit the program. + +xor + +% + +ebx + +, + +% + +ebx + +mov + +$ + +\_\_NR\_exit + +, + +% + +eax + +// + +syscall + +: exit + +int + +$ + +0x80 + +.data + +. + +align + +4 + +currkey: + +. + +int + +buffer // Current place + +in + +input buffer (next character to read). + +bufftop: + +. + +int + +buffer // Last valid data + +in + +input buffer + +\+ + +1 + +. + +/ + +\* + +By contrast + +, + +output is much simpler. The FORTH word EMIT writes + +out + +a single byte to stdout. + +This implementation just uses the write system + +call + +. No attempt is made to buffer output + +, + +but + +it would be a good exercise to + +add + +it. + +\* + +/ + +defcode + +"EMIT" + +, + +4 + +,, + +EMIT + +pop + +% + +eax + +call + +\_EMIT + +NEXT + +\_EMIT: + +mov + +$ + +1 + +, + +% + +ebx + +// 1st param: stdout + +// write needs the address of the byte to write + +mov + +% + +al + +, + +emit\_scratch + +mov + +$ + +emit\_scratch + +, + +% + +ecx + +// 2nd param: address + +mov + +$ + +1 + +, + +% + +edx + +// 3rd param: nbytes = + +1 + +mov + +$ + +\_\_NR\_write + +, + +% + +eax + +// write + +syscall + +int + +$ + +0x80 + +ret + +.data // NB: easier to fit + +in + +the .data section + +emit\_scratch: + +.space + +1 + +// scratch used by EMIT + +/ + +\* + +Back to input + +, + +WORD is a FORTH word which reads the next full word of input. + +Wh + +at + +it does + +in + +detail is th + +at + +it first skips any blanks (spaces + +, + +tabs + +, + +newlines + +and + +so on). + +Then it calls KEY to read characters + +into + +an internal buffer until it hits a blank. Then it + +calculates the length of the word it read + +and + +returns the address + +and + +the length as + +two words on the stack (with the length + +at + +the top of stack). + +Notice th + +at + +WORD has a single internal buffer which it overwrites + +each + +time (rather like + +a static C string). Also notice th + +at + +WORD's internal buffer is just + +32 + +bytes long + +and + +there is NO checking for overflow. + +31 + +bytes happens to be the maximum length of a + +FORTH word th + +at + +we support + +, + +and + +th + +at + +is wh + +at + +WORD is used for: to read FORTH words when + +we are compiling + +and + +executing code. The returned strings are + +not + +NUL + +\- + +terminated. + +Start address + +\+ + +length is the normal way to represent strings + +in + +FORTH ( + +not + +ending + +in + +an + +ASCII NUL character as + +in + +C) + +, + +and + +so FORTH strings can contain any character including NULs + +and + +can be any length. + +WORD + +is + +not + +suitable for just reading strings (eg. user input) because of all the +above + +peculiarities + +and + +limitations. + +Note th + +at + +when executing + +, + +you'll see: + +WORD + +FOO + +which puts + +"FOO" + +and + +length + +3 + +on the stack + +, + +but when compiling: + +: BAR WORD FOO + +; + +is an error ( + +or + +at + +least it doesn + +'t do what you might expect). Later we' + +ll talk about compiling + +and + +immediate mode + +, + +and + +you'll understand why. + +\* + +/ + +defcode + +"WORD" + +, + +4 + +,, + +WORD + +call + +\_WORD + +push + +% + +edi + +// + +push + +base address + +push + +% + +ecx + +// + +push + +length + +NEXT + +\_WORD: + +/ + +\* + +Search for first non + +\- + +blank character. Also skip \\ comments. + +\* + +/ + +1 + +: + +call + +\_KEY // get next key + +, + +returned + +in + +% + +eax + +cmpb $ + +'\\\\' + +, + +% + +al + +// start of a comment? + +je + +3f // if so + +, + +skip the comment + +cmpb $ + +' ' + +, + +% + +al + +jbe + +1b + +// if so + +, + +keep looking + +/ + +\* + +Search for the end of the word + +, + +storing chars as we go. + +\* + +/ + +mov + +$ + +word\_buffer + +, + +% + +edi + +// pointer to return buffer + +2 + +: + +stosb + +// + +add + +character to return buffer + +call + +\_KEY // get next key + +, + +returned + +in + +% + +al + +cmpb $ + +' ' + +, + +% + +al + +// is blank? + +ja + +2b // if + +not + +, + +keep looping + +/ + +\* + +Return the word (well + +, + +the static buffer) + +and + +length. + +\* + +/ + +sub + +$ + +word\_buffer + +, + +% + +edi + +mov + +% + +edi + +, + +% + +ecx + +// return length of the word + +mov + +$ + +word\_buffer + +, + +% + +edi + +// return address of the word + +ret + +/ + +\* + +Code to skip \\ comments to end of the current line. + +\* + +/ + +3 + +: + +call + +\_KEY + +cmpb $ + +'\\n' + +, + +% + +al + +// end of line yet? + +jne + +3b + +jmp + +1b + +.data // NB: easier to fit + +in + +the .data section + +// A static buffer where WORD returns. Subsequent calls + +// overwrite this buffer. Maximum word length is + +32 + +chars. + +word\_buffer: + +.space + +32 + +/ + +\* + +As well as reading + +in + +words we'll need to read + +in + +numbers + +and + +for th + +at + +we are using a function + +called NUMBER. This parses a numeric string such as one returned by WORD + +and + +pushes the + +number on the parameter stack. + +The function uses the variable BASE as the base (radix) for conversion + +, + +so for example if + +BASE is + +2 + +then we expect a binary number. Normally BASE is + +10 + +. + +If the word starts with a + +'-' + +character then the returned value is negative. + +If the string can't be parsed as a number ( + +or + +contains characters outside the current BASE) + +then we need to return an error indication. So NUMBER actually returns +two items on the stack. + +At + +the top of stack we return the number of unconverted characters (ie. if + +0 + +then all characters + +were converted + +, + +so there is no error). Second from top of stack is the parsed number + +or + +a + +partial value if there was an error. + +\* + +/ + +defcode + +"NUMBER" + +, + +6 + +,, + +NUMBER + +pop + +% + +ecx + +// length of string + +pop + +% + +edi + +// start address of string + +call + +\_NUMBER + +push + +% + +eax + +// parsed number + +push + +% + +ecx + +// number of unparsed characters ( + +0 + +\= no error) + +NEXT + +\_NUMBER: + +xor + +% + +eax + +, + +% + +eax + +xor + +% + +ebx + +, + +% + +ebx + +test + +% + +ecx + +, + +% + +ecx + +// trying to parse a zero + +\- + +length string is an error + +, + +but will return + +0 + +. + +jz + +5f + +movl var\_BASE + +, + +% + +edx + +// get BASE ( + +in + +% + +dl + +) + +// Check if first character is + +'-' + +. + +movb (% + +edi + +) + +, + +% + +bl + +// % + +bl + +\= first character + +in + +string + +inc + +% + +edi + +push + +% + +eax + +// + +push + +0 + +on stack + +cmpb $ + +'-' + +, + +% + +bl + +// negative number? + +jnz + +2f + +pop + +% + +eax + +push + +% + +ebx + +// + +push + +\<\> + +0 + +on stack + +, + +indicating negative + +dec + +% + +ecx + +jnz + +1f + +pop + +% + +ebx + +// error: string is only + +'-' + +. + +movl + +$ + +1 + +, + +% + +ecx + +ret + +// + +Loop + +reading digits. + +1 + +: imull % + +edx + +, + +% + +eax + +// % + +eax + +\* + +\= BASE + +movb (% + +edi + +) + +, + +% + +bl + +// % + +bl + +\= next character + +in + +string + +inc + +% + +edi + +// Convert + +0 + +\- + +9 + +, + +A + +\- + +Z to a number + +0 + +\- + +35 + +. + +2 + +: subb $ + +'0' + +, + +% + +bl + +// \< + +'0' + +? + +jb + +4f + +cmp + +$ + +10 + +, + +% + +bl + +// \<= + +'9' + +? + +jb + +3f + +subb + +$ + +17 + +, + +% + +bl + +// \< + +'A' + +? ( + +17 + +is + +'A' + +\- + +'0' + +) + +jb + +4f + +addb + +$ + +10 + +, + +% + +bl + +3 + +: + +cmp + +% + +dl + +, + +% + +bl + +// \>= BASE? + +jge + +4f + +// OK + +, + +so + +add + +it to % + +eax + +and + +loop + +. + +add + +% + +ebx + +, + +% + +eax + +dec + +% + +ecx + +jnz + +1b + +// Negate the result if first character was + +'-' + +(saved on the stack). + +4 + +: + +pop + +% + +ebx + +test + +% + +ebx + +, + +% + +ebx + +jz + +5f + +neg + +% + +eax + +5 + +: + +ret + +/ + +\* + +DICTIONARY LOOK UPS + +\---------------------------------------------------------------------- + +We're building up to our prelude on how FORTH code is compiled + +, + +but first we need yet more infrastructure. + +The FORTH word FIND takes a string (a word as parsed by WORD + +\-- + +see above) + +and + +looks it up + +in + +the + +dictionary. Wh + +at + +it actually returns is the address of the dictionary header + +, + +if it finds it + +, + +or + +0 + +if it didn't. + +So if DOUBLE is defined + +in + +the dictionary + +, + +then WORD DOUBLE FIND returns the following pointer: + +pointer to +this + +| + +| + +V + +\+---------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+------------+------------+------------+------------+ + +| LINK | + +6 + +| D | O | U | B | L | E | + +0 + +| DOCOL | DUP | + +\+ + +| EXIT +| + +\+---------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+------------+------------+------------+------------+ + +See also \>CFA + +and + +\>DFA. + +FIND doesn't find dictionary entries which are flagged as HIDDEN. See +below for why. + +\* + +/ + +defcode + +"FIND" + +, + +4 + +,, + +FIND + +pop + +% + +ecx + +// % + +ecx + +\= length + +pop + +% + +edi + +// % + +edi + +\= address + +call + +\_FIND + +push + +% + +eax + +// % + +eax + +\= address of dictionary entry ( + +or + +NULL) + +NEXT + +\_FIND: + +push + +% + +esi + +// Save % + +esi + +so we can use it + +in + +string comparison. + +// Now we start searching backwards through the dictionary for this +word. + +mov + +var\_LATEST + +, + +% + +edx + +// LATEST points to name header of the latest word + +in + +the dictionary + +1 + +: + +test + +% + +edx + +, + +% + +edx + +// NULL pointer? (end of the linked list) + +je + +4f + +// Compare the length expected + +and + +the length of the word. + +// Note th + +at + +if the F\_HIDDEN flag is set on the word + +, + +then by a bit of trickery + +// this won't pick the word (the length will appear to be wrong). + +xor + +% + +eax + +, + +% + +eax + +movb + +4 + +(% + +edx + +) + +, + +% + +al + +// % + +al + +\= + +flags + +\+ + +length field + +andb $(F\_HIDDEN|F\_LENMASK) + +, + +% + +al + +// % + +al + +\= name length + +cmpb % + +cl + +, + +% + +al + +// Length is the same? + +jne + +2f + +// Compare the strings + +in + +detail. + +push + +% + +ecx + +// Save the length + +push + +% + +edi + +// Save the address ( + +repe + +cmpsb will move this pointer) + +lea + +5 + +(% + +edx + +) + +, + +% + +esi + +// Dictionary string we are checking against. + +repe + +cmpsb // Compare the strings. + +pop + +% + +edi + +pop + +% + +ecx + +jne + +2f // + +Not + +the same. + +// The strings are the same + +\- + +return the header pointer + +in + +% + +eax + +pop + +% + +esi + +mov + +% + +edx + +, + +% + +eax + +ret + +2 + +: + +mov + +(% + +edx + +) + +, + +% + +edx + +// Move back through the link field to the previous word + +jmp + +1b + +// .. + +and + +loop + +. + +4 + +: // + +Not + +found. + +pop + +% + +esi + +xor + +% + +eax + +, + +% + +eax + +// Return zero to indicate + +not + +found. + +ret + +/ + +\* + +FIND returns the dictionary pointer + +, + +but when compiling we need the codeword pointer (recall + +th + +at + +FORTH definitions are compiled + +into + +lists of codeword pointers). The standard FORTH + +word + +\>CFA turns a dictionary pointer + +into + +a codeword pointer. + +The example below shows the result of: + +WORD + +DOUBLE FIND \>CFA + +FIND returns a pointer to this + +| \>CFA converts it to a pointer to this + +| | + +V +V + +\+---------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+------------+------------+------------+------------+ + +| LINK | + +6 + +| D | O | U | B | L | E | + +0 + +| DOCOL | DUP | + +\+ + +| EXIT +| + +\+---------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+------------+------------+------------+------------+ + +codeword + +Notes: + +Because names vary + +in + +length + +, + +this isn't just a simple increment. + +In + +this FORTH you cannot easily turn a codeword pointer back + +into + +a dictionary entry pointer + +, + +but + +th + +at + +is + +not + +true + +in + +most FORTH implementations where they store a back pointer + +in + +the definition + +(with an obvious memory/complexity cost). The reason they do this is th + +at + +it is useful to be + +able to go backwards (codeword + +\- + +\> dictionary entry) + +in + +order to decompile FORTH definitions + +quickly. + +Wh + +at + +does CFA stand for? My best guess is + +"Code Field Address" + +. + +\* + +/ + +defcode + +"\>CFA" + +, + +4 + +,, + +TCFA + +pop + +% + +edi + +call + +\_TCFA + +push + +% + +edi + +NEXT + +\_TCFA: + +xor + +% + +eax + +, + +% + +eax + +add + +$ + +4 + +, + +% + +edi + +// Skip link pointer. + +movb (% + +edi + +) + +, + +% + +al + +// Load + +flags + +\+ + +len + +into + +% + +al + +. + +inc + +% + +edi + +// Skip + +flags + +\+ + +len byte. + +andb + +$ + +F\_LENMASK + +, + +% + +al + +// Just the length + +, + +not + +the + +flags + +. + +add + +% + +eax + +, + +% + +edi + +// Skip the name. + +addl + +$ + +3 + +, + +% + +edi + +// The codeword is + +4 + +\- + +byte aligned. + +andl $~ + +3 + +, + +% + +edi + +ret + +/ + +\* + +Related to \>CFA is \>DFA which takes a dictionary entry address as +returned by FIND + +and + +returns a pointer to the first data field. + +FIND returns a pointer to this + +| \>CFA converts it to a pointer to this + +| | + +| | \>DFA converts it to a pointer to this + +| | | + +V V +V + +\+---------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+------------+------------+------------+------------+ + +| LINK | + +6 + +| D | O | U | B | L | E | + +0 + +| DOCOL | DUP | + +\+ + +| EXIT +| + +\+---------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+------------+------------+------------+------------+ + +codeword + +(Note to those following the source of FIG + +\- + +FORTH / ciforth: My \>DFA definition is + +different from theirs + +, + +because they have an extra indirection). + +You can see th + +at + +\>DFA is easily defined + +in + +FORTH just by adding + +4 + +to the result of \>CFA. + +\* + +/ + +defword + +"\>DFA" + +, + +4 + +,, + +TDFA + +. + +int + +TCFA // \>CFA (get code field address) + +. + +int + +INCR4 // + +4 + +\+ + +( + +add + +4 + +to it to get to next word) + +. + +int + +EXIT // EXIT (return from FORTH word) + +/ + +\* + +COMPILING + +\---------------------------------------------------------------------- + +Now we'll talk about how FORTH compiles words. Recall th + +at + +a word definition looks like this: + +: DOUBLE DUP + +\+ + +; + +and + +we have to turn this + +into + +: + +pointer to previous +word + +^ + +| + +\+-- + +| + +\------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+------------+------------+------------+------------+ + +| LINK | + +6 + +| D | O | U | B | L | E | + +0 + +| DOCOL | DUP | + +\+ + +| EXIT | + +\+---------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+------------+-- + +| + +\---------+------------+------------+ + +^ len pad codeword | + +| V + +LATEST points here points to codeword of DUP + +There are several problems to solve. Where to put the new word? How do +we read words? How + +do + +we define the words : (COLON) + +and + +; (SEMICOLON)? + +FORTH solves this rather elegantly + +and + +as you might expect + +in + +a very low + +\- + +level way which + +allows you to change how the compiler works on your own code. + +FORTH has an INTERPRET function (a true interpreter this time + +, + +not + +DOCOL) which runs + +in + +a + +loop + +, + +reading words (using WORD) + +, + +looking them up (using FIND) + +, + +turning them + +into + +codeword + +pointers (using \>CFA) + +and + +deciding wh + +at + +to do with them. + +Wh + +at + +it does depends on the mode of the interpreter ( + +in + +variable STATE). + +When STATE is zero + +, + +the interpreter just runs + +each + +word as it looks them up. This is known as + +immediate mode. + +The interesting stuff happens when STATE is non + +\- + +zero + +\-- + +compiling mode. + +In + +this mode the + +interpreter appends the codeword pointer to user memory (the HERE +variable points to the next + +free byte of user memory + +\-- + +see DATA SEGMENT section below). + +So you may be able to see how we could define : (COLON). The general +plan is: + +( + +1 + +) Use WORD to read the name of the function being defined. + +( + +2 + +) Construct the dictionary entry + +\-- + +just the header part + +\-- + +in + +user memory: + +pointer to previous word (from LATEST) + +\+-- + +Afterwards + +, + +HERE points here + +, + +where + +^ | the interpreter will start appending + +| V codewords. + +\+-- + +| + +\------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+------------+ + +| LINK | + +6 + +| D | O | U | B | L | E | + +0 + +| DOCOL | + +\+---------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+------------+ + +len pad codeword + +( + +3 + +) Set LATEST to point to the newly defined word + +, + +... + +( + +4 + +) .. + +and + +most importantly + +leave + +HERE pointing just after the new codeword. This is where + +the interpreter will append codewords. + +( + +5 + +) Set STATE to + +1 + +. This goes + +into + +compile mode so the interpreter starts appending codewords to + +our partially + +\- + +formed header. + +After : has run + +, + +our input is here: + +: DOUBLE DUP + +\+ + +; + +^ + +| + +Next byte returned by KEY will be the + +'D' + +character of DUP + +so the interpreter (now it + +'s in compile mode, so I guess it' + +s really the compiler) reads + +"DUP" + +, + +looks it up + +in + +the dictionary + +, + +gets its codeword pointer + +, + +and + +appends it: + +\+-- + +HERE updated to point here. + +| + +V + +\+---------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+------------+------------+ + +| LINK | + +6 + +| D | O | U | B | L | E | + +0 + +| DOCOL | DUP | + +\+---------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+------------+------------+ + +len pad codeword + +Next we read + +\+, + +get the codeword pointer + +, + +and + +append it: + +\+-- + +HERE updated to point +here. + +| + +V + +\+---------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+------------+------------+------------+ + +| LINK | + +6 + +| D | O | U | B | L | E | + +0 + +| DOCOL | DUP +| + +\+ + +| + +\+---------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+------------+------------+------------+ + +len pad codeword + +The issue is wh + +at + +happens next. Obviously wh + +at + +we \_don't\_ want to happen is th + +at + +we + +read + +";" + +and + +compile it + +and + +go on compiling everything afterwards. + +At + +this point + +, + +FORTH uses a trick. Remember the length byte + +in + +the dictionary definition + +isn't just a plain length byte + +, + +but can also contain + +flags + +. One flag is called the + +IMMEDIATE flag (F\_IMMED + +in + +this code). If a word + +in + +the dictionary is flagged as + +IMMEDIATE then the interpreter runs it immediately \_even if it's + +in + +compile mode\_. + +This is how the word + +; (SEMICOLON) works -- as a word flagged in the dictionary as IMMEDIATE. + +And + +all it does is append the codeword for EXIT on to the current definition + +and + +switch + +back to immediate mode (set STATE back to + +0 + +). Shortly we'll see the actual definition + +of + +; and we'll see that it's really a very simple definition, declared +IMMEDIATE. + +After the interpreter reads + +; and executes it 'immediately', we get +this: + +\+---------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+------------+------------+------------+------------+ + +| LINK | + +6 + +| D | O | U | B | L | E | + +0 + +| DOCOL | DUP | + +\+ + +| EXIT +| + +\+---------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+------------+------------+------------+------------+ + +len pad codeword ^ + +| + +HERE + +STATE is set to + +0 + +. + +And + +th + +at + +'s it, job done, our new definition is compiled, and we' + +re back + +in + +immediate mode + +just reading + +and + +executing words + +, + +perhaps including a + +call + +to + +test + +our new word DOUBLE. + +The only last wrinkle + +in + +this is th + +at + +while our word was being compiled + +, + +it was + +in + +a + +half + +\- + +finished state. We certainly wouldn't want DOUBLE to be called somehow +during + +this time. There are several ways to stop this from happening + +, + +but + +in + +FORTH wh + +at + +we + +do + +is flag the word with the HIDDEN flag (F\_HIDDEN + +in + +this code) just while it is + +being compiled. This prevents FIND from finding it + +, + +and + +thus + +in + +theory stops any + +chance of it being called. + +The above explains how compiling + +, + +: (COLON) + +and + +; (SEMICOLON) works and in a moment I'm + +going to define them. The : (COLON) function can be made a little bit +more general by writing + +it + +in + +two parts. The first part + +, + +called CREATE + +, + +makes just the header: + +\+-- + +Afterwards + +, + +HERE points here. + +| + +V + +\+---------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ + +| LINK | + +6 + +| D | O | U | B | L | E | + +0 + +| + +\+---------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ + +len pad + +and + +the second part + +, + +the actual definition of : (COLON) + +, + +calls CREATE + +and + +appends the + +DOCOL codeword + +, + +so leaving: + +\+-- + +Afterwards + +, + +HERE points here. + +| + +V + +\+---------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+------------+ + +| LINK | + +6 + +| D | O | U | B | L | E | + +0 + +| DOCOL | + +\+---------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+------------+ + +len pad codeword + +CREATE is a standard FORTH word + +and + +the advantage of this split is th + +at + +we can reuse it to + +create other types of words ( + +not + +just ones which contain code + +, + +but words which contain variables + +, + +constants + +and + +other data). + +\* + +/ + +defcode + +"CREATE" + +, + +6 + +,, + +CREATE + +// Get the name length + +and + +address. + +pop + +% + +ecx + +// % + +ecx + +\= length + +pop + +% + +ebx + +// % + +ebx + +\= address of name + +// Link pointer. + +movl var\_HERE + +, + +% + +edi + +// % + +edi + +is the address of the header + +movl var\_LATEST + +, + +% + +eax + +// Get link pointer + +stosl // + +and + +store it + +in + +the header. + +// Length byte + +and + +the word itself. + +mov + +% + +cl + +, + +% + +al + +// Get the length. + +stosb + +// Store the length/ + +flags + +byte. + +push + +% + +esi + +mov + +% + +ebx + +, + +% + +esi + +// % + +esi + +\= word + +rep + +movsb + +// Copy the word + +pop + +% + +esi + +addl + +$ + +3 + +, + +% + +edi + +// Align to next + +4 + +byte boundary. + +andl $~ + +3 + +, + +% + +edi + +// Update LATEST + +and + +HERE. + +movl var\_HERE + +, + +% + +eax + +movl % + +eax + +, + +var\_LATEST + +movl % + +edi + +, + +var\_HERE + +NEXT + +/ + +\* + +Because I want to define : (COLON) + +in + +FORTH + +, + +not + +assembler + +, + +we need a few more FORTH words + +to use. + +The first is + +, + +(COMMA) which is a standard FORTH word which appends a + +32 + +bit integer to the user + +memory pointed to by HERE + +, + +and + +adds + +4 + +to HERE. So the action of + +, + +(COMMA) is: + +previous value of HERE + +| + +V + +\+---------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+-- + +\- + +\- + +\- + +\- + +\--+------------+ + +| LINK | + +6 + +| D | O | U | B | L | E | + +0 + +| | \ | + +\+---------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+-- + +\- + +\- + +\- + +\- + +\--+------------+ + +len pad ^ + +| + +new value of HERE + +and + +\ is whatever + +32 + +bit integer was + +at + +the top of the stack. + +, + +(COMMA) is quite a fundamental operation when compiling. It is used to +append codewords + +to the current word th + +at + +is being compiled. + +\* + +/ + +defcode + +"," + +, + +1 + +,, + +COMMA + +pop + +% + +eax + +// Code pointer to store. + +call + +\_COMMA + +NEXT + +\_COMMA: + +movl var\_HERE + +, + +% + +edi + +// HERE + +stosl // Store it. + +movl % + +edi + +, + +var\_HERE // Update HERE (incremented) + +ret + +/ + +\* + +Our definitions of : (COLON) + +and + +; (SEMICOLON) will need to switch to and from compile mode. + +Immediate mode vs. compile mode is stored + +in + +the + +global + +variable STATE + +, + +and + +by updating this + +variable we can switch between the two modes. + +For various reasons which may become apparent later + +, + +FORTH defines two standard words called + +\[ + +and + +\] + +(LBRAC + +and + +RBRAC) which switch between modes: + +Word + +Assembler Action Effect + +\[ + +LBRAC STATE := + +0 + +Switch to immediate mode. + +\] + +RBRAC STATE := + +1 + +Switch to compile mode. + +\[ + +(LBRAC) is an IMMEDIATE word. The reason is as follows: If we are + +in + +compile mode + +and + +the + +interpreter saw + +\[ + +then it would compile it rather than running it. We would never be able +to + +switch back to immediate mode\! So we flag the word as IMMEDIATE so th + +at + +even + +in + +compile mode + +the word runs immediately + +, + +switching us back to immediate mode. + +\* + +/ + +defcode + +"\[" + +, + +1 + +, + +F\_IMMED + +, + +LBRAC + +xor + +% + +eax + +, + +% + +eax + +movl % + +eax + +, + +var\_STATE // Set STATE to + +0 + +. + +NEXT + +defcode + +"\]" + +, + +1 + +,, + +RBRAC + +movl + +$ + +1 + +, + +var\_STATE // Set STATE to + +1 + +. + +NEXT + +/ + +\* + +Now we can define : (COLON) using CREATE. It just calls CREATE + +, + +appends DOCOL (the codeword) + +, + +sets + +the word HIDDEN + +and + +goes + +into + +compile mode. + +\* + +/ + +defword + +":" + +, + +1 + +,, + +COLON + +. + +int + +WORD // Get the name of the new word + +. + +int + +CREATE // CREATE the dictionary entry / header + +. + +int + +LIT + +, + +DOCOL + +, + +COMMA // Append DOCOL (the codeword). + +. + +int + +LATEST + +, + +FETCH + +, + +HIDDEN // Make the word hidden (see below for definition). + +. + +int + +RBRAC // Go + +into + +compile mode. + +. + +int + +EXIT // Return from the function. + +/ + +\* + +; (SEMICOLON) is also elegantly simple. Notice the F\_IMMED flag. + +\* + +/ + +defword + +";" + +, + +1 + +, + +F\_IMMED + +, + +SEMICOLON + +. + +int + +LIT + +, + +EXIT + +, + +COMMA // Append EXIT (so the word will return). + +. + +int + +LATEST + +, + +FETCH + +, + +HIDDEN // Toggle hidden flag + +\-- + +unhide the word (see below for definition). + +. + +int + +LBRAC // Go back to IMMEDIATE mode. + +. + +int + +EXIT // Return from the function. + +/ + +\* + +EXTENDING THE COMPILER + +\---------------------------------------------------------------------- + +Words flagged with IMMEDIATE (F\_IMMED) aren't just for the FORTH +compiler to use. You can define + +your own IMMEDIATE words too + +, + +and + +this is a crucial aspect when extending basic FORTH + +, + +because + +it allows you + +in + +effect to extend the compiler itself. Does gcc let you do th + +at + +? + +Standard FORTH words like IF + +, + +WHILE + +, + +." + +and + +so on are all written as extensions to the basic + +compiler + +, + +and + +are all IMMEDIATE words. + +The IMMEDIATE word toggles the F\_IMMED (IMMEDIATE flag) on the most +recently defined word + +, + +or + +on the current word if you + +call + +it + +in + +the middle of a definition. + +Typical usage is: + +: MYIMMEDWORD IMMEDIATE + +...definition... + +; + +but some FORTH programmers write this instead: + +: MYIMMEDWORD + +...definition... + +; IMMEDIATE + +The two usages are equivalent + +, + +to a first approximation. + +\* + +/ + +defcode + +"IMMEDIATE" + +, + +9 + +, + +F\_IMMED + +, + +IMMEDIATE + +movl var\_LATEST + +, + +% + +edi + +// LATEST word. + +addl + +$ + +4 + +, + +% + +edi + +// Point to name/ + +flags + +byte. + +xorb + +$ + +F\_IMMED + +, + +(% + +edi + +) // Toggle the IMMED bit. + +NEXT + +/ + +\* + +'addr HIDDEN' + +toggles the hidden flag (F\_HIDDEN) of the word defined + +at + +addr. To hide the + +most recently defined word (used above + +in + +: + +and + +; definitions) you would do: + +LATEST @ HIDDEN + +'HIDE word' + +toggles the flag on a named + +'word' + +. + +Setting this flag stops the word from being found by FIND + +, + +and + +so can be used to make + +'private' + +words. For example + +, + +to break up a large word + +into + +smaller parts you might do: + +: SUB1 ... subword ... + +; + +: SUB2 ... subword ... + +; + +: SUB3 ... subword ... + +; + +: MAIN ... defined + +in + +terms of SUB1 + +, + +SUB2 + +, + +SUB3 ... + +; + +HIDE SUB1 + +HIDE SUB2 + +HIDE SUB3 + +After this + +, + +only MAIN is + +'exported' + +or + +seen by the rest of the program. + +\* + +/ + +defcode + +"HIDDEN" + +, + +6 + +,, + +HIDDEN + +pop + +% + +edi + +// Dictionary entry. + +addl + +$ + +4 + +, + +% + +edi + +// Point to name/ + +flags + +byte. + +xorb + +$ + +F\_HIDDEN + +, + +(% + +edi + +) // Toggle the HIDDEN bit. + +NEXT + +defword + +"HIDE" + +, + +4 + +,, + +HIDE + +. + +int + +WORD // Get the word (after HIDE). + +. + +int + +FIND // Look up + +in + +the dictionary. + +. + +int + +HIDDEN // Set F\_HIDDEN flag. + +. + +int + +EXIT // Return. + +/ + +\* + +' (TICK) is a standard FORTH word which returns the codeword pointer of +the next word. + +The + +common + +usage is: + +' FOO + +, + +which appends the codeword of FOO to the current word we are defining +(this only works + +in + +compiled code). + +You tend to use ' + +in + +IMMEDIATE words. For example an alternate ( + +and + +rather useless) way to define + +a literal + +2 + +might be: + +: LIT2 IMMEDIATE + +' LIT + +, + +\\ Appends LIT to the currently + +\- + +being + +\- + +defined word + +2 + +, + +\\ Appends the number + +2 + +to the currently + +\- + +being + +\- + +defined word + +; + +So you could do: + +: DOUBLE LIT2 + +\* + +; + +(If you don't understand how LIT2 works + +, + +then you should review the material about compiling words + +and + +immediate mode). + +This definition of ' uses a che + +at + +which I copied from buzzard92. As a result it only works + +in + +compiled code. It is possible to write a version of ' based on WORD + +, + +FIND + +, + +\>CFA which works + +in + +immediate mode too. + +\* + +/ + +defcode + +"' + +" + +, + +1 + +,, + +TICK + +lodsl // Get the address of the next word + +and + +skip it. + +pushl % + +eax + +// + +Push + +it on the stack. + +NEXT + +/ + +\* + +BRANCHING + +\---------------------------------------------------------------------- + +It turns + +out + +th + +at + +all you need + +in + +order to define looping constructs + +, + +IF + +\- + +statements + +, + +etc. + +are two primitives. + +BRANCH is an unconditional branch. 0BRANCH is a conditional branch (it +only branches if the + +top of stack is zero). + +The diagram below shows how BRANCH works + +in + +some imaginary compiled word. When BRANCH executes + +, + +% + +esi + +starts by pointing to the offset field (compare to LIT above): + +\+---------------------+-------+---- + +\- + +\- + +\---+------------+------------+---- + +\- + +\- + +\- + +\----+------------+ + +| (Dictionary header) | DOCOL | | BRANCH | offset | (skipped) | word | + +\+---------------------+-------+---- + +\- + +\- + +\---+------------+----- + +| + +\------+---- + +\- + +\- + +\- + +\----+------------+ + +^ | ^ + +| | | + +| + +\+-----------------------+ + +% + +esi + +added to offset + +The offset is added to % + +esi + +to make the new % + +esi + +, + +and + +the result is th + +at + +when NEXT runs + +, + +execution + +continues + +at + +the branch target. Negative offsets work as expected. + +0BRANCH is the same except the branch happens conditionally. + +Now standard FORTH words such as IF + +, + +THEN + +, + +ELSE + +, + +WHILE + +, + +REPE + +AT + +, + +etc. can be implemented entirely + +in + +FORTH. They are IMMEDIATE words which append various combinations of +BRANCH + +or + +0BRANCH + +into + +the word currently being compiled. + +As an example + +, + +code written like this: + +condition + +\- + +code IF true + +\- + +part THEN rest + +\- + +code + +compiles to: + +condition + +\- + +code 0BRANCH OFFSET true + +\- + +part rest + +\- + +code + +| ^ + +| | + +\+-------------+ + +\* + +/ + +defcode + +"BRANCH" + +, + +6 + +,, + +BRANCH + +add + +(% + +esi + +) + +, + +% + +esi + +// + +add + +the offset to the instruction pointer + +NEXT + +defcode + +"0BRANCH" + +, + +7 + +,, + +ZBRANCH + +pop + +% + +eax + +test + +% + +eax + +, + +% + +eax + +// top of stack is zero? + +jz + +code\_BRANCH // if so + +, + +jump back to the branch function above + +lodsl // otherwise we need to skip the offset + +NEXT + +/ + +\* + +LITERAL STRINGS + +\---------------------------------------------------------------------- + +LITSTRING is a primitive used to implement the . + +" and S" + +operators (which are written + +in + +FORTH). See the definition of those operators later. + +TELL just prints a string. It's more efficient to define this + +in + +assembly because we + +can make it a single Linux + +syscall + +. + +\* + +/ + +defcode + +"LITSTRING" + +, + +9 + +,, + +LITSTRING + +lodsl // get the length of the string + +push + +% + +esi + +// + +push + +the address of the start of the string + +push + +% + +eax + +// + +push + +it on the stack + +addl % + +eax + +, + +% + +esi + +// skip past the string + +addl + +$ + +3 + +, + +% + +esi + +// but round up to next + +4 + +byte boundary + +andl $~ + +3 + +, + +% + +esi + +NEXT + +defcode + +"TELL" + +, + +4 + +,, + +TELL + +mov + +$ + +1 + +, + +% + +ebx + +// 1st param: stdout + +pop + +% + +edx + +// 3rd param: length of string + +pop + +% + +ecx + +// 2nd param: address of string + +mov + +$ + +\_\_NR\_write + +, + +% + +eax + +// write + +syscall + +int + +$ + +0x80 + +NEXT + +/ + +\* + +QUIT + +AND + +INTERPRET + +\---------------------------------------------------------------------- + +QUIT is the first FORTH function called + +, + +almost immediately after the FORTH system + +"boots" + +. + +As explained before + +, + +QUIT doesn + +'t " + +quit" anything. It does some initialisation ( + +in + +particular + +it clears the return stack) + +and + +it calls INTERPRET + +in + +a + +loop + +to interpret commands. The + +reason it is called QUIT is because you can + +call + +it from your own FORTH words + +in + +order to + +"quit" + +your program + +and + +start again + +at + +the user prompt. + +INTERPRET is the FORTH interpreter ( + +"toploop" + +, + +"toplevel" + +or + +"REPL" + +might be a more accurate + +description + +\-- + +see: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/REPL). + +\* + +/ + +// QUIT must + +not + +return (ie. must + +not + +call + +EXIT). + +defword + +"QUIT" + +, + +4 + +,, + +QUIT + +. + +int + +RZ + +, + +RSPSTORE // R0 + +RSP + +\! + +, + +clear the return stack + +. + +int + +INTERPRET // interpret the next word + +. + +int + +BRANCH + +,- + +8 + +// + +and + +loop + +(indefinitely) + +/ + +\* + +This interpreter is pretty simple + +, + +but remember th + +at + +in FORTH you can always override + +it later with a more powerful one\! + +\* + +/ + +defcode + +"INTERPRET" + +, + +9 + +,, + +INTERPRET + +call + +\_WORD // Returns % + +ecx + +\= length + +, + +% + +edi + +\= pointer to word. + +// Is it + +in + +the dictionary? + +xor + +% + +eax + +, + +% + +eax + +movl % + +eax + +, + +interpret\_is\_lit // + +Not + +a literal number ( + +not + +yet anyway ...) + +call + +\_FIND // Returns % + +eax + +\= pointer to header + +or + +0 + +if + +not + +found. + +test + +% + +eax + +, + +% + +eax + +// Found? + +jz + +1f + +// + +In + +the dictionary. Is it an IMMEDIATE codeword? + +mov + +% + +eax + +, + +% + +edi + +// % + +edi + +\= dictionary entry + +movb + +4 + +(% + +edi + +) + +, + +% + +al + +// Get name + +\+ + +flags + +. + +push + +% + +ax + +// Just save it for now. + +call + +\_TCFA // Convert dictionary entry ( + +in + +% + +edi + +) to codeword pointer. + +pop + +% + +ax + +andb + +$ + +F\_IMMED + +, + +% + +al + +// Is IMMED flag set? + +mov + +% + +edi + +, + +% + +eax + +jnz + +4f // If IMMED + +, + +jump straight to executing. + +jmp + +2f + +1 + +: // + +Not + +in + +the dictionary ( + +not + +a word) so assume it's a literal number. + +incl interpret\_is\_lit + +call + +\_NUMBER // Returns the parsed number + +in + +% + +eax + +, + +% + +ecx + +\> + +0 + +if error + +test + +% + +ecx + +, + +% + +ecx + +jnz + +6f + +mov + +% + +eax + +, + +% + +ebx + +mov + +$ + +LIT + +, + +% + +eax + +// The word is LIT + +2 + +: // Are we compiling + +or + +executing? + +movl var\_STATE + +, + +% + +edx + +test + +% + +edx + +, + +% + +edx + +jz + +4f // Jump if executing. + +// Compiling + +\- + +just append the word to the current dictionary definition. + +call + +\_COMMA + +mov + +interpret\_is\_lit + +, + +% + +ecx + +// Was it a literal? + +test + +% + +ecx + +, + +% + +ecx + +jz + +3f + +mov + +% + +ebx + +, + +% + +eax + +// Yes + +, + +so LIT is followed by a number. + +call + +\_COMMA + +3 + +: NEXT + +4 + +: // Executing + +\- + +run it\! + +mov + +interpret\_is\_lit + +, + +% + +ecx + +// Literal? + +test + +% + +ecx + +, + +% + +ecx + +// Literal? + +jnz + +5f + +// + +Not + +a literal + +, + +execute it now. This never returns + +, + +but the codeword will + +// eventually + +call + +NEXT which will reenter the + +loop + +in + +QUIT. + +jmp + +\* + +(% + +eax + +) + +5 + +: // Executing a literal + +, + +which means + +push + +it on the stack. + +push + +% + +ebx + +NEXT + +6 + +: // Parse error ( + +not + +a known word + +or + +a number + +in + +the current BASE). + +// Print an error message followed by up to + +40 + +characters of context. + +mov + +$ + +2 + +, + +% + +ebx + +// 1st param: stderr + +mov + +$ + +errmsg + +, + +% + +ecx + +// 2nd param: error message + +mov + +$ + +errmsgend + +\- + +errmsg + +, + +% + +edx + +// 3rd param: length of string + +mov + +$ + +\_\_NR\_write + +, + +% + +eax + +// write + +syscall + +int + +$ + +0x80 + +mov + +(currkey) + +, + +% + +ecx + +// the error occurred just before currkey position + +mov + +% + +ecx + +, + +% + +edx + +sub + +$ + +buffer + +, + +% + +edx + +// % + +edx + +\= currkey + +\- + +buffer (length + +in + +buffer before currkey) + +cmp + +$ + +40 + +, + +% + +edx + +// if \> + +40 + +, + +then print only + +40 + +characters + +jle + +7f + +mov + +$ + +40 + +, + +% + +edx + +7 + +: + +sub + +% + +edx + +, + +% + +ecx + +// % + +ecx + +\= start of area to print + +, + +% + +edx + +\= length + +mov + +$ + +\_\_NR\_write + +, + +% + +eax + +// write + +syscall + +int + +$ + +0x80 + +mov + +$ + +errmsgnl + +, + +% + +ecx + +// newline + +mov + +$ + +1 + +, + +% + +edx + +mov + +$ + +\_\_NR\_write + +, + +% + +eax + +// write + +syscall + +int + +$ + +0x80 + +NEXT + +. + +section + +.rodata + +errmsg: .ascii + +"PARSE ERROR: " + +errmsgend: + +errmsgnl: .ascii + +"\\n" + +.data // NB: easier to fit + +in + +the .data section + +. + +align + +4 + +interpret\_is\_lit: + +. + +int + +0 + +// Flag used to record if reading a literal + +/ + +\* + +ODDS + +AND + +ENDS + +\---------------------------------------------------------------------- + +CHAR puts the ASCII code of the first character of the following word on +the stack. For example + +CHAR A puts + +65 + +on the stack. + +EXECUTE is used to run execution tokens. See the discussion of execution +tokens + +in + +the + +FORTH code for more details. + +SYSCALL0 + +, + +SYSCALL1 + +, + +SYSCALL2 + +, + +SYSCALL3 make a standard Linux system + +call + +. (See \ + +for a list of system + +call + +numbers). As their name suggests these forms take between + +0 + +and + +3 + +syscall + +parameters + +, + +plus the system + +call + +number. + +In + +this FORTH + +, + +SYSCALL0 must be the last word + +in + +the built + +\- + +in + +(assembler) dictionary because we + +initialise the LATEST variable to point to it. This means th + +at + +if you want to extend the assembler + +part + +, + +you must put new words before SYSCALL0 + +, + +or + +else change how LATEST is initialised. + +\* + +/ + +defcode + +"CHAR" + +, + +4 + +,, + +CHAR + +call + +\_WORD // Returns % + +ecx + +\= length + +, + +% + +edi + +\= pointer to word. + +xor + +% + +eax + +, + +% + +eax + +movb (% + +edi + +) + +, + +% + +al + +// Get the first character of the word. + +push + +% + +eax + +// + +Push + +it onto the stack. + +NEXT + +defcode + +"EXECUTE" + +, + +7 + +,, + +EXECUTE + +pop + +% + +eax + +// Get xt + +into + +% + +eax + +jmp + +\* + +(% + +eax + +) // + +and + +jump to it. + +// After xt runs its NEXT will continue executing the current word. + +defcode + +"SYSCALL3" + +, + +8 + +,, + +SYSCALL3 + +pop + +% + +eax + +// System + +call + +number (see \) + +pop + +% + +ebx + +// First parameter. + +pop + +% + +ecx + +// Second parameter + +pop + +% + +edx + +// Third parameter + +int + +$ + +0x80 + +push + +% + +eax + +// Result (negative for + +\- + +errno) + +NEXT + +defcode + +"SYSCALL2" + +, + +8 + +,, + +SYSCALL2 + +pop + +% + +eax + +// System + +call + +number (see \) + +pop + +% + +ebx + +// First parameter. + +pop + +% + +ecx + +// Second parameter + +int + +$ + +0x80 + +push + +% + +eax + +// Result (negative for + +\- + +errno) + +NEXT + +defcode + +"SYSCALL1" + +, + +8 + +,, + +SYSCALL1 + +pop + +% + +eax + +// System + +call + +number (see \) + +pop + +% + +ebx + +// First parameter. + +int + +$ + +0x80 + +push + +% + +eax + +// Result (negative for + +\- + +errno) + +NEXT + +defcode + +"SYSCALL0" + +, + +8 + +,, + +SYSCALL0 + +pop + +% + +eax + +// System + +call + +number (see \) + +int + +$ + +0x80 + +push + +% + +eax + +// Result (negative for + +\- + +errno) + +NEXT + +/ + +\* + +DATA SEGMENT + +\---------------------------------------------------------------------- + +Here we set up the Linux data segment + +, + +used for user definitions + +and + +variously known as just + +the + +'data segment' + +, + +'user memory' + +or + +'user definitions area' + +. It is an area of memory which + +grows upwards + +and + +stores both newly + +\- + +defined FORTH words + +and + +global + +variables of various + +sorts. + +It is completely analogous to the C heap + +, + +except there is no generalised + +'malloc' + +and + +'free' + +(but as with everything + +in + +FORTH + +, + +writing such functions would just be a Simple Matter + +Of Programming). Instead + +in + +normal use the data segment just grows upwards as new FORTH + +words are defined/appended to it. + +There are various + +"features" + +of the GNU toolchain which make setting up the data segment + +more complicated than it really needs to be. One is the GNU linker which +inserts a random + +"build ID" + +segment. Another is Address Space Randomization which means we can't +tell + +where the kernel will choose to place the data segment ( + +or + +the stack for th + +at + +matter). + +Therefore writing this set\_up\_data\_segment assembler routine is a +little more complicated + +than it really needs to be. We ask the Linux kernel where it thinks the +data segment starts + +using the brk( + +2 + +) system + +call + +, + +then ask it to reserve some initial space (also using brk( + +2 + +)). + +You don't need to worry about this code. + +\* + +/ + +.text + +.set INITIAL\_DATA\_SEGMENT\_SIZE + +, + +65536 + +set\_up\_data\_segment: + +xor + +% + +ebx + +, + +% + +ebx + +// + +Call + +brk( + +0 + +) + +movl + +$ + +\_\_NR\_brk + +, + +% + +eax + +int + +$ + +0x80 + +movl % + +eax + +, + +var\_HERE // Initialise HERE to point + +at + +beginning of data segment. + +addl + +$ + +INITIAL\_DATA\_SEGMENT\_SIZE + +, + +% + +eax + +// Reserve nn bytes of memory for initial data segment. + +movl % + +eax + +, + +% + +ebx + +// + +Call + +brk(HERE + +\+ + +INITIAL\_DATA\_SEGMENT\_SIZE) + +movl + +$ + +\_\_NR\_brk + +, + +% + +eax + +int + +$ + +0x80 + +ret + +/ + +\* + +We allocate static buffers for the return static + +and + +input buffer (used when + +reading + +in + +files + +and + +text th + +at + +the user types + +in + +). + +\* + +/ + +.set RETURN\_STACK\_SIZE + +, + +8192 + +.set BUFFER\_SIZE + +, + +4096 + +.bss + +/ + +\* + +FORTH return stack. + +\* + +/ + +. + +align + +4096 + +return\_stack: + +.space RETURN\_STACK\_SIZE + +return\_stack\_top: // Initial top of return stack. + +/ + +\* + +This is used as a temporary input buffer when reading from files + +or + +the terminal. + +\* + +/ + +. + +align + +4096 + +buffer: + +.space BUFFER\_SIZE + +/ + +\* + +START OF FORTH CODE + +\---------------------------------------------------------------------- + +We've now reached the stage where the FORTH system is running + +and + +self + +\- + +hosting. All further + +words can be written as FORTH itself + +, + +including words like IF + +, + +THEN + +, + +." + +, + +etc which + +in + +most + +languages would be considered rather fundamental. + +I used to append this here + +in + +the assembly file + +, + +but I got sick of fighting against gas's + +crack + +\- + +smoking (lack of) multiline string syntax. So now th + +at + +is + +in + +a separate file called + +jonesforth.f + +If you don't already have th + +at + +file + +, + +download it from http://annexia.org/forth + +in + +order + +to continue the tutorial. + +\* + +/ + +/ + +\* + +END OF jonesforth.S + +\* + +/ diff --git a/_stories/2007/10793999.md b/_stories/2007/10793999.md index 16bfd68..1c2a87e 100644 --- a/_stories/2007/10793999.md +++ b/_stories/2007/10793999.md @@ -19,684 +19,90 @@ _tags: objectID: '10793999' --- -[Source](http://www.colourlovers.com/blog/2007/09/02/the-muller-formula-or-predictable-color-preferences "Permalink to Color + Design Blog / The Müller Formula (or: Predictable Color Preferences) by COLOURlovers :: COLOURlovers") - -# Color + Design Blog / The Müller Formula (or: Predictable Color Preferences) by COLOURlovers :: COLOURlovers - -![Quantcast][1] - -[Log In][2] - -[Sign Up][3] - -[COLOURlovers][4] - -Search palettes… - -* [Palettes][5] -* [Patterns][5] -* [Pattern Templates][5] -* [Shapes][5] -* [Colors][5] -* [Lovers][5] - -[Search][5] - -[Create][5] - -* [Palette][6] -* [Pattern][7] -* [Pattern Template][8] -* [Shape][8] -* [Color][9] -* [Browse][10] -* [Community][10] -* [Channels][10] -* [Trends][10] -* [Tools][10] - -[Palettes][11][Patterns][12][Pattern Templates][13][Shapes][14][Colors][15][Lovers][16] - -[Blog][17][Forums][18][Groups][19][FAQ][20] - -[Craft][21][Digital Art][22][Fashion][23][Home][24][Print][25][Web][26][Wedding][27] - -[Branding][28][Handmade][29][Interior Looks][30][Magazines][31][Street Fashion][32][Websites][33][Wedding Invites][34] - -[Seamless Lite][8][PHOTOCOPA][35][COPASO][36][Color Of The Year][37] - -![The Müller Formula \(or: Predictable Color Preferences\)][38] - -# [The Müller Formula (or: Predictable Color Preferences)][39] - -By [COLOURlover ][40] // September 2, 2007 - -[**28** comments][41] -* * * - -More than half a century ago, Aemelius Müller, professor at the academy of Winterthur, Switzerland, came up with a formula that could predict the appreciation of a color-combination. In other words: Müller was able to predict which combination of colors most people would probably like. +More than half a century ago, Aemelius Müller, professor at the academy +of Winterthur, Switzerland, came up with a formula that could predict +the appreciation of a color-combination. In other words: Müller was able +to predict which combination of colors most people would probably +like.   -| ----- | -| ![img][42] |    | +![img](http://s3.amazonaws.com/colourlovers.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/2007/09/muller1.gif)   -Müller's formula predicts that these color combinations will be considered as ugly by most people. +Müller's formula predicts that these color combinations will be +considered as ugly by most +people. - | -|   | | | -| ![img][43] |    | + ![img](http://s3.amazonaws.com/colourlovers.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/2007/09/muller2.gif)   -While these will be liked. How is this possible? - - | +While these will be liked. How is this +possible?     -| ----- | -| ![img][44] |    | +![img](http://s3.amazonaws.com/colourlovers.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/2007/09/hueslr.jpg)   -First we need to consider the 'natural' brightness of the colors of the color circle, as discussed in this post about [Brightness vs. Whiteness][45]. You will notice that yellow, for instance, is a lot brighter than blue. +First we need to consider the 'natural' brightness of the colors of the +color circle, as discussed in this post about [Brightness vs. +Whiteness](http://www.livelygrey.com/2007/08/brightness_vs_whiteness.html). +You will notice that yellow, for instance, is a lot brighter than +blue. - | -|   | | | -| ![img][46] |    | + ![img](http://s3.amazonaws.com/colourlovers.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/2007/09/brightness_lr.jpg)   -On a scale from 1 to 100, bright yellow has a brightness value of 90, while bright blue has a value as low as 35. Likewise, every hue in the color circle has its own 'natural' brightness. - - | +On a scale from 1 to 100, bright yellow has a brightness value of 90, +while bright blue has a value as low as 35. Likewise, every hue in the +color circle has its own 'natural' +brightness.   -| ----- | -| ![img][47] |    | +![img](http://s3.amazonaws.com/colourlovers.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/2007/09/mullerbl3.gif)   -Now take this combination. All three colors have the exact same hue of blue. The only difference between the colors is their brightness. - - | +Now take this combination. All three colors have the exact same hue of +blue. The only difference between the colors is their brightness.   -Now we pair the last combination with the 'ugly' combination on the left and the 'nice' combination on the right. -![img][48] +Now we pair the last combination with the 'ugly' combination on the left +and the 'nice' combination on the +right. +![img](http://s3.amazonaws.com/colourlovers.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/2007/09/mullerbl.gif) -See what happened? Towards the 'ugly' (left) side the dark blue shifted to a greener hue, while the bright blue shifted to a more purple hue. This is contrary to the 'natural' brightness of the colors. After all, if you check the color circles you will see that green is much brighter than purple. Towards the 'nice' (right) side the dark color shifted to purple while the bright color shifted to green. This shift is in accordance with the 'natural' brightness of the colors. +See what happened? Towards the 'ugly' (left) side the dark blue shifted +to a greener hue, while the bright blue shifted to a more purple hue. +This is contrary to the 'natural' brightness of the colors. After all, +if you check the color circles you will see that green is much brighter +than purple. Towards the 'nice' (right) side the dark color shifted to +purple while the bright color shifted to green. This shift is in +accordance with the 'natural' brightness of the colors. -The same goes for the red combinations. Towards the 'ugly' side the colors shift contrary to the 'natural' brightness while on the 'nice' side they shift in accordance with the natural brightness. -![img][49] +The same goes for the red combinations. Towards the 'ugly' side the +colors shift contrary to the 'natural' brightness while on the 'nice' +side they shift in accordance with the natural +brightness. +![img](http://s3.amazonaws.com/colourlovers.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/2007/09/mullerbr.gif) -So here's the simple formula: If a combination follows the natural brightness of colors, most people will like it, if a combination contradicts the natural brightness of colors, most people won't like it. +So here's the simple formula: If a combination follows the natural +brightness of colors, most people will like it, if a combination +contradicts the natural brightness of colors, most people won't like it. -There is some dispute in academia whether or not to interpret the 'nice' color combinations as good taste. The obvious implication being that the 'ugly' combinations are of bad taste. I myself tested the formula on many occasions when lecturing a group of people. It never fails and it's always fun to confront people with the predictability of their taste. But I also noticed that people in creative professions, such as artists or designers, often tend to like the 'ugly' combinations. Because people in this group often lay claim to 'good' taste, in my opinion the 'taste' hypothesis doesn't hold. As far as I'm concerned no one can lay claim to good taste. People like it or they don't. Good or bad taste is a non issue. +There is some dispute in academia whether or not to interpret the 'nice' +color combinations as good taste. The obvious implication being that the +'ugly' combinations are of bad taste. I myself tested the formula on +many occasions when lecturing a group of people. It never fails and it's +always fun to confront people with the predictability of their taste. +But I also noticed that people in creative professions, such as artists +or designers, often tend to like the 'ugly' combinations. Because people +in this group often lay claim to 'good' taste, in my opinion the 'taste' +hypothesis doesn't hold. As far as I'm concerned no one can lay claim to +good taste. People like it or they don't. Good or bad taste is a non +issue. -However, while Müller's formula may not determine the difference between good or bad taste, it sure does predict common taste. And that makes the formula quite useful for any designer. +However, while Müller's formula may not determine the difference between +good or bad taste, it sure does predict common taste. And that makes the +formula quite useful for any designer. > About the Guest Author, Igor Asselbergs -**Website:** -Igor is a color professional and currently ceo of Colorjinn. He writes his own color blog at [Livelygrey.com][50] - -* * * - -[Team][51] - -## Written by [**COLOURlover **][40] - -[www.COLOURlovers.com][52]My name is Darius A Monsef IV & my friends call me Bub(s)(ba). -Chief Lover at COLOURlovers.com / Cofounder of [Hands.org][53] -Founder, Philanthropist, Designer, Builder & Writer. -P.S. I love you. - -28 Comments - -Showing 1 - 28 of **28** Comments - -[Reply][5] - -## [klip][54] - -[Posted Sep 2, 2007][55] - -wow! I'd never heard of this one before. Need to spend some time with it. - -[Reply][5] - -## [manekineko][56] - -[Posted Sep 2, 2007][57] - -Maybe it predicts common taste and maybe it doesn't, where's the real study - -[Reply][5] - -## [bijouloveshues][58] - -[Posted Sep 2, 2007][59] - -Commonly, I think people do like things that are naturally balanced. Same goes for faces that we generally interpret as pretty or handsome when the features fall on an even grid... - -My theory for the reason designers enjoy 'ugly' things or colours is that they spend so much time studying the 'proper' proportions for things, that the deviations are welcomed excursions... and maybe a lesson in learning to appreciate beauty in all forms. - -Thank you for the excellent article - very useful and provoking! - -[Reply][5] - -## [_stefan][60] - -[Posted Sep 2, 2007][61] - -I don't agree with equating disharmony and uglyness. Harmony consists of (mostly physical or mathematical) rules, beauty is a psychological and social concept with very mutable and inconsistent "rules" (finally maybe without any?). - -Aside from that it's a very interesting article. Thanks a lot! - -[Reply][5] - -## [empirionx3][62] - -[Posted Sep 2, 2007][63] - -Wow, really interesting.... whether it is valid or not for everyone, I agreed with the perdicted values. Going to have to look more deeply into this... - -[Reply][5] - -## [GamehenGraphics][64] - -[Posted Sep 2, 2007][65] - -I looked at the two juxtaposed sets of palettes at the top of the article before beginning to read anything, even the article title (I always skim through a magazine first and look at the pictures before I read anything in it). My immediate reaction was to like the set on the right, which Muller categorized as 'nice', and to dislike the set on the left, which Muller categorized as 'ugly'. - -I've never heard anyone equate luminance with color preference. Pretty interesting stuff. I wonder what his sample size was. - -[Reply][5] - -## [retsof][66] - -[Posted Sep 2, 2007][67] - -Paint colors too bright to display in RGB tend to be very bright yellows or orange. That's a whole other area... Yes, yellows can be tough to mix with other colors due to this brightness thing. - -What happens if there are three ugly blogs in a row? - -[Reply][5] - -## [michael_art][68] - -[Posted Sep 3, 2007][69] - -Well, I am not sure what the formular tells us about the esthetical value of a colour combination, but from artistic practive it at least indicates richer tones. Whoever was forced by his or her teacher to draw little cubes with paint learned, that you can archive a darker tone for the shadow by mixing the base colour with a pinch of its complementary coulour. - -So even if you only shoft the hue up and down, you can archive (with most colours) archive the look of brighter and darket coulours. If you combine this with the fiddeling a bit on the brightness, you get coulours with a stronger contranst, than by shifting the brightness on its own. - -It is argueble, weather this pair is more pleasing, but it at least has a richer contrast. - -A much more miraculous phenomenon in colour theory - worthy of a long article - is the shere concept, that the experience colours in a coulor circle. I mean, isn't it absloutly amazing? What we experience as coulours is a linear spectrum of wave lengthes of electromagnetic waves. But our preception bends this linear spectrum into a full circle, so two coulours on the complete opposite ends of this spectrum (red=longest wave lenght and violett=shortest wavelegth) somehow seem to be close related to each other. - -[Reply][5] - -## [klip][54] - -[Posted Sep 3, 2007][70] - -And there is me, looking up "shere concept" in google before I figured out it must be a typo. - -[Reply][5] - -## [michael_art][68] - -[Posted Sep 3, 2007][71] - -LOL. Sorry! Yes it was a typing-error. -But still, does anyone know any sources about that? Or is this one of the principles that simply are there, but nobody ever bothered to find out why? - -[Reply][5] - -## [calf][72] - -[Posted Sep 3, 2007][73] - -[Reply][5] - -## [deliquescence][74] - -[Posted Sep 3, 2007][75] - -i much prefer the 'ugly' colour combinations. -the gradation incorporates a hue shift, which I feel, makes it much more interesting than with only a single hue throughout. this is what a large number of my palettes sport. however, i quite like the effect of one colour being blended into another one with the 'unnatural' type of hue shift. though unnatural, i wouldn't say it is displeasing to the eye. one example would be two-toned silk fabrics... from one angle, you can see orange and from a different angle you'll see purple or some other colour that would make for an 'unnatural' hue shift from the orange. - -[Reply][5] - -## [manekineko][56] - -[Posted Sep 3, 2007][76] - -I got a comment back from the author in the original blog, it looks like no studies have been done on this, so while it's fun and interesting, it's really inaccurate to say it predicts anything reliably. - -[Reply][5] - -## [andrewjbarnett][77] - -[Posted Sep 3, 2007][78] - -That is just something I will have to get my head around and put it into practice on the theme I am creating. - -[Reply][5] - -## [gibbitz][79] - -[Posted Sep 3, 2007][80] - -it does predict something. Contrast is the strongest card we play as designers in color or in layout. There are plenty of early development studies that show children are attracted to high contrast. This entire post is not about hue, saturation or temperature. It is about contrast. If you look at any of the examples above in the "ugly" category in black and white they fall in a limited gray scale, the "nice" combinations cover more value range. Additionally, high contrast swatches are always paired with lower contrast swatches. As viewers we aren't comparing colors here. If you want to learn something about color set the values and saturations the same and change only the hues. Then you'll see what complimentary, adjacent and adjusted complimentary colors are all about. Really there are no "ugly" color combinations, there are combinations that have different "moods" or "feelings". - -I am appalled at the number of designers that are mystified by color (because they were too cool for the design theory courses taught in their undergraduate schools) and simultaneously look down their noses at me because I am a painter by training. Most young designers I know think there is a rule or a magic bullet that makes good design. Welcome to the box you're supposed to think outside of. THERE IS NO MAGIC BULLET. - -[Reply][5] - -## [manekineko][56] - -[Posted Sep 3, 2007][81] - -The last person I heard talk like that ^^ was a drawing instructor I had in college. He hated my work so badly that he drew a big red "F" on the front with an indelible marker. - -I submitted that same work, now with an F on it, to an art competition marking myself and the teacher as collaborators, and it was juried to 3rd place out of over 1000 submissions and sits in a Smithsonian archive. - -There are two sides to art snobbishness, neither are necessary. - -[Reply][5] - -## [MattyD][82] - -[Posted Sep 4, 2007][83] - -**Interesting but irrelative in my opinion**. And, admit it, _it_ is all about opinion. - -As painter I paint for myself-- if someone else appreciates it then_ great_, if not... - -As a designer, it a consensus of what the masses appreciate and will accept; that's okay as the masses expedite my paycheck indirectly so I aim to please. - -From the given palette examples I chose the "ugly" one as nice and the "nice" one as plain blatant and boring. I prefer "ugly"-- this is where true beauty lies: found battered objects in the streets of Manhattan, scraps of wet paper, old pieces of forgotten metal, thriftstore paintings, Brut Art, prison art, children's art, "Outsider" Art, FOLKART! Yes, I am an art snob too at times (often) preferring Classical painting, 1800's Literature, and the best foods but, sometimes, I really only see myself truly smile when I come across an unnoticed stripe of fluorescent orange street paint faded and chipped rolled over 1-Million times by anonymous times by cars and semis on some Federal roadway. **Hang that in your gallery**. - -[Reply][5] - -## [MattyD][82] - -[Posted Sep 4, 2007][84] - -** Please excuse all of my typos( how embarrassing)-- I have been up all night and have not yet slept. ** Thank-you :P** - -[Reply][5] - -## [zcoelius][85] - -[Posted Sep 4, 2007][86] - -Very cool we struggle with colors for our site all this time. Thanks - -[Reply][5] - -## [lukeyg][87] - -[Posted Sep 6, 2007][88] - -It's amusing to me how often we seem to feel threatened by formulas... The idea that you can predict what someone will like is somehow scary because it makes us feel like robots. Where is your identity if it isn't in the things you like? - -Anyways, it definitely works on me - I much prefer the müller combinations. I made some palettes to try it out: -![müller time][89]![müller beach][90]![müller style][91] - -[Reply][5] - -## [manekineko][56] - -[Posted Sep 8, 2007][92] - -it's not that it's scary...just that its never been shown to work in a real way - -[Reply][5] - -## [lesaint][93] - -[Posted Apr 1, 2008][94] - -> _stefan wrote: I don't agree with equating disharmony and uglyness... - - - -I agree that the two form a sort of genotype grid that results in four palette characters: ugly and unharmonious, ugly but harmonious, appealing and unharmonious, and appealing and harmonious. - -I think ultimately ugly vs. appealing is purely a matter of taste, while harmony, although we can sense it viscerally, has at least some science behind it. - -[Reply][5] - -## [blessy][95] - -[Posted Jul 27, 2008][96] - -I am a new visitor to this site. It is very interesting site. This article says about colors. The colors are very important to our daily life. In my view the colors are expressed with the help of brightness and its whiteness. All colors are the combination of primary colors. Those are red, green and blue. These colors are combined with different rate and formed different colors. The beauty of color is always depends on its combination. - -=================================================================== - -Bless - -[Reply][5] - -## [gaiagraphics][97] - -[Posted Aug 13, 2008][98] - -So here's the simple formula: If a combination follows the natural brightness of colors, most people will like it, if a combination contradicts the natural brightness of colors, most people won't like it. - -Good to remember. - -[Reply][5] - -## [aeriise][99] - -[Posted Feb 9, 2009][100] - -Wow... this is very interesting. This could be a useful tool if played with. - -[Reply][5] - -## [leslie][101] - -[Posted Aug 13, 2009][102] - -I've never seen this blog before until now, but I happen to find the ugly combinations to be rather beautiful and interesting. - -[Reply][5] - -## [abcallforlove][103] - -[Posted Feb 28, 2010][104] - -This actually makes alot of sense and could probably be really helpful when creating a color palette! - -[Reply][5] - -## [terrysanders][105] - -[Posted Aug 5, 2013][106] - -Great to know! 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He writes +> his own color blog at [Livelygrey.com](http://Livelygrey.com) diff --git a/_stories/2007/11045776.md b/_stories/2007/11045776.md index f07bbcc..bb337cd 100644 --- a/_stories/2007/11045776.md +++ b/_stories/2007/11045776.md @@ -19,7 +19,128 @@ _tags: objectID: '11045776' --- -[Source](https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2007/jun/21/it.guardianweeklytechnologysection "Permalink to ") +Richard Hipp's database is used by some of the biggest names in IT - but +he has not made a penny from it +In a world of people obsessed by turning the tiniest idea into something +profitable, Dr Richard Hipp's best-known software stands out for two +reasons - he actively disclaims copyright in it; and at a time when +multi-megabyte installations are booming, he has a self-imposed limit on +the size of his product: 250KB. And he's stuck to both aims. "I think +we've got 15 kilobytes of spare space," he says of the headroom left in +the code. +Thus his product - SQLite ([sqlite.org](http://www.sqlite.org)), a +self-contained database engine and client - now forms part of Apple's +Mac OS X operating system as well as part of its Aperture photo-handling +application. It is also used by Google, Adobe, Sun and a number of other +big names. But he receives no royalty for the millions of copies being +used by commercial and non-commercial users alike. The reason? He has +placed SQLite in the public domain. It contains the note: "The author +disclaims copyright to this source code. In place of a legal notice, +here is a blessing: may you do good and not evil. May you find +forgiveness for yourself and forgive others. May you share freely, never +taking more than you give." +**Unrestricted approach** + +It is an unusual approach, even in the open source world. Most open +source code is licensed under an agreement such as the GNU GPL (general +public licence), which includes terms to ensure that the software +remains free. "I looked at all of the licences," Hipp says, "and I +thought, why not just put it in the public domain? Why have these +restrictions on it? I never expected to make one penny. I just wanted to +make it available to other people to solve their problem." + +SQLite is an entire SQL relational database management system, wrapped +up in a single file. SQL, or structured query language, is the industry +standard programming language for storing and retrieving data. +Well-known SQL database managers include Oracle, IBM's DB2, Microsoft's +SQL Server and Access, and the open source MySQL and PostgreSQL. + +"We're not trying to compete with those other engines," says Hipp. "Our +goal is not add all sorts of bells and whistles, but rather to keep +SQLite small and fast. We've set an arbitrary limit to keep the +footprint of the library below 250KB." + +However, the application can support databases running to terabytes, +including gigabyte-sized elements. Being written in C, it can be +compiled to run on pretty much any operating system. + +Samuel Neff is senior software engineer at B-Line Medical in Maryland, +USA. He likes SQLite because it has zero configuration and installation. +The code is freely available, so he can easily extend it with +customisations, and its performance is excellent. + +In his tests SQLite was four times faster than Microsoft's SQL Server. +The comparison is unfair, though, since SQL Server is designed to serve +entire networks and to support huge databases with thousands of users, +whereas SQLite is mainly intended for a single user on a single machine. +Even so, Neff's experience shows the benefits of using tightly coded +software that does no more than is necessary. + +Dr Hipp knows exactly when SQLite began. "I started on May 29 2000. It's +just over seven years old," he says. He was working on a project which +used a database server, but from time to time the database went offline. +"Then my program would give an error message saying that the database +isn't working, and I got the blame for this. So I said, this is not a +demanding application for the database, why don't I just talk directly +to the disk, and build an SQL database engine that way? That was how it +started." + +In the past couple of years SQLite has increasingly been attracting +attention. Apple used it in OS X 10.4, released in April 2005, as part +of Apple Mail (for its message index) and to support its Core Data +services. SQLite is also built into PHP 5.0, the hugely popular open +source scripting language for web applications. It is in Symbian 9.5, an +embedded operating system for smartphones. The tiny database engine is +also part of the new Google Gears, which enables web applications to +work offline. Most recently, Adobe has announced the inclusion of SQLite +in Adobe Integrated Runtime for desktop applications based on its Flash +multimedia engine. "Performance is great," says Ben Forsaith, business +development manager at Adobe UK. "It's open source. It's lightweight, +really small and widely adopted." + +So how many SQLite databases are in use? "We don't have a good way of +counting it," he says, "but we're guessing it's the most widely deployed +SQL database in the world." + +**Dedicated effort** + +Despite being open source, the SQLite code does not have many +contributors. "I have an assistant, Dan Kennedy, an Australian living in +Thailand, who contributes a lot of code," Hipp says. "He works for me, I +pay him. There are some people at Google who have been contributing to +the full text search capability. But Dan and I have done in excess of +99% of the code." + +One of the limiting factors is that anyone contributing code must waive +their copyright. "I require anyone who contributes code to sign a +copyright disclaimer, and I keep those copyright disclaimers in my fire +safe," Hipp says. + +Is he worried about the code fragmenting into many different versions, +because it is public domain? "I don't see that as a problem," he says. +"Other people are free to make a copy of SQLite and fork the tree +\[produce alternative descendants\] if they want to. So far I'm not +aware of anybody doing that. If someone decides they want to, it won't +hurt my feelings. But it has turned into a very complicated piece of +software, and it takes a dedicated effort to keep it in good shape." + +Hipp attributes much of the reliability of SQLite to his use of tests. +Less than half of the program code is delivered as the database engine. +The larger part consists of thousands of automated tests, which exercise +the code and check that the results are as expected. "That's the real +key to keeping it working well," hesays. + +There is a commercial aspect to SQLite. Hipp runs a company that +provides support for the application, and sells extensions for +specialised features including encryption and compression. It is only a +small company, despite the popularity of the software. + +"It's very clear to me that if I'd had any business sense whatsoever I +could have made a lot of money, but I don't," he says. "I like to tell +people that we make enough to live fine in Charlotte, North Carolina. We +don't make nearly enough money to live in London or San Francisco, but +we don't live there so that's OK," he adds - with a touch, just a touch, +of wistfulness. diff --git a/_stories/2007/11325041.md b/_stories/2007/11325041.md index 610f54e..2b4c9d2 100644 --- a/_stories/2007/11325041.md +++ b/_stories/2007/11325041.md @@ -19,7 +19,374 @@ _tags: objectID: '11325041' --- -[Source](https://spectrum.ieee.org/computing/software/cracking-go "Permalink to ") +Advertisement +![Herbert A. Simon](/img/computer-go-f1-1404747301583.jpg) Photo: Mark +Leong +**In 1957, Herbert A. Simon,** a pioneer in artificial intelligence and +later a Nobel Laureate in economics, predicted that in 10 years a +computer would surpass humans in what was then regarded as the premier +battleground of wits: the game of chess. Though the project took four +times as long as he expected, in 1997 my colleagues and I at IBM fielded +a computer called Deep Blue that defeated Garry Kasparov, the +highest-rated chess player ever. +You might have thought that we had finally put the question to rest—but +no. Many people argued that we had tailored our methods to solve just +this one, narrowly defined problem, and that it could never handle the +manifold tasks that serve as better touchstones for human intelligence. +These critics pointed to *weiqi*, an ancient Chinese board game, better +known in the West by the Japanese name of Go, whose combinatorial +complexity was many orders of magnitude greater than that of chess. +Noting that the best Go programs could not even handle the typical +novice, they predicted that none would ever trouble the very best +players. + +Ten years later, the best Go programs still can't beat good human +players. Nevertheless, I believe that a world-champion-level Go machine +can be built within 10 years, based on the same method of intensive +analysis—brute force, basically—that Deep Blue employed for chess. I've +got more than a small personal stake in this quest. At my lab at +Microsoft Research Asia, in Beijing, I am organizing a graduate student +project to design the hardware and software elements that will test the +ideas outlined here. If they prove out, then the way will be clear for a +full-scale project to dethrone the best human players. + +Such a result would further vindicate brute force as a general approach +to computing problems, if further vindication were needed. Even now, the +method is being applied to such forbidding challenges as protein +folding, scheduling, and the many-body problem. + +**Many of the early** computer-chess researchers hailed from the fields +of psychology or artificial intelligence and believed that chess +­programs should mimic human thinking. Specifically, they wanted +computers to examine only playing sequences that were meaningful +according to some human reasoning process. In computer chess this +policy, known as selective search, never really made progress. The +reason is that humans are extremely good at recognizing patterns; it is +one of the things that we do best. + +It was only in the late 1970s, with the success of Northwestern +University's Chess 4.x program, written by David Slate and Larry Atkins, +that the engineering school of thought became dominant. The idea was to +let computers do what they do best, namely, calculate. A simple +legal-move generator finds all the permissible moves in a position, +considers all the possible responses, and then repeats the cycle. Each +cycle is called a ply, each generation of new possibilities is called a +node—that is, a branching point in a rapidly widening tree of analysis. +The branches terminate in “leaf,” or end positions. + +Carried to its logical extreme, the tree would grow until it exhausted +every legal continuation, leaving the program nothing to do but examine +the end positions to see which of them were wins—that is, checkmates—and +which were draws, then work backward along the branching structure to +choose the line that led to the best outcome, assuming that both sides +play perfectly. Such exhaustive analysis is impractical, though, because +it would produce a tree containing about 1060 positions. That's about a +thousand times the number of hydrogen atoms in the sun. + +![Chess vs. Go](/img/chess-vs-go-lead-1404762725100.jpg) Illustration: +Bryan Christie Design [See a a comparison between Chess and +Go](/computing/software/cracking-go/chess-vs-go). + +There is, however, a course midway between selectivity and +exhaustiveness. Instead of analyzing to the end, the program can merely +look a few moves further ahead than a human could manage. Deep Blue +typically looked 12 plies ahead in all variations (and 40 or more plies +in selective lines), generating around 170 million leaf nodes per +second. Next, the program would evaluate each of these positions by +counting “material,” that is, the standard values of the chess pieces. +For example, a pawn is worth one point, a knight or bishop three, and so +on. Then it added points for a range of positional factors, chosen with +the help of human grandmasters. + +The resulting evaluation function probably was no better than a middling +amateur's ability to grade a single position. But by grading 200 million +of them, it was able to do very well indeed. Just ask Kasparov. + +This substitution of search for judgment is the essence of the +brute-force method, and it turned out to have two critical advantages +over selective search. To begin with, the program became easier to +write, had far fewer bugs, and did not have so many blind spots. And +crucially, the program played significantly and measurably better as the +processing power increased, once the switch to brute force had been +made. + +Slate and Atkins believed their program was playing at only Class C +level—that is, about the level of the typical avid tournament player, +who is rated between 1400 and 1600 on the U.S. Chess Federation's rating +scale. However, when they moved their program to a supercomputer, it +shocked everyone by winning a tournament among Class A players, with +ratings between 1800 and 2000. A Class A player is good enough to beat a +Class C player 9 times out of 10, on average. + +Moving to a supercomputer made this enormous difference because it +allowed the program to look just a little further ahead. Detailed +measurements later showed that when a brute-force program searched just +one ply deeper, its strength improved by between 200 and 300 rating +points. When two players are separated by that big a gap, the +higher-rated player will win, on average, 4 out of 5 games. + +It was this almost linear relationship between search depth and playing +strength that first made me believe chess could be solved. I wondered +whether the relationship would continue all the way up to the World +Champion level—about 2900 on the Chess Federation's scale. In the end, +this conjecture proved to be partly true. That is, the program did +continue to play better as search depth increased, but additional gains +in rating could also be achieved by improving the evaluation function +and the selectivity of its search. + +**Go is played** on a board crisscrossed by 19 vertical and 19 +horizontal lines whose 361 points of intersection constitute the playing +field. The object is to conquer those intersection points. + +A player makes a move by placing a ­lozenge-shaped “stone” on an +intersection, then the other player counters, and the two alternate +moves. Players capture enemy stones by surrounding them, that is, by +removing their “liberties,” which consist of either the vacant points +adjacent to a stone itself or to friendly stones to which it is itself +connected (see illustration, “[The Goal of +Go](/computing/software/cracking-go/the-goal-of-go)”). When no more +moves are possible, the players count up the intersection points they +control, and the player with the most points wins. + +All the leading Go programmers today belittle brute force. In this they +resemble the computer chess experts of 40 years ago. Selective search +dominated thinking on computer chess from the late 1940s to the late +1970s, and that mind-set prevented any program from advancing beyond the +level of a Class C player. + +Go does, however, present two real problems, both having to do with the +amount of searching the program must perform. + +The first problem is the tree of analysis. Because Go offers more +possibilities at every turn, the tree is far bigger for Go than for +chess. At the start of the game, the first player can place a stone on +any one of 361 positions, the second player has 360 choices, and so on. +A typical game lasts about 200 moves, so it averages at least 200 move +choices per turn—nearly 10 times as many as in the average chess +position. + +The second problem is the evaluation of the end positions. In Go you +can't just count up stones, because you have to know which stones are +worth counting. Conquered territory is defined as board space occupied +or surrounded by “living” stones—stones the opponent cannot capture by +removing their liberties. Before you can count a stone as live, you have +to calculate several moves ahead just to satisfy yourself that it is +really there in the first place. + +Put these two problems together and you get a computational problem that +at first glance seems intractable. But there are ways to engineer around +it. + +![Dead or Alive?](/img/computer-go-sb-a-b-1404762944794.jpg) +Illustration: Bryan Christie Design [Dead or +Alive](/computing/software/cracking-go/dead-or-alive)? + +**Let's start** with the problem of the exploding tree of analysis. If +we assume that the program must consider every possible continuation +that could arise 12 plies into the future, as Deep Blue did in chess, +you might expect to have to search a million times as fast. But we don't +really need to pay that high a price, because there are ways to prune +the tree of analysis. + +One old standby, implemented in all chess programs, is called alpha-beta +pruning, and it works by curtailing the examination of a move the moment +it becomes clear that another move must be better. Let's say the program +is comparing move A with move B, and it already knows that A leads to an +advantage. If it finds, early on, that move B allows the other side to +obtain a draw at the very least, then the program can cut off its +analysis, saving a lot of time. + +Alpha-beta pruning reduces the effective branching factor to about the +square root of the number of move choices. For example, to look ahead 12 +plies in pure brute-force mode, you would need to search only about 4 +billion positions, or 4 x 109, instead of 3812—or 1019—positions. + +A newer way to cut back the overgrowth—null-move ­pruning—was not +implemented in Deep Blue, even though one of its inventors, Murray +Campbell, was a key member of the Deep Blue team. The algorithm performs +a kind of thought experiment, asking how the position would look if you +were to give up the right to move for one turn, thus allowing your +opponent to make two moves in a row. If after that enormous sacrifice +you still have a good position after a relatively shallow search, then +the algorithm can stop its analysis right there. It has identified a +cutoff point—a point at which the branch can be pruned, thus saving the +labor of going through all the other possible responses. + +Imagine that the program examines a line in which it has just won the +opponent's queen—giving it an enormous material advantage—and the +opponent has responded. Now the program asks: If I do nothing, can my +opponent hurt me after, say, n–2 plies—where n is the number of plies I +would have searched after a legal instead of a null move? If the answer +is no, the program concludes that it has indeed won an entire queen for +nothing, that its position is likely won, and that no further analysis +is necessary. This dividend is well worth the shallow “n–2 ply” search +the computer has invested. + +In computer chess, the main risk in null-move pruning comes from the +null move (or pass) itself, which is illegal in chess. Because it is +illegal, certain positions that could be defended by a pass must lose; +the null-move trick can cause a program to ignore this condition. In Go +it doesn't matter, though, because players are allowed to make passes. + +Null-move pruning was first proposed as a fairly conservative technique, +curtailing the depth of search only by n–1 plies, but experimenters soon +found that n–2 or even n–3 reductions sometimes gave good results. Even +better performance comes from applying null-move pruning inside the +reduced-depth search itself. Such “recursive null-move pruning,” when +coupled with standard alpha-beta pruning, appears to reduce the +branching factor to about the square root of the square root of the +number of move choices. This means that recursive null-move pruning can +keep the analysis tree from growing any faster in a Go program than it +would in a chess program that did not use null-move pruning. + +The upshot is that a machine searching no faster than Deep Blue did 10 +years ago could go 12 brute-force plies deep in Go (with additional +selective search extensions). It does so, however, without making a full +and proper evaluation of the resulting positions, as it could do for +chess. + +**Yet another time-saving technique** emulates human thought (for a +change). When human players search through the Go game tree, they +generally check the live-or-dead status of each stone only once, then in +effect cache the result in their memories. In other words, they don't +check again unless they have good reasons to do so. The point of caching +is to fetch often-used information rather than recalculate again and +again. + +The idea has been tried in computer chess, in the “method of analogy” +algorithm, which reuses conclusions reached in one branch of analysis +when similar positions arise in other branches. It reduces the search +tree by a factor of three or four, but unfortunately the operations +needed to cache, retrieve, and apply the conclusions slows the program +by the same proportion. To wring a net gain out of the method, +therefore, the slowdown must be contained, for instance, by using +special-purpose hardware to do the computation or by finding new ways to +chop the search tree even further. + +Think of the tree again. What the method of analogy basically does is to +take an entire branch from one part of the tree and graft it to another. +Suppose that early on the program discovers a sequence in which white +can win in just one ply, by capturing black's queen with a bishop. The +program will then cache that sequence and apply it to latter parts of +the search tree, provided that nothing major has happened in the +meantime (like losing a piece) and that the bishop can still capture the +queen. + +In chess, this method of analogy works only for very short branches or +for branches that contain mostly “forced” moves, that is, checks, check +evasions, and captures. However, if the branches contain more than a ply +or two of nonforcing moves (which present far more possibilities for +calculation), then the program's accounting system breaks down. + +![Can Monte Carlo Work on GO?](/img/34538-1404763357167.jpg) +Illustration: Bryan Christie Design [Can Monte Carlo Work on +GO](/computing/software/cracking-go/can-monte-carlo-work-on-go)? + +The reason has to do with the nature of the accounting system, which +consists of a map of on/off bits that tracks the “to” and “from” squares +of each chess piece. The program uses this bitmap to decide whether +anything has happened to invalidate the graft—for instance, by making +the winning move in a grafted branch illegal or providing the losing +side with a way out of a sequence of forced moves. It turns out in chess +that if grafted branches contain more than one ply of nonforcing moves, +the bitmaps will quickly cover most of the board, the accounting system +will become unmanageable, and the grafting operation will fail. + +In Go, however, the method of analogy should be much more useful. +Because the board is so large (19 by 19 versus 8 by 8 in chess), a +battle typically occurs in a relatively small part of it, so the bitmaps +will mostly have “off” bits, making it more likely for them to be +useful. Also, the program can generally reuse the maps many more times +than in chess, because each of the many local battles tends to be +unaffected by battles elsewhere. Therefore, the program should be able +to graft deep branches—the kind needed to decide life-and-death +questions—from one part of the game tree to another. + +This ability to answer life-and-death questions cheaply is vital if the +brute-force approach is to work. To determine whether a group of pieces +will live or die the program may have to search from 1000 to 1 000 000 +positions. That wouldn't be so bad, really, if it were the extent of the +problem. It isn't. In a typical game, we may easily have more than 10 +such problems on the board at the same time, and the status of one group +can affect that of its ­neighbors—like a cowboy who points a revolver at +another ­cowboy only to find himself covered by a rifleman on a roof. +Such interactions can complicate the problem by something on the order +of taking 1 million to the 10th power—enough to stretch a calculation +lasting a microsecond into one vastly dwarfing the age of the universe. + +This is where the bitmaps we mentioned earlier come to the rescue. They +make it easy to tell when maps do and do not intersect and also allow +caching to work, thereby drastically reducing the cost of dynamic search +required for proper evaluation of positions. It is conceivable that with +caching techniques, including but not limited to the method of analogy, +it may take no more than 1000 to 1 000 000 nodes (or one individual +life-and-death decision tree) of dynamic search to properly evaluate an +end position. Although that's more expensive than in the case of chess, +it's manageable. + +**What, then, can we expect from the hardware?** Deep Blue used +0.6-micrometer CMOS technology, kind of creaky even in 1997. Each of its +480 custom-designed processors searched up to 2.5 million positions per +second. The theoretical peak speed was more than 1 billion positions per +second, but the sustained speed was only 200 million positions per +second because of communication overhead, load-balancing issues, and +implementation inefficiency. + +Today 45-nanometer process technology is just getting into production. +With it, a machine searching as fast as Deep Blue could easily fit on a +single chip. In fact, with gains expected from technology and from +optimization of chip architecture, a single-chip machine could actually +be more than 100 times as fast as Deep Blue. If we then made 480 copies +of that monster chip and integrated them all in a parallel architecture, +we could get at least another 100-fold increase in computational power. +On top of that, in 10 years Moore's law is expected to present us with +still another 100-fold speedup. + +Put it all together and you should be able to build a machine that +searches more than 100 trillion positions per second—easily *a million +times* as fast as Deep Blue. + +That would be enough to build a tree of analysis for Go as big as Deep +Blue's was for chess and to evaluate all its end positions properly. If +we assume the top Go players calculate about as deeply as the top chess +players do, the result should be a machine that plays Go as well as Deep +Blue played chess. + +Well enough, that is, to beat any human player. + +**My gut feeling** is that with some optimization a machine that can +search a trillion positions per second would be enough to play Go at the +very highest level. It would then be cheaper to build the machine out of +FPGAs (field-programmable gate arrays) instead of the much more +expensive and highly unwieldy full-custom chips. That way, university +students could easily take on the challenge. + +At Microsoft Research Asia we are seeding university efforts in China +with the goal of solving some of the basic problems. Whether these +efforts lead to a world-champion Go machine in the next decade remains +to be seen. I certainly wouldn't bet against it. + +## About the Author + +**Feng-Hsiung Hsu** earned a Ph.D. in computer science at Carnegie +Mellon University, Pittsburgh, where he and fellow students designed the +first grandmaster-level chess machine. Then he moved to IBM to develop +its successor, Deep Blue, which beat World Champion Garry Kasparov in +1997. Hsu now manages the platforms and devices center of Microsoft +Research Asia, in Beijing. + +## To Probe Further + +For a full account of the IBM project to build a chess machine, see +*Behind Deep Blue: Building the Computer That Defeated the World Chess +Champion*, by Feng-hsiung Hsu, Princeton University Press, 2004. + +To experiment with a Go program, readers can download GNU Go at +. Offered by the Free Software +Foundation, in Boston, this free program has performed well in recent +computer Go events. + +Advertisement diff --git a/_stories/2007/11959230.md b/_stories/2007/11959230.md index 8f6d7ed..e0fc58e 100644 --- a/_stories/2007/11959230.md +++ b/_stories/2007/11959230.md @@ -19,7 +19,142 @@ _tags: objectID: '11959230' --- -[Source](https://betterexplained.com/articles/the-rule-of-72/ "Permalink to ") +The Rule of 72 is a great [mental math +shortcut](https://betterexplained.com/articles/mental-math-shortcuts/) +to estimate the effect of any growth rate, from quick financial +calculations to population estimates. Here’s the formula: + Years to double = 72 / Interest Rate +This formula is useful for **financial estimates** and understanding the +nature of compound interest. Examples: + - At 6% interest, your money takes 72/6 or 12 years to double. + + - To double your money in 10 years, get an interest rate of 72/10 or + 7.2%. + + - If your country’s + + GDP + + grows at 3% a year, the economy doubles in 72/3 or 24 years. + + - If your growth slips to 2%, it will double in 36 years. If growth + increases to 4%, the economy doubles in 18 years. Given the speed at + which technology develops, shaving years off your growth time could + be very important. + +You can also use the rule of 72 for **expenses like inflation or +interest**: + + - If inflation rates go from 2% to 3%, your money will lose half its + value in 24 years instead of 36. + - If college tuition increases at 5% per year (which is faster than + inflation), tuition costs will double in 72/5 or about 14.4 years. + If you pay 15% interest on your credit cards, the amount you owe + will **double** in only 72/15 or 4.8 years\! + +The rule of 72 shows why a “small” 1% difference in inflation or GDP +expansion has a huge effect in forecasting models. + +By the way, the Rule of 72 applies to anything that grows, including +population. Can you see why a population growth rate of 3% vs 2% could +be a huge problem for planning? Instead of needing to double your +capacity in 36 years, you only have 24. Twelve years were shaved off +your schedule with one percentage point. + +## Deriving the Formula + +Half the fun in using this magic formula is seeing how it’s made. Our +goal is to figure out how long it takes for some money (or something +else) to double at a certain interest rate. + +Let’s start with $1 since it’s easy to work with (the exact value +doesn’t matter). So, suppose we have $1 and a yearly interest rate R. +After one year we have: + +`1 * (1+R)` + +For example, at 10% interest, we’d have $1 \* (1 + 0.1) = $1.10 at the +end of the year. After 2 years, we’d have + +`1 * (1+R) * (1+R) = 1 * (1+R)^2` + +And at 10% interest, we have $1 \* (1.1)2 = $1.21 at the end of year 2. +Notice how the dime we earned the first year starts earning money on its +own (a penny). Next year we create another dime that starts making +pennies for us, along with the small amount the first penny contributes. +As Ben Franklin said: “The money that money earns, earns money”, or “The +dime the dollar earned, earns a penny.” Cool, huh? + +This deceptively small, cumulative growth makes compound interest +extremely powerful – Einstein called it one of the most powerful forces +in the universe. + +Extending this year after year, after N years we have + +`1 * (1+R)^N` + +Now, we need to find how long it takes to double — that is, get to 2 +dollars. The equation becomes: + +`1 * (1+R)^N = 2` + +Basically: How many years at R% interest does it take to get to 2? Not +too hard, right? Let’s get to work on this sucka and find N: + + 1: 1 * (1+R)^N = 2 + 2: (1+R)^N = 2 + 3: ln( (1+R)^N ) = ln(2) [natural log of both sides] + 4: N * ln(1+R) = .693 + 5: N * R = .693 [For small R, ln(1+R) ~ R] + 6: N = .693 / R + +There’s a little trickery on line 5. We use an approximation to say that +ln(1+R) = R. It’s pretty close – even at R = .25 the approximation is +10% accurate ([check accuracy here](http://instacalc.com/22281)). As you +use bigger rates, the accuracy will get worse. + +Now let’s clean up the formula a bit. We want to use R as an integer (3) +rather than a decimal (.03), so we multiply the right hand side by 100: + +`N = 69.3 / R` + +There’s one last step: 69.3 is nice and all, but not easily divisible. +72 is closeby, and has many more factors (2, 3, 4, 6, 12…). So the rule +of 72 it is. Sorry 69.3, we hardly knew ye. (We could use 70, but again, +72 is nearby and even more divisible; for a mental shortcut, go with the +number easiest to divide.) + +## Extra Credit + +Derive a similar rule for tripling your money – just start with + +`1 * (1+R)^N = 3` + +Give it a go – if you get stuck, [see the rule of 72 for any +factor](http://instacalc.com/22282). + +Happy math. + +## A Note On Accuracy + +From Colin’s [comment](https://news.ycombinator.com/item?id=11959464) on +Hacker News, the Rule of 72 works because it’s on the “right side” of +`100*ln(2)`. + +`100*ln(2)` is ~69.3, and 72 rounds up to the bigger side. This is a +great choice because the [series +expansion](https://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=taylor+series+ln\(2\)+%2F+ln\(1+%2B+x\)) +of `r * ln(2) / ln(1 + r/100)` +is: + +![taylor\_series\_r\_\_\_ln\_2\_\_\_\_ln\_1\_\_\_r\_100\_\_-\_Wolfram\_Alpha](https://betterexplained.com/wp-content/uploads/2007/01/taylor_series_r___ln_2____ln_1___r_100__-_Wolfram_Alpha.png) + +This series expansion is the Calculus Way of showing how far the initial +estimate strays from the actual result. The first correction term +frac(1)(2) r log(2) is small but grows with r. 72 is on the “right side” +because it helps us stay in the accurate zone for longer. Neat insight\! + +## Other Posts In This Series diff --git a/_stories/2007/12258673.md b/_stories/2007/12258673.md index d2b09f9..1edca46 100644 --- a/_stories/2007/12258673.md +++ b/_stories/2007/12258673.md @@ -19,829 +19,9 @@ _tags: objectID: '12258673' --- -[Source](https://www.sciencenews.org/article/prayer-archimedes "Permalink to A Prayer for Archimedes | Science News") - -# A Prayer for Archimedes | Science News - -[Skip to main content][2] - -[Menu][3] [Search][3] [Science News][4] - -## Donate - -* [Donate][5] - -## Account - -[Log In][6] - -## The Society - -* [The Society][7] -* [Science News][8] -* [Science News for Students][9] -* [Student Science][10] - -![Science News][11] - -## [Science News][12] - -MISSION CRITICAL - -Support credible science journalism. - -Subscribe to _Science News _today. - -[SUBSCRIBE][13] - -* [ Menu ][14] -* [ Topics ][15] - - * [ Atom & Cosmos ][16] - * [ Body & Brain ][17] - * [ Earth & Environment ][18] - * [ Genes & Cells ][19] - * [ Life & Evolution ][20] - * [ Humans & Society ][21] - * [ Math & Technology ][22] - * [ Matter & Energy ][23] -* [ Blogs ][24] - - * [ Context | Tom Siegfried ][25] - * [ Growth Curve | Laura Sanders ][26] - * [ Scicurious | Bethany Brookshire ][27] - * [ Science Ticker | Science News Staff ][28] - * [ Science & the Public | Science News Staff ][29] - * [ Wild Things | Sarah Zielinski ][30] -* [ Editor's Picks ][31] - - * [ Top stories of 2017 ][32] - * [ Favorite books of 2017 ][33] - * [ Gravitational waves ][34] - * [ Eclipse 2017 ][35] - * [ Cassini mission to Saturn ][36] - * [ See More ][31] -* [ Magazine ][37] - -![3/03 cover][38]][39] - -In the March 3 _SN_: Redefining dinosaurs, minibrain recipes, how flu spreads, lions vs. zebras, Venus prospects, a whale speaks and more.  - -[Current Issue][39] - -## Explore - -* ### Topics - - * [Atom & Cosmos][16] - - * [Biology][40] - - * [Chemistry][41] - - * [Doing Research][42] - - * [Earth Sciences][43] - - * [Environmental Science][44] - - * [Other Disciplines][45] - - * [Physics][46] -* ### Blogs - - * [Context][25] - - * [Growth Curve][47] - - * [Scicurious][27] - - * [Science Ticker][28] - - * [Science & the Public][29] - - * [Wild Things][30] - - * [Culture Beaker][48] - - * [Gory Details][49] -* ### Editor's Picks - - * [2017 Top 10][32] - - * [Favorite books of 2017][33] - - * [Gravitational waves][50] - - * [AGU 2017][51] - - * [Scientists to Watch][52] - - * [Nobels 2017][53] - - * [Cassini mission to Saturn][36] - - * [Eclipse 2017][35] -* ### SN Magazine - - * [March 3, 2018][54] - * [February 17, 2018][55] - * [February 3, 2018][56] - * [January 20, 2018][57] - * [December 23, 2017][58] - * [December 9, 2017][59] - * [November 25, 2017][60] - * [November 11, 2017][61] - -[Latest][62] [Most Viewed][62] - -### All News - -Sort by Published atMost Viewed - -* Science Visualized - -[New mapping shows just how much fishing impacts the world's seas][63] - -February 22, 2018 - -by Carolyn Gramling - -* Science Stats - -[Global Virome Project is hunting for more than 1 million unknown viruses ][64] - -February 22, 2018 - -by Laurel Hamers - -* News - -[Cave art suggests Neandertals were ancient humans' mental equals ][65] - -February 22, 2018 - -by Bruce Bower - -* News in Brief - -[The last wild horses aren't truly wild][66] - -February 22, 2018 - -by Erika Engelhaupt - -* Editor's Note - -[Building a bright future for science journalism][67] - -February 22, 2018 - -by Nancy Shute - -* Society Update - -[Congratulations to the 40 Regeneron Science Talent Search finalists!][68] - -* Letters to the Editor - -[Readers weigh in on human gene editing and more][69] - -February 22, 2018 - -by Science News Staff - -* 50 Years Ago - -[50 years ago, early organ transplants brought triumph and tragedy][70] - -February 22, 2018 - -by Bethany Brookshire - -* Feature - -[New fossils are redefining what makes a dinosaur][71] - -February 21, 2018 - -by Carolyn Gramling - -* News in Brief - -[An amateur astronomer caught a supernova explosion on camera][72] - -February 21, 2018 - -by Lisa Grossman - -* Growth Curve - -[A new study eases fears of a link between autism and prenatal ultrasounds][73] - -February 21, 2018 - -by Laura Sanders - -* Society Update - -[Changing toothpastes? 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https://www.sciencenews.org/feeds/headlines.rss -[157]: https://www.sciencenews.org/user "My Account" -[158]: https://www.sciencenews.org/newsletters -[159]: https://www.youtube.com/user/ScienceNewsSSP/featured -[160]: //googleads.g.doubleclick.net/pagead/viewthroughconversion/871471566/?guid=ON&script=0 -[161]: //www.googleadservices.com/pagead/conversion/1049901432/?label=muWRCLiy_W4Q-PLQ9AM&guid=ON&script=0 - +For seventy years, a prayer book moldered in the closet of a family in +France, passed down from one generation to the next. Its mildewed +parchment pages were stiff and contorted, tarnished by burn marks and +waxy smudges. Behind the text of the prayers, faint Greek letters +marched in lines up the page, with an occasional diagram disappearing +into the spine. diff --git a/_stories/2007/1342635.md b/_stories/2007/1342635.md index 8ed506f..952634a 100644 --- a/_stories/2007/1342635.md +++ b/_stories/2007/1342635.md @@ -19,7 +19,196 @@ _tags: objectID: '1342635' --- -[Source](https://dbaron.org/views/taxes-2007.html "Permalink to ") +# Marginal income tax rates for a single California resident with only wage income, 2007 +As I did some taxes this year (March 2008), going through some of the +forms (by hand, as I always do, partly since I like to understand what +it is that I'm paying) made me realize how bizarre our tax system is. +Consider the following relatively simple example: a single +(non-dependent) person in California earning all of his income from +wages, salaries, and tips. (Once antipoverty programs like the Earned +Income Credit aren't relevant, this assumption could be relaxed to allow +income from many other sources as well, although capital gains are taxed +differently.) Assume further that this person's withholding is perfect +so that they can deduct exactly their 2007 state taxes from their +federal returns once they get to the point of itemizing deductions +(rather than having some variation from year to year due to imperfect +withholding). Consider the effect of the following taxes: + - US Income Tax + [progressive + rate](http://www.irs.gov/pub/irs-pdf/i1040tt.pdf#page=13) with some + initial income excluded due to subtracting standard deduction and + exemption amounts, with deductions + [itemized](http://www.irs.gov/pub/irs-pdf/i1040sa.pdf) once it + becomes worth itemizing deductions (rather than taking the standard + deduction) based on state taxes paid alone (see two California taxes + below) + - Social Security Tax + 6.2% of income under $97500 (ignoring that it's really double that + because the employer pays the same) + - Medicare Tax + 1.45% of income (ignoring that it's really double that because the + employer pays the same) + - US Alternative Minimum Tax + A [separate progressive tax + structure](http://www.irs.gov/pub/irs-pdf/f6251.pdf) that allows + fewer deductions, forcing rich people to give up some of their + itemized deductions if this structure produces a larger tax than the + normal tax structure. + - California Income Tax + [progressive + rate](http://www.ftb.ca.gov/forms/07_forms/07_540tt.pdf#page=6) with + some initial income excluded due to subtracting the standard + deduction and exemption amounts + - California State Unemployment/Disability Insurance + 0.6% of income under $83388.33 + - Earned Income Credit + A federal antipoverty program that subtracts from income tax + (potentially making it negative). Doesn't pay much to people without + children, so doesn't figure much here. + +This yields the marginal rates shown in the following graph: + +![Raw data for the graph are below.](taxes-2007.png) + +And here's a zoom of the part of the graph under $100,000: + +![Raw data for the graph are below.](taxes-2007-zoom.png) + +One way to understand what this graph represents is that if a person +meeting these conditions drew a vertical line at his income, the area to +the left of that line would be everything he earned. The part below the +line drawn would be the part paid in taxes, and the part above would be +the part he keeps. + +**\[ Edit, May 12, 2010 --** The reason I called these graphs bizarre +isn't the magnitude of the numbers; they're in the range one would +expect for funding a modern government. What's bizarre about these +graphs is their shape. There is no good reason for this graph to have +lots of bumps in it. I'd expect a line that's gradually increasing +(perhaps stepwise), not one that goes up and down a lot. I think the +bumps are a result of the bad process we use for making policy. **-- end +Edit\]** + +The details of these marginal rates are: + +1. Thanks to standard deductions and dependent exemptions (since the + taxpayer has himself as a dependent), both federal and California + income taxes don't kick in immediately. However, the Earned Income + credit does (at a rate of -7.65%), so the initial marginal rate is + **0.6%** when subtracting that credit from the other three taxes. + (This ignores other antipoverty programs, though.) +2. Around **$5550** (where the total tax paid is around $33.30), the + Earned Income Credit changes to a flat $428, bringing the marginal + rate up to the rate of Social Security plus Medicare plus California + SUI/SDI, which is **8.25%**. +3. Around **$7000** (where the total tax is around $150), the Earned + Income Credit starts decreasing. (This is for single people; for + people with children it's still increasing (not even flat yet) at + this income level.) This brings the marginal rate up to **15.9%**. +4. At **$8750** (where the total tax is around $428), we've used up the + federal standard deduction and 1 exemption, so federal income taxes + kick in at 10%, making the marginal rate **25.9%** +5. At **$11629** (where the total tax is around $1174), we've used up + California's standard deduction ($3516) and the $94 after-tax + exemption for supporting oneself, so California income taxes kick in + at a marginal rate of 2%, making the total marginal rate **27.9%**. +6. At **$12590** (where the total tax is around $1442), the Earned + Income Credit has hit 0, so the total marginal rate drops to + **20.25%**. +7. At **$16575** (where the total tax is around $2249), the federal + income tax rate goes up to 15%, so the total marginal rate is + **25.25%** +8. At **$19701** (where the total tax is around $3038), the California + income tax rate goes up to 4%, so the total marginal rate is + **27.25%** +9. At **$29060** (where the total tax is around $5588), the California + income tax rate goes up to 6%, so the total marginal rate is + **29.25%** +10. At **$38976** (where the total tax is around $8489), the California + income tax rate goes up to 8%, so the total marginal rate is + **31.25%** +11. At **$40600** (where the total tax is around $8996), the Federal + income tax rate goes up to 25%, so the total marginal rate is + **41.25%** +12. At **$48330** (where the total tax is around $12185), the California + income tax rate goes up to 9.3% (the top bracket), so the total + marginal rate is **42.55%** +13. At **$80460.81** (where the total tax is around $25857), total + payments of income taxes to California now equal the federal + standard deduction ($5350), so it becomes worth itemizing deductions + on federal taxes. The marginal rate for total California taxes is + 9.9%. This means that 9.9% of each additional dollar doesn't count + towards federal income tax, reducing its effective marginal rate + from 25% to 22.525%, making the total marginal rate **40.075%**. +14. At **$83388.33** (where the total tax is around $27030), the maximum + payment into California state disability and unemployment insurance + ($500.33) is paid. This, in turn, reduces the total marginal rate of + state taxes to 9.3%, which increases the effective federal income + tax marginal rate (remember the last step) to 22.675%, making the + total marginal rate **39.625%** +15. Around **$86421.96** (where the total tax is around $28232), the + Federal income tax rate goes up to 28%. Remember we're deducting + 9.3% of income, though, so the total marginal rate is **42.346%** +16. At **$97500** (where the total tax is around $32923), Social + Security taxes stop, so the total marginal rate is **36.146%** +17. At **$156400** (where the total tax is around $54215), Federal + exemption and deduction limiting kicks in, the former in a series of + discrete jumps of $12.69 each (1.181333% slope), and the latter + continuously (at a 7.3% slope). Around the same point (actually the + first step is at $156666, but treating it as a continuous function + it starts at $155416), California exemptions start being limited as + well. Since this is a very small effect: a series of $4.32 steps for + every increment of $2500 in income ($6 more in California tax, minus + the offset that causes in Federal tax), I'll just throw it in here + as well. Treating all of these as continuous, this makes the total + marginal rate around this point change to approximately **37.39%**. +18. At an income of **$177914.32** (where the total tax is around + $62258), the Federal tax rate goes up to 33%, changing the total + marginal rate to approximately **42.1%**. +19. At an income of **$190153.08** (where the total tax is around + $67411), the alternative minimum tax kicks in (with the alternative + structure passing the regular income tax structure), and the total + marginal rate changes to **43.49%**. Note that even with small + amounts of income from capital gains, this can happen at + significantly lower income, because the alternative minimum tax's + steep exemption phaseout does include capital gains (whereas almost + nothing else does). +20. Around an income of **$194582.66** (assuming a continuous function, + which it really isn't), the California exemption hits zero (so the + gradual limiting stops), and the marginal rate drops to **43.25%**. +21. At **$197980** (where the total tax is around $70807), the + alternative minimum tax rate jumps from 26% to 28% (though the + effective rate is larger, jumping here from 32.5% to 35%, since the + AMT exemption limiting is still being phased in), making the total + marginal rate now **45.75%**. +22. At **$289900** (where the total tax is around $112860), the AMT + exemption is now limited down to zero, which makes the federal + income tax marginal rate drop to the AMT's official 28%, making the + total marginal rate now **38.75%**. +23. At **$409665.88** (where the total tax is around $159269), the + regular federal income tax rate schedule (with its now higher + marginal rates) crosses above the alternative minimum tax again, + making the total marginal rate now **43.195%**. This is the marginal + rate on income from this point up (given these very simple + assumptions). + +I probably made a whole bunch of mistakes here, never mind the major +pieces I omitted, but this seesaw graph starts to paint a picture of the +US tax system. It has so many details and patches to fix little things +that the big picture is a mess. + +I think I'd probably prefer a graduated (and actually progressive) tax +on consumption (allowing major purchases like houses and cars to be +treated as investments, consuming only the fair market value of the +opportunity cost of not renting it). This could be done through a +mechanism similar to the one we have now (but simpler), except where +savings are deductable and loans are taxable. + +See the [Haskell program](taxes-2007.hs) that I used to figure a bunch +of this out, as well as the [data](taxes-2007.csv) and [R +code](taxes-2007.r) that I used for the plot. + +[David Baron](http://dbaron.org/), , 2008-03-17 diff --git a/_stories/2007/14457080.md b/_stories/2007/14457080.md index d71674b..9088250 100644 --- a/_stories/2007/14457080.md +++ b/_stories/2007/14457080.md @@ -19,7 +19,17 @@ _tags: objectID: '14457080' --- -[Source](https://www.salon.com/2007/04/12/castaneda/ "Permalink to ") - - - +Whether disciples were allowed to stay or forced to leave seems often to +have depended on the whims of a woman known as the Blue Scout. Trying to +describe her power, Ward recalled a "Twilight Zone" episode in which a +little boy could look at people and make them die. "So everyone treated +him with kid gloves," she said, "and that's how it was with the Blue +Scout." She was born Patricia Partin and grew up in LaVerne, Calif., +where, according to Jennings, her father had been in an accident that +left him with permanent brain damage. Partin dropped out of Bonita High +her junior year. She became a waitress, and, at 19, married an aspiring +filmmaker, Mark Silliphant, who introduced her to Castaneda in 1978. +Within weeks of their marriage she left Silliphant and went to live with +Castaneda. She paid one last visit to her mother; in keeping with the +nagual's instructions, she refused to be in a family photograph. For the +rest of her life, she never spoke to her mother again. diff --git a/_stories/2007/14881703.md b/_stories/2007/14881703.md index e53379b..d3bd712 100644 --- a/_stories/2007/14881703.md +++ b/_stories/2007/14881703.md @@ -19,7 +19,286 @@ _tags: objectID: '14881703' --- -[Source](https://www.scottaaronson.com/blog/?p=208 "Permalink to ") +[ +![](http://scit.us/openlab/openlab07-winner-100.png)](http://www.lulu.com/coturnix1) +I’ve been talking a lot recently about how quantum algorithms don’t +work. But last week JR Minkel, an editor at Scientific American, asked +me to write a brief essay about how quantum algorithms do work, which he +could then link to from SciAm‘s website.”OK\!” I replied, momentarily +forgetting about the +![](http://www.scottaaronson.com/cgi-bin/mimetex.cgi?10%5E%7B10%5E%7B5000%7D%7D) +quantum algorithm tutorials that are already on the web. So, here’s the +task I’ve set for myself: to explain Shor’s algorithm without using a +single ket sign, or for that matter any math beyond arithmetic. +Alright, so let’s say you want to break the RSA cryptosystem, in order +to rob some banks, read your ex’s email, whatever. We all know that +breaking RSA reduces to finding the prime factors of a large integer N. +Unfortunately, we also know that “trying all possible divisors in +parallel,” and then instantly picking the right one, isn’t going to +work. Hundreds of popular magazine articles notwithstanding, trying +everything in parallel just isn’t the sort of thing that a quantum +computer can do. Sure, in some sense you can “try all possible divisors” +— but if you then measure the outcome, you’ll get a random divisor, +which almost certainly won’t be the one you want. +What this means is that, if we want a fast quantum factoring algorithm, +we’re going to have to exploit some structure in the factoring problem: +in other words, some mathematical property of factoring that it doesn’t +share with just a generic problem of finding a needle in a haystack. + +Fortunately, the factoring problem has oodles of special properties. +Here’s one example: if I give you a positive integer, you might not know +its prime factorization, but you do know that it has exactly one +factorization\! By contrast, if I gave you (say) a Sudoku puzzle and +asked you to solve it, a priori you’d have no way of knowing whether it +had exactly one solution, 200 million solutions, or no solutions at all. +Of course, knowing that there’s exactly one needle in a haystack is +still not much help in finding the needle\! But this uniqueness is a +hint that the factoring problem might have other nice mathematical +properties lying around for the picking. As it turns out, it does. + +The property we’ll exploit is the reducibility of factoring to another +problem, called period-finding. OK, time for a brief number theory +digression. Let’s look at my favorite sequence of integers since I was +about five years old: the powers of two. + +2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, 256, 512, 1024, … + +Now let’s look at the powers of 2 “mod 15”: in other words, the +remainder when 15 divides each power of 2. + +2, 4, 8, 1, 2, 4, 8, 1, 2, 4, … + +As you can see, taking the powers of 2 mod 15 gives us a periodic +sequence, whose period (i.e., how far you have to go before it starts +repeating) is 4. For another example, let’s look at the powers of 2 mod +21: + +2, 4, 8, 16, 11, 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, … + +This time we get a periodic sequence whose period is 6. + +You might wonder: is there some general rule from which we could predict +the period? Gee, I wonder if mathematicians ever thought of that +question… + +Well, duh, they did, and there’s a beautiful pattern discovered by Euler +in the 1760’s. Let N be a product of two prime numbers, p and q, and +consider the sequence + +x mod N, x2 mod N, x3 mod N, x4 mod N, … + +Then provided x is not divisible by p or q, the above sequence will +repeat with some period that evenly divides (p-1)(q-1). + +So for example, if N=15, then the prime factors of N are p=3 and q=5, so +(p-1)(q-1)=8. And indeed, the period of the sequence was 4, which +divides 8. If N=21, then p=3 and q=7, so (p-1)(q-1)=12. And indeed, the +period was 6, which divides 12. + +Now, I want you to step back and think about what this means. It means +that, if we can find the period of the sequence + +x mod N, x2 mod N, x3 mod N, x4 mod N, … + +then we can learn something about the prime factors of N\! In +particular, we can learn a divisor of (p-1)(q-1). Now, I’ll admit that’s +not as good as learning p and q themselves, but grant me that it’s +something. Indeed, it’s more than something: it turns out that if we +could learn several random divisors of (p-1)(q-1) (for example, by +trying different random values of x), then with high probability we +could put those divisors together to learn (p-1)(q-1) itself. And once +we knew (p-1)(q-1), we could then use some more little tricks to recover +p and q, the prime factors we wanted. + +So what’s the fly in the ointment? Well, even though the sequence + +x mod N, x2 mod N, x3 mod N, x4 mod N, … + +will eventually start repeating itself, the number of steps before it +repeats could be almost as large as N itself — and N might have hundreds +or thousands of digits\! This is why finding the period doesn’t seem to +lead to a fast classical factoring algorithm. + +Aha, but we have a quantum computer\! (Or at least, we’re imagining that +we do.) So maybe there’s still hope. In particular, suppose we could +create an enormous quantum superposition over all the numbers in our +sequence: x mod N, x2 mod N, x3 mod N, etc. Then maybe there’s some +quantum operation we could perform on that superposition that would +reveal the period. + +The key point is that we’re no longer trying to find a needle in an +exponentially-large haystack, something we know is hard even for a +quantum computer. Instead, we’re now trying to find the period of a +sequence, which is a global property of all the numbers in the sequence +taken together. And that makes a big difference. + +Look: if you think about quantum computing in terms of “parallel +universes” (and whether you do or don’t is up to you), there’s no +feasible way to detect a single universe that’s different from all the +rest. Such a lone voice in the wilderness would be drowned out by the +vast number of suburb-dwelling, Dockers-wearing conformist universes. +What one can hope to detect, however, is a joint property of all the +parallel universes together — a property that can only be revealed by a +computation to which all the universes contribute. + +(Note: For safety reasons, please don’t explain the above to popular +writers of the “quantum computing = exponential parallelism” school. +They might shrivel up like vampires exposed to sunlight.) + +So, the task before us is not hopeless\! But if we want to get this +period-finding idea to work, we’ll have to answer two questions: + +1. Using a quantum computer, can we quickly create a superposition over + x mod N, x2 mod N, x3 mod N, and so on? +2. Supposing we did create such a superposition, how would we figure + out the period? + +Let’s tackle the first question first. We can certainly create a +superposition over all integers r, from 1 up to N or so. The trouble is, +given an r, how do we quickly compute xr mod N? If r was (say) 300 +quadrillion, would we have to multiply x by itself 300 quadrillion +times? That certainly wouldn’t be fast enough, and fortunately it isn’t +necessary. What we can do instead is what’s called repeated squaring. +It’s probably easiest just to show an example. + +Suppose N=17, x=3, and r=14. Then the first step is to represent r as a +sum of powers of 2: + +r = 23 + 22 + +21. + +Then + +![](http://www.scottaaronson.com/cgi-bin/mimetex.cgi?x%5Er%20=%203%5E%7B14%7D%20=%203%5E%7B2%5E3+2%5E2+2%5E1%7D%20=%203%5E%7B2%5E3%7D%20%5Ccdot%203%5E%7B2%5E2%7D%20%5Ccdot%203%5E%7B2%5E1%7D%20=%20\(\(3%5E2\)%5E2\)%5E2%20%5Ccdot%20\(3%5E2\)%5E2%20%5Ccdot%203%5E2) + +Also, notice that we can do all the multiplications mod N, thereby +preventing the numbers from growing out of hand at intermediate steps. +This yields the result + +314 mod 17 = 2. + +OK, so we can create a quantum superposition over all pairs of integers +of the form (r, xr mod N), where r ranges from 1 up to N or so. But +then, given a superposition over all the elements of a periodic +sequence, how do we extract the period of the sequence? + +Well, we’ve finally come to the heart of the matter — the one part of +Shor’s quantum algorithm that actually depends on quantum mechanics. To +get the period out, Shor uses something called the quantum Fourier +transform, or QFT. My challenge is, how can I explain the QFT to you +without using any actual math? Hmmmm… + +OK, let me try this. Like many computer scientists, I keep extremely odd +hours. You know that famous experiment where they stick people for weeks +in a sealed room without clocks or sunlight, and the people gradually +shift from a 24-hour day to a 25- or 26- or 28-hour day? Well, that’s +just ordinary life for me. One day I’ll wake up at 9am, the next day at +11am, the day after that at 1pm, etc. Indeed, I’ll happily ‘loop all the +way around’ if no classes or appointments intervene. (I used to do so +all the time at Berkeley.) + +Now, here’s my question: let’s say I tell you that I woke up at 5pm this +afternoon. From that fact alone, what can you conclude about how long my +“day” is: whether I’m on a 25-hour schedule, or a 26.3-hour schedule, or +whatever? + +The answer, of course, is not much\! I mean, it’s a pretty safe bet that +I’m not on a 24-hour schedule, since otherwise I’d be waking up in the +morning, not 5pm. But almost any other schedule — 25 hours, 26 hours, 28 +hours, etc. — will necessarily cause me to “loop all around the clock,” +so that it’d be no surprise to see me get up at 5pm on some particular +afternoon. + +Now, though, I want you to imagine that my bedroom wall is covered with +analog clocks. These are very strange clocks: one of them makes a full +revolution every 17 hours, one of them every 26 hours, one of them every +24.7 hours, and so on for just about every number of hours you can +imagine. (For simplicity, each clock has only an hour hand, no minute +hand.) I also want you to imagine that beneath each clock is a +posterboard with a thumbtack in it. When I first moved into my +apartment, each thumbtack was in the middle of its respective board. But +now, whenever I wake up in the “morning,” the first thing I do is to go +around my room, and move each thumbtack exactly one inch in the +direction that the clock hand above it is pointing. + +Now, here’s my new question: by examining the thumbtacks in my room, is +it possible to figure out what sort of schedule I’m keeping? + +I claim that it is possible. As an example, suppose I was keeping a +26-hour day. Then what would happen to the thumbtack below the 24-hour +clock? It’s not hard to see that it would undergo periodic motion: sure, +it would drift around a bit, but after every 12 days it would return to +the middle of the board where it had started. One morning I’d move the +thumbtack an inch in this direction, another morning an inch in that, +but eventually all these movements in different directions would cancel +each other out. + +On the other hand — again supposing I was keeping a 26-hour day — what +would happen to the thumback below the 26-hour clock? Here the answer is +different. For as far as the 26-hour clock is concerned, I’ve been +waking up at exactly the same time each “morning”\! Every time I wake +up, the 26-hour clock is pointing the same direction as it was the last +time I woke up. So I’ll keep moving the thumbtack one more inch in the +same direction, until it’s not even on the posterboard at all\! + +![](http://www.scottaaronson.com/clocks.jpg) + +It follows, then, that just by seeing which thumbtack travelled the +farthest from its starting point, you could figure out what sort of +schedule I was on. In other words, you could infer the “period” of the +periodic sequence that is my life. + +And that, basically, is the quantum Fourier transform. Well, a little +more precisely, the QFT is a linear transformation (indeed a unitary +transformation) that maps one vector of complex numbers to another +vector of complex numbers. The input vector has a nonzero entry +corresponding to every time when I wake up, and zero entries everywhere +else. The output vector records the positions of the thumbtacks on the +posterboards (which one can think of as points on the complex plane). So +what we get, in the end, is a linear transformation that maps a quantum +state encoding a periodic sequence, to a quantum state encoding the +period of that sequence. + +Another way to think about this is in terms of interference. I mean, the +key point about quantum mechanics — the thing that makes it different +from classical probability theory — is that, whereas probabilities are +always nonnegative, amplitudes in quantum mechanics can be positive, +negative, or even complex. And because of this, the amplitudes +corresponding to different ways of getting a particular answer can +“interfere destructively” and cancel each other out. + +And that’s exactly what’s going on in Shor’s algorithm. Every “parallel +universe” corresponding to an element of the sequence contributes some +amplitude to every “parallel universe” corresponding to a possible +period of the sequence. The catch is that, for all periods other than +the “true” one, these contributions point in different directions and +therefore cancel each other out. Only for the “true” period do the +contributions from different universes all point in the same direction. +And that’s why, when we measure at the end, we’ll find the true period +with high probability. + +Obviously there’s a great deal I’ve skipped over; see +[here](http://www.arxiv.org/abs/quant-ph/9508027) or +[here](http://alumni.imsa.edu/~matth/quant/299/paper/index.html) or +[here](http://homepages.cwi.nl/~rdewolf/publ/qc/survey.ps) or +[here](http://www.cs.berkeley.edu/~vazirani/f04quantum/notes/lec9.ps) or +[here](http://www.theory.caltech.edu/people/preskill/ph229/notes/chap6.ps) +or [here](http://www-users.cs.york.ac.uk/~schmuel/comp/comp.html) or +[here](http://www.cs.ucr.edu/~neal/1996/cosc185-S96/shor/high-level.html) +or [here](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shor's_algorithm) or +[here](http://people.ccmr.cornell.edu/~mermin/qcomp/chap3.pdf) or +[here](http://www.arxiv.org/abs/quant-ph/0303175) or +[here](http://www.arxiv.org/abs/quant-ph/0010034) or +[here](http://www.cs.princeton.edu/theory/complexity/quantumchap.pdf) +for details. + +This entry was posted on Saturday, February 24th, 2007 at 2:34 am and is +filed under [Complexity](https://www.scottaaronson.com/blog/?cat=5), +[Quantum](https://www.scottaaronson.com/blog/?cat=4), [Speaking Truth to +Parallelism](https://www.scottaaronson.com/blog/?cat=17). You can follow +any responses to this entry through the +[RSS 2.0](https://www.scottaaronson.com/blog/?feed=rss2&p=208) feed. +Both comments and pings are currently closed. diff --git a/_stories/2007/15018469.md b/_stories/2007/15018469.md index ad338b6..77a4226 100644 --- a/_stories/2007/15018469.md +++ b/_stories/2007/15018469.md @@ -19,7 +19,625 @@ _tags: objectID: '15018469' --- -[Source](https://www.esquire.com/news-politics/a26792/honesty0707/ "Permalink to ") +**Here's the truth about why I'm writing this article:** +I want to fulfill my contract with my boss. I want to avoid getting +fired. I want all the attractive women I knew in high school and college +to read it. I want them to be amazed and impressed and feel a vague +regret over their decision not to have sex with me, and maybe if I get +divorced or become a widower, [I can have sex with them +someday](/lifestyle/sex/advice/a9353/best-sex-positions/) at a reunion. +I want Hollywood to buy my article and turn it into a movie, even though +they kind of already made the movie ten years ago with Jim Carrey. +I want to get congratulatory e-mails and job offers that I can politely +decline. Or accept if they're really good. Then get a generous +counteroffer from my boss. +To be totally honest, I was sorry I mentioned this idea to my boss about +three seconds after I opened my mouth. Because I knew the article would +be a pain in the ass to pull off. Dammit. I should have let my colleague +Tom Chiarella write it. But I didn't want to seem lazy. + +What I mentioned to my boss was this: a movement called Radical Honesty. + +Advertisement - Continue Reading +Below + +![](data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAAAAAP///yH5BAEAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAIBRAA7) + +Universal Pictures + +The movement was founded by a sixty-six-year-old Virginia-based +psychotherapist named Brad Blanton. He says everybody would be happier +if we just stopped lying. Tell the truth, all the time. This would be +radical enough -- a world without fibs -- but Blanton goes further. He +says we should toss out the filters between our brains and our mouths. +If you think it, say it. Confess to your boss your secret plans to start +your own company. If you're having fantasies about your wife's sister, +Blanton says to tell your wife and tell her sister. It's the only path +to authentic relationships. It's the only way to smash through +modernity's soul-deadening alienation. Oversharing? No such thing. + +Yes. I know. One of the most idiotic ideas ever, right up there with +Vanilla Coke and giving Phil Spector a gun permit. Deceit makes our +world go round. Without lies, marriages would crumble, workers would be +fired, egos would be shattered, governments would collapse. + +> Without lies, marriages would crumble, workers would be fired, egos +> would be shattered, governments would collapse + +And yet...maybe there's something to it. Especially for me. I have a +lying problem. Mine aren't big lies. They aren't lies like "I cannot +recall that crucial meeting from two months ago, Senator." Mine are +little lies. White lies. Half-truths. The kind we all tell. But I tell +dozens of them every day. "Yes, let's definitely get together soon." +"I'd love to, but I have a touch of the stomach flu." "No, we can't buy +a toy today -- the toy store is closed." It's bad. Maybe a couple of +weeks of truth-immersion therapy would do me good. + +I e-mail Blanton to ask if I can come down to Virginia and get some +pointers before embarking on my Radical Honesty experiment. He writes +back: "I appreciate you for apparently having a real interest and hope +you're not just doing a cutesy little superficial dipshit job like most +journalists." + +I'm already nervous. I better start off with a clean slate. I confess I +lied to him in my first e-mail -- that I haven't ordered all his books +on Amazon yet. I was just trying to impress upon him that I was serious +about his work. He writes back: "Thanks for your honesty in attempting +to guess what your manipulative and self-protective motive must have +been." + +**Blanton lives in a house** he built himself, perched on a hill in the +town of Stanley, Virginia, population 1,331. We're sitting on white +chairs in a room with enormous windows and a crackling fireplace. He's +swirling a glass of Maker's Mark bourbon and water and telling me why +it's important to live with no lies. + +"You'll have really bad times, you'll have really great times, but +you'll contribute to other people because you haven't been dancing on +eggshells your whole fucking life. It's a better life." + +"Do you think it's ever okay to lie?" I ask. + +"I advocate never lying in personal relationships. But if you have Anne +Frank in your attic and a Nazi knocks on the door, lie....I lie to any +government official." (Blanton's politics are just this side of Noam +Chomsky's.) "I lie to the IRS. I always take more deductions than are +justified. I lie in golf. And in poker." + +Blanton adjusts his crotch. I expected him to be a bully. Or maybe a +new-age huckster with a bead necklace who sits cross-legged on the +floor. He's neither. He's a former Texan with a big belly and a big +laugh and a big voice. He's got a bushy head of gray hair and a twang +that makes his bye sound like bah. He calls himself "white trash with a +Ph.D." If you mixed DNA from Lyndon Johnson, Ken Kesey, and threw in the +non-annoying parts of Dr. Phil, you might get Blanton. + +Advertisement - Continue Reading +Below + +![](data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAAAAAP///yH5BAEAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAIBRAA7) +[](//pinterest.com/pin/create/button/?url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.esquire.com%2Fnews-politics%2Fa26792%2Fhonesty0707%2F&description=I%20Think%20You%27re%20Fat&media=https%3A%2F%2Fhips.hearstapps.com%2Fesq.h-cdn.co%2Fassets%2F16%2F43%2F1477434013-gettyimages-90737598.jpg%3Fresize%3D1600%3A%2A) + +Are there any non-annoying parts of Dr. Phil? + +Getty Images + +He ran for Congress twice, with the novel promise that he'd be an honest +politician. In 2004, he got a surprising 25 percent of the vote in his +Virginia district as an independent. In 2006, the Democrats considered +endorsing him but got skittish about his weeklong workshops, which +involve a day of total nudity. They also weren't crazy that he's been +married five times (currently to a Swedish flight attendant twenty-six +years his junior). He ran again but withdrew when it became clear he was +going to be crushed. + +My interview with Blanton is unlike any other I've had in fifteen years +as a journalist. Usually, there's a fair amount of ass kissing and +diplomacy. You approach the controversial stuff on tippy toes (the way +Barbara Walters once asked Richard Gere about that terrible, terrible +rumor). With Blanton, I can say anything that pops into my mind. In +fact, it would be rude not to say it. I'd be insulting his life's work. +It's my first taste of Radical Honesty, and it's liberating, +exhilarating. + +When Blanton rambles on about President Bush, I say, "You know, I +stopped listening about a minute ago." + +"Thanks for telling me," he says. + +I tell him, "You look older than you do in the author photo for your +book," and when he veers too far into therapyspeak, I say, "That just +sounds like gobbledygook." + +"Thanks," he replies." Or, "That's fine." + +Blanton has a temper -- he threatened to "beat the shit" out of a +newspaper editor during the campaign -- but it hasn't flared tonight. +The closest he comes to attacking me is when he says I am self-indulgent +and Esquire is pretentious. Both true. + +Blanton pours himself another bourbon and water. He's got a wad of +chewing tobacco in his cheek, and when he spits into the fireplace, the +flames crackle louder. + +"My boss says you sound like a dick," I say. + +"Tell your boss he's a dick," he says. + +"I'm glad you picked your nose just now," I say. "Because it was funny +and disgusting, and it'll make a good detail for the article." + +"That's fine. I'll pick my ass in a minute." Then he unleashes his deep +Texan laugh: heh, heh, heh. (He also burps and farts throughout our +conversation; he believes the one-cheek sneak is "a little deceitful.") + +No topic is off-limits. "I've slept with more than five hundred women +and about a half dozen men," he tells me. "I've had a whole bunch of +threesomes" -- one of which involved a hermaphrodite prostitute equipped +with dual organs. + +> 'I've had a whole bunch of threesomes -- one of which involved a +> hermaphrodite prostitute equipped with dual organs' + +Advertisement - Continue Reading Below + +What about animals? + +Blanton thinks for a minute. "I let my dog lick my dick once." + +If he hadn't devoted his life to Radical Honesty, I'd say he was, to use +his own phrase, as full of shit as a Christmas turkey. But I don't think +he is. I believe he's telling the truth. Which is a startling thing for +a journalist to confront. Generally, I'm devoting 30 percent of my +mental energy to figuring out what a source is lying about or hiding +from me. Another 20 percent goes into scheming about how to unearth that +buried truth. No need for that today. + +"I was disappointed when I visited your office," I tell Blanton. +(Earlier he had shown me a small, cluttered single-room office that +serves as the Radical Honesty headquarters.) "I'm impressed by +exteriors, so I would have been impressed by an office building in some +city, not a room in Butt Fuck, Virginia. For my article, I want this to +be a legitimate movement, not a fringe movement." + +"What about a legitimate fringe movement?" asks Blanton, who has, by +this time, had three bourbons. + +Blanton's legitimate fringe movement is sizable but not huge. He's sold +175,000 books in eleven languages and has twenty-five trainers assisting +in workshops and running practice groups around the country. + +Now, my editor thinks I'm overreaching here and trying too hard to +justify this article's existence, but I think society is speeding toward +its own version of Radical Honesty. The truth of our lives is +increasingly being exposed, both voluntarily (MySpace pages, transparent +business transactions) and involuntarily. (See Gonzales and Google, or +ask Alec Baldwin.) For better or worse, we may all soon be Brad +Blantons. I need to be prepared. \[Such bullshit. -- +Ed.\] + +![](data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAAAAAP///yH5BAEAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAIBRAA7) +[](//pinterest.com/pin/create/button/?url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.esquire.com%2Fnews-politics%2Fa26792%2Fhonesty0707%2F&description=I%20Think%20You%27re%20Fat&media=https%3A%2F%2Fhips.hearstapps.com%2Fesq.h-cdn.co%2Fassets%2F16%2F43%2F1477434323-alec-baldwin.png%3Fresize%3D1600%3A%2A) + +Alec Baldwin in his natural state + +Sony + +**I return to New York** and immediately set about delaying my +experiment. When you're with Blanton, you think, Yes, I can do this\! +The truth, the whole truth, nothing but the truth. But when I get back +to bosses and fragile friendships, I continue my lying ways. + +"How's Radical Honesty going?" my boss asks. + +"It's okay," I lie. "A little slow." + +A couple of weeks later, I finally get some inspiration from my friend's +five-year-old daughter, Alison. We are in Central Park for a play date. +Out of nowhere, Alison looks at me evenly and says, "Your teeth are +yellow because you drink coffee all day." + +Damn. Now that's some radical honesty for you. Maybe I should be more +like a five-year-old. An hour later, she shows me her new pet bug -- a +beetle of some sort that she has in her cupped hands. + +"It's napping," she whispers. + +I nudge the insect with my finger. It doesn't move. Should I play along? +No. I should tell her the truth, like she told me about my teeth. + +"It's not napping." + +She looks confused. + +"It's dead." + +Advertisement - Continue Reading Below + +Alison runs to her father, dismayed. "Daddy, he just said a bad word." + +I feel like an asshole. I frightened a five-year-old, probably out of +revenge for an insult about my oral hygiene. I postpone again -- for a +few more weeks. And then my boss tells me he needs the article for the +July issue. + +> I frightened a five-year-old, probably out of revenge for an insult +> about my oral hygiene + +**I start in again** at dinner with my friend Brian. We are talking +about his new living situation, and I decide to tell him the truth. + +"You know, I forget your fiancée's name." + +This is highly unacceptable -- they've been together for years; I've met +her several times. + +"It's Jenny." + +In his book, Blanton talks about the thrill of total candor, the Space +Mountain-worthy adrenaline rush you get from breaking taboos. As he +writes, "You learn to like the excitement of mild, ongoing risk taking." +This I felt. + +Luckily, Brian doesn't seem too pissed. So I decide to push my luck. +"Yes, that's right. Jenny. Well, I resent you for not inviting me to you +and Jenny's wedding. I don't want to go, since it's in Vermont, but I +wanted to be invited." + +"Well, I resent you for not being invited to your wedding." + +"You weren't invited? Really? I thought I had." + +"Nope." + +"Sorry, man. That was a mistake." + +A breakthrough\! We are communicating\! Blanton is right. Brian and I +crushed some eggshells. We are not stoic, emotionless men. I'm enjoying +this. A little bracing honesty can be a mood booster. + +The next day, we get a visit from my wife's dad and stepmom. + +"Did you get the birthday gift I sent you?" asks her stepmom. + +"Uh-huh," I say. + +She sent me a gift certificate to Saks Fifth Avenue. + +"And? Did you like it?" + +"Not really. I don't like gift certificates. It's like you're giving me +an errand to run." + +"Well, uh . . ." + +Once again, I felt the thrill of inappropriate candor. And I felt +something else, too. The paradoxical joy of being free from choice. I +had no choice but to tell the truth. I didn't have to rack my brain +figuring out how to hedge it, spin it, massage it. + +> I had no choice but to tell the truth. I didn't have to rack my brain +> figuring out how to hedge it, spin it, massage it + +Advertisement - Continue Reading Below + +"Just being honest," I shrug. Nice touch, I decide; helps take the edge +off. She's got a thick skin. She'll be okay. And I'll tell you this: +I'll never get a damn gift certificate from her again. + +**I still tell plenty of lies** every day, but by the end of the week +I've slashed the total by at least 40 percent. Still, the giddiness is +wearing off. A life of radical honesty is filled with a hundred +confrontations every day. Small, but they're relentless. + +"Yes, I'll come to your office, but I resent you for making me travel." + +"My boss said I should invite you to this meeting, although it wouldn't +have occurred to me to do so." + +"I have nothing else to say to you. I have run out of conversation." + +My wife tells me a story about switching operating systems on her +computer. In the middle, I have to go help our son with something, then +forget to come back. + +"Do you want to hear the end of the story or not?" she asks. + +"Well...is there a payoff?" + +"Fuck you." + +It would have been a lot easier to have kept my mouth closed and +listened to her. It reminds me of an issue I raised with Blanton: Why +make waves? "Ninety percent of the time I love my wife," I told him. +"And 10 percent of the time I hate her. Why should I hurt her feelings +that 10 percent of the time? Why not just wait until that phase passes +and I return to the true feeling, which is that I love her?" + +Blanton's response: "Because you're a manipulative, lying son of a +bitch." + +Okay, he's right. It's manipulative and patronizing to shut up and +listen. But it's exhausting not to. + +One other thing is also becoming apparent: There's a fine line between +radical honesty and creepiness. Or actually no line at all. It's simple +logic: Men think about sex every three minutes, as the scientists at +Redbook remind us. If you speak whatever's on your mind, you'll be +talking about sex every three minutes. + +> There's a fine line between radical honesty and creepiness. Or +> actually no line at all + +I have a business breakfast with an editor from Rachael Ray's magazine. +As we're sitting together, I tell her that I remember what she wore the +first time we met -- a black shirt that revealed her shoulders in a +provocative way. I say that I'd try to sleep with her if I were single. +I confess to her that I just attempted (unsuccessfully) to look down her +shirt during breakfast. + +She smiles. Though I do notice she leans back farther in her seat. + +The thing is, the separate cubbyholes of my personality are merging. +Usually, there's a professional self, a home self, a friend self, a +with-the-guys self. Now, it's one big improper mess. This woman and I +have either taken a step forward in our relationship, or she'll never +return my calls again. + +When I get home, I keep the momentum going. I call a friend to say that +I fantasize about his wife. (He says he likes my wife, too, and suggests +a key party.) + +I inform our twenty-seven-year-old nanny that "if my wife left me, I +would ask you out on a date, because I think you are stunning." + +Advertisement - Continue Reading Below + +She laughs. Nervously. + +"I think that makes you uncomfortable, so I won't mention it again. It +was just on my mind." + +Now I've made my own skin crawl. I feel like I should just buy a trench +coat and start lurking around subway platforms. Blanton says he doesn't +believe sex talk in the workplace counts as sexual harassment -- it's +tight-assed society's fault if people can't handle the truth -- but my +nanny confession just feels like pure abuse of power. + +> Now I've made my own skin crawl. I feel like I should just buy a +> trench coat and start lurking around subway platforms + +All this lasciviousness might be more palatable if I were a single man. +In fact, I have a theory: I think Blanton devised Radical Honesty partly +as a way to pick up women. It's a brilliant strategy. The antithesis of +mind games. Transparent mating. + +And according to Blanton, it's effective. He tells me about a woman he +once met on a Paris subway and asked out for tea. When they sat down, he +said, "I didn't really want any tea; I was just trying to figure out a +way to delay you so I could talk to you for a while, because I want to +go to bed with you." They went to bed together. Or another seduction +technique of his: "Wanna fuck?" + +"That works?" I asked. + +"Sometimes it works, sometimes it doesn't, but it's the creation of +possibility." + +**I lied today.** A retired man from New Hampshire -- a friend of a +friend -- wrote some poems and sent them to me. His wife just died, and +he's taken up poetry. He just wanted someone in publishing to read his +work. A professional opinion. + +I read them. I didn't like them much, but I wrote to him that I thought +they were very good. + +So I e-mail Blanton for the first time since our meeting and confess +what I did. I write, "His wife just died, he doesn't have friends. He's +kind of pathetic. I read his stuff, or skimmed it actually. I didn't +like it. I thought it was boring and badly written. So I e-mailed a lie. +I said I really like the poems and hope they get published. He wrote me +back so excited and how it made his week and how he was about to give up +on them but my e-mail gave him the stamina to keep trying." + +I ask Blanton whether I made a mistake. + +He responds curtly. I need to come to his eight-day workshop to "even +begin to get what \[Radical Honesty\] is about." He says we need to meet +in person. + +Meet in person? Did he toss down so many bourbons I vanished from his +memory? I tell him we did meet. + +Blanton writes back testily that he remembers. But I still need to take +a workshop (price tag: $2,800). His only advice on my quandary: "Send +the man the e-mail you sent me about lying to him and ask him to call +you when he gets it...and see what you learn." + +Advertisement - Continue Reading Below + +Show him the e-mail? Are you kidding? What a hardcore bastard. + +In his book, Radical Honesty, Blanton advises us to start sentences with +the words "I resent you for" or "I appreciate you for." So I write him +back. + +"I resent you for being so different in these e-mails than you were when +we met. You were friendly and engaging and encouraging when we met. Now +you seem to have turned judgmental and tough. I resent you for giving me +the advice to break that old man's heart by telling him that his poems +suck." + +Blanton responds quickly. First, he doesn't like that I expressed my +resentment by e-mail. I should have come to see him. "What you don't +seem to get yet, A.J., is that the reason for expressing resentment +directly and in person is so that you can experience in your body the +sensations that occur when you express the resentment, while at the same +time being in the presence of the person you resent, and so you can stay +with them until the sensations arise and recede and then get back to +neutral -- which is what forgiveness is." + +Second, he tells me that telling the old man the truth would be +compassionate, showing the "authentic caring underneath your usual +intellectual bullshit and overvaluing of your critical judgment. Your +lie is not useful to him. In fact, it is simply avoiding your +responsibility as one human being to another. That's okay. It happens +all the time. It is not a mortal sin. But don't bullshit yourself about +it being kind." + +He ends with this: "I don't want to spend a lot of time explaining +things to you for your cute little project of playing with telling the +truth if you don't have the balls to try it." + +Condescending prick. + +I know my e-mail to the old man was wrong. I shouldn't have been so +rah-rah effusive. But here, I've hit the outer limit of Radical Honesty, +a hard wall. I can't trash the old man. + +I try to understand Blanton's point about compassion. To most of us, +honesty often means cruelty. + +But to Blanton, honesty and compassion are the ones in sync. It's an +intriguing way to look at the world, but I just don't buy it in the case +of the widower poet. Screw Blanton. (By the way: I broke Radical Honesty +and changed the identifying details of the old-man story so as not to +humiliate him. Also, I've messed a bit with the timeline of events to +simplify things. Sorry.) + +**To compensate** for my wimpiness, I decide to toughen up. Which is +probably the exact wrong thing to do. Today, I'm getting a haircut, and +my barber is telling me he doesn't want his wife to get pregnant because +she'll get too fat (a bit of radical honesty of his own), and I say, +"You know, I'm tired. I have a cold. I don't want to talk anymore. I +want to read." + +"Okay," he says, wielding his scissors, "go ahead and read." + +Later, I do the same thing with my in-laws when they're yapping on about +preschools. "I'm bored," I announce. "I'll be back later." And with +that, I leave the living room. + +I tell Blanton, hoping for his approval. Did anything come of it? he +asks. Any discussions and insights? Hmmm. + +He's right. If you're going to be a schmuck, at least you should find +some redeeming quality in it. Blanton's a master of this. One of his +tricks is to say things with such glee and enthusiasm, it's hard to get +too pissed. "You may be a petty asshole," he says, "but at least you're +not a secret petty asshole." Then he'll laugh. + +I have yet to learn that trick myself. Consider how I handled this scene +at a diner a couple of blocks from my apartment. + +"Everything okay?" asked our server, an Asian man with tattoos. + +"Yeah, except for the coffee. I always have to order espresso here, +because the espresso tastes like regular coffee. The regular coffee here +is terrible. Can't you guys make stronger coffee?" + +The waiter said no and walked away. My friend looked at me. "I'm +embarrassed for you," he said. "And I'm embarrassed to be around you." + +"I know. Me, too." I felt like a Hollywood producer who parks in +handicapped spots. I ask Blanton what I should have +done. + +![](data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAAAAAP///yH5BAEAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAIBRAA7) +[](//pinterest.com/pin/create/button/?url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.esquire.com%2Fnews-politics%2Fa26792%2Fhonesty0707%2F&description=I%20Think%20You%27re%20Fat&media=https%3A%2F%2Fhips.hearstapps.com%2Fesq.h-cdn.co%2Fassets%2F16%2F43%2F1477434856-ari-gold-entourage.jpg%3Fresize%3D1600%3A%2A) + +My Ari Gold moment + +Warner Brothers + +"You should have said, 'This coffee tastes like shit\!' " he says, +cackling. + +Advertisement - Continue Reading Below + +**I will say this:** One of the best parts of Radical Honesty is that +I'm saving a whole lot of time. It's a cut-to-the-chase way to live. At +work, I've been waiting for my boss to reply to a memo for ten days. So +I write him: "I'm annoyed that you didn't respond to our memo earlier. +But at the same time, I'm relieved, because then if we don't nail one of +the things you want, we can blame any delays on your lack of response." + +Pressing send makes me nervous -- but the e-mail works. My boss +responds: "I will endeavor to respond by tomorrow. Been gone from N.Y. +for two weeks." It is borderline apologetic. I can push my power with my +boss further than I thought. + +Later, a friend of a friend wants to meet for a meal. I tell him I don't +like leaving my house. "I agree to meet some people for lunch because I +fear hurting their feelings if I don't. And in this terrifying age where +everyone has a blog, I don't want to offend people, because then they'd +write on their blogs what an asshole I am, and it would turn up in every +Google search for the rest of my life." + +He writes back: "Normally, I don't really like meeting editors anyway. +Makes me ill to think about it, because I'm afraid of coming off like +the idiot that, deep down, I suspect I am." + +That's one thing I've noticed: When I am radically honest, people become +radically honest themselves. I feel my resentment fade away. I like this +guy. We have a good meeting. + +> When I am radically honest, people become radically honest themselves + +In fact, all my relationships can take a whole lot more truth than I +expected. Consider this one: For years, I've had a chronic problem where +I refer to my wife, Julie, by my sister's name, Beryl. I always catch +myself midway through and pretend it didn't happen. I've never confessed +to Julie. Why should I? It either means that I'm sexually attracted to +my sister, which is not good. Or that I think of my wife as my sister, +also not good. + +But today, in the kitchen, when I have my standard mental sister-wife +mix-up, I decide to tell Julie about it. + +"That's strange," she says. + +We talk about it. I feel unburdened, closer to my wife now that we share +this quirky, slightly disturbing knowledge. I realize that by keeping it +secret, I had given it way too much weight. I hope she feels the same +way. + +**I call up Blanton** one last time, to get his honest opinion about how +I've done. + +"I'm finishing my experiment," I say. + +"You going to start lying again?" he asks. + +"Hell yeah." + +"Oh, shit. It didn't work." + +"But I'm going to lie less than I did before." + +I tell him about my confession to Julie that I sometimes want to call +her Beryl. "No big deal," says Blanton. "People in other cultures have +sex with their sisters all the time." + +I bring up the episode about telling the editor from Rachael Ray's +magazine that I tried to look down her shirt, but he sounds +disappointed. "Did you tell your wife?" he asks. "That's the good part." + +Finally, I describe to him how I told Julie that I didn't care to hear +the end of her story about fixing her computer. Blanton asks how she +responded. + +Advertisement - Continue Reading Below + +"She said, 'Fuck you.' " + +"That's good\!" Blanton says. "I like that. That's communicating." + +Esquire Editor-at-Large A.J. Jacobs is the author of A Year of Living +Biblically: One Man's Humble Quest to Follow the Bible as Literally as +Possible, published by Simon & Schuster. + +Published in the July 2007 issue diff --git a/_stories/2007/15277384.md b/_stories/2007/15277384.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..9074b2a --- /dev/null +++ b/_stories/2007/15277384.md @@ -0,0 +1,857 @@ +--- +created_at: '2017-09-18T16:43:39.000Z' +title: Implement Tcl in Tcl (2007) +url: http://wiki.tcl.tk/12646 +author: blacksqr +points: 76 +story_text: +comment_text: +num_comments: 24 +story_id: +story_title: +story_url: +parent_id: +created_at_i: 1505753019 +_tags: +- story +- author_blacksqr +- story_15277384 +objectID: '15277384' + +--- +Maybe someone has already done this. But the question in my mind is how +much of Tcl can be implimented in Tcl itself. Obviously you can't +implement system calls in Tcl, but you could implement just about +everthing else. What commands/parts of Tcl would be in the minimal set? + +Maybe someone has already done this. But the question in my mind is how +much of Tcl can be implimented in Tcl itself. Obviously you can't +implement system calls in Tcl, but you could implement just about +everthing else. What commands/parts of Tcl would be in the minimal set? +[Earl Johnson](/3376) + + - Minimal set + + + +1. "set" both scalar and array modes. +2. "eval" command +3. "unknown" +4. "string index" command +5. "string length" command +6. "lindex" command +7. "llength" command +8. "list" command +9. what else??? + + + + - Things that could be simulated in Tcl (theoretically) + + + +1. interpreters (design?). +2. namespaces (design?). +3. expr (design?). +4. callstack (design?) . +5. proc (design?) . +6. if/while/switch/for/foreach. +7. regexp (sounds hard) . +8. package system (design?) . +9. traces (design?). +10. event loop (design?). +11. glob (design?). + + + + - What I expect to be hard + + + +1. expr +2. regexp *([Lars H](/6266): You get a bit of the way with + [grammar\_fa](/11269).)* + + + + - What I don't expect to be done + + + +1. C API +2. Things that need system calls + + + + - Other languages are self hosting like this + + + +1. C =\> c compiler +2. Python =\> PyPy +3. Smalltalk +4. Others?? + +Of course I expect that this TclTcl would be very slow, but interesting, +and very easy to port to embedded systems. + +Of course I expect that this TclTcl would be very slow, but interesting, +and very easy to port to embedded systems. + +12Oct2004: One day for fun I implemented a subset of Tcl in Tcl, with +some more work may run non trivial programs. Consider this program +BSD-licensed. + +``` + # Lct - A Tcl-like language implemented in Tcl + # The implementation does NOT try to exploit the fact we + # are implementing Tcl in Tcl exposing some Tcl built-in + # to make the work simpler, thus this implementation is + # quite portable. It should be quite easy to port it + # to Python, PHP, Perl, Scheme and alike. + # + # Copyright (C) 2003 Salvatore Sanfilippo + # + # Biggest differences with Tcl: + # + # A lot of course, but this are important stuff you should + # know before to try even some trivial example: + # + # - No 'expr' support, this also changes if/for/while semantic: + # What in Tcl is "if {$a > $b} ..." here is "if {> $a $b} ..." and so on. + # Math is done lispwise using +, -, *, / commands and so on. + # Note that conditionals doesn't perform substitution also, so + # There is no need of [] in most cases, but you need to use + # the "pass" identity function to test for a variable, like: + # if {pass $test} {...} elseif {...} else {...} + # - No arrays for now + # - No namespaces + # - False is both zero and an empty string, no implicit expr in + # conditionals means to face the need to handle any kind of return + # string as false or true. + # - True is just what's not false ;) any string that isn't "0" nor "". + # - The 'pass' command is the "identity" command returning it's only argument. + # pass foobar ;# => foobar + # - Unbalanced {} in comments are not a problem (but you need to quote + # anyway if your Lct program body is defined inside a Tcl script). + # + # TODO: + # + # - variable number of arguments to procedures + # - exceptions, i.e. [catch] + # - upvar + # - break/for + # - uproc foo args body, foo will be executed in the caller context + # - set x(foo), $x(foo) as syntax glue for some "dict set" "dict get" command + # - be able to save the continuation may be cool, but this interpreter + # calls itself from Tcl, so I will remove the recursion or figure how + # to reenter the recursion starting from state-information. + # - handle line numbers in the parser to specify error's line number + # - check for raised error condition in LctEval to exit with an error + + ################################################################################ + # Lct Core + ################################################################################ + + # Interpreter state is implemented as global vars and arrays + # no support for multiple interpreters (for now at least). + array set ::LctCommands {} + array set ::LctProcs {} + set ::LctStack {} + set ::LctError {} + set ::LctStackLen 0 + + proc LctAddStackFrame {} { + incr ::LctStackLen + namespace eval StackFrame$::LctStackLen { + variable EvalLevel 0 + array set Locals {} + array set Globals {} + } + } + + proc LctRemoveStackFrame {} { + namespace delete StackFrame$::LctStackLen + incr ::LctStackLen -1 + } + + proc LctSaveStackFrame varname { + upvar $varname saved + set sf $::LctStackLen + set saved {} + lappend saved [array get StackFrame$sf\::Locals] + lappend saved [array get StackFrame$sf\::Globals] + lappend saved [set StackFrame$sf\::EvalLevel] + } + + proc LctRestoreStackFrame varname { + upvar $varname saved + set sf $::LctStackLen + namespace eval StackFrame$sf {} + array set StackFrame$sf\::Locals [lindex $saved 0] + array set StackFrame$sf\::Globals [lindex $saved 1] + set StackFrame$sf\::EvalLevel [lindex $saved 2] + } + + # Create the top-level stack frame + LctAddStackFrame + + # The parser is the core of the interpreter, being this + # interpreted from the source code directly. No compilation. + proc LctParser {text tokenvar indexvar {dosubst 0}} { + upvar $tokenvar token + upvar $indexvar i + set token {} + set inside {} + set dontstop $dosubst + while 1 { + # skip spaces + while {!$dontstop && [string match "\[ \t\]" [string index $text $i]]} { + incr i + } + # skip comments + if {!$dontstop && [string equal [string index $text $i] #]} { + while {[string length [string index $text $i]] && + ![string match [string index $text $i] \n]} \ + { + incr i + } + } + # check for special conditions + if {!$dontstop} { + switch -exact -- [string index $text $i] { + {} {return EOF} + {;} - + "\n" {incr i; return EOL} + } + } + # main parser loop + while 1 { + switch -exact -- [string index $text $i] { + {} break + { } - + "\t" - + "\n" - + ";" { + if {!$dontstop} { + break; + } + } + \" { + if {[string equal $inside {}]} { + incr dontstop + set inside \" + incr i + continue + } elseif {[string equal $inside \"]} { + incr dontstop -1 + set inside {} + incr i + continue + } + } + "\{" { + if {[string equal $inside {}]} { + incr dontstop + set inside "\{" + incr i + continue + } elseif {[string equal $inside "\{"]} { + incr dontstop + } + } + "\}" { + if {[string equal $inside "\{"]} { + incr dontstop -1 + if {$dontstop == 0} { + set inside {} + incr i + continue + } + } + } + \$ { + if {![string equal $inside "\{"]} { + if {![string equal [string index $text [expr {$i+1}]] $]} { + set res [LctSubstVar $text $indexvar] + append token $res + continue + } + } + } + \[ { + if {![string equal $inside "\{"]} { + set res [LctSubstCmd $text $indexvar] + append token $res + continue + } + } + } + append token [string index $text $i] + incr i + } + return TOK + } + } + + proc LctSubstCmd {text indexvar} { + upvar $indexvar i + set go 1 + set cmd {} + incr i + while {$go} { + switch -exact -- [string index $text $i] { + {} break + \[ {incr go} + \] {incr go -1} + } + append cmd [string index $text $i] + incr i + } + set cmd [string range $cmd 0 end-1] + return [LctEval $cmd] + } + + # Get the control when a '$' (not followed by $) is encountered, + # extract the name of the variable, and return its content. + proc LctSubstVar {text indexvar} { + upvar $indexvar i + set dontstop 0 + set varname {} + incr i + while {1} { + switch -exact -- [string index $text $i] { + \[ - + \] - + "\t" - + "\n" - + "\"" - + \; - + \{ - + \} - + \$ - + ( - + ) - + { } - + {} { + if {!$dontstop} { + break + } + } + ( {incr dontstop} + ) {incr dontstop -1} + default { + append varname [string index $text $i] + } + } + incr i + } + if {![LctLookupVar $varname content]} { + error "No such variable '$varname'" + } else { + return $content + } + } + + proc LctLookupVar {varname contentvar} { + set sf $::LctStackLen + upvar $contentvar content + if {[info exists StackFrame$sf\::Globals($varname)]} { + set sf 1 + } + if {![info exists StackFrame$sf\::Locals($varname)]} { + return 0 + } + set content [set StackFrame$sf\::Locals($varname)] + return 1 + } + + proc LctGetEvalLevel {} { + return [set StackFrame$::LctStackLen\::EvalLevel] + } + + proc LctSetEvalLevel newlevel { + set StackFrame$::LctStackLen\::EvalLevel $newlevel + } + + proc LctEval script { + set result {} + set eof 0 + set i 0 + + set level [LctSetEvalLevel [expr {[LctGetEvalLevel]+1}]] + while {!$eof && ([LctGetEvalLevel] >= $level)} { + set argv {} + set argc 0 + while 1 { + set state [LctParser $script token i] + if {[string equal $state EOF]} { + set eof 1 + } + switch $state { + EOF - + EOL break + default { + lappend argv $token + incr argc + } + } + } + if {$argc} { + set cmd [lindex $argv 0] + if {![info exists ::LctCommands($cmd)]} { + error "No such command '$cmd'" + } else { + set result [$::LctCommands($cmd) $argv] + if {[string length $::LctError]} {error "$::LctError\n in script:\n$script"} + } + } + } + if {$level == [LctGetEvalLevel]} { + LctSetEvalLevel [expr {[LctGetEvalLevel]-1}] + } + return $result + } + + proc LctUplevel {level script result} { + upvar $result res + if {$::LctStackLen <= $level} { + LctSetError "Bad Level" + return + } + LctSaveStackFrame stackframe + incr ::LctStackLen -$level + set res [LctEval $script] + incr ::LctStackLen $level + LctRestoreStackFrame stackframe + return $res + } + + # Do substitution of commands and vars + proc LctSubst string { + set i 0 + set s [LctParser $string token i 1] + return $token + } + + proc LctRegisterCommand {name function} { + set ::LctCommands($name) $function + } + + proc LctSetVar {varname value} { + set sf $::LctStackLen + if {[info exists StackFrame$sf\::Globals($varname)]} { + set sf 1 + } + return [set StackFrame$sf\::Locals($varname) $value] + } + + proc LctMarkGlobal varname { + set sf $::LctStackLen + set StackFrame$sf\::Globals($varname) {} + } + + proc LctSetError error { + set ::LctError $error + } + + # In Lct both 0 and empty string is false. + proc LctIsFalse value { + if {[string equal $value 0] || [string equal $value {}]} { + return 1 + } else { + return 0 + } + } + + # Define it as the negation of LctIsFalse + proc LctIsTrue value { + return [expr {![LctIsFalse $value]}] + } + + ################################################################################ + # Core Commands + ################################################################################ + + proc LctSet argv { + if {[llength $argv] != 3} { + LctSetError "Bad number of arguments, try: set varname value" + return + } + return [LctSetVar [lindex $argv 1] [lindex $argv 2]] + } + + proc LctPut argv { + set nonewline 0 + if {[llength $argv] >= 2 && [string match [lindex $argv 1] -nonewline]} { + set nonewline 1 + set argv [lrange $argv 1 end] + } + if {[llength $argv] != 2} { + LctSetError "Bad number of arguments, try: put string" + return + } + puts -nonewline stdout [lindex $argv 1] + if {!$nonewline} { + puts {} + } + return {} + } + + # That's a generic binding for math stuff. It uses expr, and + # 'sens' what operator to use from the name of the procedure itself. + proc LctGenericMathOp argv { + if {[llength $argv] != 3} { + LctSetError "Bad number of arguments, try: + number number" + return + } + set e [lindex $argv 1][lindex $argv 0][lindex $argv 2] + set e [string map "\[ \\\[ \] \\\]" $e] + return [expr $e] + } + + proc LctIncr argv { + if {[llength $argv] != 2 && [llength $argv] != 3} { + LctSetError "Bad number of arguments, try: incr varname ?increment?" + return + } + set varname [lindex $argv 1] + if {[llength $argv] == 3} { + set increment [lindex $argv 2] + } else { + set increment 1 + } + if {![LctLookupVar $varname val]} { + LctSetError "No such var '$varname'" + return + } + if {[catch {expr {$val+$increment}} result]} { + LctSetError "Expected integer, got something else ($result)" + return + } + return [LctSetVar $varname $result] + } + + proc LctProc argv { + if {[llength $argv] != 4} { + LctSetError "Bad number of arguments, try: proc name args body" + return + } + LctRegisterCommand [lindex $argv 1] LctCallProc + set ::LctProcs([lindex $argv 1]) [list [lindex $argv 2] [lindex $argv 3]] + return {} + } + + # This built-in is used to call user-defined procedures + # It checks for argv(0} in order to get the name of the + # procedure to call, then create a new stack frame and call it. + proc LctCallProc argv { + foreach {arglist body} $::LctProcs([lindex $argv 0]) break + if {[llength $argv]-1 != [llength $arglist]} { + LctSetError "Wrong number of args calling procedure '[lindex $argv 0]'" + return + } + set l [llength $arglist] + LctAddStackFrame + for {set i 0} {$i < $l} {incr i} { + LctSetVar [lindex $arglist $i] [lindex $argv [expr {$i+1}]] + } + set result [LctEval $body] + LctRemoveStackFrame + return $result + } + + # Return is simple, we set the stack frame's EvalLevel to 0 in order + # to be sure eval will return to the previous procedure. + proc LctReturn argv { + if {[llength $argv] != 1 && [llength $argv] != 2} { + LctSetError "Bad number of arguments, try: return ?value?" + return + } + LctSetEvalLevel 0 + if {[llength $argv] == 2} { + return [lindex $argv 1] + } else { + return {} + } + } + + # Facility to pop arguments in varargs proc. + proc LctPopArg varname { + upvar $varname argv + set arg [lindex $argv 0] + set argv [lreplace $argv 0 0] + return $arg + } + + # The if command implemented as trivial FSA. + proc LctIf argv { + set argv [lreplace $argv 0 0] ;# Drop the 'if' first argument. + set state EXPR + while {[llength $argv]} { + switch -exact $state { + EXPR { + set e [LctPopArg argv] + set res [LctIsTrue [LctEval $e]] + if {$res} { + set state EVAL_NEXT + } else { + set state SKIP_TRUE_BRANCH + } + } + EVAL_NEXT { + set script [LctPopArg argv] + return [LctEval $script] + } + SKIP_TRUE_BRANCH { + LctPopArg argv ;# Just skip it + set state ELSE_OR_ELSEIF_OR_FALSE_BRANCH + } + ELSE_OR_ELSEIF_OR_FALSE_BRANCH { + set x [LctPopArg argv] + if {[string equal $x else]} { + set state EVAL_NEXT + } elseif {[string equal $x elseif]} { + set state EXPR + } else { + return [LctEval $x] + } + } + } + } + switch -exact $state { + EXPR { + LctSetError "Missing expression in if" + return + } + EVAL_NEXT { + LctSetError "Missing script in if" + return + } + } + } + + proc LctWhile argv { + if {[llength $argv] != 3} { + LctSetError "Bad number of arguments, try: while cond body" + return + } + foreach {_ cond body} $argv break + while {[LctIsTrue [LctEval $cond]]} { + set result [LctEval $body] + } + return $result + } + + proc LctPass argv { + if {[llength $argv] != 2} { + LctSetError "Bad number of arguments, try: pass ?value?" + return + } + return [lindex $argv 1] + } + + proc LctEvalCmd argv { + set script {} + foreach x [lrange $argv 1 end] {append script $x} + return [LctEval $script] + } + + proc LctUplevelCmd argv { + if {[llength $argv] < 2} { + LctSetError "Bad number of arguments, try: uplevel ?level? arg ... ?arg?" + return {} + } + foreach {- level script} $argv break + LctUplevel $level $script result + return $result + } + + proc LctGlobalCmd argv { + set argv [lrange $argv 1 end] + foreach varname $argv { + LctMarkGlobal $varname + } + return {} + } + + # Sort part of the core + LctRegisterCommand proc LctCallProc + LctRegisterCommand set LctSet + LctRegisterCommand proc LctProc + LctRegisterCommand return LctReturn + LctRegisterCommand if LctIf + LctRegisterCommand pass LctPass + LctRegisterCommand while LctWhile + LctRegisterCommand eval LctEvalCmd + LctRegisterCommand uplevel LctUplevelCmd + LctRegisterCommand global LctGlobalCmd + + # Random stuff that are really needed, but not part of the core itself. + LctRegisterCommand puts LctPut + LctRegisterCommand + LctGenericMathOp + LctRegisterCommand - LctGenericMathOp + LctRegisterCommand * LctGenericMathOp + LctRegisterCommand / LctGenericMathOp + LctRegisterCommand % LctGenericMathOp + LctRegisterCommand > LctGenericMathOp + LctRegisterCommand >= LctGenericMathOp + LctRegisterCommand < LctGenericMathOp + LctRegisterCommand =< LctGenericMathOp + LctRegisterCommand == LctGenericMathOp + LctRegisterCommand != LctGenericMathOp + LctRegisterCommand incr LctIncr + + ################################################################################ + # Example + ################################################################################ + + set text { + # Test for comment + # Test basic substitution + set name "All The Tclers" + puts "Hello to $name [+ 1 2] [+ 10 20]" + puts "(6*3)+(8*2)=[+ [* 6 3] [* 8 2]]" + # Test procedures + proc test a { + puts "I'm printing $a" + } + test "Hello World" + # Test return from procedure without value + proc testreturn {} { + puts "Test Return" + return + puts "FooBar" + } + testreturn + testreturn + # Test return with value + proc testreturn2 x { + return $x$x + } + puts "Return With Value: [testreturn2 XyZ]" + # Test conditionals + set a 1 + if {pass $a} {puts "($a) is true"} else {puts "($a) is false"} + set a 0 + if {pass $a} {puts "($a) is true"} else {puts "($a) is false"} + set a foobar + if {pass $a} {puts "($a) is true"} else {puts "($a) is false"} + set a {} + if {pass $a} {puts "($a) is true"} else {puts "($a) is false"} + # Test incr + set x 10 + puts "Now it is $x" + incr x + puts "Now it is $x" + incr x -2 + puts "Now it is $x" + # Test Loops + while {< $x 20} { + incr x 1 + puts "Hello World $x" + } + set script {puts -nonewline we;} + eval $script {puts " are inside eval"} + # Test global + proc testglobal {} { + global x + puts "x is global, value: $x" + set x 30 + puts "x value changed, will print the new value outside the proc" + } + testglobal + puts "x new value is $x" + # Test uplevel + proc testuplevel {} { + puts --- + uplevel 1 {puts "testglobal was called from uplevel: [testglobal]"} + uplevel 1 {puts "In uplevel, x = $x"} + } + testuplevel + } + + LctEval $text +``` + +[SS](/9525) 12Oct2004: One day for fun I implemented a subset of Tcl in +Tcl, with some more work may run non trivial programs. Consider this +program BSD-licensed. + +I have got problems testing it (error: invalid command name +"::macro::parser"). + +I have got problems testing it (error: invalid command name +"::macro::parser"). + +This is because the call to ::macro::parser doesn't reference any known +function. When I changed the call to LctParser, everything worked for +me. I have taken the liberty of making the change in the code above. -RL + +This is because the call to ::macro::parser doesn't reference any known +function. When I changed the call to LctParser, everything worked for +me. I have taken the liberty of making the change in the code above. -RL + +I suppose also that the parser would have problems with some special +ugly code as follow, which is accepted by the original tcl parser: + +``` + set {]} t + set a [list ${]} ] + set {"} t + set a "a ${"} " + set a "ewe [list "sewe"] ewr" +``` + +I suppose also that the parser would have problems with some special +ugly code as follow, which is accepted by the original tcl parser: + +Anyway programming tcl in tcl is very interesting idea if one wants to +test experimental tcl interpreters or build in new functions which are +not supported by original interpreter + +Anyway programming tcl in tcl is very interesting idea if one wants to +test experimental tcl interpreters or build in new functions which are +not supported by original interpreter + +: I think several of those would actually be handled OK, but + +``` + set a [list ${]} ] +``` + +[Lars H](/6266) : I think several of those would actually be handled OK, +but + +is not (the only extra rule in command substitution nesting is that '\]' +terminates a command in places where ';' would, so brackets need not +nest properly as LctSubstCmd assumes). Backslash substitution is missing +entirely. Also the following isn't handled correctly: + +``` + set a x{$a}x +``` + +is not (the only extra rule in command substitution nesting is that '\]' +terminates a command in places where ';' would, so brackets need not +nest properly as LctSubstCmd assumes). Backslash substitution is missing +entirely. Also the following isn't handled correctly: + +The left brace only has special powers if it is the first character in a +word. What worries me most about the above parser is however: + +The left brace only has special powers if it is the first character in a +word. What worries me most about the above parser is however: + + - its use of a variable $inside (that is too simple to keep track of + the state of a correct Tcl parser), and + - the one big loop over characters in the input (hard to analyse, + because there are so many cases to consider, and thus likely to + buggy). + +For a more complete Tcl parser, available here on this Wiki, see + +For a more complete Tcl parser, available here on this Wiki, see +[parsetcl](/9649) + +[Category Application](/2272) - [Category Tcl Implementations](/13992) diff --git a/_stories/2007/15631778.md b/_stories/2007/15631778.md index 9a6e52c..54d8a13 100644 --- a/_stories/2007/15631778.md +++ b/_stories/2007/15631778.md @@ -19,829 +19,5 @@ _tags: objectID: '15631778' --- -[Source](https://www.sciencenews.org/article/ancient-islamic-penrose-tiles-0 "Permalink to Ancient Islamic Penrose Tiles | Science News") - -# Ancient Islamic Penrose Tiles | Science News - -[Skip to main content][2] - -[Menu][3] [Search][3] [Science News][4] - -## Donate - -* [Donate][5] - -## Account - -[Log In][6] - -## The Society - -* [The Society][7] -* [Science News][8] -* [Science News for Students][9] -* [Student Science][10] - -![Science News][11] - -## [Science News][12] - -MISSION CRITICAL - -Support credible science journalism. - -Subscribe to _Science News _today. - -[SUBSCRIBE][13] - -* [ Menu ][14] -* [ Topics ][15] - - * [ Atom & Cosmos ][16] - * [ Body & Brain ][17] - * [ Earth & Environment ][18] - * [ Genes & Cells ][19] - * [ Life & Evolution ][20] - * [ Humans & Society ][21] - * [ Math & Technology ][22] - * [ Matter & Energy ][23] -* [ Blogs ][24] - - * [ Context | Tom Siegfried ][25] - * [ Growth Curve | Laura Sanders ][26] - * [ Scicurious | Bethany Brookshire ][27] - * [ Science Ticker | Science News Staff ][28] - * [ Science & the Public | Science News Staff ][29] - * [ Wild Things | Sarah Zielinski ][30] -* [ Editor's Picks ][31] - - * [ Top stories of 2017 ][32] - * [ Favorite books of 2017 ][33] - * [ Gravitational waves ][34] - * [ Eclipse 2017 ][35] - * [ Cassini mission to Saturn ][36] - * [ See More ][31] -* [ Magazine ][37] - -![3/03 cover][38]][39] - -In the March 3 _SN_: Redefining dinosaurs, minibrain recipes, how flu spreads, lions vs. zebras, Venus prospects, a whale speaks and more.  - -[Current Issue][39] - -## Explore - -* ### Topics - - * [Atom & Cosmos][16] - - * [Biology][40] - - * [Chemistry][41] - - * [Doing Research][42] - - * [Earth Sciences][43] - - * [Environmental Science][44] - - * [Other Disciplines][45] - - * [Physics][46] -* ### Blogs - - * [Context][25] - - * [Growth Curve][47] - - * [Scicurious][27] - - * [Science Ticker][28] - - * [Science & the Public][29] - - * [Wild Things][30] - - * [Culture Beaker][48] - - * [Gory Details][49] -* ### Editor's Picks - - * [2017 Top 10][32] - - * [Favorite books of 2017][33] - - * [Gravitational waves][50] - - * [AGU 2017][51] - - * [Scientists to Watch][52] - - * [Nobels 2017][53] - - * [Cassini mission to Saturn][36] - - * [Eclipse 2017][35] -* ### SN Magazine - - * [March 3, 2018][54] - * [February 17, 2018][55] - * [February 3, 2018][56] - * [January 20, 2018][57] - * [December 23, 2017][58] - * [December 9, 2017][59] - * [November 25, 2017][60] - * [November 11, 2017][61] - -[Latest][62] [Most Viewed][62] - -### All News - -Sort by Published atMost Viewed - -* Science Visualized - -[New mapping shows just how much fishing impacts the world's seas][63] - -February 22, 2018 - -by Carolyn Gramling - -* Science Stats - -[Global Virome Project is hunting for more than 1 million unknown viruses ][64] - -February 22, 2018 - -by Laurel Hamers - -* News - -[Cave art suggests Neandertals were ancient humans' mental equals ][65] - -February 22, 2018 - -by Bruce Bower - -* News in Brief - -[The last wild horses aren't truly wild][66] - -February 22, 2018 - -by Erika Engelhaupt - -* Editor's Note - -[Building a bright future for science journalism][67] - -February 22, 2018 - -by Nancy Shute - -* Society Update - -[Congratulations to the 40 Regeneron Science Talent Search finalists!][68] - -* Letters to the Editor - -[Readers weigh in on human gene editing and more][69] - -February 22, 2018 - -by Science News Staff - -* 50 Years Ago - -[50 years ago, early organ transplants brought triumph and tragedy][70] - -February 22, 2018 - -by Bethany Brookshire - -* Feature - -[New fossils are redefining what makes a dinosaur][71] - -February 21, 2018 - -by Carolyn Gramling - -* News in Brief - -[An amateur astronomer caught a supernova explosion on camera][72] - -February 21, 2018 - -by Lisa Grossman - -* Growth Curve - -[A new study eases fears of a link between autism and prenatal ultrasounds][73] - -February 21, 2018 - -by Laura Sanders - -* Society Update - -[Changing toothpastes? 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Lu traveled to Uzbekistan, he had no idea of the +mathematical journey that he was about to embark on as well. diff --git a/_stories/2007/16075744.md b/_stories/2007/16075744.md deleted file mode 100644 index d3f11b1..0000000 --- a/_stories/2007/16075744.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,25 +0,0 @@ ---- -created_at: '2018-01-05T01:29:06.000Z' -title: "“Intel Core 2 bugs will assuredly be exploitable from userland code” (2007)" -url: https://marc.info/?l=openbsd-misc&m=118296441702631&w=2 -author: pixelmonkey -points: 325 -story_text: -comment_text: -num_comments: 118 -story_id: -story_title: -story_url: -parent_id: -created_at_i: 1515115746 -_tags: -- story -- author_pixelmonkey -- story_16075744 -objectID: '16075744' - ---- -[Source](https://marc.info/?l=openbsd-misc&m=118296441702631&w=2 "Permalink to ") - - - diff --git a/_stories/2007/1879197.md b/_stories/2007/1879197.md index 4efcd7b..80463ae 100644 --- a/_stories/2007/1879197.md +++ b/_stories/2007/1879197.md @@ -19,7 +19,224 @@ _tags: objectID: '1879197' --- -[Source](https://www.bizjournals.com/bizjournals/topic/startups "Permalink to ") +[![The Funded: 12 Bay Area startups rake in nearly $850M at week's +end](https://media.bizj.us/view/img/3761271/connor-landgrafeko-devicesstartx*150xx4198-3161-163-0.jpg) +![The Funded: 12 Bay Area startups rake in nearly $850M at week's end +](https://media.bizj.us/view/img/3761271/connor-landgrafeko-devicesstartx*150xx4198-3161-163-0.jpg)](sanjose/news/2018/03/02/the-funded-12-bay-area-startups-rake-in-nearly.html) +### The Funded: 12 Bay Area startups rake in nearly $850M at week's end +[![Mental-health startup Learn to Live raises $4.3M, heads for North +Loop](https://media.bizj.us/view/img/9779652/istock000070436615large*150xx2427-1820-137-0.jpg) +![Mental-health startup Learn to Live raises $4.3M, heads for North Loop +](https://media.bizj.us/view/img/9779652/istock000070436615large*150xx2427-1820-137-0.jpg)](twincities/news/2018/03/02/mental-health-startup-learn-to-live-raises-4-3m.html) +### Mental-health startup Learn to Live raises $4.3M, heads for North Loop + +[![This week in N.Y.C. funding news: Current, Nomad Health, Rent the +Runway](https://media.bizj.us/view/img/10262978/932a6154editretouchedv2*150xx2516-1892-0-345.jpg) +![This week in N.Y.C. funding news: Current, Nomad Health, Rent the +Runway +](https://media.bizj.us/view/img/10262978/932a6154editretouchedv2*150xx2516-1892-0-345.jpg)](newyork/news/2018/03/02/this-week-in-n-y-c-funding-news-current-nomad.html) + +### This week in N.Y.C. funding news: Current, Nomad Health, Rent the Runway + +[![Travis Kalanick joins board of SoCal medical tech +startup](https://media.bizj.us/view/img/1096961/kalanicktravis7120-pv12*150xx2356-1767-150-0.jpg) +![Travis Kalanick joins board of SoCal medical tech startup +](https://media.bizj.us/view/img/1096961/kalanicktravis7120-pv12*150xx2356-1767-150-0.jpg)](losangeles/news/2018/03/02/kalanick-joins-board-of-socal-medical-tech-startup.html) + +### Travis Kalanick joins board of SoCal medical tech startup + +[![New York 'Uber for trucks' startup +expands](https://media.bizj.us/view/img/10810472/jamie-hess*150xx1341-1004-0-77.jpg) +![New York 'Uber for trucks' startup expands +](https://media.bizj.us/view/img/10810472/jamie-hess*150xx1341-1004-0-77.jpg)](newyork/news/2018/03/02/new-york-uber-for-trucks-startup-expands.html) + +### New York 'Uber for trucks' startup expands + +[![These 15 Mass. tech companies raised $320M in +February](https://media.bizj.us/view/img/10783069/mit-optical-neural0-2*150xx843-632-53-0.jpg) +![These 15 Mass. tech companies raised $320M in February +](https://media.bizj.us/view/img/10783069/mit-optical-neural0-2*150xx843-632-53-0.jpg)](boston/news/2018/03/02/these-15-mass-tech-companies-raised-320m-in.html) + +### These 15 Mass. tech companies raised $320M in February + +[![Travis Kalanick joins board of SoCal medical tech +startup](https://media.bizj.us/view/img/1096961/kalanicktravis7120-pv12*150xx2356-1767-150-0.jpg) +![Travis Kalanick joins board of SoCal medical tech startup +](https://media.bizj.us/view/img/1096961/kalanicktravis7120-pv12*150xx2356-1767-150-0.jpg)](sanfrancisco/news/2018/03/02/travis-kalanick-joins-board-of-kareo.html) + +### Travis Kalanick joins board of SoCal medical tech startup + +[![Sprint owner SoftBank bets $535M that food delivery startup can +deliver](https://media.bizj.us/view/img/2206331/door-dash-xu-6-022114*150xx5120-3840-320-0.jpg) +![Sprint owner SoftBank bets $535M that food delivery startup can +deliver +](https://media.bizj.us/view/img/2206331/door-dash-xu-6-022114*150xx5120-3840-320-0.jpg)](kansascity/news/2018/03/02/sprint-owner-softbank-doordash-535-million.html) + +### Sprint owner SoftBank bets $535M that food delivery startup can deliver + +[![Healthcare Leadership Forum: Views from five local industry +leaders](https://media.bizj.us/view/img/10810740/leadershipforummain*150xx2455-1840-158-0.png) +![Healthcare Leadership Forum: Views from five local industry leaders +](https://media.bizj.us/view/img/10810740/leadershipforummain*150xx2455-1840-158-0.png)](sacramento/news/2018/03/02/healthcare-leadership-forum-views-from-five-local.html) + +### Healthcare Leadership Forum: Views from five local industry leaders + +[![Triad-based food app Neighborz set to swipe into new +city](https://media.bizj.us/view/img/10667046/13*150xx1242-932-0-0.png) +![Triad-based food app Neighborz set to swipe into new city +](https://media.bizj.us/view/img/10667046/13*150xx1242-932-0-0.png)](triad/news/2018/03/02/triad-based-food-app-neighborz-set-to-swipe-into.html) + +### Triad-based food app Neighborz set to swipe into new city + +[![KCBJ Entrepreneur Panel: Staking success on local +support](https://media.bizj.us/view/img/10807513/20180222entrepreneurpanel381av*150xx1532-1152-777-181.jpg) +![KCBJ Entrepreneur Panel: Staking success on local support +](https://media.bizj.us/view/img/10807513/20180222entrepreneurpanel381av*150xx1532-1152-777-181.jpg)](kansascity/news/2018/03/02/kcbj-entrepreneur-panel-local-support-success.html) + +### KCBJ Entrepreneur Panel: Staking success on local support + +[![KCBJ Entrepreneur Panel: In scaling up, pick the right adviser — and +lose the +ego](https://media.bizj.us/view/img/10807519/20180222entrepreneurpanel511av*150xx1095-823-217-446.jpg) +![KCBJ Entrepreneur Panel: In scaling up, pick the right adviser — and +lose the ego +](https://media.bizj.us/view/img/10807519/20180222entrepreneurpanel511av*150xx1095-823-217-446.jpg)](kansascity/news/2018/03/02/kcbj-entrepreneur-panel-scaling-up-business.html) + +### KCBJ Entrepreneur Panel: In scaling up, pick the right adviser — and lose the ego + +[![Behind the Cover: Former Cisco CEO Chambers enjoys his grandkids — +both literal and figurative — as a startup +investor](https://media.bizj.us/view/img/10810991/chambers-1-021518*150xx5973-4480-374-0.jpg) +![Behind the Cover: Former Cisco CEO Chambers enjoys his grandkids — +both literal and figurative — as a startup investor +](https://media.bizj.us/view/img/10810991/chambers-1-021518*150xx5973-4480-374-0.jpg)](sanjose/news/2018/03/01/john-chambers-cisco-startup-investing-jc2-ventures.html) + +### Behind the Cover: Former Cisco CEO Chambers enjoys his grandkids — both literal and figurative — as a startup investor + +[![Techweek KC adds Techstars, BetaBlox demo days to +lineup](https://media.bizj.us/view/img/10598083/amanda-signorelli-1*150xx4016-3017-0-653.jpg) +![Techweek KC adds Techstars, BetaBlox demo days to lineup +](https://media.bizj.us/view/img/10598083/amanda-signorelli-1*150xx4016-3017-0-653.jpg)](kansascity/news/2018/03/01/techweek-kc-adds-techstars-betablox-demo-days-to.html) + +### Techweek KC adds Techstars, BetaBlox demo days to lineup + +[![Government should prioritize startups, entrepreneurs +say](https://media.bizj.us/view/img/10750650/wendy-guillies-kauffman-2017*150xx2006-1506-242-29.jpg) +![Government should prioritize startups, entrepreneurs say +](https://media.bizj.us/view/img/10750650/wendy-guillies-kauffman-2017*150xx2006-1506-242-29.jpg)](bizwomen/news/latest-news/2018/03/government-should-prioritize-startups.html) + +### Government should prioritize startups, entrepreneurs say + +[!['Uber for trucks' startup expands to +Cincinnati](https://media.bizj.us/view/img/10811915/truxx-truck*150xx1537-1153-256-0.jpg) +!['Uber for trucks' startup expands to Cincinnati +](https://media.bizj.us/view/img/10811915/truxx-truck*150xx1537-1153-256-0.jpg)](cincinnati/news/2018/03/01/uber-for-trucks-startup-expands-to-cincinnati.html) + +### 'Uber for trucks' startup expands to Cincinnati + +[![Amazon's $1B acquisition of a 'Shark Tank' reject has a Cincinnati +connection](https://media.bizj.us/view/img/10810432/cintrifuse-186*150xx5027-3770-314-0.jpg) +![Amazon's $1B acquisition of a 'Shark Tank' reject has a Cincinnati +connection +](https://media.bizj.us/view/img/10810432/cintrifuse-186*150xx5027-3770-314-0.jpg)](cincinnati/news/2018/03/01/amazons-1b-acquisition-of-a-shark-tank-reject-has.html) + +### Amazon's $1B acquisition of a 'Shark Tank' reject has a Cincinnati connection + +[![Interstacks raises $2.5M, plans to double +staff](https://media.bizj.us/view/img/150341/money*150xx2837-2128-378-0.jpg) +![Interstacks raises $2.5M, plans to double staff +](https://media.bizj.us/view/img/150341/money*150xx2837-2128-378-0.jpg)](pittsburgh/news/2018/03/01/interstacks-raises-2-5m-plans-to-double-staff.html) + +### Interstacks raises $2.5M, plans to double staff + +[![4 tips to help you land a patent license from +UCF](https://media.bizj.us/view/img/5302701/idea*150xx3028-2271-182-0.jpg) +![4 tips to help you land a patent license from UCF +](https://media.bizj.us/view/img/5302701/idea*150xx3028-2271-182-0.jpg)](orlando/news/2018/03/01/4-tips-to-help-you-land-a-patent-license-from-ucf.html) + +### 4 tips to help you land a patent license from UCF + +[![Atlanta tech accelerator Engage draws two Tampa Bay +companies](https://media.bizj.us/view/img/10160847/howtorelationshpmarketing*150xx2392-1801-253-32.jpg) +![Atlanta tech accelerator Engage draws two Tampa Bay companies +](https://media.bizj.us/view/img/10160847/howtorelationshpmarketing*150xx2392-1801-253-32.jpg)](tampabay/news/2018/03/01/atlanta-tech-accelerator-engage-draws-two-tampa.html) + +### Atlanta tech accelerator Engage draws two Tampa Bay companies + +[![How a local tech company plans to reduce head injury risk in +sports](https://media.bizj.us/view/img/10809368/protxx-sensor-picture*150xx600-450-0-75.png) +![How a local tech company plans to reduce head injury risk in sports +](https://media.bizj.us/view/img/10809368/protxx-sensor-picture*150xx600-450-0-75.png)](sacramento/news/2018/03/01/how-a-local-tech-company-plans-to-reduce-head.html) + +### How a local tech company plans to reduce head injury risk in sports + +[![Kings name top 16 contenders in Capitalize startup +contest](https://media.bizj.us/view/img/10792633/dsc2319a*150xx5355-4016-331-0.jpg) +![Kings name top 16 contenders in Capitalize startup contest +](https://media.bizj.us/view/img/10792633/dsc2319a*150xx5355-4016-331-0.jpg)](sacramento/news/2018/03/01/kings-name-top-16-contenders-in-capitalize-startup.html) + +### Kings name top 16 contenders in Capitalize startup contest + +[![First look at Atlanta tech accelerator Engage's new startup class +(Slideshow)](https://media.bizj.us/view/img/10160847/howtorelationshpmarketing*150xx2472-1854-89-0.jpg) +![First look at Atlanta tech accelerator Engage's new startup class +(Slideshow) +](https://media.bizj.us/view/img/10160847/howtorelationshpmarketing*150xx2472-1854-89-0.jpg)](atlanta/news/2018/03/01/first-look-at-atlanta-tech-accelerator-engages-new.html) + +### First look at Atlanta tech accelerator Engage's new startup class (Slideshow) + +[![Making the pitch: These startups to face investors at Triad +event](https://media.bizj.us/view/img/10730985/bobbienew*150xx742-557-0-0.jpg) +![Making the pitch: These startups to face investors at Triad event +](https://media.bizj.us/view/img/10730985/bobbienew*150xx742-557-0-0.jpg)](triad/news/2018/03/01/making-the-pitch-these-startups-to-face-investors.html) + +### Making the pitch: These startups to face investors at Triad event + +[![Video: Palantir CEO defends valuation, downplays ties to +Trump](https://media.bizj.us/view/img/10808897/gettyimages-618307416*150xx3556-2667-222-0.jpg) +![Video: Palantir CEO defends valuation, downplays ties to Trump +](https://media.bizj.us/view/img/10808897/gettyimages-618307416*150xx3556-2667-222-0.jpg)](sanfrancisco/news/2018/02/28/palantir-ceo-alex-karp-interview-valuation-ipo.html) + +### Video: Palantir CEO defends valuation, downplays ties to Trump + +[![Kiva Pittsburgh’s distributed loans reach total of +$1M](https://media.bizj.us/view/img/10810127/kiva*150xx3024-2268-504-0.jpg) +![Kiva Pittsburgh’s distributed loans reach total of $1M +](https://media.bizj.us/view/img/10810127/kiva*150xx3024-2268-504-0.jpg)](pittsburgh/news/2018/02/28/kiva-pittsburgh-s-distributed-loans-reach-total-of.html) + +### Kiva Pittsburgh’s distributed loans reach total of $1M + +[![Kauffman Foundation's State of Entrepreneurship: optimism and +challenges](https://media.bizj.us/view/img/10750650/wendy-guillies-kauffman-2017*150xx2006-1506-242-29.jpg) +![Kauffman Foundation's State of Entrepreneurship: optimism and +challenges +](https://media.bizj.us/view/img/10750650/wendy-guillies-kauffman-2017*150xx2006-1506-242-29.jpg)](kansascity/news/2018/02/28/kauffman-foundation-state-of-entrepreneurship.html) + +### Kauffman Foundation's State of Entrepreneurship: optimism and challenges + +[![Video: Palantir CEO defends valuation, downplays ties to +Trump](https://media.bizj.us/view/img/10808897/gettyimages-618307416*150xx3556-2667-222-0.jpg) +![Video: Palantir CEO defends valuation, downplays ties to Trump +](https://media.bizj.us/view/img/10808897/gettyimages-618307416*150xx3556-2667-222-0.jpg)](sanjose/news/2018/02/28/palantir-ceo-alex-karp-interview-valuation-ipo.html) + +### Video: Palantir CEO defends valuation, downplays ties to Trump + +[![What the CEO of an urban entrepreneurship group told Tampa Bay small +business owners about +funding](https://media.bizj.us/view/img/10808772/icic-participants*150xx4032-3024-0-0.jpg) +![What the CEO of an urban entrepreneurship group told Tampa Bay small +business owners about funding +](https://media.bizj.us/view/img/10808772/icic-participants*150xx4032-3024-0-0.jpg)](tampabay/news/2018/02/28/what-the-ceo-of-an-urban-entrepreneurship-group.html) + +### What the CEO of an urban entrepreneurship group told Tampa Bay small business owners about funding + +[![Cisco partner gets $125M in funding, financing for cloud storage +offering](https://media.bizj.us/view/img/10808385/cloudian-ceo-mike-tso*150xx3627-2720-0-149.jpg) +![Cisco partner gets $125M in funding, financing for cloud storage +offering +](https://media.bizj.us/view/img/10808385/cloudian-ceo-mike-tso*150xx3627-2720-0-149.jpg)](sanjose/news/2018/02/28/cisco-partner-cloudian-gets-25m-funding-csco.html) + +### Cisco partner gets $125M in funding, financing for cloud storage offering diff --git a/_stories/2007/2353159.md b/_stories/2007/2353159.md index e2e25cd..ded4747 100644 --- a/_stories/2007/2353159.md +++ b/_stories/2007/2353159.md @@ -19,7 +19,181 @@ _tags: objectID: '2353159' --- -[Source](https://www.wired.com/techbiz/people/news/2007/10/dzubia_qa "Permalink to ") +[![](https://www.wired.com/wp-content/uploads/archive/images/article/full/2007/10/ted_dziuba_500px.jpg)](https://www.wired.com/techbiz/people/news/2007/10/#) +\* Photo: Julie Sloan \* There is a certain gentleness to most Web 2.0 +coverage. Even when startups sound flat-out dumb, we all root for the +little guy. +Not Ted Dziuba. He's the blogger behind [Uncov](http://www.uncov.com/), +and he brutally dismisses most companies with a single word: Fail. +Dziuba is the +anti-[Arrington](https://www.wired.com/techbiz/people/magazine/15-07/ff_arrington). +Of the startup Stixy, an online bulletin board, [he +writes](http://www.uncov.com/2007/10/5/thanks-stixy-i-didn-t-need-that-browser-instance): +"It's virtually the same product as Wixi, with virtually the same name. +Don't get me wrong, both products are steaming shit heaps; it's just +harder to tell them apart now." +Of [LingoZ](http://www.lingoz.com/), a user-written dictionary, [he +says](http://www.uncov.com/2007/10/3/what-s-a-cincinatti-bowtie): "These +guys take themselves waaay too seriously to have a term like alligator +fuckhouse in their lexicon. Now where's the fun in that?" + +The thing is, as scathing as he is hilarious, Dziuba tends to be +spot-on. Strip away the bombast, and Dziuba is a guilty pleasure that's +actually worth reading. + +Despite diagnosing Silicon Valley woes with the vinegar of a crotchety +old man, Dziuba, it turns out, is only 23. + +After getting his math degree from the Rochester Institute of Technology +in 2006, the Connecticut native spent a year at Google, He left to +create his own startup, [Persai](http://www.persai.com/) (rhymes with +Versailles) with college buddies and occasional Uncov bloggers Matt Kent +and Kyle Shank. + +Persai, Dziuba says, will launch its first product – a sort of +intelligent newsreader – in beta before the end of the year. + +With all the [debate over +Bubble 2.0](https://www.wired.com/sterling/2007/09/print-is-dead-a.html), +we figured whom better to ask than a critic whose tagline is "What. The. +Fuck." Lord knows he isn't afraid to be honest. So we sat down with +Dziuba at San Francisco's Caffe Centro, epicenter of Bubble 1.0, to talk +about where Silicon Valley is still getting it wrong. + +**Wired News:** In your opinion, where is Web 2.0 going wrong? + +**TD:** What I'm seeing now with a lot of these Web 2.0 companies is +that they're not based on technology, but on a dog-and-pony show. Under +the surface, there's nothing noteworthy going on. The majority of them +are just rolling the dice, and they know it. These are the people who +will go to parties just to suck up to Arrington and say, "Hey come look +at my startup. Please plug me." For these guys +[TechCrunch](http://www.techcrunch.com/) is going to make or break the +company. If you look at a company's traffic graph on +[Alexa](http://www.alexa.com/) when it hits TechCrunch, there's a huge +spike that day and then a month later it's down to almost nothing. In +this world it's all about creating the buzz. It doesn't matter about +revenues or profits. It's just about how many users you can get. + +**WN:** How do you personally differentiate between what's worthy and +what isn’t? + +**TD:** You know you're a bullshit company when your core technology is +Ajax. If the business is every widget under the sun conglomerated into +this giant application, there's no real technology there. There's no +noteworthy computer-science problem being solved. The Ajax stuff is +pre-written. You just have to go to the libraries and put it all +together. + +When Gmail came out – and Gmail is a pretty kick-ass product – it was +like, "Ha\! Ajax for dynamic web apps\! We can use it for everything\!" +So now you have companies like [Zoho](http://www.zoho.com/), for +example. Their sole goal is to take every desktop app that ever existed +and reimplement it in Ajax with no added features or functionality. It +irritates me as an engineer that companies with no engineering merit, +first off, are getting funded and, second off, are getting bought out. + +**WN:** Why aren't more Silicon Valley bloggers trashing startups? + +**TD:** I'm guessing they don't want to piss off advertisers. Or it +would illegitimize them as a blogger to say something remotely critical +of someone. The whole scene is like a little league game where +everyone's a winner and everyone gets a trophy at the end. You've got +people like Michael Arrington and Robert Scoble who are the coaches of +the team and handing out the trophies, and then Uncov is like the creepy +guy in the trench coat sitting in the stands. + +People accuse us of saying negative stuff to get traffic. Honestly, I +don't give a shit about the traffic. People could stop coming tomorrow. +Great\! I don't have to satisfy you vultures anymore. We don't have ads, +although we're talking to a couple advertisers now because we have to +cover our hosting costs. But it's by no means a profit center. + +**WN:** Where do you stand on the whole "Bubble 2.0" issue? Is the +bottom going to fall out? + +\_\_TD: \_\_ It's going to happen slowly over time. It's not going to be +like the first dot-com crash where the sky was falling within a month, +only because it's all private-equity deals. There have been very few +IPOs. + +Google didn't do the world any favors when it overpaid so much for +YouTube. That set off a surge in the expected value of a startup. A lot +of people think that if you put $10,000 into enough of these, eventually +one will pay off. But this whole thing is eventually going to cave in on +itself. All these companies will keep getting bought up, but the +acquirers are not going to see great returns. + +**WN:** We've talked a lot about what you don't like. What types of +companies do you like? + +**TD:** Things that have actual technology behind them. Take +[Joost](http://www.joost.com/), for example. That is a really cool +program, because the company spent a lot of time working on the quality +of the picture. It looks really good. It also has exclusive content from +big-name providers like Comedy Central that's actually worth watching. +It's not a guy riding his bike into a tree on YouTube. Going out and +getting licensing deals for content is hard work, and I'm pretty sure +they're going to be well-rewarded for it. + +**WN:** What did you do during the year you were at Google? + +**TD:** I worked on internal apps. I got bored pretty quickly there and +left to do something interesting. + +**WN:** That's my cue. Tell me about Persai. + +**TD:** The three of us are doing a company based around machine +learning and artificial intelligence on an unreasonably large scale. We +essentially want to automate the understanding of all the information in +the world. + +**WN:** (Pause.) What? + +**TD:** We want to build machine programs that can learn things from +information that's out there on the web. In the first application we'll +come out with, you tell us things that you're interested in, and we'll +continuously go out and find stuff on the internet that's related to +that. There's a positive feedback loop where you tell us what you like +and don't, so the machine gets progressively better in learning what you +like. + +**WN:** Is it going to be like, "I like unicorns; give me news about +unicorns"? That sounds like a search engine. + +**TD:** Search engine implies somebody's actively going out and looking +for information. We're more passive than that. It's more like a +newsreader. It's like you have some time to burn, so you go to Digg and +see what the top headlines are. In that same style, except you take the +community part completely out and leave all of it up to a machine. + +**WN:** That's the opposite of what's trendy right now. + +**TD:** Exactly. We're hoping that the tenet of "automation is key" +still holds. + +**WN:** Valleywag has commented that your ad-free blog is something of a +bait and switch – build up attention without monetizing it and then +introduce your for-profit startup. + +**TD:** We're pretty good friends with the Valleywag people, so we bust +each other's balls all the time. We all recognize that it's just the +internet. At the end of the day you still go outside and nobody knows +who you are. Valleywag is like Uncov: We both force people not to take +themselves too seriously. + +**WN:** Well, I hope you don't fail. + +**TD:** Yeah, I hope so, too. + +[Beyond Ramen: A Cookbook for +Entrepreneurs](https://www.wired.com/techbiz/startups/news/2007/07/cookbook) + +[How Madison Avenue Is Wasting Millions on a Deserted Second +Life](https://www.wired.com/techbiz/media/magazine/15-08/ff_sheep) + +[TechCrunch Blogger Michael Arrington Can Generate Buzz ... and +Cash](https://www.wired.com/techbiz/people/magazine/15-07/ff_arrington) diff --git a/_stories/2007/3397697.md b/_stories/2007/3397697.md index adc4fb6..bca588a 100644 --- a/_stories/2007/3397697.md +++ b/_stories/2007/3397697.md @@ -19,7 +19,625 @@ _tags: objectID: '3397697' --- -[Source](https://www.esquire.com/features/honesty0707 "Permalink to ") +**Here's the truth about why I'm writing this article:** +I want to fulfill my contract with my boss. I want to avoid getting +fired. I want all the attractive women I knew in high school and college +to read it. I want them to be amazed and impressed and feel a vague +regret over their decision not to have sex with me, and maybe if I get +divorced or become a widower, [I can have sex with them +someday](/lifestyle/sex/advice/a9353/best-sex-positions/) at a reunion. +I want Hollywood to buy my article and turn it into a movie, even though +they kind of already made the movie ten years ago with Jim Carrey. +I want to get congratulatory e-mails and job offers that I can politely +decline. Or accept if they're really good. Then get a generous +counteroffer from my boss. +To be totally honest, I was sorry I mentioned this idea to my boss about +three seconds after I opened my mouth. Because I knew the article would +be a pain in the ass to pull off. Dammit. I should have let my colleague +Tom Chiarella write it. But I didn't want to seem lazy. + +What I mentioned to my boss was this: a movement called Radical Honesty. + +Advertisement - Continue Reading +Below + +![](data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAAAAAP///yH5BAEAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAIBRAA7) + +Universal Pictures + +The movement was founded by a sixty-six-year-old Virginia-based +psychotherapist named Brad Blanton. He says everybody would be happier +if we just stopped lying. Tell the truth, all the time. This would be +radical enough -- a world without fibs -- but Blanton goes further. He +says we should toss out the filters between our brains and our mouths. +If you think it, say it. Confess to your boss your secret plans to start +your own company. If you're having fantasies about your wife's sister, +Blanton says to tell your wife and tell her sister. It's the only path +to authentic relationships. It's the only way to smash through +modernity's soul-deadening alienation. Oversharing? No such thing. + +Yes. I know. One of the most idiotic ideas ever, right up there with +Vanilla Coke and giving Phil Spector a gun permit. Deceit makes our +world go round. Without lies, marriages would crumble, workers would be +fired, egos would be shattered, governments would collapse. + +> Without lies, marriages would crumble, workers would be fired, egos +> would be shattered, governments would collapse + +And yet...maybe there's something to it. Especially for me. I have a +lying problem. Mine aren't big lies. They aren't lies like "I cannot +recall that crucial meeting from two months ago, Senator." Mine are +little lies. White lies. Half-truths. The kind we all tell. But I tell +dozens of them every day. "Yes, let's definitely get together soon." +"I'd love to, but I have a touch of the stomach flu." "No, we can't buy +a toy today -- the toy store is closed." It's bad. Maybe a couple of +weeks of truth-immersion therapy would do me good. + +I e-mail Blanton to ask if I can come down to Virginia and get some +pointers before embarking on my Radical Honesty experiment. He writes +back: "I appreciate you for apparently having a real interest and hope +you're not just doing a cutesy little superficial dipshit job like most +journalists." + +I'm already nervous. I better start off with a clean slate. I confess I +lied to him in my first e-mail -- that I haven't ordered all his books +on Amazon yet. I was just trying to impress upon him that I was serious +about his work. He writes back: "Thanks for your honesty in attempting +to guess what your manipulative and self-protective motive must have +been." + +**Blanton lives in a house** he built himself, perched on a hill in the +town of Stanley, Virginia, population 1,331. We're sitting on white +chairs in a room with enormous windows and a crackling fireplace. He's +swirling a glass of Maker's Mark bourbon and water and telling me why +it's important to live with no lies. + +"You'll have really bad times, you'll have really great times, but +you'll contribute to other people because you haven't been dancing on +eggshells your whole fucking life. It's a better life." + +"Do you think it's ever okay to lie?" I ask. + +"I advocate never lying in personal relationships. But if you have Anne +Frank in your attic and a Nazi knocks on the door, lie....I lie to any +government official." (Blanton's politics are just this side of Noam +Chomsky's.) "I lie to the IRS. I always take more deductions than are +justified. I lie in golf. And in poker." + +Blanton adjusts his crotch. I expected him to be a bully. Or maybe a +new-age huckster with a bead necklace who sits cross-legged on the +floor. He's neither. He's a former Texan with a big belly and a big +laugh and a big voice. He's got a bushy head of gray hair and a twang +that makes his bye sound like bah. He calls himself "white trash with a +Ph.D." If you mixed DNA from Lyndon Johnson, Ken Kesey, and threw in the +non-annoying parts of Dr. Phil, you might get Blanton. + +Advertisement - Continue Reading +Below + +![](data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAAAAAP///yH5BAEAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAIBRAA7) +[](//pinterest.com/pin/create/button/?url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.esquire.com%2Fnews-politics%2Fa26792%2Fhonesty0707%2F&description=I%20Think%20You%27re%20Fat&media=https%3A%2F%2Fhips.hearstapps.com%2Fesq.h-cdn.co%2Fassets%2F16%2F43%2F1477434013-gettyimages-90737598.jpg%3Fresize%3D1600%3A%2A) + +Are there any non-annoying parts of Dr. Phil? + +Getty Images + +He ran for Congress twice, with the novel promise that he'd be an honest +politician. In 2004, he got a surprising 25 percent of the vote in his +Virginia district as an independent. In 2006, the Democrats considered +endorsing him but got skittish about his weeklong workshops, which +involve a day of total nudity. They also weren't crazy that he's been +married five times (currently to a Swedish flight attendant twenty-six +years his junior). He ran again but withdrew when it became clear he was +going to be crushed. + +My interview with Blanton is unlike any other I've had in fifteen years +as a journalist. Usually, there's a fair amount of ass kissing and +diplomacy. You approach the controversial stuff on tippy toes (the way +Barbara Walters once asked Richard Gere about that terrible, terrible +rumor). With Blanton, I can say anything that pops into my mind. In +fact, it would be rude not to say it. I'd be insulting his life's work. +It's my first taste of Radical Honesty, and it's liberating, +exhilarating. + +When Blanton rambles on about President Bush, I say, "You know, I +stopped listening about a minute ago." + +"Thanks for telling me," he says. + +I tell him, "You look older than you do in the author photo for your +book," and when he veers too far into therapyspeak, I say, "That just +sounds like gobbledygook." + +"Thanks," he replies." Or, "That's fine." + +Blanton has a temper -- he threatened to "beat the shit" out of a +newspaper editor during the campaign -- but it hasn't flared tonight. +The closest he comes to attacking me is when he says I am self-indulgent +and Esquire is pretentious. Both true. + +Blanton pours himself another bourbon and water. He's got a wad of +chewing tobacco in his cheek, and when he spits into the fireplace, the +flames crackle louder. + +"My boss says you sound like a dick," I say. + +"Tell your boss he's a dick," he says. + +"I'm glad you picked your nose just now," I say. "Because it was funny +and disgusting, and it'll make a good detail for the article." + +"That's fine. I'll pick my ass in a minute." Then he unleashes his deep +Texan laugh: heh, heh, heh. (He also burps and farts throughout our +conversation; he believes the one-cheek sneak is "a little deceitful.") + +No topic is off-limits. "I've slept with more than five hundred women +and about a half dozen men," he tells me. "I've had a whole bunch of +threesomes" -- one of which involved a hermaphrodite prostitute equipped +with dual organs. + +> 'I've had a whole bunch of threesomes -- one of which involved a +> hermaphrodite prostitute equipped with dual organs' + +Advertisement - Continue Reading Below + +What about animals? + +Blanton thinks for a minute. "I let my dog lick my dick once." + +If he hadn't devoted his life to Radical Honesty, I'd say he was, to use +his own phrase, as full of shit as a Christmas turkey. But I don't think +he is. I believe he's telling the truth. Which is a startling thing for +a journalist to confront. Generally, I'm devoting 30 percent of my +mental energy to figuring out what a source is lying about or hiding +from me. Another 20 percent goes into scheming about how to unearth that +buried truth. No need for that today. + +"I was disappointed when I visited your office," I tell Blanton. +(Earlier he had shown me a small, cluttered single-room office that +serves as the Radical Honesty headquarters.) "I'm impressed by +exteriors, so I would have been impressed by an office building in some +city, not a room in Butt Fuck, Virginia. For my article, I want this to +be a legitimate movement, not a fringe movement." + +"What about a legitimate fringe movement?" asks Blanton, who has, by +this time, had three bourbons. + +Blanton's legitimate fringe movement is sizable but not huge. He's sold +175,000 books in eleven languages and has twenty-five trainers assisting +in workshops and running practice groups around the country. + +Now, my editor thinks I'm overreaching here and trying too hard to +justify this article's existence, but I think society is speeding toward +its own version of Radical Honesty. The truth of our lives is +increasingly being exposed, both voluntarily (MySpace pages, transparent +business transactions) and involuntarily. (See Gonzales and Google, or +ask Alec Baldwin.) For better or worse, we may all soon be Brad +Blantons. I need to be prepared. \[Such bullshit. -- +Ed.\] + +![](data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAAAAAP///yH5BAEAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAIBRAA7) +[](//pinterest.com/pin/create/button/?url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.esquire.com%2Fnews-politics%2Fa26792%2Fhonesty0707%2F&description=I%20Think%20You%27re%20Fat&media=https%3A%2F%2Fhips.hearstapps.com%2Fesq.h-cdn.co%2Fassets%2F16%2F43%2F1477434323-alec-baldwin.png%3Fresize%3D1600%3A%2A) + +Alec Baldwin in his natural state + +Sony + +**I return to New York** and immediately set about delaying my +experiment. When you're with Blanton, you think, Yes, I can do this\! +The truth, the whole truth, nothing but the truth. But when I get back +to bosses and fragile friendships, I continue my lying ways. + +"How's Radical Honesty going?" my boss asks. + +"It's okay," I lie. "A little slow." + +A couple of weeks later, I finally get some inspiration from my friend's +five-year-old daughter, Alison. We are in Central Park for a play date. +Out of nowhere, Alison looks at me evenly and says, "Your teeth are +yellow because you drink coffee all day." + +Damn. Now that's some radical honesty for you. Maybe I should be more +like a five-year-old. An hour later, she shows me her new pet bug -- a +beetle of some sort that she has in her cupped hands. + +"It's napping," she whispers. + +I nudge the insect with my finger. It doesn't move. Should I play along? +No. I should tell her the truth, like she told me about my teeth. + +"It's not napping." + +She looks confused. + +"It's dead." + +Advertisement - Continue Reading Below + +Alison runs to her father, dismayed. "Daddy, he just said a bad word." + +I feel like an asshole. I frightened a five-year-old, probably out of +revenge for an insult about my oral hygiene. I postpone again -- for a +few more weeks. And then my boss tells me he needs the article for the +July issue. + +> I frightened a five-year-old, probably out of revenge for an insult +> about my oral hygiene + +**I start in again** at dinner with my friend Brian. We are talking +about his new living situation, and I decide to tell him the truth. + +"You know, I forget your fiancée's name." + +This is highly unacceptable -- they've been together for years; I've met +her several times. + +"It's Jenny." + +In his book, Blanton talks about the thrill of total candor, the Space +Mountain-worthy adrenaline rush you get from breaking taboos. As he +writes, "You learn to like the excitement of mild, ongoing risk taking." +This I felt. + +Luckily, Brian doesn't seem too pissed. So I decide to push my luck. +"Yes, that's right. Jenny. Well, I resent you for not inviting me to you +and Jenny's wedding. I don't want to go, since it's in Vermont, but I +wanted to be invited." + +"Well, I resent you for not being invited to your wedding." + +"You weren't invited? Really? I thought I had." + +"Nope." + +"Sorry, man. That was a mistake." + +A breakthrough\! We are communicating\! Blanton is right. Brian and I +crushed some eggshells. We are not stoic, emotionless men. I'm enjoying +this. A little bracing honesty can be a mood booster. + +The next day, we get a visit from my wife's dad and stepmom. + +"Did you get the birthday gift I sent you?" asks her stepmom. + +"Uh-huh," I say. + +She sent me a gift certificate to Saks Fifth Avenue. + +"And? Did you like it?" + +"Not really. I don't like gift certificates. It's like you're giving me +an errand to run." + +"Well, uh . . ." + +Once again, I felt the thrill of inappropriate candor. And I felt +something else, too. The paradoxical joy of being free from choice. I +had no choice but to tell the truth. I didn't have to rack my brain +figuring out how to hedge it, spin it, massage it. + +> I had no choice but to tell the truth. I didn't have to rack my brain +> figuring out how to hedge it, spin it, massage it + +Advertisement - Continue Reading Below + +"Just being honest," I shrug. Nice touch, I decide; helps take the edge +off. She's got a thick skin. She'll be okay. And I'll tell you this: +I'll never get a damn gift certificate from her again. + +**I still tell plenty of lies** every day, but by the end of the week +I've slashed the total by at least 40 percent. Still, the giddiness is +wearing off. A life of radical honesty is filled with a hundred +confrontations every day. Small, but they're relentless. + +"Yes, I'll come to your office, but I resent you for making me travel." + +"My boss said I should invite you to this meeting, although it wouldn't +have occurred to me to do so." + +"I have nothing else to say to you. I have run out of conversation." + +My wife tells me a story about switching operating systems on her +computer. In the middle, I have to go help our son with something, then +forget to come back. + +"Do you want to hear the end of the story or not?" she asks. + +"Well...is there a payoff?" + +"Fuck you." + +It would have been a lot easier to have kept my mouth closed and +listened to her. It reminds me of an issue I raised with Blanton: Why +make waves? "Ninety percent of the time I love my wife," I told him. +"And 10 percent of the time I hate her. Why should I hurt her feelings +that 10 percent of the time? Why not just wait until that phase passes +and I return to the true feeling, which is that I love her?" + +Blanton's response: "Because you're a manipulative, lying son of a +bitch." + +Okay, he's right. It's manipulative and patronizing to shut up and +listen. But it's exhausting not to. + +One other thing is also becoming apparent: There's a fine line between +radical honesty and creepiness. Or actually no line at all. It's simple +logic: Men think about sex every three minutes, as the scientists at +Redbook remind us. If you speak whatever's on your mind, you'll be +talking about sex every three minutes. + +> There's a fine line between radical honesty and creepiness. Or +> actually no line at all + +I have a business breakfast with an editor from Rachael Ray's magazine. +As we're sitting together, I tell her that I remember what she wore the +first time we met -- a black shirt that revealed her shoulders in a +provocative way. I say that I'd try to sleep with her if I were single. +I confess to her that I just attempted (unsuccessfully) to look down her +shirt during breakfast. + +She smiles. Though I do notice she leans back farther in her seat. + +The thing is, the separate cubbyholes of my personality are merging. +Usually, there's a professional self, a home self, a friend self, a +with-the-guys self. Now, it's one big improper mess. This woman and I +have either taken a step forward in our relationship, or she'll never +return my calls again. + +When I get home, I keep the momentum going. I call a friend to say that +I fantasize about his wife. (He says he likes my wife, too, and suggests +a key party.) + +I inform our twenty-seven-year-old nanny that "if my wife left me, I +would ask you out on a date, because I think you are stunning." + +Advertisement - Continue Reading Below + +She laughs. Nervously. + +"I think that makes you uncomfortable, so I won't mention it again. It +was just on my mind." + +Now I've made my own skin crawl. I feel like I should just buy a trench +coat and start lurking around subway platforms. Blanton says he doesn't +believe sex talk in the workplace counts as sexual harassment -- it's +tight-assed society's fault if people can't handle the truth -- but my +nanny confession just feels like pure abuse of power. + +> Now I've made my own skin crawl. I feel like I should just buy a +> trench coat and start lurking around subway platforms + +All this lasciviousness might be more palatable if I were a single man. +In fact, I have a theory: I think Blanton devised Radical Honesty partly +as a way to pick up women. It's a brilliant strategy. The antithesis of +mind games. Transparent mating. + +And according to Blanton, it's effective. He tells me about a woman he +once met on a Paris subway and asked out for tea. When they sat down, he +said, "I didn't really want any tea; I was just trying to figure out a +way to delay you so I could talk to you for a while, because I want to +go to bed with you." They went to bed together. Or another seduction +technique of his: "Wanna fuck?" + +"That works?" I asked. + +"Sometimes it works, sometimes it doesn't, but it's the creation of +possibility." + +**I lied today.** A retired man from New Hampshire -- a friend of a +friend -- wrote some poems and sent them to me. His wife just died, and +he's taken up poetry. He just wanted someone in publishing to read his +work. A professional opinion. + +I read them. I didn't like them much, but I wrote to him that I thought +they were very good. + +So I e-mail Blanton for the first time since our meeting and confess +what I did. I write, "His wife just died, he doesn't have friends. He's +kind of pathetic. I read his stuff, or skimmed it actually. I didn't +like it. I thought it was boring and badly written. So I e-mailed a lie. +I said I really like the poems and hope they get published. He wrote me +back so excited and how it made his week and how he was about to give up +on them but my e-mail gave him the stamina to keep trying." + +I ask Blanton whether I made a mistake. + +He responds curtly. I need to come to his eight-day workshop to "even +begin to get what \[Radical Honesty\] is about." He says we need to meet +in person. + +Meet in person? Did he toss down so many bourbons I vanished from his +memory? I tell him we did meet. + +Blanton writes back testily that he remembers. But I still need to take +a workshop (price tag: $2,800). His only advice on my quandary: "Send +the man the e-mail you sent me about lying to him and ask him to call +you when he gets it...and see what you learn." + +Advertisement - Continue Reading Below + +Show him the e-mail? Are you kidding? What a hardcore bastard. + +In his book, Radical Honesty, Blanton advises us to start sentences with +the words "I resent you for" or "I appreciate you for." So I write him +back. + +"I resent you for being so different in these e-mails than you were when +we met. You were friendly and engaging and encouraging when we met. Now +you seem to have turned judgmental and tough. I resent you for giving me +the advice to break that old man's heart by telling him that his poems +suck." + +Blanton responds quickly. First, he doesn't like that I expressed my +resentment by e-mail. I should have come to see him. "What you don't +seem to get yet, A.J., is that the reason for expressing resentment +directly and in person is so that you can experience in your body the +sensations that occur when you express the resentment, while at the same +time being in the presence of the person you resent, and so you can stay +with them until the sensations arise and recede and then get back to +neutral -- which is what forgiveness is." + +Second, he tells me that telling the old man the truth would be +compassionate, showing the "authentic caring underneath your usual +intellectual bullshit and overvaluing of your critical judgment. Your +lie is not useful to him. In fact, it is simply avoiding your +responsibility as one human being to another. That's okay. It happens +all the time. It is not a mortal sin. But don't bullshit yourself about +it being kind." + +He ends with this: "I don't want to spend a lot of time explaining +things to you for your cute little project of playing with telling the +truth if you don't have the balls to try it." + +Condescending prick. + +I know my e-mail to the old man was wrong. I shouldn't have been so +rah-rah effusive. But here, I've hit the outer limit of Radical Honesty, +a hard wall. I can't trash the old man. + +I try to understand Blanton's point about compassion. To most of us, +honesty often means cruelty. + +But to Blanton, honesty and compassion are the ones in sync. It's an +intriguing way to look at the world, but I just don't buy it in the case +of the widower poet. Screw Blanton. (By the way: I broke Radical Honesty +and changed the identifying details of the old-man story so as not to +humiliate him. Also, I've messed a bit with the timeline of events to +simplify things. Sorry.) + +**To compensate** for my wimpiness, I decide to toughen up. Which is +probably the exact wrong thing to do. Today, I'm getting a haircut, and +my barber is telling me he doesn't want his wife to get pregnant because +she'll get too fat (a bit of radical honesty of his own), and I say, +"You know, I'm tired. I have a cold. I don't want to talk anymore. I +want to read." + +"Okay," he says, wielding his scissors, "go ahead and read." + +Later, I do the same thing with my in-laws when they're yapping on about +preschools. "I'm bored," I announce. "I'll be back later." And with +that, I leave the living room. + +I tell Blanton, hoping for his approval. Did anything come of it? he +asks. Any discussions and insights? Hmmm. + +He's right. If you're going to be a schmuck, at least you should find +some redeeming quality in it. Blanton's a master of this. One of his +tricks is to say things with such glee and enthusiasm, it's hard to get +too pissed. "You may be a petty asshole," he says, "but at least you're +not a secret petty asshole." Then he'll laugh. + +I have yet to learn that trick myself. Consider how I handled this scene +at a diner a couple of blocks from my apartment. + +"Everything okay?" asked our server, an Asian man with tattoos. + +"Yeah, except for the coffee. I always have to order espresso here, +because the espresso tastes like regular coffee. The regular coffee here +is terrible. Can't you guys make stronger coffee?" + +The waiter said no and walked away. My friend looked at me. "I'm +embarrassed for you," he said. "And I'm embarrassed to be around you." + +"I know. Me, too." I felt like a Hollywood producer who parks in +handicapped spots. I ask Blanton what I should have +done. + +![](data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAAAAAP///yH5BAEAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAIBRAA7) +[](//pinterest.com/pin/create/button/?url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.esquire.com%2Fnews-politics%2Fa26792%2Fhonesty0707%2F&description=I%20Think%20You%27re%20Fat&media=https%3A%2F%2Fhips.hearstapps.com%2Fesq.h-cdn.co%2Fassets%2F16%2F43%2F1477434856-ari-gold-entourage.jpg%3Fresize%3D1600%3A%2A) + +My Ari Gold moment + +Warner Brothers + +"You should have said, 'This coffee tastes like shit\!' " he says, +cackling. + +Advertisement - Continue Reading Below + +**I will say this:** One of the best parts of Radical Honesty is that +I'm saving a whole lot of time. It's a cut-to-the-chase way to live. At +work, I've been waiting for my boss to reply to a memo for ten days. So +I write him: "I'm annoyed that you didn't respond to our memo earlier. +But at the same time, I'm relieved, because then if we don't nail one of +the things you want, we can blame any delays on your lack of response." + +Pressing send makes me nervous -- but the e-mail works. My boss +responds: "I will endeavor to respond by tomorrow. Been gone from N.Y. +for two weeks." It is borderline apologetic. I can push my power with my +boss further than I thought. + +Later, a friend of a friend wants to meet for a meal. I tell him I don't +like leaving my house. "I agree to meet some people for lunch because I +fear hurting their feelings if I don't. And in this terrifying age where +everyone has a blog, I don't want to offend people, because then they'd +write on their blogs what an asshole I am, and it would turn up in every +Google search for the rest of my life." + +He writes back: "Normally, I don't really like meeting editors anyway. +Makes me ill to think about it, because I'm afraid of coming off like +the idiot that, deep down, I suspect I am." + +That's one thing I've noticed: When I am radically honest, people become +radically honest themselves. I feel my resentment fade away. I like this +guy. We have a good meeting. + +> When I am radically honest, people become radically honest themselves + +In fact, all my relationships can take a whole lot more truth than I +expected. Consider this one: For years, I've had a chronic problem where +I refer to my wife, Julie, by my sister's name, Beryl. I always catch +myself midway through and pretend it didn't happen. I've never confessed +to Julie. Why should I? It either means that I'm sexually attracted to +my sister, which is not good. Or that I think of my wife as my sister, +also not good. + +But today, in the kitchen, when I have my standard mental sister-wife +mix-up, I decide to tell Julie about it. + +"That's strange," she says. + +We talk about it. I feel unburdened, closer to my wife now that we share +this quirky, slightly disturbing knowledge. I realize that by keeping it +secret, I had given it way too much weight. I hope she feels the same +way. + +**I call up Blanton** one last time, to get his honest opinion about how +I've done. + +"I'm finishing my experiment," I say. + +"You going to start lying again?" he asks. + +"Hell yeah." + +"Oh, shit. It didn't work." + +"But I'm going to lie less than I did before." + +I tell him about my confession to Julie that I sometimes want to call +her Beryl. "No big deal," says Blanton. "People in other cultures have +sex with their sisters all the time." + +I bring up the episode about telling the editor from Rachael Ray's +magazine that I tried to look down her shirt, but he sounds +disappointed. "Did you tell your wife?" he asks. "That's the good part." + +Finally, I describe to him how I told Julie that I didn't care to hear +the end of her story about fixing her computer. Blanton asks how she +responded. + +Advertisement - Continue Reading Below + +"She said, 'Fuck you.' " + +"That's good\!" Blanton says. "I like that. That's communicating." + +Esquire Editor-at-Large A.J. Jacobs is the author of A Year of Living +Biblically: One Man's Humble Quest to Follow the Bible as Literally as +Possible, published by Simon & Schuster. + +Published in the July 2007 issue diff --git a/_stories/2007/3541223.md b/_stories/2007/3541223.md index 9d7813a..1374f01 100644 --- a/_stories/2007/3541223.md +++ b/_stories/2007/3541223.md @@ -19,7 +19,361 @@ _tags: objectID: '3541223' --- -[Source](https://www.esquire.com/features/essay/ESQ0307ESSAY "Permalink to ") +**A few months ago,** I found a Web site loaded with pictures and videos +from Iraq, the sort that usually aren't seen on the news. I watched +insurgent snipers shoot American soldiers and car bombs disintegrate +markets, accompanied by tinny music and loud, rhythmic chanting, the +soundtrack of the propaganda campaigns. Video cameras focused on empty +stretches of road, building anticipation. Humvees rolled into view and +the explosions brought mushroom clouds of dirt and smoke and chunks of +metal spinning through the air. Other videos and pictures showed +insurgents shot dead while planting roadside bombs or killed in +firefights and the remains of suicide bombers, people how they're not +meant to be seen, no longer whole. The images sickened me, but their +familiarity pulled me in, giving comfort, and I couldn't stop. I clicked +through more frames, hungry for it. This must be what a shot of dope +feels like after a long stretch of sobriety. Soothing and nauseating and +colored by everything that has come before. My body tingled and my +stomach ached, hollow. I stood on weak legs and walked into the kitchen +to make dinner. I sliced half an onion before putting the knife down and +watching slight tremors run through my hand. The shakiness lingered. I +drank a beer. And as I leaned against this kitchen counter, in this +house, in America, my life felt very foreign. +Advertisement - Continue Reading Below +I've been home from Iraq for more than a year, long enough for my time +there to become a memory best forgotten for those who worried every day +that I was gone. I could see their relief when I returned. Life could +continue, with futures not so uncertain. But in quiet moments, their +relief brought me guilt. Maybe they assume I was as overjoyed to be home +as they were to have me home. Maybe they assume if I could do it over, I +never would have gone. And maybe I wouldn't have. But I miss Iraq. I +miss the war. I miss war. And I have a very hard time understanding why. +I'm glad to be home, to have put away my uniforms, to wake up next to my +wife each morning. I worry about my friends who are in Iraq now, and I +wish they weren't. Often I hated being there, when the frustrations and +lack of control over my life were complete and mind-bending. I +questioned my role in the occupation and whether good could come of it. +I wondered if it was worth dying or killing for. The suffering and +ugliness I saw disgusted me. But war twists and shifts the landmarks by +which we navigate our lives, casting light on darkened areas that for +many people remain forever unexplored. And once those darkened spaces +are lit, they become part of us. At a party several years ago, long +before the Army, I listened to a friend who had served several years in +the Marines tell a woman that if she carried a pistol for a day, just +tucked in her waistband and out of sight, she would feel different. She +would see the world differently, for better or worse. Guns empower. She +disagreed and he shrugged. No use arguing the point; he was just +offering a little piece of truth. He was right, of course. And that's +just the beginning. + +Advertisement - Continue Reading Below + +I've spent hours taking in the world through a rifle scope, watching +life unfold. Women hanging laundry on a rooftop. Men haggling over a +hindquarter of lamb in the market. Children walking to school. I've +watched this and hoped that someday I would see that my presence had +made their lives better, a redemption of sorts. But I also peered +through the scope waiting for someone to do something wrong, so I could +shoot him. When you pick up a weapon with the intent of killing, you +step onto a very strange and serious playing field. Every morning +someone wakes wanting to kill you. When you walk down the street, they +are waiting, and you want to kill them, too. That's not bloodthirsty; +that's just the trade you've learned. And as an American soldier, you +have a very impressive toolbox. You can fire your rifle or lob a +grenade, and if that's not enough, call in the tanks, or helicopters, or +jets. The insurgents have their skill sets, too, turning mornings at the +market into chaos, crowds into scattered flesh, Humvees into charred +scrap. You're all part of the terrible magic show, both powerful and +helpless. + +That men are drawn to war is no surprise. How old are boys before they +turn a finger and thumb into a pistol? Long before they love girls, they +love war, at least everything they imagine war to be: guns and +explosions and manliness and courage. When my neighbors and I played war +as kids, there was no fear or sorrow or cowardice. Death was temporary, +usually as fast as you could count to sixty and jump back into the game. +We didn't know yet about the darkness. And young men are just slightly +older versions of those boys, still loving the unknown, perhaps pumped +up on dreams of duty and heroism and the intoxicating power of weapons. +In time, war dispels many such notions, and more than a few men find +that being freed from society's professed revulsion to killing is really +no freedom at all, but a lonely burden. Yet even at its lowest points, +war is like nothing else. Our culture craves experience, and that is +war's strong suit. War peels back the skin, and you live with a layer of +nerves exposed, overdosing on your surroundings, when everything seems +all wrong and just right, in a way that makes perfect sense. And then +you almost die but don't, and are born again, stoned on life and mocking +death. The explosions and gunfire fry your nerves, but you want to hear +them all the same. Something's going down. + +Advertisement - Continue Reading Below + +Advertisement - Continue Reading Below + +For those who know, this is the open secret: War is exciting. Sometimes +I was in awe of this, and sometimes I felt low and mean for loving it, +but I loved it still. Even in its quiet moments, war is brighter, +louder, brasher, more fun, more tragic, more wasteful. More. More of +everything. And even then I knew I would someday miss it, this life so +strange. Today the war has distilled to moments and feelings, and +somewhere in these memories is the reason for the wistfulness. + +On one mission we slip away from our trucks and into the night. I lead +the patrol through the darkness, along canals and fields and into the +town, down narrow, hard-packed dirt streets. Everyone has gone to bed, +or is at least inside. We peer through gates and over walls into +courtyards and into homes. In a few rooms TVs flicker. A woman washes +dishes in a tub. Dogs bark several streets away. No one knows we are in +the street, creeping. We stop at intersections, peek around corners, +training guns on parked cars, balconies, and storefronts. All empty. We +move on. From a small shop up ahead, we hear men's voices and laughter. +Maybe they used to sit outside at night, but now they are indoors, where +it's safe. Safer. The sheet-metal door opens and a man steps out, +cigarette and lighter in hand. He still wears a smile, takes in the cool +night air, and then nearly falls backward through the doorway in a +panic. I'm a few feet from him now and his eyes are wide. I mutter a +greeting and we walk on, back into the darkness. + +Another night we're lost in a dust storm. I'm in the passenger seat, +trying to guide my driver and the three trucks behind us through this +brown maelstrom. The headlights show nothing but swirling dirt. We've +driven these roads for months, we know them well, but we see nothing. So +we drive slow, trying to stay out of canals and people's kitchens. We +curse and we laugh. This is bizarre but a great deal of fun. + +Advertisement - Continue Reading Below + +Another night my platoon sergeant's truck is swallowed in flames, a +terrible, beautiful, boiling bloom of red and orange and yellow, +lighting the darkness for a moment. Somehow we don't die, one more time. + +Another night, there's McCarthy bitching, the cherry of his cigarette +bobbing in the dark, bitching that he won't be on the assault team, that +he's stuck as a turret gunner for the night. We'd been out since early +that morning, came back for dinner, and are preparing to raid a weapons +dealer. Our first real raid. I heave my body armor onto my shoulders, +settling its too-familiar weight. Then the helmet and first-aid kit and +maps and radio and ammunition and rifle and all the rest. Now I look +like everyone else, an arm of this strange and destructive organism, +covered in armor and guns. We crowd around a satellite map spread across +a Humvee hood and trace our route. Wells, my squad leader, rehearses our +movements. Get in quick. Watch the danger zones. If he has a gun, kill +him. I look around the group, at these faces I know so well, and feel +the collective strength, this ridiculous power. The camaraderie of men +in arms plays a part, for sure. The shared misery and euphoria and +threat of death. But there is something more: the surrender of self, +voluntary or not, to the machine. Do I believe in the war? Not +important. Put that away and live in the moment, where little is +knowable and even less is controllable, when my world narrows to one +street, one house, one room, one door. + +We pack into the trucks after midnight, and the convoy snakes out of +camp and speeds toward the target house. I sit in a backseat and the +fear settles in, a sharp burning in my stomach, same as the knot from +hard liquor gulped too fast. I think about the knot. I'll be the first +through the door. What if he starts shooting, hits me right in the face +before I'm even through the doorway? What if there's two, or three? What +if he pitches a grenade at us? And I think about it more and run through +the scenarios, planning my movements, imagining myself clearing through +the rooms, firing two rounds into the chest, and the knot fades. + +Advertisement - Continue Reading Below + +Advertisement - Continue Reading Below + +The trucks drop us off several blocks from the target house and we slip +into the night. As always, the dogs bark. We gather against the high +wall outside the house and call in the trucks to block the streets. The +action will pass in a flash. But here, before the chaos starts, when +we're stacked against the wall, my friends' bodies pressed against me, +hearing their quick breaths and my own, there's a moment to appreciate +the gravity, the absurdity, the novelty, the joy of the moment. Is this +real? Hearts beat strong. Hands grip tight on weapons. Reassurance. The +rest of the world falls away. Who knows what's on the other side? + +One, two, three, go. We push past the gate and across the courtyard and +toward the house, barrels locked on the windows and roof. Wells runs up +with the battering ram, a short, heavy pipe with handles, and launches +it toward the massive wood door. The lock explodes, the splintered door +flies open, and we rush through, just the way we've practiced hundreds +of times. No one shoots me in the face. No grenades roll to my feet. I +kick open doors. We scan darkened bedrooms with the flashlights on our +rifles and move on to the next and the next. + +He's gone, of course. We ransack his house, dumping drawers, flipping +mattresses, punching holes in the ceiling. We find rifles and grenades +and hundreds of pounds of gunpowder. And then, near dawn, we lie down on +the thick carpets in his living room and sleep, exhausted and +untroubled. + +Many, many raids followed. We often raided houses late at night, so +people awakened to soldiers bursting through their bedroom doors. Women +and children wailed, terrified. Taking this in, I imagined what it would +feel like if soldiers kicked down my door at midnight, if I could do +nothing to protect my family. I would hate those soldiers. Yet I still +reveled in the raids, their intensity and uncertainty. The emotions +collided, without resolution. + +Advertisement - Continue Reading Below + +My wife moved to Iraq partway through my second deployment to live in +the north and train Iraqi journalists. She spent her evenings at +restaurants and tea shops with her Iraqi friends. We spoke by cell +phone, when the spotty network allowed, and she told me about this life +I couldn't imagine, celebrating holidays with her colleagues and being +invited into their homes. I didn't have any Iraqi friends, save for our +few translators, and I'd rarely been invited into anyone's home. I told +her of my life, the tedious days and frightful seconds, and she worried +that in all of this I would lose my thoughtfulness and might stop +questioning and just accept. But she didn't judge the work that I did, +and I didn't tell her that I sometimes enjoyed it, that for stretches of +time I didn't think about the greater implications, that it sometimes +seemed like a game. I didn't tell her that death felt ever present and +far away, and that either way, it didn't really seem to matter. + +We both came back from Iraq, luckier than many. Two of my wife's +students have been killed, among the scores of journalists to die in +Iraq, and guys I served with are still dying, too. One came home from +the war and shot himself on Thanksgiving. Another was blown up on +Christmas in Baghdad. + +Thinking of them, I felt disgusted with myself for missing the war and +wondered if I was alone in this. + +I don't think I am. + +After watching the Internet videos, I called some of my friends who are +out of the Army now, and they miss the war, too. Wells very nearly died +in Iraq. A sniper shot him in the head, surgeons cut out half of his +skull—a story told in this magazine last April—and he spent months +in therapy, working back to his old self. Now he misses the high. "I +don't want to sound like a psychopath, but you're like a god over +there," he says. "It might not be the best kind of adrenaline for you, +but it's a rush." Before Iraq, he didn't care for horror movies, and now +he's drawn to them. He watches them for the little thrill, the rush of +being startled, if just for a moment. + +Advertisement - Continue Reading Below + +Advertisement - Continue Reading Below + +McCarthy misses the war just the same. He saved Wells's life, pressing a +bandage over the hole in his head. Now he's delivering construction +materials to big hotel projects along the beach in South Carolina, +waiting for a police department to process his application. "The +monotony is killing me," he told me, en route to deliver some rebar. "I +want to go on a raid. I want something to blow up. I want something to +change today." He wants the unknown. "Anything can happen, and it does +happen. And all of the sudden your world is shattered, and everything +has changed. It's living dangerously. You're living on the edge. And +you're the baddest motherfucker around." + +Mortal danger heightens the senses. That is simple animal instinct. +We're more aware of how our world smells and sounds and tastes. This +distorts and enriches experiences. Now I can have everything, but it's +not as good as when I could have none of it. McCarthy and I stood on a +rooftop one afternoon in Iraq running through a long list of the food we +wanted. We made it to homemade pizza and icy beer when someone loosed a +long burst of gunfire that cracked over our heads. We ran to the other +side of the rooftop, but the gunman had disappeared down a long +alleyway. Today my memory of that pizza and beer is stronger than if +McCarthy and I had sat down together with the real thing before us. + +And today we even speak with affection of wrestling a dead man into a +body bag, because that was then. The bullet had laid his thigh wide +open, shattered the femur, and shredded the artery, so he'd bled out +fast, pumping much of his blood onto the sidewalk. We unfolded and +unzipped the nylon sack and laid it alongside him. And then we stared +for a moment, none of us ready to close that distance. I grabbed his +forearm and dropped it, maybe instinct, maybe revulsion. He hovered so +near this world, having just passed over, that he seemed to be sucking +life from me, pulling himself back or taking me with him. He peeked at +us through a half-opened eye. I stared down on him, his massive dead +body, and again wrapped a hand around his wrist, thick and warm. The man +was huge, taller than six feet and close to 250 pounds. We strained with +the awkward weight, rolled him into the bag, and zipped him out of +sight. My platoon sergeant gave two neighborhood kids five dollars to +wash away the congealing puddle of blood. But the red handprint stayed +on the wall, where the man had tried to brace himself before he fell. I +think about him sometimes, splayed out on the sidewalk, and I think of +how lucky I was never to have put a friend in one of those bags. Or be +put in one myself. + +Advertisement - Continue Reading Below + +But the memories, good and bad, are only part of the reason war holds +its grip long after soldiers have come home. The war was urgent and +intense and the biggest story going, always on the news stations and +magazine covers. At home, though, relearning everyday life, the sense of +mission can be hard to find. And this is not just about dim prospects +and low-paying jobs in small towns. Leaving the war behind can be a +letdown, regardless of opportunity or education or the luxuries waiting +at home. People I'd never met sent me boxes of cookies and candy +throughout my tours. When I left for two weeks of leave, I was cheered +at airports and hugged by strangers. At dinner with my family one night, +a man from the next table bought me a $400 bottle of wine. I was never +quite comfortable with any of this, but they were heady moments +nonetheless.For my friends who are going back to Iraq or are there +already, there is little enthusiasm. Any fondness for war is tainted by +the practicalities of operating and surviving in combat. Wells and +McCarthy and I can speak of the war with nostalgia because we belong to +a different world now. And yet there is little to say, because we are +scattered, far from those who understand. + +Advertisement - Continue Reading Below + +Advertisement - Continue Reading Below + +When I came home, people often asked me about Iraq, and mostly I told +them it wasn't so bad. The first few times, my wife asked me why I had +been so blithe. Why didn't I tell them what Iraq was really like? I +didn't know how to explain myself to them. The war really wasn't so bad. +Yes, there were bombs and shootings and nervous times, but that was just +the job. In fact, going to war is rather easy. You react to situations +around you and try not to die. There are no electric bills or car +payments or chores around the house. Just go to work, come home alive, +and do it again tomorrow. McCarthy calls it pure and serene. Indeed. +Life at home can be much more trying. But I didn't imagine the people +asking would understand that. I didn't care much if they did, and often +it seemed they just wanted a war story, a bit of grit and gore. If they +really want to know, they can always find out for themselves. But they +don't, they just want a taste of the thrill. We all do. We covet life +outside our bubble. That's why we love tragedy, why we love hearing +about war and death on the television, drawn to it in spite of +ourselves. We gawk at accident scenes and watch people humiliate +themselves on reality shows and can't wait to replay the events for +friends, as though in retelling the story we make it our own, if just +for a moment. + +We live easy third-person lives but want a bit of the darkness. War +fascinates because we live so far from its realities. Maybe we'd feel +differently about watching bombs blow up on TV if we saw them up close, +if we knew how explosions rip the air, throttle your brain, and make +your ears ring, if we knew the strain of wondering whether the car next +to you at a traffic light would explode or a bomb would land on your +house as you sleep. I don't expect Iraqi soldiers would ever miss war. I +have that luxury. I came home to peace, to a country that hasn't seen +war within its borders for nearly 150 years. Yes, some boys come home +dead. But we live here without the other terrors and tragedies of +war—cities flattened and riven with chaos and fear, neighbors killing +one another, a people made forever weary by the violence. + +Advertisement - Continue Reading Below + +And so I miss it. + +Every day in Iraq, if you have a job that takes you outside the wire, +you stop just before the gate and make your final preparation for war. +You pull out a magazine stacked with thirty rounds of ammunition, +weighing just over a pound. You slide it into the magazine well of your +rifle and smack it with the heel of your hand, driving it up. You pull +the rifle's charging handle, draw the bolt back, and release. The bolt +slides forward with a metallic snap, catching the top round and shoving +it into the barrel. Chak-chuk. If I hear that a half century from now, I +will know it in an instant. Unmistakable, and pregnant with possibility. +On top of a diving board, as the grade-school-science explanation goes, +you are potential energy. On the way down, you are kinetic energy. So I +leave the gate and step off the diving board, my energy transformed. diff --git a/_stories/2007/5239820.md b/_stories/2007/5239820.md index 79e7311..594497c 100644 --- a/_stories/2007/5239820.md +++ b/_stories/2007/5239820.md @@ -19,6 +19,8 @@ _tags: objectID: '5239820' --- -[Source](https://www.wsj.com/ "Permalink to ") - +#### Personal Technology +Did your rideshare driver cancel again? Why are we taking this crazy +route again? From ratings to finding the cheapest way to ride, here’s +what you need to know. diff --git a/_stories/2007/562014.md b/_stories/2007/562014.md index 7cfef1e..44cab31 100644 --- a/_stories/2007/562014.md +++ b/_stories/2007/562014.md @@ -19,7 +19,625 @@ _tags: objectID: '562014' --- -[Source](https://www.esquire.com/features/honesty0707 "Permalink to ") +**Here's the truth about why I'm writing this article:** +I want to fulfill my contract with my boss. I want to avoid getting +fired. I want all the attractive women I knew in high school and college +to read it. I want them to be amazed and impressed and feel a vague +regret over their decision not to have sex with me, and maybe if I get +divorced or become a widower, [I can have sex with them +someday](/lifestyle/sex/advice/a9353/best-sex-positions/) at a reunion. +I want Hollywood to buy my article and turn it into a movie, even though +they kind of already made the movie ten years ago with Jim Carrey. +I want to get congratulatory e-mails and job offers that I can politely +decline. Or accept if they're really good. Then get a generous +counteroffer from my boss. +To be totally honest, I was sorry I mentioned this idea to my boss about +three seconds after I opened my mouth. Because I knew the article would +be a pain in the ass to pull off. Dammit. I should have let my colleague +Tom Chiarella write it. But I didn't want to seem lazy. + +What I mentioned to my boss was this: a movement called Radical Honesty. + +Advertisement - Continue Reading +Below + +![](data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAAAAAP///yH5BAEAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAIBRAA7) + +Universal Pictures + +The movement was founded by a sixty-six-year-old Virginia-based +psychotherapist named Brad Blanton. He says everybody would be happier +if we just stopped lying. Tell the truth, all the time. This would be +radical enough -- a world without fibs -- but Blanton goes further. He +says we should toss out the filters between our brains and our mouths. +If you think it, say it. Confess to your boss your secret plans to start +your own company. If you're having fantasies about your wife's sister, +Blanton says to tell your wife and tell her sister. It's the only path +to authentic relationships. It's the only way to smash through +modernity's soul-deadening alienation. Oversharing? No such thing. + +Yes. I know. One of the most idiotic ideas ever, right up there with +Vanilla Coke and giving Phil Spector a gun permit. Deceit makes our +world go round. Without lies, marriages would crumble, workers would be +fired, egos would be shattered, governments would collapse. + +> Without lies, marriages would crumble, workers would be fired, egos +> would be shattered, governments would collapse + +And yet...maybe there's something to it. Especially for me. I have a +lying problem. Mine aren't big lies. They aren't lies like "I cannot +recall that crucial meeting from two months ago, Senator." Mine are +little lies. White lies. Half-truths. The kind we all tell. But I tell +dozens of them every day. "Yes, let's definitely get together soon." +"I'd love to, but I have a touch of the stomach flu." "No, we can't buy +a toy today -- the toy store is closed." It's bad. Maybe a couple of +weeks of truth-immersion therapy would do me good. + +I e-mail Blanton to ask if I can come down to Virginia and get some +pointers before embarking on my Radical Honesty experiment. He writes +back: "I appreciate you for apparently having a real interest and hope +you're not just doing a cutesy little superficial dipshit job like most +journalists." + +I'm already nervous. I better start off with a clean slate. I confess I +lied to him in my first e-mail -- that I haven't ordered all his books +on Amazon yet. I was just trying to impress upon him that I was serious +about his work. He writes back: "Thanks for your honesty in attempting +to guess what your manipulative and self-protective motive must have +been." + +**Blanton lives in a house** he built himself, perched on a hill in the +town of Stanley, Virginia, population 1,331. We're sitting on white +chairs in a room with enormous windows and a crackling fireplace. He's +swirling a glass of Maker's Mark bourbon and water and telling me why +it's important to live with no lies. + +"You'll have really bad times, you'll have really great times, but +you'll contribute to other people because you haven't been dancing on +eggshells your whole fucking life. It's a better life." + +"Do you think it's ever okay to lie?" I ask. + +"I advocate never lying in personal relationships. But if you have Anne +Frank in your attic and a Nazi knocks on the door, lie....I lie to any +government official." (Blanton's politics are just this side of Noam +Chomsky's.) "I lie to the IRS. I always take more deductions than are +justified. I lie in golf. And in poker." + +Blanton adjusts his crotch. I expected him to be a bully. Or maybe a +new-age huckster with a bead necklace who sits cross-legged on the +floor. He's neither. He's a former Texan with a big belly and a big +laugh and a big voice. He's got a bushy head of gray hair and a twang +that makes his bye sound like bah. He calls himself "white trash with a +Ph.D." If you mixed DNA from Lyndon Johnson, Ken Kesey, and threw in the +non-annoying parts of Dr. Phil, you might get Blanton. + +Advertisement - Continue Reading +Below + +![](data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAAAAAP///yH5BAEAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAIBRAA7) +[](//pinterest.com/pin/create/button/?url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.esquire.com%2Fnews-politics%2Fa26792%2Fhonesty0707%2F&description=I%20Think%20You%27re%20Fat&media=https%3A%2F%2Fhips.hearstapps.com%2Fesq.h-cdn.co%2Fassets%2F16%2F43%2F1477434013-gettyimages-90737598.jpg%3Fresize%3D1600%3A%2A) + +Are there any non-annoying parts of Dr. Phil? + +Getty Images + +He ran for Congress twice, with the novel promise that he'd be an honest +politician. In 2004, he got a surprising 25 percent of the vote in his +Virginia district as an independent. In 2006, the Democrats considered +endorsing him but got skittish about his weeklong workshops, which +involve a day of total nudity. They also weren't crazy that he's been +married five times (currently to a Swedish flight attendant twenty-six +years his junior). He ran again but withdrew when it became clear he was +going to be crushed. + +My interview with Blanton is unlike any other I've had in fifteen years +as a journalist. Usually, there's a fair amount of ass kissing and +diplomacy. You approach the controversial stuff on tippy toes (the way +Barbara Walters once asked Richard Gere about that terrible, terrible +rumor). With Blanton, I can say anything that pops into my mind. In +fact, it would be rude not to say it. I'd be insulting his life's work. +It's my first taste of Radical Honesty, and it's liberating, +exhilarating. + +When Blanton rambles on about President Bush, I say, "You know, I +stopped listening about a minute ago." + +"Thanks for telling me," he says. + +I tell him, "You look older than you do in the author photo for your +book," and when he veers too far into therapyspeak, I say, "That just +sounds like gobbledygook." + +"Thanks," he replies." Or, "That's fine." + +Blanton has a temper -- he threatened to "beat the shit" out of a +newspaper editor during the campaign -- but it hasn't flared tonight. +The closest he comes to attacking me is when he says I am self-indulgent +and Esquire is pretentious. Both true. + +Blanton pours himself another bourbon and water. He's got a wad of +chewing tobacco in his cheek, and when he spits into the fireplace, the +flames crackle louder. + +"My boss says you sound like a dick," I say. + +"Tell your boss he's a dick," he says. + +"I'm glad you picked your nose just now," I say. "Because it was funny +and disgusting, and it'll make a good detail for the article." + +"That's fine. I'll pick my ass in a minute." Then he unleashes his deep +Texan laugh: heh, heh, heh. (He also burps and farts throughout our +conversation; he believes the one-cheek sneak is "a little deceitful.") + +No topic is off-limits. "I've slept with more than five hundred women +and about a half dozen men," he tells me. "I've had a whole bunch of +threesomes" -- one of which involved a hermaphrodite prostitute equipped +with dual organs. + +> 'I've had a whole bunch of threesomes -- one of which involved a +> hermaphrodite prostitute equipped with dual organs' + +Advertisement - Continue Reading Below + +What about animals? + +Blanton thinks for a minute. "I let my dog lick my dick once." + +If he hadn't devoted his life to Radical Honesty, I'd say he was, to use +his own phrase, as full of shit as a Christmas turkey. But I don't think +he is. I believe he's telling the truth. Which is a startling thing for +a journalist to confront. Generally, I'm devoting 30 percent of my +mental energy to figuring out what a source is lying about or hiding +from me. Another 20 percent goes into scheming about how to unearth that +buried truth. No need for that today. + +"I was disappointed when I visited your office," I tell Blanton. +(Earlier he had shown me a small, cluttered single-room office that +serves as the Radical Honesty headquarters.) "I'm impressed by +exteriors, so I would have been impressed by an office building in some +city, not a room in Butt Fuck, Virginia. For my article, I want this to +be a legitimate movement, not a fringe movement." + +"What about a legitimate fringe movement?" asks Blanton, who has, by +this time, had three bourbons. + +Blanton's legitimate fringe movement is sizable but not huge. He's sold +175,000 books in eleven languages and has twenty-five trainers assisting +in workshops and running practice groups around the country. + +Now, my editor thinks I'm overreaching here and trying too hard to +justify this article's existence, but I think society is speeding toward +its own version of Radical Honesty. The truth of our lives is +increasingly being exposed, both voluntarily (MySpace pages, transparent +business transactions) and involuntarily. (See Gonzales and Google, or +ask Alec Baldwin.) For better or worse, we may all soon be Brad +Blantons. I need to be prepared. \[Such bullshit. -- +Ed.\] + +![](data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAAAAAP///yH5BAEAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAIBRAA7) +[](//pinterest.com/pin/create/button/?url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.esquire.com%2Fnews-politics%2Fa26792%2Fhonesty0707%2F&description=I%20Think%20You%27re%20Fat&media=https%3A%2F%2Fhips.hearstapps.com%2Fesq.h-cdn.co%2Fassets%2F16%2F43%2F1477434323-alec-baldwin.png%3Fresize%3D1600%3A%2A) + +Alec Baldwin in his natural state + +Sony + +**I return to New York** and immediately set about delaying my +experiment. When you're with Blanton, you think, Yes, I can do this\! +The truth, the whole truth, nothing but the truth. But when I get back +to bosses and fragile friendships, I continue my lying ways. + +"How's Radical Honesty going?" my boss asks. + +"It's okay," I lie. "A little slow." + +A couple of weeks later, I finally get some inspiration from my friend's +five-year-old daughter, Alison. We are in Central Park for a play date. +Out of nowhere, Alison looks at me evenly and says, "Your teeth are +yellow because you drink coffee all day." + +Damn. Now that's some radical honesty for you. Maybe I should be more +like a five-year-old. An hour later, she shows me her new pet bug -- a +beetle of some sort that she has in her cupped hands. + +"It's napping," she whispers. + +I nudge the insect with my finger. It doesn't move. Should I play along? +No. I should tell her the truth, like she told me about my teeth. + +"It's not napping." + +She looks confused. + +"It's dead." + +Advertisement - Continue Reading Below + +Alison runs to her father, dismayed. "Daddy, he just said a bad word." + +I feel like an asshole. I frightened a five-year-old, probably out of +revenge for an insult about my oral hygiene. I postpone again -- for a +few more weeks. And then my boss tells me he needs the article for the +July issue. + +> I frightened a five-year-old, probably out of revenge for an insult +> about my oral hygiene + +**I start in again** at dinner with my friend Brian. We are talking +about his new living situation, and I decide to tell him the truth. + +"You know, I forget your fiancée's name." + +This is highly unacceptable -- they've been together for years; I've met +her several times. + +"It's Jenny." + +In his book, Blanton talks about the thrill of total candor, the Space +Mountain-worthy adrenaline rush you get from breaking taboos. As he +writes, "You learn to like the excitement of mild, ongoing risk taking." +This I felt. + +Luckily, Brian doesn't seem too pissed. So I decide to push my luck. +"Yes, that's right. Jenny. Well, I resent you for not inviting me to you +and Jenny's wedding. I don't want to go, since it's in Vermont, but I +wanted to be invited." + +"Well, I resent you for not being invited to your wedding." + +"You weren't invited? Really? I thought I had." + +"Nope." + +"Sorry, man. That was a mistake." + +A breakthrough\! We are communicating\! Blanton is right. Brian and I +crushed some eggshells. We are not stoic, emotionless men. I'm enjoying +this. A little bracing honesty can be a mood booster. + +The next day, we get a visit from my wife's dad and stepmom. + +"Did you get the birthday gift I sent you?" asks her stepmom. + +"Uh-huh," I say. + +She sent me a gift certificate to Saks Fifth Avenue. + +"And? Did you like it?" + +"Not really. I don't like gift certificates. It's like you're giving me +an errand to run." + +"Well, uh . . ." + +Once again, I felt the thrill of inappropriate candor. And I felt +something else, too. The paradoxical joy of being free from choice. I +had no choice but to tell the truth. I didn't have to rack my brain +figuring out how to hedge it, spin it, massage it. + +> I had no choice but to tell the truth. I didn't have to rack my brain +> figuring out how to hedge it, spin it, massage it + +Advertisement - Continue Reading Below + +"Just being honest," I shrug. Nice touch, I decide; helps take the edge +off. She's got a thick skin. She'll be okay. And I'll tell you this: +I'll never get a damn gift certificate from her again. + +**I still tell plenty of lies** every day, but by the end of the week +I've slashed the total by at least 40 percent. Still, the giddiness is +wearing off. A life of radical honesty is filled with a hundred +confrontations every day. Small, but they're relentless. + +"Yes, I'll come to your office, but I resent you for making me travel." + +"My boss said I should invite you to this meeting, although it wouldn't +have occurred to me to do so." + +"I have nothing else to say to you. I have run out of conversation." + +My wife tells me a story about switching operating systems on her +computer. In the middle, I have to go help our son with something, then +forget to come back. + +"Do you want to hear the end of the story or not?" she asks. + +"Well...is there a payoff?" + +"Fuck you." + +It would have been a lot easier to have kept my mouth closed and +listened to her. It reminds me of an issue I raised with Blanton: Why +make waves? "Ninety percent of the time I love my wife," I told him. +"And 10 percent of the time I hate her. Why should I hurt her feelings +that 10 percent of the time? Why not just wait until that phase passes +and I return to the true feeling, which is that I love her?" + +Blanton's response: "Because you're a manipulative, lying son of a +bitch." + +Okay, he's right. It's manipulative and patronizing to shut up and +listen. But it's exhausting not to. + +One other thing is also becoming apparent: There's a fine line between +radical honesty and creepiness. Or actually no line at all. It's simple +logic: Men think about sex every three minutes, as the scientists at +Redbook remind us. If you speak whatever's on your mind, you'll be +talking about sex every three minutes. + +> There's a fine line between radical honesty and creepiness. Or +> actually no line at all + +I have a business breakfast with an editor from Rachael Ray's magazine. +As we're sitting together, I tell her that I remember what she wore the +first time we met -- a black shirt that revealed her shoulders in a +provocative way. I say that I'd try to sleep with her if I were single. +I confess to her that I just attempted (unsuccessfully) to look down her +shirt during breakfast. + +She smiles. Though I do notice she leans back farther in her seat. + +The thing is, the separate cubbyholes of my personality are merging. +Usually, there's a professional self, a home self, a friend self, a +with-the-guys self. Now, it's one big improper mess. This woman and I +have either taken a step forward in our relationship, or she'll never +return my calls again. + +When I get home, I keep the momentum going. I call a friend to say that +I fantasize about his wife. (He says he likes my wife, too, and suggests +a key party.) + +I inform our twenty-seven-year-old nanny that "if my wife left me, I +would ask you out on a date, because I think you are stunning." + +Advertisement - Continue Reading Below + +She laughs. Nervously. + +"I think that makes you uncomfortable, so I won't mention it again. It +was just on my mind." + +Now I've made my own skin crawl. I feel like I should just buy a trench +coat and start lurking around subway platforms. Blanton says he doesn't +believe sex talk in the workplace counts as sexual harassment -- it's +tight-assed society's fault if people can't handle the truth -- but my +nanny confession just feels like pure abuse of power. + +> Now I've made my own skin crawl. I feel like I should just buy a +> trench coat and start lurking around subway platforms + +All this lasciviousness might be more palatable if I were a single man. +In fact, I have a theory: I think Blanton devised Radical Honesty partly +as a way to pick up women. It's a brilliant strategy. The antithesis of +mind games. Transparent mating. + +And according to Blanton, it's effective. He tells me about a woman he +once met on a Paris subway and asked out for tea. When they sat down, he +said, "I didn't really want any tea; I was just trying to figure out a +way to delay you so I could talk to you for a while, because I want to +go to bed with you." They went to bed together. Or another seduction +technique of his: "Wanna fuck?" + +"That works?" I asked. + +"Sometimes it works, sometimes it doesn't, but it's the creation of +possibility." + +**I lied today.** A retired man from New Hampshire -- a friend of a +friend -- wrote some poems and sent them to me. His wife just died, and +he's taken up poetry. He just wanted someone in publishing to read his +work. A professional opinion. + +I read them. I didn't like them much, but I wrote to him that I thought +they were very good. + +So I e-mail Blanton for the first time since our meeting and confess +what I did. I write, "His wife just died, he doesn't have friends. He's +kind of pathetic. I read his stuff, or skimmed it actually. I didn't +like it. I thought it was boring and badly written. So I e-mailed a lie. +I said I really like the poems and hope they get published. He wrote me +back so excited and how it made his week and how he was about to give up +on them but my e-mail gave him the stamina to keep trying." + +I ask Blanton whether I made a mistake. + +He responds curtly. I need to come to his eight-day workshop to "even +begin to get what \[Radical Honesty\] is about." He says we need to meet +in person. + +Meet in person? Did he toss down so many bourbons I vanished from his +memory? I tell him we did meet. + +Blanton writes back testily that he remembers. But I still need to take +a workshop (price tag: $2,800). His only advice on my quandary: "Send +the man the e-mail you sent me about lying to him and ask him to call +you when he gets it...and see what you learn." + +Advertisement - Continue Reading Below + +Show him the e-mail? Are you kidding? What a hardcore bastard. + +In his book, Radical Honesty, Blanton advises us to start sentences with +the words "I resent you for" or "I appreciate you for." So I write him +back. + +"I resent you for being so different in these e-mails than you were when +we met. You were friendly and engaging and encouraging when we met. Now +you seem to have turned judgmental and tough. I resent you for giving me +the advice to break that old man's heart by telling him that his poems +suck." + +Blanton responds quickly. First, he doesn't like that I expressed my +resentment by e-mail. I should have come to see him. "What you don't +seem to get yet, A.J., is that the reason for expressing resentment +directly and in person is so that you can experience in your body the +sensations that occur when you express the resentment, while at the same +time being in the presence of the person you resent, and so you can stay +with them until the sensations arise and recede and then get back to +neutral -- which is what forgiveness is." + +Second, he tells me that telling the old man the truth would be +compassionate, showing the "authentic caring underneath your usual +intellectual bullshit and overvaluing of your critical judgment. Your +lie is not useful to him. In fact, it is simply avoiding your +responsibility as one human being to another. That's okay. It happens +all the time. It is not a mortal sin. But don't bullshit yourself about +it being kind." + +He ends with this: "I don't want to spend a lot of time explaining +things to you for your cute little project of playing with telling the +truth if you don't have the balls to try it." + +Condescending prick. + +I know my e-mail to the old man was wrong. I shouldn't have been so +rah-rah effusive. But here, I've hit the outer limit of Radical Honesty, +a hard wall. I can't trash the old man. + +I try to understand Blanton's point about compassion. To most of us, +honesty often means cruelty. + +But to Blanton, honesty and compassion are the ones in sync. It's an +intriguing way to look at the world, but I just don't buy it in the case +of the widower poet. Screw Blanton. (By the way: I broke Radical Honesty +and changed the identifying details of the old-man story so as not to +humiliate him. Also, I've messed a bit with the timeline of events to +simplify things. Sorry.) + +**To compensate** for my wimpiness, I decide to toughen up. Which is +probably the exact wrong thing to do. Today, I'm getting a haircut, and +my barber is telling me he doesn't want his wife to get pregnant because +she'll get too fat (a bit of radical honesty of his own), and I say, +"You know, I'm tired. I have a cold. I don't want to talk anymore. I +want to read." + +"Okay," he says, wielding his scissors, "go ahead and read." + +Later, I do the same thing with my in-laws when they're yapping on about +preschools. "I'm bored," I announce. "I'll be back later." And with +that, I leave the living room. + +I tell Blanton, hoping for his approval. Did anything come of it? he +asks. Any discussions and insights? Hmmm. + +He's right. If you're going to be a schmuck, at least you should find +some redeeming quality in it. Blanton's a master of this. One of his +tricks is to say things with such glee and enthusiasm, it's hard to get +too pissed. "You may be a petty asshole," he says, "but at least you're +not a secret petty asshole." Then he'll laugh. + +I have yet to learn that trick myself. Consider how I handled this scene +at a diner a couple of blocks from my apartment. + +"Everything okay?" asked our server, an Asian man with tattoos. + +"Yeah, except for the coffee. I always have to order espresso here, +because the espresso tastes like regular coffee. The regular coffee here +is terrible. Can't you guys make stronger coffee?" + +The waiter said no and walked away. My friend looked at me. "I'm +embarrassed for you," he said. "And I'm embarrassed to be around you." + +"I know. Me, too." I felt like a Hollywood producer who parks in +handicapped spots. I ask Blanton what I should have +done. + +![](data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAAAAAP///yH5BAEAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAIBRAA7) +[](//pinterest.com/pin/create/button/?url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.esquire.com%2Fnews-politics%2Fa26792%2Fhonesty0707%2F&description=I%20Think%20You%27re%20Fat&media=https%3A%2F%2Fhips.hearstapps.com%2Fesq.h-cdn.co%2Fassets%2F16%2F43%2F1477434856-ari-gold-entourage.jpg%3Fresize%3D1600%3A%2A) + +My Ari Gold moment + +Warner Brothers + +"You should have said, 'This coffee tastes like shit\!' " he says, +cackling. + +Advertisement - Continue Reading Below + +**I will say this:** One of the best parts of Radical Honesty is that +I'm saving a whole lot of time. It's a cut-to-the-chase way to live. At +work, I've been waiting for my boss to reply to a memo for ten days. So +I write him: "I'm annoyed that you didn't respond to our memo earlier. +But at the same time, I'm relieved, because then if we don't nail one of +the things you want, we can blame any delays on your lack of response." + +Pressing send makes me nervous -- but the e-mail works. My boss +responds: "I will endeavor to respond by tomorrow. Been gone from N.Y. +for two weeks." It is borderline apologetic. I can push my power with my +boss further than I thought. + +Later, a friend of a friend wants to meet for a meal. I tell him I don't +like leaving my house. "I agree to meet some people for lunch because I +fear hurting their feelings if I don't. And in this terrifying age where +everyone has a blog, I don't want to offend people, because then they'd +write on their blogs what an asshole I am, and it would turn up in every +Google search for the rest of my life." + +He writes back: "Normally, I don't really like meeting editors anyway. +Makes me ill to think about it, because I'm afraid of coming off like +the idiot that, deep down, I suspect I am." + +That's one thing I've noticed: When I am radically honest, people become +radically honest themselves. I feel my resentment fade away. I like this +guy. We have a good meeting. + +> When I am radically honest, people become radically honest themselves + +In fact, all my relationships can take a whole lot more truth than I +expected. Consider this one: For years, I've had a chronic problem where +I refer to my wife, Julie, by my sister's name, Beryl. I always catch +myself midway through and pretend it didn't happen. I've never confessed +to Julie. Why should I? It either means that I'm sexually attracted to +my sister, which is not good. Or that I think of my wife as my sister, +also not good. + +But today, in the kitchen, when I have my standard mental sister-wife +mix-up, I decide to tell Julie about it. + +"That's strange," she says. + +We talk about it. I feel unburdened, closer to my wife now that we share +this quirky, slightly disturbing knowledge. I realize that by keeping it +secret, I had given it way too much weight. I hope she feels the same +way. + +**I call up Blanton** one last time, to get his honest opinion about how +I've done. + +"I'm finishing my experiment," I say. + +"You going to start lying again?" he asks. + +"Hell yeah." + +"Oh, shit. It didn't work." + +"But I'm going to lie less than I did before." + +I tell him about my confession to Julie that I sometimes want to call +her Beryl. "No big deal," says Blanton. "People in other cultures have +sex with their sisters all the time." + +I bring up the episode about telling the editor from Rachael Ray's +magazine that I tried to look down her shirt, but he sounds +disappointed. "Did you tell your wife?" he asks. "That's the good part." + +Finally, I describe to him how I told Julie that I didn't care to hear +the end of her story about fixing her computer. Blanton asks how she +responded. + +Advertisement - Continue Reading Below + +"She said, 'Fuck you.' " + +"That's good\!" Blanton says. "I like that. That's communicating." + +Esquire Editor-at-Large A.J. Jacobs is the author of A Year of Living +Biblically: One Man's Humble Quest to Follow the Bible as Literally as +Possible, published by Simon & Schuster. + +Published in the July 2007 issue diff --git a/_stories/2007/6153244.md b/_stories/2007/6153244.md index 6c7e61d..a238530 100644 --- a/_stories/2007/6153244.md +++ b/_stories/2007/6153244.md @@ -19,7 +19,836 @@ _tags: objectID: '6153244' --- -[Source](https://www.wired.com/cars/coolwheels/magazine/15-11/ff_cannonballrun "Permalink to ") +**And so the clock starts and the taillights flare, and they’re off +again, strapped** down, fueled up, and bound on an outlaw enterprise +with 2,795 miles of interstate and some 31,000 highway cops between them +and the all-time speed record for crossing the American continent on +four wheels. +The gear is all bought and loaded. Twenty packs of Nat Sherman Classic +Light cigarettes, check. Breath mints, check. Glucose and guarana, +Visine and riboflavin, Gatorade and Red Bull, mail-order porta-pissoir +bags of quick-hardening gel, check. +Randolph highway patrol sunglasses, 20-gallon reserve fuel tank, Tasco 8 +x 40 binoculars fitted with a Kenyon KS-2 gyro stabilizer, military spec +Steiner 7 x 50 binoculars, Hummer H1-style bumper-mounted L-3 Raytheon +NightDriver thermal camera and LCD dashboard screens, +front-and-rear-mounted sensors for a Valentine One radar/laser detector, +flush bumper-mount Blinder M40 laser jammers, redundant Garmin +StreetPilot 2650 GPS units, preprogrammed Uniden police radio scanners, +ceiling-mount Uniden CB radio with high-gain whip antenna. Check. Check. +Check. +At the moment, the driver and copilot of this E39 BMW M5 are illegal in +intent only as they obediently cow along the tip of Manhattan, funnel +into the Holland Tunnel, and spill out into New Jersey along a six-lane +mash-and-merge. The speedometer reads a cool 60 miles per hour; the +clock reads 9:12 pm. + +“Unacceptable,” Alex Roy says. The 35-year-old driver is addressing both +the numbers and himself. Then, after 20 sickening minutes in +construction traffic, Roy says it to the darkened highway, pushing up +over 110 mph while his copilot squints along the scabbed blacktop for +the deer that might end their lives and the policemen who might kill +their trip. + +The quest itself — to cross from New York to Los Angeles with +unthinkable brevity — is a drive, yes, in the same way that the moon +shot was a flight. This is an engineered operation that has been +financed, scenarioed, calculated, technologically outfitted, and (via +digital video and triangulated time-stamped texting and GPS verification +and support teams on both coasts) will be monitored and recorded (for +proof, posterity, and a documentary film). + +Rain Driving – Video: Courtesy Gravid Films + +For nearly two years, Roy — a pale, shaved-headed, independently wealthy +ectomorphic veteran of the Gumball 3000 road rally — has obsessed +sleeplessly over every detail and thrown money at every possible +electronic connivance. His mission is intended as a triumph of the mind +over the base adrenal impulses of common speeders. His route is nothing +like the careless line a spring-breaker might plot across a Rand McNally +— it’s a painstakingly GPS-mapped and Google Earth-practiced manifest +desti-document, waypointed mile by mile for detours, construction, and +speed traps. + +White lines scroll through the windshield and mile markers tick past the +tires as Roy flips a series of toggles on the center console, killing +the brake lights (to prevent telltale flashes if he needs to slow for +sudden radar), then flips a few more to illuminate the cockpit with +night-vision-friendly red LEDs. The cockpit glows like a submarine at +battle stations. Now Roy punches up the digital codes corresponding to +the New Jersey State Police on the police scanner. The car fills with +the coded squawk of emergency dispatchers, speeding motorcycles, and +domestic quarrels. + +“OK, scanner is live,” Roy says. He hits another switch under the dash +and a light goes green on his steering wheel display. It means that the +vehicle is now traveling in a sort of force field of infrared light, a +bubble that deforms the bandwidth of incoming police laser spotters. +“Jammers are active,” Roy says. “Now let’s have the radar.” + +Roy’s current copilot, an English racer named Henry Fyshe, reaches under +the seat and pulls out the Valentine One. He plugs it into the bank of +fused circuits snaking from the car’s power supply and flips the switch, +and now another instrument joins the cacophony. The Valentine picks up +incoming radar: mostly the X and K bandwidths. The bleeps of X-band are +usually just junk picked up from motion detectors and burglar alarms and +the shipping docks of Port Elizabeth to the south. But the occasional +croaking blaaat\! means K-band — and almost certainly a police trigger +gun hitting +home. + +![](https://www.wired.com/wp-content/uploads/archive/images/article/magazine/1511/ff_cannonballrun2_250.jpg) +![](https://www.wired.com/wp-content/uploads/archive/images/article/magazine/1511/ff_cannonballrun3_250.jpg) + +The combination of bleep\! bleep\! blaat\! bleep\! is chaos pinpricked +with information. Listening, sorting, interpreting — it’s all +exhausting. Then Roy reaches overhead and flips on the CB, adding an +overlay of truck-driver patois: twangy talk of big-boobie women and +fishing and traffic on the I-78. + +“Fascinating,” Fyshe says. Compared with the thick southern drawl coming +from the speaker, his polished Oxbridge English sounds as refined as +drawing room French. + +“OK, CB is active,” Roy says above the noise. “Now check the thermals, +please, Mr. Fyshe. We need to start banking time.” + +There’s something very Captain Jean-Luc Picard about Roy. Maybe it’s the +top-gun lingo and ramrod driving posture. Maybe it’s his bald, ovoid +skull or his habit of wearing faux-military uniforms during races. Or +maybe it’s because Roy is actually in command of his very own road-bound +USS Enterprise. Captain Roy is determined to boldly go faster than any +man has gone before. + +Roy is attempting to break a legendary cross-country driving record +known to most people as the Cannonball Run. The time: 32 hours, 7 +minutes, set in 1983 by David Diem and Doug Turner. Captain Roy’s quest +is definitely illegal and quite possibly impossible. He is one of the +few drivers wealthy and geeky and foolish enough to try it anyway. So +far he’s tried and failed twice, but he’s still convinced that his +careful calculations will allow him to beat the record. + +At the core of his plan are his beloved spreadsheets. Roy, with help +from a car-crazy former New Jersey transportation department employee +named J. F. Musial, has spent months loading Excel documents with the +coordinates of all-night gas stations and open stretches of highway and +weather projections — hundreds of data points arranged on an x-y axis, +so that any deviation can be recalculated on the +fly. + +![](https://www.wired.com/wp-content/uploads/archive/images/article/wide/2007/10/ff_cannonballrun4_w.jpg) +Photos: Courtesy Gravid Films + +The resulting document is as thick as a stock prospectus — and just as +unreadable, particularly if you’re driving in the dark at 50 mph over +the speed limit. But the security blanket of overclocked data calms Roy. +It’s his hedge against all the uncertainty and risk — of vehicular +homicide, of jail time, of failure. Racing across the country is a +foolish and dangerous and ill-advised dream, and Roy knows it. + +But after more than a year of bitter experience, Roy has discovered that +even an Enterprise‘s worth of Excel spreadsheets can’t control the +weather or the traffic or the deer or the possibility of mechanical +failure. Or the police — especially the police. + +So far his failed attempts to beat the record have cost Roy a lot of +time and money, at least one girlfriend, and even his original, trusted +copilot. Instead of glory, Roy’s cross-country trips have brought him a +mechanical breakdown, a police investigation, multiple radio alerts, and +one arrest. And with each setback, Roy risks blowing the secrecy of his +quest and putting the brakes on forever. He is quickly running out of +chances to drive his dream. If he’s going to beat 32:07, he’d better do +it soon. + +He’s hoping Fyshe is the right partner. Like Roy, Fyshe is wealthy and +single and an excellent driver. Unfortunately, he’s also far more +experienced steering his immaculate 1954 OSCA MT4 Maserati through +Italy’s Mille Miglia endurance race than dodging minivans along +Jersey’s I-78. Roy is stuck in the middle of a criminal automotive +enterprise with a copilot who can’t spot an American cop. + +“OK,” Roy says. “Now, see that?” + +Fyshe frowns and peers through the windshield at a dark American town +car. + +“That’s never a cop,” Roy says. “Just a taxi.” + +Fyshe nods, intrigued. “I see,” he says. + +“Now, see that?” Roy points out a yellow cab, just visible in the +distance. “The taxi? That’s the type of car.” + +“It’s a taxi?” Fyshe asks. + +“Yes, it’s a taxi,” Roy says. “But in a dark color, that can be an +unmarked cop.” + +“How can you tell the difference?” Fyshe asks. + +“You just have to,” Roy says. + +“I see,” Fyshe says. But he doesn’t, not really. + +Roy gives it the gas, easing up toward 90 mph, passing two trucks, +flashing by a Corvette in the slow lane, and pushing up a hill at 93. +“Ramp check?” + +Fyshe glances reflexively to the right and studies the cars pouring down +the entrance ramp, looking for lights on top. “Clear.” + +“Now, see that overpass ahead?” At 100 mph now, it’s approaching fast. +“Check the thermals.” + +Fyshe checks the dash, where the bumper-mounted night-vision camera +feeds a thermal image to a 7-inch dashboard display. The traffic ahead +glows in the darkness like the Predator. + +“If a cop is idling around one of those columns, he’ll have his engine +on and show up as heat,” Roy says. “Unless there’s a concrete barrier +that shields him. Check the sheet.” + +Roy feels into the side pocket and hands Fyshe a series of color-coded +sheets. “Barriers — yes, except where marked by DOT signs,” Fyshe reads. + +“It also says the limit is 65 mph here,” Fyshe says. “What are we now?” + +“Ninety-eight.” + +“Jolly good,” Fyshe says, delighted. “But what if there’s a policeman on +top of one of those bridges?” + +“It’s an overpass,” Roy says. “And there won’t be.” + +“Cameras?” + +“Nope,” Roy says. “The plate covers reflect flash anyway.” + +“In Europe, there are cameras everywhere,” Fyshe says thoughtfully. “The +police see everything.” He watches the white lines blur into a +continuous streak, lost in the Wild West of central Jersey. + +The highway crosses the state in an undulating sine wave. At each new +rise, Fyshe scans the thermals ahead and glances behind to the ramp +before Roy punches the clear valley at 100 mph, bringing the trip +average up to 82.3 mph. This is the Jersey nobody ever thinks of — +empty, three lanes, no traffic or stores or malls — so when K-band +suddenly croaks on the scanner, Roy knows it’s no false alarm. + +“Where are you?” he mutters. A red arrow glows on his steering column, +meaning radar from ahead. + +“If he’s behind us and not in sight, hit the gas,” he tells Fyshe. “If +he’s ahead, ease off until you establish position.” + +Roy crests the hill, eases off the gas, and takes the right lane. He’s +just a law-abiding citizen now. Standard police protocol is for a +cruiser to lie at the side of the road just over the crest of a hill, +exactly when drivers have their foot on the gas and no view ahead. By +taking the right lane, a speeder approaches a radar gun with the +sharpest parallax angle — the least accurate for getting a clean read. + +“I don’t see him,” Roy says. “I’ll take this hill easy and — “ + +Blaaat\! goes the scanner. Blatt\! Blaat\! Sure enough, the downhill is +lit by the strobing rack lights of a New Jersey state trooper, ringing +up some poor schmuck in a minivan. + +“Now that’s a cop,” Roy says. He hits a button on the GPS unit’s +touchscreen, adding yet more data — the location of this speed trap — +before confidently stepping back on the +gas. + +![](https://www.wired.com/wp-content/uploads/archive/images/article/wide/2007/10/ff_cannonballrun5_w.jpg) +Photos: Courtesy Gravid Films + +Going cross-country fast is not rocket science, but in Roy’s world it +does require a lot of basic math. To beat the record, Roy has calculated +that he needs to maintain an average of almost exactly 90 mph from +Manhattan to the Santa Monica Pier. For occasional spurts, 90 is not +uncommon on the highway. But for a day and a half of barreling across +the United States, 90 miles per hour is essentially insane. + +As a Cannonballer makes his way across the continent, the accumulation +of his time and speed forms a rising and falling curve called a running +average. For every second spent below his 90-mph target, Roy will need +to compensate by investing a second going faster than that average. +Which is why Roy doesn’t want to stop. Every second spent at 0 mph is a +second he can never recover — even with his BMW’s factory-set 155-mph +limiter replaced with a Powerchip ECU engine chip. Unfortunately for +Roy, no matter how carefully he keeps to his fuel-efficiency regimen or +how large his spare fuel tank, he will need to pull over and gas up at +least five times. + +Then there’s the weather — projected to be nasty from Indianapolis to +St. Louis, at least — and the reality that every 12 hours the rest of +America will pack into their PT Cruisers and steer directly onto Roy’s +racetrack. The only way Roy and his copilot can even hope to average 90 +mph is to plan (Roy has, fanatically), pray (a friend petitioned a +Taoist spiritual master for them), and, wherever possible, stomp the +throttle (they are). + +The trip has just begun, but Roy is already in trouble. There’s a closed +gas station he hadn’t foreseen, and that surprise construction in New +Jersey — not to mention a green copilot unfamiliar with American cop +customs. Each small deviation from the plan ripples through the rest of +the spreadsheet. His calculations are already starting to crumble, and +Roy’s 72 mph cumulative average is pathetically low. He needs to put +time in the bank. + +He grabs the CB mic. “Breaker breaker, I need a bear check, over,” he +calls. + +“Yeah, you’re clear on the 78 all the way to the Buckeye,” comes the +voice, and Roy punches it, hitting 130 along a black stretch of road as +the topography becomes hillier, the trees leafier. He’s brought the +average up to 78.4 by 1 am and 80 by 2 am when the BMW barrels through a +tunnel and flicks across trestle bridges into Ohio — the most famously +perilous state for speeders. + +“Switch the scanner frequencies immediately\!” Roy says, and sure enough +the CB starts crackling with word of Smokies rolling westbound, then two +more in the hammer lane, one with a package, another in a plain brown +wrapper, now trailing just a half a mile marker behind Roy. Only +unreasonable speed can put distance between them, so Roy takes the CB +mic. “Breaker breaker, can I get a bear check?” he calls again. + +“Bear check? That something they teach you in trucker school?” comes the +answer. + +It’s nearly 4 am. Roy gasses through Columbus, then Springfield. The +billboards snap past the windows like the pages in a flip book. By 4:30, +the speedometer shows a steady 102 mph, but the overall average is only +82. It’s far too slow to break the record. At this point, it’s +impossible to bring it back up. + +“I’m calling it,” Roy sighs, “that’s it.” And so, at 4:20 in the +morning, some 70 miles shy of the Indianapolis Motor Speedway, Roy puts +his turn signal on like some average commuter and once again stops, +2,160 miles short of his dream. + +**Alex Roy’s Cannonball dreams** started with a movie, but it didn’t +star Burt Reynolds. At the time, the 27-year-old Roy was living in New +York after his father had called him back from Paris, where Roy had been +working part-time at a bar and trying to write the Great American Novel +— set, arbitrarily, in Japan. His father was in the hospital, sick +with throat cancer, and Roy had traded in his life as an artiste to +manage the family business, a rental agency called Europe By Car. The +young heir was at sea, fresh from an unsuccessful attempt to forge his +own identity and sitting in a trendy Soho bar-cum-theater called Void. +And then the lights went down, and Roy saw the future. + +Alex Roy’s Cannonball dreams started with a movie, but it didn’t star +Burt Reynolds. The film was C’était un Rendez-vous. Made in 1976, it’s a +dashing precursor to every Jackass-inspired digicam stunt ever posted on +YouTube — nine heart-pounding minutes choreographed to a screaming +drivetrain. Through a bumper-mounted camera, the viewer becomes the car +— traveling more than 80 mph as the anonymous driver revs into the +enormous traffic circle around Paris’ Arc de Triomphe, steers +hammer-down from the Champs Élysées to Sacré-Coeur in Montmartre +(through 16 red lights, wrong-way one-ways, stunned pedestrians, garbage +trucks, and median strips) to meet up with a beautiful blonde waiting +patiently in the park at the Montmartre church. + +The film was [C’était un +Rendez-vous](http://archive.wired.com/cars/coolwheels/multimedia/2007/10/vd_cannonball_rd). +Made in 1976, it’s a dashing precursor to every Jackass-inspired digicam +stunt ever posted on YouTube — nine heart-pounding minutes choreographed +to a screaming drivetrain. Through a bumper-mounted camera, the viewer +becomes the car — traveling more than 80 mph as the anonymous driver +revs into the enormous traffic circle around Paris’ Arc de Triomphe, +steers hammer-down from the Champs Élysées to Sacré-Coeur in Montmartre +(through 16 red lights, wrong-way one-ways, stunned pedestrians, garbage +trucks, and median strips) to meet up with a beautiful blonde waiting +patiently in the park at the Montmartre church. + +Roy left Void in a state of dazed revelation. From a public-safety +perspective, he says, he knew Rendez-vous was just short of “a snuff +film on wheels.” But it was also the single coolest thing he’d ever +seen. + +The film’s unmasked director and driver, Claude Lelouch, eventually +achieved immortal fame and respect on the Internet, fueled in part by +old reports that Lelouch had been arrested after the film’s first +screening. Standing in a bar on a summer’s night, a life as a feckless +novelist behind him, another of trying to fill his father’s wing tips +ahead of him, Roy began to wonder: Could he make his own Rendez-vous — +in New York? Could he be the great driver, mastering the city and +meeting the blonde? + +He approached the question with a formula he’d repeat throughout his +driving career. First he obsessed, talking ad nauseam about Lelouch’s +film to anyone who would listen. Then he drove his route repeatedly in +his Audi S4, meticulously recording potholes and potential speed traps, +then studying the lists on color-coded cheat sheet. He planned to +recruit close friends from his Manhattan private high school days to +impersonate orange-vested traffic police to block traffic on race day. + +The original idea was to make a full lap of Manhattan (skipping the most +northerly and heavily policed sections of the city) in 25 minutes. This +meant running dozens of red lights at absurd speeds and left little time +to react to sudden contingencies like pedestrians. The stunt was +dangerous and illegal, its success dependent on secrecy. But Roy has no +talent for keeping secrets, particularly about his daring. (He was, in +fact, using most of the recon runs to impress women.) By the end of the +year, dozens of people knew about Roy’s plan to Rendez-vous Manhattan. + +But while outlaw street racing may sound romantic, the reality of a +29-year-old with no experience skidding through the most populous urban +center in America is terrifying, not to mention feloniously stupid. Even +Roy’s girlfriend refused to play her part of meeting him at the finish +line. The idea of actually having to follow through with his big plans +started keeping Roy up at night; but the humiliating prospect of backing +down was just as bad. + +In the end, Roy never attempted the 25-minute Manhattan Rendez-vous. But +he claims to have raced a 27-minute “practice run.” He proudly estimates +that he hit top speeds of 144 mph while committing 151 moving violations +— enough to have his New York driver’s license suspended 78 times over. +And afterward, Roy says, “I never felt better.” He had missed his goal, +but found his identity. Roy wanted to be known as an outlaw driver. + +**The fastest way to his new goal** was to enter a road rally inspired +by yet another movie — the 1976 cult classic The Gumball Rally. The film +depicted a madcap outlaw road race; its real-life version is a +3,000-mile celebrity-and-socialite-studded international road rampage +first organized in Europe in 1999. There are no qualifying events, and +no experience is required. Entrants need both flash (tricked-out +Bentleys, Porsches, and Lamborghinis encouraged) and cash (28,000 pounds +sterling — about $56,425 — for the 2007 rally), as well as the ability +to keep a straight face while agreeing to a code of conduct that +explicitly prohibits breaking any laws — including the speed limit. But +while most Gumballers are rich young men paying for 3,000 miles of +silicon-bimbo’d pit stops and Vegas-weekend-style bad-boy hoo-ha, Roy +was one of the few actually racing to win. + +He impressed the 2003 Gumball entry committee by topping the already +well-represented freak factor: He wore a pastiche of authentic +international police outfits and drove a rare E39 BMW M5 he claimed was +used by the elite German “Autobaun Interceptor Unit,” complete with +police sirens and stickers. Roy’s “Polizei 144” shtick added yet another +layer of slapstick to the Gumball’s air of a movie-come-to-life. Roy +established a reputation as a fun-loving clown who also happened to be a +fast, safe driver. He was an instant hit with race fans. His Web site +attracted a small but faithful following that bought $500 Polizei 144 +racing jackets and downloaded clips from his “Spirit of the Gumball” +trophy win in the 2003 run, held in the US. + +Daylight Cruising + +Video: Courtesy Gravid Films + +Most of the comments on his site were typical rock-on fan blurts, but +one was a challenge to “check out the real deal.” Roy followed a Web +link and, stunned, met his newest dream. + +Once again, it was a movie — this time a trailer for a +documentary-in-progress titled [32 Hours 7 +Minutes](http://www.32hours7minutes.com/), covering the transcontinental +racing record set by Diem and Turner. Here was an automotive stunt that +had remained unequaled for almost 22 years. Anyone who topped it would +be guaranteed fame and street cred; for Roy, this was Rendez-vous déjá +vu. He immediately called the filmmaker, a diminutive speed fanatic +named Cory Welles. Roy had the funding — and the perfect ending for her +movie. + +**Most people remember** The Cannonball Run as a campy ’80s road comedy +featuring, among others, Roger Moore, Dom DeLuise, and Farrah Fawcett. +But to gearheads, the Cannonball Run is the original outlaw +cross-country road race, organized by legendary Car and Driver writer +Brock Yates. Entrants drove everything from cheap beaters to high-priced +tweakers, but all had an appetite for white lines, black tar, and speed. + +Officially known as the Cannonball Baker Sea-to-Shining-Sea Memorial +Trophy Dash (and later as the US Express race) the race set the standard +for outlaw driving. This was uniquely American car culture — free and +fun and fast. And nobody was faster than Diem and Turner, who hammered +their 308 Ferrari from a garage on Manhattan’s Upper East Side to +Newport Beach, California, in an unthinkable 32 hours and 7 minutes. + +According to Yates and his fellow Cannonballers, trying to beat that +record today is pointless. Their argument goes something like this: +Cannonball records were set back when the free-wheelin’ ’70s hooked up +with the greed-is-good ’80s for fat lines of cocaine and unprotected +sex. But these, brother, are Patriot Act days — executive-privilege end +times in which no rogue deed goes untracked, no E-ZPass unlogged, no +roaming cell phone unmonitored by perihelion satellite. Big Brother is +definitely watching. Big Speed, the old Cannonballers say, is a quaint, +20th-century idea, like pay phones or print magazines. + +But nobody had telexed Roy or his new filmmaker pal, Welles, the memo on +this one. Once again, Roy put his formula in motion. First, he planned +for weeks. Then, with his high school friend Jon Goodrich as copilot and +cameraman James Petersmeyer tucked in the backseat, Roy left Manhattan’s +Classic Car Club on December 16, 2005, and drove west, fast. They +arrived at the Santa Monica Pier in California bleary-eyed, exhausted, +and frightened — and two hours and 39 minutes shy of the record. + +Roy and Goodrich flew back to New York to revamp their calculations and +tried again on April 1, 2006. They were zeroing in on the 32:07 space +shot — until the car broke down in Oklahoma. Roy was devastated. He +immediately began planning another run. + +But this time, Roy returned to his calculations by himself. Two hairy +cross-country runs had been more than enough for Goodrich, and he simply +wasn’t willing to continue risking life, limb, and liberty for another +man’s dream. By now, though, replacing his copilot was the least of +Roy’s Cannonball problems. Despite the nondisclosure agreements, word +was getting around. Back in September 2005, Roy’s bearded and bullying +Gumball 3000 frenemy, Richard Rawlings, had bet him $25,000 on a +cross-country race — and another $25,000 that Rawlings would do it in +less than 25 hours. + +Roy refused the challenge, but it clearly meant time was running out. +Sooner or later, somebody was going to try to break that record. If they +succeeded, went on Leno, stole the glory — that would be bad for Roy. +But if they got caught trying, that was even worse. Roy was sure that +the police would then crack down, and the window of opportunity for his +cross-country sneak would slam shut forever. + +In fact, that window was closing already. After so many high-speed +cross-country runs, Roy wasn’t famous — but his antics were. He was +already well remembered in Arizona, where he’d been arrested for +speeding during a 2004 rally called the Bullrun wearing jackboots, +German police togs, and a regulation leather police belt with handcuffs. +(The concerned police psychiatrist asked Roy, “Do you know what year +this is?”) Ohio presented another problem. While running nearly 120 mph +in a 55 zone on the return trip from the aborted Cannonball run with the +English copilot, he’d been hit with radar by a westbound state trooper, +leading to a tense, 20-minute Smokey-Bandit chase deep into farm +country. Roy managed to escape, but the Ohio state patrol would be +unlikely to forget the blue BMW loaded with weird antennas. + +Roy faced similar problems in Pennsylvania and Oklahoma. On the April +2006 trip, Pennsylvania police dispatch reported a BMW without +taillights speeding down the interstate. Then, waiting in the airport +after the Oklahoma breakdown, Roy made the mistake of running his mouth +off on a cell phone. The traveler in line behind him couldn’t help +noticing the strange bald man and overhearing words like night vision, +escape, cops, and spotter plane. He called in a potential homeland +security threat. + +Roy eventually made it home, but Oklahoma authorities tracked his car to +the local BMW dealership. The cops impounded the vehicle — still loaded +with GPS units documenting his street racing — for three days while they +investigated Roy. + +“Needless to say, my attorney wasn’t pleased,” Roy says. “Actually, I +think stupid was the word he used.” + +By fall 2006, the run-ins had reached critical mass. Before long, Roy +feared, state authorities would connect the dots and shut him down for +good. Within a month, winter snow might kill his time, and spring might +be too late. If Roy was going to break the record, it was now or never. +But first, he needed a new +copilot. + +![](https://www.wired.com/wp-content/uploads/archive/images/article/magazine/1511/ff_cannonballrun6_250.jpg) + +**It’s a typically rainy September** evening, only nine days before his +next scheduled departure, and Roy is bug-eyed, chain-smoking and pacing +the length of his 2,571-square-foot bachelor pad in Manhattan’s Cooper +Square while his race team waits on his L-shaped couch, drinking his +liquor and watching Battlestar Galactica on a massive projector screen. +Each surround-sound kinetic energy weapon rattles ice in the drinks. + +Roy checks his watch and then his desk, where three GPS units and four +computer screens each display the time. Standing with his hands on his +hips in front of the rotating world-map screensaver, he looks less like +Captain Picard and more like a chain-smoking Lex Luthor. + +“It’s not like him to be late,” he says. “What if he’s incapacitated or +dead?” + +In choosing a new copilot, Roy considered lots of drivers (including +me), before finally settling on a straitlaced 32-year-old finance-sector +type named Dave Maher. From the first meeting, it was obvious that Maher +and Roy would make a particularly odd couple. Roy is a fast-talking +geek, as dead-eyed serious about the patches he Velcros onto his race +uniforms as a Star Trek reenacter is about having the right blades on +his Klingon battle d’k’tagh. Maher is quiet and has never watched +Battlestar Galactica. He likes sports involving inflatable balls and has +a penchant for red wine and amateur track club events for his 1996 +Porsche 911 Turbo. + +But both of them wanted to go fast, and something that Maher mentioned +when they talked about the cross-country attempt struck a chord deep +within Roy: a need to have something “that money couldn’t buy.” Maher +had the job, and the odd couple became a team. + +Roy wears his phone on his belt like Batman or a paper-products +salesman, and now it begins to vibrate. He snaps it to his ear. “We’re +all here waiting,” he says to the doorman. “Yes, send him up.” + +Maher arrives in a suit and tie, a bottle of excellent wine in hand, +ready for a civilized party. Instead, Roy hands him his latest +timetable. It is the product of 150 hours of work, a whopper version of +all previous calculations. Roy has titled it “31:39 Driveplan .9d +(Merciless Assault Reprisal -11).” + +He hands the stack to Maher, who flips through the pages. The copilot +looks like a kid on the first day of summer facing a pile of required +reading. + +“Ultimately, this drive is a math calculation,” Roy says. Maher looks +blank. Roy points to a series of cells in the spreadsheet. Maher scans +it, then turns the page, searching. “See,” Roy says, “that’s the average +we’re looking to hit: 90.” + +“I know this average,” Maher says quietly. He flips through more pages. +“I’m looking for the extended stretches of big speed, the long +stretches where we can really hit it and make time.” + +Roy straightens. “Well, those don’t really exist,” he says. “You’ll see. +It’s very rare to run over 100 for even a minute or two… “ + +“Oh yeah?” Maher says smiling. “Well, I’m about to change that.” + +Alex Roy discusses modifications to his BMW M5 + +Video: Courtesy Gravid Films + +**And so, on the Friday before** Columbus Day weekend, the clock is +punched and the taillights flare and Roy once again rolls through the +Holland Tunnel and across New Jersey. They cross the empty tarmac of +Pennsylvania and into Ohio, gas up maniacally, and are back on the +highway with Maher now doing 120 through the most famously cop-heavy +state in the union. By Akron they’ve been driving all night, and the +trip is just beginning. More Red Bulls are popped, vitamins taken, +cigarettes lit, and then comes the sun, shockingly bright. Roy finds the +Visine, then trains his attention on the shaking landscape. This is a +criminal game of I Spy, using binoculars designed for battle — Steiners +with independently autofocusing lenses — but at Maher’s speed they just +beat uselessly against Roy’s eye sockets. + +“You know, I just have a very hard time spotting like this,” Roy says. + +“We have to bank time,” Maher says. + +“It’s averaging 91.3 mph,” Roy says. “The projections say we’re good.” + +“Your projections are conservative,” Maher says. His eyes never leave +the road. He looks strangely relaxed doing 130 mph. The radar is +exploding with undercover police, and yet he’s doubling the speed limit +for the sort of sustained periods that Roy knows are potentially fatal +to this quest. + +“We need to go as fast as possible, every chance we get,” Maher says, +glancing at Roy. “Otherwise, we are definitely not going to make it.” + +“OK,” Roy says. But he doesn’t mean it. Maher’s stomach for risk isn’t +found anywhere on Roy’s spreadsheets, and this is way outside his +comfort zone. “But I’m telling you, Dave, you get caught and — “ + +Now the radio explodes with a fresh voice. “Cowbell Ground, Cowbell +Ground, this is Cowbell Air, over.” + +“Yes\!” Roy says. He grabs the mic. “Cowbell Air, this is Cowbell +Ground, go ahead.” + +“We have a visual,” the voice from above says. This is Roy’s secret +weapon, a small Beechcraft twin-engine spotter plane piloted by Paul +Weismann, a high school friend, along with another pilot named Keith +Baskett. They’re scouting for cops, traffic, and construction during the +vulnerable daylight drive across the Midwest. + +“How are we looking, over?” Roy asks. + +“You’re looking very fast and very nice,” comes the voice from above. +“All clear, boys, put the hammer down.” + +Maher pushes the car, passing even the gutsiest speeders at nearly +double speed. The white line is a ticking blur, the overpasses are +distant, then here, then gone, and Texas is just a flat fuzz in the +rearview. Near Oklahoma City, they stop for the Chinese fire drill of +piss, pump, and go, and now Roy takes the wheel again, gunning to fly. +The GPS says that even with gas stops, they’ve crossed half the country +at 93.6 mph. + +The highway ahead is fairly open, but the left lane is not, and this +time, inspired by Maher’s driving or the average or both, Roy does what +he needs to do to keep the pace — passing one car on the right, pushing +inches from the bumper of a 16-wheeler, then cutting left again to take +the lane. And as if on cue, a female voice cuts in on the police +scanner. “Report of a blue BMW speeding, weaving in and out of traffic, +and driving recklessly. Be advised, unable to get tags… “ + +Scanner report in Oklahoma + +Video: Courtesy Gravid Films + +“That’s us\!” Maher says. + +“Shit\!” Roy says. + +He cuts the brake lights on the panel and slows to double digits. + +“What do we do?” + +“Well, we’re stuck in traffic.” + +“Where do we hide?” Roy asks. The land is flat to the horizon. + +“We don’t hide anywhere,” Maher says. + +Blaaat\! Now the cockpit fills with the awful croak of K-band from a +dead-on police trigger radar. “God damn it, where is that guy?” Roy +mutters, then suddenly sees him — an SUV highway patrol car headed +eastbound, and no median between them. + +“Oh my God, he’s braking\!” Roy shouts. “He’s crossing\! We have to get +to the next exit and hide.” + +“I don’t know if we’re going to have a lot of room to hide out here,” +Maher says. + +Roy glances back and forth, mirror to road and back again. Already, he’s +soaked through his shirt, his bald head raining sweat onto his +sunglasses. The exit is coming fast. “Should we get off?” he asks. +“Should we get off right now?” + +The scanner again, a male voice: “Blue BMW on up ahead of me.” + +Then another voice — a second car: “Dark-blue BMW, tinted windows — +looks like it has some antennas on it.” + +“I’m going,” Roy says. He pulls up the exit ramp, taking the rise, +rolling the stop sign like a normal driver, nothing in his mirror yet, +then moves quickly to the right. + +But this time, there’s no getting away. It’s farmland, flat forever — +North by Northwest, a house in the distance, animals. Roy pulls to the +side. He hops out of the car. He unzips his fly. + +“I’ll tell him we had to piss,” he yells. + +The male voice on the scanner again. “They’re ahead of me,” it says. + +Roy looks. Nothing. “Hey\!” he says. “He thinks we’re still going\!” + +Roy zips up and turns, and now he sees it: a black-and-white coming up +the ramp behind him. “Oh no,” he says. The car pauses at the top of the +ramp, then turns toward him. “Here he comes… “ + +Sitting in the passenger seat, Maher now looks around at the piles of +GPS units, the maps and plans and scanners, the squawking boxes. He’s +sitting in an electronic crime scene. “Maybe I should turn something +off?” he asks. + +“Turn it off, turn it all off\!” Roy shouts. He reaches into the center +console to kill the main power just as the police car approaches. “What +the… ?” + +It’s a black-and-white, all right: one of those ad-wrapped VW bugs with +a giant GEEK SQUAD sticker where the sheriff’s star might be. Suddenly, +the sweat on Roy’s head is cool and soothing. + +“Maher,” Roy says, “how come you can drive like that for seven hours and +no one calls, and I do it for three minutes and then someone calls?” + +“Because I’m Irish,” Maher says. + +They’re off the highway for a total of two minutes. Even with the time +lost to a dead stop, their overall average on the GPS stands at 95.7 mph +— well above record pace. But there are storm clouds on the horizon, +which become hard rain by New Mexico. The traffic clots, and the smeared +windshield glows red with truck lights. With the darkness, the rain +becomes blinding, blunting the vision of the thermal cameras. They enter +Arizona in traffic, with a soul-killing 22 mph on the GPS and a forest +of lightning on the horizon. + +Maher pounds the wheel in disbelief. “No\!” he shouts. “I’ve been +driving so hard… No\!” He cuts into the breakdown lane to make a +desperate run for it. Even an unsafe pass isn’t possible. “No\!” he +repeats. + +Mile after mile, their hard-won average withers, and the adrenaline dies +with it. The rain is impossible. Maher is exhausted. “Maybe I’m seeing +stars,” Maher says. + +“No, you’re seeing the real thing,” Roy says. The weather is clearing. + +By Arizona, the pavement is dry. Maher gives it his last surge of +energy, climbing to 122 mph, 142, 160 before the gas light demands they +stop for fuel. It’s 12:03 am local time. They’ve been on the road for 29 +hours and 27 minutes. The effort of this last sprint has pushed Maher to +the breaking point. He staggers from the car on failing legs. The Casio +counts the seconds as Roy plugs in the nozzle and stands, tweaked and +muttering in front of the mini-mart like a meth kid getting a Big Gulp. + +“You’re done,” Roy says. He falls into the driver’s side and guns it +back onto the highway for the final 131-mile stretch from Barstow to the +Santa Monica Pier. + +“I’m not sure that we’re going to make it now,” Maher says. His fingers +fumble with Roy’s projection chart, suddenly interested, but it’s an +unintelligible jumble of numbers. “You’ll have to be above 100 the whole +time, or we’ve driven a day and a half for nothing.” + +“I’ve got it,” Roy says. He stares ahead like a machine. “Just watch the +road.” + +**After 7,700 miles and three** attempts to cross the country at warp +speed, Captain Roy has experienced something like a Maher mindmeld. As +in any marathon, exhaustion and fear make quitting seem smart. You can +say you tried, blame the weather, and find a hotel. But breaking a +record — any record — takes something more, something personal. Right +now, it will take everything. There’s no room left for strategy. Roy +simply has to hit it hard. + +The radar is crazy with bleep\! and blatt\!, the spreadsheets litter the +cockpit like dirty floor mats, but Roy hits it anyway. He doesn’t need +charts anymore. He is the chart, and Excel and Google Earth and Garmin +MapSource and something more, too, a guy with something to prove. + +He passes a minivan in the carpool lane at 102 mph and merges onto +California’s I-10 headed into Los Angeles with blocks of lit towers to +the right and oncoming halogens kaleidoscoping his bleary corneas. But +Roy sees only the road ahead and the best path through it, the racing +line that shaves fat off the hips of the curves as he apexes them at 100 +mph, now 117 past Crenshaw Boulevard, La Brea Avenue at 115. The curve +and acceleration is a physical sensation in the gut, and now the city is +10 miles out, now 8, and Maher says, “Cop\! No — taxi\!” while Roy hits +117 past Cloverfield Boulevard, peels off on the exit to a light gone +green, the next one green — one, two, three more — through the gate of +the Santa Monica Pier, where wooden planks rattle beneath the car. +[**1**](#correction1) + +It feels weird to slow, crazy to stop, but it’s over. The car stops, but +the buzzing of speed and road in their heads does not. Maher finds the +door, and his legs, and jogs up under the empty lights of the big Ferris +wheel. It’s exactly 1:30 am. He punches their card into the time clock, +flown from New York, and gives the ticket to Roy. + +And this, of course, is the end of Roy’s Cannonball run. There are +people here — friends and family and a camera crew. The cameraman closes +in and asks the questions that you ask: Your thoughts? Why did you do +it? And there are jokes and platitudes about Mount Everest and the final +frontier, but no real answers. + +Why? Because drivers drive. Movies have endings. Records are broken. +Perhaps there will be fame, blogs, even an appearance on Conan. Does all +that balance against the thousand what-ifs — the nearly cracked axles +and the reckless driving, drunk on exhaustion? The crimes that Roy and +Maher have committed, state after state, number in the hundreds. There +will be months before the statutes of limitation run out, months before +this story can finally be published. Roy and Maher have plenty of time +to think about what they’ve done and why. + +But for now, the pilot and copilot can only stand with glasses of +champagne undrunk. Too tired to know if they are even happy. Or to fully +comprehend that their time, 31 hours and 4 minutes coast to coast, has +beaten the record by a full hour and three minutes. Or that this record +will surely be beaten, again, sometime, by some other drivers, most +probably for reasons they won’t understand, either. + +Correction: \[9pm EST 10.23.07\]. The BMW Alex Roy drove was not +turbo-charged, as originally reported. + +Contributing editor Charles Graeber () wrote +about tornado-car builder Steve Green in issue 13.10. + +[Go Back to Top. Skip To: Start of Article.](#start-of-content) diff --git a/_stories/2007/6337684.md b/_stories/2007/6337684.md index 37e31d3..40df079 100644 --- a/_stories/2007/6337684.md +++ b/_stories/2007/6337684.md @@ -19,7 +19,144 @@ _tags: objectID: '6337684' --- -[Source](https://www.wired.com/politics/security/commentary/securitymatters/2007/11/securitymatters_1115 "Permalink to ") +Random numbers are critical for cryptography: for encryption keys, +random authentication challenges, initialization vectors, nonces, +key-agreement schemes, generating prime numbers and so on. Break the +random-number generator, and most of the time you break the entire +security system. Which is why you should worry about a new random-number +standard that includes an algorithm that is slow, badly designed and +just might contain a backdoor for the National Security Agency. +Generating random numbers isn't easy, and researchers have discovered +lots of [problems and +attacks](http://www.cs.virginia.edu/~rjg7v/annotated.html) over the +years. A recent [paper](http://eprint.iacr.org/2007/419) found a flaw in +the Windows 2000 random-number generator. Another +[paper](http://eprint.iacr.org/2006/086.pdf) found flaws in the Linux +random-number generator. Back in 1996, an early version of SSL was +[broken](http://www.ddj.com/windows/184409807) because of flaws in its +random-number generator. With John Kelsey and Niels Ferguson in 1999, I +co-authored [Yarrow](http://www.schneier.com/yarrow.html), a +random-number generator based on [our own cryptanalysis +work](http://www.schneier.com/paper-prngs.html). I improved this design +four years later – and renamed it Fortuna – in the book [Practical +Cryptography](http://www.schneier.com/pc.html), which I co-authored with +Ferguson. +The U.S. government released a new official standard for random-number +generators this year, and it will likely be followed by software and +hardware developers around the world. Called [NIST Special +Publication 800-90](http://csrc.nist.gov/publications/nistpubs/800-90/SP800-90revised_March2007.pdf) +(.pdf), the 130-page document contains four different approved +techniques, called DRBGs, or "Deterministic Random Bit Generators." All +four are based on existing cryptographic primitives. One is based on +hash functions, one on [HMAC](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HMAC), one on +block ciphers and one on elliptic curves. It's smart cryptographic +design to use only a few well-trusted cryptographic primitives, so +building a random-number generator out of existing parts is a good +thing. +But one of those generators – the one based on elliptic curves – is not +like the others. Called Dual\_EC\_DRBG, not only is it a mouthful to +say, it's also three orders of magnitude slower than its peers. It's in +the standard only because it's been championed by the NSA, which first +proposed it years ago in a related standardization project at the +American National Standards Institute. + +The NSA has always been intimately involved in U.S. cryptography +standards – it is, after all, expert in making and breaking secret +codes. So the agency's participation in the NIST (the U.S. Commerce +Department's National Institute of Standards and Technology) standard is +not sinister in itself. It's only when you look under the hood at the +NSA's contribution that questions arise. + +Problems with Dual\_EC\_DRBG [were](http://eprint.iacr.org/2006/190) +first [described](http://eprint.iacr.org/2007/048) in early 2006. The +math is complicated, but the general point is that the random numbers it +produces have a small bias. The problem isn't large enough to make the +algorithm unusable – and Appendix E of the NIST standard describes an +optional work-around to avoid the issue – but it's cause for concern. +Cryptographers are a conservative bunch: We don't like to use algorithms +that have even a whiff of a problem. + +But today there's an even bigger stink brewing around Dual\_EC\_DRBG. In +an [informal presentation](http://rump2007.cr.yp.to/15-shumow.pdf) +(.pdf) at the CRYPTO 2007 conference in August, Dan Shumow and Niels +Ferguson showed that the algorithm contains a weakness that can only be +described a backdoor. + +This is how it works: There are a bunch of constants – fixed numbers – +in the standard used to define the algorithm's elliptic curve. These +constants are listed in Appendix A of the NIST publication, but nowhere +is it explained where they came from. + +What Shumow and Ferguson showed is that these numbers have a +relationship with a second, secret set of numbers that can act as a kind +of skeleton key. If you know the secret numbers, you can predict the +output of the random-number generator after collecting just 32 bytes of +its output. To put that in real terms, you only need to monitor one +[TLS](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secure_Sockets_Layer) internet +encryption connection in order to crack the security of that protocol. +If you know the secret numbers, you can completely break any +instantiation of Dual\_EC\_DRBG. + +The researchers don't know what the secret numbers are. But because of +the way the algorithm works, the person who produced the constants might +know; he had the mathematical opportunity to produce the constants and +the secret numbers in tandem. + +Of course, we have no way of knowing whether the NSA knows the secret +numbers that break Dual\_EC-DRBG. We have no way of knowing whether an +NSA employee working on his own came up with the constants – and has the +secret numbers. We don't know if someone from NIST, or someone in the +ANSI working group, has them. Maybe nobody does. + +We don't know where the constants came from in the first place. We only +know that whoever came up with them could have the key to this backdoor. +And we know there's no way for NIST – or anyone else – to prove +otherwise. + +This is scary stuff indeed. + +Even if no one knows the secret numbers, the fact that the backdoor is +present makes Dual\_EC\_DRBG very fragile. If someone were to solve just +one instance of the algorithm's elliptic-curve problem, he would +effectively have the keys to the kingdom. He could then use it for +whatever nefarious purpose he wanted. Or he could publish his result, +and render every implementation of the random-number generator +completely insecure. + +It's possible to implement Dual\_EC\_DRBG in such a way as to protect it +against this backdoor, by generating new constants with another secure +random-number generator and then publishing the seed. This method is +even in the NIST document, in Appendix A. But the procedure is optional, +and my guess is that most implementations of the Dual\_EC\_DRBG won't +bother. + +If this story leaves you confused, join the club. I don't understand why +the NSA was so insistent about including Dual\_EC\_DRBG in the standard. +It makes no sense as a trap door: It's public, and rather obvious. It +makes no sense from an engineering perspective: It's too slow for anyone +to willingly use it. And it makes no sense from a +backwards-compatibility perspective: Swapping one random-number +generator for another is easy. + +My recommendation, if you're in need of a random-number generator, is +not to use Dual\_EC\_DRBG under any circumstances. If you have to use +something in SP 800-90, use CTR\_DRBG or Hash\_DRBG. + +In the meantime, both NIST and the NSA have some explaining to do. + +\- - - + +Bruce Schneier is CTO of BT Counterpane and author of Beyond Fear: +Thinking Sensibly About Security in an Uncertain World. + +[Encrypted E-Mail Company Hushmail Spills to +Feds](https://www.wired.com/27bstroke6/2007/11/encrypted-e-mai.html) + +[Claim: NSA Domestic Surveillance Began 7 Months +Before 9/11](https://www.wired.com/27bstroke6/2007/10/nsa-asked-for-p.html) + +[MS Denies Windows 'Spy +Key'](https://www.wired.com/science/discoveries/news/1999/09/21577) diff --git a/_stories/2007/7801339.md b/_stories/2007/7801339.md index 17df494..b31c8fb 100644 --- a/_stories/2007/7801339.md +++ b/_stories/2007/7801339.md @@ -19,161 +19,401 @@ _tags: objectID: '7801339' --- -[Source](http://www.nytimes.com/2007/09/16/magazine/16epidemiology-t.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0 "Permalink to Diet - Lifestyle - Disease - Health - Medicine - H.R.T. - Hormone-Replacement Therapy - The New York Times") +Faith in the protective powers of estrogen began to erode in 1998, when +a clinical trial called HERS, for Heart and Estrogen-progestin +Replacement Study, concluded that estrogen therapy increased, rather +than decreased, the likelihood that women who already had heart disease +would suffer a heart attack. It evaporated entirely in July 2002, when a +second trial, the Women’s Health Initiative, or W.H.I., concluded that +H.R.T. constituted a potential health risk for all postmenopausal women. +While it might protect them against osteoporosis and perhaps colorectal +cancer, these benefits would be outweighed by increased risks of heart +disease, stroke, blood clots, breast cancer and perhaps even dementia. +And that was the final word. Or at least it was until the June 21 issue +of The New England Journal of Medicine. Now the idea is that +hormone-replacement therapy may indeed protect women against heart +disease if they begin taking it during menopause, but it is still +decidedly deleterious for those women who begin later in life. -# Diet - Lifestyle - Disease - Health - Medicine - H.R.T. - Hormone-Replacement Therapy - The New York Times +This latest variation does come with a caveat, however, which could have +been made at any point in this history. While it is easy to find +authority figures in medicine and public health who will argue that +today’s version of H.R.T. wisdom is assuredly the correct one, it’s +equally easy to find authorities who will say that surely we don’t know. +The one thing on which they will all agree is that the kind of +experimental trial necessary to determine the truth would be excessively +expensive and time-consuming and so will almost assuredly never happen. +Meanwhile, the question of how many women may have died prematurely or +suffered strokes or breast cancer because they were taking a pill that +their physicians had prescribed to protect them against heart disease +lingers unanswered. A reasonable estimate would be tens of thousands. -__NYTimes.com no longer supports Internet Explorer 9 or earlier. Please upgrade your browser. [LEARN MORE »][1] +At the center of the H.R.T. story is the science of epidemiology itself +and, in particular, a kind of study known as a prospective or cohort +study, of which the Nurses’ Health Study is among the most renowned. In +these studies, the investigators monitor disease rates and lifestyle +factors (diet, physical activity, prescription drug use, exposure to +pollutants, etc.) in or between large populations (the 122,000 nurses of +the Nurses’ study, for example). They then try to infer conclusions — +i.e., hypotheses — about what caused the disease variations observed. +Because these studies can generate an enormous number of speculations +about the causes or prevention of chronic diseases, they provide the +fodder for much of the health news that appears in the media — from the +potential benefits of fish oil, fruits and vegetables to the supposed +dangers of sedentary lives, trans fats and electromagnetic fields. +Because these studies often provide the only available evidence outside +the laboratory on critical issues of our well-being, they have come to +play a significant role in generating public-health recommendations as +well. -__Sections __ Home __Search [Skip to content][2] [Skip to navigation][3] [View mobile version][4] +The dangerous game being played here, as David Sackett, a retired Oxford +University epidemiologist, has observed, is in the presumption of +preventive medicine. The goal of the endeavor is to tell those of us who +are otherwise in fine health how to remain healthy longer. But this +advice comes with the expectation that any prescription given — whether +diet or drug or a change in lifestyle — will indeed prevent disease +rather than be the agent of our disability or untimely death. With that +presumption, how unambiguous does the evidence have to be before any +advice is offered? -## [ The New York Times ][5] +The catch with observational studies like the Nurses’ Health Study, no +matter how well designed and how many tens of thousands of subjects they +might include, is that they have a fundamental limitation. They can +distinguish associations between two events — that women who take H.R.T. +have less heart disease, for instance, than women who don’t. But they +cannot inherently determine causation — the conclusion that one event +causes the other; that H.R.T. protects against heart disease. As a +result, observational studies can only provide what researchers call +hypothesis-generating evidence — what a defense attorney would call +circumstantial evidence. -###### [Magazine][6]|Do We Really Know What Makes Us Healthy? +Testing these hypotheses in any definitive way requires a +randomized-controlled trial — an experiment, not an observational study +— and these clinical trials typically provide the flop to the +flip-flop rhythm of medical wisdom. Until August 1998, the faith that +H.R.T. prevented heart disease was based primarily on observational +evidence, from the Nurses’ Health Study most prominently. Since then, +the conventional wisdom has been based on clinical trials — first HERS, +which tested H.R.T. against a placebo in 2,700 women with heart disease, +and then the Women’s Health Initiative, which tested the therapy against +a placebo in 16,500 healthy women. When the Women’s Health Initiative +concluded in 2002 that H.R.T. caused far more harm than good, the lesson +to be learned, wrote Sackett in The Canadian Medical Association +Journal, was about the “disastrous inadequacy of lesser evidence” for +shaping medical and public-health policy. The contentious wisdom circa +mid-2007 — that estrogen benefits women who begin taking it around the +time of menopause but not women who begin substantially later — is an +attempt to reconcile the discordance between the observational studies +and the experimental ones. And it may be right. It may not. The only way +to tell for sure would be to do yet another randomized trial, one that +now focused exclusively on women given H.R.T. when they begin their +menopause. -__Search - -Subscribe Now Log In __0 __Settings - -__Close search - -## Site Search Navigation - -Search NYTimes.com - -__Clear this text input - -Go - -## Site Navigation - -## Site Mobile Navigation +No one questions the value of these epidemiologic studies when they’re +used to identify the unexpected side effects of prescription drugs or to +study the progression of diseases or their distribution between and +within populations. One reason researchers believe that heart disease +and many cancers can be prevented is because of observational evidence +that the incidence of these diseases differ greatly in different +populations and in the same populations over time. [Breast +cancer](http://health.nytimes.com/health/guides/disease/breast-cancer/overview.html?inline=nyt-classifier "In-depth reference and news articles about Breast Cancer.") +is not the scourge among Japanese women that it is among American women, +but it takes only two generations in the United States before +Japanese-Americans have the same breast cancer rates as any other ethnic +group. This tells us that something about the American lifestyle or diet +is a cause of breast cancer. Over the last 20 years, some two dozen +large studies, the Nurses’ Health Study included, have so far failed to +identify what that factor is. They may be inherently incapable of doing +so. Nonetheless, we know that such a carcinogenic factor of diet or +lifestyle exists, waiting to be identified. Advertisement -Supported by +[Continue reading the main story](#story-continues-4) -### [Magazine][6] +These studies have also been invaluable for identifying predictors of +disease — risk factors — and this information can then guide physicians +in weighing the risks and benefits of putting a particular patient on a +particular drug. The studies have repeatedly confirmed that high [blood +pressure](http://health.nytimes.com/health/guides/test/blood-pressure/overview.html?inline=nyt-classifier "In-depth reference and news articles about Blood Pressure.") +is associated with an increased risk of heart disease and that +[obesity](http://health.nytimes.com/health/guides/symptoms/obesity/overview.html?inline=nyt-classifier "In-depth reference and news articles about Obesity.") +is associated with an increased risk of most of our common chronic +diseases, but they have not told us what it is that raises blood +pressure or causes obesity. Indeed, if you ask the more skeptical +epidemiologists in the field what diet and lifestyle factors have been +convincingly established as causes of common chronic diseases based on +observational studies without clinical trials, you’ll get a very short +list: +[smoking](http://health.nytimes.com/health/guides/specialtopic/smoking-and-smokeless-tobacco/overview.html?inline=nyt-classifier "In-depth reference and news articles about Smoking.") +as a cause of lung cancer and cardiovascular disease, sun exposure for +[skin +cancer](http://health.nytimes.com/health/guides/disease/skin-cancer/overview.html?inline=nyt-classifier "In-depth reference and news articles about Skin Cancer."), +sexual activity to spread the papilloma virus that causes [cervical +cancer](http://health.nytimes.com/health/guides/disease/cervical-cancer/overview.html?inline=nyt-classifier "In-depth reference and news articles about Cervical Cancer.") +and perhaps alcohol for a few different cancers as well. -# Do We Really Know What Makes Us Healthy? +Richard Peto, professor of medical statistics and epidemiology at Oxford +University, phrases the nature of the conflict this way: “Epidemiology +is so beautiful and provides such an important perspective on human life +and death, but an incredible amount of rubbish is published,” by which +he means the results of observational studies that appear daily in the +news media and often become the basis of public-health recommendations +about what we should or should not do to promote our continued good +health. -By GARY TAUBESSEPT. 16, 2007 - -[Continue reading the main story][7] Share This Page - -[Continue reading the main story][7] +In January 2001, the British epidemiologists George Davey Smith and Shah +Ebrahim, co-editors of The International Journal of Epidemiology, +discussed this issue in an editorial titled “Epidemiology — Is It Time +to Call It a Day?” They noted that those few times that a randomized +trial had been financed to test a hypothesis supported by results from +these large observational studies, the hypothesis either failed the test +or, at the very least, the test failed to confirm the hypothesis: +antioxidants like +[vitamins](http://health.nytimes.com/health/guides/nutrition/vitamins/overview.html?inline=nyt-classifier "In-depth reference and news articles about Vitamins.") +E and C and beta carotene did not prevent heart disease, nor did eating +copious fiber protect against [colon +cancer](http://health.nytimes.com/health/guides/disease/colon-cancer/overview.html?inline=nyt-classifier "In-depth reference and news articles about Colon Cancer."). Photo -![][8] +The Nurses’ Health Study is the most influential of these cohort +studies, and in the six years since the Davey Smith and Ebrahim +editorial, a series of new trials have chipped away at its credibility. +The Women’s Health Initiative hormone-therapy trial failed to confirm +the proposition that H.R.T. prevented heart disease; a W.H.I. diet trial +with 49,000 women failed to confirm the notion that fruits and +vegetables protected against heart disease; a 40,000-woman trial failed +to confirm that a daily regimen of low-dose aspirin prevented colorectal +cancer and heart attacks in women under 65. And this June, yet another +clinical trial — this one of 1,000 men and women with a high risk of +colon cancer — contradicted the inference from the Nurses’s study that +folic acid supplements reduced the risk of colon cancer. Rather, if +anything, they appear to increase risk. -Credit Reinhard Hunger +The implication of this track record seems hard to avoid. “Even the +Nurses’ Health Study, one of the biggest and best of these studies, +cannot be used to reliably test small-to-moderate risks or benefits,” +says Charles Hennekens, a principal investigator with the Nurses’ study +from 1976 to 2001. “None of them can.” -**Once** upon a time, women took [estrogen][9] only to relieve the hot flashes, sweating, vaginal dryness and the other discomforting symptoms of [menopause][10]. In the late 1960s, thanks in part to the efforts of Robert Wilson, a Brooklyn gynecologist, and his 1966 best seller, "Feminine Forever," this began to change, and estrogen therapy evolved into a long-term remedy for the chronic ills of aging. Menopause, Wilson argued, was not a natural age-related condition; it was an illness, akin to [diabetes][11] or kidney failure, and one that could be treated by taking estrogen to replace the hormones that a woman's ovaries secreted in ever diminishing amounts. With this argument estrogen evolved into hormone-replacement therapy, or H.R.T., as it came to be called, and became one of the most popular prescription drug treatments in America. +Proponents of the value of these studies for telling us how to prevent +common diseases — including the epidemiologists who do them, and +physicians, nutritionists and public-health authorities who use their +findings to argue for or against the health benefits of a particular +regimen — will argue that they are never relying on any single study. +Instead, they base their ultimate judgments on the “totality of the +data,” which in theory includes all the observational evidence, any +existing clinical trials and any laboratory work that might provide a +biological mechanism to explain the observations. -By the mid-1990s, the [American Heart Association][12], the American College of Physicians and the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists had all concluded that the beneficial effects of H.R.T. were sufficiently well established that it could be recommended to older women as a means of warding off heart disease and [osteoporosis][13]. By 2001, 15 million women were filling H.R.T. prescriptions annually; perhaps 5 million were older women, taking the drug solely with the expectation that it would allow them to lead a longer and healthier life. A year later, the tide would turn. In the summer of 2002, estrogen therapy was exposed as a hazard to health rather than a benefit, and its story became what Jerry Avorn, a Harvard epidemiologist, has called the "estrogen debacle" and a "case study waiting to be written" on the elusive search for truth in medicine. +This in turn leads to the argument that the fault is with the press, not +the epidemiology. “The problem is not in the research but in the way it +is interpreted for the public,” as Jerome Kassirer and Marcia Angell, +then the editors of The New England Journal of Medicine, explained in a +1994 editorial titled “What Should the Public Believe?” Each study, they +explained, is just a “piece of a puzzle” and so the media had to do a +better job of communicating the many limitations of any single study and +the caveats involved — the foremost, of course, being that “an +association between two events is not the same as a cause and effect.” -Many explanations have been offered to make sense of the here-today-gone-tomorrow nature of medical wisdom — what we are advised with confidence one year is reversed the next — but the simplest one is that it is the natural rhythm of science. An observation leads to a hypothesis. The hypothesis (last year's advice) is tested, and it fails this year's test, which is always the most likely outcome in any scientific endeavor. There are, after all, an infinite number of wrong hypotheses for every right one, and so the odds are always against any particular hypothesis being true, no matter how obvious or vitally important it might seem. - -In the case of H.R.T., as with most issues of [diet][14], lifestyle and disease, the hypotheses begin their transformation into public-health recommendations only after they've received the requisite support from a field of research known as epidemiology. This science evolved over the last 250 years to make sense of epidemics — hence the name — and infectious diseases. Since the 1950s, it has been used to identify, or at least to try to identify, the causes of the common chronic diseases that befall us, particularly heart disease and [cancer][15]. In the process, the perception of what epidemiologic research can legitimately accomplish — by the public, the press and perhaps by many epidemiologists themselves — may have run far ahead of the reality. The case of hormone-replacement therapy for post-menopausal women is just one of the cautionary tales in the annals of epidemiology. It's a particularly glaring example of the difficulties of trying to establish reliable knowledge in any scientific field with research tools that themselves may be unreliable. +Stephen Pauker, a professor of medicine at Tufts University and a +pioneer in the field of clinical decision making, says, “Epidemiologic +studies, like diagnostic tests, are probabilistic statements.” They +don’t tell us what the truth is, he says, but they allow both +physicians and patients to “estimate the truth” so they can make +informed decisions. The question the skeptics will ask, however, is how +can anyone judge the value of these studies without taking into account +their track record? And if they take into account the track record, +suggests Sander Greenland, an epidemiologist at the University of +California, Los Angeles, and an author of the textbook “Modern +Epidemiology,” then wouldn’t they do just as well if they simply tossed +a coin? Advertisement -[Continue reading the main story][7] +[Continue reading the main story](#story-continues-5) -What was considered true about estrogen therapy in the 1960s and is still the case today is that it is an effective treatment for menopausal symptoms. Take H.R.T. for a few menopausal years and it's extremely unlikely that any harm will come from it. The uncertainty involves the lifelong risks and benefits should a woman choose to continue taking H.R.T. long past menopause. In 1985, the Nurses' Health Study run out of the Harvard Medical School and the Harvard School of Public Health reported that women taking estrogen had only a third as many heart attacks as women who had never taken the drug. This appeared to confirm the belief that women were protected from heart attacks until they passed through menopause and that it was estrogen that bestowed that protection, and this became the basis of the therapeutic wisdom for the next 17 years. +As John Bailar, an epidemiologist who is now at the National Academy of +Science, once memorably phrased it, “The appropriate question is not +whether there are uncertainties about epidemiologic data, rather, it is +whether the uncertainties are so great that one cannot draw useful +conclusions from the data.” -[Continue reading the main story][16] +Understanding how we got into this situation is the simple part of the +story. The randomized-controlled trials needed to ascertain reliable +knowledge about long-term risks and benefits of a drug, lifestyle factor +or aspect of our diet are inordinately expensive and time consuming. By +randomly assigning research subjects into an intervention group (who +take a particular pill or eat a particular diet) or a placebo group, +these trials “control” for all other possible variables, both known and +unknown, that might effect the outcome: the relative health or wealth of +the subjects, for instance. This is why randomized trials, particularly +those known as placebo-controlled, double-blind trials, are typically +considered the gold standard for establishing reliable knowledge about +whether a drug, surgical intervention or diet is really safe and +effective. + +But clinical trials also have limitations beyond their exorbitant costs +and the years or decades it takes them to provide meaningful results. +They can rarely be used, for instance, to study suspected harmful +effects. Randomly subjecting thousands of individuals to secondhand +tobacco smoke, pollutants or potentially noxious trans fats presents +obvious ethical dilemmas. And even when these trials are done to study +the benefits of a particular intervention, it’s rarely clear how the +results apply to the public at large or to any specific patient. +Clinical trials invariably enroll subjects who are relatively healthy, +who are motivated to volunteer and will show up regularly for treatments +and checkups. As a result, randomized trials “are very good for showing +that a drug does what the pharmaceutical company says it does,” David +Atkins, a preventive-medicine specialist at the Agency for Healthcare +Research and Quality, says, “but not very good for telling you how big +the benefit really is and what are the harms in typical people. Because +they don’t enroll typical people.” + +These limitations mean that the job of establishing the long-term and +relatively rare risks of drug therapies has fallen to observational +studies, as has the job of determining the risks and benefits of +virtually all factors of diet and lifestyle that might be related to +chronic diseases. The former has been a fruitful field of research; many +side effects of drugs have been discovered by these observational +studies. The latter is the primary point of contention. + +While the tools of epidemiology — comparisons of populations with and +without a disease — have proved effective over the centuries in +establishing that a disease like +[cholera](http://health.nytimes.com/health/guides/disease/cholera/overview.html?inline=nyt-classifier "In-depth reference and news articles about Cholera.") +is caused by contaminated water, as the British physician John Snow +demonstrated in the 1850s, it’s a much more complicated endeavor when +those same tools are employed to elucidate the more subtle causes of +chronic disease. + +And even the success stories taught in epidemiology classes to +demonstrate the historical richness and potential of the field — that +pellagra, a disease that can lead to dementia and death, is caused by a +nutrient-deficient diet, for instance, as Joseph Goldberger demonstrated +in the 1910s — are only known to be successes because the initial +hypotheses were subjected to rigorous tests and happened to survive +them. Goldberger tested the competing hypothesis, which posited that the +disease was caused by an infectious agent, by holding what he called +“filth parties,” injecting himself and seven volunteers, his wife +among them, with the blood of pellagra victims. They remained healthy, +thus doing a compelling, if somewhat revolting, job of refuting the +alternative hypothesis. + +Smoking and lung cancer is the emblematic success story of +chronic-disease epidemiology. But lung cancer was a rare disease before +cigarettes became widespread, and the association between smoking and +lung cancer was striking: heavy smokers had 2,000 to 3,000 percent the +risk of those who had never smoked. This made smoking a “turkey shoot,” +says Greenland of U.C.L.A., compared with the associations +epidemiologists have struggled with ever since, which fall into the tens +of a percent range. The good news is that such small associations, even +if causal, can be considered relatively meaningless for a single +individual. If a 50-year-old woman with a small risk of breast cancer +takes H.R.T. and increases her risk by 30 percent, it remains a small +risk. + +The compelling motivation for identifying these small effects is that +their impact on the public health can be enormous if they’re aggregated +over an entire nation: if tens of millions of women decrease their +breast cancer risk by 30 percent, tens of thousands of such cancers will +be prevented each year. In fact, between 2002 and 2004, breast cancer +incidence in the United States dropped by 12 percent, an effect that may +have been caused by the coincident decline in the use of H.R.T. (And it +may not have been. The coincident reduction in breast cancer incidence +and H.R.T. use is only an association.) Advertisement -[Continue reading the main story][17] +[Continue reading the main story](#story-continues-6) -Faith in the protective powers of estrogen began to erode in 1998, when a clinical trial called HERS, for Heart and Estrogen-progestin Replacement Study, concluded that estrogen therapy increased, rather than decreased, the likelihood that women who already had heart disease would suffer a heart attack. It evaporated entirely in July 2002, when a second trial, the Women's Health Initiative, or W.H.I., concluded that H.R.T. constituted a potential health risk for all postmenopausal women. While it might protect them against osteoporosis and perhaps colorectal cancer, these benefits would be outweighed by increased risks of heart disease, stroke, blood clots, breast cancer and perhaps even dementia. And that was the final word. Or at least it was until the June 21 issue of The New England Journal of Medicine. Now the idea is that hormone-replacement therapy may indeed protect women against heart disease if they begin taking it during menopause, but it is still decidedly deleterious for those women who begin later in life. +Saving tens of thousands of lives each year constitutes a powerful +reason to lower the standard of evidence needed to suggest a +cause-and-effect relationship — to take a leap of faith. This is the +crux of the issue. From a scientific perspective, epidemiologic studies +may be incapable of distinguishing a small effect from no effect at all, +and so caution dictates that the scientist refrain from making any +claims in that situation. From the public-health perspective, a small +effect can be a very dangerous or beneficial thing, at least when +aggregated over an entire nation, and so caution dictates that action be +taken, even if that small effect might not be real. Hence the +public-health logic that it’s better to err on the side of prudence even +if it means persuading us all to engage in an activity, eat a food or +take a pill that does nothing for us and ignoring, for the moment, the +possibility that such an action could have unforeseen harmful +consequences. As Greenland says, “The combination of data, statistical +methodology and motivation seems a potent anesthetic for skepticism.” -This latest variation does come with a caveat, however, which could have been made at any point in this history. While it is easy to find authority figures in medicine and public health who will argue that today's version of H.R.T. wisdom is assuredly the correct one, it's equally easy to find authorities who will say that surely we don't know. The one thing on which they will all agree is that the kind of experimental trial necessary to determine the truth would be excessively expensive and time-consuming and so will almost assuredly never happen. Meanwhile, the question of how many women may have died prematurely or suffered strokes or breast cancer because they were taking a pill that their physicians had prescribed to protect them against heart disease lingers unanswered. A reasonable estimate would be tens of thousands. +The Nurses’ Health Study was founded at Harvard in 1976 by Frank +Speizer, an epidemiologist who wanted to study the long-term effects of +oral contraceptive use. It was expanded to include postmenopausal +estrogen therapy because both treatments involved long-term hormone use +by millions of women, and nobody knew the consequences. Speizer’s +assistants in this endeavor, who would go on to become the most +influential epidemiologists in the country, were young physicians — +Charles Hennekens, Walter Willett, Meir Stampfer and Graham Colditz — +all interested in the laudable goal of preventing disease more than +curing it after the fact. -At the center of the H.R.T. story is the science of epidemiology itself and, in particular, a kind of study known as a prospective or cohort study, of which the Nurses' Health Study is among the most renowned. In these studies, the investigators monitor disease rates and lifestyle factors (diet, physical activity, prescription drug use, exposure to pollutants, etc.) in or between large populations (the 122,000 nurses of the Nurses' study, for example). They then try to infer conclusions — i.e., hypotheses — about what caused the disease variations observed. Because these studies can generate an enormous number of speculations about the causes or prevention of chronic diseases, they provide the fodder for much of the health news that appears in the media — from the potential benefits of fish oil, fruits and vegetables to the supposed dangers of sedentary lives, trans fats and electromagnetic fields. Because these studies often provide the only available evidence outside the laboratory on critical issues of our well-being, they have come to play a significant role in generating public-health recommendations as well. - -The dangerous game being played here, as David Sackett, a retired Oxford University epidemiologist, has observed, is in the presumption of preventive medicine. The goal of the endeavor is to tell those of us who are otherwise in fine health how to remain healthy longer. But this advice comes with the expectation that any prescription given — whether diet or drug or a change in lifestyle — will indeed prevent disease rather than be the agent of our disability or untimely death. With that presumption, how unambiguous does the evidence have to be before any advice is offered? - -The catch with observational studies like the Nurses' Health Study, no matter how well designed and how many tens of thousands of subjects they might include, is that they have a fundamental limitation. They can distinguish associations between two events — that women who take H.R.T. have less heart disease, for instance, than women who don't. But they cannot inherently determine causation — the conclusion that one event causes the other; that H.R.T. protects against heart disease. As a result, observational studies can only provide what researchers call hypothesis-generating evidence — what a defense attorney would call circumstantial evidence. - -Testing these hypotheses in any definitive way requires a randomized-controlled trial — an experiment, not an observational study — and these clinical trials typically provide the flop to the flip-flop rhythm of medical wisdom. Until August 1998, the faith that H.R.T. prevented heart disease was based primarily on observational evidence, from the Nurses' Health Study most prominently. Since then, the conventional wisdom has been based on clinical trials — first HERS, which tested H.R.T. against a placebo in 2,700 women with heart disease, and then the Women's Health Initiative, which tested the therapy against a placebo in 16,500 healthy women. When the Women's Health Initiative concluded in 2002 that H.R.T. caused far more harm than good, the lesson to be learned, wrote Sackett in The Canadian Medical Association Journal, was about the "disastrous inadequacy of lesser evidence" for shaping medical and public-health policy. The contentious wisdom circa mid-2007 — that estrogen benefits women who begin taking it around the time of menopause but not women who begin substantially later — is an attempt to reconcile the discordance between the observational studies and the experimental ones. And it may be right. It may not. The only way to tell for sure would be to do yet another randomized trial, one that now focused exclusively on women given H.R.T. when they begin their menopause. - -No one questions the value of these epidemiologic studies when they're used to identify the unexpected side effects of prescription drugs or to study the progression of diseases or their distribution between and within populations. One reason researchers believe that heart disease and many cancers can be prevented is because of observational evidence that the incidence of these diseases differ greatly in different populations and in the same populations over time. [Breast cancer][18] is not the scourge among Japanese women that it is among American women, but it takes only two generations in the United States before Japanese-Americans have the same breast cancer rates as any other ethnic group. This tells us that something about the American lifestyle or diet is a cause of breast cancer. Over the last 20 years, some two dozen large studies, the Nurses' Health Study included, have so far failed to identify what that factor is. They may be inherently incapable of doing so. Nonetheless, we know that such a carcinogenic factor of diet or lifestyle exists, waiting to be identified. - -Advertisement - -[Continue reading the main story][19] - -These studies have also been invaluable for identifying predictors of disease — risk factors — and this information can then guide physicians in weighing the risks and benefits of putting a particular patient on a particular drug. The studies have repeatedly confirmed that high [blood pressure][20] is associated with an increased risk of heart disease and that [obesity][21] is associated with an increased risk of most of our common chronic diseases, but they have not told us what it is that raises blood pressure or causes obesity. Indeed, if you ask the more skeptical epidemiologists in the field what diet and lifestyle factors have been convincingly established as causes of common chronic diseases based on observational studies without clinical trials, you'll get a very short list: [smoking][22] as a cause of lung cancer and cardiovascular disease, sun exposure for [skin cancer][23], sexual activity to spread the papilloma virus that causes [cervical cancer][24] and perhaps alcohol for a few different cancers as well. - -Richard Peto, professor of medical statistics and epidemiology at Oxford University, phrases the nature of the conflict this way: "Epidemiology is so beautiful and provides such an important perspective on human life and death, but an incredible amount of rubbish is published," by which he means the results of observational studies that appear daily in the news media and often become the basis of public-health recommendations about what we should or should not do to promote our continued good health. - -In January 2001, the British epidemiologists George Davey Smith and Shah Ebrahim, co-editors of The International Journal of Epidemiology, discussed this issue in an editorial titled "Epidemiology — Is It Time to Call It a Day?" They noted that those few times that a randomized trial had been financed to test a hypothesis supported by results from these large observational studies, the hypothesis either failed the test or, at the very least, the test failed to confirm the hypothesis: antioxidants like [vitamins][25] E and C and beta carotene did not prevent heart disease, nor did eating copious fiber protect against [colon cancer][26]. +When the Nurses’ Health Study first published its observations on +estrogen and heart disease in 1985, it showed that women taking estrogen +therapy had only a third the risk of having a heart attack as had women +who had never taken it; the association seemed compelling evidence for a +cause and effect. Only 90 heart attacks had been reported among the +32,000 postmenopausal nurses in the study, and Stampfer, who had done +the bulk of the analysis, and his colleagues “considered the possibility +that the apparent protective effect of estrogen could be attributed to +some other factor associated with its use.” They decided, though, as +they have ever since, that this was unlikely. The paper’s ultimate +conclusion was that “further work is needed to define the optimal type, +dose and duration of postmenopausal hormone use” for maximizing the +protective benefit. Photo -![][27] +Only after Stampfer and his colleagues published their initial report on +estrogen therapy did other investigators begin to understand the nature +of the other factors that might explain the association. In 1987, Diana +Petitti, an epidemiologist now at the University of Southern California, +reported that she, too, had detected a reduced risk of heart-disease +deaths among women taking H.R.T. in the Walnut Creek Study, a population +of 16,500 women. When Petitti looked at all the data, however, she +“found an even more dramatic reduction in death from homicide, +[suicide](http://health.nytimes.com/health/guides/disease/suicide-and-suicidal-behavior/overview.html?inline=nyt-classifier "In-depth reference and news articles about Suicides and Suicide Attempts.") +and accidents.” With little reason to believe that estrogen would ward +off homicides or accidents, Petitti concluded that something else +appeared to be “confounding” the association she had observed. “The same +thing causing this obvious spurious association might also be +contributing to the lower risk of coronary heart disease,” Petitti says +today. -Credit Reinhard Hunger +That mysterious something is encapsulated in what epidemiologists call +the healthy-user bias, and some of the most fascinating research in +observational epidemiology is now aimed at understanding this phenomenon +in all its insidious subtlety. Only then can epidemiologists learn how +to filter out the effect of this healthy-user bias from what might +otherwise appear in their studies to be real causal relationships. One +complication is that it encompasses a host of different and complex +issues, many or most of which might be impossible to quantify. As Jerry +Avorn of Harvard puts it, the effect of healthy-user bias has the +potential for “big mischief” throughout these large epidemiologic +studies. -The Nurses' Health Study is the most influential of these cohort studies, and in the six years since the Davey Smith and Ebrahim editorial, a series of new trials have chipped away at its credibility. The Women's Health Initiative hormone-therapy trial failed to confirm the proposition that H.R.T. prevented heart disease; a W.H.I. diet trial with 49,000 women failed to confirm the notion that fruits and vegetables protected against heart disease; a 40,000-woman trial failed to confirm that a daily regimen of low-dose aspirin prevented colorectal cancer and heart attacks in women under 65. And this June, yet another clinical trial — this one of 1,000 men and women with a high risk of colon cancer — contradicted the inference from the Nurses's study that folic acid supplements reduced the risk of colon cancer. Rather, if anything, they appear to increase risk. - -The implication of this track record seems hard to avoid. "Even the Nurses' Health Study, one of the biggest and best of these studies, cannot be used to reliably test small-to-moderate risks or benefits," says Charles Hennekens, a principal investigator with the Nurses' study from 1976 to 2001. "None of them can." - -Proponents of the value of these studies for telling us how to prevent common diseases — including the epidemiologists who do them, and physicians, nutritionists and public-health authorities who use their findings to argue for or against the health benefits of a particular regimen — will argue that they are never relying on any single study. Instead, they base their ultimate judgments on the "totality of the data," which in theory includes all the observational evidence, any existing clinical trials and any laboratory work that might provide a biological mechanism to explain the observations. - -This in turn leads to the argument that the fault is with the press, not the epidemiology. "The problem is not in the research but in the way it is interpreted for the public," as Jerome Kassirer and Marcia Angell, then the editors of The New England Journal of Medicine, explained in a 1994 editorial titled "What Should the Public Believe?" Each study, they explained, is just a "piece of a puzzle" and so the media had to do a better job of communicating the many limitations of any single study and the caveats involved — the foremost, of course, being that "an association between two events is not the same as a cause and effect." - -Stephen Pauker, a professor of medicine at Tufts University and a pioneer in the field of clinical decision making, says, "Epidemiologic studies, like diagnostic tests, are probabilistic statements." They don't tell us what the truth is, he says, but they allow both physicians and patients to "estimate the truth" so they can make informed decisions. The question the skeptics will ask, however, is how can anyone judge the value of these studies without taking into account their track record? And if they take into account the track record, suggests Sander Greenland, an epidemiologist at the University of California, Los Angeles, and an author of the textbook "Modern Epidemiology," then wouldn't they do just as well if they simply tossed a coin? - -Advertisement - -[Continue reading the main story][28] - -As John Bailar, an epidemiologist who is now at the National Academy of Science, once memorably phrased it, "The appropriate question is not whether there are uncertainties about epidemiologic data, rather, it is whether the uncertainties are so great that one cannot draw useful conclusions from the data." - -Understanding how we got into this situation is the simple part of the story. The randomized-controlled trials needed to ascertain reliable knowledge about long-term risks and benefits of a drug, lifestyle factor or aspect of our diet are inordinately expensive and time consuming. By randomly assigning research subjects into an intervention group (who take a particular pill or eat a particular diet) or a placebo group, these trials "control" for all other possible variables, both known and unknown, that might effect the outcome: the relative health or wealth of the subjects, for instance. This is why randomized trials, particularly those known as placebo-controlled, double-blind trials, are typically considered the gold standard for establishing reliable knowledge about whether a drug, surgical intervention or diet is really safe and effective. - -But clinical trials also have limitations beyond their exorbitant costs and the years or decades it takes them to provide meaningful results. They can rarely be used, for instance, to study suspected harmful effects. Randomly subjecting thousands of individuals to secondhand tobacco smoke, pollutants or potentially noxious trans fats presents obvious ethical dilemmas. And even when these trials are done to study the benefits of a particular intervention, it's rarely clear how the results apply to the public at large or to any specific patient. Clinical trials invariably enroll subjects who are relatively healthy, who are motivated to volunteer and will show up regularly for treatments and checkups. As a result, randomized trials "are very good for showing that a drug does what the pharmaceutical company says it does," David Atkins, a preventive-medicine specialist at the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, says, "but not very good for telling you how big the benefit really is and what are the harms in typical people. Because they don't enroll typical people." - -These limitations mean that the job of establishing the long-term and relatively rare risks of drug therapies has fallen to observational studies, as has the job of determining the risks and benefits of virtually all factors of diet and lifestyle that might be related to chronic diseases. The former has been a fruitful field of research; many side effects of drugs have been discovered by these observational studies. The latter is the primary point of contention. - -While the tools of epidemiology — comparisons of populations with and without a disease — have proved effective over the centuries in establishing that a disease like [cholera][29] is caused by contaminated water, as the British physician John Snow demonstrated in the 1850s, it's a much more complicated endeavor when those same tools are employed to elucidate the more subtle causes of chronic disease. - -And even the success stories taught in epidemiology classes to demonstrate the historical richness and potential of the field — that pellagra, a disease that can lead to dementia and death, is caused by a nutrient-deficient diet, for instance, as Joseph Goldberger demonstrated in the 1910s — are only known to be successes because the initial hypotheses were subjected to rigorous tests and happened to survive them. Goldberger tested the competing hypothesis, which posited that the disease was caused by an infectious agent, by holding what he called "filth parties," injecting himself and seven volunteers, his wife among them, with the blood of pellagra victims. They remained healthy, thus doing a compelling, if somewhat revolting, job of refuting the alternative hypothesis. - -Smoking and lung cancer is the emblematic success story of chronic-disease epidemiology. But lung cancer was a rare disease before cigarettes became widespread, and the association between smoking and lung cancer was striking: heavy smokers had 2,000 to 3,000 percent the risk of those who had never smoked. This made smoking a "turkey shoot," says Greenland of U.C.L.A., compared with the associations epidemiologists have struggled with ever since, which fall into the tens of a percent range. The good news is that such small associations, even if causal, can be considered relatively meaningless for a single individual. If a 50-year-old woman with a small risk of breast cancer takes H.R.T. and increases her risk by 30 percent, it remains a small risk. - -The compelling motivation for identifying these small effects is that their impact on the public health can be enormous if they're aggregated over an entire nation: if tens of millions of women decrease their breast cancer risk by 30 percent, tens of thousands of such cancers will be prevented each year. In fact, between 2002 and 2004, breast cancer incidence in the United States dropped by 12 percent, an effect that may have been caused by the coincident decline in the use of H.R.T. (And it may not have been. The coincident reduction in breast cancer incidence and H.R.T. use is only an association.) - -Advertisement - -[Continue reading the main story][30] - -Saving tens of thousands of lives each year constitutes a powerful reason to lower the standard of evidence needed to suggest a cause-and-effect relationship — to take a leap of faith. This is the crux of the issue. From a scientific perspective, epidemiologic studies may be incapable of distinguishing a small effect from no effect at all, and so caution dictates that the scientist refrain from making any claims in that situation. From the public-health perspective, a small effect can be a very dangerous or beneficial thing, at least when aggregated over an entire nation, and so caution dictates that action be taken, even if that small effect might not be real. Hence the public-health logic that it's better to err on the side of prudence even if it means persuading us all to engage in an activity, eat a food or take a pill that does nothing for us and ignoring, for the moment, the possibility that such an action could have unforeseen harmful consequences. As Greenland says, "The combination of data, statistical methodology and motivation seems a potent anesthetic for skepticism." - -The Nurses' Health Study was founded at Harvard in 1976 by Frank Speizer, an epidemiologist who wanted to study the long-term effects of oral contraceptive use. It was expanded to include postmenopausal estrogen therapy because both treatments involved long-term hormone use by millions of women, and nobody knew the consequences. Speizer's assistants in this endeavor, who would go on to become the most influential epidemiologists in the country, were young physicians — Charles Hennekens, Walter Willett, Meir Stampfer and Graham Colditz — all interested in the laudable goal of preventing disease more than curing it after the fact. - -When the Nurses' Health Study first published its observations on estrogen and heart disease in 1985, it showed that women taking estrogen therapy had only a third the risk of having a heart attack as had women who had never taken it; the association seemed compelling evidence for a cause and effect. Only 90 heart attacks had been reported among the 32,000 postmenopausal nurses in the study, and Stampfer, who had done the bulk of the analysis, and his colleagues "considered the possibility that the apparent protective effect of estrogen could be attributed to some other factor associated with its use." They decided, though, as they have ever since, that this was unlikely. The paper's ultimate conclusion was that "further work is needed to define the optimal type, dose and duration of postmenopausal hormone use" for maximizing the protective benefit. - -Photo - -![][31] - -Credit Reinhard Hunger - -Only after Stampfer and his colleagues published their initial report on estrogen therapy did other investigators begin to understand the nature of the other factors that might explain the association. In 1987, Diana Petitti, an epidemiologist now at the University of Southern California, reported that she, too, had detected a reduced risk of heart-disease deaths among women taking H.R.T. in the Walnut Creek Study, a population of 16,500 women. When Petitti looked at all the data, however, she "found an even more dramatic reduction in death from homicide, [suicide][32] and accidents." With little reason to believe that estrogen would ward off homicides or accidents, Petitti concluded that something else appeared to be "confounding" the association she had observed. "The same thing causing this obvious spurious association might also be contributing to the lower risk of coronary heart disease," Petitti says today. - -That mysterious something is encapsulated in what epidemiologists call the healthy-user bias, and some of the most fascinating research in observational epidemiology is now aimed at understanding this phenomenon in all its insidious subtlety. Only then can epidemiologists learn how to filter out the effect of this healthy-user bias from what might otherwise appear in their studies to be real causal relationships. One complication is that it encompasses a host of different and complex issues, many or most of which might be impossible to quantify. As Jerry Avorn of Harvard puts it, the effect of healthy-user bias has the potential for "big mischief" throughout these large epidemiologic studies. - -At its simplest, the problem is that people who faithfully engage in activities that are good for them — taking a drug as prescribed, for instance, or eating what they believe is a healthy diet — are fundamentally different from those who don't. One thing epidemiologists have established with certainty, for example, is that women who take H.R.T. differ from those who don't in many ways, virtually all of which associate with lower heart-disease risk: they're thinner; they have fewer risk factors for heart disease to begin with; they tend to be more educated and wealthier; to exercise more; and to be generally more health conscious. +At its simplest, the problem is that people who faithfully engage in +activities that are good for them — taking a drug as prescribed, for +instance, or eating what they believe is a healthy diet — are +fundamentally different from those who don’t. One thing epidemiologists +have established with certainty, for example, is that women who take +H.R.T. differ from those who don’t in many ways, virtually all of which +associate with lower heart-disease risk: they’re thinner; they have +fewer risk factors for heart disease to begin with; they tend to be more +educated and wealthier; to exercise more; and to be generally more +health conscious. ## Newsletter Sign Up -[Continue reading the main story][33] +[Continue reading the main story](#continues-post-newsletter) ### @@ -183,361 +423,407 @@ Invalid email address. Please re-enter. You must select a newsletter to subscribe to. -Sign Up - -You agree to receive occasional updates and special offers for The New York Times's products and services. +You agree to receive occasional updates and special offers for The New +York Times's products and services. ### Thank you for subscribing. ### An error has occurred. Please try again later. -### You are already subscribed to this email. +[View all New York Times newsletters.](/newsletters) -[View all New York Times newsletters.][34] +Considering all these factors, is it possible to isolate one factor — +hormone-replacement therapy — as the legitimate cause of the small +association observed or even part of it? In one large population studied +by Elizabeth Barrett-Connor, an epidemiologist at the University of +California, San Diego, having gone to college was associated with a 50 +percent lower risk of heart disease. So if women who take H.R.T. tend to +be more educated than women who don’t, this confounds the association +between hormone therapy and heart disease. It can give the appearance of +cause and effect where none exists. -* [See Sample][35] -* [Manage Email Preferences][36] -* [Not you?][37] -* [Privacy Policy][38] -* Opt out or [contact us][39] anytime +Another thing that epidemiologic studies have established convincingly +is that wealth associates with less heart disease and better health, at +least in developed countries. The studies have been unable to establish +why this is so, but this, too, is part of the healthy-user problem and a +possible confounder of the hormone-therapy story and many of the other +associations these epidemiologists try to study. George Davey Smith, who +began his career studying how socioeconomic status associates with +health, says one thing this research teaches is that misfortunes +“cluster” together. Poverty is a misfortune, and the poor are less +educated than the wealthy; they smoke more and weigh more; they’re more +likely to have hypertension and other heart-disease risk factors, to eat +what’s affordable rather than what the experts tell them is healthful, +to have poor medical care and to live in environments with more +pollutants, noise and stress. Ideally, epidemiologists will carefully +measure the wealth and education of their subjects and then use +statistical methods to adjust for the effect of these influences — +multiple regression analysis, for instance, as one such method is called +— but, as Avorn says, it “doesn’t always work as well as we’d like it +to.” -Considering all these factors, is it possible to isolate one factor — hormone-replacement therapy — as the legitimate cause of the small association observed or even part of it? In one large population studied by Elizabeth Barrett-Connor, an epidemiologist at the University of California, San Diego, having gone to college was associated with a 50 percent lower risk of heart disease. So if women who take H.R.T. tend to be more educated than women who don't, this confounds the association between hormone therapy and heart disease. It can give the appearance of cause and effect where none exists. - -Another thing that epidemiologic studies have established convincingly is that wealth associates with less heart disease and better health, at least in developed countries. The studies have been unable to establish why this is so, but this, too, is part of the healthy-user problem and a possible confounder of the hormone-therapy story and many of the other associations these epidemiologists try to study. George Davey Smith, who began his career studying how socioeconomic status associates with health, says one thing this research teaches is that misfortunes "cluster" together. Poverty is a misfortune, and the poor are less educated than the wealthy; they smoke more and weigh more; they're more likely to have hypertension and other heart-disease risk factors, to eat what's affordable rather than what the experts tell them is healthful, to have poor medical care and to live in environments with more pollutants, noise and stress. Ideally, epidemiologists will carefully measure the wealth and education of their subjects and then use statistical methods to adjust for the effect of these influences — multiple regression analysis, for instance, as one such method is called — but, as Avorn says, it "doesn't always work as well as we'd like it to." - -The Nurses' investigators have argued that differences in socioeconomic status cannot explain the associations they observe with H.R.T. because all their subjects are [registered nurses][40] and so this "controls" for variations in wealth and education. The skeptics respond that even if all registered nurses had identical educations and income, which isn't necessarily the case, then their socioeconomic status will be determined by whether they're married, how many children they have and their husbands' income. "All you have to do is look at nurses," Petitti says. "Some are married to C.E.O.'s of corporations and some are not married and still living with their parents. It cannot be true that there is no socioeconomic distribution among nurses." Stampfer says that since the Women's Health Initiative results came out in 2002, the Nurses' Health Study investigators went back into their data to examine socioeconomic status "to the extent that we could" — looking at measures that might indirectly reflect wealth and social class. "It doesn't seem plausible" that socioeconomic status can explain the association they observed, he says. But the Nurses' investigators never published that analysis, and so the skeptics have remained unconvinced. +The Nurses’ investigators have argued that differences in socioeconomic +status cannot explain the associations they observe with H.R.T. because +all their subjects are [registered +nurses](http://topics.nytimes.com/top/news/health/diseasesconditionsandhealthtopics/nursing_and_nurses/index.html?inline=nyt-classifier "Recent and archival health news about nursing and nurses.") +and so this “controls” for variations in wealth and education. The +skeptics respond that even if all registered nurses had identical +educations and income, which isn’t necessarily the case, then their +socioeconomic status will be determined by whether they’re married, how +many children they have and their husbands’ income. “All you have to do +is look at nurses,” Petitti says. “Some are married to C.E.O.’s of +corporations and some are not married and still living with their +parents. It cannot be true that there is no socioeconomic distribution +among nurses.” Stampfer says that since the Women’s Health Initiative +results came out in 2002, the Nurses’ Health Study investigators went +back into their data to examine socioeconomic status “to the extent that +we could” — looking at measures that might indirectly reflect wealth and +social class. “It doesn’t seem plausible” that socioeconomic status can +explain the association they observed, he says. But the Nurses’ +investigators never published that analysis, and so the skeptics have +remained unconvinced. Advertisement -[Continue reading the main story][41] +[Continue reading the main story](#story-continues-7) -A still more subtle component of healthy-user bias has to be confronted. This is the compliance or adherer effect. Quite simply, people who comply with their doctors' orders when given a prescription are different and healthier than people who don't. This difference may be ultimately unquantifiable. The compliance effect is another plausible explanation for many of the beneficial associations that epidemiologists commonly report, which means this alone is a reason to wonder if much of what we hear about what constitutes a healthful diet and lifestyle is misconceived. +A still more subtle component of healthy-user bias has to be confronted. +This is the compliance or adherer effect. Quite simply, people who +comply with their doctors’ orders when given a prescription are +different and healthier than people who don’t. This difference may be +ultimately unquantifiable. The compliance effect is another plausible +explanation for many of the beneficial associations that epidemiologists +commonly report, which means this alone is a reason to wonder if much of +what we hear about what constitutes a healthful diet and lifestyle is +misconceived. -The lesson comes from an ambitious clinical trial called the Coronary Drug Project that set out in the 1970s to test whether any of five different drugs might prevent heart attacks. The subjects were some 8,500 middle-aged men with established heart problems. Two-thirds of them were randomly assigned to take one of the five drugs and the other third a placebo. Because one of the drugs, clofibrate, lowered [cholesterol][42] levels, the researchers had high hopes that it would ward off heart disease. But when the results were tabulated after five years, clofibrate showed no beneficial effect. The researchers then considered the possibility that clofibrate appeared to fail only because the subjects failed to faithfully take their prescriptions. +The lesson comes from an ambitious clinical trial called the Coronary +Drug Project that set out in the 1970s to test whether any of five +different drugs might prevent heart attacks. The subjects were some +8,500 middle-aged men with established heart problems. Two-thirds of +them were randomly assigned to take one of the five drugs and the other +third a placebo. Because one of the drugs, clofibrate, lowered +[cholesterol](http://health.nytimes.com/health/guides/nutrition/cholesterol/overview.html?inline=nyt-classifier "In-depth reference and news articles about Cholesterol.") +levels, the researchers had high hopes that it would ward off heart +disease. But when the results were tabulated after five years, +clofibrate showed no beneficial effect. The researchers then considered +the possibility that clofibrate appeared to fail only because the +subjects failed to faithfully take their prescriptions. -As it turned out, those men who said they took more than 80 percent of the pills prescribed fared substantially better than those who didn't. Only 15 percent of these faithful "adherers" died, compared with almost 25 percent of what the project researchers called "poor adherers." This might have been taken as reason to believe that clofibrate actually did cut heart-disease deaths almost by half, but then the researchers looked at those men who faithfully took their placebos. And those men, too, seemed to benefit from adhering closely to their prescription: only 15 percent of them died compared with 28 percent who were less conscientious. "So faithfully taking the placebo cuts the death rate by a factor of two," says David Freedman, a professor of statistics at the University of California, Berkeley. "How can this be? Well, people who take their placebo regularly are just different than the others. The rest is a little speculative. Maybe they take better care of themselves in general. But this compliance effect is quite a big effect." +As it turned out, those men who said they took more than 80 percent of +the pills prescribed fared substantially better than those who didn’t. +Only 15 percent of these faithful “adherers” died, compared with almost +25 percent of what the project researchers called “poor adherers.” This +might have been taken as reason to believe that clofibrate actually did +cut heart-disease deaths almost by half, but then the researchers looked +at those men who faithfully took their placebos. And those men, too, +seemed to benefit from adhering closely to their prescription: only 15 +percent of them died compared with 28 percent who were less +conscientious. “So faithfully taking the placebo cuts the death rate by +a factor of two,” says David Freedman, a professor of statistics at the +University of California, Berkeley. “How can this be? Well, people who +take their placebo regularly are just different than the others. The +rest is a little speculative. Maybe they take better care of themselves +in general. But this compliance effect is quite a big effect.” -The moral of the story, says Freedman, is that whenever epidemiologists compare people who faithfully engage in some activity with those who don't — whether taking prescription pills or vitamins or exercising regularly or eating what they consider a healthful diet — the researchers need to account for this compliance effect or they will most likely infer the wrong answer. They'll conclude that this behavior, whatever it is, prevents disease and saves lives, when all they're really doing is comparing two different types of people who are, in effect, incomparable. +The moral of the story, says Freedman, is that whenever epidemiologists +compare people who faithfully engage in some activity with those who +don’t — whether taking prescription pills or vitamins or exercising +regularly or eating what they consider a healthful diet — the +researchers need to account for this compliance effect or they will most +likely infer the wrong answer. They’ll conclude that this behavior, +whatever it is, prevents disease and saves lives, when all they’re +really doing is comparing two different types of people who are, in +effect, incomparable. -This phenomenon is a particularly compelling explanation for why the Nurses' Health Study and other cohort studies saw a benefit of H.R.T. in current users of the drugs, but not necessarily in past users. By distinguishing among women who never used H.R.T., those who used it but then stopped and current users (who were the only ones for which a consistent benefit appeared), these observational studies may have inadvertently focused their attention specifically on, as Jerry Avorn says, the "Girl Scouts in the group, the compliant ongoing users, who are probably doing a lot of other preventive things as well." +This phenomenon is a particularly compelling explanation for why the +Nurses’ Health Study and other cohort studies saw a benefit of H.R.T. in +current users of the drugs, but not necessarily in past users. By +distinguishing among women who never used H.R.T., those who used it but +then stopped and current users (who were the only ones for which a +consistent benefit appeared), these observational studies may have +inadvertently focused their attention specifically on, as Jerry Avorn +says, the “Girl Scouts in the group, the compliant ongoing users, who +are probably doing a lot of other preventive things as well.” -Another complication to what may already appear (for good reason) to be a hopelessly confusing story is what might be called the prescriber effect. The reasons a physician will prescribe one medication to one patient and another or none at all to a different patient are complex and subtle. "Doctors go through a lot of different filters when they're thinking about what kind of drug to give to what kind of person," says Avorn, whose group at Harvard has spent much of the last decade studying this effect. "Maybe they give the drug to their sickest patients; maybe they give it to the people for whom nothing else works." +Another complication to what may already appear (for good reason) to be +a hopelessly confusing story is what might be called the prescriber +effect. The reasons a physician will prescribe one medication to one +patient and another or none at all to a different patient are complex +and subtle. “Doctors go through a lot of different filters when they’re +thinking about what kind of drug to give to what kind of person,” says +Avorn, whose group at Harvard has spent much of the last decade studying +this effect. “Maybe they give the drug to their sickest patients; maybe +they give it to the people for whom nothing else works.” -It's this prescriber effect, combined with what Avorn calls the eager-patient effect, that is one likely explanation for why people who take cholesterol-lowering drugs called statins appear to have a greatly reduced risk of dementia and death from all causes compared with people who don't take statins. The medication itself is unlikely to be the primary cause in either case, says Avorn, because the observed associations are "so much larger than the effects that have been seen in randomized-clinical trials." +It’s this prescriber effect, combined with what Avorn calls the +eager-patient effect, that is one likely explanation for why people who +take cholesterol-lowering drugs called statins appear to have a greatly +reduced risk of dementia and death from all causes compared with people +who don’t take statins. The medication itself is unlikely to be the +primary cause in either case, says Avorn, because the observed +associations are “so much larger than the effects that have been seen in +randomized-clinical trials.” -If we think like physicians, Avorn explains, then we get a plausible explanation: "A physician is not going to take somebody either dying of metastatic cancer or in a persistent vegetative state or with end-stage neurologic disease and say, 'Let's get that cholesterol down, Mrs. Jones.' The consequence of that, multiplied over tens of thousands of physicians, is that many people who end up on statins are a lot healthier than the people to whom these doctors do not give statins. Then add into that the people who come to the doctor and say, 'My brother-in-law is on this drug,' or, 'I saw it in a commercial,' or, 'I want to do everything I can to prevent heart disease, can I now have a statin, please?' Those kinds of patients are very different from the patients who don't come in. The coup de grâce then comes from the patients who consistently take their medications on an ongoing basis, and who are still taking them two or three years later. Those people are special and unusual and, as we know from clinical trials, even if they're taking a sugar pill they will have better outcomes." +If we think like physicians, Avorn explains, then we get a plausible +explanation: “A physician is not going to take somebody either dying of +metastatic cancer or in a persistent vegetative state or with end-stage +neurologic disease and say, ‘Let’s get that cholesterol down, Mrs. +Jones.’ The consequence of that, multiplied over tens of thousands of +physicians, is that many people who end up on statins are a lot +healthier than the people to whom these doctors do not give statins. +Then add into that the people who come to the doctor and say, ‘My +brother-in-law is on this drug,’ or, ‘I saw it in a commercial,’ or, ‘I +want to do everything I can to prevent heart disease, can I now have a +statin, please?’ Those kinds of patients are very different from the +patients who don’t come in. The coup de grâce then comes from the +patients who consistently take their medications on an ongoing basis, +and who are still taking them two or three years later. Those people are +special and unusual and, as we know from clinical trials, even if +they’re taking a sugar pill they will have better outcomes.” Advertisement -[Continue reading the main story][43] +[Continue reading the main story](#story-continues-8) -The trick to successfully understanding what any association might really mean, Avorn adds, is "being clever." "The whole point of science is self-doubt," he says, "and asking could there be another explanation for what we're seeing." +The trick to successfully understanding what any association might +really mean, Avorn adds, is “being clever.” “The whole point of science +is self-doubt,” he says, “and asking could there be another explanation +for what we’re seeing.” -Until the HERS and W.H.I. trials tested and refuted the hypothesis that hormone-replacement therapy protected women against heart disease, Stampfer, Willett and their colleagues argued that these alternative explanations could not account for what they observed. They had gathered so much information about their nurses, they said, that it allowed them to compare nurses who took H.R.T. and engaged in health-conscious behaviors against women who didn't take H.R.T. and appeared to be equally health-conscious. Because this kind of comparison didn't substantially change the size of the association observed, it seemed reasonable to conclude that the association reflected the causal effect of H.R.T. After the W.H.I. results were published, says Stampfer, their faith was shaken, but only temporarily. Clinical trials, after all, also have limitations, and so the refutation of what was originally a simple hypothesis — that H.R.T. wards off heart disease — spurred new hypotheses, not quite so simple, to explain it. +Until the HERS and W.H.I. trials tested and refuted the hypothesis that +hormone-replacement therapy protected women against heart disease, +Stampfer, Willett and their colleagues argued that these alternative +explanations could not account for what they observed. They had gathered +so much information about their nurses, they said, that it allowed them +to compare nurses who took H.R.T. and engaged in health-conscious +behaviors against women who didn’t take H.R.T. and appeared to be +equally health-conscious. Because this kind of comparison didn’t +substantially change the size of the association observed, it seemed +reasonable to conclude that the association reflected the causal effect +of H.R.T. After the W.H.I. results were published, says Stampfer, their +faith was shaken, but only temporarily. Clinical trials, after all, also +have limitations, and so the refutation of what was originally a simple +hypothesis — that H.R.T. wards off heart disease — spurred new +hypotheses, not quite so simple, to explain it. Photo -![][44] +At the moment, at least three plausible explanations exist for the +discrepancy between the clinical trial results and those of the Nurses’ +Health Study and other observational studies. One is that the +associations perceived by the epidemiologic studies were due to +healthy-user and prescriber effects and not H.R.T. itself. Women who +took H.R.T. had less heart disease than women who didn’t, because women +who took H.R.T. are different from women who didn’t take H.R.T. And +maybe their physicians are also different. In this case, the trials got +the right answer; the observational studies got the wrong answer. -Credit Reinhard Hunger +A second explanation is that the observational studies got the wrong +answer, but only partly. Here, healthy-user and prescriber effects are +viewed as minor issues; the question is whether observational studies +can accurately determine if women were really taking H.R.T. before their +heart attacks. This is a measurement problem, and one conspicuous +limitation of all epidemiology is the difficulty of reliably assessing +whatever it is the investigators are studying: not only determining +whether or not subjects have really taken a medication or consumed the +diet that they reported, but whether their subsequent diseases were +correctly diagnosed. “The wonder and horror of epidemiology,” Avorn +says, “is that it’s not enough to just measure one thing very +accurately. To get the right answer, you may have to measure a great +many things very accurately.” -At the moment, at least three plausible explanations exist for the discrepancy between the clinical trial results and those of the Nurses' Health Study and other observational studies. One is that the associations perceived by the epidemiologic studies were due to healthy-user and prescriber effects and not H.R.T. itself. Women who took H.R.T. had less heart disease than women who didn't, because women who took H.R.T. are different from women who didn't take H.R.T. And maybe their physicians are also different. In this case, the trials got the right answer; the observational studies got the wrong answer. +The most meaningful associations are those in which all the relevant +factors can be ascertained reliably. Smoking and lung cancer, for +instance. [Lung +cancer](http://health.nytimes.com/health/guides/disease/lung-cancer/overview.html?inline=nyt-classifier "In-depth reference and news articles about Lung Cancer.") +is an easy diagnosis to make, at least compared with heart disease. And +“people sort of know whether they smoke a full pack a day or half or +what have you,” says Graham Colditz, who recently left the Nurses’ study +and is now at Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis. +“That’s one of the easier measures you can get.” Epidemiologists will +also say they believe in the associations between LDL cholesterol, blood +pressure and heart disease, because these biological variables are +measured directly. The measurements don’t require that the study +subjects fill out a questionnaire or accurately recall what their +doctors may have told them. -A second explanation is that the observational studies got the wrong answer, but only partly. Here, healthy-user and prescriber effects are viewed as minor issues; the question is whether observational studies can accurately determine if women were really taking H.R.T. before their heart attacks. This is a measurement problem, and one conspicuous limitation of all epidemiology is the difficulty of reliably assessing whatever it is the investigators are studying: not only determining whether or not subjects have really taken a medication or consumed the diet that they reported, but whether their subsequent diseases were correctly diagnosed. "The wonder and horror of epidemiology," Avorn says, "is that it's not enough to just measure one thing very accurately. To get the right answer, you may have to measure a great many things very accurately." +Even the way epidemiologists frame the questions they ask can bias a +measurement and produce an association that may be particularly +misleading. If researchers believe that physical activity protects +against chronic disease and they ask their subjects how much +leisure-time physical activity they do each week, those who do more will +tend to be wealthier and healthier, and so the result the researchers +get will support their preconceptions. If the questionnaire asks how +much physical activity a subject’s job entails, the researchers might +discover that the poor tend to be more physically active, because their +jobs entail more manual labor, and they tend to have more chronic +diseases. That would appear to refute the hypothesis. -The most meaningful associations are those in which all the relevant factors can be ascertained reliably. Smoking and lung cancer, for instance. [Lung cancer][45] is an easy diagnosis to make, at least compared with heart disease. And "people sort of know whether they smoke a full pack a day or half or what have you," says Graham Colditz, who recently left the Nurses' study and is now at Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis. "That's one of the easier measures you can get." Epidemiologists will also say they believe in the associations between LDL cholesterol, blood pressure and heart disease, because these biological variables are measured directly. The measurements don't require that the study subjects fill out a questionnaire or accurately recall what their doctors may have told them. +The simpler the question or the more objective the measurement the more +likely it is that an association may stand in the causal pathway, as +these researchers put it. This is why the question of whether +hormone-replacement therapy effects heart-disease risk, for instance, +should be significantly easier to nail down than whether any aspect of +diet does. For a measurement “as easy as this,” says Jamie Robins, a +Harvard epidemiologist, “where maybe the confounding is not horrible, +maybe you can get it right.” It’s simply easier to imagine that women +who have taken estrogen therapy will remember and report that correctly +— it’s yes or no, after all — than that they will recall and report +accurately what they ate and how much of it over the last week or the +last year. -Even the way epidemiologists frame the questions they ask can bias a measurement and produce an association that may be particularly misleading. If researchers believe that physical activity protects against chronic disease and they ask their subjects how much leisure-time physical activity they do each week, those who do more will tend to be wealthier and healthier, and so the result the researchers get will support their preconceptions. If the questionnaire asks how much physical activity a subject's job entails, the researchers might discover that the poor tend to be more physically active, because their jobs entail more manual labor, and they tend to have more chronic diseases. That would appear to refute the hypothesis. - -The simpler the question or the more objective the measurement the more likely it is that an association may stand in the causal pathway, as these researchers put it. This is why the question of whether hormone-replacement therapy effects heart-disease risk, for instance, should be significantly easier to nail down than whether any aspect of diet does. For a measurement "as easy as this," says Jamie Robins, a Harvard epidemiologist, "where maybe the confounding is not horrible, maybe you can get it right." It's simply easier to imagine that women who have taken estrogen therapy will remember and report that correctly — it's yes or no, after all — than that they will recall and report accurately what they ate and how much of it over the last week or the last year. - -But as the H.R.T. experience demonstrates, even the timing of a yes-or-no question can introduce problems. The subjects of the Nurses' Health Study were asked if they were taking H.R.T. every two years, which is how often the nurses were mailed new questionnaires about their diets, prescription drug use and whatever other factors the investigators deemed potentially relevant to health. If a nurse fills out her questionnaire a few months before she begins taking H.R.T., as Colditz explains, and she then has a heart attack, say, six months later, the Nurses' study will classify that nurse as "not using" H.R.T. when she had the heart attack. +But as the H.R.T. experience demonstrates, even the timing of a +yes-or-no question can introduce problems. The subjects of the Nurses’ +Health Study were asked if they were taking H.R.T. every two years, +which is how often the nurses were mailed new questionnaires about their +diets, prescription drug use and whatever other factors the +investigators deemed potentially relevant to health. If a nurse fills +out her questionnaire a few months before she begins taking H.R.T., as +Colditz explains, and she then has a heart attack, say, six months +later, the Nurses’ study will classify that nurse as “not using” H.R.T. +when she had the heart attack. Advertisement -[Continue reading the main story][46] +[Continue reading the main story](#story-continues-9) -As it turns out, 40 percent of women who try H.R.T. stay on it for less than a year, and most of the heart attacks recorded in the W.H.I. and HERS trials occurred during the first few years that the women were prescribed the therapy. So it's a reasonable possibility that the Nurses' Health Study and other observational studies misclassified many of the heart attacks that occurred among users of hormone therapy as occurring among nonusers. This is the second plausible explanation for why these epidemiologic studies may have erroneously perceived a beneficial association of hormone use with heart disease and the clinical trials did not. +As it turns out, 40 percent of women who try H.R.T. stay on it for less +than a year, and most of the heart attacks recorded in the W.H.I. and +HERS trials occurred during the first few years that the women were +prescribed the therapy. So it’s a reasonable possibility that the +Nurses’ Health Study and other observational studies misclassified +many of the heart attacks that occurred among users of hormone therapy +as occurring among nonusers. This is the second plausible explanation +for why these epidemiologic studies may have erroneously perceived a +beneficial association of hormone use with heart disease and the +clinical trials did not. -In the third explanation, the clinical trials and the observational studies both got the right answer, but they asked different questions. Here the relevant facts are that the women who took H.R.T. in the observational studies were mostly younger women going through menopause. Most of the women enrolled in the clinical trials were far beyond menopause. The average age of the women in the W.H.I. trial was 63 and in HERS it was 67. The primary goal of these clinical trials was to test the hypothesis that H.R.T. prevented heart disease. Older women have a higher risk of heart disease, and so by enrolling women in their 60s and 70s, the researchers didn't have to wait nearly as long to see if estrogen protected against heart disease as they would have if they only enrolled women in their 50s. +In the third explanation, the clinical trials and the observational +studies both got the right answer, but they asked different questions. +Here the relevant facts are that the women who took H.R.T. in the +observational studies were mostly younger women going through menopause. +Most of the women enrolled in the clinical trials were far beyond +menopause. The average age of the women in the W.H.I. trial was 63 and +in HERS it was 67. The primary goal of these clinical trials was to test +the hypothesis that H.R.T. prevented heart disease. Older women have a +higher risk of heart disease, and so by enrolling women in their 60s and +70s, the researchers didn’t have to wait nearly as long to see if +estrogen protected against heart disease as they would have if they only +enrolled women in their 50s. -This means the clinical trials were asking what happens when older women were given H.R.T. years after menopause. The observational studies asked whether H.R.T. prevented heart disease when taken by younger women near the onset of menopause. A different question. The answer, according to Stampfer, Willett and their colleagues, is that estrogen protects those younger women — perhaps because their arteries are still healthy — while it induces heart attacks in the older women whose arteries are not. "It does seem clear now," Willett says, "that the observational studies got it all right. The W.H.I. also got it right for the question they asked: what happens if you start taking hormones many years after menopause? But that is not the question that most women have cared about." +This means the clinical trials were asking what happens when older women +were given H.R.T. years after menopause. The observational studies asked +whether H.R.T. prevented heart disease when taken by younger women near +the onset of menopause. A different question. The answer, according to +Stampfer, Willett and their colleagues, is that estrogen protects those +younger women — perhaps because their arteries are still healthy — while +it induces heart attacks in the older women whose arteries are not. “It +does seem clear now,” Willett says, “that the observational studies got +it all right. The W.H.I. also got it right for the question they asked: +what happens if you start taking hormones many years after menopause? +But that is not the question that most women have cared about.” -This last explanation is now known as the "timing" hypothesis, and it certainly seems plausible. It has received some support from analyses of small subsets of the women enrolled in the W.H.I. trial, like the study published in June in The New England Journal of Medicine. The dilemma at the moment is that the first two explanations are also plausible. If the compliance effect can explain why anyone faithfully following her doctor's orders will be 50 percent less likely to die over the next few years than someone who's not so inclined, then it's certainly possible that what the Nurses' Health Study and other observational studies did is observe a compliance effect and mistake it for a beneficial effect of H.R.T. itself. This would also explain why the Nurses' Health Study observed a 40 percent reduction in the yearly risk of death from all causes among women taking H.R.T. And it would explain why the Nurses' Health Study reported very similar seemingly beneficial effects for antioxidants, vitamins, low-dose aspirin and folic acid, and why these, too, were refuted by clinical trials. It's not necessarily true, but it certainly could be. +This last explanation is now known as the “timing” hypothesis, and it +certainly seems plausible. It has received some support from analyses of +small subsets of the women enrolled in the W.H.I. trial, like the study +published in June in The New England Journal of Medicine. The dilemma at +the moment is that the first two explanations are also plausible. If the +compliance effect can explain why anyone faithfully following her +doctor’s orders will be 50 percent less likely to die over the next +few years than someone who’s not so inclined, then it’s certainly +possible that what the Nurses’ Health Study and other observational +studies did is observe a compliance effect and mistake it for a +beneficial effect of H.R.T. itself. This would also explain why the +Nurses’ Health Study observed a 40 percent reduction in the yearly risk +of death from all causes among women taking H.R.T. And it would explain +why the Nurses’ Health Study reported very similar seemingly beneficial +effects for antioxidants, vitamins, low-dose aspirin and folic acid, and +why these, too, were refuted by clinical trials. It’s not necessarily +true, but it certainly could be. -While Willett, Stampfer and their colleagues will argue confidently that they can reasonably rule out these other explanations based on everything they now know about their nurses — that they can correct or adjust for compliance and prescriber effects and still see a substantial effect of H.R.T. on heart disease — the skeptics argue that such confidence can never be justified without a clinical trial, at least not when the associations being studied are so small. "You can correct for what you can measure," says Rory Collins, an epidemiologist at Oxford University, "but you can't measure these things with precision so you will tend to under-correct for them. And you can't correct for things that you can't measure." +While Willett, Stampfer and their colleagues will argue confidently that +they can reasonably rule out these other explanations based on +everything they now know about their nurses — that they can correct or +adjust for compliance and prescriber effects and still see a substantial +effect of H.R.T. on heart disease — the skeptics argue that such +confidence can never be justified without a clinical trial, at least not +when the associations being studied are so small. “You can correct for +what you can measure,” says Rory Collins, an epidemiologist at Oxford +University, “but you can’t measure these things with precision so you +will tend to under-correct for them. And you can’t correct for things +that you can’t measure.” -The investigators for the Nurses' Health Study "tend to believe everything they find," says Barrett-Connor of the University of California, San Diego. Barrett-Connor also studied hormone use and heart disease among a large group of women and observed and published the same association that the Nurses' Health Study did. She simply does not find the causal explanation as easy to accept, considering the plausibility of the alternatives. The latest variation on the therapeutic wisdom on H.R.T. is plausible, she says, but it remains untested. "Now we're back to the place where we're stuck with observational epidemiology," she adds. "I'm back to the place where I doubt everything." +The investigators for the Nurses’ Health Study “tend to believe +everything they find,” says Barrett-Connor of the University of +California, San Diego. Barrett-Connor also studied hormone use and heart +disease among a large group of women and observed and published the same +association that the Nurses’ Health Study did. She simply does not find +the causal explanation as easy to accept, considering the plausibility +of the alternatives. The latest variation on the therapeutic wisdom on +H.R.T. is plausible, she says, but it remains untested. “Now we’re back +to the place where we’re stuck with observational epidemiology,” she +adds. “I’m back to the place where I doubt everything.” -So how should we respond the next time we're asked to believe that an association implies a cause and effect, that some medication or some facet of our diet or lifestyle is either killing us or making us healthier? We can fall back on several guiding principles, these skeptical epidemiologists say. One is to assume that the first report of an association is incorrect or meaningless, no matter how big that association might be. After all, it's the first claim in any scientific endeavor that is most likely to be wrong. Only after that report is made public will the authors have the opportunity to be informed by their peers of all the many ways that they might have simply misinterpreted what they saw. The regrettable reality, of course, is that it's this first report that is most newsworthy. So be skeptical. +So how should we respond the next time we’re asked to believe that an +association implies a cause and effect, that some medication or some +facet of our diet or lifestyle is either killing us or making us +healthier? We can fall back on several guiding principles, these +skeptical epidemiologists say. One is to assume that the first report of +an association is incorrect or meaningless, no matter how big that +association might be. After all, it’s the first claim in any scientific +endeavor that is most likely to be wrong. Only after that report is made +public will the authors have the opportunity to be informed by their +peers of all the many ways that they might have simply misinterpreted +what they saw. The regrettable reality, of course, is that it’s this +first report that is most newsworthy. So be skeptical. -If the association appears consistently in study after study, population after population, but is small — in the range of tens of percent — then doubt it. For the individual, such small associations, even if real, will have only minor effects or no effect on overall health or risk of disease. They can have enormous public-health implications, but they're also small enough to be treated with suspicion until a clinical trial demonstrates their validity. +If the association appears consistently in study after study, population +after population, but is small — in the range of tens of percent — then +doubt it. For the individual, such small associations, even if real, +will have only minor effects or no effect on overall health or risk of +disease. They can have enormous public-health implications, but they’re +also small enough to be treated with suspicion until a clinical trial +demonstrates their validity. Advertisement -[Continue reading the main story][47] +[Continue reading the main story](#story-continues-10) -If the association involves some aspect of human behavior, which is, of course, the case with the great majority of the epidemiology that attracts our attention, then question its validity. If taking a pill, eating a diet or living in proximity to some potentially noxious aspect of the environment is associated with a particular risk of disease, then other factors of socioeconomic status, education, medical care and the whole gamut of healthy-user effects are as well. These will make the association, for all practical purposes, impossible to interpret reliably. +If the association involves some aspect of human behavior, which is, of +course, the case with the great majority of the epidemiology that +attracts our attention, then question its validity. If taking a pill, +eating a diet or living in proximity to some potentially noxious aspect +of the environment is associated with a particular risk of disease, then +other factors of socioeconomic status, education, medical care and the +whole gamut of healthy-user effects are as well. These will make the +association, for all practical purposes, impossible to interpret +reliably. -The exception to this rule is unexpected harm, what Avorn calls "bolt from the blue events," that no one, not the epidemiologists, the subjects or their physicians, could possibly have seen coming — higher rates of vaginal cancer, for example, among the children of women taking the drug DES to prevent [miscarriage][48], or mesothelioma among workers exposed to asbestos. If the subjects are exposing themselves to a particular pill or a vitamin or eating a diet with the goal of promoting health, and, lo and behold, it has no effect or a negative effect — it's associated with an increased risk of some disorder, rather than a decreased risk — then that's a bad sign and worthy of our consideration, if not some anxiety. Since healthy-user effects in these cases work toward reducing the association with disease, their failure to do so implies something unexpected is at work. +The exception to this rule is unexpected harm, what Avorn calls “bolt +from the blue events,” that no one, not the epidemiologists, the +subjects or their physicians, could possibly have seen coming — higher +rates of vaginal cancer, for example, among the children of women taking +the drug DES to prevent +[miscarriage](http://health.nytimes.com/health/guides/disease/miscarriage/overview.html?inline=nyt-classifier "In-depth reference and news articles about Miscarriages."), +or mesothelioma among workers exposed to asbestos. If the subjects are +exposing themselves to a particular pill or a vitamin or eating a diet +with the goal of promoting health, and, lo and behold, it has no effect +or a negative effect — it’s associated with an increased risk of some +disorder, rather than a decreased risk — then that’s a bad sign and +worthy of our consideration, if not some anxiety. Since healthy-user +effects in these cases work toward reducing the association with +disease, their failure to do so implies something unexpected is at work. -All of this suggests that the best advice is to keep in mind the law of unintended consequences. The reason clinicians test drugs with randomized trials is to establish whether the hoped-for benefits are real and, if so, whether there are unforeseen side effects that may outweigh the benefits. If the implication of an epidemiologist's study is that some drug or diet will bring us improved prosperity and health, then wonder about the unforeseen consequences. In these cases, it's never a bad idea to remain skeptical until somebody spends the time and the money to do a randomized trial and, contrary to much of the history of the endeavor to date, fails to refute it.__ - -Gary Taubes is the author of the forthcoming book "Good Calories, Bad Calories: Challenging the Conventional Wisdom on Diet, Weight Control and Disease." - -A version of this article appears in print on , on Page 652 of the New York edition with the headline: Do We Really Know What Makes Us Healthy?. 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the law of +unintended consequences. The reason clinicians test drugs with +randomized trials is to establish whether the hoped-for benefits are +real and, if so, whether there are unforeseen side effects that may +outweigh the benefits. If the implication of an epidemiologist’s study +is that some drug or diet will bring us improved prosperity and health, +then wonder about the unforeseen consequences. In these cases, it’s +never a bad idea to remain skeptical until somebody spends the time and +the money to do a randomized trial and, contrary to much of the history +of the endeavor to date, fails to refute it.** +[Continue reading the main story](#whats-next) diff --git a/_stories/2007/7830213.md b/_stories/2007/7830213.md index 33c7f51..926af70 100644 --- a/_stories/2007/7830213.md +++ b/_stories/2007/7830213.md @@ -19,336 +19,120 @@ _tags: objectID: '7830213' --- -[Source](http://www.zdnet.com/article/why-raid-5-stops-working-in-2009/ "Permalink to Why RAID 5 stops working in 2009 | ZDNet") +The storage version of Y2k? No, it's a function of capacity growth and +RAID 5's limitations. If you are thinking about SATA RAID for home or +business use, or using RAID today, you need to know why. -# Why RAID 5 stops working in 2009 | ZDNet +RAID 5 protects against a single disk failure. You can recover all your +data if a single disk breaks. The problem: once a disk breaks, there is +another increasingly common failure lurking. And in 2009 it is highly +certain it will find you. -This web site uses cookies to improve your experience. By viewing our content, you are accepting the use of cookies. To find out more and change your cookie settings, please [view our cookie policy][1]. +**Disks fail** While disks are incredibly reliable devices, they do +fail. Our best data - from CMU and Google - finds that over 3% of drives +fail each year in the first three years of drive life, and then failure +rates start rising fast. -* Edition: - * Asia - * Australia - * Europe - * India - * United Kingdom - * United States - * ZDNet around the globe: - * [ ZDNet China ][2] - * [ ZDNet France ][3] - * [ ZDNet Germany ][4] - * [ ZDNet Korea ][5] - * [ ZDNet Japan ][6] - -[ ][7] - -Search - -Go - -* [ Videos ][8] -* [ Smart Cities ][9] -* [ Windows 10 ][10] -* [ Cloud ][11] -* [ Innovation ][12] -* [ Security ][13] -* [ Tech Pro ][14] -* more - * [ ZDNet Academy ][15] - * [ Digital Transformation ][16] - * [ Microsoft ][17] - * [ Mobility ][18] - * [ IoT ][19] - * [ Hardware ][20] - * [ Best VPN Services ][21] - * [ See All Topics ][22] - * [ White Papers ][23] - * [ Downloads ][24] - * [ Reviews ][25] - * [ Galleries ][26] - * [ Videos ][8] -* [Newsletters][27] -* [All Writers][28] -* * [Log In to ZDNET][29] - * [Join ZDNet][30] - * [About ZDNet][31] - * [Preferences][32] - * [Community][33] - * [Newsletters][34] - * [Log Out][35] -* [ ][7] -* * Go -* Menu - * [ Videos ][8] - * [ Smart Cities ][9] - * [ Windows 10 ][10] - * [ Cloud ][11] - * [ Innovation ][12] - * [ Security ][13] - * [ Tech Pro ][14] - * [ ZDNet Academy ][15] - * [ Digital Transformation ][16] - * [ Microsoft ][17] - * [ Mobility ][18] - * [ IoT ][19] - * [ Hardware ][20] - * [ Best VPN Services ][21] - * [ See All Topics ][22] - * [ White Papers ][23] - * [ Downloads ][24] - * [ Reviews ][25] - * [ Galleries ][26] - * [ Videos ][8] -* * * [Log In to ZDNET][29] - * [Join ZDNet][30] - * [About ZDNet][31] - * [Preferences][32] - * [Community][33] - * [Newsletters][34] - * [Log Out][35] -* us - - * Asia - * Australia - * Europe - * India - * United Kingdom - * United States - * ZDNet around the globe: - * [ ZDNet China ][2] - * [ ZDNet France ][3] - * [ ZDNet Germany ][4] - * [ ZDNet Korea ][5] - * [ ZDNet Japan ][6] - -# Why RAID 5 stops working in 2009 - -The storage version of Y2k? No, it's a function of capacity growth and RAID 5's limitations. - -[ ![Robin Harris][36] ][37] - -By [Robin Harris][37] for [Storage Bits][38] | July 18, 2007 -- 06:18 GMT (23:18 PDT) | Topic: [Hardware][20] -* [ 0 ][39] -* * * * * The storage version of Y2k? No, it's a function of capacity growth and RAID 5's limitations. If you are thinking about SATA RAID for home or business use, or using RAID today, you need to know why. - -RAID 5 protects against a single disk failure. You can recover all your data if a single disk breaks. The problem: once a disk breaks, there is another increasingly common failure lurking. And in 2009 it is highly certain it will find you. - -**Disks fail** While disks are incredibly reliable devices, they do fail. Our best data - from CMU and Google - finds that over 3% of drives fail each year in the first three years of drive life, and then failure rates start rising fast. - -With 7 brand new disks, you have ~20% chance of seeing a disk failure each year. Factor in the rising failure rate with age and over 4 years you are almost certain to see a disk failure during the life of those disks. +With 7 brand new disks, you have ~20% chance of seeing a disk failure +each year. Factor in the rising failure rate with age and over 4 years +you are almost certain to see a disk failure during the life of those +disks. But you're protected by RAID 5, right? Not in 2009. -**Reads fail** SATA drives are commonly specified with an unrecoverable read error rate (URE) of 10^14. Which means that once every 100,000,000,000,000 bits, the disk will very politely tell you that, so sorry, but I really, truly can't read that sector back to you. +**Reads fail** SATA drives are commonly specified with an unrecoverable +read error rate (URE) of 10^14. Which means that once every +100,000,000,000,000 bits, the disk will very politely tell you that, so +sorry, but I really, truly can't read that sector back to you. -One hundred trillion bits is about 12 terabytes. Sound like a lot? Not in 2009. +One hundred trillion bits is about 12 terabytes. Sound like a lot? Not +in 2009. -**Disk capacities double** Disk drive capacities double every 18-24 months. We have 1 TB drives now, and in 2009 we'll have 2 TB drives. +**Disk capacities double** Disk drive capacities double every 18-24 +months. We have 1 TB drives now, and in 2009 we'll have 2 TB drives. -With a 7 drive RAID 5 disk failure, you'll have 6 remaining 2 TB drives. As the RAID controller is busily reading through those 6 disks to reconstruct the data from the failed drive, it is almost certain it will see an URE. +With a 7 drive RAID 5 disk failure, you'll have 6 remaining 2 TB drives. +As the RAID controller is busily reading through those 6 disks to +reconstruct the data from the failed drive, it is almost certain it will +see an URE. -So the read fails. And when _that_ happens, you are one unhappy camper. The message "we can't read this RAID volume" travels up the chain of command until an error message is presented on the screen. 12 TB of your carefully protected - you thought! - data is gone. Oh, you didn't back it up to tape? Bummer! +So the read fails. And when that happens, you are one unhappy camper. +The message "we can't read this RAID volume" travels up the chain of +command until an error message is presented on the screen. 12 TB of your +carefully protected - you thought\! - data is gone. Oh, you didn't back +it up to tape? Bummer\! -**So now what?** The obvious answer, and the one that storage marketers have begun trumpeting, is RAID 6, which protects your data against 2 failures. Which is all well and good, until you consider this: as drives increase in size, any drive failure will _always_ be accompanied by a read error. So RAID 6 will give you no more protection than RAID 5 does now, _but you'll pay more anyway_ for extra disk capacity and slower write performance. +**So now what?** The obvious answer, and the one that storage marketers +have begun trumpeting, is RAID 6, which protects your data against 2 +failures. Which is all well and good, until you consider this: as drives +increase in size, any drive failure will always be accompanied by a read +error. So RAID 6 will give you no more protection than RAID 5 does now, +but you'll pay more anyway for extra disk capacity and slower write +performance. -Gee, paying more for less! I can hardly wait! +Gee, paying more for less\! I can hardly wait\! -**The Storage Bits take** Users of enterprise storage arrays have less to worry about: your tiny costly disks have less capacity and thus a smaller chance of encountering an URE. And your spec'd URE rate of 10^15 also helps. +**The Storage Bits take** Users of enterprise storage arrays have less +to worry about: your tiny costly disks have less capacity and thus a +smaller chance of encountering an URE. And your spec'd URE rate of 10^15 +also helps. -There are some other fixes out there as well, some fairly obvious and some, I'm certain, waiting for someone much brighter than me to invent. But even today a 7 drive RAID 5 with 1 TB disks has a 50% chance of a rebuild failure. RAID 5 is reaching the end of its useful life. +There are some other fixes out there as well, some fairly obvious and +some, I'm certain, waiting for someone much brighter than me to invent. +But even today a 7 drive RAID 5 with 1 TB disks has a 50% chance of a +rebuild failure. RAID 5 is reaching the end of its useful life. -**Update:** I've clearly tapped into a rich vein of RAID folklore. Just to be clear I'm talking about a failed drive (i.e. all sectors are gone) plus an URE on another sector during a rebuild. With 12 TB of capacity in the remaining RAID 5 stripe and an URE rate of 10^14, you are highly likely to encounter a URE. Almost certain, if the drive vendors are right. +**Update:** I've clearly tapped into a rich vein of RAID folklore. Just +to be clear I'm talking about a failed drive (i.e. all sectors are gone) +plus an URE on another sector during a rebuild. With 12 TB of capacity +in the remaining RAID 5 stripe and an URE rate of 10^14, you are highly +likely to encounter a URE. Almost certain, if the drive vendors are +right. As well-informed commenter Liam Newcombe notes: -> The key point that seems to be missed in many of the comments is that when a disk fails in a RAID 5 array and it has to rebuild there is a significant chance of a non-recoverable read error during the rebuild (BER / UER). As there is no longer any redundancy the RAID array cannot rebuild, this is not dependent on whether you are running Windows or Linux, hardware or software RAID 5, it is simple mathematics. An honest RAID controller will log this and generally abort, allowing you to restore undamaged data from backup onto a fresh array. +> The key point that seems to be missed in many of the comments is that +> when a disk fails in a RAID 5 array and it has to rebuild there is a +> significant chance of a non-recoverable read error during the rebuild +> (BER / UER). As there is no longer any redundancy the RAID array +> cannot rebuild, this is not dependent on whether you are running +> Windows or Linux, hardware or software RAID 5, it is simple +> mathematics. An honest RAID controller will log this and generally +> abort, allowing you to restore undamaged data from backup onto a fresh +> array. Thus my comment about hoping you have a backup. -Mr. Newcombe, just as I was beginning to like him, then took me to task for stating that "RAID 6 will give you no more protection than RAID 5 does now". What I had hoped to communicate is this: in a few years - if not 2009 then not long after - all SATA RAID failures will consist of a disk failure + URE. +Mr. Newcombe, just as I was beginning to like him, then took me to task +for stating that "RAID 6 will give you no more protection than RAID 5 +does now". What I had hoped to communicate is this: in a few years - if +not 2009 then not long after - all SATA RAID failures will consist of a +disk failure + URE. -RAID 6 will protect you against this quite nicely, just as RAID 5 protects against a single disk failure today. In the future, though, you will _require_ RAID 6 to protect against single disk failures + the inevitable URE and so, effectively, RAID 6 in a few years will give you no more protection than RAID 5 does today. This isn't RAID 6's fault. Instead it is due to the increasing capacity of disks and their steady URE rate. RAID 5 won't work at all, and, instead, RAID 6 will replace RAID 5. +RAID 6 will protect you against this quite nicely, just as RAID 5 +protects against a single disk failure today. In the future, though, you +will require RAID 6 to protect against single disk failures + the +inevitable URE and so, effectively, RAID 6 in a few years will give you +no more protection than RAID 5 does today. This isn't RAID 6's fault. +Instead it is due to the increasing capacity of disks and their steady +URE rate. RAID 5 won't work at all, and, instead, RAID 6 will replace +RAID 5. -Originally the developers of RAID suggested RAID 6 as a means of protecting against 2 disk failures. As we now know, a single disk failure means a second disk failure is much more likely - see the CMU pdf [Disk Failures in the Real World: What Does an MTTF of 1,000,000 Hours Mean to You?][40] for details - or check out my synopsis in [Everything You Know About Disks Is Wrong][41]. RAID 5 protection is a little dodgy today due to this effect and RAID 6 - in a few years - won't be able to help. +Originally the developers of RAID suggested RAID 6 as a means of +protecting against 2 disk failures. As we now know, a single disk +failure means a second disk failure is much more likely - see the CMU +pdf [Disk Failures in the Real World: What Does an MTTF of 1,000,000 +Hours Mean to You?](http://www.cs.cmu.edu/~bianca/fast07.pdf) for +details - or check out my synopsis in [Everything You Know About Disks +Is Wrong](http://storagemojo.com/?p=383). RAID 5 protection is a little +dodgy today due to this effect and RAID 6 - in a few years - won't be +able to help. -Finally, I recalculated the AFR for 7 drives using the 3.1% AFR from the CMU paper, using the formula suggested by a couple of readers - 1-96.9 ^# of disks - and got 19.8%. So I changed the ~23% number to ~20%. - -**Comments welcome, of course.** I revisited this piece in 2013 in [Has RAID5 stopped working?][42]  Now that we have 6TB drives - some with the same 10^14 URE - the problem is worse than ever. - -  - -### Related Topics: - -[ PCs ][43] [ Servers ][44] [ Storage ][45] [ Networking ][46] [ Data Centers ][47] - -* [ 0 ][39] -* * * * * [LOG IN TO COMMENT][48] -* [My Profile][32] -* [Log Out][35] - -| [Community Guidelines][49] - -### Join Discussion - -[Add Your Comment][48] - -[Add Your Comment][39] - -## Related Stories - -* [ ![​Samsung begins construction of $6 billion EUV semiconductor line][50] ][51] - -Hardware - -[​Samsung begins construction of $6 billion EUV semiconductor line][52] - -* [ ![Level smart glasses: Tracking steps and doing good][53] ][54] - -Hardware - -[Level smart glasses: Tracking steps and doing good][55] - -* [ ![Apple working on AirPods update, claims report][56] ][57] - -Apple - -[Apple working on AirPods update, claims report][58] - -* [ ![MWC 2018: Intel working on 5G PCs and phones][59] ][60] - -Mobility - -[MWC 2018: Intel working on 5G PCs and phones][61] - -× - -#### Thank You - -## Please review our terms of service to complete your newsletter subscription. - -By registering you become a member of the CBS Interactive family of sites and you have read and agree to the [Terms of Use][62], [Privacy Policy][63] and [Video Services Policy][64]. 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http://www.zdnet.com/reprints/ -[79]: https://secure.zdnet.com/members/ -[80]: https://cbsi.secure.force.com/CBSi/knowledgehome?referer=zdnet.com +Finally, I recalculated the AFR for 7 drives using the 3.1% AFR from the +CMU paper, using the formula suggested by a couple of readers - 1-96.9 +^\# of disks - and got 19.8%. So I changed the ~23% number to ~20%. +**Comments welcome, of course.** I revisited this piece in 2013 in [Has +RAID5 stopped working?](/article/has-raid5-stopped-working/)  Now that +we have 6TB drives - some with the same 10^14 URE - the problem is worse +than ever. diff --git a/_stories/2007/8142269.md b/_stories/2007/8142269.md index febe15f..bd9eac5 100644 --- a/_stories/2007/8142269.md +++ b/_stories/2007/8142269.md @@ -19,7 +19,352 @@ _tags: objectID: '8142269' --- -[Source](https://www.boston.com/news/globe/magazine/articles/2007/08/19/bizarro_world/?page=full "Permalink to ") + - [Home](http://www.boston.com/ "Home") + + \> + - [News](http://www.boston.com/news "News") + + \> + - [Boston Globe](http://www.boston.com/news/globe "Boston Globe") + + \> + - [Magazine](http://www.boston.com/news/globe/magazine "Magazine") + +[![The Boston +Globe](http://cache.boston.com/bonzai-fba/File-Based_Image_Resource/from_provider_globe.gif +"The Boston Globe")](http://www.boston.com/news/globe/) + +# 'Bizarro World' + +## That's what my wife and I entered when we drove up to an arcade in Weirs Beach, New Hampshire, where she would attempt to break an official world record in the classic video game Tetris. + +Boston Globe correspondent Billy Baker discovers his wife is really, +really good at Tetris. + + + +Andrew Gardikis is a 17-year-old kid from Quincy with a shaggy mop of +dirty blond hair and a long, lanky frame that he's still growing into. +In the video game world, Gardikis is famous for being one of only three +people to achieve the so-called "Holy Grail" of gaming records: a +perfect speed run on the original Nintendo Super Mario Bros., which +means that he finished the game and saved the princess in 5 minutes and +8 seconds. Like a good teenager, he relies on the shrugged-shoulder +explanation for many things. "I guess I have pretty good hand-eye +coordination," he says when I ask him how he mastered the best-selling +video game of all time. It also may be how he taught himself to juggle +seven balls, and how, in a roundabout way, my wife and I this spring +found ourselves in a Weirs Beach, New Hampshire, arcade so that she +could attempt to break a world record in another of those classic video +games, Tetris. + +For two years, I've been at work on a book about jugglers and the +controversial movement to turn a 4,000-year-old performance art into a +competitive sport. Part of my reporting involves reading Internet +juggling forums, where the art vs. sport topic is endlessly debated. One +day, I notice a post in a section reserved for non-juggling related +chitchat titled "Super Mario Bros 1." The poster, "andrewg," a.k.a. +Gardikis, wrote: "my record of 5 minutes and 9 seconds was broken. :( +i'll tie it eventually. . . ugh. . ." The post included a link to a +story on [twingalaxies.com](http://twingalaxies.com/) – the "Official +Electronic Scoreboard" – detailing how a North Carolina man named Scott +Kessler had recorded a 5:08, breaking Gardikis's old record by a second +with what was believed to be a mistake-free, unimprovable record. +(Gardikis achieved a 5:08 himself soon after.) + +I am not a video game person, but like most everyone of my generation, I +was hooked on Mario. It was hard not to be – that little plumber from +Brooklyn was an '80s icon, on par with E.T. and the Rubik's Cube. He had +his own cartoon, his own lunchbox, his own breakfast cereal. Symphony +orchestras played his theme song. I had to see how a teenager was +chasing perfection in a game that had its heyday, and sold 40 million +copies, before he was born. He was amazing. + +And so I contacted Mr. Kelly R. Flewin – he always signs his +correspondence this way – a 29-year-old gas station attendant in +Winnipeg, Manitoba, and the senior referee at +[twingalaxies.com](http://twingalaxies.com/), to find out how important +the record was in the gaming world. During a late-night phone call after +business had quieted down at the station, he told me that any record in +one of the more popular classic games – like Super Mario Bros., Donkey +Kong, or Tetris – would always set the classic gaming world on fire. + +"It's funny," I told Flewin. "We have an old Nintendo Game Boy floating +around the house, and Tetris is the only game we own. My wife will +sometimes dig it out to play on airplanes and long car rides. She's +weirdly good at it. She can get 500 or 600 lines, no problem." + +What Flewin said next I will never forget. + +"Oh, my\!" + +After I hung up the phone, I went to the bedroom and woke my wife, Lori. + +"Honey," I said. "You're not going to believe this, but I just got off +the phone with a guy who's in charge of video game world records, and he +said the world record for Game Boy Tetris is 327 lines, and he wants us +to go to New Hampshire this spring so you can try to break the world +record live in front of the judges at the world's largest classic video +game tournament."If you've ever been to New Hampshire's Lake +Winnipesaukee on a rainy day, you've probably been to Funspot. It's one +of those huge "family fun centers" with a bowling alley and a miniature +golf course and a bunch of Skee-Ball games where you can spend $100 to +earn enough tickets to redeem a $5 Slinky. What few people realize is +that the third floor of Funspot is home to the American Classic Arcade +Museum, the world's largest repository of games from the '70s and '80s, +the ones that launched the video game revolution. There are 180 +token-ready games on the floor at any moment and another 100 in a +warehouse out back, making it the Louvre of the "8-bit" world. + +Since 1998, the museum has played host to the International Classic +Video Game & Pinball Tournament, an all-star weekend for the very best +classic video game players from around the globe, the men – and +occasionally the women – who hold the world records on icons such as +Pac-Man, Donkey Kong, Centipede, and Frogger. Everything inside is +pre-1987, including the decor and the music pumping through the sound +system. "I want it to be an immersive experience," the museum's curator, +Gary Vincent, tells me. "For a few hours, you're transported back to +when you were 16 years old, playing at the local arcade and hanging out +with your girlfriend." + +Funspot is legendary for being the place where records fall. Where an +ordinary arcade may have one or two record-holders to its credit, +Funspot has an entire wall featuring photos of high scorers. At this +year's tournament, I meet a gamer named Brian Kuh who retired at age 30 +– he was a bank comptroller in New York City – so he could move to +Weirs Beach and go to Funspot every day to pursue video game world +records full time. That was just over two years ago. Last year, he broke +16 different world records on the first day of the tournament. At noon +on the first day of this competition, he has already broken 10 world +records; by 3 p.m., he has broken 17, surpassing his own record for the +most video game world records made in a single day. He celebrates by +playing more video games. + +Lori and I drIve to Weirs Beach in the middle of rush hour. This is +fine. We haven't had much time to talk about the scene, and she wants to +know what to expect. She is anxious. I can't say I blame her. After a +few months of laughing about this whole idea that she could be a Tetris +world record-holder, it is time for her to deliver. Live. In front of +some of the world's best video game players. + +Since I'd woken her up that night, the idea had felt comfortably +surreal. We'd tell friends the story and have a good laugh. I mean, it's +Tetris. Everybody knows Tetris, and most everybody has played Tetris. +It's the video game that people who hate video games actually love, +probably because it's so simple. You take a shape that is falling from +the top of the screen – there are seven possible shapes, each composed +of four blocks – and you use the controller to rotate them and put them +into place below, with the aim of combining the shapes into horizontal +lines of blocks with no gaps. When you do this, you've earned a "line," +which then disappears. The longer you play, the faster the shapes will +fall. You keep trying to make lines until you screw up enough times and +the blocks start stacking to the ceiling. When you hit the top and +there's nowhere left for the shapes to fall, the game is over. + +There are many things that attracted me to my wife, though I can't say +an exceeding amount of hand-eye coordination was one of them. She's 31, +she works as a nutritionist at UMass, and she's fairly athletic. She can +hit a softball and catch a football, but there was nothing about her to +suggest she had some innate ability for the split-second decision making +required to succeed at Tetris when the pieces are really coming fast. +The idea that she could be the best person to ever play the Game Boy +version of Tetris seemed beyond crazy. Tetris was the "killer game" that +launched the Nintendo Game Boy and the hand-held console movement, the +same way Super Mario Bros. launched the original Nintendo Entertainment +System. A killer game is one that is so valuable that it validates the +cost of the system you need to play it. Nintendo bundled Tetris with the +original Game Boy in 1989 – just as they had with Mario for the NES in +1985 – because people were willing to shell out $89.95 just so they +could play the addictive puzzle game. The original Game Boy sold about +70 million units; it's successor, Game Boy Color (the version my wife +owns), sold nearly 50 million. + +As we drive down Route 3 in Weirs Beach, we see the sign advertising the +tournament. "The best in the world compete," it says. "I just got a wave +of nervousness," Lori tells me. At the cabin we'd rented, she relaxes +with our dog and plays a few more games. + +Tetris is the embodiment of comprehensive thinking," Walter Day says to +me as Lori passes line 200 on her record attempt. She had woken up early +that morning, played a solid game of Tetris, taken our dog for a long +walk, and gone shopping for a T-shirt to wear for her big moment (she +chose a cute little green number with colorful owls). For her record +attempt, a television has been set up in the middle of the arcade, +connected to an early '90s Super Nintendo console with an adapter to +allow it to play Game Boy cartridges. Since the Game Boy screen is only +about 2 inches square, this is the first time I've ever been able to +actually watch as she plays Tetris. And I have Day, of all people, there +to provide the commentary. + +Day left his hometown of Lynn in 1979 to move to Fairfield, Iowa, so he +could study transcendental meditation at the Maharishi School of +Management. Two years later, he opened an arcade in nearby Ottumwa and +called it Twin Galaxies. One day, someone got a very high score on the +game Defender, which involves flying a spaceship over a mountain range +and shooting down aliens. The score was so much higher than any other +Defender score in Day's arcade that he set out to learn if it was the +highest score ever achieved on Defender. After calls to the game +manufacturer went nowhere, Day decided to start his own record-keeping +organization. On February 9, 1982, the Twin Galaxies National Scoreboard +was launched and was quickly recognized by the manufacturers and gaming +publications – and eventually the Guinness Book of World Records – as +the authority on video game and pinball records. + +Day is easy to spot when he arrives at the arcade this morning, because +he is the only person wearing a referee's jersey. "Here's what's going +on," Day, who's 58 with a salt-and-pepper beard, tells me as I watch and +he analyzes Lori's play. "Tetris epitomizes those types of games that +require a coordination of the eyes, the hands, and mental comprehension +time. When Mickey Mantle heard the crack off the bat, he got an extra +step. That's what your wife has. She's got to plug into the data she's +seeing immediately. Success at Tetris is based exclusively on the +ability to recognize the information you're getting faster than the +average person." + +I am amazed that Lori is able to keep a straight face and concentrate. A +dozen gamers are gathered round to watch her play. A very pregnant +photographer is lying on the floor underneath the table, shooting Lori +as she plays. The flash is right in her face. The sound system is +blaring "Take My Breath Away" from the Top Gun soundtrack. Yet she keeps +playing. Brilliantly. She has her game face on; I didn't even know she +had a game face. By the time she reaches 300 lines and level 30, the +highest level of the game, the pieces are blasting down the screen. I +overhear a guy next to me say, "While I'm thinking, ‘Put it there,' +she's already put it there." For the first time, I allow myself to +believe that she really is that good. + +At 4:46 p.m., she blows past her 328th line with her blocks still +stacked way at the bottom. I lean over to Gardikis, the Super Mario +teenager who has come up to Funspot for the day, and whisper that she +just passed the record. I'm pumped. My wife is a Tetris world +record-holder. I feel like handing out cigars. + +Then Mr. Kelly R. Flewin comes over, holding a laptop connected to the +Twin Galaxies record database. He tells me there's a problem. + +The King of Kong, a documentary that opens in Boston on Friday, is about +a problem with a Twin Galaxies world record, the prestigious Donkey Kong +points record. The film centers on Billy Mitchell, a Holyoke native and +video game legend who has held the Donkey Kong rec-ord since 1982, and +Steve Wiebe, a down-on-his-luck math teacher from Washington state whose +attempts to beat Mitchell for Donkey Kong supremacy are questioned +because the videotapes of his record-setting scores are challenged. + +The dispute is a huge controversy in the classic gaming world. Robert +Mruczek, a Brooklyn native with Coke-bottle glasses and thinning, curly +hair, was a Twin Galaxies referee for 5½ years. He estimates he has +spent 8,000 hours – from midnight to 4 a.m. almost every day – verifying +records. After the Donkey Kong controversy, he quit. "I felt like I did +two tours of duty in Nam, and I didn't want to sign up for a third," he +tells me. Mruczek has a sadness to him as he recounts the Wiebe saga, as +if something important to him has been taken away. "With the elite +titles," he says, "if you make a mistake reporting something that is +important to the community, it could have repercussions down the line. +You don't want to treat it with an asterisk if it's tainted and just +doesn't sit well." Mruczek says he's worried that the handling of the +Wiebe rec-ord has set a dangerous precedent that could set back the +community to the '80s, when people would claim records that were +impossible to achieve. Twin Galaxies has long since abandoned its +original verification process, which required a photo of the screen +showing the high score and a signed affidavit from the player. Now, a +player must videotape his or her game according to strict guidelines or +perform the game live in front a Twin Galaxies judge. + +Which brings us back to Lori. I can't understand what the problem could +be. Lori began her record attempt in front of Flewin, a senior referee, +and Day, the head honcho. She is not using any cheat codes or banned +techniques because, frankly, she doesn't know any. + +It turns out that her version of Game Boy Tetris is Tetris DX, the same +as the original game but in color, and it is a separate category, +according to Twin Galaxies rules, with a much higher record. I look at +Flewin's computer and see the name Harry J. Hong, along with his record: +545 lines. + +Lori can get 545 lines. I know this. I also know it is considerably +harder than the 327 lines Flewin had initially told me about (which is +the record for the original black-and-white version of Tetris for the +Game Boy). She is already 40 minutes into her attempt, and I am certain +that Day and Flewin aren't going to sit around to watch another attempt +if she fails. Despite my efforts, Lori hears a bit about what is going +on and yells at me – the way wives yell at their husbands when they're +being shady – to explain what is happening. I give her the lowdown, but +she would later tell me all she heard was "500-something." + +At 5:01 p.m. on the Funspot clock, she completes her 545th line and then +leaves Harry J. Hong in the dust. At 600 lines, with her blocks still at +the bottom, she glances over at me quickly. + +"Billy, I definitely have the record, right?" + +"Oh, yeah," I reply. "Now you're just showing off." + +The crowd is getting into it. Twice, she makes mistakes and the pieces +pile to the top of the screen, but she gets out of it. After an hour of +playing, Lori makes one mistake too many and her game ends. She has +destroyed the record – her final score is 841 lines. We would later +determine this was her second-best game ever. + +Day comes over to shake her hand. Lori is laughing as Day declares her +"the greatest Tetris player in the world," then turns to me to add, "And +I must say, she's also the prettiest." + +"That was one of the most bizarre moments of my life," she says. "The +flashes were going off and Walter was talking. It was like Bizarro +World." + +What does it mean to be the best in the world at something? This is what +runs through my mind as we lay in bed Sunday morning. We are both +struggling to understand what Lori's mastery of a game that Day calls +"the embodiment of comprehensive thinking" means in our lives. + +As I go to pack the car, I realize that Lori has bought some things on +the trip, and fitting them into our Jeep Cherokee is getting tricky. +Then I look over at Lori, and it all makes sense. "From now on," I tell +the new master of fitting shapes into tight spaces, "you pack the +car."![](http://cache.boston.com/bonzai-fba/File-Based_Image_Resource/dingbat_story_end_icon.gif) + +© Copyright 2007 Globe Newspaper +Company. + +![](http://cache.boston.com/bonzai-fba/File-Based_Image_Resource/dingbat_arrow_icon.gif)  + +FREETETRIS.ORG: + +[Play Tetris +online](http://www.freetetris.org/) + +![](http://cache.boston.com/bonzai-fba/File-Based_Image_Resource/dingbat_arrow_icon.gif) [Quincy +youth shoots for Super Mario +record](http://www.boston.com/news/local/articles/2007/03/25/all_thumbs/) + +![Pop-up](http://cache.boston.com/bonzai-fba/File-Based_Image_Resource/dingbat_popup_icon.gif +"Pop-up") [Globe Magazine Video -- the Super Mario +record](http://www.boston.com/news/globe/magazine/articles/2007/08/12/video_super_mario) + +![Pop-up](http://cache.boston.com/bonzai-fba/File-Based_Image_Resource/dingbat_popup_icon.gif +"Pop-up") [Globe Magazine Video -- Super Mario at High +Speed](http://www.boston.com/news/globe/magazine/articles/2007/08/12/video_mario_highspeed) +![](http://cache.boston.com/bonzai-fba/File-Based_Image_Resource/gallery_arrow_previous.gif)![](http://cache.boston.com/bonzai-fba/File-Based_Image_Resource/gallery_arrow_next.gif) + +Advertisement + +SEARCH THE ARCHIVES + +  + +All Globe stories since 2003 are now +FREE + +![](http://cache.boston.com/bonzai-fba/File-Based_Image_Resource/dingbat_arrow_icon.gif) [More +search +options](http://www.boston.com/news/special/archives/) + +Advertisement + +![](http://cache.boston.com/bonzai-fba/File-Based_Image_Resource/spacer.gif) + +Advertisement diff --git a/_stories/2007/8349238.md b/_stories/2007/8349238.md index 0b76bf9..32a4658 100644 --- a/_stories/2007/8349238.md +++ b/_stories/2007/8349238.md @@ -19,7 +19,659 @@ _tags: objectID: '8349238' --- -[Source](https://spectrum.ieee.org/telecom/security/the-athens-affair "Permalink to ") +Advertisement +![the athens affair opener](/img/07GreekWiretapopener-1376055168987.jpg) +Photo: Fotoagentur/Alamy +**On 9 March 2005,** a 38-year-old Greek electrical engineer named +Costas Tsalikidis was found hanged in his Athens loft apartment, an +apparent suicide. It would prove to be merely the first public news of a +scandal that would roil Greece for months. + +The next day, the prime minister of Greece was told that his cellphone +was being bugged, as were those of the mayor of Athens and at least 100 +other high-ranking dignitaries, including an employee of the U.S. +embassy \[see sidebar “CEOs, MPs, & a PM.”\] + +The victims were customers of Athens-based Vodafone-Panafon, generally +known as Vodafone Greece, the country's largest cellular service +provider; Tsalikidis was in charge of network planning at the company. A +connection seemed obvious. Given the list of people and their positions +at the time of the tapping, we can only imagine the sensitive political +and diplomatic discussions, high-stakes business deals, or even marital +indiscretions that may have been routinely overheard and, quite +possibly, recorded. + +Image credits: Keystone/Getty Images; Right: Richard Harrington/Three +Lions/Getty Images Punjab Photo/AFP/Getty Images; Nuclear Power Corp. of +India; T.C. Malhotra/Getty Images Babu/Reuters; Sondeep Shankar/ +Bloomberg News/Landov; B Mathur/Reuters + +  + +Even before Tsalikidis's death, investigators had found rogue software +installed on the Vodafone Greece phone network by parties unknown. Some +extraordinarily knowledgeable people either penetrated the network from +outside or subverted it from within, aided by an agent or mole. In +either case, the software at the heart of the phone system, +investigators later discovered, was reprogrammed with a finesse and +sophistication rarely seen before or since. + +A study of the Athens affair, surely the most bizarre and embarrassing +scandal ever to engulf a major cellphone service provider, sheds +considerable light on the measures networks can and should take to +reduce their vulnerability to hackers and moles. + +It's also a rare opportunity to get a glimpse of one of the most elusive +of cybercrimes. Major network penetrations of any kind are exceedingly +uncommon. They are hard to pull off, and equally hard to investigate. + +#### CEOs, MPs & a PM + +The illegally wiretapped cellphones in the Athens affair included those +of the prime minister, his defense and foreign affairs ministers, top +military and law enforcement officials, the Greek EU commissioner, +activists, and journalists. + +![Hellas](/img/athensHellas-1374846492259.jpg) + +Photo: Kostas Tsironis/AP Photo On 6 April 2006, **Bill Zikou,** CEO of +Ericsson Hellas, was summoned to give evidence before a parliamentary +committee looking into the scandal. His company provided the +telecommunications switching equipment that rogue programmers broke +into. + +![koronias](/img/athenssb102-1374848120085.jpg) + +Photo: Kostas Tsironis/AP Photo Vodafone Greece CEO Giorgos Koronias +ordered the removal of the surveillance program, because, as he +explained in a February 2006 newspaper interview, “the company had to +react immediately.” Removing the program is thought to have tipped off +the perpetrators and helped them evade capture. + +![Karamanlis](/img/athenssb103-1374848308701.jpg) + +Photo: Johanna Leguerre/AFP/Getty Images Greek Prime Minister Costas +Karamanlis was only the most notable of the 100 or so individuals +illegally wiretapped, which, besides the country’s political, law +enforcement, and military elite, included Karamanlis’s wife. + +![Tsalikidis](/img/athenssb104-1374849268742.jpg) + +Photo: AFP/Getty Images Costas Tsalikidis was found hanged, an apparent +suicide, just before the Athens affair became public. As a +telecommunications engineer in charge of network planning at Vodafone, +he was ideally placed to be either an inside accomplice or discoverer of +the digital break-in. But his involvement in the case has never been +established. + +![VoulGarakis](/img/athenssb105-1374850104990.jpg) + +Photo: Louisa Gouliamaki/AFP/Getty Images GiorGos VoulGarakis was the +first government official to whom Koronias disclosed the case. Giannis +Angelou, the director of the Prime Minister’s political office, was also +present. + +Even among major criminal infiltrations, the Athens affair stands out +because it may have involved state secrets, and it targeted +individuals—a combination that, if it had ever occurred before, was +not disclosed publicly. The most notorious penetration to compromise +state secrets was that of the “Cuckoo's Egg,” a name bestowed by the +wily network administrator who successfully pursued a German programmer +in 1986. The programmer had been selling secrets about the U.S. +Strategic Defense Initiative (“Star Wars”) to the Soviet KGB. + +But unlike the Cuckoo's Egg, the Athens affair targeted the +conversations of specific, highly placed government and military +officials. Given the ease with which the conversations could have been +recorded, it is generally believed that they were. But no one has found +any recordings, and we don't know how many of the calls were recorded, +or even listened to, by the perpetrators. Though the scope of the +activity is to a large extent unknown, it's fair to say that no other +computer crime on record has had the same potential for capturing +information about affairs of state. + +While this is the first major infiltration to involve cellphones, the +scheme did not depend on the wireless nature of the network. Basically, +the hackers broke into a telephone network and subverted its built-in +wiretapping features for their own purposes. That could have been done +with any phone account, not just cellular ones. Nevertheless, there are +some elements of the Vodafone Greece system that were unique and crucial +to the way the crime was pulled off. + +We still don't know who committed this crime. A big reason is that the +UK-based Vodafone Group, one of the largest cellular providers in the +world, bobbled its handling of some key log files. It also reflexively +removed the rogue software, instead of letting it continue to run, +tipping off the perpetrators that their intrusion had been detected and +giving them a chance to run for cover. The company was fined 76 million +this past December. + +To piece together this story, we have pored through hundreds of pages of +depositions, taken by the Greek parliamentary committee investigating +the affair, obtained through a freedom of information request filed with +the Greek Parliament. We also read through hundreds of pages of +documentation and other records, supplemented by publicly available +information and interviews with independent experts and sources +associated with the case. What emerges are the technical details, if not +the motivation, of a devilishly clever and complicated computer +infiltration. + +**The cellphone bugging** began sometime during the fevered run-up to +the August 2004 Olympic Games in Athens. It remained undetected until 24 +January 2005, when one of Vodafone's telephone switches generated a +sequence of error messages indicating that text messages originating +from another cellphone operator had gone undelivered. The switch is a +computer-controlled component of a phone network that connects two +telephone lines to complete a telephone call. To diagnose the failures, +which seemed highly unusual but reasonably innocuous at the time, +Vodafone contacted the maker of the switches, the Swedish +telecommunications equipment manufacturer Ericsson. + +We now know that the illegally implanted software, which was eventually +found in a total of four of Vodafone's Greek switches, created parallel +streams of digitized voice for the tapped phone calls. One stream was +the ordinary one, between the two calling parties. The other stream, an +exact copy, was directed to other cellphones, allowing the tappers to +listen in on the conversations on the cellphones, and probably also to +record them. The software also routed location and other information +about those phone calls to these shadow handsets via automated text +messages. + +Five weeks after the first messaging failures, on 4 March 2005, Ericsson +alerted Vodafone that unauthorized software had been installed in two of +Vodafone's central offices. Three days later, Vodafone technicians +isolated the rogue code. The next day, 8 March, the CEO of Vodafone +Greece, Giorgos Koronias, ordered technicians to remove the software. + +Then events took a deadly turn. On 9 March, Tsalikidis, who was to be +married in three months, was found hanged in his apartment. No one knows +whether his apparent suicide was related to the case, but many observers +have speculated that it was. + +The day after Tsalikidis's body was discovered, CEO Koronias met with +the director of the Greek prime minister's political office. Yiannis +Angelou, and the minister of public order, Giorgos Voulgarakis. Koronias +told them that rogue software used the lawful wiretapping mechanisms of +Vodafone's digital switches to tap about 100 phones and handed over a +list of bugged numbers. Besides the prime minister and his wife, phones +belonging to the ministers of national defense, foreign affairs, and +justice, the mayor of Athens, and the Greek European Union commissioner +were all compromised. Others belonged to members of civil rights +organizations, peace activists, and antiglobalization groups; senior +staff at the ministries of National Defense, Public Order, Merchant +Marine, and Foreign Affairs; the New Democracy ruling party; the +Hellenic Navy general staff; and a Greek-American employee at the United +States Embassy in Athens. + +Within weeks of the initial discovery of the tapping scheme, Greek +government and independent authorities launched five different +investigations aimed at answering three main questions: Who was +responsible for the bugging? Was Tsalikidis's death related to the +scandal? And how did the perpetrators pull off this audacious scheme? + +**To understand how** someone could secretly listen to the conversations +of Greece's most senior officials, we have to look at the infrastructure +that makes it possible. + +First, consider how a phone call, yours or a prime minister's, gets +completed. Long before you dial a number on your handset, your cellphone +has been communicating with nearby cellular base stations. One of those +stations, usually the nearest, has agreed to be the intermediary between +your phone and the network as a whole. Your telephone handset converts +your words into a stream of digital data that is sent to a transceiver +at the base station. + +[![cell phone system illustration](/image/636009)](/image/636009) + +  + +Illustration: Bryan Christie Design + +The base station's activities are governed by a base station controller, +a special-purpose computer within the station that allocates radio +channels and helps coordinate handovers between the transceivers under +its control. + +This controller in turn communicates with a mobile switching center that +takes phone calls and connects them to call recipients within the same +switching center, other switching centers within the company, or special +exchanges that act as gateways to foreign networks, routing calls to +other telephone networks (mobile or landline). The mobile switching +centers are particularly important to the Athens affair because they +hosted the rogue phone-tapping software, and it is there that the +eavesdropping originated. They were the logical choice, because they are +at the heart of the network; the intruders needed to take over only a +few of them in order to carry out their attack. + +Both the base station controllers and the switching centers are built +around a large computer, known as a switch, capable of creating a +dedicated communications path between a phone within its network and, in +principle, any other phone in the world. Switches are holdovers from the +1970s, an era when powerful computers filled rooms and were built around +proprietary hardware and software. Though these computers are smaller +nowadays, the system's basic architecture remains largely unchanged. + +Like most phone companies, Vodafone Greece uses the same kind of +computer for both its mobile switching centers and its base station +controllers—Ericsson's AXE line of switches. A central processor +coordinates the switch's operations and directs the switch to set up a +speech or data path from one phone to another and then routes a call +through it. Logs of network activity and billing records are stored on +disk by a separate unit, called a management processor. + +The key to understanding the hack at the heart of the Athens affair is +knowing how the Ericsson AXE allows lawful intercepts—what are popularly +called “wiretaps.” Though the details differ from country to country, in +Greece, as in most places, the process starts when a law enforcement +official goes to a court and obtains a warrant, which is then presented +to the phone company whose customer is to be tapped. + +Nowadays, all wiretaps are carried out at the central office. In AXE +exchanges a remote-control equipment subsystem, or RES, carries out the +phone tap by monitoring the speech and data streams of switched calls. +It is a software subsystem typically used for setting up wiretaps, which +only law officers are supposed to have access to. When the wiretapped +phone makes a call, the RES copies the conversation into a second data +stream and diverts that copy to a phone line used by law enforcement +officials. + +Ericsson optionally provides an interception management system (IMS), +through which lawful call intercepts are set up and managed. When a +court order is presented to the phone company, its operators initiate an +intercept by filling out a dialog box in the IMS software. The optional +IMS in the operator interface and the RES in the exchange each contain a +list of wiretaps: wiretap requests in the case of the IMS, actual taps +in the RES. Only IMS-initiated wiretaps should be active in the RES, so +a wiretap in the RES without a request for a tap in the IMS is a pretty +good indicator that an unauthorized tap has occurred. An audit procedure +can be used to find any discrepancies between them. + +It turns out Vodafone had not purchased the lawful intercept option at +the time of the illegal wiretaps, and the IMS phone-tapping management +software was not installed on Vodafone's systems. But in early 2003, +Vodafone technicians upgraded the Greek switches to release R9.1 of the +AXE software suite. That upgrade included the RES software, according to +a letter from Ericsson that accompanied the upgrade. So after the +upgrade, the Vodafone system contained the software code necessary to +intercept calls using the RES, even though it lacked the high-level user +interface in the IMS normally used to facilitate such intercepts. + +That odd circumstance would turn out to play a role in letting the +Athens hackers illegally listen in on calls and yet escape detection for +months and months. + +**It took guile** and some serious programming chops to manipulate the +lawful call-intercept functions in Vodafone's mobile switching centers. +The intruders' task was particularly complicated because they needed to +install and operate the wiretapping software on the exchanges without +being detected by Vodafone or Ericsson system administrators. From time +to time the intruders needed access to the rogue software to update the +lists of monitored numbers and shadow phones. These activities had to be +kept off all logs, while the software itself had to be invisible to the +system administrators conducting routine maintenance activities. The +intruders achieved all these objectives. + +They took advantage of the fact that the AXE allows new software to be +installed without rebooting the system, an important feature when any +interruption would disconnect phone calls, lose text messages, and +render emergency services unreachable. To let an AXE exchange run +continuously for decades, as many of them do, Ericsson's software uses +several techniques for handling failures and upgrading an exchange's +software without suspending its operation. These techniques allow the +direct patching of code loaded in the central processor, in effect +altering the operating system on the fly. + +Modern GSM systems, such as Vodafone's, secure the wireless links with a +sophisticated encryption mechanism. A call to another cellphone will be +re-encrypted between the remote cellphone and its closest base station, +but it is not protected while it transits the provider's core network. +For this reason—and for the ease of monitoring calls from the comfort of +their lair—the perpetrators of the Vodafone wiretaps attacked the core +switches of the Vodafone network. Encrypting communications from the +start of the chain to its end—as banks, for example, do—makes it very +difficult to implement legal wiretaps. + +To simplify software maintenance, the AXE has detailed rules for +directly patching software running on its central processor. The AXE's +existing code is structured around independent blocks, or program +modules, which are stored in the central processor's memory. The release +being used in 2004 consisted of about 1760 blocks. Each contains a small +“correction area,” used whenever software is updated with a patch. + +Let's say you're patching in code to force the computer to do a new +function, Z, in situations where it has been doing a different function, +Y. So, for example, where the original software had an instruction, “If +X, then do Y” the patched software says, in effect, “If X, then go to +the correction area location L.” The software goes to location L and +executes the instructions it finds there, that is, Z. In other words, a +software patch works by replacing an instruction at the area of the code +to be fixed with an instruction that diverts the program to a memory +location in the correction area containing the new version of the code. + +The challenge faced by the intruders was to use the RES's capabilities +to duplicate and divert the bits of a call stream without using the +dialog-box interface to the IMS, which would create auditable logs of +their activities. The intruders pulled this off by installing a series +of patches to 29 separate blocks of code, according to Ericsson +officials who testified before the Greek parliamentary committee that +investigated the wiretaps. This rogue software modified the central +processor's software to directly initiate a wiretap, using the RES's +capabilities. Best of all, for them, the taps were not visible to the +operators, because the IMS and its user interface weren't used. + +The full version of the software would have recorded the phone numbers +being tapped in an official registry within the exchange. And, as we +noted, an audit could then find a discrepancy between the numbers +monitored by the exchange and the warrants active in the IMS. But the +rogue software bypassed the IMS. Instead, it cleverly stored the bugged +numbers in two data areas that were part of the rogue software's own +memory space, which was within the switch's memory but isolated and not +made known to the rest of the switch. + +That by itself put the rogue software a long way toward escaping +detection. But the perpetrators hid their own tracks in a number of +other ways as well. There were a variety of circumstances by which +Vodafone technicians could have discovered the alterations to the AXE's +software blocks. For example, they could have taken a listing of all the +blocks, which would show all the active processes running within the +AXE—similar to the task manager output in Microsoft Windows or the +process status (ps) output in Unix. They then would have seen that some +processes were active, though they shouldn't have been. But the rogue +software apparently modified the commands that list the active blocks in +a way that omitted certain blocks—the ones that related to +intercepts—from any such listing. + +> **THE ROGUE SOFTWARE STORED BUGGED PHONE NUMBERS  +> IN ITS OWN MEMORY SPACE ** + +In addition, the rogue software might have been discovered during a +software upgrade or even when Vodafone technicians installed a minor +patch. It is standard practice in the telecommunications industry for +technicians to verify the existing block contents before performing an +upgrade or patch. We don't know why the rogue software was not detected +in this way, but we suspect that the software also modified the +operation of the command used to print the checksums—codes that create a +kind of signature against which the integrity of the existing blocks can +be validated. One way or another, the blocks appeared unaltered to the +operators. + +Finally, the software included a back door to allow the perpetrators to +control it in the future. This, too, was cleverly constructed to avoid +detection. A report by the Hellenic Authority for the Information and +Communication Security and Privacy (the Greek abbreviation is ADAE) +indicates that the rogue software modified the exchange's command +parser—a routine that accepts commands from a person with system +administrator status—so that innocuous commands followed by six spaces +would deactivate the exchange's transaction log and the alarm associated +with its deactivation, and allow the execution of commands associated +with the lawful interception subsystem. In effect, it was a signal to +allow operations associated with the wiretaps but leave no trace of +them. It also added a new user name and password to the system, which +could be used to obtain access to the exchange. + +Software that not only alters operating system code but also hides its +tracks is called a “rootkit.” The term is known to the public—if at +all—because of one that the record label Sony BMG Music Entertainment +included on some music CDs released in 2005. The Sony rootkit restricted +copying of CDs; it burrowed into the Windows operating system on PCs and +then hid its existence from the owner. (Sony stopped using rootkits +because of a general public outcry.) Security experts have also +discovered other rootkits for general-purpose operating systems, such as +Linux, Windows, and Solaris, but to our knowledge this is the first time +a rootkit has been observed on a special-purpose system, in this case an +Ericsson telephone switch. + +**With all of this sophisticated** subterfuge, how then was the rogue +software finally discovered? On 24 January 2005, the perpetrators +updated their planted software. That upgrade interfered with the +forwarding of text messages, which went undelivered. These undelivered +text messages, in turn, triggered an automated failure report. + +At this point, the hackers' abilities to keep their modifications to the +switch's AXE software suite secret met their limits, as it's almost +impossible to hide secrets in somebody else's system. + +The AXE, like most large software systems, logs all manner of network +activity. System administrators can review the log files, and any events +they can't account for as ordinary usage can be investigated. + +It's impossible to overstate the importance of logging. For example, in +the 1986 Cuckoo's Egg intrusion, the wily network administrator, +Clifford Stoll, was asked to investigate a 75 U.S. cents accounting +error. Stoll spent 10 months looking for the hacker, who had penetrated +deep into the networks of Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, a U.S. +nuclear weapons lab in California. Much of that time he spent poring +over thousands of log report pages. + +The AXE, like most sophisticated systems nowadays, can help operators +find the nuggets of useful information within the voluminous logs it +generates. It is programmed to report anomalous activity on its own, in +the form of error or failure reports. In addition, at regular intervals +the switching center generates a snapshot of itself—a copy, or dump, of +all its programs and data. + +Dumps are most commonly consulted for recovery and diagnostic purposes, +but they can be used in security investigations. So when Ericsson's +investigators were called in because of the undelivered text messages, +the first thing they did was look closely at the periodic dumps. They +found two areas containing all the phone numbers being monitored and +retrieved a list of them. + +The investigators examined the dumps more thoroughly and found the rogue +programs. What they found though, was in the form of executable code—in +other words, code in the binary language that microprocessors directly +execute. Executable code is what results when a software compiler turns +source code—in the case of the AXE, programs written in the PLEX +language—into the binary machine code that a computer processor +executes. So the investigators painstakingly reconstructed an +approximation of the original PLEX source files that the intruders +developed. It turned out to be the equivalent of about 6500 lines of +code, a surprisingly substantial piece of software. + +The investigators ran the modules in simulated environments to better +understand their behavior. The result of all this investigative effort +was the discovery of the data areas holding the tapped numbers and the +time stamps of recent intercepts. + +With this information on hand, the investigators could go back and look +at earlier dumps to establish the time interval during which the +wiretaps were in effect and to get the full list of intercepted numbers +and call data for the tapped conversations—who called whom, when, and +for how long. (The actual conversations were not stored in the logs.) + +While the hack was complex, the taps themselves were straightforward. +When the prime minister, for example, initiated or received a call on +his cellphone, the exchange would establish the same kind of connection +used in a lawful wiretap—a connection to a shadow number allowing it to +listen in on the conversation. + +Creating the rogue software so that it would remain undetected required +a lot of expertise in writing AXE code, an esoteric competency that +isn't readily available in most places. But as it happens, for the past +15 years, a considerable part of Ericsson's software development for the +AXE has been done under contract by a Greek company based in Athens, +Intracom Telecom, part of Intracom Holdings. The necessary know-how was +available locally and was spread over a large number of present and past +Intracom developers. So could this have been an inside job? + +The early stages of the infiltration would have been much easier to pull +off with the assistance of someone inside Vodafone, but there is no +conclusive evidence to support that scenario. The infiltration could +have been carried out remotely and, indeed, according to a state report, +in the case of the failed text messages where the exact time of the +event is known, the last person to access the exchange had been issued a +visitor's badge. + +Similarly, we may never know whether Tsalikidis had anything to do with +the wiretaps. Many observers have found the timing of his death highly +suggestive, but to this day no connection has been uncovered. Nor can +observers do more than speculate as to the motives of the infiltrators. +\[See the sidebar, “[An Inside Job?](#)” for a summary of the leading +speculation; we can neither endorse nor refute the theories presented.\] + +Just as we cannot now know for certain who was behind the Athens affair +or what their motives were, we can only speculate about various +approaches that the intruders may have followed to carry out their +attack. That's because key material has been lost or was never +collected. For instance, in July 2005, while the investigation was +taking place, Vodafone upgraded two of the three servers used for +accessing the exchange management system. This upgrade wiped out the +access logs and, contrary to company policy, no backups were retained. +Some time later a six-month retention period for visitor sign-in books +lapsed, and Vodafone destroyed the books corresponding to the period +where the rogue software was modified, triggering the text-message +errors. + +Traces of the rogue software installation might have been recorded on +the exchange's transaction logs. However, due to a paucity of storage +space in the exchange's management systems, the logs were retained for +only five days, because Vodafone considers billing data, which competes +for the same space, a lot more important. Most crucially, Vodafone's +deactivation of the rogue software on 7 March 2005 almost certainly +alerted the conspirators, giving them a chance to switch off the shadow +phones. As a result investigators missed the opportunity of +triangulating the location of the shadow phones and catching the +perpetrators in the act. + +**So what can this affair** teach us about how to protect phone +networks? + +Once the infiltration was discovered, Vodafone had to balance the need +for the continued operation of the network with the discovery and +prosecution of the guilty parties. Unfortunately, the responses of +Vodafone and that of Greek law enforcement were both inadequate. Through +Vodafone's actions, critical data were lost or destroyed, while the +perpetrators not only received a warning that their scheme had been +discovered but also had sufficient time to disappear. + +In the telecommunications industry, prevailing best practices require +that the operator's policies include procedures for responding to an +infiltration, such as a virus attack: retain all data, isolate the part +of the system that's been broken into as much as possible, coordinate +activities with law enforcement. + +Greek federal telecom regulations also specify that operators have +security policies that detail the measures they will take to ensure the +confidentiality of customer communications and the privacy of network +users. However, Vodafone's response indicates that such policies, if +they existed, were ignored. If not for press conferences and public +investigations, law enforcement could have watched the behavior of the +shadow cellphones surreptitiously. Physical logbooks of visitors were +lost and data logs were destroyed. In addition, neither law enforcement +authorities nor the ADAE, the independent security and privacy +authority, was contacted directly. Instead, Vodafone Greece communicated +through a political channel—the prime minister's office. It should be +noted the ADAE was a fairly new organization at the time, formed in +2003. + +The response of Greek law enforcement officials also left a lot to be +desired. Police could have secured evidence by impounding all of +Vodafone's telecommunications and computer equipment involved in the +incident. Instead it appears that concerns about disruption to the +operation of the mobile telephone network led the authorities to take a +more light-handed approach—essentially interviewing employees and +collecting information provided by Vodafone—that ultimately led to the +loss of forensic evidence. They eventually started leveling accusations +at both the operator (Vodafone) and the vendor (Ericsson), turning the +victims into defendants and losing their good will, which further +hampered their investigation. + +Of course, in countries where such high-tech crimes are rare, it is +unreasonable to expect to find a crack team of investigators. Could a +rapid deployment force be set up to handle such high-profile and highly +technical incidents? We'd like to see the international police +organization Interpol create a cyberforensics response team that +countries could call on to handle such incidents. + +> **PHYSICAL LOGBOOKS OF VISITORS WERE LOST AND  +> DATA LOGS WERE DESTROYED ** + +Telephone exchanges have evolved over the decades into software-based +systems, and therefore the task of analyzing them for vulnerabilities +has become very difficult. Even as new software features, such as +conferencing, number portability, and caller identification, have been +loaded onto the exchanges, the old software remains in place. Complex +interactions between subsystems and baroque coding styles (some of them +remnants of programs written 20 or 30 years ago) confound developers and +auditors alike. + +Yet an effective defense against viruses, worms, and rootkits depends +crucially on in-depth analysis that can penetrate source code in all its +baroque heterogeneity. For example, a statistical analysis of the call +logs might have revealed a correlation between the calls to the shadow +numbers and calls to the monitored numbers. Telephone companies already +carry out extensive analysis on these sorts of data to spot customer +trends. But from the security perspective, this analysis is done for the +wrong reasons and by the wrong people—marketing as opposed to security. +By training security personnel to use these tools and allowing them +access to these data, customer trend analysis can become an effective +countermeasure against rogue software. + +Additional clues could be uncovered by merging call records generated by +the exchange with billing and accounting information. Doing so, though, +involves consolidating distinct data sets currently owned by different +entities within the telecom organization. + +Another defense is regular auditing of the type that allowed Ericsson to +discover the rogue software by scrutinizing the off-line dumps. However, +in this case, as well as in the data analysis case, we have to be sure +that any rogue software cannot modify the information stored in the logs +or the dumps, such as by using a separate monitoring computer running +its own software. + +Digital systems generate enormous volumes of information. Ericsson and +Vodafone Greece had at their fingertips all the information they needed +to discover the penetration of Vodafone's network long before an +undelivered text message sent them looking. As in other industries, the +challenge now is to come up with ways to use this information. If one +company's technicians and one country's police force cannot meet this +challenge, a response team that can needs to be created. + +It is particularly important not to turn the investigation into a witch +hunt. Especially in cases where the perpetrators are unlikely to be +identified, it is often politically expedient to use the telecom +operator as a convenient scapegoat. This only encourages operators and +their employees to brush incidents under the carpet, and turns them into +adversaries of law enforcement. Rather than looking for someone to blame +(and punish), it is far better to determine exactly what went wrong and +how it can be fixed, not only for that particular operator, but for the +industry as a whole. + +Merely saying—or even legislating—that system vendors and network +operators should not allow something like this to occur is pointless, +because there is little that can be done to these companies after the +fact. Instead, proactive measures should be taken to ensure that such +systems are developed and operated safely. Perhaps we can borrow a few +pages from aviation safety, where both aircraft manufacturers and +airline companies are closely monitored by national and international +agencies to ensure the safety of airline passengers. + +## About the Author + +VASSILIS PREVELAKIS, an IEEE member, is an assistant professor of +computer science at Drexel University, in Philadelphia. Hiscurrent +research is on automation network security and secure software design. +He has published widely in these areas and is actively involved in +standards bodies such as the Internet Engineering Task Force. + +DIOMIDIS SPINELLIS, an IEEE member, is an associate professor in the +department of management science and technology at the Athens University +of Economics and Business and the author of Code Quality: The Open +Source Perspective (Addison-Wesley, 2006). He blogs at +. + +## To Probe Further + +The Wikipedia article + +contains additional links to press stories and background material. + +Ericsson's Interception Management System user manual (marked +confidential) is available on the Web through a Google search: + or at +. + +Advertisement diff --git a/_stories/2007/8353232.md b/_stories/2007/8353232.md index 7d988f6..439d889 100644 --- a/_stories/2007/8353232.md +++ b/_stories/2007/8353232.md @@ -19,7 +19,81 @@ _tags: objectID: '8353232' --- -[Source](https://blogs.msdn.microsoft.com/b/larryosterman/archive/2007/10/16/larry-and-the-ping-of-death.aspx "Permalink to ") +Also known as "Larry mounts a DDOS attack against every single machine +running Windows NT" +Or: No stupid mistake goes unremembered. +  +I was recently in the office of a very senior person at Microsoft +debugging a problem on his machine.  He introduced himself, and +commented "We've never met, but I've heard of you.  Something about a +ping of death?" + +Oh. My. Word.  People still remember the "ping of death"?  Wow.  I +thought I was long past the ping of death (after all, it's been 15 +years), but apparently not.  I'm not surprised when people who were +involved in the PoD incident remember it (it was pretty spectacular), +but to have a very senior person who wasn't even working at the company +at the time remember it is not a good thing :). + +So, for the record, here's the story of Larry and the Ping of Death. + +First I need to describe my development environment at the time +(actually, it's pretty much the same as my dev environment today).  I +had my primary development machine running a version of NT, it was +running a kernel debugger connected to my test machine over a serial +cable.  When my test machine crashed, I would use the kernel debugger on +my dev machine to debug it.  There was nothing debugging my dev machine, +because NT was pretty darned reliable at that point and I didn't need a +kernel debugger 99% of the time.  In addition, the corporate network +wasn't a switched network - as a result, each machine received datagram +traffic from every other machine on the network. + +  + +Back in that day, I was working on the NT 3.1 browser (I've written +about the browser +[here](http://blogs.msdn.com/larryosterman/archive/2005/01/11/350800.aspx) and +[here](http://blogs.msdn.com/larryosterman/archive/2005/01/12/351634.aspx) before).  +As I was working on some diagnostic tools for the browser, I wrote a +[tool](http://support.microsoft.com/kb/188305) to manually generate some +of the packets used by the browser service. + +One day, as I was adding some functionality to the tool, my dev machine +crashed, and my test machine locked up. + +\*CRUD\*.  I can't debug the problem to see what happened because I lost +my kernel debugger.  Ok, I'll reboot my machines, and hopefully whatever +happened will hit again. + +The failure didn't hit, so I went back to working on the tool. + +And once again, my machine crashed. + +At this point, everyone in the offices around me started to get noisy - +there was a great deal of cursing going on.  What I'd not realized was +that every machine had crashed at the same time as my dev machine had +crashed.  And I do mean EVERY machine.  Every single machine in the +corporation running Windows NT had crashed.  Twice (after allowing just +enough time between crashes to allow people to start getting back to +work). + +  + +I quickly realized that my test application was the cause of the crash, +and I isolated my machines from the network and started digging in.  I +quickly root caused the problem - the broadcast that was sent by my test +application was malformed and it exposed a bug in the bowser.sys +driver.  When the bowser received this packet, it crashed. + +I quickly fixed the problem on my machine and added the change to the +checkin queue so that it would be in the next day's build. + +  + +I then walked around the entire building and personally apologized to +every single person on the NT team for causing them to lose hours of +work.  And 15 years later, I'm still apologizing for that one moment of +utter stupidity. diff --git a/_stories/2007/8377680.md b/_stories/2007/8377680.md index e321f47..b5fb439 100644 --- a/_stories/2007/8377680.md +++ b/_stories/2007/8377680.md @@ -19,7 +19,522 @@ _tags: objectID: '8377680' --- -[Source](https://www.scottaaronson.com/democritus/lec9.html "Permalink to ") +[PHYS771](default.html) Lecture 9: Quantum +[Scott Aaronson](http://www.scottaaronson.com) +There are two ways to teach quantum mechanics. The first way -- which +for most physicists today is still the only way -- follows the +historical order in which the ideas were discovered. So, you start with +classical mechanics and electrodynamics, solving lots of grueling +differential equations at every step. Then you learn about the +"blackbody paradox" and various strange experimental results, and the +great crisis these things posed for physics. Next you learn a +complicated patchwork of ideas that physicists invented between 1900 and +1926 to try to make the crisis go away. Then, if you're lucky, after +years of study you finally get around to the central conceptual point: +that nature is described not by probabilities (which are always +nonnegative), but by numbers called amplitudes that can be positive, +negative, or even complex. +Today, in the quantum information age, the fact that all the physicists +had to learn quantum this way seems increasingly humorous. For example, +I've had experts in quantum field theory -- people who've spent years +calculating path integrals of mind-boggling complexity -- ask me to +explain the Bell inequality to them. That's like Andrew Wiles asking me +to explain the Pythagorean Theorem. + +As a direct result of this "QWERTY" approach to explaining quantum +mechanics - which you can see reflected in almost every popular book and +article, down to the present -- the subject acquired an undeserved +reputation for being hard. Educated people memorized the slogans -- +"light is both a wave and a particle," "the cat is neither dead nor +alive until you look," "you can ask about the position or the momentum, +but not both," "one particle instantly learns the spin of the other +through spooky action-at-a-distance," etc. -- and also learned that they +shouldn't even try to understand such things without years of +painstaking work. + +The second way to teach quantum mechanics leaves a blow-by-blow account +of its discovery to the historians, and instead starts directly from the +conceptual core -- namely, a certain generalization of probability +theory to allow minus signs. Once you know what the theory is actually +about, you can then sprinkle in physics to taste, and calculate the +spectrum of whatever atom you want. This second approach is the one I'll +be following here. + +So, what is quantum mechanics? Even though it was discovered by +physicists, it's not a physical theory in the same sense as +electromagnetism or general relativity. In the usual "hierarchy of +sciences" -- with biology at the top, then chemistry, then physics, then +math -- quantum mechanics sits at a level between math and physics that +I don't know a good name for. Basically, quantum mechanics is the +operating system that other physical theories run on as application +software (with the exception of general relativity, which hasn't yet +been successfully ported to this particular OS). There's even a word for +taking a physical theory and porting it to this OS: "to quantize." + +But if quantum mechanics isn't physics in the usual sense -- if it's not +about matter, or energy, or waves, or particles -- then what is it +about? From my perspective, it's about information and probabilities and +observables, and how they relate to each other. + +My contention in this lecture is the following: Quantum mechanics is +what you would inevitably come up with if you started from probability +theory, and then said, let's try to generalize it so that the numbers we +used to call "probabilities" can be negative numbers. As such, the +theory could have been invented by mathematicians in the 19th century +without any input from experiment. It wasn't, but it could have been. + +**A Less Than 0% Chance** + +Alright, so what would it mean to have "probability theory" with +negative numbers? Well, there's a reason you never hear the weather +forecaster talk about a -20% chance of rain tomorrow -- it really does +make as little sense as it sounds. But I'd like you to set any qualms +aside, and just think abstractly about an event with N possible +outcomes. We can express the probabilities of those events by a vector +of N real numbers: + +(p1,....,pN), + +Mathematically, what can we say about this vector? Well, the +probabilities had better be nonnegative, and they'd better sum to 1. We +can express the latter fact by saying that the 1-norm of the probability +vector has to be 1. (The 1-norm just means the sum of the absolute +values of the entries.) + +But the 1-norm is not the only norm in the world -- it's not the only +way we know to define the "size" of a vector. There are other ways, and +one of the recurring favorites since the days of Pythagoras has been the +2-norm or Euclidean norm. Formally, the Euclidean norm means the square +root of the sum of the squares of the entries. Informally, it means +you're late for class, so instead of going this way and then that way, +you cut across the grass. + +Now, what happens if you try to come up with a theory that's like +probability theory, but based on the 2-norm instead of the 1-norm? I'm +going to try to convince you that quantum mechanics is what inevitably +results. + +Let's consider a single bit. In probability theory, we can describe a +bit as having a probability p of being 0, and a probability 1-p of being +1. But if we switch from the 1-norm to the 2-norm, now we no longer want +two numbers that sum to 1, we want two numbers whose squares sum to 1. +(I'm assuming we're still talking about real numbers.) In other words, +we now want a vector (α,β) where  α2 + β2 = 1. Of course, the set of all +such vectors forms a circle: + +![](circle.gif) + +The theory we're inventing will somehow have to connect to observation. +So, suppose we have a bit that's described by this vector (α,β). Then +we'll need to specify what happens if we look at the bit. Well, since it +is a bit, we should see either 0 or 1\! Furthermore, the probability of +seeing 0 and the probability of seeing 1 had better add up to 1. Now, +starting from the vector (α,β), how can we get two numbers that add up +to 1? Simple: we can let α2 be the probability of a 0 outcome, and let +β2 be the probability of a 1 outcome. + +But in that case, why not forget about α and β, and just describe the +bit directly in terms of probabilities? Ahhhhh. The difference comes in +how the vector changes when we apply an operation to it. In probability +theory, if we have a bit that's represented by the vector (p,1-p), then +we can represent any operation on the bit by a stochastic matrix: that +is, a matrix of nonnegative real numbers where every column adds up to +1. So for example, the "bit flip" operation -- which changes the +probability of a 1 outcome from p to 1-p -- can be represented as +follows: + +![](/cgi-bin/mimetex.cgi?%5Cleft\(%20%5Cbegin%7Barray%7D0%20&%201%5C%5C1%20&%200%5Cend%7Barray%7D%20%5Cright\)%5Cleft\(%5Cbegin%7Barray%7D%20p%5C%5C1-p%5Cend%7Barray%7D%5Cright\)=%5Cleft\(%5Cbegin%7Barray%7D1-p%5C%5Cp%5Cend%7Barray%7D%5Cright\)) + +Indeed, it turns out that a stochastic matrix is the most general sort +of matrix that always maps a probability vector to another probability +vector. + +**Exercise 1 for the Non-Lazy Reader:** Prove this. + +But now that we've switched from the 1-norm to the 2-norm, we have to +ask: what's the most general sort of matrix that always maps a unit +vector in the 2-norm to another unit vector in the 2-norm? + +Well, we call such a matrix a unitary matrix -- indeed, that's one way +to define what a unitary matrix is\! (Oh, all right. As long as we're +only talking about real numbers, it's called an orthogonal matrix. But +same difference.) Another way to define a unitary matrix, again in the +case of real numbers, is as a matrix whose inverse equals its transpose. + +**Exercise 2 for the Non-Lazy Reader:** Prove that these two definitions +are equivalent. + +This "2-norm bit" that we've defined has a name, which as you know is +qubit. Physicists like to represent qubits using what they call "Dirac +ket notation," in which the vector (α,β) becomes +![](/cgi-bin/mimetex.cgi?%5Calpha%20%7C0%5Crangle%20+%20%5Cbeta%20%7C1%5Crangle). +Here α is the amplitude of outcome |0〉, and β is the amplitude of +outcome |1〉. + +This notation usually drives computer scientists up a wall when they +first see it -- especially because of the asymmetric brackets\! But if +you stick with it, you see that it's really not so bad. As an example, +instead of writing out a vector like (0,0,3/5,0,0,0,4/5,0,0), you can +simply write +![](/cgi-bin/mimetex.cgi?%5Cfrac%7B3%7D%7B5%7D%20%7C3%5Crangle%20+%20%5Cfrac%7B4%7D%7B5%7D%20%7C7%5Crangle), +omitting all of the 0 entries. + +So given a qubit, we can transform it by applying any 2-by-2 unitary +matrix -- and that leads already to the famous effect of quantum +interference. For example, consider the unitary +matrix + +![](/cgi-bin/mimetex.cgi?%20%5Cleft\(%20%5Cbegin%7Barray%7D%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7B%5Csqrt%7B2%7D%7D%20&%20-%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7B%5Csqrt%7B2%7D%7D%5C%5C%20%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7B%5Csqrt%7B2%7D%7D%20&%20%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7B%5Csqrt%7B2%7D%7D%20%5Cend%7Barray%7D%20%5Cright\)) + +which takes a vector in the plane and rotates it by 45 degrees +counterclockwise. Now consider the state |0〉. If we apply U once to this +state, we'll get +![](/cgi-bin/mimetex.cgi?%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7B%5Csqrt%7B2%7D%7D%20%5C\(%20%7C0%5Crangle%20+%20%7C1%5Crangle%20%5C\)) +-- it's like taking a coin and flipping it. But then, if we apply the +same operation U a second time, we'll get +|1〉: + +![](/cgi-bin/mimetex.cgi?%5Cleft\(%5Cbegin%7Barray%7D%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7B%5Csqrt%7B2%7D%7D%20&%20-%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7B%5Csqrt%7B2%7D%7D%5C%5C%20%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7B%5Csqrt%7B2%7D%7D%20&%20%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7B%5Csqrt%7B2%7D%7D%5Cend%7Barray%7D%5Cright\)%20%20%5Cleft\(%20%5Cbegin%7Barray%7D%20%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7B%5Csqrt%7B2%7D%7D%20%5C%5C%20%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7B%5Csqrt%7B2%7D%7D%20%5Cend%7Barray%7D%5Cright\)=%5Cleft\(%5Cbegin%7Barray%7D0%5C%5C1%5Cend%7Barray%7D%5Cright\)%20) + +So in other words, applying a "randomizing" operation to a "random" +state produces a deterministic outcome\! Intuitively, even though there +are two "paths" that lead to the outcome |0〉, one of those paths has +positive amplitude and the other has negative amplitude. As a result, +the two paths interfere destructively and cancel each other out. By +contrast, the two paths leading to the outcome |1〉 both have positive +amplitude, and therefore interfere constructively. + +![](interfere.gif) + +The reason you never see this sort of interference in the classical +world is that probabilities can't be negative. So, cancellation between +positive and negative amplitudes can be seen as the source of all +"quantum weirdness" -- the one thing that makes quantum mechanics +different from classical probability theory. How I wish someone had told +me that when I first heard the word "quantum"\! + +**Mixed States** + +Once we have these quantum states, one thing we can always do is to take +classical probability theory and "layer it on top." In other words, we +can always ask, what if we don't know which quantum state we have? For +example, what if we have a 1/2 probability of +![](/cgi-bin/mimetex.cgi?%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7B%5Csqrt%7B2%7D%7D%20%5C\(%20%7C0%5Crangle%20+%20%7C1%5Crangle%20%5C\)) +and a 1/2 probability of +![](/cgi-bin/mimetex.cgi?%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7B%5Csqrt%7B2%7D%7D%20%5C\(%20%7C0%5Crangle%20-%20%7C1%5Crangle%20%5C\))? +This gives us what's called a mixed state, which is the most general +kind of state in quantum mechanics. + +Mathematically, we represent a mixed state by an object called a density +matrix. Here's how it works: say you have this vector of N amplitudes, +(α1,...,αN). Then you compute the outer product of the vector with +itself -- that is, an N-by-N matrix whose (i,j) entry is αiαj (again in +the case of real numbers). Then, if you have a probability distribution +over several such vectors, you just take a linear combination of the +resulting matrices. So for example, if you have probability p of some +vector and probability 1-p of a different vector, then it's p times the +one matrix plus 1-p times the other. + +The density matrix encodes all the information that could ever be +obtained from some probability distribution over quantum states, by +first applying a unitary operation and then measuring. + +**Exercise 3 for the Non-Lazy Reader:** Prove this. + +This implies that if two distributions give rise to the same density +matrix, then those distributions are empirically indistinguishable, or +in other words are the same mixed state. As an example, let's say you +have the state +![](/cgi-bin/mimetex.cgi?%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7B%5Csqrt%7B2%7D%7D%20%5C\(%20%7C0%5Crangle%20+%20%7C1%5Crangle%20%5C\)) +with 1/2 probability, and +![](/cgi-bin/mimetex.cgi?%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7B%5Csqrt%7B2%7D%7D%20%5C\(%20%7C0%5Crangle%20-%20%7C1%5Crangle%20%5C\)) +with 1/2 probability. Then the density matrix that describes your +knowledge +is + +![](/cgi-bin/mimetex.cgi?%20%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7B2%7D%20%5Cleft\(%20%5Cbegin%7Barray%7D%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7B2%7D%20&%20%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7B2%7D%5C%5C%20%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7B2%7D%20&%20%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7B2%7D%5Cend%7Barray%7D%20%5Cright\)%20+%20%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7B2%7D%20%5Cleft\(%20%5Cbegin%7Barray%7D%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7B2%7D%20&%20-%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7B2%7D%5C%5C%20-%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7B2%7D%20&%20%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7B2%7D%5Cend%7Barray%7D%20%5Cright\)%20%20=%20%5Cleft\(%20%5Cbegin%7Barray%7D%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7B2%7D%20&%200%5C%5C%200%20&%20%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7B2%7D%5Cend%7Barray%7D%20%5Cright\)%20) + +It follows, then, that no measurement you can ever perform will +distinguish this mixture from a 1/2 probability of |0〉 and a 1/2 +probability of |1〉. + +**The Squaring Rule** + +Now let's talk about the question Gus raised, which is, why do we square +the amplitudes instead of cubing them or raising them to the fourth +power or whatever? + +Alright, I can give you a couple of arguments for why God decided to +square the amplitudes. + +The first argument is a famous result called Gleason's Theorem from the +1950's. Gleason's Theorem lets us assume part of quantum mechanics and +then get out the rest of it\! More concretely, suppose we have some +procedure that takes as input a unit vector of real numbers, and that +spits out the probability of an event. Formally, we have a function f +that maps a unit vector ![](/cgi-bin/mimetex.cgi?v%20%5Cin%20%5CRe%5EN) +to the unit interval \[0,1\]. And let's suppose N=3 -- the theorem +actually works in any number of dimensions three or greater (but +interestingly, not in two dimensions). Then the key requirement we +impose is that, whenever three vectors v1,v2,v3 are all orthogonal to +each other, + +f(v1) + f(v2) + f(v3) = 1. + +Intuitively, if these three vectors represent "orthogonal ways" of +measuring a quantum state, then they should correspond to +mutually-exclusive events. Crucially, we don't need any assumption other +than that -- no continuity, no differentiability, no nuthin'. + +So, that's the setup. The amazing conclusion of the theorem is that, for +any such f, there exists a mixed state such that f arises by measuring +that state according to the standard measurement rule of quantum +mechanics. I won't be able prove this theorem here, since it's pretty +hard. But it's one way that you can "derive" the squaring rule without +exactly having to put it in at the outset. + +**Exercise 4 for the Non-Lazy Reader:** Why does Gleason's Theorem not +work in two dimensions? + +If you like, I can give you a much more elementary argument. This is +something I put it in [one of my +papers](http://www.scottaaronson.com/papers/island.pdf), though I'm sure +many others knew it before. + +Let's say we want to invent a theory that's not based on the 1-norm like +classical probability theory, or on the 2-norm like quantum mechanics, +but instead on the p-norm for some +![](/cgi-bin/mimetex.cgi?p%20%5Cnot%5Cin%20%5C%7B1,2%5C%7D). Call +(v1,...,vN) a unit vector in the p-norm if + +|v1|p+...+|vN|p = 1. + +Then we'll need some "nice" set of linear transformations that map any +unit vector in the p-norm to another unit vector in the p-norm. + +It's clear that for any p we choose, there will be some linear +transformations that preserve the p-norm. Which ones? Well, we can +permute the basis elements, shuffle them around. That'll preserve the +p-norm. And we can stick in minus signs if we want. That'll preserve the +p-norm too. But here's the little observation I made: if there are any +linear transformations other than these trivial ones that preserve the +p-norm, then either p=1 or p=2. If p=1 we get classical probability +theory, while if p=2 we get quantum mechanics. + +**Exercise 5 for the Non-Lazy Reader**: Prove my little observation. + +Alright, to get you started, let me give some intuition about why my +observation might be true. Let's assume, for simplicity, that everything +is real and that p is a positive even integer (though the observation +also works with complex numbers and with any real p≥0). Then for a +linear transformation A=(aij) to preserve the p-norm means +that + +![](/cgi-bin/mimetex.cgi?w_1%5Ep+...+w_N%5Ep=v_1%5Ep+...+v_N%5Ep) + +whenever + +![](/cgi-bin/mimetex.cgi?%5Cleft\(%5Cbegin%7Barray%7Dw_%7B1%7D%5C%5C%20:%5C%5Cw_%7BN%7D%5Cend%7Barray%7D%5Cright\)=%5Cleft\(%5Cbegin%7Barray%7Da_%7B11%7D&...&a_%7B1N%7D%5C%5C:%20&%20%20&%20:%5C%5C%20a_%7BN1%7D%20&%20...%20&%20a_%7BNN%7D%5Cend%7Barray%7D%20%5Cright\)%20%20%5Cleft\(%20%5Cbegin%7Barray%7D%20v_%7B1%7D%5C%5C%20:%5C%5C%20v_%7BN%7D%5Cend%7Barray%7D%5Cright\)) + +Now we can ask: how many constraints are imposed on the matrix A by the +requirement that this be true for every v1,...,vN? If we work it out, in +the case p=2 we'll find that there are +![](/cgi-bin/mimetex.cgi?N+%5Cleft\(%5Cbegin%7Barray%7DN%5C%5C2%5Cend%7Barray%7D%5Cright\)) +constraints. But since we're trying to pick an N-by-N matrix, that still +leaves us N(N-1)/2 degrees of freedom to play with. + +On the other hand, if (say) p=4, then the number of constraints grows +like +![](/cgi-bin/mimetex.cgi?%5Cleft\(%5Cbegin%7Barray%7DN%5C%5C4%5Cend%7Barray%7D%5Cright\)), +which is greater than N2 (the number of variables in the matrix). That +suggests that it will be hard to find a nontrivial linear transformation +that preserves 4-norm. Of course it doesn't prove that no such +transformation exists -- that's left as a puzzle for you. + +Incidentally, this isn't the only case where we find that the 1-norm and +2-norm are "more special" than other p-norms. So for example, have you +ever seen the following equation? + +xn + yn = zn + +There's a cute little fact -- unfortunately I won't have time to prove +it in class -- that the above equation has nontrivial integer solutions +when n=1 or n=2, but not for any larger integers n. Clearly, then, if we +use the 1-norm and the 2-norm more than other vector norms, it's not +some arbitrary whim -- these really are God's favorite norms\! (And we +didn't even need an experiment to tell us that.) + +**Real vs. Complex Numbers** + +Even after we've decided to base our theory on the 2-norm, we still have +at least two choices: we could let our amplitudes be real numbers, or we +could let them be complex numbers. We know the solution God chose: +amplitudes in quantum mechanics are complex numbers. This means that you +can't just square an amplitude to get a probability; first you have to +take the absolute value, and then you square that. In other words, if +the amplitude for some measurement outcome is α = β + γi, where β and γ +are real, then the probability of seeing the outcome is |α|2 = β2 + γ2. + +Why did God go with the complex numbers and not the real numbers? + +Years ago, at Berkeley, I was hanging out with some math grad students +-- I fell in with the wrong crowd -- and I asked them that exact +question. The mathematicians just snickered. "Give us a break -- the +complex numbers are algebraically closed\!" To them it wasn't a mystery +at all. + +But to me it is sort of strange. I mean, complex numbers were seen for +centuries as fictitious entities that human beings made up, in order +that every quadratic equation should have a root. (That's why we talk +about their "imaginary" parts.) So why should Nature, at its most +fundamental level, run on something that we invented for our +convenience? + +Alright, yeah: suppose we require that, for every linear transformation +U that we can apply to a state, there must be another transformation V +such that V2 = U. This is basically a continuity assumption: we're +saying that, if it makes sense to apply an operation for one second, +then it ought to make sense to apply that same operation for only half a +second. + +Can we get that with only real amplitudes? Well, consider the following +linear +transformation: + +![](/cgi-bin/mimetex.cgi?%5Cleft\(%20%5Cbegin%7Barray%7D1%20&%200%5C%5C%200%20&%20-1%5Cend%7Barray%7D%20%5Cright\)%20) + +This transformation is just a mirror reversal of the plane. That is, it +takes a two-dimensional Flatland creature and flips it over like a +pancake, sending its heart to the other side of its two-dimensional +body. But how do you apply half of a mirror reversal without leaving the +plane? You can't\! If you want to flip a pancake by a continuous motion, +then you need to go into ... dum dum dum ... THE THIRD DIMENSION. + +More generally, if you want to flip over an N-dimensional object by a +continuous motion, then you need to go into the (N+1)st dimension. + +**Exercise 6 for the Non-Lazy:** Prove that any norm-preserving linear +transformation in N dimensions can be implemented by a continuous motion +in N+1 dimensions. + +But what if you want every linear transformation to have a square root +in the same number of dimensions? Well, in that case, you have to allow +complex numbers. So that's one reason God might have made the choice She +did. + +Alright, I can give you two other reasons why amplitudes should be +complex numbers. + +The first comes from asking, how many independent real parameters are +there in an N-dimensional mixed state? As it turns out, the answer is +exactly N2 -- provided we assume, for convenience, that the state +doesn't have to be normalized (i.e., that the probabilities can add up +to less than 1). Why? Well, an N-dimensional mixed state is represented +mathematically by a N-by-N +[Hermitian](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermitian_matrix) matrix with +positive eigenvalues. Since we're not normalizing, we've got N +independent real numbers along the main diagonal. Below the main +diagonal, we've got N(N-1)/2 independent complex numbers, which means +N(N-1) real numbers. Since the matrix is Hermitian, the complex numbers +below the main diagonal determine the ones above the main diagonal. So +the total number of independent real parameters is N + N(N-1) = N2. + +Now we bring in an aspect of quantum mechanics that I didn't mention +before. If we know the states of two quantum systems individually, then +how do we write their combined state? Well, we just form what's called +the tensor product. So for example, the tensor product of two qubits, +α|0〉+β|1〉 and γ|0〉+δ|1〉, is given +by + +![](/cgi-bin/mimetex.cgi?%5Cleft\(%5Calpha%7C0%5Crangle+%5Cbeta%20%7C1%5Crangle%5Cright\)%5Cotimes%5Cleft\(%5Cgamma%7C0%5Crangle+%5Cdelta%7C1%5Crangle%5Cright\)%20%20=%5Calpha%5Cgamma%20%7C00%5Crangle%20+%5Calpha%20%5Cdelta%20%7C01%5Crangle%20+%5Cbeta%5Cgamma%20%7C10%5Crangle+%5Cbeta%5Cdelta%20%7C11%5Crangle) + +Again one can ask: did God have to use the tensor product? Could She +have chosen some other way of combining quantum states into bigger ones? +Well, maybe someone else can say something useful about this question -- +I have trouble even wrapping my head around it\! For me, saying we take +the tensor product is almost what we mean when we say we're putting +together two systems that exist independently of each other. + +As you all know, there are two-qubit states that can't be written as the +tensor product of one-qubit states. The most famous of these is the EPR +(Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen) +pair: + +![](/cgi-bin/mimetex.cgi?%5Cfrac%7B%7C00%5Crangle%20+%7C11%5Crangle%20%7D%7B%5Csqrt%7B2%7D%7D) + +Given a mixed state ρ on two subsystems A and B, if ρ can be written as +a probability distribution over tensor product states +![](/cgi-bin/mimetex.cgi?%7C%5Cpsi_A%5Crangle%20%5Cotimes%20%7C%5Cpsi_B%5Crangle), +then we say ρ is separable. Otherwise we say ρ is entangled. + +Now let's come back to the question of how many real parameters are +needed to describe a mixed state. Suppose we have a (possibly-entangled) +composite system AB. Then intuitively, it seems like the number of +parameters needed to describe AB -- which I'll call dAB -- should equal +the product of the number of parameters needed to describe A and the +number of parameters needed to describe B: + +dAB = dA dB. + +If amplitudes are complex numbers, then happily this is true\! Letting +NA and NB be the number of dimensions of A and B respectively, we have + +dAB = (NA NB)2 = NA2 NB2 = dA dB. + +But what if the amplitudes are real numbers? In that case, in an N-by-N +density matrix, we'd only have N(N+1)/2 independent real parameters. And +it's not the case that if N = NA NB +then + +![](/cgi-bin/mimetex.cgi?%5Cfrac%7BN%5Cleft\(N+1%5Cright\)%20%7D%7B2%7D=%5Cfrac%7BN_%7BA%7D%5Cleft\(%20%20N_%7BA%7D+1%5Cright\)%20%20%7D%7B2%7D%5Ccdot%5Cfrac%7BN_%7BB%7D%5Cleft\(%20N_%7BB%7D+1%5Cright\)%20%7D%7B2%7D) + +There's actually another phenomenon with the same "Goldilocks" flavor, +which was observed by Bill Wootters -- and this leads to my third reason +why amplitudes should be complex numbers. Let's say we choose a quantum +state + +![](/cgi-bin/mimetex.cgi?%5Csum_%7Bi=1%7D%5E%7BN%7D%5Calpha_%7Bi%7D%20%7Ci%5Crangle) + +uniformly at random (if you're a mathematician, under the Haar measure). +And then we measure it, obtaining outcome |i〉 with probability |αi|2. +The question is, will the resulting probability vector also be +distributed uniformly at random in the probability simplex? It turns out +that if the amplitudes are complex numbers, then the answer is yes. But +if the amplitudes are real numbers or quaternions, then the answer is +no\! (I used to think this fact was just a curiosity, but now I'm +actually using it in a paper I'm working on...) + +**Linearity** + +We've talked about why the amplitudes should be complex numbers, and why +the rule for converting amplitudes to probabilities should be a squaring +rule. But all this time, the elephant of linearity has been sitting +there undisturbed. Why would God have decided, in the first place, that +quantum states should evolve to other quantum states by means of linear +transformations? + +**Exercise 7 for the Non-Lazy Reader:** Prove that if quantum mechanics +were nonlinear, then not only could you solve **NP**-complete problems +in polynomial time, you could also use EPR pairs to transmit information +faster than the speed of light. + +**Further Reading** + +See [this](http://www.arxiv.org/abs/quant-ph/0101012) paper by Lucien +Hardy for a "derivation" of quantum mechanics that's closely related to +the arguments I gave, but much, much more serious and careful. Also see +pretty much anything [Chris +Fuchs](http://netlib.bell-labs.com/who/cafuchs/) has written (and +especially [this](http://www.arxiv.org/abs/quant-ph/0104088) paper by +Caves, Fuchs, and Schack, which discusses why amplitudes should be +complex numbers rather than reals or quaternions). + +[\[Discussion of this lecture on +blog\]](http://scottaaronson.com/blog/?p=188) + +[\[← Previous lecture](lec8.html) | [Next lecture →\]](lec10.html) + +[\[Return to PHYS771 home page\]](default.html) diff --git a/_stories/2007/8400512.md b/_stories/2007/8400512.md index dccbe5e..035aebd 100644 --- a/_stories/2007/8400512.md +++ b/_stories/2007/8400512.md @@ -19,147 +19,130 @@ _tags: objectID: '8400512' --- -[Source](http://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/30/science/30manh.html?pagewanted=all "Permalink to Why They Called It the Manhattan Project - The New York Times") +“The story is so rich,” Dr. Norris enthused. “There’s layer upon layer +of good stuff, interesting characters.” -# Why They Called It the Manhattan Project - The New York Times +Still, more than six decades after the project’s start, the Manhattan +side of the atom bomb story seems to be a well-preserved secret. -__NYTimes.com no longer supports Internet Explorer 9 or earlier. Please upgrade your browser. [LEARN MORE »][1] +Dr. Norris recently visited Manhattan at the request of The New York +Times for a daylong tour of the Manhattan Project’s roots. Only one site +he visited displayed a public sign noting its role in the epochal +events. And most people who encountered his entourage, which included a +photographer and videographer, knew little or nothing of the atomic +labors in Manhattan. -__Sections __ Home __Search [Skip to content][2] [Skip to navigation][3] [View mobile version][4] +“That’s amazing,” Alexandra Ghitelman said after learning that the +buildings she had just passed on inline skates once held tons of uranium +destined for atomic weapons. “That’s unbelievable.” -## [ The New York Times ][5] +While shock tended to be the main reaction, some people hinted at +feelings of pride. More than one person said they knew someone who had +worked on the secret project, which formally got under way in August +1942 and three years later culminated in the atomic bombing of Japan. In +all, it employed more than 130,000 people. -###### [Science][6]|Why They Called It the Manhattan Project +Dr. Norris is also the author of “Racing for the Bomb” (Steerforth, +2002), a biography of Gen. Leslie R. Groves, the project’s military +leader. As his protagonist had done during the war, Dr. Norris works in +Washington. At the Natural Resources Defense Council, he studies and +writes about the nation’s atomic facilities. -__Search - -Subscribe Now Log In __0 __Settings - -__Close search - -## Site Search Navigation - -Search NYTimes.com - -__Clear this text input - -Go - -1. Loading... - -See next articles - -See previous articles - -## Site Navigation - -## Site Mobile Navigation +Dr. Norris began his day of exploration by taking the train to New York +from Washington, coming into Pennsylvania Station just as General Groves +had done dozens of times during the war to visit project sites. Advertisement -Supported by +[Continue reading the main story](#story-continues-4) -### [Science][6] +“Groves didn’t want the job,” Dr. Norris remarked outside the station. +“But his foot hit the accelerator and he didn’t let up for 1,000 +days.” -# Why They Called It the Manhattan Project +For tour assistance, Dr. Norris brought along his own books as well as +printouts from “The Traveler’s Guide to Nuclear Weapons,” a CD by James +M. Maroncelli and Timothy L. Karpin that features little-known history +of the nation’s atom endeavors. -By [WILLIAM J. BROAD][7]OCT. 30, 2007 +We headed north to the childhood home of J. Robert Oppenheimer, the +eccentric genius whom General Groves hired to run the project’s +scientific side as well as its sprawling New Mexico laboratory. Last +year, a biography of Oppenheimer, “American Prometheus” (Knopf, 2005), +won the Pulitzer Prize. -[Continue reading the main story][8] Share This Page +“One of the most famous scientists of the 20th century,” Dr. Norris +noted, got his start “walking these streets” and attending the nearby +Ethical Culture School. -[Continue reading the main story][8] +Oppenheimer and his parents lived at 155 Riverside Drive, an elegant +apartment building at West 88th Street. The superintendent, Joe +Gugulski, said the family lived on the 11th floor, overlooking the +Hudson River. + +“One of my tenants read the book,” Mr. Gugulski told us. “So I looked it +up.” To his knowledge, Mr. Gugulski added, no other atomic tourists had +visited the building. + +The Oppenheimers decorated their apartment with original artwork by +Picasso, Rembrandt, Renoir, Van Gogh and Cézanne, according to “American +Prometheus.” His mother encouraged young Robert to paint. + +By the late 1930s and early 1940s, blocks away at Columbia University, +scientists were laboring to split the atom and release its titanic +energies. We made our way across campus — with difficulty because of +protests over the visit of President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad of Iran, which +is widely suspected of harboring its own bomb program. + +Advertisement + +[Continue reading the main story](#story-continues-5) + +Dr. Norris noted that the Manhattan Project led to “many of our problems +today.” + +The Pupin Physics Laboratories housed the early atom experiments, Dr. +Norris said. But the tall building, topped by observatory domes, has no +plaque in its foyer describing its nuclear ties. + +Passing students and pedestrians answered “no” and “kind of” when asked +if they knew of the atom breakthroughs at Pupin Hall. Dr. Norris said +the Manhattan Project, at its peak, employed 700 people at Columbia. At +one point, the football team was recruited to move tons of uranium. That +work, he said, eventually led to the world’s first nuclear reactor. + +After lunch, we headed to West 20th Street just off the West Side +Highway. The block, on the fringe of Chelsea, bristled with new +galleries, and Kingdom Hall of Jehovah’s Witnesses. On its north side, +three tall buildings once made up the Baker and Williams Warehouses, +which held tons of uranium. + +Two women taking a cigarette break said they had no idea of their +building’s atomic past. “It’s horrible,” said one. Photo -![][9] +Dr. Norris’s “Traveler’s Guide” fact sheet said the federal government +in the late 1980s and early 1990s cleaned the buildings of residual +uranium. Workers removed more than a dozen drums of radioactive waste, +according to the Department of Energy in Washington. “Radiological +surveys show that the site now meets applicable requirements for +unrestricted use,” a federal document said in 1995. -The Nevis cyclotron, which was constructed at Columbia University's Nevis Laboratories in Irvington, N.Y. Credit Fritz Goro/Time Life Pictures, via Getty Images +We moved to Manhattan’s southern tip and worked our way up Broadway +along the route known as the Canyon of Heroes, the scene of many +ticker-tape parades amid the skyscrapers. -By nature, code names and cover stories are meant to give no indication of the secrets concealed. "Magic" was the name for intelligence gleaned from Japanese ciphers in World War II, and "Overlord" stood for the Allied plan to invade Europe. - -Many people assume that the same holds true for the Manhattan Project, in which thousands of experts gathered in the mountains of New Mexico to make the world's first atom bomb. - -Robert S. Norris, a historian of the atomic age, wants to shatter that myth. - -In "The Manhattan Project" (Black Dog & Leventhal), published last month, Dr. Norris writes about the Manhattan Project's Manhattan locations. He says the borough had at least 10 sites, all but one still standing. They include warehouses that held uranium, laboratories that split the atom, and the project's first headquarters — a skyscraper hidden in plain sight right across from City Hall. - -"It was supersecret," Dr. Norris said in an interview. "At least 5,000 people were coming and going to work, knowing only enough to get the job done." - -Advertisement - -[Continue reading the main story][8] - -Manhattan was central, according to Dr. Norris, because it had everything: lots of military units, piers for the import of precious ores, top physicists who had fled Europe and ranks of workers eager to aid the war effort. It even had spies who managed to steal some of the project's top secrets. - -[Continue reading the main story][10] - -Advertisement - -[Continue reading the main story][11] - -"The story is so rich," Dr. Norris enthused. "There's layer upon layer of good stuff, interesting characters." - -Still, more than six decades after the project's start, the Manhattan side of the atom bomb story seems to be a well-preserved secret. - -Dr. Norris recently visited Manhattan at the request of The New York Times for a daylong tour of the Manhattan Project's roots. Only one site he visited displayed a public sign noting its role in the epochal events. And most people who encountered his entourage, which included a photographer and videographer, knew little or nothing of the atomic labors in Manhattan. - -"That's amazing," Alexandra Ghitelman said after learning that the buildings she had just passed on inline skates once held tons of uranium destined for atomic weapons. "That's unbelievable." - -While shock tended to be the main reaction, some people hinted at feelings of pride. More than one person said they knew someone who had worked on the secret project, which formally got under way in August 1942 and three years later culminated in the atomic bombing of Japan. In all, it employed more than 130,000 people. - -Dr. Norris is also the author of "Racing for the Bomb" (Steerforth, 2002), a biography of Gen. Leslie R. Groves, the project's military leader. As his protagonist had done during the war, Dr. Norris works in Washington. At the Natural Resources Defense Council, he studies and writes about the nation's atomic facilities. - -Dr. Norris began his day of exploration by taking the train to New York from Washington, coming into Pennsylvania Station just as General Groves had done dozens of times during the war to visit project sites. - -Advertisement - -[Continue reading the main story][12] - -"Groves didn't want the job," Dr. Norris remarked outside the station. "But his foot hit the accelerator and he didn't let up for 1,000 days." - -For tour assistance, Dr. Norris brought along his own books as well as printouts from "The Traveler's Guide to Nuclear Weapons," a CD by James M. Maroncelli and Timothy L. Karpin that features little-known history of the nation's atom endeavors. - -We headed north to the childhood home of J. Robert Oppenheimer, the eccentric genius whom General Groves hired to run the project's scientific side as well as its sprawling New Mexico laboratory. Last year, a biography of Oppenheimer, "American Prometheus" (Knopf, 2005), won the Pulitzer Prize. - -"One of the most famous scientists of the 20th century," Dr. Norris noted, got his start "walking these streets" and attending the nearby Ethical Culture School. - -Oppenheimer and his parents lived at 155 Riverside Drive, an elegant apartment building at West 88th Street. The superintendent, Joe Gugulski, said the family lived on the 11th floor, overlooking the Hudson River. - -"One of my tenants read the book," Mr. Gugulski told us. "So I looked it up." To his knowledge, Mr. Gugulski added, no other atomic tourists had visited the building. - -The Oppenheimers decorated their apartment with original artwork by Picasso, Rembrandt, Renoir, Van Gogh and Cézanne, according to "American Prometheus." His mother encouraged young Robert to paint. - -By the late 1930s and early 1940s, blocks away at Columbia University, scientists were laboring to split the atom and release its titanic energies. We made our way across campus — with difficulty because of protests over the visit of President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad of Iran, which is widely suspected of harboring its own bomb program. - -Advertisement - -[Continue reading the main story][13] - -Dr. Norris noted that the Manhattan Project led to "many of our problems today." - -The Pupin Physics Laboratories housed the early atom experiments, Dr. Norris said. But the tall building, topped by observatory domes, has no plaque in its foyer describing its nuclear ties. - -Passing students and pedestrians answered "no" and "kind of" when asked if they knew of the atom breakthroughs at Pupin Hall. Dr. Norris said the Manhattan Project, at its peak, employed 700 people at Columbia. At one point, the football team was recruited to move tons of uranium. That work, he said, eventually led to the world's first nuclear reactor. - -After lunch, we headed to West 20th Street just off the West Side Highway. The block, on the fringe of Chelsea, bristled with new galleries, and Kingdom Hall of Jehovah's Witnesses. On its north side, three tall buildings once made up the Baker and Williams Warehouses, which held tons of uranium. - -Two women taking a cigarette break said they had no idea of their building's atomic past. "It's horrible," said one. - -Photo - -![][14] - -Officials in 1945 at the test site in New Mexico. - -Dr. Norris's "Traveler's Guide" fact sheet said the federal government in the late 1980s and early 1990s cleaned the buildings of residual uranium. Workers removed more than a dozen drums of radioactive waste, according to the Department of Energy in Washington. "Radiological surveys show that the site now meets applicable requirements for unrestricted use," a federal document said in 1995. - -We moved to Manhattan's southern tip and worked our way up Broadway along the route known as the Canyon of Heroes, the scene of many ticker-tape parades amid the skyscrapers. - -At 25 Broadway, we visited a minor but important site — the Cunard Building. Edgar Sengier, a Belgian with an office here, had his company mine about 1,200 tons of high-grade uranium ore and store it on Staten Island in the shadow of the Bayonne Bridge. Though a civilian, he knew of the atomic possibilities and feared the invading Germans might confiscate his mines. +At 25 Broadway, we visited a minor but important site — the Cunard +Building. Edgar Sengier, a Belgian with an office here, had his company +mine about 1,200 tons of high-grade uranium ore and store it on Staten +Island in the shadow of the Bayonne Bridge. Though a civilian, he knew +of the atomic possibilities and feared the invading Germans might +confiscate his mines. ## Newsletter Sign Up -[Continue reading the main story][15] +[Continue reading the main story](#continues-post-newsletter) ### @@ -169,357 +152,130 @@ Invalid email address. Please re-enter. You must select a newsletter to subscribe to. -Sign Up - -You agree to receive occasional updates and special offers for The New York Times's products and services. +You agree to receive occasional updates and special offers for The New +York Times's products and services. ### Thank you for subscribing. ### An error has occurred. Please try again later. -### You are already subscribed to this email. +[View all New York Times newsletters.](/newsletters) -[View all New York Times newsletters.][16] +Dr. Norris said General Groves, on his first day in charge, sent an +assistant to buy all that uranium for a dollar a pound — or $2.5 +million. “The Manhattan Project was off to a flying start,” he said, +adding that the Belgian entrepreneur in time supplied two-thirds of all +the project’s uranium. -* [See Sample][17] -* [Manage Email Preferences][18] -* [Not you?][19] -* [Privacy Policy][20] -* Opt out or [contact us][21] anytime - -Dr. Norris said General Groves, on his first day in charge, sent an assistant to buy all that uranium for a dollar a pound — or $2.5 million. "The Manhattan Project was off to a flying start," he said, adding that the Belgian entrepreneur in time supplied two-thirds of all the project's uranium. - -We walked past St. Paul's Chapel and proceeded to the soaring grandeur of the Woolworth Building, once the world's tallest, at 233 Broadway. +We walked past St. Paul’s Chapel and proceeded to the soaring grandeur +of the Woolworth Building, once the world’s tallest, at 233 Broadway. Advertisement -[Continue reading the main story][22] +[Continue reading the main story](#story-continues-6) -A major site, it housed a front company that devised one of the project's main ways of concentrating uranium's rare isotope — a secret of bomb making. On the 11th, 12th and 14th floors, the company drew on the nation's scientific best and brightest, including teams from Columbia. +A major site, it housed a front company that devised one of the +project’s main ways of concentrating uranium’s rare isotope — a secret +of bomb making. On the 11th, 12th and 14th floors, the company drew on +the nation’s scientific best and brightest, including teams from +Columbia. -Dr. Norris said the front company's 3,700 employees included Klaus Fuchs, a Soviet spy. "He was a substantial physicist in his own right," Dr. Norris said. "He contributed to the American atom bomb, the Soviet atom bomb and the British atom bomb." +Dr. Norris said the front company’s 3,700 employees included Klaus +Fuchs, a Soviet spy. “He was a substantial physicist in his own right,” +Dr. Norris said. “He contributed to the American atom bomb, the Soviet +atom bomb and the British atom bomb.” -So how did the Manhattan Project get its name, and why was Manhattan chosen as its first headquarters? +So how did the Manhattan Project get its name, and why was Manhattan +chosen as its first headquarters? -Dr. Norris said the answer lay at our next stop, 270 Broadway. There, at Chambers Street, on the southwest corner, we found a nondescript building overlooking City Hall Park. +Dr. Norris said the answer lay at our next stop, 270 Broadway. There, at +Chambers Street, on the southwest corner, we found a nondescript +building overlooking City Hall Park. -It was here, Dr. Norris said, that the Army Corps of Engineers had its North Atlantic Division, which built ports and airfields. When the Corps got the responsibility of making the atom bomb, it put the headquarters in the same building, on the 18th floor. +It was here, Dr. Norris said, that the Army Corps of Engineers had its +North Atlantic Division, which built ports and airfields. When the Corps +got the responsibility of making the atom bomb, it put the headquarters +in the same building, on the 18th floor. -"That way he didn't need to reinvent the wheel," Dr. Norris said of General Groves. "He used what he had at his fingertips — the entire Corps of Engineers infrastructure." +“That way he didn’t need to reinvent the wheel,” Dr. Norris said of +General Groves. “He used what he had at his fingertips — the entire +Corps of Engineers infrastructure.” -Dr. Norris added that the Corps at that time included "extraordinary people, the best and brightest of West Point." +Dr. Norris added that the Corps at that time included “extraordinary +people, the best and brightest of West Point.” -In time, the office at 270 Broadway ran not only atom research and materials acquisition but also the building of whole nuclear cities in Tennessee, New Mexico and Washington State. +In time, the office at 270 Broadway ran not only atom research and +materials acquisition but also the building of whole nuclear cities in +Tennessee, New Mexico and Washington State. Advertisement -[Continue reading the main story][23] +[Continue reading the main story](#story-continues-7) -The first proposed name for the project, Dr. Norris said, was the Laboratory for the Development of Substitute Materials. But General Groves feared that would draw undo attention. +The first proposed name for the project, Dr. Norris said, was the +Laboratory for the Development of Substitute Materials. But General +Groves feared that would draw undo attention. -Instead, General Groves called for the bureaucratically dull approach of adopting the standard Corps procedure for naming new regional organizations. That method simply noted the unit's geographical area, as in the Pittsburgh Engineer District. +Instead, General Groves called for the bureaucratically dull approach of +adopting the standard Corps procedure for naming new regional +organizations. That method simply noted the unit’s geographical area, as +in the Pittsburgh Engineer District. -So the top-secret endeavor to build the atom bomb got the most boring of cover names: the Manhattan Engineer District, in time shortened to the Manhattan Project. Unlike other Corps districts, however, it had no territorial limits. "He was nuts about not attracting attention," Dr. Norris said. +So the top-secret endeavor to build the atom bomb got the most boring of +cover names: the Manhattan Engineer District, in time shortened to the +Manhattan Project. Unlike other Corps districts, however, it had no +territorial limits. “He was nuts about not attracting attention,” Dr. +Norris said. -Manhattan's role shrank as secretive outposts for the endeavor sprouted across the country and quickly grew into major enterprises. By the late summer of 1943, little more than a year after its establishment, the headquarters of the Manhattan Project moved to Oak Ridge, Tenn. +Manhattan’s role shrank as secretive outposts for the endeavor sprouted +across the country and quickly grew into major enterprises. By the late +summer of 1943, little more than a year after its establishment, the +headquarters of the Manhattan Project moved to Oak Ridge, Tenn. -Despite this dispersal, Dr. Norris said, scientists and businesses in Manhattan, including The New York Times, continued to aid the atomic project. +Despite this dispersal, Dr. Norris said, scientists and businesses in +Manhattan, including The New York Times, continued to aid the atomic +project. -In April 1945, General Groves traveled to the newspaper's offices on West 43rd Street. He asked that a science writer, William L. Laurence, be allowed to go on leave to report on a major wartime story involving science. +In April 1945, General Groves traveled to the newspaper’s offices on +West 43rd Street. He asked that a science writer, William L. Laurence, +be allowed to go on leave to report on a major wartime story involving +science. -As early as 1940, before wartime secrecy, Mr. Laurence had reported on the atomic breakthroughs at Pupin Hall. +As early as 1940, before wartime secrecy, Mr. Laurence had reported on +the atomic breakthroughs at Pupin Hall. -Now, Dr. Norris said, Mr. Laurence went to work for the Manhattan Project and became the only reporter to witness the Trinity test in the New Mexican desert in July 1945, and, shortly thereafter, the nuclear bombing of Japan. +Now, Dr. Norris said, Mr. Laurence went to work for the Manhattan +Project and became the only reporter to witness the Trinity test in the +New Mexican desert in July 1945, and, shortly thereafter, the nuclear +bombing of Japan. Advertisement -[Continue reading the main story][24] +[Continue reading the main story](#story-continues-8) -The atomic age, Mr. Laurence wrote in the first article of a series, began in the New Mexico desert before dawn in a burst of flame that illuminated "earth and sky for a brief span that seemed eternal." +The atomic age, Mr. Laurence wrote in the first article of a series, +began in the New Mexico desert before dawn in a burst of flame that +illuminated “earth and sky for a brief span that seemed eternal.” -In Manhattan, the one location that has memorialized its atomic connection had nothing to do with making or witnessing the bomb, but rather with managing to survive its fury. +In Manhattan, the one location that has memorialized its atomic +connection had nothing to do with making or witnessing the bomb, but +rather with managing to survive its fury. -The spot is on Riverside Drive between 105th and 106th Streets. There, in a residential neighborhood, in front of the New York Buddhist Church, is a tall statue of a Japanese Buddhist monk, Shinran Shonin, who lived in the 12th and 13th centuries. In peasant hat and sandals, holding a wooden staff, the saint peers down on the sidewalk. +The spot is on Riverside Drive between 105th and 106th Streets. There, +in a residential neighborhood, in front of the New York Buddhist Church, +is a tall statue of a Japanese Buddhist monk, Shinran Shonin, who lived +in the 12th and 13th centuries. In peasant hat and sandals, holding a +wooden staff, the saint peers down on the sidewalk. -The statue survived the atomic bombing of Hiroshima, standing a little more than a mile from ground zero. It was brought to New York in 1955. The plaque calls the statue "a testimonial to the atomic bomb devastation and a symbol of lasting hope for world peace." +The statue survived the atomic bombing of Hiroshima, standing a little +more than a mile from ground zero. It was brought to New York in 1955. +The plaque calls the statue “a testimonial to the atomic bomb +devastation and a symbol of lasting hope for world peace.” -The statue stands a few blocks from Columbia University, where much of the bomb program began. +The statue stands a few blocks from Columbia University, where much of +the bomb program began. -"I wonder how many New Yorkers know about it," Dr. Norris said of the statue, "and know the history." - -A version of this article appears in print on , on Page F1 of the New York edition with the headline: Why They Called It the Manhattan Project. 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main story](#whats-next) diff --git a/_stories/2007/8629895.md b/_stories/2007/8629895.md index 8f047c3..b377255 100644 --- a/_stories/2007/8629895.md +++ b/_stories/2007/8629895.md @@ -19,7 +19,337 @@ _tags: objectID: '8629895' --- -[Source](https://alumni.stanford.edu/get/page/magazine/article/?article_id=32124 "Permalink to ") +According to a Stanford psychologist, you’ll reach new heights if you +learn to embrace the occasional tumble. +By Marina Krakovsky +One day last November, psychology professor Carol Dweck welcomed a pair +of visitors from the Blackburn Rovers, a soccer team in the United +Kingdom’s Premier League. The Rovers’ training academy is ranked in +England’s top three, yet performance director Tony Faulkner had long +suspected that many promising players weren’t reaching their potential. +Ignoring the team’s century-old motto—arte et labore, or “skill and hard +work”—the most talented individuals disdained serious training. +On some level, Faulkner knew the source of the trouble: British soccer +culture held that star players are born, not made. If you buy into that +view, and are told you’ve got immense talent, what’s the point of +practice? If anything, training hard would tell you and others that +you’re merely good, not great. Faulkner had identified the problem; +but to fix it, he needed Dweck’s help. + +A 60-year-old academic psychologist might seem an unlikely sports +motivation guru. But Dweck’s expertise—and her recent book, Mindset: The +New Psychology of Success—bear directly on the sort of problem facing +the Rovers. Through more than three decades of systematic research, she +has been figuring out answers to why some people achieve their potential +while equally talented others don’t—why some become Muhammad Ali and +others Mike Tyson. The key, she found, isn’t ability; it’s whether you +look at ability as something inherent that needs to be demonstrated or +as something that can be developed. + +What’s more, Dweck has shown that people can learn to adopt the latter +belief and make dramatic strides in performance. These days, she’s +sought out wherever motivation and achievement matter, from education +and parenting to business management and personal development. + +As a graduate student at Yale, Dweck started off studying animal +motivation. In the late 1960s, a hot topic in animal research was +“learned helplessness”: lab animals sometimes didn’t do what they were +capable of because they’d given up from repeat failures. Dweck wondered +how humans coped with that. “I asked, ‘What makes a really capable child +give up in the face of failure, where other children may be motivated by +the failure?’” she recalls. + +At the time, the suggested cure for learned helplessness was a long +string of successes. Dweck posited that the difference between the +helpless response and its opposite—the determination to master new +things and surmount challenges—lay in people’s beliefs about why they +had failed. People who attributed their failures to lack of ability, +Dweck thought, would become discouraged even in areas where they were +capable. Those who thought they simply hadn’t tried hard enough, on the +other hand, would be fueled by setbacks. This became the topic of her +PhD dissertation. + +Dweck and her assistants ran an experiment on elementary school children +whom school personnel had identified as helpless. These kids fit the +definition perfectly: if they came across a few math problems they +couldn’t solve, for example, they no longer could do problems they had +solved before—and some didn’t recover that ability for days. + +Through a series of exercises, the experimenters trained half the +students to chalk up their errors to insufficient effort, and encouraged +them to keep going. Those children learned to persist in the face of +failure—and to succeed. The control group showed no improvement at all, +continuing to fall apart quickly and to recover slowly. These findings, +says Dweck, “really supported the idea that the attributions were a key +ingredient driving the helpless and mastery-oriented patterns.” Her 1975 +article on the topic has become one of the most widely cited in +contemporary psychology. + +Attribution theory, concerned with people’s judgments about the causes +of events and behavior, already was an active area of psychological +research. But the focus at the time was on how we make attributions, +explains Stanford psychology professor Lee Ross, who coined the term +“fundamental attribution error” for our tendency to explain other +people’s actions by their character traits, overlooking the power of +circumstances. Dweck, he says, helped “shift the emphasis from +attributional errors and biases to the consequences of attributions—why +it matters what attributions people make.” Dweck had put attribution +theory to practical use. + +She continued to do so as an assistant professor at the University of +Illinois, collaborating with then-graduate student Carol Diener to have +children “think out loud” as they faced problem-solving tasks, some too +difficult for them. The big surprise: some of the children who put forth +lots of effort didn’t make attributions at all. These children didn’t +think they were failing. Diener puts it this way: “Failure is +information—we label it failure, but it’s more like, ‘This didn’t work, +I’m a problem solver, and I’ll try something else.’” During one +unforgettable moment, one boy—something of a poster child for the +mastery-oriented type—faced his first stumper by pulling up his chair, +rubbing his hands together, smacking his lips and announcing, “I love a +challenge.” + +Such zest for challenge helped explain why other capable students +thought they lacked ability just because they’d hit a setback. Common +sense suggests that ability inspires self-confidence. And it does for a +while—so long as the going is easy. But setbacks change everything. +Dweck realized—and, with colleague Elaine Elliott soon demonstrated—that +the difference lay in the kids’ goals. “The mastery-oriented children +are really hell-bent on learning something,” Dweck says, and “learning +goals” inspire a different chain of thoughts and behaviors than +“performance goals.” + +Students for whom performance is paramount want to look smart even if it +means not learning a thing in the process. For them, each task is a +challenge to their self-image, and each setback becomes a personal +threat. So they pursue only activities at which they’re sure to +shine—and avoid the sorts of experiences necessary to grow and +flourish in any endeavor. Students with learning goals, on the other +hand, take necessary risks and don’t worry about failure because each +mistake becomes a chance to learn. Dweck’s insight launched a new field +of educational psychology—achievement goal theory. + +Dweck’s next question: what makes students focus on different goals in +the first place? During a sabbatical at Harvard, she was discussing this +with doctoral student Mary Bandura (daughter of legendary Stanford +psychologist Albert Bandura), and the answer hit them: if some students +want to show off their ability, while others want to increase their +ability, “ability” means different things to the two groups. “If you +want to demonstrate something over and over, it feels like something +static that lives inside of you—whereas if you want to increase your +ability, it feels dynamic and malleable,” Dweck explains. People with +performance goals, she reasoned, think intelligence is fixed from birth. +People with learning goals have a growth mind-set about intelligence, +believing it can be developed. (Among themselves, psychologists call the +growth mind-set an “incremental theory,” and use the term “entity +theory” for the fixed mind-set.) The model was nearly complete +(see[diagram](/content/magazine/artfiles/dweck_2007_2.pdf "dweck pdf")). + +Growing up in Brooklyn in the ’50s, Dweck did well in elementary school, +earning a spot in a sixth-grade class of other high achievers. Not just +any spot, it turned out. Their teacher, Mrs. Wilson, seated the students +in IQ order and even used IQ scores to dole out classroom +responsibilities. Whether Mrs. Wilson meant to or not, she was conveying +her belief in fixed intelligence. Dweck, who was in row 1, seat 1, +believes Mrs. Wilson’s intentions were good. The experience didn’t scar +her—Dweck says she already had some of the growth mind-set—but she has +shown that many students pegged as bright, especially girls, don’t fare +as well. + +Tests, Dweck notes, are notoriously poor at measuring potential. Take a +group of adults and ask them to draw a self-portrait. Most Americans +think of drawing as a gift they don’t have, and their portraits look no +better than a child’s scribbles. But put them in a well-designed +class—as Betty Edwards, the author of Drawing on the Right Side of the +Brain, has—and the resulting portraits look so skilled it’s hard to +believe they’re the work of the same “talentless” individuals. The +belief that you can’t improve stunts achievement. + +Culture can play a large role in shaping our beliefs, Dweck says. A +college physics teacher recently wrote to Dweck that in India, where she +was educated, there was no notion that you had to be a genius or even +particularly smart to learn physics. “The assumption was that everyone +could do it, and, for the most part, they did.” But what if you’re +raised with a fixed mind-set about physics—or foreign languages or +music? Not to worry: Dweck has shown that you can change the mind-set +itself. + +The most dramatic proof comes from a recent study by Dweck and Lisa +Sorich Blackwell of low-achieving seventh graders. All students +participated in sessions on study skills, the brain and the like; in +addition, one group attended a neutral session on memory while the other +learned that intelligence, like a muscle, grows stronger through +exercise. Training students to adopt a growth mind-set about +intelligence had a catalytic effect on motivation and math grades; +students in the control group showed no improvement despite all the +other interventions. + +“Study skills and learning skills are inert until they’re powered by an +active ingredient,” Dweck explains. Students may know how to study, but +won’t want to if they believe their efforts are futile. “If you target +that belief, you can see more benefit than you have any reason to hope +for.” + +The classroom workshop isn’t feasible on a large scale; for one thing, +it’s too costly. So Dweck and Blackwell have designed a computer-based +training module to simulate the live intervention. Their hip multimedia +software, called Brainology, is still in development, but thanks to +early buzz from a Time magazine article and Dweck’s recent book, +teachers have begun clamoring for it, one even asking to become a +distributor. + +Unlike much that passes for wisdom about education and performance, +Dweck’s conclusions are grounded in solid research. She’s no rah-rah +motivational coach proclaiming the sky’s the limit and attitude is +everything; that’s too facile. But the evidence shows that if we hold a +fixed mind-set, we’re bound not to reach as high as we might. + +Although much of Dweck’s research on mind-sets has taken place in school +settings, it’s applicable to sports, business, interpersonal +relationships and so on. “Lots and lots of people are interested in her +work; it touches on so many different areas of psychology and areas +outside of psychology,” says Stanford psychology professor Mark Lepper, +’66, who as department chair in 2004 lured Dweck away from Columbia, +where she’d been for 15 years. “The social psychologists like to say +she’s a social psychologist; the personality psychologists say she’s a +personality psychologist; and the developmental psychologists say she’s +a developmental psychologist,” Lepper adds. + +By all rights, her appeal should transcend academia, says New Yorker +writer Malcolm Gladwell, who is well known for making psychological +research accessible to the general public. “One of the most popular +pieces I ever did relied very heavily on work done by Carol Dweck,” he +said in a December interview in the Journal of Management Inquiry. +“Carol Dweck deserves a big audience. It is criminal if she does not +get that audience.” Perhaps Mindset will help; it was written for lay +readers. + +It certainly cemented Tony Faulkner’s belief that Dweck could help the +Blackburn Rovers soccer team. Unlike the disadvantaged kids in Dweck’s +middle-school study, the Rovers didn’t think they lacked what it took to +succeed. Quite the opposite: they thought their talent should take them +all the way. Yet both groups’ fixed mind-set about ability explains +their aversion to effort. + +But aren’t there plenty of people who believe in innate ability and in +the notion that nothing comes without effort? Logically, the two ideas +are compatible. But psychologically, explains Dweck, many people who +believe in fixed intelligence also think you shouldn’t need hard work to +do well. This belief isn’t entirely irrational, she says. A student who +finishes a problem set in 10 minutes is indeed better at math than +someone who takes four hours to solve the problems. And a soccer player +who scores effortlessly probably is more talented than someone who’s +always practicing. “The fallacy comes when people generalize it to the +belief that effort on any task, even very hard ones, implies low +ability,” Dweck says. + +Her advice for the Rovers rings true for anyone stuck in a fixed +mind-set. “Changing mind-sets is not like surgery,” she says. “You can’t +simply remove the fixed mind-set and replace it with the growth +mind-set.” The Rovers are starting their workshops with recent +recruits—their youngest, most malleable players. (Faulkner realizes +that players who’ve already earned millions from being “naturals” have +little incentive to reshape their brains.) The team’s talent scouts will +be asking about new players’ views on talent and training—not to screen +out those with a fixed mind-set, but to target them for special +training. + +In his 2002 essay that relied on Dweck’s work, Gladwell cited one of her +best-known experiments to argue that Enron may have collapsed precisely +because of the company’s talent-obsessed culture, not despite it. +Dweck’s study showed that praising children for intelligence, rather +than for effort, sapped their motivation ([see +sidebar](/get/page/magazine/article/?article_id=33289)). But more +disturbingly, 40 percent of those whose intelligence was praised +overstated their scores to peers. “We took ordinary children and made +them into liars,” Dweck says. Similarly, Enron executives who’d been +celebrated for their innate talent would sooner lie than fess up to +problems and work to fix them. + +Business School professor Jeffrey Pfeffer says Dweck’s research has +implications for the more workaday problem of performance management. He +faults businesses for spending too much time in rank-and-yank mode, +grading and evaluating people instead of developing their skills. “It’s +like the Santa Claus theory of management: who’s naughty and who’s +nice.” + +Leaders, too, can benefit from Dweck’s work, says Robert Sternberg, PhD +’75, Tufts University’s dean of the School of Arts and Sciences. +Sternberg, a past president of the American Psychological Association, +says that excessive concern with looking smart keeps you from making +bold, visionary moves. “If you’re afraid of making mistakes, you’ll +never learn on the job, and your whole approach becomes defensive: ‘I +have to make sure I don’t screw up.’” + +Social psychologist Peter Salovey, ’80, MA ’80, dean of Yale College and +a pioneer in the field of emotional intelligence, says Dweck’s ideas +have helped him think through a controversy in his field. Echoing an +older debate about the malleability of general intelligence, some +scholars say emotional intelligence is largely inborn, while others, +like Salovey, see it as a set of skills that can be taught and learned. +“People say to me all the time, ‘I’m not a people person,’ or ‘I’m not +good at managing my emotions,’” unaware that they’re expressing a fixed +mind-set, Salovey says. + +Stanford psychology professor James Gross has begun extending Dweck’s +work to emotions. In a recent study, Gross and his colleagues followed a +group of Stanford undergrads as they made the transition to college +life. Those with a fixed mind-set about emotions were less able to +manage theirs, and by the end of freshman year, they’d shown poorer +social and emotional adjustment than their growth-minded counterparts. + +As she approaches the end of her third year at Stanford, Dweck has +embraced the challenge of cross-country culture shock in a manner +consistent with the growth mind-set. Nearby San Francisco provides her +with the benefits of a great city, she says, including a dining scene +that rivals New York’s; and the University supplies a more cozy sense of +community. She’s also brought a bit of the New York theater scene with +her in the form of her husband, critic and director David Goldman. He +founded and directs the National Center for New Plays at Stanford. + +At the Association for Psychological Science convention in May, Dweck +will give the keynote address. The topic: “Can Personality Be Changed?” +Her short answer, of course, is yes. Moreover, holding a growth mind-set +bodes well for one’s relationships. In a recent study, Dweck found that +people who believe personality can change were more likely than others +to bring up concerns and deal with problems in a constructive way. Dweck +thinks a fixed mind-set fosters a categorical, all-or-nothing view of +people’s qualities; this view tends to make you ignore festering +problems or, at the other extreme, give up on a relationship at the +first sign of trouble. (The growth mind-set, though, can be taken too +far if someone stays in an abusive relationship hoping her partner will +change; as always, the person has to want to change.) + +These days, Dweck is applying her model to kids’ moral development. +Young children may not always have beliefs about ability, but they do +have ideas about goodness. Many kids believe they’re invariably good or +bad; other kids think they can get better at being good. Dweck has +already found that preschoolers with this growth mind-set feel okay +about themselves after they’ve messed up and are less judgmental of +others; they’re also more likely than kids with a fixed view of goodness +to try to set things right and to learn from their mistakes. They +understand that spilling juice or throwing toys, for example, doesn’t +damn a kid as bad, so long as the child cleans up and resolves to do +better next time. Now Dweck and graduate student Allison Master are +running experiments at Bing Nursery School to see if teaching kids the +growth mind-set improves their coping skills. They’ve designed a +storybook with the message that preschoolers can go from “bad” one year +to better the next. Can hearing such stories help a 4-year-old handle a +sandbox setback? + +Dweck’s students from over the years describe her as a generous, +nurturing mentor. She’d surely attribute these traits not to an innate +gift, but to a highly developed mind-set. “Just being aware of the +growth mind-set, and studying it and writing about it, I feel compelled +to live it and to benefit from it,” says Dweck, who took up piano as an +adult and learned to speak Italian in her 50s. “These are things that +adults are not supposed to be good at learning.” + +Read a January 2010 +[update](/get/page/magazine/article/?article_id=29609#dweck) on this +story. + +MARINA KRAKOVSKY, ’92, is a writer in San Mateo. diff --git a/_stories/2007/8786550.md b/_stories/2007/8786550.md index 4793be7..13163a4 100644 --- a/_stories/2007/8786550.md +++ b/_stories/2007/8786550.md @@ -19,192 +19,24 @@ _tags: objectID: '8786550' --- -[Source](http://www.historytoday.com/jonathon-riley/how-good-was-napoleon "Permalink to How Good Was Napoleon? | History Today") - -# How Good Was Napoleon? | History Today - -[Skip to main content][1] - -![Mullocks Auctions][2] - -[ ![Home][3] ][4] - -* [Sign in][5] -* [Register][6] - -[Subscribe][7] - -Search - -![Cover of the March issue of History Today][8] - -[Subscription Offers][9] - -[Give a Gift][10] - -Enter your keywords - -Search - -Toggle navigation - -* [Home][11] -* [Magazine][12] -* [Subscribe][13] -* [The Archive][14] -* [History Matters][15] -* [Miscellanies][16] -* [Digital Edition][17] -* [Book Reviews][18] -* [Sign in][5] - -![][19] - -* [Magazine][12] -* [History Matters][15] -* [Miscellanies][16] -* [Reviews][18] - -![][20] ![][21] - -[Subscribe][7] - -# How Good Was Napoleon? - -By [**Jonathon Riley][22]** | Published in [History Today][23] [Volume 57 Issue 7 July 2007][24] - -Serving general and military historian Jonathon Riley uses his personal knowledge of command to assess Napoleon's qualities as a strategist, operational commander and battlefield tactician. - -![Surrender of Madrid \(Gros\), 1808. Napoleon enters Spain's capital during the Peninsular War][25]By 1805, the year that Napoleon became sole head of state and supreme warlord of France, the notion of strategy was recognizably modern. Joly de Maizeroy had written in _Théories de la Guerre_ (1777): 'Strategy ... combines time, places, means, various interests and considers all ... [Tactics] reduces easily to firm rules, because it is entirely geometrical like fortification.' Achieving strategic objectives through means as diverse as diplomacy, economic power, information warfare and military power is not too far from this line of thought. The sort of strategy practised by Napoleon, his allies and some of his opponents, should be distinguished from that of his implacable enemy, Britain. Its worldwide empire, economic base, and naval reach, all meant that it was able to conduct strategy through other means than military power. Revolutionary and imperial France was not in this position – it had to use military force not in addition to the other instruments of national power, but in order to access them. Military power for Napoleon must be seen therefore as diplomacy, not merely, as in the Clausewitzian sense, an addition to it. - -To read this article in full you need to be either a print + digital subscriber, or else have purchased access to the online archive. - -If you are already a subscriber, please ensure you are logged in.  - -[**Buy Subscription][26]** | [**Buy Online Access**][27] | [**Log In**][28] - -## Related Articles - -![General Bonaparte during the coup d'état of 18 Brumaire in Saint-Cloud, painting by François Bouchot, 1840][29] - -##### [Napoleon's Rise to Power][30] - -By Michael Rapport - -![][31] - -##### [Napoleon the Kingmaker][32] - -By Philip Mansel - -**Sign up for Miscellanies, our free weekly email** - -### Recent - -![][33] - -##### [On the Spot: Hannah Dawson][34] - -By Hannah Dawson - -![South Polar Chart, 1901.][35] - -##### [National Gallery: Antarctica][36] - -By Rhys Griffiths - -![Prester John enthroned on a map of East Africa. 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Napoleon enters Spain's capital +during the Peninsular +War](//www.historytoday.com/sites/default/files/napoleon_madrid.jpg +"Surrender of Madrid (Gros), 1808. Napoleon enters Spain's capital during the Peninsular War")By +1805, the year that Napoleon became sole head of state and supreme +warlord of France, the notion of strategy was recognizably modern. Joly +de Maizeroy had written in Théories de la Guerre (1777): ‘Strategy ... +combines time, places, means, various interests and considers all ... +\[Tactics\] reduces easily to firm rules, because it is entirely +geometrical like fortification.’ Achieving strategic objectives through +means as diverse as diplomacy, economic power, information warfare and +military power is not too far from this line of thought. The sort of +strategy practised by Napoleon, his allies and some of his opponents, +should be distinguished from that of his implacable enemy, Britain. Its +worldwide empire, economic base, and naval reach, all meant that it was +able to conduct strategy through other means than military power. +Revolutionary and imperial France was not in this position – it had to +use military force not in addition to the other instruments of national +power, but in order to access them. Military power for Napoleon must be +seen therefore as diplomacy, not merely, as in the Clausewitzian sense, +an addition to it. diff --git a/_stories/2007/9013178.md b/_stories/2007/9013178.md deleted file mode 100644 index 0b7e748..0000000 --- a/_stories/2007/9013178.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,25 +0,0 @@ ---- -created_at: '2015-02-07T05:24:20.000Z' -title: Introduction to the Common Language Runtime (2007) -url: https://github.com/dotnet/coreclr/blob/master/Documentation/intro-to-clr.md -author: StylifyYourBlog -points: 143 -story_text: '' -comment_text: -num_comments: 61 -story_id: -story_title: -story_url: -parent_id: -created_at_i: 1423286660 -_tags: -- story -- author_StylifyYourBlog -- story_9013178 -objectID: '9013178' - ---- -[Source](https://github.com/dotnet/coreclr/blob/master/Documentation/intro-to-clr.md "Permalink to ") - - - diff --git a/_stories/2007/9052160.md b/_stories/2007/9052160.md index d1b3e37..09c5003 100644 --- a/_stories/2007/9052160.md +++ b/_stories/2007/9052160.md @@ -19,7 +19,87 @@ _tags: objectID: '9052160' --- -[Source](https://www.theguardian.com/world/2007/nov/26/france.artnews "Permalink to ") +It is one of Paris's most celebrated monuments, a neoclassical +masterpiece that has cast its shadow across the city for more than two +centuries. +But it is unlikely that the Panthéon, or any other building in France's +capital, will have played host to a more bizarre sequence of events than +those revealed in a court last week. +Four members of an underground "cultural guerrilla" movement known as +the Untergunther, whose purpose is to restore France's cultural +heritage, were cleared on Friday of breaking into the 18th-century +monument in a plot worthy of Dan Brown or Umberto Eco. +For a year from September 2005, under the nose of the Panthéon's +unsuspecting security officials, a group of intrepid "illegal restorers" +set up a secret workshop and lounge in a cavity under the building's +famous dome. Under the supervision of group member Jean-Baptiste Viot, a +professional clockmaker, they pieced apart and repaired the antique +clock that had been left to rust in the building since the 1960s. Only +when their clandestine revamp of the elaborate timepiece had been +completed did they reveal themselves. + +"When we had finished the repairs, we had a big debate on whether we +should let the Panthéon's officials know or not," said Lazar Klausmann, +a spokesperson for the Untergunther. "We decided to tell them in the end +so that they would know to wind the clock up so it would still work. + +"The Panthéon's administrator thought it was a hoax at first, but when +we showed him the clock, and then took him up to our workshop, he had to +take a deep breath and sit down." + +The Centre of National Monuments, embarrassed by the way the group +entered the building so easily, did not take to the news kindly, taking +legal action and replacing the administrator. + +Getting into the building was the easiest part, according to Klausmann. +The squad allowed themselves to be locked into the Panthéon one night, +and then identified a side entrance near some stairs leading up to their +future hiding place. "Opening a lock is the easiest thing for a +clockmaker," said Klausmann. From then on, they sneaked in day or night +under the unsuspecting noses of the Panthéon's officials. + +"I've been working here for years," said a ticket officer at the +Panthéon who wished to remain anonymous. "I know every corner of the +building. And I never noticed anything." + +The hardest part of the scheme was carrying up the planks used to make +chairs and tables to furnish the Untergunther's cosy squat cum workshop, +which has sweeping views over Paris. + +The group managed to connect the hideaway to the electricity grid and +install a computer connected to the net. + +Klausmann and his crew are connaisseurs of the Parisian underworld. +Since the 1990s they have restored crypts, staged readings and plays in +monuments at night, and organised rock concerts in quarries. The network +was unknown to the authorities until 2004, when the police discovered an +underground cinema, complete with bar and restaurant, under the Seine. +They have tried to track them down ever since. + +But the UX, the name of Untergunther's parent organisation, is a finely +tuned organisation. It has around 150 members and is divided into +separate groups, which specialise in different activities ranging from +getting into buildings after dark to setting up cultural events. +Untergunther is the restoration cell of the network. + +Members know Paris intimately. Many of them were students in the Latin +Quarter in the 80s and 90s, when it was popular to have secret parties +in Paris's network of tunnels. They have now grown up and become nurses +or lawyers, but still have a taste for the capital's underworld, and +they now have more than just partying on their mind. + +"We would like to be able to replace the state in the areas it is +incompetent," said Klausmann. "But our means are limited and we can only +do a fraction of what needs to be done. There's so much to do in Paris +that we won't manage in our lifetime." + +The Untergunther are already busy working on another restoration mission +Paris. The location is top secret, of course. But the Panthéon clock +remains one of its proudest feats. + +"The Latin Quarter is where the concept of human rights came from, it's +the centre of everything. The Panthéon clock is in the middle of it. So +it's a bit like the clock at the centre of the world." diff --git a/_stories/2007/9168293.md b/_stories/2007/9168293.md deleted file mode 100644 index d5c844a..0000000 --- a/_stories/2007/9168293.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,25 +0,0 @@ ---- -created_at: '2015-03-09T01:14:06.000Z' -title: Notes on the Plan 9 3rd edition Kernel Source (2007) [pdf] -url: http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.75.5409&rep=rep1&type=pdf -author: adamnemecek -points: 58 -story_text: '' -comment_text: -num_comments: 6 -story_id: -story_title: -story_url: -parent_id: -created_at_i: 1425863646 -_tags: -- story -- author_adamnemecek -- story_9168293 -objectID: '9168293' - ---- -[Source](http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.75.5409&rep=rep1&type=pdf "Permalink to ") - - - diff --git a/_stories/2007/9290227.md b/_stories/2007/9290227.md deleted file mode 100644 index 93b951c..0000000 --- a/_stories/2007/9290227.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,25 +0,0 @@ ---- -created_at: '2015-03-30T15:40:11.000Z' -title: Thinking about Thinking (2007) -url: http://the-programmers-stone.com/the-original-talks/day-1-thinking-about-thinking/ -author: achompas -points: 85 -story_text: '' -comment_text: -num_comments: 7 -story_id: -story_title: -story_url: -parent_id: -created_at_i: 1427730011 -_tags: -- story -- author_achompas -- story_9290227 -objectID: '9290227' - ---- -[Source](http://the-programmers-stone.com/the-original-talks/day-1-thinking-about-thinking/ "Permalink to ") - - - diff --git a/_stories/2007/9616056.md b/_stories/2007/9616056.md index 4b5c3dc..fdbb7ca 100644 --- a/_stories/2007/9616056.md +++ b/_stories/2007/9616056.md @@ -19,173 +19,237 @@ _tags: objectID: '9616056' --- -[Source](http://www.nytimes.com/2007/07/15/business/15gilded.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0 "Permalink to The Richest of the Rich, Proud of a New Gilded Age - The New York Times") +Only twice before over the last century has 5 percent of the national +income gone to families in the upper one-one-hundredth of a percent of +the income distribution — currently, the almost 15,000 families with +incomes of $9.5 million or more a year, according to an analysis of tax +returns by the economists Emmanuel Saez at the University of California, +Berkeley and Thomas Piketty at the Paris School of Economics. -# The Richest of the Rich, Proud of a New Gilded Age - The New York Times +Such concentration at the very top occurred in 1915 and 1916, as the +Gilded Age was ending, and again briefly in the late 1920s, before the +stock market crash. Now it is back, and Mr. Weill is prominent among the +new titans. His net worth exceeds $1 billion, not counting the $500 +million he says he has already given away, in the open-handed style of +Andrew Carnegie and the other great philanthropists of the earlier age. -__NYTimes.com no longer supports Internet Explorer 9 or earlier. Please upgrade your browser. [LEARN MORE »][1] +At 74, just over a year into retirement as Citigroup chairman, Mr. Weill +sees in Carnegie’s life aspects of his own. Andrew Carnegie, an +impoverished Scottish immigrant, built a steel empire in Pittsburgh, +taking risks that others shunned, just as the demand for steel was +skyrocketing. He then gave away his fortune, reasoning that he was lucky +to have been in the right spot at the right moment and he owed the +community for his good luck — not in higher wages for his workers, but +in philanthropic distribution of his wealth. -__Sections __ Home __Search [Skip to content][2] [Skip to navigation][3] [View mobile version][4] +Mr. Weill’s beginnings were similarly inauspicious. A son of immigrants +from Poland, raised in Brooklyn, a so-so college student, he landed on +Wall Street in a low-level job in the 1950s. Harnessing entrepreneurial +energy, deftness as a deal maker and an appetite for risk, with a rising +stock market pulling him along, he built a financial empire that, in his +view, successfully broke through the stultifying constraints that flowed +from the New Deal. They were constraints not just on what business could +or could not do, but on every high earner’s take-home pay. -## [ The New York Times ][5] - -###### [Business Day][6]|The Richest of the Rich, Proud of a New Gilded Age - -__Search - -Subscribe Now Log In __0 __Settings - -__Close search - -## Site Search Navigation - -Search NYTimes.com - -__Clear this text input - -Go - -1. Loading... - -See next articles - -See previous articles - -## Site Navigation - -## Site Mobile Navigation - -Advertisement - -Supported by - -### [Business Day][6] | Age of Riches - -# The Richest of the Rich, Proud of a New Gilded Age - -By [LOUIS UCHITELLE][7]JULY 15, 2007 - -[Continue reading the main story][8] Share This Page - -[Continue reading the main story][8] - -#### [Corrections Appended][9] - -The tributes to Sanford I. Weill line the walls of the carpeted hallway that leads to his skyscraper office, with its panoramic view of Central Park. A dozen framed magazine covers, their colors as vivid as an Andy Warhol painting, are the most arresting. Each heralds Mr. Weill's genius in assembling Citigroup into the most powerful financial institution since the House of Morgan a century ago. - -His achievement required political clout, and that, too, is on display. Soon after he formed Citigroup, Congress repealed a Depression-era law that prohibited goliaths like the one Mr. Weill had just put together anyway, combining commercial and investment banking, insurance and stock brokerage operations. A trophy from the victory — a pen that President Bill Clinton used to sign the repeal — hangs, framed, near the magazine covers. - -These days, Mr. Weill and many of the nation's very wealthy chief executives, entrepreneurs and financiers echo an earlier era — the Gilded Age before World War I — when powerful enterprises, dominated by men who grew immensely rich, ushered in the industrialization of the United States. The new titans often see themselves as pillars of a similarly prosperous and expansive age, one in which their successes and their philanthropy have made government less important than it once was. - -"People can look at the last 25 years and say this is an incredibly unique period of time," Mr. Weill said. "We didn't rely on somebody else to build what we built, and we shouldn't rely on somebody else to provide all the services our society needs." - -Advertisement - -[Continue reading the main story][8] - -Those earlier barons disappeared by the 1920s and, constrained by the Depression and by the greater government oversight and high income tax rates that followed, no one really took their place. Then, starting in the late 1970s, as the constraints receded, new tycoons gradually emerged, and now their concentrated wealth has made the early years of the 21st century truly another Gilded Age. - -[Continue reading the main story][10] - -Advertisement - -[Continue reading the main story][11] - -Only twice before over the last century has 5 percent of the national income gone to families in the upper one-one-hundredth of a percent of the income distribution — currently, the almost 15,000 families with incomes of $9.5 million or more a year, according to an analysis of tax returns by the economists Emmanuel Saez at the University of California, Berkeley and Thomas Piketty at the Paris School of Economics. - -Such concentration at the very top occurred in 1915 and 1916, as the Gilded Age was ending, and again briefly in the late 1920s, before the stock market crash. Now it is back, and Mr. Weill is prominent among the new titans. His net worth exceeds $1 billion, not counting the $500 million he says he has already given away, in the open-handed style of Andrew Carnegie and the other great philanthropists of the earlier age. - -At 74, just over a year into retirement as Citigroup chairman, Mr. Weill sees in Carnegie's life aspects of his own. Andrew Carnegie, an impoverished Scottish immigrant, built a steel empire in Pittsburgh, taking risks that others shunned, just as the demand for steel was skyrocketing. He then gave away his fortune, reasoning that he was lucky to have been in the right spot at the right moment and he owed the community for his good luck — not in higher wages for his workers, but in philanthropic distribution of his wealth. - -Mr. Weill's beginnings were similarly inauspicious. A son of immigrants from Poland, raised in Brooklyn, a so-so college student, he landed on Wall Street in a low-level job in the 1950s. Harnessing entrepreneurial energy, deftness as a deal maker and an appetite for risk, with a rising stock market pulling him along, he built a financial empire that, in his view, successfully broke through the stultifying constraints that flowed from the New Deal. They were constraints not just on what business could or could not do, but on every high earner's take-home pay. - -"I once thought how lucky the Carnegies and the Rockefellers were because they made their money before there was an income tax," Mr. Weill said, never believing in his younger days that deregulation and tax cuts, starting in the late 1970s, would bring back many of the easier conditions of the Gilded Age. "I felt that everything of any great consequence was really all made in the past," he said. "That turned out not to be true and it is not true today." +“I once thought how lucky the Carnegies and the Rockefellers were +because they made their money before there was an income tax,” Mr. Weill +said, never believing in his younger days that deregulation and tax +cuts, starting in the late 1970s, would bring back many of the easier +conditions of the Gilded Age. “I felt that everything of any great +consequence was really all made in the past,” he said. “That turned out +not to be true and it is not true today.” **The Question of Talent** -Other very wealthy men in the new Gilded Age talk of themselves as having a flair for business not unlike Derek Jeter's "unique talent" for baseball, as Leo J. Hindery Jr. put it. "I think there are people, including myself at certain times in my career," Mr. Hindery said, "who because of their uniqueness warrant whatever the market will bear." +Other very wealthy men in the new Gilded Age talk of themselves as +having a flair for business not unlike Derek Jeter’s “unique talent” for +baseball, as Leo J. Hindery Jr. put it. “I think there are people, +including myself at certain times in my career,” Mr. Hindery said, “who +because of their uniqueness warrant whatever the market will bear.” -He counts himself as a talented entrepreneur, having assembled from scratch a cable television sports network, the YES Network. "Jeter makes an unbelievable amount of money," said Mr. Hindery, who now manages a private equity fund, "but you look at him and you say, 'Wow, I cannot find another ballplayer with that same set of skills.' " +He counts himself as a talented entrepreneur, having assembled from +scratch a cable television sports network, the YES Network. “Jeter makes +an unbelievable amount of money,” said Mr. Hindery, who now manages a +private equity fund, “but you look at him and you say, ‘Wow, I cannot +find another ballplayer with that same set of skills.’ ” Advertisement -[Continue reading the main story][12] +[Continue reading the main story](#story-continues-4) -A handful of critics among the new elite, or close to it, are scornful of such self-appraisal. "I don't see a relationship between the extremes of income now and the performance of the economy," Paul A. Volcker, a former Federal Reserve Board chairman, said in an interview, challenging the contentions of the very rich that they are, more than others, the driving force of a robust economy. +A handful of critics among the new elite, or close to it, are scornful +of such self-appraisal. “I don’t see a relationship between the extremes +of income now and the performance of the economy,” Paul A. Volcker, a +former Federal Reserve Board chairman, said in an interview, challenging +the contentions of the very rich that they are, more than others, the +driving force of a robust economy. -The great fortunes today are largely a result of the long bull market in stocks, Mr. Volcker said. Without rising stock prices, stock options would not have become a major source of riches for financiers and chief executives. Stock prices rise for a lot of reasons, Mr. Volcker said, including ones that have nothing to do with the actions of these people. +The great fortunes today are largely a result of the long bull market in +stocks, Mr. Volcker said. Without rising stock prices, stock options +would not have become a major source of riches for financiers and chief +executives. Stock prices rise for a lot of reasons, Mr. Volcker said, +including ones that have nothing to do with the actions of these people. -"The market did not go up because businessmen got so much smarter," he said, adding that the 1950s and 1960s, which the new tycoons denigrate as bureaucratic and uninspiring, "were very good economic times and no one was making what they are making now." +“The market did not go up because businessmen got so much smarter,” he +said, adding that the 1950s and 1960s, which the new tycoons denigrate +as bureaucratic and uninspiring, “were very good economic times and no +one was making what they are making now.” -James D. Sinegal, chief executive of Costco, the discount retailer, echoes that sentiment. "Obscene salaries send the wrong message through a company," he said. "The message is that all brilliance emanates from the top; that the worker on the floor of the store or the factory is insignificant." +James D. Sinegal, chief executive of Costco, the discount retailer, +echoes that sentiment. “Obscene salaries send the wrong message through +a company,” he said. “The message is that all brilliance emanates from +the top; that the worker on the floor of the store or the factory is +insignificant.” Photo -![][13] +A legendary chief executive from an earlier era is similarly critical. +He is Robert L. Crandall, 71, who as president and then chairman and +chief executive, led American Airlines through the early years of +deregulation and pioneered the development of the hub-and-spoke system +for managing airline routes. He retired in 1997, never having made more +than $5 million a year, in the days before upper-end incomes really took +off. -Sanford I. Weill, chairman of Carnegie Hall, sees similarities between his life and that of the hall’s first patron. Credit Damon Winter/The New York Times +He is speaking out now, he said, because he no longer has to worry that +his “radical views” might damage the reputation of American or that of +the companies he served until recently as a director. The nation’s +corporate chiefs would be living far less affluent lives, Mr. Crandall +said, if fate had put them in, say, Uzbekistan instead of the United +States, “where they are the beneficiaries of a market system that +rewards a few people in extraordinary ways and leaves others behind.” -A legendary chief executive from an earlier era is similarly critical. He is Robert L. Crandall, 71, who as president and then chairman and chief executive, led American Airlines through the early years of deregulation and pioneered the development of the hub-and-spoke system for managing airline routes. He retired in 1997, never having made more than $5 million a year, in the days before upper-end incomes really took off. - -He is speaking out now, he said, because he no longer has to worry that his "radical views" might damage the reputation of American or that of the companies he served until recently as a director. The nation's corporate chiefs would be living far less affluent lives, Mr. Crandall said, if fate had put them in, say, Uzbekistan instead of the United States, "where they are the beneficiaries of a market system that rewards a few people in extraordinary ways and leaves others behind." - -"The way our society equalizes incomes," he argued, "is through much higher taxes than we have today. There is no other way." +“The way our society equalizes incomes,” he argued, “is through much +higher taxes than we have today. There is no other way.” **The New Tycoons** -The new Gilded Age has created only one fortune as large as those of the Rockefellers, the Carnegies and the Vanderbilts — that of Bill Gates, according to various compilations. His net worth, measured as a share of the economy's output, ranks him fifth among the 30 all-time wealthiest American families, just ahead of Carnegie. Only one other living billionaire makes the cut: Warren E. Buffett, in 16th place. +The new Gilded Age has created only one fortune as large as those of the +Rockefellers, the Carnegies and the Vanderbilts — that of Bill Gates, +according to various compilations. His net worth, measured as a share of +the economy’s output, ranks him fifth among the 30 all-time wealthiest +American families, just ahead of Carnegie. Only one other living +billionaire makes the cut: Warren E. Buffett, in 16th place. Advertisement -[Continue reading the main story][14] +[Continue reading the main story](#story-continues-5) -Individual fortunes nearly a century ago were so large that just 30 tycoons — Rockefeller was by far the wealthiest — had accumulated net worth equal to 5 percent of the national income. Their wealth flowed mainly from the empires they built in manufacturing, railroads, oil, coal, urban transit and mass retailing as the United States grew into the world's largest industrial economy. +Individual fortunes nearly a century ago were so large that just 30 +tycoons — Rockefeller was by far the wealthiest — had accumulated net +worth equal to 5 percent of the national income. Their wealth flowed +mainly from the empires they built in manufacturing, railroads, oil, +coal, urban transit and mass retailing as the United States grew into +the world’s largest industrial economy. -Today the fortunes of the very wealthiest are spread more widely. In addition to stock and stock options, low-interest credit has brought wealth to more families — by, for example, facilitating the sale of individual businesses for much greater sums than in the past. The fortunes amassed in hedge funds and in private equity often stem from deals involving huge amounts of easy credit and vast pools of capital available for investment. +Today the fortunes of the very wealthiest are spread more widely. In +addition to stock and stock options, low-interest credit has brought +wealth to more families — by, for example, facilitating the sale of +individual businesses for much greater sums than in the past. The +fortunes amassed in hedge funds and in private equity often stem from +deals involving huge amounts of easy credit and vast pools of capital +available for investment. -The high-tech boom and the Internet unfolded against this backdrop. The rising stock market multiplied the wealth of Bill Gates as his software became the industry standard. It did the same for numerous others who financed start-ups on a shoestring and then went public at enormous gain. +The high-tech boom and the Internet unfolded against this backdrop. The +rising stock market multiplied the wealth of Bill Gates as his software +became the industry standard. It did the same for numerous others who +financed start-ups on a shoestring and then went public at enormous +gain. -Over a longer period, the market lifted the value of Mr. Buffett's judicious investments and timely acquisitions, and he emerged as the extraordinarily wealthy Sage of Omaha, in effect, a baron of the new Gilded Age whose views are strikingly similar to those of Carnegie and Mr. Weill. +Over a longer period, the market lifted the value of Mr. Buffett’s +judicious investments and timely acquisitions, and he emerged as the +extraordinarily wealthy Sage of Omaha, in effect, a baron of the new +Gilded Age whose views are strikingly similar to those of Carnegie and +Mr. Weill. -Like them, Mr. Buffett, 78, sees himself as lucky, having had the good fortune, as he put it, to have been born in America, white and male, and "wired for asset allocation" just when all four really paid off. He dwelt on his good fortune in a recent appearance at a fund-raiser for Hillary Rodham Clinton, who is vying for Mr. Buffett's support of her presidential candidacy. +Like them, Mr. Buffett, 78, sees himself as lucky, having had the good +fortune, as he put it, to have been born in America, white and male, and +“wired for asset allocation” just when all four really paid off. He +dwelt on his good fortune in a recent appearance at a fund-raiser for +Hillary Rodham Clinton, who is vying for Mr. Buffett’s support of her +presidential candidacy. -"This is a significantly richer country than 10, 20, 30, 40, 50 years ago," he declared, backing his assertion with a favorite statistic. The national income, divided by the population, is a very abundant $45,000 per capita, he said, a number that reflects an affluent nation but also obscures the lopsided income distribution intertwined with the prosperity. +“This is a significantly richer country than 10, 20, 30, 40, 50 years +ago,” he declared, backing his assertion with a favorite statistic. The +national income, divided by the population, is a very abundant $45,000 +per capita, he said, a number that reflects an affluent nation but also +obscures the lopsided income distribution intertwined with the +prosperity. -"Society should place an initial emphasis on abundance," Mr. Buffett argued, but "then should continuously strive" to redistribute the abundance more equitably. +“Society should place an initial emphasis on abundance,” Mr. Buffett +argued, but “then should continuously strive” to redistribute the +abundance more equitably. -No income tax existed in Carnegie's day to do this, and neither Mr. Buffett nor Mr. Weill push for sharply higher income tax rates now, although Mr. Buffett criticizes the present tax code as unfairly skewed in his favor. Like Carnegie, philanthropy is their preference. "I want to give away my money rather than have somebody take it away," Mr. Weill said. +No income tax existed in Carnegie’s day to do this, and neither Mr. +Buffett nor Mr. Weill push for sharply higher income tax rates now, +although Mr. Buffett criticizes the present tax code as unfairly skewed +in his favor. Like Carnegie, philanthropy is their preference. “I want +to give away my money rather than have somebody take it away,” Mr. Weill +said. Advertisement -[Continue reading the main story][15] +[Continue reading the main story](#story-continues-6) -Mr. Buffett is already well down that path. Most of his wealth is in the stock of his company, Berkshire Hathaway, and he is transferring the majority of that stock to the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation so the Gateses can "materially expand" their giving. +Mr. Buffett is already well down that path. Most of his wealth is in the +stock of his company, Berkshire Hathaway, and he is transferring the +majority of that stock to the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation so the +Gateses can “materially expand” their giving. -"In my will," he has written, echoing Carnegie's last wishes, "I've stipulated that the proceeds from all Berkshire shares I still own at death are to be used for philanthropic purposes." +“In my will,” he has written, echoing Carnegie’s last wishes, “I’ve +stipulated that the proceeds from all Berkshire shares I still own at +death are to be used for philanthropic purposes.” **Revisionist History** -The new tycoons describe a history that gives them a heroic role. The American economy, they acknowledge, did grow more rapidly on average in the decades immediately after World War II than it is growing today. Incomes rose faster than inflation for most Americans and the spread between rich and poor was much less. But the United States was far and away the dominant economy, and government played a strong supporting role. In such a world, the new tycoons argue, business leaders needed only to be good managers. +The new tycoons describe a history that gives them a heroic role. The +American economy, they acknowledge, did grow more rapidly on average in +the decades immediately after World War II than it is growing today. +Incomes rose faster than inflation for most Americans and the spread +between rich and poor was much less. But the United States was far and +away the dominant economy, and government played a strong supporting +role. In such a world, the new tycoons argue, business leaders needed +only to be good managers. -Then, with globalization, with America competing once again for first place as strenuously as it had in the first Gilded Age, the need grew for a different type of business leader — one more entrepreneurial, more daring, more willing to take risks, more like the rough and tumble tycoons of the first Gilded Age. Lew Frankfort, chairman and chief executive of Coach, the manufacturer and retailer of trendy upscale handbags, who was among the nation's highest paid chief executives last year, recaps the argument. +Then, with globalization, with America competing once again for first +place as strenuously as it had in the first Gilded Age, the need grew +for a different type of business leader — one more entrepreneurial, more +daring, more willing to take risks, more like the rough and tumble +tycoons of the first Gilded Age. Lew Frankfort, chairman and chief +executive of Coach, the manufacturer and retailer of trendy upscale +handbags, who was among the nation’s highest paid chief executives last +year, recaps the argument. -"The professional class that developed in business in the '50s and '60s," he said, "was able as America grew at very steady rates to become industry leaders and move their organizations forward in most categories: steel, autos, housing, roads." +“The professional class that developed in business in the ’50s and +’60s,” he said, “was able as America grew at very steady rates to +become industry leaders and move their organizations forward in most +categories: steel, autos, housing, roads.” Photo -![][16] +That changed with the arrival of “the technological age,” in Mr. +Frankfort’s view. Innovation became a requirement, in addition to good +management skills — and innovation has played a role in Coach’s +marketing success. “To be successful,” Mr. Frankfort said, “you now +needed vision, lateral thinking, courage and an ability to see things, +not the way they were but how they might be.” -**Name ** Leo J. Hindery, Jr. **Age** 59 **Assets **$150 Million **Source **Cable TV **Current Job **Manager, Private Equity Fund **Philosophy **“I think there are people, including myself at certain times in my career, who because of their uniqueness warrant whatever the market will bear.” Credit Damon Winter/The New York Times +Mr. Weill’s vision was to create a financial institution in the style of +those that flourished in the last Gilded Age. Although insurance is +gone, Citigroup still houses commercial and investment banking and stock +brokerage. -That changed with the arrival of "the technological age," in Mr. Frankfort's view. Innovation became a requirement, in addition to good management skills — and innovation has played a role in Coach's marketing success. "To be successful," Mr. Frankfort said, "you now needed vision, lateral thinking, courage and an ability to see things, not the way they were but how they might be." - -Mr. Weill's vision was to create a financial institution in the style of those that flourished in the last Gilded Age. Although insurance is gone, Citigroup still houses commercial and investment banking and stock brokerage. - -The Glass-Steagall Act of 1933 outlawed the mix, blaming conflicts of interest inherent in such a combination for helping to bring on the 1929 crash and the Depression. The pen displayed in Mr. Weill's hallway is one of those Mr. Clinton used to revoke Glass-Steagall in 1999. He did so partly to accommodate the newly formed Citigroup, whose heft was necessary, Mr. Weill said, if the United States was to be a powerhouse in global financial markets. +The Glass-Steagall Act of 1933 outlawed the mix, blaming conflicts of +interest inherent in such a combination for helping to bring on the 1929 +crash and the Depression. The pen displayed in Mr. Weill’s hallway is +one of those Mr. Clinton used to revoke Glass-Steagall in 1999. He did +so partly to accommodate the newly formed Citigroup, whose heft was +necessary, Mr. Weill said, if the United States was to be a powerhouse +in global financial markets. ## Newsletter Sign Up -[Continue reading the main story][17] +[Continue reading the main story](#continues-post-newsletter) ### @@ -195,372 +259,239 @@ Invalid email address. Please re-enter. You must select a newsletter to subscribe to. -Sign Up - -You agree to receive occasional updates and special offers for The New York Times's products and services. +You agree to receive occasional updates and special offers for The New +York Times's products and services. ### Thank you for subscribing. ### An error has occurred. Please try again later. -### You are already subscribed to this email. +[View all New York Times newsletters.](/newsletters) -[View all New York Times newsletters.][18] - -* [See Sample][19] -* [Manage Email Preferences][20] -* [Not you?][21] -* [Privacy Policy][22] -* Opt out or [contact us][23] anytime - -"The whole world is moving to the American model of free enterprise and capital markets," Mr. Weill said, arguing that Wall Street cannot be a big player in China or India without giants like Citigroup. "Not having American financial institutions that really are at the fulcrum of how these countries are converting to a free-enterprise system," he said, "would really be a shame." +“The whole world is moving to the American model of free enterprise and +capital markets,” Mr. Weill said, arguing that Wall Street cannot be a +big player in China or India without giants like Citigroup. “Not having +American financial institutions that really are at the fulcrum of how +these countries are converting to a free-enterprise system,” he said, +“would really be a shame.” Advertisement -[Continue reading the main story][24] +[Continue reading the main story](#story-continues-7) -Such talk alarms Arthur Levitt Jr., a former chairman of the Securities and Exchange Commission, who started on Wall Street years ago as a partner with Mr. Weill in a stock brokerage firm. Mr. Levitt has publicly lamented the end of Glass-Steagall, but Mr. Weill argues that its repeal "created the opportunities to keep people still moving forward." +Such talk alarms Arthur Levitt Jr., a former chairman of the Securities +and Exchange Commission, who started on Wall Street years ago as a +partner with Mr. Weill in a stock brokerage firm. Mr. Levitt has +publicly lamented the end of Glass-Steagall, but Mr. Weill argues that +its repeal “created the opportunities to keep people still moving +forward.” -Mr. Levitt is skeptical. "I view a gilded age as an age in which warning flags are flying and are seen by very few people," he said, referring to the potential for a Wall Street firm to fail or markets to crash in a world of too much deregulation. "I think this is a time of great prosperity and a time of great danger." +Mr. Levitt is skeptical. “I view a gilded age as an age in which warning +flags are flying and are seen by very few people,” he said, referring to +the potential for a Wall Street firm to fail or markets to crash in a +world of too much deregulation. “I think this is a time of great +prosperity and a time of great danger.” -**It's Not the Money, or Is It?** +**It’s Not the Money, or Is It?** -Not that money is the only goal. Mr. Hindery, the cable television entrepreneur, said he would have worked just as hard for a much smaller payoff, and others among the very wealthy agreed. "I worked because I loved what I was doing," Mr. Weill said, insisting that not until he retired did "I have a chance to sit back and count up what was on the table." And Kenneth C. Griffin, who received more than $1 billion last year as chairman of a hedge fund, the Citadel Investment Group, declared: "The money is a byproduct of a passionate endeavor." +Not that money is the only goal. Mr. Hindery, the cable television +entrepreneur, said he would have worked just as hard for a much smaller +payoff, and others among the very wealthy agreed. “I worked because I +loved what I was doing,” Mr. Weill said, insisting that not until he +retired did “I have a chance to sit back and count up what was on the +table.” And Kenneth C. Griffin, who received more than $1 billion last +year as chairman of a hedge fund, the Citadel Investment Group, +declared: “The money is a byproduct of a passionate endeavor.” -Mr. Griffin, 38, argued that those who focus on the money — and there is always a get-rich crowd — "soon discover that wealth is not a particularly satisfying outcome." His own team at Citadel, he said, "loves the problems they work on and the challenges inherent to their business." +Mr. Griffin, 38, argued that those who focus on the money — and there is +always a get-rich crowd — “soon discover that wealth is not a +particularly satisfying outcome.” His own team at Citadel, he said, +“loves the problems they work on and the challenges inherent to their +business.” -Mr. Griffin maintained that he has created wealth not just for himself but for many others. "We have helped to create real social value in the U.S. economy," he said. "We have invested money in countless companies over the years and they have helped countless people." +Mr. Griffin maintained that he has created wealth not just for himself +but for many others. “We have helped to create real social value in the +U.S. economy,” he said. “We have invested money in countless companies +over the years and they have helped countless people.” -The new tycoons oppose raising taxes on their fortunes. Unlike Mr. Crandall, neither Mr. Weill nor Mr. Griffin nor most of the dozen others who were interviewed favor tax rates higher than they are today, although a few would go along with a return to the levels of the Clinton administration. The marginal tax on income then was 39.6 percent, and on capital gains, 20 percent. That was still far below the 70 percent and 39 percent in the late 1970s. Those top rates, in the Bush years, are now 35 percent and 15 percent, respectively. +The new tycoons oppose raising taxes on their fortunes. Unlike Mr. +Crandall, neither Mr. Weill nor Mr. Griffin nor most of the dozen others +who were interviewed favor tax rates higher than they are today, +although a few would go along with a return to the levels of the Clinton +administration. The marginal tax on income then was 39.6 percent, and on +capital gains, 20 percent. That was still far below the 70 percent and +39 percent in the late 1970s. Those top rates, in the Bush years, are +now 35 percent and 15 percent, respectively. -"The income distribution has to stand," Mr. Griffin said, adding that by trying to alter it with a more progressive income tax, "you end up in problematic circumstances. In the current world, there will be people who will move from one tax area to another. I am proud to be an American. But if the tax became too high, as a matter of principle I would not be working this hard." +“The income distribution has to stand,” Mr. Griffin said, adding that by +trying to alter it with a more progressive income tax, “you end up in +problematic circumstances. In the current world, there will be people +who will move from one tax area to another. I am proud to be an +American. But if the tax became too high, as a matter of principle I +would not be working this hard.” **Creating Wealth** -Some chief executives of publicly traded companies acknowledge that their fortunes are indeed large — but that it reflects only a small share of the corporate value created on their watch. +Some chief executives of publicly traded companies acknowledge that +their fortunes are indeed large — but that it reflects only a small +share of the corporate value created on their watch. Advertisement -[Continue reading the main story][25] +[Continue reading the main story](#story-continues-8) -Mr. Frankfort, the 61-year-old Coach chief, took home $44.4 million last year. His net worth is in the high nine figures. Yet his pay and net worth, he notes, are small compared with the gain to shareholders since Coach went public six years ago, with Mr. Frankfort at the helm. The market capitalization, the value of all the shares, is nearly $18 billion, up from an initial $700 million. +Mr. Frankfort, the 61-year-old Coach chief, took home $44.4 million last +year. His net worth is in the high nine figures. Yet his pay and net +worth, he notes, are small compared with the gain to shareholders since +Coach went public six years ago, with Mr. Frankfort at the helm. The +market capitalization, the value of all the shares, is nearly $18 +billion, up from an initial $700 million. -"I don't think it is unreasonable," he said, "for the C.E.O. of a company to realize 3 to 5 percent of the wealth accumulation that shareholders realize." +“I don’t think it is unreasonable,” he said, “for the C.E.O. of a +company to realize 3 to 5 percent of the wealth accumulation that +shareholders realize.” -That strikes Robert C. Pozen as a reasonable standard. He made a name for himself — and a fortune — overseeing the investment department at Fidelity. +That strikes Robert C. Pozen as a reasonable standard. He made a name +for himself — and a fortune — overseeing the investment department at +Fidelity. -Mr. Weill makes a similar point. Escorting a visitor down his hall of tributes, he lingers at framed charts with multicolored lines tracking Citigroup's stock price. Two of the lines compare the price in the five years of Mr. Weill's active management with that of Mr. Buffett's Berkshire Hathaway during the same period. Citigroup went up at six times the pace of Berkshire. +Mr. Weill makes a similar point. Escorting a visitor down his hall of +tributes, he lingers at framed charts with multicolored lines tracking +Citigroup’s stock price. Two of the lines compare the price in the five +years of Mr. Weill’s active management with that of Mr. Buffett’s +Berkshire Hathaway during the same period. Citigroup went up at six +times the pace of Berkshire. -"I think that the results our company had, which is where the great majority of my wealth came from, justified what I got," Mr. Weill said. +“I think that the results our company had, which is where the great +majority of my wealth came from, justified what I got,” Mr. Weill said. Photo -![][26] - -**Name **Robert Crandall **Age **71 **Assets **Under $100 Million **Source **Airline Industry **Current Job **Retired **Philosophy **“The way our society equalizes incomes is through much higher taxes than we have today. There is no other way.” Credit Damon Winter/The New York Times - **New Technologies** -Others among the very rich argue that their wealth helps them develop new technologies that benefit society. Steve Perlman, a Silicon Valley innovator, uses his fortune from breakthrough inventions to help finance his next attempt at a new technology so far out, he says, that even venture capitalists approach with caution. He and his partners, co-founders of WebTV Networks, which developed a way to surf the Web using a television set, sold that still profitable system to Microsoft in 1997 for $503 million. +Others among the very rich argue that their wealth helps them develop +new technologies that benefit society. Steve Perlman, a Silicon Valley +innovator, uses his fortune from breakthrough inventions to help finance +his next attempt at a new technology so far out, he says, that even +venture capitalists approach with caution. He and his partners, +co-founders of WebTV Networks, which developed a way to surf the Web +using a television set, sold that still profitable system to Microsoft +in 1997 for $503 million. -Mr. Perlman's share went into the next venture, he says, and the next. One of his goals with his latest enterprise, a private company called Rearden L.L.C., is to develop over several years a technology that will make film animation seem like real-life movies. "There was no one who would invest," Mr. Perlman said. So he used his own money. +Mr. Perlman’s share went into the next venture, he says, and the next. +One of his goals with his latest enterprise, a private company called +Rearden L.L.C., is to develop over several years a technology that will +make film animation seem like real-life movies. “There was no one who +would invest,” Mr. Perlman said. So he used his own money. -In an earlier era, big corporations and government were the major sources of money for cutting-edge research with an uncertain outcome. Bell Labs in New Jersey was one of those research centers, and Mr. Perlman, now a 46-year-old computer engineer with 71 patents to his name, said that, in an earlier era, he could easily have gone to Bell as a salaried inventor. +In an earlier era, big corporations and government were the major +sources of money for cutting-edge research with an uncertain outcome. +Bell Labs in New Jersey was one of those research centers, and Mr. +Perlman, now a 46-year-old computer engineer with 71 patents to his +name, said that, in an earlier era, he could easily have gone to Bell as +a salaried inventor. Advertisement -[Continue reading the main story][27] +[Continue reading the main story](#story-continues-9) -In the 1950s, for example, he might have been on the team that built the first transistor, a famous Bell Labs breakthrough. Instead, after graduating from Columbia University, he went to Apple in Silicon Valley, then to Microsoft and finally out on his own. +In the 1950s, for example, he might have been on the team that built the +first transistor, a famous Bell Labs breakthrough. Instead, after +graduating from Columbia University, he went to Apple in Silicon Valley, +then to Microsoft and finally out on his own. -"I would have been happy as a clam to participate in the development of the transistor," Mr. Perlman said. "The path I took was the path that was necessary to do what I was doing." +“I would have been happy as a clam to participate in the development of +the transistor,” Mr. Perlman said. “The path I took was the path that +was necessary to do what I was doing.” -** Carnegie's Philanthropy** +**Carnegie’s Philanthropy** -In contrast to many of his peers in corporate America, Mr. Sinegal, 70, the Costco chief executive, argues that the nation's business leaders would exercise their "unique skills" just as vigorously for "$10 million instead of $200 million, if that were the standard." +In contrast to many of his peers in corporate America, Mr. Sinegal, 70, +the Costco chief executive, argues that the nation’s business leaders +would exercise their “unique skills” just as vigorously for “$10 million +instead of $200 million, if that were the standard.” -As a co-founder of Costco, which now has 132,000 employees, Mr. Sinegal still holds $150 million in company stock. He is certainly wealthy. But he distinguishes between a founder's wealth and the current practice of paying a chief executive's salary in stock options that balloon into enormous amounts. His own salary as chief executive was $349,000 last year, incredibly modest by current standards. +As a co-founder of Costco, which now has 132,000 employees, Mr. Sinegal +still holds $150 million in company stock. He is certainly wealthy. But +he distinguishes between a founder’s wealth and the current practice of +paying a chief executive’s salary in stock options that balloon into +enormous amounts. His own salary as chief executive was $349,000 last +year, incredibly modest by current standards. -"I think that most of the people running companies today are motivated and pay is a small portion of the motivation," Mr. Sinegal said. So why so much pressure for ever higher pay? +“I think that most of the people running companies today are motivated +and pay is a small portion of the motivation,” Mr. Sinegal said. So why +so much pressure for ever higher pay? -"Because everyone else is getting it," he said. "It is as simple as that. If somehow a proclamation were made that C.E.O.'s could only make a maximum of $300,000 a year, you would not have any shortage of very qualified men and women seeking the jobs." +“Because everyone else is getting it,” he said. “It is as simple as +that. If somehow a proclamation were made that C.E.O.’s could only make +a maximum of $300,000 a year, you would not have any shortage of very +qualified men and women seeking the jobs.” -Looking back, none of the nation's legendary tycoons was more aware of his good luck than Andrew Carnegie. +Looking back, none of the nation’s legendary tycoons was more aware of +his good luck than Andrew Carnegie. -"Carnegie made it abundantly clear that the centerpiece of his gospel of wealth philosophy was that individuals do not create wealth by themselves," said David Nasaw, a historian at City University of New York and the author of "Andrew Carnegie" (Penguin Press). "The creator of wealth in his view was the community, and individuals like himself were trustees of that wealth." +“Carnegie made it abundantly clear that the centerpiece of his gospel of +wealth philosophy was that individuals do not create wealth by +themselves,” said David Nasaw, a historian at City University of New +York and the author of “Andrew Carnegie” (Penguin Press). “The creator +of wealth in his view was the community, and individuals like himself +were trustees of that wealth.” Advertisement -[Continue reading the main story][28] +[Continue reading the main story](#story-continues-10) -Repaying the community did not mean for Carnegie raising the wages of his steelworkers. Quite the contrary, he sometimes cut wages and, in doing so, presided over violent antiunion actions. +Repaying the community did not mean for Carnegie raising the wages of +his steelworkers. Quite the contrary, he sometimes cut wages and, in +doing so, presided over violent antiunion actions. -Carnegie did not concern himself with income inequality. His whole focus was philanthropy. He favored a confiscatory estate tax for those who failed to arrange to return, before their deaths, the fortunes the community had made possible. And today dozens of [libraries][29], cultural centers, museums and foundations bear Carnegie's name. +Carnegie did not concern himself with income inequality. His whole focus +was philanthropy. He favored a confiscatory estate tax for those who +failed to arrange to return, before their deaths, the fortunes the +community had made possible. And today dozens of +[libraries](http://topics.nytimes.com/top/reference/timestopics/subjects/l/libraries_and_librarians/index.html?inline=nyt-classifier "More articles about libraries and librarians."), +cultural centers, museums and foundations bear Carnegie’s name. -"Confiscatory" does not appear in Mr. Weill's public comments on the estate tax, or in those of Mr. Gates. They note that the estate tax, now being phased out at the urging of President Bush, will return in full in 2010, unless Congress acts otherwise. +“Confiscatory” does not appear in Mr. Weill’s public comments on the +estate tax, or in those of Mr. Gates. They note that the estate tax, now +being phased out at the urging of President Bush, will return in full in +2010, unless Congress acts otherwise. -They publicly favor retaining an estate tax but focus their attention on philanthropy. +They publicly favor retaining an estate tax but focus their attention on +philanthropy. -Mr. Weill ticks off a list of gifts that he and his wife, Joan, have made. Some bear their names, and will for years to come. With each bequest, one or the other joins the board. Appropriately, Carnegie Hall has been a big beneficiary, and Mr. Weill as chairman was honored at a huge fund-raising party that Carnegie Hall gave on his 70th birthday. +Mr. Weill ticks off a list of gifts that he and his wife, Joan, have +made. Some bear their names, and will for years to come. With each +bequest, one or the other joins the board. Appropriately, Carnegie Hall +has been a big beneficiary, and Mr. Weill as chairman was honored at a +huge fund-raising party that Carnegie Hall gave on his 70th birthday. -The Weills — matching what everyone else pledged — gave $30 million to enhance the concert hall that Andrew Carnegie built in 1890 in pursuit of returning his fortune to the community, establishing a standard that today's tycoons embrace. +The Weills — matching what everyone else pledged — gave $30 million to +enhance the concert hall that Andrew Carnegie built in 1890 in pursuit +of returning his fortune to the community, establishing a standard that +today’s tycoons embrace. -"We have that in common," Mr. Weill said. +“We have that in common,” Mr. Weill said. -** Correction: July 19, 2007 ** +**Correction: July 19, 2007** -A front-page article on Sunday about a new era of wealthy and powerful men misidentified the cable television network that the entrepreneur Leo J. Hindery Jr. assembled and sold in 1999 for $200 million. It was InterMedia Partners, not the YES Network. (He was a founder in 2001 of the YES Network, which has not been sold.) +A front-page article on Sunday about a new era of wealthy and powerful +men misidentified the cable television network that the entrepreneur Leo +J. Hindery Jr. assembled and sold in 1999 for $200 million. It was +InterMedia Partners, not the YES Network. (He was a founder in 2001 of +the YES Network, which has not been sold.) -** Correction: July 21, 2007 ** +**Correction: July 21, 2007** -A front-page article on Sunday about a new era of wealthy and powerful men incorrectly described the management role of Robert C. Pozen at Fidelity Investments, and referred incorrectly to his pay. Mr. Pozen oversaw the entire investment department at Fidelity; he did not manage any funds, including one that made a profit of $1 billion one year. The manager of that fund, not Mr. Pozen, was paid $15 million. Also, the article misinterpreted comments by Mr. Pozen about managing a company. Mr. Pozen was referring to the manager of the portfolio that made $1 billion — not to himself — when he said, “In every organization there are a relatively small number of really critical people.” - -Amanda Cox contributed reporting. - -A version of this article appears in print on , on Page A1 of the New York edition with the headline: The Richest of the Rich, Proud of a New Gilded Age. 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https://www.nytimes.com/content/help/rights/copyright/copyright-notice.html -[98]: https://www.nytimes.com -[99]: http://query.nytimes.com/search/sitesearch/#/ -[100]: mailto:accessibility%40nytimes.com -[101]: https://www.nytimes.com/ref/membercenter/help/infoservdirectory.html -[102]: http://www.nytco.com/careers -[103]: http://nytmediakit.com/ -[104]: https://www.nytimes.com/content/help/rights/privacy/policy/privacy-policy.html#pp -[105]: https://www.nytimes.com/privacy -[106]: https://www.nytimes.com/ref/membercenter/help/agree.html -[107]: https://www.nytimes.com/content/help/rights/sale/terms-of-sale.html -[108]: http://spiderbites.nytimes.com -[109]: https://www.nytimes.com/membercenter/sitehelp.html -[110]: https://myaccount.nytimes.com/membercenter/feedback.html -[111]: https://www.nytimes.com/subscriptions/Multiproduct/lp5558.html?campaignId=37WXW +A front-page article on Sunday about a new era of wealthy and powerful +men incorrectly described the management role of Robert C. Pozen at +Fidelity Investments, and referred incorrectly to his pay. Mr. Pozen +oversaw the entire investment department at Fidelity; he did not manage +any funds, including one that made a profit of $1 billion one year. The +manager of that fund, not Mr. Pozen, was paid $15 million. Also, the +article misinterpreted comments by Mr. Pozen about managing a company. +Mr. Pozen was referring to the manager of the portfolio that made $1 +billion — not to himself — when he said, “In every organization there +are a relatively small number of really critical people.” +[Continue reading the main story](#whats-next) diff --git a/_stories/2007/9911206.md b/_stories/2007/9911206.md index d90e6a9..e39c8f0 100644 --- a/_stories/2007/9911206.md +++ b/_stories/2007/9911206.md @@ -19,7 +19,20 @@ _tags: objectID: '9911206' --- -[Source](https://porg.es/blog/functional-programming-apl-and-unix-pipes "Permalink to ") +# 404 +**File not found** +The site configured at this address does not contain the requested file. +If this is your site, make sure that the filename case matches the +URL. +For root URLs (like `http://example.com/`) you must provide an +`index.html` file. + +[Read the full documentation](https://help.github.com/pages/) for more +information about using **GitHub +Pages**. + 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diff --git a/_stories/2008/10625906.md b/_stories/2008/10625906.md index 20cde8c..d5aa91a 100644 --- a/_stories/2008/10625906.md +++ b/_stories/2008/10625906.md @@ -19,6 +19,467 @@ _tags: objectID: '10625906' --- -[Source](http://kk.org/thetechnium/1000-true-fans/ "Permalink to ") +This is an edited, updated version of an essay I wrote in 2008 when this +now popular idea was embryonic and ragged. I recently rewrote it to +convey the core ideas, minus out-of-date details. This revisited essay +appears in Tim Ferriss’ new book, [Tools of +Titans](https://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/1328683788/cooltools-20). +I believe the 1,000 True Fans concept will be useful to anyone making +things, or making things happen. If you still want to read the much +longer original 2008 essay, you can get it after the end of this +version. — KK +To be a successful creator you don’t need millions. You don’t need +millions of dollars or millions of customers, millions of clients or +millions of fans. To make a living as a craftsperson, photographer, +musician, designer, author, animator, app maker, entrepreneur, or +inventor you need only thousands of true fans. +A true fan is defined as a fan that will buy anything you produce. These +diehard fans will drive 200 miles to see you sing; they will buy the +hardback and paperback and audible versions of your book; they will +purchase your next figurine sight unseen; they will pay for the +“best-of” DVD version of your free youtube channel; they will come +to your chef’s table once a month. If you have roughly a thousand of +true fans like this (also known as super fans), you can make a living — +if you are content to make a living but not a fortune. + +Here’s how the math works. You need to meet two criteria. First, you +have to create enough each year that you can earn, on average, $100 +profit from each true fan. That is easier to do in some arts and +businesses than others, but it is a good creative challenge in every +area because it is always easier and better to give your existing +customers more, than it is to find new fans. + +Second, you must have a direct relationship with your fans. That is, +they must pay you directly. You get to keep all of their support, unlike +the small percent of their fees you might get from a music label, +publisher, studio, retailer, or other intermediate. If you keep the full +$100 of each true fan, then you need only 1,000 of them to earn $100,000 +per year. That’s a living for most folks. + +A thousand customers is a whole lot more feasible to aim for than a +million fans. Millions of paying fans is not a realistic goal to shoot +for, especially when you are starting out. But a thousand fans is +doable. You might even be able to remember a thousand names. If you +added one new true fan per day, it’d only take a few years to gain a +thousand. + +The number 1,000 is not absolute. Its significance is in its rough order +of magnitude — three orders less than a million. The actual number has +to be adjusted for each person. If you are able to only earn $50 per +year per true fan, then you need 2,000. (Likewise if you can sell $200 +per year, you need only 500 true fans.) Or you may need only $75K per +year to live on, so you adjust downward. Or if you are a duet, or have a +partner, then you need to multiply by 2 to get 2,000 fans. For a team, +you need to multiply further. But the good news is that the increase in +the size of your true-fan base is geometric and linear in proportion to +the size of the team; if you increase the team by 33% you only need to +increase your fan base by 33%. + +Another way to calculate the support of a true fan, is to aim to get one +day’s wages per year from them. Can you excite or please them sufficient +to earn one day’s labor? That’s a high bar, but not impossible for 1,000 +people world wide. + +And of course, not every fan will be super. While the support of a +thousand true fans may be sufficient for a living, for every single true +fan, you might have two or three regular fans. Think of concentric +circles with true fans at the center and a wider circle of regular fans +around them. These regular fans may buy your creations occasionally, or +may have bought only once. But their ordinary purchases expand your +total income. Perhaps they bring in an additional 50%. Still, you want +to focus on the super fans because the enthusiasm of true fans can +increase the patronage of regular fans. True fans not only are the +direct source of your income, but also your chief marketing force for +the ordinary fans. + +Fans, customers, patrons have been around forever. What’s new here? A +couple of things. While direct relationship with customers was the +default mode in old times, the benefits of modern retailing meant that +most creators in the last century did not have direct contact with +consumers. Often even the publishers, studios, labels and manufacturers +did not have such crucial information as the name of their customers. +For instance, despite being in business for hundreds of years no New +York book publisher knew the names of their core and dedicated readers. +For previous creators these intermediates (and there was often more than +one) meant you need much larger audiences to have a success. With the +advent of ubiquitous peer-to-peer communication and payment systems — +also known as the web today — everyone has access to excellent tools +that allow anyone to sell directly to anyone else in the world. So a +creator in Bend, Oregon can sell — and deliver — a song to someone in +Katmandu, Nepal as easily as a New York record label (maybe even more +easily). This new technology permits creators to maintain relationships, +so that the customer can become a fan, and so that the creator keeps the +total amount of payment, which reduces the number of fans needed. + +This new ability for the creator to retain the full price is +revolutionary, but a second technological innovation amplifies that +power further. A fundamental virtue of a peer-to-peer network (like the +web) is that the most obscure node is only one click away from the most +popular node. In other words the most obscure under-selling book, song, +or idea, is only one click away from the best selling book, song or +idea. Early in the rise of the web the large aggregators of content and +products, such as eBay, Amazon, Netflix, etc, noticed that the total +sales of \*all\* the lowest selling obscure items would equal or in some +cases exceed the sales of the few best selling items. Chris Anderson (my +successor at Wired) named this effect “The Long Tail,” for the visually +graphed shape of the sales distribution curve: a low nearly interminable +line of items selling only a few copies per year that form a long “tail” +for the abrupt vertical beast of a few bestsellers. But the area of the +tail was as big as the head. With that insight, the aggregators had +great incentive to encourage audiences to click on the obscure items. +They invented recommendation engines and other algorithms to channel +attention to the rare creations in the long tail. Even web search +companies like Google, Bing, Baidu found it in their interests to reward +searchers with the obscure because they could sell ads in the long tail +as well. The result was that the most obscure became less obscure. + +If you lived in any of the 2 million small towns on Earth you might be +the only one in your town to crave death metal music, or get turned on +by whispering, or want a left-handed fishing reel. Before the web you’d +never be able to satisfy that desire. You’d be alone in your +fascination. But now satisfaction is only one click away. Whatever your +interests as a creator are, your 1,000 true fans are one click from you. +As far as I can tell there is nothing — no product, no idea, no desire — +without a fan base on the internet. Every thing made, or thought of, can +interest at least one person in a million — it’s a low bar. Yet if even +only one out of million people were interested, that’s potentially 7,000 +people on the planet. That means that any 1-in-a-million appeal can find +1,000 true fans. The trick is to practically find those fans, or more +accurately, to have them find you. + +Now here’s the thing; the big corporations, the intermediates, the +commercial producers, are all under-equipped and ill suited to connect +with these thousand true fans. They are institutionally unable to find +and deliver niche audiences and consumers. That means the long tail is +wide open to you, the creator. You’ll have your one-in-a-million true +fans to yourself. And the tools for connecting keep getting better, +including the recent innovations in social media. It has never been +easier to gather 1,000 true fans around a creator, and never easier to +keep them near. + +One of the many new innovations serving the true fan creator is +crowdfunding. Having your fans finance your next product for them is +genius. Win-win all around. There are about 2,000 different crowdfunding +platforms worldwide, many of them specializing in specific fields: +raising money for science experiments, for bands, or documentaries. Each +has its own requirements and a different funding model, in addition to +specialized interests. Some platforms require “all or nothing” funding +goals, others permit partial funding, some raise money for completed +projects, some like Patreon, fund ongoing projects. Patreon supporters +might fund a monthly magazine, or a video series, or an artist’s salary. +The most famous and largest crowdfunder is Kickstarter, which has raised +$2.5 billion for more than 100,000 projects. The average number of +supporters for a successful Kickstarter project is 241 funders — far +less than a thousand. That means If you have 1,000 true fans you can do +a crowdfunding campaign, because by definition a true fan will become a +Kickstarter funder. (Although success of your campaign is dependent on +what you ask of your fans). + +The truth is that cultivating a thousand true fans is time consuming, +sometimes nerve racking, and not for everyone. Done well (and why not do +it well?) it can become another full-time job. At best it will be a +consuming and challenging part-time task that requires ongoing skills. +There are many creators who don’t want to deal with fans, and honestly +should not. They should just paint, or sew, or make music, and hire +someone else to deal with their superfans. If that is you and you add +someone to deal with fans, a helper will skew your formula, increasing +the number of fans you need, but that might be the best mix. If you go +that far, then why not “subcontract” out dealing with fans to the middle +people — the labels and studios and publishers and retailers? If they +work for you, fine, but remember, in most cases they would be even worse +at this than you would. + +The mathematics of 1,000 true fans is not a binary choice. You don’t +have to go this route to the exclusion of another. Many creators, +including myself, will use direct relations with super fans in addition +to mainstream intermediaries. I have been published by several big-time +New York publishers. I have self-published. And I have used Kickstarter +to publish to my true fans. I chose each format depending on the content +and my aim. But in every case, cultivating my true fans enriches the +route I choose. + +The takeaway: 1,000 true fans is an alternative path to success other +than stardom. Instead of trying to reach the narrow and unlikely peaks +of platinum bestseller hits, blockbusters, and celebrity status, you can +aim for direct connection with a thousand true fans. On your way, no +matter how many fans you actually succeed in gaining, you’ll be +surrounded not by faddish infatuation, but by genuine and true +appreciation. It’s a much saner destiny to hope for. And you are much +more likely to actually arrive there. + +The original 2008 essay follows. It was written before the advent of +Kickstarter, Indiegogo and other crowdfunding sites, and includes more +the idea’s history. — KK + +\[Translations: +[Chinese](https://service.goodcharacters.com/blog/blog.php?id=165), +[French](http://versionfrancaise.blogspot.com/2008/08/1000-vrais-fans.html), +[German](http://www.flocutus.de/ubersetzungen/1000-wahre-fans/), +[Hebrew](http://kk.org/thetechnium/1KTrueFans-Hebrew.pdf), +[Italian](http://horizonsmusic.wordpress.com/2014/02/13/kevin-kelly-1000-veri-fans-ita/), +[Japanese](http://memo7.sblo.jp/article/12799892.html), +[Portuguese](http://www.empreendedor-digital.com/1000-fas-verdadeiros), +[Romanian](http://webhostinggeeks.com/science/true-fans-ro), +[Spanish](https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/kk.archive/1%2C000+Fans+Verdaderos%2C+Spanish.pdf), +[Danish](http://www.stinus.net/da/1000-rigtige-fans/)\] + +The long tail is famously good news for two classes of people; a few +lucky aggregators, such as Amazon and Netflix, and 6 billion consumers. +Of those two, I think consumers earn the greater reward from the wealth +hidden in infinite niches. + +But the long tail is a decidedly mixed blessing for creators. Individual +artists, producers, inventors and makers are overlooked in the equation. +The long tail does not raise the sales of creators much, but it does add +massive competition and endless downward pressure on prices. Unless +artists become a large aggregator of other artist’s works, the long tail +offers no path out of the quiet doldrums of minuscule sales. + +Other than aim for a blockbuster hit, what can an artist do to escape +the long tail? + +One solution is to find 1,000 True Fans. While some artists have +discovered this path without calling it that, I think it is worth trying +to formalize. The gist of 1,000 True Fans can be stated simply: + +A creator, such as an artist, musician, photographer, craftsperson, +performer, animator, designer, videomaker, or author – in other words, +anyone producing works of art – needs to acquire only 1,000 True Fans to +make a living. + +A True Fan is defined as someone who will purchase anything and +everything you produce. They will drive 200 miles to see you sing. They +will buy the super deluxe re-issued hi-res box set of your stuff even +though they have the low-res version. They have a Google Alert set for +your name. They bookmark the eBay page where your out-of-print editions +show up. They come to your openings. They have you sign their copies. +They buy the t-shirt, and the mug, and the hat. They can’t wait till you +issue your next work. They are true fans. + +![Truefans-1](http://kk.org/thetechnium/TrueFans-1.jpg) + +To raise your sales out of the flatline of the long tail you need to +connect with your True Fans directly.  Another way to state this is, you +need to convert a thousand Lesser Fans into a thousand True Fans. + +Assume conservatively that your True Fans will each spend one day’s +wages per year in support of what you do. That “one-day-wage” is an +average, because of course your truest fans will spend a lot more than +that.  Let’s peg that per diem each True Fan spends at $100 per year. If +you have 1,000 fans that sums up to $100,000 per year, which minus some +modest expenses, is a living for most folks. + +One thousand is a feasible number. You could count to 1,000. If you +added one fan a day, it would take only three years. True Fanship is +doable. Pleasing a True Fan is pleasurable, and invigorating. It rewards +the artist to remain true, to focus on the unique aspects of their work, +the qualities that True Fans appreciate. + +The key challenge is that you have to maintain direct contact with your +1,000 True Fans. They are giving you their support directly. Maybe they +come to your house concerts, or they are buying your DVDs from your +website, or they order your prints from Pictopia. As much as possible +you retain the full amount of their support. You also benefit from the +direct feedback and love. + +The technologies of connection and small-time manufacturing make this +circle possible. Blogs and RSS feeds trickle out news, and upcoming +appearances or new works. Web sites host galleries of your past work, +archives of biographical information, and catalogs of paraphernalia. +Diskmakers, Blurb, rapid prototyping shops, Myspace, Facebook, and the +entire digital domain all conspire to make duplication and dissemination +in small quantities fast, cheap and easy. You don’t need a million fans +to justify producing something new. A mere one thousand is sufficient. + +This small circle of diehard fans, which can provide you with a living, +is surrounded by concentric circles of Lesser Fans. These folks will not +purchase everything you do, and may not seek out direct contact, but +they will buy much of what you produce. The processes you develop to +feed your True Fans will also nurture Lesser Fans. As you acquire new +True Fans, you can also add many more Lesser Fans. If you keep going, +you may indeed end up with millions of fans and reach a hit. I don’t +know of any creator who is not interested in having a million fans. + +But the point of this strategy is to say that you don’t need a hit to +survive.  You don’t need to aim for the short head of best-sellerdom to +escape the long tail. There is a place in the middle, that is not very +far away from the tail, where you can at least make a living. That +mid-way haven is called 1,000 True Fans. It is an alternate destination +for an artist to aim for. + +Young artists starting out in this digitally mediated world have another +path other than stardom, a path made possible by the very technology +that creates the long tail. Instead of trying to reach the narrow and +unlikely peaks of platinum hits, bestseller blockbusters, and celebrity +status, they can aim for direct connection with 1,000 True Fans. It’s a +much saner destination to hope for. You make a living instead of a +fortune. You are surrounded not by fad and fashionable infatuation, but +by True Fans. And you are much more likely to actually arrive there. + +A few caveats. This formula – one thousand direct True Fans —  is +crafted for one person, the solo artist. What happens in a duet, or +quartet, or movie crew? Obviously, you’ll need more fans. But the +additional fans you’ll need are in direct geometric proportion to the +increase of your creative group. In other words, if you increase your +group size by 33%, you need add only 33% more fans. This linear growth +is in contrast to the exponential growth by which many things in the +digital domain inflate. I would not be surprised to find that the value +of your True Fans network follows the standard network effects rule, and +increases as the square of the number of Fans. As your True Fans connect +with each other, they will more readily increase their average spending +on your works. So while increasing the numbers of artists involved in +creation increases the number of True Fans needed, the increase does not +explode, but rises gently and in proportion. + +A more important caution: Not every artist is cut out, or willing, to be +a nurturer of fans. Many musicians just want to play music, or +photographers just want to shoot, or painters paint, and they +temperamentally don’t want to deal with fans, **especially** True Fans. +For these creatives, they need a mediator, a manager, a handler, an +agent, a galleryist — someone to manage their fans.  Nonetheless, they +can still aim for the same middle destination of 1,000 True Fans. They +are just working in a duet. + +Third distinction. Direct fans are best. The number of True Fans needed +to make a living **indirectly** inflates fast, but not infinitely. Take +blogging as an example. Because fan support for a blogger routes through +advertising clicks (except in the occasional +[tip-jar](http://tipjoy.com/)), more fans are needed for a blogger to +make a living. But while this moves the destination towards the left on +the long tail curve, it is still far short of blockbuster territory. +Same is true in book publishing. When you have corporations involved in +taking the majority of the revenue for your work, then it takes many +times more True Fans to support you. To the degree an author cultivates +direct contact with his/her fans, the smaller the number needed. + +Lastly, the actual number may vary depending on the media. Maybe it is +500 True Fans for a painter and 5,000 True Fans for a videomaker. The +numbers must surely vary around the world. But in fact the actual number +is not critical, because it cannot be determined except by attempting +it. Once you are in that mode, the actual number will become evident. +That will be the True Fan number that works for you. My formula may be +off by an order of magnitude, but even so, its far less than a million. + +I’ve been scouring the literature for any references to the True Fan +number. [Suck.com](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suck.com) co-founder +Carl Steadman had theory about microcelebrities. By his count, a +microcelebrity was someone famous to 1,500 people. So those fifteen +hundred would rave about you. As quoted by [Danny +O’Brien](//www.oblomovka.com/entries/2004/08/08#1091959020), “One +person in every town in Britain likes your dumb online comic. That’s +enough to keep you in beers (or T-shirt sales) all year.” + +Others call this microcelebrity support micro-patronage, or distributed +patronage. + +In 1999 John Kelsey and Bruce Schneier published a model for this in +First Monday, an online journal. They called it the [Street Performer +Protocol](http://www.firstmonday.org/issues/issue4_6/kelsey/). + +> Using the logic of a street performer, the author goes directly to the +> readers before the book is published; perhaps even before the book is +> written. The author bypasses the publisher and makes a public +> statement on the order of: “When I get $100,000 in donations, I will +> release the next novel in this series.” +> +> Readers can go to the author’s Web site, see how much money has +> already been donated, and donate money to the cause of getting his +> novel out. Note that the author doesn’t care who pays to get the next +> chapter out; nor does he care how many people read the book that +> didn’t pay for it. He just cares that his $100,000 pot gets filled. +> When it does, he publishes the next book. In this case “publish” +> simply means “make available,” not “bind and distribute through +> bookstores.” The book is made available, free of charge, to everyone: +> those who paid for it and those who did not. + +In 2004 author [Lawrence +Watt-Evans](http://www.ethshar.com/thesprigganexperiment0.html)used this +model to publish his newest novel. He asked his True Fans to +collectively pay $100 per month. When he got $100 he posted the next +chapter of the novel. The entire book was published online for his True +Fans, and then later in paper for all his fans. He is now writing a +second novel this way. He gets by on an estimated 200 True Fans because +he also publishes in the traditional manner — with advances from a +publisher supported by thousands of Lesser Fans.  Other authors who use +fans to directly support their work are [Diane +Duane](http://www.the-big-meow.com/), [Sharon Lee and Steve +Miller](http://www.korval.com/fledgling/), and [Don +Sakers](http://www.readersadvice.com/mmeade/scatwlds/sponsor.html). Game +designer [Greg Stolze](http://www.gregstolze.com/ransom.html) employed a +similar True Fan model to launch [two pre-financed +games](http://www.danielsolis.com/meatbot/ransom.html). Fifty of his +True Fans contributed seed money for his development costs. + +The genius of the True Fan model is that the fans are able to move an +artist away from the edges of the long tail to a degree larger than +their numbers indicate. They can do this in three ways: by purchasing +more per person, by spending directly so the creator keeps more per +sale, and by enabling new models of support. + +New models of support include micro-patronage. Another model is +pre-financing the startup costs. Digital technology enables this fan +support to take many shapes. [Fundable](http://www.fundable.org/) is a +web-based enterprise which allows anyone to raise a fixed amount of +money for a project, while reassuring the backers the project will +happen. Fundable withholds the money until the full amount is collected. +They return the money if the minimum is not reached. + +![Fundable](http://kk.org/thetechnium/Fundable.jpg) + +Here’s an example from Fundable’s site; + +> Amelia, a twenty-year-old classical soprano singer, pre-sold her first +> CD before entering a recording studio. “If I get $400 in pre-orders, I +> will be able to afford the rest \[of the studio costs\],” she told +> potential contributors. Fundable’s all-or-nothing model ensured that +> none of her customers would lose money if she fell short of her goal. +> Amelia sold over $940 in albums. + +A thousand dollars won’t keep even a starving artist alive long, but +with serious attention, a dedicated artist can do better with their True +Fans. [Jill Sobule](http://www.jillsobule.com/jetpackintro.html), a +musician who has nurtured a sizable following over many years of touring +and recording, is doing well relying on her True Fans. Recently she +decided to go to her fans to finance the $75,000 professional recording +fees she needed for her next album. She has raised close to $50,000 so +far. By directly supporting her via their patronage, the fans gain +intimacy with their artist. According to the [Associated +Press](http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20080303/ap_en_mu/music_making_jill_s_cd): + +> Contributors can choose a level of pledges ranging from the $10 +> “unpolished rock,” which earns them a free digital download of her +> disc when it’s made, to the $10,000 “weapons-grade plutonium level,” +> where she promises “you get to come and sing on my CD. Don’t worry if +> you can’t sing – we can fix that on our end.” For a $5,000 +> contribution, Sobule said she’ll perform a concert in the donor’s +> house. The lower levels are more popular, where donors can earn things +> like an advanced copy of the CD, a mention in the liner notes and a +> T-shirt identifying them as a “junior executive producer” of the CD. + +The usual alternative to making a living based on True Fans is poverty.  +A study as recently as 1995 showed that the accepted price of being an +artist was large. Sociologist [Ruth +Towse](http://books.google.com/books?id=eDb1GI3Nr-cC&pg=PA96&vq=The+Value+of+Culture:+On+the+Relationship+Between+Economics+and+Arts&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=0_0&sig=9QEYLk6aBQ9Cv39M2AuDDYFQ7NI#PPA99,M1) +surveyed artists in Britian and determined that on average they earned +below poverty subsistence levels. + +I am suggesting there is a home for creatives in between poverty and +stardom. Somewhere lower than stratospheric bestsellerdom, but higher +than the obscurity of the long tail. I don’t know the actual true +number, but I think a dedicated artist could cultivate 1,000 True Fans, +and by their direct support using new technology, make an honest +living.  I’d love to hear from anyone who might have settled on such a +path. + +**Updates:** + +One artist who partially relies on True Fans responds with a disclosure +of his finances: +[The Reality of Depending on True +Fans](http://kk.org/thetechnium/archives/2008/04/the_reality_of.php) + +I report the results of my survey of artists supported by True Fans: +[The Case Against 1000 True +Fans](http://kk.org/thetechnium/archives/2008/04/the_case_agains.php) diff --git a/_stories/2008/10886087.md b/_stories/2008/10886087.md deleted file mode 100644 index 085b836..0000000 --- a/_stories/2008/10886087.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,25 +0,0 @@ ---- -created_at: '2016-01-12T07:42:47.000Z' -title: Why is nobody using SSL client certificates? (2008) -url: https://pilif.github.io/2008/05/why-is-nobody-using-ssl-client-certificates/ -author: g1n016399 -points: 56 -story_text: -comment_text: -num_comments: 58 -story_id: -story_title: -story_url: -parent_id: -created_at_i: 1452584567 -_tags: -- story -- author_g1n016399 -- story_10886087 -objectID: '10886087' - ---- -[Source](https://pilif.github.io/2008/05/why-is-nobody-using-ssl-client-certificates/ "Permalink to ") - - - diff --git a/_stories/2008/10993961.md b/_stories/2008/10993961.md index 2f0c1df..1966a95 100644 --- a/_stories/2008/10993961.md +++ b/_stories/2008/10993961.md @@ -19,7 +19,94 @@ _tags: objectID: '10993961' --- -[Source](https://www.theguardian.com/music/2008/aug/01/daphne.oram.remembered "Permalink to ") +As the BBC Radiophonic Workshop celebrates its 50th anniversary, we pay +tribute to the life and legacy of its co-founder Daphne Oram, one of the +pioneers of British electronic music +There are many histories of electronic music. Some focus on the +avant-garde studios active in Europe, America, Russia and the old +eastern bloc countries, and usually mention the work of Karlheinz +Stockhausen, Pierre Schaeffer, Luciano Berio, John Cage and others. +There are other stories that focus on popular music: Kraftwerk, the +Human League, Depeche Mode and Aphex Twin. And there are more esoteric +studies that mention Raymond Scott, Louis and Bebe Barron, Tom Dissevelt +and Kid Baltan. Yet, however hard you look into the history of +electronic music, there is one name you'll struggle to find – that of +Daphne Oram. +Oram was one of the first British composers to produce electronic sound, +a pioneer of what became "musique concrete" – music made with sounds +recorded on tape, the ancestor of today's electronic music. Her story +makes for fascinating reading. She was born in 1925 when Britain was +between two world wars. She was extremely bright, and studied music and +electronics – unusual at the time not only because electronics was an +exciting new industry, but also because it was a man's world. +She went on to join the [BBC](https://www.theguardian.com/media/bbc), +and, while many of the corporation's male staff were away fighting in +the second world war, she became a balancing engineer, mixing the sounds +captured by microphones at classical music concerts. In those days, +nearly all programmes went out live because recording was extremely +cumbersome and expensive. Tape hadn't been invented, and cheap computers +were half a century away. + +Yet when tape did come along, in the early 1950s, Oram was quick to +realise that it could be used not simply for recording existing sounds, +but for composing a new kind of music. Not the music of instruments, +notes and tunes, but the music of ordinary, everyday sound. + +After Oram had finished her day's work, and everyone had gone home, she +trundled tape recorders the size of industrial gas cookers from empty +studios, and gathered them to experiment late into the night. She +recorded sounds on to tape, and then cut, spliced and looped them; +slowed them down, sped them up, played them backwards. It must have been +like working in a laboratory, or inventing new colours – a new world +almost impossible to imagine now. + +Unfortunately – perhaps inevitably – nobody at the BBC was interested. +Still Oram kept going. She badgered senior figures to set up a +department producing experimental sound works, only to be told that the +BBC had several orchestras capable of producing all the sounds that were +needed. + +Eventually, however, a committee looking into "Electrophonic Effects" +was set up, and Oram shared the results of her experiments. But still +they didn't want her to be involved. "They wanted my work," she later +said, "but they didn't want me." So she teamed up with another recording +engineer, Desmond Briscoe, and in 1958, 16 years after Oram first joined +the BBC, the pair were given a spare room in the Maida Vale studios, +along with some out-of-date equipment, and left alone to get on with it. +To avoid complications with the orchestras, the Musicians' Union and the +BBC music departments, they had to avoid the word "music" entirely, so +they called the project something else. The BBC Radiophonic Workshop was +born. + +Within a few months of founding one of the most famous music studios in +the world, however, Oram left. There was a clash of ambitions. She +wanted to develop an experimental institution, like those in Paris, +Cologne and Milan, producing electro-acoustic music by international +avant-garde composers of the day. The BBC, yet again, had other ideas: +it wanted a sound-effects factory producing jingles for schools +programmes and radio drama. + +So Oram set up on her own in a deserted oast house in Kent. Here she +built an astonishing contraption, the "Oramics" machine, which produced +pure electronic sound. It was about the size of a chest of drawers and +was constructed from metal shelving materials. Electric motors pulled +eight parallel tracks of clear 35mm film stock across scanners that +operated like TV sets in reverse. On the film she drew curving black +lines, squiggles and dots, all converted into sound. It looked and +sounded strikingly modern. + +Although she was rumoured to have been visited by members of the +Beatles, the Rolling Stones and the Who, as well as the avant garde of +the day, Oram was bypassed by the music establishment – at least until +now. Her archive is at last being catalogued and cherished at Goldsmiths +College in London. Recently, the South Bank Centre devoted a whole day +to her work. A double CD has been released, and very soon a digital +version of the Oramics machine will be available online. We're 40 years +too late, but it seems we might finally catch up with the astonishing +life and legacy of Daphne Oram. + +\- Wee Have Also Sound-Houses, focusing on the life and work of Daphne +Oram, will be broadcast on BBC Radio 3 this Sunday, 3 August at 9.45pm diff --git a/_stories/2008/11040411.md b/_stories/2008/11040411.md deleted file mode 100644 index ecd2c13..0000000 --- a/_stories/2008/11040411.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,25 +0,0 @@ ---- -created_at: '2016-02-05T09:17:15.000Z' -title: Pepsi Design Strategy (2008) -url: https://people.mozilla.org/~faaborg/files/20090521-firefoxIconQA/pepsi_gravitational_field.pdf?utm_source=designernews -author: reimertz -points: 63 -story_text: -comment_text: -num_comments: 31 -story_id: -story_title: -story_url: -parent_id: -created_at_i: 1454663835 -_tags: -- story -- author_reimertz -- story_11040411 -objectID: '11040411' - ---- -[Source](https://people.mozilla.org/~faaborg/files/20090521-firefoxIconQA/pepsi_gravitational_field.pdf "Permalink to ") - - - diff --git a/_stories/2008/11617906.md b/_stories/2008/11617906.md deleted file mode 100644 index 98e8f08..0000000 --- a/_stories/2008/11617906.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,25 +0,0 @@ ---- -created_at: '2016-05-03T04:25:18.000Z' -title: 'Ph.D. Completion and Attrition: Analysis of Baseline Data (2008) [pdf]' -url: https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&url=http://www.phdcompletion.org/resources/cgsnsf2008_sowell.pdf&ved=0ahUKEwj95P_2gb3MAhUM2R4KHRa2CCoQFggmMAM&usg=AFQjCNHLz0J1rbC2A1ajmb3R3igIp0BIcg&sig2=io81cXVUh7Fq9pa96YDe8g -author: vinchuco -points: 41 -story_text: -comment_text: -num_comments: 30 -story_id: -story_title: -story_url: -parent_id: -created_at_i: 1462249518 -_tags: -- story -- author_vinchuco -- story_11617906 -objectID: '11617906' - ---- -[Source](https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&url=http://www.phdcompletion.org/resources/cgsnsf2008_sowell.pdf&ved=0ahUKEwj95P_2gb3MAhUM2R4KHRa2CCoQFggmMAM&usg=AFQjCNHLz0J1rbC2A1ajmb3R3igIp0BIcg&sig2=io81cXVUh7Fq9pa96YDe8g "Permalink to ") - - - diff --git a/_stories/2008/11874014.md b/_stories/2008/11874014.md index 741f418..b423881 100644 --- a/_stories/2008/11874014.md +++ b/_stories/2008/11874014.md @@ -19,305 +19,83 @@ _tags: objectID: '11874014' --- -[Source](http://www.zdnet.com/article/cryogenically-frozen-ram-bypasses-all-disk-encryption-methods/ "Permalink to Cryogenically frozen RAM bypasses all disk encryption methods | ZDNet") +[![](http://blogs.zdnet.com/Ou/images/memorex_airduster.jpg)](http://memorex.com/html/products_detail.php?section=2&CID=9&SID=23&PID=522&FID=110&opento=9)Computer +encryption technologies have all relied on one key assumption that RAM +(Random Access Memory) is volatile and that all content is lost when +power is lost. That key assumption is now being fundamentally challenged +with a $7 can of compressed air and it's enough to give every security +professional heart burn. -# Cryogenically frozen RAM bypasses all disk encryption methods | ZDNet +We all had some theoretical concerns, but surely it would be too +difficult to transport hot memory from one computer to another to +extract its contents right? That's what we all thought until a [group of +researchers from Princeton +University](http://citp.princeton.edu/memory/) showed that memory wasn't +as volatile as we had all assumed ([see +Techmeme](http://www.techmeme.com/080221/p95#a080221p95)). As a matter +of fact, memory would hold its contents for a duration of seconds or +even minutes with the power cut off. If that wasn't long enough, a can +of compressed air used upside down will cryogenically freeze memory and +keep the data intact for several minutes to an hours. This means the +ultrasensitive encryption keys used to protect data can be exposed +in**[![](https://zdnet4.cbsistatic.com/hub/i/r/2014/10/04/bedf805a-4b65-11e4-b6a0-d4ae52e95e57/resize/270xauto/638f24ddb077996caac7727a18c27cee/189069-525-349.jpg)](http://content.zdnet.com/2346-9595_22-189068.html?tag=gald)** +the clear. -This web site uses cookies to improve your experience. By viewing our content, you are accepting the use of cookies. To find out more and change your cookie settings, please [view our cookie policy][1]. +**Also see: [Images: How to bypass FileVault, BitLocker +security](http://content.zdnet.com/2346-9595_22-189068.html?tag=gald)** -* Edition: - * Asia - * Australia - * Europe - * India - * United Kingdom - * United States - * ZDNet around the globe: - * [ ZDNet China ][2] - * [ ZDNet France ][3] - * [ ZDNet Germany ][4] - * [ ZDNet Korea ][5] - * [ ZDNet Japan ][6] +Most of the time, the compressed air probably isn't even necessary but +it can offer a sure way to get the job done since the RAM can be safely +moved to a different computer. Once that computer boots up in to a +special OS designed for RAM forensics, it is possible to dump the raw +contents of memory on to storage. Even if parts of the key were lost due +to power-loss decay, a simply exhaustive search should be able to +recreate the key. But by freezing the memory, it's unlikely that much +data would be lost in the first place. -[ ][7] +Most of the time, the compressed air probably isn't even necessary but +it can offer a sure way to get the job done since the RAM can be safely +moved to a different computer. Once that computer boots up in to a +special OS designed for RAM forensics, it is possible to dump the raw +contents of memory on to storage. Even if parts of the key were lost due +to power-loss decay, a simply exhaustive search should be able to +recreate the key. But by freezing the memory, it's unlikely that much +data would be lost in the first place. -Search +This same attack works without the compressed air or RAM migration if +the computer is configured for USB or LAN boot. You simply put in a USB +dongle and boot off that dongle or you can boot off the network. Booting +off the optical drive is probably just as easy and more likely to work. +Then you can dump the RAW memory contents to the USB dongle or a network +share. If the computer will only boot to the hard drive and the BIOS is +locked from reconfiguration, then you might run in to some problems +because you've already wasted a minute trying to find all this out but +the freeze and memory migrate method gets around any of these boot-up +limitations. -Go +If an embedded TPM is involved, a simple swapping of the hard drive will +get around all these problems. Once the raw contents are saved to disk, +forensics software can retrieve the keys from disk encryption systems +such as Vista BitLocker, Apple FileVault, TrueCrypt, dm-crypt, and +potentially a bunch of other data encryption solutions as well. Once is +key is exposed, the hard drive might as well not be encrypted at all. -* [ Videos ][8] -* [ Smart Cities ][9] -* [ Windows 10 ][10] -* [ Cloud ][11] -* [ Innovation ][12] -* [ Security ][13] -* [ Tech Pro ][14] -* more - * [ ZDNet Academy ][15] - * [ Digital Transformation ][16] - * [ Microsoft ][17] - * [ Mobility ][18] - * [ IoT ][19] - * [ Hardware ][20] - * [ Best VPN Services ][21] - * [ See All Topics ][22] - * [ White Papers ][23] - * [ Downloads ][24] - * [ Reviews ][25] - * [ Galleries ][26] - * [ Videos ][8] -* [Newsletters][27] -* [All Writers][28] -* * [Log In to ZDNET][29] - * [Join ZDNet][30] - * [About ZDNet][31] - * [Preferences][32] - * [Community][33] - * [Newsletters][34] - * [Log Out][35] -* [ ][7] -* * Go -* Menu - * [ Videos ][8] - * [ Smart Cities ][9] - * [ Windows 10 ][10] - * [ Cloud ][11] - * [ Innovation ][12] - * [ Security ][13] - * [ Tech Pro ][14] - * [ ZDNet Academy ][15] - * [ Digital Transformation ][16] - * [ Microsoft ][17] - * [ Mobility ][18] - * [ IoT ][19] - * [ Hardware ][20] - * [ Best VPN Services ][21] - * [ See All Topics ][22] - * [ White Papers ][23] - * [ Downloads ][24] - * [ Reviews ][25] - * [ Galleries ][26] - * [ Videos ][8] -* * * [Log In to ZDNET][29] - * [Join ZDNet][30] - * [About ZDNet][31] - * [Preferences][32] - * [Community][33] - * [Newsletters][34] - * [Log Out][35] -* us - - * Asia - * Australia - * Europe - * India - * United Kingdom - * United States - * ZDNet around the globe: - * [ ZDNet China ][2] - * [ ZDNet France ][3] - * [ ZDNet Germany ][4] - * [ ZDNet Korea ][5] - * [ ZDNet Japan ][6] - -# Cryogenically frozen RAM bypasses all disk encryption methods - -Computer encryption technologies have all relied on one key assumption that RAM (Random Access Memory) is volatile and that all content is lost when power is lost. That key assumption is now being fundamentally challenged with a $7 can of compressed air and it's enough to give every security professional heart burn. - -[ ![George Ou][36] ][37] - -By [George Ou][37] for [Zero Day][38] | February 21, 2008 -- 23:59 GMT (15:59 PST) | Topic: [Enterprise Software][39] -* [ 0 ][40] -* * * * ![][41]Computer encryption technologies have all relied on one key assumption that RAM (Random Access Memory) is volatile and that all content is lost when power is lost. That key assumption is now being fundamentally challenged with a $7 can of compressed air and it's enough to give every security professional heart burn. - -We all had some theoretical concerns, but surely it would be too difficult to transport hot memory from one computer to another to extract its contents right? That's what we all thought until a [group of researchers from Princeton University][42] showed that memory wasn't as volatile as we had all assumed ([see Techmeme][43]). As a matter of fact, memory would hold its contents for a duration of seconds or even minutes with the power cut off. If that wasn't long enough, a can of compressed air used upside down will cryogenically freeze memory and keep the data intact for several minutes to an hours. This means the ultrasensitive encryption keys used to protect data can be exposed in**![][44]** the clear. - -**Also see: [Images: How to bypass FileVault, BitLocker security][45] ** - -Most of the time, the compressed air probably isn't even necessary but it can offer a sure way to get the job done since the RAM can be safely moved to a different computer. Once that computer boots up in to a special OS designed for RAM forensics, it is possible to dump the raw contents of memory on to storage. Even if parts of the key were lost due to power-loss decay, a simply exhaustive search should be able to recreate the key. But by freezing the memory, it's unlikely that much data would be lost in the first place. - -This same attack works without the compressed air or RAM migration if the computer is configured for USB or LAN boot. You simply put in a USB dongle and boot off that dongle or you can boot off the network. Booting off the optical drive is probably just as easy and more likely to work. Then you can dump the RAW memory contents to the USB dongle or a network share. If the computer will only boot to the hard drive and the BIOS is locked from reconfiguration, then you might run in to some problems because you've already wasted a minute trying to find all this out but the freeze and memory migrate method gets around any of these boot-up limitations. - -If an embedded TPM is involved, a simple swapping of the hard drive will get around all these problems. Once the raw contents are saved to disk, forensics software can retrieve the keys from disk encryption systems such as Vista BitLocker, Apple FileVault, TrueCrypt, dm-crypt, and potentially a bunch of other data encryption solutions as well. Once is key is exposed, the hard drive might as well not be encrypted at all. - -The challenge we are facing here is fundamentally difficult because the problem stems from a combination of hardware, software, and usability. The software assumes the hardware (RAM) will lose its content as soon as power is lost and that simply isn't the case. RAM is designed to be low power, low latency, low cost, high density, and high throughput but nowhere on that list is "quick to forget when powered off". Even if the memory could be designed to rapidly expire in under a second, -150 Celsius liquid nitrogen can extend that time by orders of magnitude. - -We might design encryption software to flush the key every few minutes when not in use but that gets in to usability issues. No one wants to be forced to pull out a USB dongle every few minutes or have to type in a password to extract the key from the TPM. Sort of a user-friendly transparent proximity solution where the user wears some sort of secure wireless token that can securely hand out the encryption key whenever needed by the push of a button do I see it practical to frequently flush the encryption key from the encryption software. There was little motivation to build such a system but with this latest breakthrough in offensive capability, we might have to consider it. - -### Related Topics: - -[ CXO ][46] [ Cloud ][11] [ Big Data Analytics ][47] [ Innovation ][12] [ Tech and Work ][48] [ Collaboration ][49] - -* [ 0 ][40] -* * * * [LOG IN TO COMMENT][50] -* [My Profile][32] -* [Log Out][35] - -| [Community Guidelines][51] - -### Join Discussion - -[Add Your Comment][50] - -[Add Your Comment][40] - -## Related Stories - -* [ ![MYOB thanks SME segment for AU$60.7m FY17 profit][52] ][53] - -Enterprise Software - -[MYOB thanks SME segment for AU$60.7m FY17 profit][54] - -* [ ![​Show-stopping bug appears in npm Node.js package manager][55] ][56] - -Enterprise Software - -[​Show-stopping bug appears in npm Node.js package manager][57] - -* [ ![HPE delivers Q1 earnings beat, shares up after hours][58] ][59] - -Enterprise Software - -[HPE delivers Q1 earnings beat, shares up after hours][60] - -* [ ![Windows 10 tip: Search for any file by date][61] ][62] - -Windows 10 - -[Windows 10 tip: Search for any file by date][63] - -× - -#### Thank You - -## Please review our terms of service to complete your newsletter subscription. - -By registering you become a member of the CBS Interactive family of sites and you have read and agree to the [Terms of Use][64], [Privacy Policy][65] and [Video Services Policy][66]. 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http://legalterms.cbsinteractive.com/adchoice -[73]: http://www.zdnet.com/advertise/ -[74]: http://legalterms.cbsinteractive.com/terms-of-use -[75]: http://legalterms.cbsinteractive.com/eula -[76]: http://narratives.zdnet.com/ -[77]: http://www.zdnet.com/sitemap/ -[78]: http://www.zdnet.com/rssfeeds/ -[79]: http://www.zdnet.com/reprints/ -[80]: https://secure.zdnet.com/members/ -[81]: https://cbsi.secure.force.com/CBSi/knowledgehome?referer=zdnet.com +The challenge we are facing here is fundamentally difficult because the +problem stems from a combination of hardware, software, and usability. +The software assumes the hardware (RAM) will lose its content as soon as +power is lost and that simply isn't the case. RAM is designed to be low +power, low latency, low cost, high density, and high throughput but +nowhere on that list is "quick to forget when powered off". Even if the +memory could be designed to rapidly expire in under a second, -150 +Celsius liquid nitrogen can extend that time by orders of magnitude. +We might design encryption software to flush the key every few minutes +when not in use but that gets in to usability issues. No one wants to be +forced to pull out a USB dongle every few minutes or have to type in a +password to extract the key from the TPM. Sort of a user-friendly +transparent proximity solution where the user wears some sort of secure +wireless token that can securely hand out the encryption key whenever +needed by the push of a button do I see it practical to frequently flush +the encryption key from the encryption software. There was little +motivation to build such a system but with this latest breakthrough in +offensive capability, we might have to consider it. diff --git a/_stories/2008/12471604.md b/_stories/2008/12471604.md index 8e6ae45..365d90a 100644 --- a/_stories/2008/12471604.md +++ b/_stories/2008/12471604.md @@ -19,7 +19,263 @@ _tags: objectID: '12471604' --- -[Source](https://www.joelonsoftware.com/items/2008/02/19.html "Permalink to ") +Last week, Microsoft published the [binary file formats for +Office](http://www.microsoft.com/interop/docs/OfficeBinaryFormats.mspx). +These formats appear to be almost completely insane. The Excel 97-2003 +file format is a 349 page PDF file. But wait, that’s not all there is to +it\! This document includes the following interesting comment: +> Each Excel workbook is stored in a compound file. +You see, Excel 97-2003 files are OLE compound documents, which are, +essentially, file systems inside a single file. These are sufficiently +complicated that you have to read another 9 page spec to figure that +out. And these “specs” look more like C data structures than what we +traditionally think of as a spec. It’s a whole hierarchical file system. +If you started reading these documents with the hope of spending a +weekend writing some spiffy code that imports Word documents into your +blog system, or creates Excel-formatted spreadsheets with your personal +finance data, the complexity and length of the spec probably cured you +of that desire pretty darn quickly. A normal programmer would conclude +that Office’s binary file formats: + + - are deliberately obfuscated + - are the product of a demented Borg mind + - were created by insanely bad programmers + - and are impossible to read or create correctly. + +You’d be wrong on all four counts. With a little bit of digging, I’ll +show you how those file formats got so unbelievably complicated, why it +doesn’t reflect bad programming on Microsoft’s part, and what you can do +to work around it. + +The first thing to understand is that the binary file formats were +designed with very different design goals than, say, HTML. + +**They were designed to be fast on very old computers.** For the early +versions of Excel for Windows, 1 MB of RAM was a reasonable amount of +memory, and an 80386 at 20 MHz had to be able to run Excel comfortably. +There are a lot of optimizations in the file formats that are intended +to make opening and saving files much faster: + + - These are binary formats, so loading a record is usually a matter of + just copying (blitting) a range of bytes from disk to memory, where + you end up with a C data structure you can use. There’s no lexing or + parsing involved in loading a file. [Lexing and parsing are orders + of magnitude slower than + blitting](https://www.joelonsoftware.com/articles/fog0000000319.html). + - The file format is contorted, where necessary, to make common + operations fast. For example, Excel 95 and 97 have something called + “Simple Save” which they use sometimes as a faster variation on + the OLE compound document format, which just wasn’t fast enough for + mainstream use. Word had something called [Fast + Save](http://support.microsoft.com/kb/197978). To save a long + document quickly, 14 out of 15 times, only the changes are appended + to the end of the file, instead of rewriting the whole document from + scratch. On the hard drives of the day, this meant saving a long + document took one second instead of thirty. (It also meant that + deleted data in a document was still in the file. [This turned out + to be not what people + wanted](http://www.news.com/8301-10784_3-9780073-7.html).) + +**They were designed to use libraries.** If you wanted to write a +from-scratch binary importer, you’d have to support things like the +Windows Metafile Format (for drawing things) and OLE Compound Storage. +If you’re running on Windows, there’s library support for these that +makes it trivial… using these features was a shortcut for the Microsoft +team. But if you’re writing everything on your own from scratch, you +have to do all that work yourself. + +Office has extensive support for compound documents, for example, you +can embed a spreadsheet in a Word document. A perfect Word file format +parser would also have to be able to do something intelligent with the +embedded spreadsheet. + +**They were not designed with interoperability in mind.** The +assumption, and a fairly reasonable one at the time, was that the Word +file format only had to be read and written by Word. That means that +whenever a programmer on the Word team had to make a decision about how +to change the file format, the only thing they cared about was (a) what +was fast and (b) what took the fewest lines of code in the Word code +base. The idea of things like SGML and HTML—interchangeable, +standardized file formats—didn’t really take hold until the Internet +made it practical to interchange documents in the first place; this was +a decade later than the Office binary formats were first invented. There +was always an assumption that you could use importers and exporters to +exchange documents. In fact Word does have a format designed for easy +interchange, called +[RTF](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rich_Text_Format), which has been +there almost since the beginning. It’s still 100% supported. + +**They have to reflect all the complexity of the applications.** Every +checkbox, every formatting option, and every feature in Microsoft Office +has to be represented in file formats somewhere. That checkbox in Word’s +paragraph menu called “Keep With Next” that causes a paragraph to be +moved to the next page if necessary so that it’s on the same page as the +paragraph after it? That has to be in the file format. And that means if +you want to implement a perfect Word clone than can correctly read Word +documents, you have to implement that feature. If you’re creating a +competitive word processor that has to load Word documents, it may only +take you a minute to write the code to load that bit from the file +format, but it might take you weeks to change your page layout algorithm +to accommodate it. If you don’t, customers will open their Word files in +your clone and all the pages will be messed up. + +**They have to reflect the history of the applications.** A lot of the +complexities in these file formats reflect features that are old, +complicated, unloved, and rarely used. They’re still in the file format +for backwards compatibility, and because it doesn’t cost anything for +Microsoft to leave the code around. But if you really want to do a +thorough and complete job of parsing and writing these file formats, you +have to redo all that work that some intern did at Microsoft 15 years +ago. The bottom line is that there are **thousands of developer years** +of work that went into the current versions of Word and Excel, and if +you really want to clone those applications completely, you’re going to +have to do thousands of years of work. A file format is just a concise +summary of all the features an application supports. + +Just for kicks, let’s look at one tiny example in depth. An Excel +worksheet is a bunch of BIFF records of different types. I want to look +at the very first BIFF record in the spec. It’s a record called +**1904**. + +The Excel file format specification is remarkably obscure about this. It +just says that the 1904 record indicates “if the 1904 date system is +used.” Ah. A classic piece of useless specification. If you were a +developer working with the Excel file format, and you found this in the +file format specification, you might be justified in concluding that +Microsoft is hiding something. This piece of information does not give +you enough information. You also need some [outside +knowledge](http://support.microsoft.com/kb/214330), which I’ll fill you +in on now. There are two kinds of Excel worksheets: those where the +epoch for dates is 1/1/1900 (with a [leap-year +bug](http://support.microsoft.com/kb/214058/) deliberately created for +1-2-3 compatibility that is too boring to describe here), and those +where the epoch for dates is 1/1/1904. Excel supports both because the +first version of Excel, for the Mac, just used that operating system’s +epoch because that was easy, but Excel for Windows had to be able to +import 1-2-3 files, which used 1/1/1900 for the epoch. It’s enough to +bring you to tears. At no point in history did a programmer ever not do +the right thing, but there you have it. + +Both 1900 and 1904 file types are commonly found in the wild, usually +depending on whether the file originated on Windows or Mac. Converting +from one to another silently can cause data integrity errors, so Excel +won’t change the file type for you. To parse Excel files you have to +handle both. That’s not just a matter of loading this bit from the file. +It means you have to rewrite all of your date display and parsing code +to handle both epochs. That would take several days to implement, I +think. + +Indeed, as you work on your Excel clone, you’ll discover all kinds of +subtle details about date handling. When does Excel convert numbers to +dates? How does the formatting work? Why is 1/31 interpreted as January +31 of this year, while 1/50 is interpreted as January 1st, 1950? All of +these subtle bits of behavior cannot be fully documented without writing +a document that has the same amount of information as the Excel source +code. + +And this is only the first of hundreds of BIFF records you have to +handle, and one of the simplest. Most of them are complicated enough to +reduce a grown programmer to tears. + +The only possible conclusion is this. It’s very helpful of Microsoft to +release the file formats for Microsoft and Office, but it’s not really +going to make it any easier to import or save to the Office file +formats. These are insanely complex and rich applications, and you +[can’t just implement the most popular 20% and expect 80% of the +people to be +happy](https://www.joelonsoftware.com/articles/fog0000000020.html). The +binary file specification is, at most, going to save you a few minutes +reverse engineering a remarkably complex system. + +OK, I promised some workarounds. The good news is that for almost all +common applications, trying to read or write the Office binary file +formats is the wrong decision. There are two major alternatives you +should seriously consider: letting Office do the work, or using file +formats that are easier to write. + +**Let Office do the heavy work for you**. Word and Excel have extremely +complete object models, available via COM Automation, which allow you to +programmatically do anything. In many situations, you are better off +reusing the code inside Office rather than trying to reimplement it. +Here are a few examples. + +1. You have a web-based application that’s needs to output existing + Word files in PDF format. Here’s how I would implement that: a few + lines of Word VBA code loads a file and saves it as a PDF using the + built in PDF exporter in Word 2007. You can call this code directly, + even from ASP or ASP.NET code running under IIS. It’ll work. The + first time you launch Word it’ll take a few seconds. The second + time, Word will be kept in memory by the COM subsystem for a few + minutes in case you need it again. It’s fast enough for a reasonable + web-based application. +2. Same as above, but your web hosting environment is Linux. Buy one + Windows 2003 server, install a fully licensed copy of Word on it, + and build a little web service that does the work. Half a day of + work with C\# and ASP.NET. +3. Same as above, but you need to scale. Throw a load balancer in front + of any number of boxes that you built in step 2. No code required. + +This kind of approach would work for all kinds of common Office types of +applications you might perform on your server. For example: + + - Opening an Excel workbook, storing some data in input cells, + recalculating, and pulling some results out of output cells + - Using Excel to generate charts in GIF format + - Pulling just about any kind of information out of any kind of Excel + worksheet without spending a minute thinking about file formats + - Converting Excel file formats to CSV tabular data (another approach + is to use [Excel ODBC + drivers](http://support.microsoft.com/kb/178717) to suck data out + using SQL queries). + - Editing Word documents + - Filling out Word forms + - Converting files between any of the many file formats supported by + Office (there are importers for dozens of word processor and + spreadsheet formats) + +In all of these cases, there are ways to tell the Office objects that +they’re not running interactively, so they shouldn’t bother updating the +screen and they shouldn’t prompt for user input. By the way, if you go +this route, there are a few gotchas, and it’s not officially supported +by Microsoft, so read their [knowledge base +article](http://support.microsoft.com/default.aspx?scid=kb;EN-US;257757) +before you get started. + +**Use a simpler format for writing files**. If you merely have to +produce Office documents programmatically, there’s almost always a +better format than the Office binary formats that you can use which Word +and Excel will open happily, without missing a beat. + + - If you simply have to produce tabular data for use in Excel, + consider CSV. + - If you really need worksheet calculation features that CSV doesn’t + support, the [WK1 + format](http://www.schnarff.com/file-formats/index.html) (Lotus + 1-2-3) is a heck of a lot simpler than Excel, and Excel will open it + fine. + - If you really, really have to generate native Excel files, find an + extremely old version of Excel… Excel 3.0 is a good choice, before + all the compound document stuff, and save a minimum file containing + only the exact features you want to use. Use this file to see the + exact minimum BIFF records that you have to output and just focus on + that part of the spec. + - For Word documents, consider writing HTML. Word will open those + fine, too. + - If you really want to generate fancy formatted Word documents, your + best bet is to create an RTF document. Everything that Word can do + can be expressed in RTF, but it’s a text format, not binary, so you + can change things in the RTF document and it’ll still work. You can + create a nicely formatted document with placeholders in Word, save + as RTF, and then using simple text substitution, replace the + placeholders on the fly. Now you have an RTF document that every + version of Word will open happily. + +Anyway, unless you’re literally trying to create a competitor to Office +that can read and write all Office files perfectly, in which case, +you’ve got thousands of years of work cut out for you, chances are +that reading or writing the Office binary formats is the most labor +intensive way to solve whatever problem it is that you’re trying to +solve. diff --git a/_stories/2008/12942732.md b/_stories/2008/12942732.md index a04b117..b5c7df3 100644 --- a/_stories/2008/12942732.md +++ b/_stories/2008/12942732.md @@ -19,7 +19,59 @@ _tags: objectID: '12942732' --- -[Source](https://spectrum.ieee.org/computing/hardware/why-cpu-frequency-stalled "Permalink to ") +Advertisement +[![charts small +view](/img/31759-1372099381585.jpg)](/img/0408_data-xlrg-1372100315886.jpg) +  +Image: Intel; Charts: Michael Vella + +Not so long ago, competitive sorts would boast of the cycle rate of +their PC’s central processing unit. But now it seems the only people who +talk it up are the overclockers—hobbyists who push their CPUs beyond +their specified limits. There are two reasons: CPU clock rates peaked a +few years ago \[see graph, top\], and they aren't a very useful key to +chip performance anyway. + +The clock keeps a processor's parts working in unison, like rowers on a +galley ship. Other things being equal, the more ticks you have per +second, the more work will get done. + +So why not push the clock faster? Because it's no longer worth the cost +in terms of power consumed and heat dissipated. Intel calls the +speed/power ­tradeoff a ”fundamental theorem of multicore +processors”—and that's the reason it makes sense to use two or more +processing areas, or cores, on a single chip. + +Intel reports that ­underclocking a single core by 20 percent saves half +the power while sacrificing just 13 percent of the ­performance. That +means that if you divide the work between two cores running at an 80 +percent clock rate, you get 73 percent better performance for the same +power. And the heat is dissipated at two points rather than one. So even +though the cutting-edge logic chip gulps ever more power \[see graph, +center\], it isn't about to melt its way through the floor. + +That bodes well for Moore's Law, which predicts that about every two +years, ­manufacturers will double the number of ­transistors they cram +onto a given bit of silicon. The fundamental theorem says that we'll +still be able to make full use of those transistors for a good long +time. If once the whole choir of transistors had to sing to the beat of +a single metronome, now it can split up into sections—and harmonize. + +**Count Paces? Or Measure The Distance Traveled?** + +The rising power consumption of CPUs \[graph, center\] made it less +attractive to focus on cycles per second, so clock rates stalled +\[graph, top\]. A better gauge of performance, the number of +instructions performed per second \[graph, bottom\], continued to rise +without ­betraying any hint of the stall. That's because work once done +in a single ­processor is now divided among several processing +cores—four of them in the case of Intel's Quad-Core chip \[below\]. + +![data f1](/img/dataf1-1372099277050.jpg) + +Image: Intel; Charts: Michael Vella + +Advertisement diff --git a/_stories/2008/13249834.md b/_stories/2008/13249834.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..fdd07b6 --- /dev/null +++ b/_stories/2008/13249834.md @@ -0,0 +1,640 @@ +--- +created_at: '2016-12-24T14:17:27.000Z' +title: Set Operations in the Unix Shell (2008) +url: http://www.catonmat.net/blog/set-operations-in-unix-shell/ +author: polygot +points: 71 +story_text: +comment_text: +num_comments: 10 +story_id: +story_title: +story_url: +parent_id: +created_at_i: 1482589047 +_tags: +- story +- author_polygot +- story_13249834 +objectID: '13249834' + +--- +![set +operations](http://www.catonmat.net/blog/wp-content/uploads/2008/10/set-union-intersect-complement.jpg) + +A while ago I wrote about how I solved the [Google Treasure Hunt Puzzle +Nr. 4](http://www.catonmat.net/blog/solving-google-treasure-hunt-prime-number-problem-four/) +about prime numbers. I took an unusual approach and solved this problem +entirely from the Unix shell. The solution involved finding the +intersection between a bunch of files containing numbers. This lead me +to an idea to write a post about how to do various set operations from +the shell by using common utilities such as sort, uniq, diff, grep, +head, tail, comm, and others. + +I'll cover the following set operations in this article: + + - **Set Membership**. Test if an element belongs to a set. + - **Set Equality**. Test if two sets contain the same elements. + - **Set Cardinality**. Return the number of elements in the set. + - **Subset Test**. Test if a given set is a subset of another set. + - **Set Union**. Find union of two sets. + - **Set Intersection**. Find intersection of two sets. + - **Set Complement**. Given two sets **A** and **B**, find all + elements in **A** that are not in **B**. + - **Set Symmetric Difference**. Find symmetric difference of two sets. + - **Power Set**. Generate all subsets of a set. + - **Set Cartesian Product**. Find **A** x **B**. + - **Disjoint Set Test**. Test if two sets are disjoint. + - **Empty Set Test**. Test if a given set is empty. + - **Minimum**. Find the smallest element of a set. + - **Maximum**. Find the largest element of a set. + +**Update**: I wrote [another +post](http://www.catonmat.net/blog/set-operations-in-unix-shell-simplified/) +about these operations and created a cheat sheet. +Download cheat sheet: [set operations in unix shell +(.txt)](/download/setops.txt "Download \"set operations in unix shell (.txt)\"") + +To illustrate these operations, I created a few random sets to work +with. Each set is represented as a file with one element per line. The +elements are positive numbers. + +First I created two sets **A** and **B** with 5 elements each so that I +could easily check that the operations really work. + +Sets **A** and **B** are hand crafted. It's easy to see that only +elements 1, 2 and 3 are in common: + + $ cat A $ cat B + 3 11 + 5 1 + 1 12 + 2 3 + 4 2 + +I also created a set **Asub** which is a subset of set **A** and +**Anotsub** which is not a subset of A (to test the Subset Test +operation): + + $ cat Asub $ cat Anotsub + 3 6 + 2 7 + 5 8 + +Next I created two equal sets **Aequal** and **Bequal** again with 5 +elements each: + + $ cat Aequal $ cat Bequal + 103 100 + 102 101 + 101 102 + 104 103 + 100 104 + +Then I created two huge sets **Abig** and **Bbig** with 100,000 elements +(some of them are repeated, but that's ok). + +The easiest way to generate sets Abig and Bbig is to take natural +numbers from /dev/urandom. There are two shell commands that can easily +do that. The first is "**od**" and the second is "**hexdump**". + +Here is how to create two files with 100,000 natural numbers with both +commands. + +With hexdump: + + $ hexdump -e '1/4 "%u\n"' -n400000 /dev/urandom > Abig + $ hexdump -e '1/4 "%u\n"' -n400000 /dev/urandom > Bbig + +The "-e" switch specifies a hand-crafted output format. It says take 1 +element of size 4 bytes and output it as an unsigned integer. The "-n" +switch specifies how many bytes to read, in this case 400000 (400000 +bytes / 4 bytes per element = 100000 elements). + +With od: + + $ od -An -w4 -tu4 -N400000 /dev/urandom | sed 's/ *//' > Abig + $ od -An -w4 -tu4 -N400000 /dev/urandom | sed 's/ *//' > Bbig + +The "-An" switch specifies that no line address is necessary. The "-w4" +switch specifies number of bytes to output per line. The "-tu4" says to +output unsigned 4-byte numbers and "-N400000" limits the output to +400000 bytes (400000/4 = 100000 elements). The output from od has to be +filtered through sed to drop the leading whitespace characters. + +Okay, now let's look at various set operations. + +## Set Membership + +The set membership operation tests if an element belongs to a set. We +write **a** ∈ **A**, if element **a** belongs to set **A**, and we write +**a** ∉ **A**, if it does not. + +The easiest way to test if an element is in a set is to use "**grep**" +command. Grep searches the file for lines matching a pattern: + + $ grep -xc 'element' set + +The "-c" flag outputs number of elements in the set. If it is not a +multi-set, the number of elements should be 0 or 1. The "-x" option +specifies to match the whole line only (no partial matches). + +Here is an example of this operation run on set A: + + $ grep -xc '4' A + 1 + $ grep -xc '999' A + 0 + +That's correct. Set A contains element 4 but does not contain element +999. + +If the membership operation has to be used from a shell script, the +return code from grep can be used instead. Unix commands succeed if the +return code is 0, and fail otherwise: + + $ grep -xq 'element' set + # returns 0 if element ∈ set + # returns 1 if element ∉ set + +The "-q" flag makes sure that grep does not output the element if it is +in the set. + +## Set Equality + +The set equality operation tests if two sets are the same, i.e., contain +the same elements. We write **A** = **B** if sets **A** and **B** are +equal and **A** ≠ **B** if they are not. + +The easiest way to test if two sets are equal is to use "**diff**" +command. Diff command compares two files for differences. It will find +that the order of lines differ, so the files have to be sorted first. If +they are multi-sets, the output of sort has to be run through "uniq" +command to eliminate duplicate elements: + + $ diff -q <(sort set1 | uniq) <(sort set2 | uniq) + # returns 0 if set1 = set2 + # returns 1 if set1 ≠ set2 + +The "-q" flag quiets the output of diff command. + +Let's test this operation on sets A, B, Aequal and Bequal: + + $ diff -q <(sort A | uniq) <(sort B | uniq) + # return code 1 -- sets A and B are not equal + + $ diff -q <(sort Aequal | uniq) <(sort Bequal | uniq) + # return code 0 -- sets A and B are equal + +If you have already sorted sets, then just run: + + $ diff -q set1 set2 + +## Set Cardinality + +The set cardinality operations returns the number of elements in the +set. We write |**A**| to denote the cardinality of the set **A**. + +The simplest way to count the number of elements in a set is to use +"**wc**" command. Wc command counts the number of characters, words or +lines in a file. Since each element in the set appears on a new line, +counting the number of lines in the file will return the cardinality of +the set: + + $ wc -l set | cut -d' ' -f1 + +Cut command is necessary because "wc -l" also outputs the name of the +file it was ran on. The cut command outputs the first field which is +number of lines in the file. + +We can actually get rid of cut: + + $ wc -l < set + +Let's test if on sets A and Abig: + + $ wc -l A | cut -d' ' -f1 + 5 + + $ wc -l Abig | cut -d' ' -f1 + 100000 + + $ wc -l < A + 5 + + $ wc -l < Abig + 100000 + +## Subset Test + +The subset test tests if the given set is a subset of another set. We +write **S** ⊆ **A** if **S** is a subset of **A**, and **S** ⊊ **A**, if +it's not. + +I found a very easy way to do it using the "**comm**" utility. Comm +compares two sorted files line by line. It may be run in such a way that +it outputs lines that appear only in the first specified file. If the +first file is subset of the second, then all the lines in the 1st file +also appear in the 2nd, so no output is produced: + + $ comm -23 <(sort subset | uniq) <(sort set | uniq) | head -1 + # comm returns no output if subset ⊆ set + # comm outputs something if subset ⊊ set + +Please remember that if you have a numeric set, then sort must take "-n" +option. + +Let's test if Asub is a subset of A: + + $ comm -23 <(sort -n Asub|uniq) <(sort -n A|uniq) | head -1 + # no output - yes, Asub ⊆ A + +Now let's test if Anotsub is a subset of A: + + $ comm -23 <(sort -n Anotsub|uniq) <(sort -n A|uniq) | head -1 + 6 # has output - no, Anotsub ⊊ A + +If you want to use it from a shell script, you'd have to test if the +output from this command was empty or not. + +## Set Union + +The set union operation unions two sets, i.e., join them into one set. +We write **C** = **A** ∪ **B** to denote union of sets **A** and **B** +which produces set **C**. + +Set union is extremely easy to create. Just use the "**cat**" utility to +concatenate two files: + + $ cat set1 set2 + +If the duplicates (elements which are both in set1 and set2) are not +welcome, then the output of cat can be filtered via **awk**: + +``` + +$ cat set1 set2 | awk '!found[$1]++' + +# we can also get rid of cat by just using awk: + +$ awk '!found[$1]++' set1 set2 +``` + +If we don't want to use awk, which is a whole-blown programming +language, then we can **sort** the output of cat and filter it via +**uniq**: + + $ cat set1 set2 | sort | uniq + + # we can get rid of cat by specifying arguments to sort: + + $ sort set1 set2 | uniq + + # finally we can get rid of uniq by specifying -u flag to sort + + $ sort -u set1 set2 + +If the sets set1 and set2 are already sorted, then the union operation +can be made much faster by specifying the "-m" command line option, +which merges the files (like the final step of merge-sort algorithm): + + $ sort -m set1 set2 | uniq + + # or + + $ set -um set1 set2 + +Let's test this operation on sets A and B: + + $ cat A B # with duplicates + 3 + 5 + 1 + 2 + 4 + 11 + 1 + 12 + 3 + 2 + + $ awk '!found[$1]++' # without dupes + 3 + 5 + 1 + 2 + 4 + 11 + 12 + + $ sort -n A B | uniq # with sort && uniq + 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 11 + 12 + +## Set Intersection + +The set intersection operation finds elements that are in both sets at +the same time. We write **C** = **A** ∩ **B** to denote the intersection +of sets **A** and **B**, which produces the set **C**. + +There are many ways to do set intersection. The first way that I am +going to show you uses "comm": + + $ comm -12 <(sort set1) <(sort set2) + +The "-12" option to comm directs it to suppress output of lines +appearing just in the 1st and the 2nd file and makes it output lines +appearing in both 1st and 2nd, which is the intersection of two sets. + +Please remember that if you have a numeric set, then sort must take "-n" +option. + +Another way to do it is to use "grep" utility. I actually found about +this method as I was writing this article: + + $ grep -xF -f set1 set2 + +The "-x" option forces grep to match the whole lines (no partial +matches). The "-f set1" specifies the patterns to use for searching. The +"-F" option makes grep interpret the given patterns literally (no +regexes). It works by matching all lines of set1 in set2. The lines that +appear just in set1 or just in set2 are never output. + +The next way to find intersection is by using "sort" and "uniq": + + $ sort set1 set2 | uniq -d + +The "-d" option to uniq forces it to print only the duplicate lines. +Obviously, if a line appears in set1 and set2, after sorting there will +be two consecutive equal lines in the output. The "uniq -d" command +prints such repeated lines (but only 1 copy of it), thus it's the +intersection operation. + +Just a few minutes before publishing this article I found another way to +do intersection with "join" command. Join command joins files on a +common field: + + $ join <(sort -n A) <(sort -n B) + +Here is a test run: + + $ sort -n A B | uniq -d + 1 + 2 + 3 + + $ grep -xF -f A B + 1 + 3 + 2 + + $ comm -12 <(sort -n A) <(sort -n B) + 1 + 2 + 3 + +## Set Complement + +The set complement operation finds elements that are in one set but not +the other. We write **A** - **B** or **A** \\ **B** to denote set's +**B** complement in set **A**. + +**Comm** has become a pretty useful command for operating on sets. It +can be applied to implement set complement operation as well: + + $ comm -23 <(sort set1) <(sort set2) + +The option "-23" specifies that comm should not print elements that +appear just in set2 and that are common to both. It leaves comm to print +elements which are just in set1 (and not in set2). + +The "**grep**" command can also be used to implement this operation: + + $ grep -vxF -f set2 set1 + +Notice that the order of sets has been reversed from that of comm. +That's because we are searching those elements in set1, which are not in +set2. + +Another way to do it is, of course, with "**sort**" and "**uniq**": + + $ sort set2 set2 set1 | uniq -u + +This is a pretty tricky command. Suppose that a line appears in set1 but +does not appear in set2. Then it will be output just once and will not +get removed by uniq. All other lines get removed. + +Let's put these commands to test: + + $ comm -23 <(sort -n A) <(sort -n B) + 4 + 5 + + $ grep -vxF -f B A + 5 + 4 + + $ sort -n B B A | uniq -u + 4 + 5 + +## Set Symmetric Difference + +The set symmetric difference operation finds elements that are in one +set, or in the other but not both. We write **A** Δ **B** to denote +symmetric difference of sets **A** and **B**. + +The operation can be implemented very easily with "**comm**" utility: + + $ comm -3 <(sort set1) <(sort set2) | sed 's/\t//g' + + # sed can be replaced with tr + + $ comm -3 <(sort set1) <(sort set2) | tr -d '\t' + +Here comm is instructed via "-3" not to output fields that are common to +both files, but to output fields that are just in set1 and just in set2. +Sed is necessary because comm outputs two columns of data and some of it +is right padded with a \\t tab character. + +It can also be done with "**sort**" and "**uniq**": + + $ sort set1 set2 | uniq -u + +We can use mathematics and derive a few formulas involving previously +used operations for symmetric difference: **A** Δ **B** = (**A** - +**B**) ∪ (**B** - **A**). Now we can use grep: + + $ cat <(grep -vxF -f set1 set2) <(grep -vxF -f set2 set1) + # does (B - A) ∪ (A - B) + + # this can be simplified + + $ grep -vxF -f set1 set2; grep -vxF -f set2 set1 + +Let's test it: + + $ comm -3 <(sort -n A) >(sort -n B) | sed 's/\t//g' + 11 + 12 + 4 + 5 + + $ sort -n A B | uniq -u + 4 + 5 + 11 + 12 + + $ cat <(grep -vxF -f B A) <(grep -vxF -f A B) + 5 + 4 + 11 + 12 + +## Power Set + +The power set operation generates a power-set of a set. What's a power +set? It's a set that contains all subsets of the set. We write P(**A**) +or 2**A** to denote all subsets of A. For a set with n elements, the +power set contains 2n elements. + +For example, the power-set of the set { a, b, c } contains 23 = 8 +elements. The power-set is { {}, {a}, {b}, {c}, {a, b}, {a, c}, {b, c}, +{a, b, c} }. + +It's not easy to do that with simple Unix tools. I could not think of +anything better than a silly Perl solution: + + $ perl -le ' + sub powset { + return [[]] unless @_; + my $head = shift; + my $list = &powset; + [@$list, map { [$head, @$_] } @$list] + } + chomp(my @e = <>); + for $p (@{powset(@e)}) { + print @$p; + }' set + +Can you think of a way to do it with Unix tools? + +## Set Cartesian Product + +The set Cartesian product operation produces produces a new set that +contains all possible pairs of elements from one set and the other. The +notation for Cartesian product of sets **A** and **B** is **A** x **B**. + +For example, if set **A** = { a, b, c } and set **B** = { 1, 2 } then +the Cartesian product **A** x **B** = { (a, 1), (a, 2), (b, 1), (b, 2), +(c, 1), (c, 2) }. + +I can't think of a great solution. I have a very silly solution in + bash: + + $ while read a; do while read b; do echo "$a, $b"; done < set1; done < set2 + +Can you think of other solutions? + +## Disjoint Set Test + +The disjoint set test operation finds if two sets are disjoint, i.e., +they do not contain common elements. + +Two sets are disjoint if their intersection is the empty set. Any of the +set intersection commands (mentioned earlier) can be applied on the sets +and the output can be tested for emptiness. If it is empty, then the +sets are disjoint, if it is not, then the sets are not disjoint. + +Another way to test if two sets are disjoint is to use awk: + + $ awk '{ if (++seen[$0]==2) exit 1 }' set1 set2 + # returns 0 if sets are disjoint + # returns 1 if sets are not disjoint + +It works by counting seen elements in set1 and then set2. If any of the +elements appear both in set1 and set2, seen count for that element would +be 2 and awk would quit with exit code 1. + +## Empty Set Test + +The empty set test tests if the set is empty, i.e., contains no +elements. The empty set is usually written as Ø. + +It's very easy to test if the set is empty. The cardinality of an empty +set is 0: + + $ wc -l set | cut -d' ' -f1 + # outputs 0 if the set is empty + # outputs > 0 if the set is not empty + +Getting rid of cut: + + $ wc -l < set + # outputs 0 if the set is empty + # outputs > 0 if the set is not empty + +## Minimum + +The minimum operation returns the smallest number in the set. We write +min(**A**) to denote the minimum operation on the set **A**. + +The minimum element of a set can be found by first sorting it in +ascending order and then taking the first element. The first element can +be taken with "head" Unix command which outputs the first part of the +file: + + $ head -1 <(sort set) + +The "-1" option specifies to output the first line only. + +If the set is already sorted, then it's even simpler: + + $ head -1 set + +Remember to use "sort -n" command if the set contains numeric data. + +Example of running minimum operation on sets A and Abig: + + $ head -1 <(sort -n A) + 1 + $ head -1 <(sort -n Abig) + 2798 + +## Maximum + +The maximum operation returns the biggest number in the set. We write +max(**A**) to denote the maximum operation on the set **A**. + +The maximum element of a set can be found by first sorting it in +ascending order and then taking the last element. The last element can +be taken with "tail" Unix command which outputs the last part of the +file: + + $ tail -1 <(sort set) + +The "-1" option specifies to output the last line only. + +If the set is already sorted, then it's even simpler: + + $ tail -1 set + +Remember to use "sort -n" command if the set contains numeric data. + +Example of running maximum operation on sets A and Abig: + + $ tail -1 <(sort -n A) + 5 + $ head -1 <(sort -n Abig) + 4294906714 + +## Have Fun\! + +Have fun working with these set operations\! Thanks to lhunath and +waldner from \#bash for helping. :) diff --git a/_stories/2008/14431233.md b/_stories/2008/14431233.md index d22cd2d..d98e785 100644 --- a/_stories/2008/14431233.md +++ b/_stories/2008/14431233.md @@ -19,6 +19,269 @@ _tags: objectID: '14431233' --- -[Source](http://kk.org/thetechnium/better-than-fre/ "Permalink to ") +\[Translations: +[Belarusian](http://www.moneyaisle.com/worldwide/better-than-be), +[Chinese](http://tuxfans.com/2008/02/05/154/), +[French](http://www.biologeek.com/journal/index.php/mieux-que-gratuit-le-business-model-reinvente), +[German](http://bewegliche-lettern.de/2009/08/kevin-kelly-besser-als-kostenlos-better-than-free/), +[Italian](http://www.internazionale.it/come-fare-soldi-gratis/), +[Japanese](http://memo7.sblo.jp/article/12121626.html), +[Polish](http://cheap.de/science/lepiej-niz-bezplatny), +[Portuguese](http://midiascopio.blogspot.com/2010/07/melhor-que-gratis.html), +[Russian](http://howtosell.ru/2008/04/22/luchshe-chem-besplatno/), +[Spanish](http://www.uncafelitoalasonce.com/mejor-que-gratis/), +[Turkish](http://kozmostansesler.blogspot.com/2009/02/bedavadan-daha-cazip.html), +[Estonian](http://www.besteonderdelen.nl/blog/?p=10116)\] +The internet is a copy machine. At its most foundational level, it +copies every action, every character, every thought we make while we +ride upon it. In order to send a message from one corner of the internet +to another, the protocols of communication demand that the whole message +be copied along the way several times. IT companies make a lot of money +selling equipment that facilitates this ceaseless copying. Every bit of +data ever produced on any computer is copied somewhere. The digital +economy is thus run on a river of copies. Unlike the mass-produced +reproductions of the machine age, these copies are not just cheap, they +are free. +Our digital communication network has been engineered so that copies +flow with as little friction as possible. Indeed, copies flow so freely +we could think of the internet as a super-distribution system, where +once a copy is introduced it will continue to flow through the network +forever, much like electricity in a superconductive wire. We see +evidence of this in real life. Once anything that can be copied is +brought into contact with internet, it will be copied, and those copies +never leave. Even a dog knows you can’t erase something once it’s flowed +on the internet. + +![Copy-Transmission](http://kk.org/thetechnium/copy-transmission.jpg) + +This super-distribution system has become the foundation of our economy +and wealth. The instant reduplication of data, ideas, and media +underpins all the major economic sectors in our economy, particularly +those involved with exports — that is, those industries where the US has +a competitive advantage. Our wealth sits upon a very large device that +copies promiscuously and constantly. + +Yet the previous round of wealth in this economy was built on selling +precious copies, so the free flow of free copies tends to undermine the +established order. If reproductions of our best efforts are free, how +can we keep going? To put it simply, how does one make money selling +free copies? + +I have an answer. The simplest way I can put it is thus: + +When copies are super abundant, they become worthless. + +When copies are super abundant, stuff which can’t be copied becomes +scarce and valuable. + +**When copies are free, you need to sell things which can not be +copied.** + +Well, what can’t be copied? + +There are a number of qualities that can’t be copied. Consider “trust.” +Trust cannot be copied. You can’t purchase it. Trust must be earned, +over time. It cannot be downloaded. Or faked. Or counterfeited (at least +for long). If everything else is equal, you’ll always prefer to deal +with someone you can trust. So trust is an intangible that has +increasing value in a copy saturated world. + +There are a number of other qualities similar to trust that are +difficult to copy, and thus become valuable in this network economy.  I +think the best way to examine them is not from the eye of the producer, +manufacturer, or creator, but from the eye of the user. We can start +with a simple user question:  why would we ever pay for anything that we +could get for free? When anyone buys a version of something they could +get for free, what are they purchasing? + +From my study of the network economy I see roughly eight categories of +intangible value that we buy when we pay for something that could be +free. + +In a real sense, these are eight things that are better than free. Eight +uncopyable values.  I call them “generatives.” A generative value is a +quality or attribute that must be generated, grown, cultivated, +nurtured. A generative thing can not be copied, cloned, faked, +replicated, counterfeited, or reproduced. It is generated uniquely, in +place, over time. In the digital arena, generative qualities add value +to free copies, and therefore are something that can be sold. + +**Eight** **Generatives Better Than Free** + +**Immediacy** – Sooner or later you can find a free copy of whatever you +want, but getting a copy delivered to your inbox the moment it is +released — or even better, produced — by its creators is a generative +asset. Many people go to movie theaters to see films on the opening +night, where they will pay a hefty price to see a film that later will +be available for free, or almost free, via rental or download. Hardcover +books command a premium for their immediacy, disguised as a harder +cover. First in line often commands an extra price for the same good. As +a sellable quality, immediacy has many levels, including access to beta +versions. Fans are brought into the generative process itself. Beta +versions are often de-valued because they are incomplete, but they also +possess generative qualities that can be sold. Immediacy is a relative +term, which is why it is generative. It has to fit with the product and +the audience. A blog has a different sense of time than a movie, or a +car. But immediacy can be found in any media. + +**Personalization** — A generic version of a concert recording may be +free, but if you want a copy that has been tweaked to sound perfect in +your particular living room — as if it were preformed in your room — you +may be willing to pay a lot.  The free copy of a book can be custom +edited by the publishers to reflect your own previous reading +background. A free movie you buy may be cut to reflect the rating you +desire (no violence, dirty language okay). Aspirin is free, but aspirin +tailored to your DNA is very expensive. As many have noted, +personalization requires an ongoing conversation between the creator and +consumer, artist and fan, producer and user. It is deeply generative +because it is iterative and time consuming. You can’t copy the +personalization that a relationship represents. Marketers call that +“stickiness” because it means both sides of the relationship are stuck +(invested) in this generative asset, and will be reluctant to switch and +start over. + +**Interpretation** — As the old joke goes: software, free. The manual, +$10,000. But it’s no joke. A couple of high profile companies, like Red +Hat, Apache, and others make their living doing exactly that. They +provide paid support for free software. The copy of code, being mere +bits, is free — and becomes valuable to you only through the support and +guidance. I suspect a lot of genetic information will go this route. +Right now getting your copy of your DNA is very expensive, but soon it +won’t be. In fact, soon pharmaceutical companies will PAY you to get +your genes sequence. So the copy of your sequence will be free, but the +interpretation of what it means, what you can do about it, and how to +use it — the manual for your genes so to speak — will be expensive. + +**Authenticity** — You might be able to grab a key software application +for free, but even if you don’t need a manual, you might like to be sure +it is bug free, reliable, and warranted. You’ll pay for authenticity. +There are nearly an infinite number of variations of the Grateful Dead +jams around; buying an authentic version from the band itself will +ensure you get the one you wanted. Or that it was indeed actually +performed by the Dead. Artists have dealt with this problem for a long +time. Graphic reproductions such as photographs and lithographs often +come with the artist’s stamp of authenticity — a signature — to raise +the price of the copy. Digital watermarks and other signature technology +will not work as copy-protection schemes (copies are super-conducting +liquids, remember?) but they can serve up the generative quality of +authenticity for those who care. + +**Accessibility** – Ownership often sucks. You have to keep your things +tidy, up-to-date, and in the case of digital material, backed up. And in +this mobile world, you have to carry it along with you. Many people, me +included, will be happy to have others tend our “possessions” by +subscribing to them. We’ll pay Acme Digital Warehouse to serve us any +musical tune in the world, when and where we want it, as well as any +movie, photo (ours or other photographers). Ditto for books and blogs.  +Acme backs everything up, pays the creators, and delivers us our +desires. We can sip it from our phones, PDAs, laptops, big screens from +where-ever. The fact that most of this material will be available free, +if we want to tend it, back it up, keep adding to it, and organize it, +will be less and less appealing as time goes on. + +**Embodiment** — At its core the digital copy is without a body. You can +take a free copy of a work and throw it on a screen. But perhaps you’d +like to see it in hi-res on a huge screen? Maybe in 3D? PDFs are fine, +but sometimes it is delicious to have the same words printed on bright +white cottony paper, bound in leather. Feels so good. What about +dwelling in your favorite (free) game with 35 others in the same room? +There is no end to greater embodiment. Sure, the hi-res of today — which +may draw ticket holders to a big theater — may migrate to your home +theater tomorrow, but there will always be new insanely great display +technology that consumers won’t have. Laser projection, holographic +display, the holodeck itself\! And nothing gets embodied as much as +music in a live performance, with real bodies. The music is free; the +bodily performance expensive. This formula is quickly becoming a common +one for not only musicians, but even authors. The book is free; the +bodily talk is expensive. + +**Patronage** — It is my belief that audiences WANT to pay creators. +Fans like to reward artists, musicians, authors and the like with the +tokens of their appreciation, because it allows them to connect. But +they will only pay if it is very easy to do, a reasonable amount, and +they feel certain the money will directly benefit the creators. +Radiohead’s recent high-profile experiment in letting fans pay them +whatever they wished for a free copy is an excellent illustration of the +power of patronage. The elusive, intangible connection that flows +between appreciative fans and the artist is worth something. In +Radiohead’s case it was about $5 per download. There are many other +examples of the audience paying simply because it feels good. + +**Findability** — Where as the previous generative qualities reside +within creative digital works, findability is an asset that occurs at a +higher level in the aggregate of many works. A zero price does not help +direct attention to a work, and in fact may sometimes hinder it. But no +matter what its price, a work has no value unless it is seen; unfound +masterpieces are worthless. When there are millions of books, millions +of songs, millions of films, millions of applications, millions of +everything requesting our attention — and most of it free — being found +is valuable. + +The giant aggregators such as Amazon and Netflix make their living in +part by helping the audience find works they love. They bring out the +good news of the “long tail” phenomenon, which we all know, connects +niche audiences with niche productions. But sadly, the long tail is only +good news for the giant aggregators, and larger mid-level aggregators +such as publishers, studios, and labels. The “long tail” is only +lukewarm news to creators themselves. But since findability can really +only happen at the systems level, creators need aggregators. This is why +publishers, studios, and labels (PSL)will never disappear. They are not +needed for distribution of the copies (the internet machine does that). +Rather the PSL are needed for the distribution of the users’ attention +back to the works. From an ocean of possibilities the PSL find, nurture +and refine the work of creators that they believe fans will connect +with. Other intermediates such as critics and reviewers also channel +attention. Fans rely on this multi-level apparatus of findability to +discover the works of worth out of the zillions produced. There is money +to be made (indirectly for the creatives) by finding talent. For many +years the paper publication TV Guide made more money than all of the 3 +major TV networks it “guided” combined. The magazine guided and pointed +viewers to the good stuff on the tube that week. Stuff, it is worth +noting, that was free to the viewers.  There is little doubt that +besides the mega-aggregators, in the world of the free many PDLs will +make money selling findability — in addition to the other generative +qualities. + +These eight qualities require a new skill set. Success in the free-copy +world is not derived from the skills of distribution since the Great +Copy Machine in the Sky takes care of that. Nor are legal skills +surrounding Intellectual Property and Copyright very useful anymore. Nor +are the skills of hoarding and scarcity. Rather, these new eight +generatives demand an understanding of how abundance breeds a sharing +mindset, how generosity is a business model, how vital it has become to +cultivate and nurture qualities that can’t be replicated with a click of +the mouse. + +In short, the money in this networked economy does not follow the path +of the copies. Rather it follows the path of attention, and attention +has its own circuits. + +Careful readers will note one conspicuous absence so far. I have said +nothing about advertising. Ads are widely regarded as the solution, +almost the ONLY solution, to the paradox of the free. Most of the +suggested solutions I’ve seen for overcoming the free involve some +measure of advertising. I think ads are only one of the paths that +attention takes, and in the long-run, they will only be part of the new +ways money is made selling the free. + +But that’s another story. + +Beneath the frothy layer of advertising, these eight generatives will +supply the value to ubiquitous free copies, and make them worth +advertising for. These generatives apply to all digital copies, but also +to any kind of copy where the marginal cost of that copy approaches +zero. (See my essay on [Technology Wants to Be +Free](http://kk.org/thetechnium/archives/2007/11/technology_want.php).) +Even material industries are finding that the costs of duplication near +zero, so they too will behave like digital copies. Maps just crossed +that threshold. Genetics is about to. Gadgets and small appliances (like +cell phones) are sliding that way. Pharmaceuticals are already there, +but they don’t want anyone to know. It costs nothing to make a pill. We +pay for Authenticity and Immediacy in drugs. Someday we’ll pay for +Personalization. + +Maintaining generatives is a lot harder than duplicating copies in a +factory. There is still a lot to learn. A lot to figure out. Write to me +if you do. diff --git a/_stories/2008/15412686.md b/_stories/2008/15412686.md index 1472106..6d3f6ce 100644 --- a/_stories/2008/15412686.md +++ b/_stories/2008/15412686.md @@ -19,7 +19,678 @@ _tags: objectID: '15412686' --- -[Source](https://www.soundonsound.com/reviews/yamaha-ns10-story "Permalink to ") +How A Hi-fi Speaker Conquered The Studio World +By Phil Ward +[![Yamaha NS10 nearfield +monitors.](https://dt7v1i9vyp3mf.cloudfront.net/styles/header/s3/imagelibrary/y/yamahans1001-KD7qppNdHP2x5W7aS_VEk_ug1GkAdk9x.jpg)](https://dt7v1i9vyp3mf.cloudfront.net/styles/news_large/s3/imagelibrary/y/yamahans1001-dom6l2kUrWL1UfmN67XHfeF11ScKH2W..jpg) +Love or hate the Yamaha NS10, this unassuming little speaker has found a +place in the studios of many of the world's top producers. We trace its +history, and investigate why a monitor whose sound has been described as +"horrible" became an industry standard. + +What is it about the Yamaha NS10? If any piece of pro audio hardware +deserves that over-used term "industry standard" it has to be the NS10. +In a professional audio world continually seduced by the next big thing, +where plug-ins can provide a near instantaneous GAS (Gear Acquisition +Syndrome) fix, where products live or die thanks to their quantity of +bells and whistles, and where the number of contemporary nearfield +monitors that could apparently do the job of an NS10 is almost beyond +count... the venerable, tired old Yamaha is the one piece of kit that +still appears in almost every photograph of a smiling engineer posed at +his desk. + +You don't have to hang around long in the SOS Forum for a thread to +appear that features the Yamaha NS10. Even in threads that begin with +some other monitor subject, the NS10 seems to possess a gravitational +influence that inexorably results in discussion of its merits, or +otherwise. Few subjects excite so much passionate opinion and, as is the +way with passionate opinions, you don't find many in the middle ground: +nobody says they "quite like" or "slightly dislike" the NS10; it's a +definite case of love or hate, as evidenced by the SOS Forum quotes I've +included in the 'Love 'Em Or Hate 'Em?' box. Within that context of +polarised opinion, the NS10 generates a phenomenon that at first glance +seems a little odd. You find those that, in professional terms can't +live without it but often don't particularly enjoy listening to it, and, +similarly, those that refuse to give it studio room but are often happy +to admit that professionally it does a job. + +So what's going on? Not only should the NS10 by rights be nothing but a +small footnote in the history of recorded music, but also there is +precious little consensus or understanding about why we respond to it in +the way we do, and why it's still found in almost every studio. That's +where this feature comes in — so if you've ever wondered why you're +still using NS10s, even though you don't particularly enjoy the way they +sound, and if you're prepared to forget some of what you thought you +knew about monitors, read on... + +Part of the NS10's problem is that the general understanding of how we +respond to monitors is coloured by their apparent technical simplicity +and by manufacturers, sometimes innocently and sometimes intentionally, +encouraging this phenomenon. In reality, the psychoacoustics of the +perception of music reproduced by loudspeakers, and how this relates to +their technical performance and specification, is an immensely complex +subject that doesn't take kindly to simplification by marketing +departments. By the time it lands on a sales brochure, a +frequency-response curve, for example, is typically meaningless in terms +of providing any information that's useful to an end user — even if it +was measured competently and had any technical value in the first place. +But then, in some respects, it can suit a manufacturer of monitors if +their customers don't know too much. + +Misunderstanding also tends to breed misinformation, which is often +disseminated by well-meaning amateurs: those whose knowledge of a +subject is sketchy are always prey to the intuitively plausible but +utterly wrong explanation for one phenomenon or another. The hi-fi +sector is well known for enthusiastically buying into the plausible (and +often the implausible) as opposed to the factually correct. But we +serious audio practitioners shouldn't start feeling smug, because the +pro sector is not by any means squeaky clean on that front, especially +where monitors are concerned. Occam's Razor, the principle beloved of +physicists, which says that the most likely correct explanation for any +phenomenon is probably the simplest one, never seems to have reached the +audio business\! + +## [NS10 Variants](#top) + +During the NS10's 23-year life Yamaha manufactured a number of different +versions (or perhaps just used a number of different logos): + +[![The NS10 started life as a (not very successful) hi-fi speaker: and +the original NS10M shipped with cloth grilles, hence the grille-mounting +sockets you find in the corners of this model (absent from the NS10M +Studio that +followed).](https://dt7v1i9vyp3mf.cloudfront.net/styles/news_preview/s3/imagelibrary/y/yamahans1004-dxnq9SY3tNHuUXQXlz7Z75LdptLxU74v.jpg +"The NS10 started life as a (not very successful) hi-fi speaker: and the original NS10M shipped with cloth grilles, hence the grille-mounting sockets you find in the corners of this model (absent from the NS10M Studio that followed).")](https://dt7v1i9vyp3mf.cloudfront.net/styles/news_large/s3/imagelibrary/y/yamahans1004-K5.9NSZGK_1_3sBXs3YhTZ65LAvI_6zZ.jpg "The NS10 started life as a (not very successful) hi-fi speaker: and the original NS10M shipped with cloth grilles, hence the grille-mounting sockets you find in the corners of this model (absent from the NS10M Studio that followed).")**NS10M:** +The original domestic hi-fi speaker designed for vertical orientation +(its front panel logo reads correctly with the speaker mounted with +tweeter above woofer). This is the speaker that was too bright for Bob +Clearmountain, leading him to resort to tissue paper over the tweeters — +although, of course, it had to be the right kind of tissue paper. + +**NS10M Studio:** Some time after Yamaha got wind of the NS10M's +popularity as a nearfield monitor (and around nine years after the +original product launch) a version badged 'NS10M Studio' was produced. +This version was designed for horizontal orientation (the logo and +connection panel text were turned through 90 degrees), incorporated a +redesigned tweeter and crossover to address the HF tonal balance issues, +featured a more rugged cabinet design without grille-mounting sockets, +and had improved connection terminals. + +**Others:** Web searches on NS-10 or NS10 will reveal some variants. +There are versions badged NS10M Pro, NS10MX, NS10MC, NS10MT, and a +miniature version that was sold in a 5.1 home-theatre package called the +NS10MM. I've been unable to establish whether the NS10M Pro and NS10MX +offer anything different (my guess is that they don't, but if anybody +out there knows anything about them I'd love to hear it), but the NS10MC +appears to be an NS10M Studio with a front grille, and the NS10MT +appears to be a magnetically shielded and vertically oriented NS10M +Studio with symmetrically arranged drivers and, wait for it... a reflex +port. Aaaargh\! + +There are also obviously NS10-inspired products out there, by which I +mean nearfield monitors with black cabinets and white cones. In the +absence of any independent technical appraisal I'd be very wary of +purchasing one on the assumption that it will offer anything like the +performance of the genuine article. If you really want a pair of NS10s, +eBay is probably your only real option, and you should expect to pay +anything up to £350 for a pair in good condition. + +Before we get into the electro-mechanical and psychoacoustic nitty +gritty that I know you're gagging for, let me take you through a little +NS10 history. The Yamaha NS10 was designed by Akira Nakamura and +launched in 1978, and it was as technically unremarkable then as it is +now. At that time Yamaha were also producing the more extraordinary +NS1000 (also designed by Nakamura). With its beryllium mid-range and +tweeter domes this speaker is technically advanced even now, and if you +ever come across a pair in good condition, worth selling your own mother +for. The NS10 began life as a domestic hi-fi speaker, but it was +relatively poorly received and quickly faded towards obscurity. How the +NS10 was rescued from hi-fi death and resurrected as a nearfield +monitor, single-handedly inventing a product sector as it did so, is a +story that has probably been told slightly differently almost as many +times as it's been told, but the version I'll tell here is, I believe, +as close to the truth as makes no difference. + +To understand the history you first have to appreciate its context. The +late '70s, when NS10s began to appear perched on meter bridges +worldwide, was a transitional time in music recording. The divide +between the engineer and the artist was blurring, as if the glass +between the control room and the studio was melting. Desks were getting +bigger as track count increased on tape. Outboard gear, driven by the +possibilities offered by the mix and editing potential of that higher +track count, became more sophisticated and ambitious, and the +possibilities for recording engineers to become more creatively involved +in the process of producing a record multiplied. + +[![Although Yamaha appear to have included plenty of technical +information on the rear panel of this NS10M, you'll have to dig deeper +to find out what makes the NS10 so special (or, of course, you could +read this article...). +](https://dt7v1i9vyp3mf.cloudfront.net/styles/header/s3/imagelibrary/y/yamahans1003label-PcDDoOFyRb7l9ohHxkb3cMTlRDEoFzr6.jpg +"Although Yamaha appear to have included plenty of technical information on the rear panel of this NS10M, you'll have to dig deeper to find out what makes the NS10 so special (or, of course, you could read this article...). ")](https://dt7v1i9vyp3mf.cloudfront.net/styles/news_large/s3/imagelibrary/y/yamahans1003label-95QXG0eN5xeWJzXI8h3tR_mlCsKQHPa2.jpg "Although Yamaha appear to have included plenty of technical information on the rear panel of this NS10M, you'll have to dig deeper to find out what makes the NS10 so special (or, of course, you could read this article...). ") + +This new-found creativity in the control room meant that those recording +engineers who embraced and learned to deploy the rapidly increasing +capabilities of recording technology discovered they could call the +shots with the record companies. Suddenly they held the power and some +of them, initially in the US but pretty quickly in the UK also, became +minor stars in their own right. The freelance life beckoned as a result, +but a freelancer needs their own tools, and the new breed of 'name' +recording engineer/producer travelled reasonably light from studio to +studio, with a few items of favourite outboard, a few microphones —and, +after a while, a pair of Yamaha NS10s. + +Actually, it might not have been the NS10. On both sides of the Atlantic +it might have been the Acoustic Research AR18, and in the UK it might +have been the Mordaunt-Short MS20: hi-fi speakers that offered similar +technical characteristics and were occasionally to be found in studios +(I was working at Mordaunt-Short in the early '80s and developed a 'pro' +version of the MS20, but a lack of effective distribution scuppered its +launch). But it was the NS10, thanks in part to its cool white cone and, +it is often said, to Bob Clearmountain... + +The usual story goes that Bob Clearmountain, one of the first of that +new breed of 'name' engineers wanted a pair of monitors to carry with +him from studio to studio so that he had a consistent reference, and he +wanted something that he felt was representative of typical domestic +hi-fi speakers. It is sometimes also said, usually by those for whom the +abilities of the NS10 are a closed book, that he chose the NS10 because +it was the worst-sounding speaker he could find. That, as I say, is the +usual story. The trouble is, it's not true: the real story, recounted by +engineer Nigel Jopson in a letter published in Resolution magazine in +2007, does involve Bob Clearmountain (see Note 1), but is different in +almost every other respect. + +## [Bob Clearmountain's Tissue](#top) + +Bob Clearmountain's other significant claim to fame is probably that he +was the first to use tissue paper over NS10 tweeters in an attempt to +dull their over-bright balance. He resorted to tissue paper after the +maintenance staff at The Power Station had refused to modify the +speakers by wiring resistors in series with the tweeters (why he didn't +simply put an HF shelf EQ in the monitor chain is a question for which I +don't have an answer). Yamaha's second-generation NS10, the NS10M +Studio, had a less bright balance, so removing the need for tissue +paper. There's a technical analysis by Bob Hodas examining the effect of +covering the NS10 tweeter with various types of tissue paper here: +[www.bobhodas.com/tissue.html](http://www.bobhodas.com/tissue.html) + +Jopson believes he was one of the first engineers regularly to use NS10s +in the UK. His first pair was given to him by a producer just back from +mixing a project at The Power Station in New York, after hearing that +Rhett Davies and Bob Clearmountain had used a pair there while mixing +Roxy Music's Avalon. However, Jopson goes on to say that Clearmountain +himself recalls that NS10s were recommended to him by Bill Scheniman — +who was the first engineer to bring a pair to New York, having used them +at either Motown or Sunset Studios in LA. Bill Scheniman recollects that +the pair of NS10s at Sunset (or was it Motown?) belonged to Grag +Ladanyi, but that he had been convinced of their worth earlier, while +working in Tokyo. Scheniman remembers using NS10s at two studios there: +TakeOne, and another studio long-since forgotten. So, the most likely +seed of the NS10's world domination was probably an unknown engineer at +TakeOne studios in Tokyo — and not Bob Clearmountain looking for the +worst speaker he could find\! + +The rest, as they say, is history. Clearmountain in particular was (as +he is now) a first-call producer and engineer for the biggest projects, +and once he and a few others began to rely on the NS10, the phenomenon +grew like a virus inhabiting a welcoming host: studios began to buy +NS10s in their thousands in an effort to attract name engineers. Of +course, in order to thrive, a virus needs a host to which it is +particularly well suited, and this was provided by the rapidly +increasing number of freelance engineers I described earlier. + +But in what respect was the NS10 so well suited to the nearfield monitor +role? What was it that the unknown Tokyo engineer, Scheniman, +Clearmountain, Davies, Jopson et al, heard to convince them that the +NS10 was worth overturning their previous monitoring practices +(predominantly Aurotones on the desk for AM radio/TV mixes, and big +horn-loaded main monitors in the wall in front of the desk) for? If the +NS10 had truly been, 'the worst speaker Bob Clearmountain could find' it +wouldn't still be with us, which means it must have had — and must still +have — something special. + +Fast forward to 2001 (ironically, the year in which Yamaha discontinued +the NS10), when studio and monitor designer Philip Newell, Julias +Newell, and Southampton University's Dr Keith Holland presented a +[research +paper](http://dt7v1i9vyp3mf.cloudfront.net/assetlibrary/n/ns10m.pdf?jQWj8tYIeZeymRCNXitG9Qfwq9mLf1t0) +to the Institute of Acoustics that constituted probably the first +objective investigation of the NS10 phenomenon. + +The Newells/Holland paper was based on acoustic measurements of 38 +different nearfield monitors, carried out in the UK's premier research +anechoic chamber at Southampton University. The acoustic measurements +taken included frequency response, harmonic distortion and time-domain +response (how quickly + +## [Further Reading](#top) + +The paper, The Yamaha NS10. Twenty Years A Reference Monitor. Why? is no +longer available from the Institute of Acoustics but some of it is +included in Philip Newell and Keith Holland's book, Loudspeakers For +Music Recording And Reproduction. Anyone who gets to the end of this +article without losing the will to live could do much worse than get +hold of a copy. + +*Ed — Since this SOS article was first published, the authors have +kindly given us permission to host the research paper PDF on our web +site: ![PDF icon](/modules/file/icons/application-pdf.png +"application/pdf") +[ns10m.pdf](https://dt7v1i9vyp3mf.cloudfront.net/assetlibrary/n/ns10m.pdf?Mox1MHrRfMC0jrcxfvOtE1aJ4mEwV4P.)* + +Having said that the Newells/Holland paper was the first analysis of the +NS10, Andy Munro presented a paper to the Audio Engineering Society in +the early '90s, in which he examined in passing the acoustic effects on +the NS10 of placing it on the meter bridge of a big desk. The paper +showed that the NS10's frequency response flattens in such circumstances +— reflection from the desk reinforces output in the upper bass and +low-mid region. + +a monitor starts and stops in response to an input). At the end of the +exercise it's no exaggeration to say that one monitor stood out like the +proverbial sore cliché: the NS10. While its frequency response wasn't +particularly flat, and its low-frequency bandwidth was restricted in +comparison to many others, in terms of time-domain and distortion +performance it was outstanding. + +During my work with Acoustic Energy on its recently launched AE22 +nearfield monitor, we repeated some of Newell's and Holland's +time-domain measurements of the NS10 and found similar results, and I've +reproduced some curves that illustrate it. The measured data was +generated by Phil Knight using the MLSSA acoustic measurement and +analysis package, together with a calibrated B\&K measurement microphone +and custom-made power and microphone amplifiers. The relatively small +measuring environment allowed for acoustic accuracy only down to around +150Hz — so, in Figure 4, reproduced later in this article, data below +that frequency was generated through analysis of the NS10's +low-frequency electro-acoustic parameters and calculating its response +(see the explanation below). Before I get deeper into the acoustic +measurements of the NS10, however, I'll first touch on one fundamental +reason, as Newells and Holland pointed out, why its time-domain response +is significantly better at low frequencies than most nearfield monitors: +it's a closed box speaker. + +## [Frequency Response & Time Domain](#top) + +In electro-acoustic terms, at low frequencies (say, below 200Hz) a +speaker is a classical high-pass filter and, just as in classical +electrical filter theory, if the appropriate parameter values (driver +compliance, moving mass, cone area, box volume, magnet strength, +voice-coil resistance, and so on) are known, the frequency response and +time-domain response can be calculated with (almost) 100 percent +confidence. + +Thanks to its two reactive elements — the mass of the cone/coil and the +combined stiffness of the driver suspension and the air in the cabinet — +a closed-box speaker displays second-order (12dB per octave) high-pass +filter characteristics. A reflex-loaded speaker, on the other hand, +thanks to the extra mass element of the slug of air in the port and the +slug's own reaction against the air in the box, behaves as a +fourth-order filter (24dB per octave). All reactive filters display a +delay in their response to an input that increases with their +complexity. In-phase movement of the air in the port of a reflex-loaded +speaker must occur a half cycle (180-degree phase shift) after movement +of the driver cone. This kind of time delay is known technically as +group delay; it's actually the phase change with frequency expressed as +time. + +[![Figure 1: Calculated NS10M low-frequency amplitude response (black) +and group delay +(blue).](https://dt7v1i9vyp3mf.cloudfront.net/styles/header/s3/imagelibrary/y/yamahans10fig1-lVadMncLlsxIYCdED69V_jmny5zy7abu.jpg +"Figure 1: Calculated NS10M low-frequency amplitude response (black) and group delay (blue).")](https://dt7v1i9vyp3mf.cloudfront.net/styles/news_large/s3/imagelibrary/y/yamahans10fig1-X8rCNXx8QF0YfiMxrh4waUrQxV9G5qmk.jpg "Figure 1: Calculated NS10M low-frequency amplitude response (black) and group delay (blue).") + +To illustrate a comparison of a closed box and a reflex speaker I've +generated two low-frequency response simulation curves showing frequency +response and group delay. The simulation in Figure 1 is based on the +cabinet volume and driver parameters of the NS10. The NS10's limited +low-frequency bandwidth (-3dB at 70Hz), slightly humped response and +slow roll-off are clearly apparent. The group delay reaches a maximum of +around 3.5ms at 70Hz. + +Figure 2 shows what might have happened if Akira Nakamura had decided to +aim for maximum low-frequency bandwidth (retaining the characteristic +slightly humped shape) when he designed the NS10. The simulation in +Figure 2 is again based on the NS10's 12-litre box volume. I've had to +tweak the driver parameters slightly to make the system viable, but they +are broadly similar to the genuine article. So if Nakamura had decided +to go all out for LF bandwidth (as many contemporary nearfield monitor +designers do) he could easily have reached -3dB at 57Hz — but look what +would happen to the group delay. It increases to just under 11ms at +60Hz, which is around three times that of the closed-box NS10. + +[![Figure 2: Calculated reflex-loaded NS10M low-frequency amplitude +response (black) and group delay +(blue).](https://dt7v1i9vyp3mf.cloudfront.net/styles/header/s3/imagelibrary/y/yamahans10fig2-SXmUpAeU_Sd7dstflQ6ikqmDuNAx0i3h.jpg +"Figure 2: Calculated reflex-loaded NS10M low-frequency amplitude response (black) and group delay (blue).")](https://dt7v1i9vyp3mf.cloudfront.net/styles/news_large/s3/imagelibrary/y/yamahans10fig2-H0q.Xu7Y.6SjPlujfDLJJVpVklVqYQBO.jpg "Figure 2: Calculated reflex-loaded NS10M low-frequency amplitude response (black) and group delay (blue).") + +Group delay is not some imaginary construct that helps acousticians feel +important, it's real — and it means, for the reflex-loaded NS10 option, +that a bass-guitar fundamental at 60Hz will arrive at the listening +position around 9ms after the second harmonic at 120Hz. Put another way, +and expressed as a distance, the low fundamentals of the bass guitar +(and parts of the drum kit) will sound as if they are nearly four metres +behind the rest of the band (you can insert your own bass player gag +here). Low-frequency group delay doesn't only influence mix decisions: +it also varies widely between speakers and, unlike low frequency level, +which can be adjusted via EQ, once its influence on tracking or mix +decision has been 'printed' to the mix, it can't be undone. + +A reflex-loaded NS10, however, would not just have had significantly +delayed low-frequency output. As well as delaying the arrival of +low-frequency output, reflex loading also results in its output +continuing significantly after the input signal has stopped (something +that takes time to get moving generally takes time to stop), and in a +multitude of dynamic compression, pitch-accuracy, noise and distortion +mechanisms that simply do not occur in closed-box speakers. These again +are effects that come without an 'undo' function once a mix is printed — +so one of the best decisions Nakamura made when developing the NS10 was +to make it a closed box. + +Closed-box loading explains why the NS10's time-domain response is good +at low frequencies but, as Newells and Holland discovered, the excellent +performance also continues into the vital mid-range. Figure 3 shows a +'waterfall plot' of an NS10M from 200Hz up to 20kHz. These plots +illustrate how quickly the output from a speaker dies away after a +full-range signal stops suddenly. Imagine instantaneously switching off +a source of pink noise. That's not quite how the waterfall plot is +generated — one of this type is actually generated by taking sequential +windowed snapshots of the speaker's impulse response and applying a +Fourier transform to each — but it's a useful mental image.[![Figure 3: +Measured NS10M waterfall +plot.](https://dt7v1i9vyp3mf.cloudfront.net/styles/header/s3/imagelibrary/y/yamahans10fig3-eaF0B25sDGD7PskeRIg_NsrO4MoxK4tF.jpg +"Figure 3: Measured NS10M waterfall plot.")](https://dt7v1i9vyp3mf.cloudfront.net/styles/news_large/s3/imagelibrary/y/yamahans10fig3-S5FhKRUNim.OCChBxCxoADOKbe5vJdG4.jpg "Figure 3: Measured NS10M waterfall plot.") + +Time runs in the waterfall plot from back to front, and a perfect +speaker would display just one line (equivalent to its steady-state +frequency response) at zero milliseconds. At the left-hand side of the +plot there's a combination of the tail of the NS10's low-frequency +fundamental resonance (even closed-box speakers don't stop immediately), +and the unavoidable artifacts of a relatively small measurement space. +Moving to the right, there are a couple of obvious discrete features — +one at just under 2kHz and one at just under 3kHz. These are resonances +in the NS10's bass/mid driver cone (or possibly its surround or +dust-cap), and while they may look a little ugly they actually die down +very quickly, and in subjective performance terms are relatively +innocuous. The second resonance is at around 3kHz, which is actually +above the NS10's 2kHz nominal crossover frequency, and illustrates that +driver performance is important, even outside its nominal operational +band. And speaking of the nominal operating band, the NS10's unusually +low crossover frequency of 2kHz (made possible by a larger than typical +tweeter, able to operate at relatively low frequencies) provides another +clue to its time-domain performance. Any paper-cone bass/mid driver such +as that used in the NS10 will become pretty badly behaved, in terms of +resonance, above about 2kHz. Above the 3kHz feature in the waterfall +plot is an area of general hash: this is the bass/mid cone in what's +known as break-up mode, where its output is really just the result of +one resonance after another. If the NS10's crossover frequency was an +octave higher, at 4kHz, this cone break-up region would reflect in the +time-domain performance and the waterfall plot would look very much +worse. Moving further to the right, the NS10's tweeter performs very +well and shows very little delayed output. Generally, the NS10's +waterfall performance reveals a speaker that achieves -40dB within 6ms. +Most speakers will take twice that long and many, especially those +designed to maximise bandwidth, longer still. With just two small +resonant features in the waterfall plot up to 3kHz, Nakamura could +justifiably consider his design for the NS10 bass-mid driver a success. + +## [The Heat Is On](#top) + +Measurement of the low-frequency parameters of the NS10 bass/mid driver +revels that it has a very high mechanical Q. This means there's no +eddy-current damping from the voice-coil former, which in turn means +that it's almost certainly made from non-conductive Kapton (polyimide +film) rather than the more usual, and conductive, aluminium. A Kapton +fomer, while able to withstand pretty high temperatures, dissipates heat +very poorly. + +I suspect that the success came from the NS10's only really unusual +feature: its iconic white bass/mid driver cone. The cone wasn't just +unusual because it was white, of course, but thanks to the way it was +manufactured. The vast majority of paper-based speaker cones are pressed +from pulp using a mould — partly because moulding gives the designer the +ability to specify a curved cone-profile, to enable a degree of tuning +of the driver's frequency response and resonant behaviour. A cone with a +curved profile will generally become less rigid towards its outer edge, +so as frequency increases its effective radiating area and output level +reduces. Designers often use this technique to delay the onset of +directionality in bass/mid drivers, so allowing a higher crossover +frequency than would otherwise be possible + +[![The curl-and-join construction of the NS10's paper cone (look closely +and you can see the glued seam) is not typical of most speaker designs — +and is a factor in the NS10's success in the +studio.](https://dt7v1i9vyp3mf.cloudfront.net/styles/header/s3/imagelibrary/y/yamahans1002dark-hMuerA5qzeIyszOthtnnyqXz0kWQoK.C.jpg +"The curl-and-join construction of the NS10's paper cone (look closely and you can see the glued seam) is not typical of most speaker designs — and is a factor in the NS10's success in the studio.")](https://dt7v1i9vyp3mf.cloudfront.net/styles/news_large/s3/imagelibrary/y/yamahans1002dark-OWlksRMXb5jWpv_TwCkTgGuioEotFWfB.jpg "The curl-and-join construction of the NS10's paper cone (look closely and you can see the glued seam) is not typical of most speaker designs — and is a factor in the NS10's success in the studio.") + +The NS10's bass/mid cone was not pressed but 'curled-up' from flat paper +sheet and then glued (look closely at the picture and you can see the +join). The cone is straight-sided as a result, and the curl-and-join +technique had two consequences for the performance of the NS10 bass/mid +driver. First, the straight-sided form generally results in a driver +with a rising frequency response, and second, while straight sides +maximise rigidity, which would normally result in a cone with a strong +'bell-mode' resonance, the glued join acts as a damper (imagine a bell +with a glued sawcut down the side: it won't ring much). + +The characteristic rising response of a straight-sided cone is clearly +apparent in Figure 4, which illustrates the NS10's frequency response +measured at one metre on an axis halfway between the bass/mid unit and +tweeter. Figure 4 is correctly calibrated so the NS10's sensitivity for +a 2.83V (nominally 1W into 8Ω) input can be read from the vertical axis +— somewhere between 87dB and 92dB. The NS10's relatively restricted +low-frequency bandwidth, and the low-frequency roll-off slope of 12dB +per octave, can also be seen. The 15kHz 'suck-out' in the response is +most likely caused by diffraction from the tweeter's wire grille and, as +it makes only a fleeting appearance in the waterfall plot is probably of +little significance (it fades away in off-axis measurements too, which +suggests its root cause is one of geometric symmetry). + +[![Figure 4: Measured and calculated NS10M amplitude frequency response. +Measured at 1m on axis. Curve calibrated to 2.83V +input.](https://dt7v1i9vyp3mf.cloudfront.net/styles/header/s3/imagelibrary/y/yamahans10fig4-CrWK5bTi6VL2_.39Zbn5I0QwWeZwbIpo.jpg +"Figure 4: Measured and calculated NS10M amplitude frequency response. Measured at 1m on axis. Curve calibrated to 2.83V input.")](https://dt7v1i9vyp3mf.cloudfront.net/styles/news_large/s3/imagelibrary/y/yamahans10fig4-AM9PW9D349lwomnaL02ZoklYAwemEGsT.jpg "Figure 4: Measured and calculated NS10M amplitude frequency response. Measured at 1m on axis. Curve calibrated to 2.83V input.") + +## [Love 'Em Or Hate 'Em?](#top) + +This selection of opinions that I've pillaged from the SOS Forum +([www.soundonsound.com/forum](/forum)) gives you an impression of the +strength of feeling both for and against the Yamaha NS10 — and it is +very rare to find anyone's comments keeping to the middle ground\! + +"I don't find the NS10s fatiguing to listen to at all, quite the +opposite. The more I use them the more I love them\!" + +"They're brutally unflattering to mixes, but that's their job. But +never, ever use them as a sole pair of monitors. Just a cross check." + +"...their forte is to exaggerate low-mid ugliness in your mix. If you +monitor on NS10s and your low-mids sound clean, then they are." + +"NS10s were bloody brilliant, I can't believe Yamaha stopped making +them." + +"I keep NS10s in the studio, because it gives bands and producers a warm +feeling. Ten minutes into the session I switch them off and not once has +anyone questioned it. I track and mix on better monitors and get better +results." + +"The NS10 phenomenon may have more to do with the 'Emperor's New +Clothes'. In my opinion they sound nasty and I don't feel that I can +trust them." + +"Nobody in their right minds likes the sound of the NS10s for enjoyable +listening\!\!\! They do not do that very well\!\!\!" + +"The old cliché is that if it sounds good on NS10s then it'll sound good +on anything. I think it's precisely because they sound so bad that they +are used so widely." + +"NS10s are totally incapable of reproducing a double bass or the bottom +octaves of a grand piano with any sort of accuracy, and have a harsh +high-end that can really numb your ears after a while." + +"I've never really got on with them and can gladly live without them in +the studio. However, I've seen experienced visiting engineers produce +good mixes on them and I've seen inexperienced people produce terrible +bass-heaving mixes on them." + +"They may sound horrible but they do highlight problems with your +mixing." + +"I totally hated the NS10s initially and wondered why they were industry +standard, until I checked back some mixes on a pair. All the problems +instantly jumped out." + +"They really are somewhat unique in their ability to let you hear the +mids in a relatively uncoloured way, and I can tell you that they have +improved my mixes greatly, and I'm able to get a mix to translate better +in a much shorter period of time, especially with busy mixes." + +"Run out and buy a pair of NS10s... like the sound or not, that is not +the point." + +Why have I included a frequency-response curve here? I mentioned earlier +that the frequency-response curves in a sales brochure are typically +meaningless in terms of providing information that's useful to an end +user. Actually, though, I'd go further than that, and suggest that in +many respects making any judgment about the worth or likely value of a +monitor by examining its frequency-response curve is not far short of +pointless. I often read opinions on the SOS Forum arguing that to be of +any value monitors require a 'flat frequency response', but numerous +recordings made during what many would consider the golden age for +musical sound quality (the '60s and '70s) were monitored on speakers +that were all over the place in terms of frequency response — and I +don't know why recording engineers seem to believe so strongly that a +monitor should be anechoically 'flat' when so much end-product evidence +suggests that this isn't particularly important. + +A frequency-response curve appears to tell you if a monitor is going to +reproduce different elements of the audible bandwidth at the same level, +which intuitively seems vitally important. But a simple +frequency-response curve tells you no such thing, and the +psychoacoustics of human hearing is more about the time domain than the +frequency domain. + +When we measure a monitor's frequency response in an anechoic chamber, +the microphone 'hears' the output at just one position in space. +However, when we listen to a monitor in a room we hear a combination of +the monitor and its interaction with the room boundaries (and big items +of furniture). Reflections from the walls, floor and ceiling are +integrated over time by the brain, to create a composite tonal balance. +When I design a typical 'box speaker', I've learned through experience +(and reading Dr Floyd Toole's work on the subject) that a +frequency-response curve taken at between 20 and 30 degrees horizontally +off-axis is likely to be most representative of an appropriate target +tonal balance. For a speaker tonally voiced for domestic free-space +mounting (not up against a wall or sat on a meter bridge), this off-axis +anechoic curve should be reasonably flat up to around 2kHz and then fall +slowly at around 3dB per octave for the rest of the range. This is a +long, long way from 'flat', but it will sound neutrally balanced in a +typical domestic room at average playback levels. + +And speaking of 'average playback levels', in addition to the room +effects that influence our perception of tonal balance, listening level +plays a significant part too. The brain's perception of tonal balance is +level dependent. At low levels we're far more sensitive to mid-range +than bass and treble — hence the 'loudness' button beloved of '80s +Japanese hi-fi amps. So, again, expecting a frequency-response curve +measured at one position in space and at a single arbitrary level to +reveal the full story on the worth of a monitor is to simplify reality +to the point of nonsense. + +Moving swiftly on to the second assertion I made a couple of paragraphs +ago, we humans have evolved to respond more to the transient than to the +tonal elements of sound. Try a little experiment: find a sample of +something like a clarinet and a flute, each playing the same continuous +note, drop them onto two tracks in your DAW and listen to them in turn. +It's very easy to tell which is which. Chop the first, say, 500ms from +the front of each so that the characteristic beginnings of the notes are +suppressed, and listen again. They'll sound much more similar: the brain +uses the characteristic transients to differentiate the instruments, and +without them it struggles. Now, go back to the un-edited samples and +apply the same severe EQ to each and listen again: despite the EQ, you +can still differentiate them. A similar illustration of the use the +brain makes of transient rather than tonal information is that a +familiar voice remains familiar in wildly different acoustic +environments — environments that imprint different tonal characters on +the sound. So, concentrating on the 'flatness' of frequency response is +to miss a hugely important point: if a monitor handles transients +accurately, its frequency response is much less important than you +probably think. + +Before I wrap up this epic (and promise never, ever to write about the +NS10 again), there's just one more issue that probably deserves to be +kicked around a little. If the NS10 is so good, why do people so often +express their dislike of listening to it? I suspect that there are both +practical and emotional answers to this conundrum. + +First, the emotional. Thanks to its time-domain accuracy and mid-heavy +balance, the NS10 is an extremely revealing speaker that takes no +prisoners. In other words, if the recording is poor, the NS10 will tell +you in no uncertain terms. You have to work harder to make things sound +good on the NS10 not because it sounds bad but because recorded music, +even today, is often a poor approximation of the real thing, and the +NS10 reveals it. I found a familiar comment on the SOS Forum that reads: +"If it sounds good on NS10s then it'll sound good on anything." Again, +that's not because the NS10 is inherently poor, but because it is +effective at revealing the fundamental compromises inherent in recorded +music. If you've worked hard on NS10s at a mix and overcome those +compromises, or perhaps cleverly disguised them, the mix will translate +well to other systems because it is a good mix. Put another way, the +NS10 better enables you to get to the nub of a mix by more accurately +reproducing its fundamental time-domain information — and it is this +which can make the task of mixing seem more challenging. + +And the practical? Well, it's certainly true that the NS10s have a +mid-heavy balance and little bass extension. This is especially so if +they are not mounted close to a suitable boundary — such as a big desk +or a rear wall — to provide low mid-range reinforcement. They're also +just as revealing of any shortcomings in the monitoring chain as they +are of the mix, and they don't take very kindly to being driven loud. +While Newells and Holland showed they have very low levels of +distortion, they do suffer from thermal compression, which will not only +cause wide-band dynamic attenuation in response to high levels of drive, +but will upset the characteristics of the crossover filters as the +voice-coil resistance of the drivers increases. As temperature rises, +the bass/mid low-pass filter frequency will increase significantly (and +the tweeter high-pass filter frequency will reduce), and begin to give +prominence to the resonances at the top end of the bass/mid driver's +response. When NS10s are driven too hard by a poor amplifier, fed by a +sub-standard monitor output, and mounted without any boundary +reinforcement, you might well find that they sound horrible to the point +of being unusable. + +Where does all that leave us? Why do we still use that old monitor? We +use it because it does a job, even if it sometimes doesn't sound very +nice while doing the job, partly because, if it's installed or driven +inappropriately, it will reveal such shortcomings without mercy, and +partly because it sometimes reproduces elements of our work that we +don't particularly want to hear. But we also use it because nearfield +monitor manufacturers seem to have suffered a 20-year blind spot and +failed to identify why the NS10 works and remains so popular. Go +figure.  + +Thanks to: FX Rentals for the loan of a pair of NS10s; Acoustic Energy +for permission to use their NS10 data; Phil Knight for doing the +original measuring; the SOS Forum members whose words I've borrowed; and +to Chris Binns for advice that (hopefully) ensured I've not written +anything really dumb. + +## [Goodbye NS10](#top) + +Yamaha discontinued the NS10 in 2001 on the grounds that they were +unable to source the pulp for the bass/mid cone, but I don't buy this. +Firstly, they still seem able to manufacture replacement bass/mid +drivers, and secondly, it was the cone shape and construction method +that were the significant factors, not the specific paper pulp. This +however begs the question why did they discontinue the NS10? I suspect +it was a case of ignorance combined with market and margin pressures. +Nakamura had moved on to pastures new in the organisation, and those +left behind perhaps didn't fully appreciate what was so special about +his speaker. It isn't difficult to imagine the sales department +reporting back that they needed monitors with more bass, and the +engineers responding with reflex loading. diff --git a/_stories/2008/1843491.md b/_stories/2008/1843491.md index f043909..bf663e6 100644 --- a/_stories/2008/1843491.md +++ b/_stories/2008/1843491.md @@ -19,7 +19,531 @@ _tags: objectID: '1843491' --- -[Source](https://www.theamericanscholar.org/the-disadvantages-of-an-elite-education/ "Permalink to ") +# The Disadvantages of an Elite Education +[Print](#) +Our best universities have forgotten that the reason they exist is to +make minds, not careers +![](https://theamericanscholar.org/uploads/2008/06/grads-600x315.png) + +### By William Deresiewicz + +#### + +June 1, 2008 + + + +  + +![](https://theamericanscholar.org/uploads/2008/06/grads-800x420.png) + +Listen to a narrated version of this essay: + +It didn’t dawn on me that there might be a few holes in my education +until I was about 35. I’d just bought a house, the pipes needed fixing, +and the plumber was standing in my kitchen. There he was, a short, beefy +guy with a goatee and a Red Sox cap and a thick Boston accent, and I +suddenly learned that I didn’t have the slightest idea what to say to +someone like him. So alien was his experience to me, so unguessable his +values, so mysterious his very language, that I couldn’t succeed in +engaging him in a few minutes of small talk before he got down to work. +Fourteen years of higher education and a handful of Ivy League degrees, +and there I was, stiff and stupid, struck dumb by my own dumbness. “Ivy +retardation,” a friend of mine calls this. I could carry on +conversations with people from other countries, in other languages, but +I couldn’t talk to the man who was standing in my own house. + +It’s not surprising that it took me so long to discover the extent of my +miseducation, because the last thing an elite education will teach you +is its own inadequacy. As two dozen years at Yale and Columbia have +shown me, elite colleges relentlessly encourage their students to +flatter themselves for being there, and for what being there can do for +them. The advantages of an elite education are indeed undeniable. You +learn to think, at least in certain ways, and you make the contacts +needed to launch yourself into a life rich in all of society’s most +cherished rewards. To consider that while some opportunities are being +created, others are being cancelled and that while some abilities are +being developed, others are being crippled is, within this context, not +only outrageous, but inconceivable. + +I’m not talking about curricula or the culture wars, the closing or +opening of the American mind, political correctness, canon formation, or +what have you. I’m talking about the whole system in which these +skirmishes play out. Not just the Ivy League and its peer institutions, +but also the mechanisms that get you there in the first place: the +private and affluent public “feeder” schools, the ever-growing +parastructure of tutors and test-prep courses and enrichment programs, +the whole admissions frenzy and everything that leads up to and away +from it. The message, as always, is the medium. Before, after, and +around the elite college classroom, a constellation of values is +ceaselessly inculcated. As globalization sharpens economic insecurity, +we are increasingly committing ourselves—as students, as parents, as a +society—to a vast apparatus of educational advantage. With so many +resources devoted to the business of elite academics and so many people +scrambling for the limited space at the top of the ladder, it is worth +asking what exactly it is you get in the end—what it is we all get, +because the elite students of today, as their institutions never tire of +reminding them, are the leaders of tomorrow. + +The first disadvantage of an elite education, as I learned in my kitchen +that day, is that it makes you incapable of talking to people who aren’t +like you. Elite schools pride themselves on their diversity, but that +diversity is almost entirely a matter of ethnicity and race. With +respect to class, these schools are largely—indeed +increasingly—homogeneous. Visit any elite campus in our great nation +and you can thrill to the heartwarming spectacle of the children of +white businesspeople and professionals studying and playing alongside +the children of black, Asian, and Latino businesspeople and +professionals. At the same time, because these schools tend to cultivate +liberal attitudes, they leave their students in the paradoxical position +of wanting to advocate on behalf of the working class while being unable +to hold a simple conversation with anyone in it. Witness the last two +Democratic presidential nominees, Al Gore and John Kerry: one each from +Harvard and Yale, both earnest, decent, intelligent men, both utterly +incapable of communicating with the larger electorate. + +But it isn’t just a matter of class. My education taught me to believe +that people who didn’t go to an Ivy League or equivalent school weren’t +worth talking to, regardless of their class. I was given the +unmistakable message that such people were beneath me. We were “the best +and the brightest,” as these places love to say, and everyone else was, +well, something else: less good, less bright. I learned to give that +little nod of understanding, that slightly sympathetic “Oh,” when people +told me they went to a less prestigious college. (If I’d gone to +Harvard, I would have learned to say “in Boston” when I was asked where +I went to school—the Cambridge version of noblesse oblige.) I never +learned that there are smart people who don’t go to elite colleges, +often precisely for reasons of class. I never learned that there are +smart people who don’t go to college at all. + +I also never learned that there are smart people who aren’t “smart.” The +existence of multiple forms of intelligence has become a commonplace, +but however much elite universities like to sprinkle their incoming +classes with a few actors or violinists, they select for and develop one +form of intelligence: the analytic. While this is broadly true of all +universities, elite schools, precisely because their students (and +faculty, and administrators) possess this one form of intelligence to +such a high degree, are more apt to ignore the value of others. One +naturally prizes what one most possesses and what most makes for one’s +advantages. But social intelligence and emotional intelligence and +creative ability, to name just three other forms, are not distributed +preferentially among the educational elite. The “best” are the brightest +only in one narrow sense. One needs to wander away from the educational +elite to begin to discover this. + +What about people who aren’t bright in any sense? I have a friend who +went to an Ivy League college after graduating from a typically mediocre +public high school. One of the values of going to such a school, she +once said, is that it teaches you to relate to stupid people. Some +people are smart in the elite-college way, some are smart in other ways, +and some aren’t smart at all. It should be embarrassing not to know how +to talk to any of them, if only because talking to people is the only +real way of knowing them. Elite institutions are supposed to provide a +humanistic education, but the first principle of humanism is Terence’s: +“nothing human is alien to me.” The first disadvantage of an elite +education is how very much of the human it alienates you from. + +The second disadvantage, implicit in what I’ve been saying, is that an +elite education inculcates a false sense of self-worth. Getting to an +elite college, being at an elite college, and going on from an elite +college—all involve numerical rankings: SAT, GPA, GRE. You learn to +think of yourself in terms of those numbers. They come to signify not +only your fate, but your identity; not only your identity, but your +value. It’s been said that what those tests really measure is your +ability to take tests, but even if they measure something real, it is +only a small slice of the real. The problem begins when students are +encouraged to forget this truth, when academic excellence becomes +excellence in some absolute sense, when “better at X” becomes simply +“better.” + +There is nothing wrong with taking pride in one’s intellect or +knowledge. There is something wrong with the smugness and +self-congratulation that elite schools connive at from the moment the +fat envelopes come in the mail. From orientation to graduation, the +message is implicit in every tone of voice and tilt of the head, every +old-school tradition, every article in the student paper, every speech +from the dean. The message is: You have arrived. Welcome to the club. +And the corollary is equally clear: You deserve everything your presence +here is going to enable you to get. When people say that students at +elite schools have a strong sense of entitlement, they mean that those +students think they deserve more than other people because their SAT +scores are higher. + +At Yale, and no doubt at other places, the message is reinforced in +embarrassingly literal terms. The physical form of the university—its +quads and residential colleges, with their Gothic stone façades and +wrought-iron portals—is constituted by the locked gate set into the +encircling wall. Everyone carries around an ID card that determines +which gates they can enter. The gate, in other words, is a kind of +governing metaphor—because the social form of the university, as is true +of every elite school, is constituted the same way. Elite colleges are +walled domains guarded by locked gates, with admission granted only to +the elect. The aptitude with which students absorb this lesson is +demonstrated by the avidity with which they erect still more gates +within those gates, special realms of ever-greater exclusivity—at Yale, +the famous secret societies, or as they should probably be called, the +open-secret societies, since true secrecy would defeat their purpose. +There’s no point in excluding people unless they know they’ve been +excluded. + +One of the great errors of an elite education, then, is that it teaches +you to think that measures of intelligence and academic achievement are +measures of value in some moral or metaphysical sense. But they’re not. +Graduates of elite schools are not more valuable than stupid people, or +talentless people, or even lazy people. Their pain does not hurt more. +Their souls do not weigh more. If I were religious, I would say, God +does not love them more. The political implications should be clear. As +John Ruskin told an older elite, grabbing what you can get isn’t any +less wicked when you grab it with the power of your brains than with the +power of your fists. “Work must always be,” Ruskin says, “and captains +of work must always be….\[But\] there is a wide difference between being +captains…of work, and taking the profits of it.” + +The political implications don’t stop there. An elite education not only +ushers you into the upper classes; it trains you for the life you will +lead once you get there. I didn’t understand this until I began +comparing my experience, and even more, my students’ experience, with +the experience of a friend of mine who went to Cleveland State. There +are due dates and attendance requirements at places like Yale, but no +one takes them very seriously. Extensions are available for the asking; +threats to deduct credit for missed classes are rarely, if ever, carried +out. In other words, students at places like Yale get an endless string +of second chances. Not so at places like Cleveland State. My friend once +got a D in a class in which she’d been running an A because she was +coming off a waitressing shift and had to hand in her term paper an hour +late. + +That may be an extreme example, but it is unthinkable at an elite +school. Just as unthinkably, she had no one to appeal to. Students at +places like Cleveland State, unlike those at places like Yale, don’t +have a platoon of advisers and tutors and deans to write out excuses for +late work, give them extra help when they need it, pick them up when +they fall down. They get their education wholesale, from an indifferent +bureaucracy; it’s not handed to them in individually wrapped packages by +smiling clerks. There are few, if any, opportunities for the kind of +contacts I saw my students get routinely—classes with visiting power +brokers, dinners with foreign dignitaries. There are also few, if any, +of the kind of special funds that, at places like Yale, are available in +profusion: travel stipends, research fellowships, performance grants. +Each year, my department at Yale awards dozens of cash prizes for +everything from freshman essays to senior projects. This year, those +awards came to more than $90,000—in just one department. + +Students at places like Cleveland State also don’t get A-’s just for +doing the work. There’s been a lot of handwringing lately over grade +inflation, and it is a scandal, but the most scandalous thing about it +is how uneven it’s been. Forty years ago, the average GPA at both public +and private universities was about 2.6, still close to the traditional +B-/C+ curve. Since then, it’s gone up everywhere, but not by anything +like the same amount. The average gpa at public universities is now +about 3.0, a B; at private universities it’s about 3.3, just short of a +B+. And at most Ivy League schools, it’s closer to 3.4. But there are +always students who don’t do the work, or who are taking a class far +outside their field (for fun or to fulfill a requirement), or who aren’t +up to standard to begin with (athletes, legacies). At a school like +Yale, students who come to class and work hard expect nothing less than +an A-. And most of the time, they get it. + +In short, the way students are treated in college trains them for the +social position they will occupy once they get out. At schools like +Cleveland State, they’re being trained for positions somewhere in the +middle of the class system, in the depths of one bureaucracy or another. +They’re being conditioned for lives with few second chances, no +extensions, little support, narrow opportunity—lives of subordination, +supervision, and control, lives of deadlines, not guidelines. At places +like Yale, of course, it’s the reverse. The elite like to think of +themselves as belonging to a meritocracy, but that’s true only up to a +point. Getting through the gate is very difficult, but once you’re in, +there’s almost nothing you can do to get kicked out. Not the most abject +academic failure, not the most heinous act of plagiarism, not even +threatening a fellow student with bodily harm—I’ve heard of all +three—will get you expelled. The feeling is that, by gosh, it just +wouldn’t be fair—in other words, the self-protectiveness of the old-boy +network, even if it now includes girls. Elite schools nurture +excellence, but they also nurture what a former Yale graduate student I +know calls “entitled mediocrity.” A is the mark of excellence; A- is the +mark of entitled mediocrity. It’s another one of those metaphors, not so +much a grade as a promise. It means, don’t worry, we’ll take care of +you. You may not be all that good, but you’re good enough. + +Here, too, college reflects the way things work in the adult world +(unless it’s the other way around). For the elite, there’s always +another extension—a bailout, a pardon, a stint in rehab—always plenty of +contacts and special stipends—the country club, the conference, the +year-end bonus, the dividend. If Al Gore and John Kerry represent one of +the characteristic products of an elite education, George W. Bush +represents another. It’s no coincidence that our current president, the +apotheosis of entitled mediocrity, went to Yale. Entitled mediocrity is +indeed the operating principle of his administration, but as Enron and +WorldCom and the other scandals of the dot-com meltdown demonstrated, +it’s also the operating principle of corporate America. The fat +salaries paid to underperforming CEOs are an adult version of the A-. +Anyone who remembers the injured sanctimony with which Kenneth Lay +greeted the notion that he should be held accountable for his actions +will understand the mentality in question—the belief that once you’re in +the club, you’ve got a God-given right to stay in the club. But you +don’t need to remember Ken Lay, because the whole dynamic played out +again last year in the case of Scooter Libby, another Yale man. + +If one of the disadvantages of an elite education is the temptation it +offers to mediocrity, another is the temptation it offers to security. +When parents explain why they work so hard to give their children the +best possible education, they invariably say it is because of the +opportunities it opens up. But what of the opportunities it shuts down? +An elite education gives you the chance to be rich—which is, after all, +what we’re talking about—but it takes away the chance not to be. Yet the +opportunity not to be rich is one of the greatest opportunities with +which young Americans have been blessed. We live in a society that is +itself so wealthy that it can afford to provide a decent living to whole +classes of people who in other countries exist (or in earlier times +existed) on the brink of poverty or, at least, of indignity. You can +live comfortably in the United States as a schoolteacher, or a community +organizer, or a civil rights lawyer, or an artist—that is, by any +reasonable definition of comfort. You have to live in an ordinary house +instead of an apartment in Manhattan or a mansion in L.A.; you have to +drive a Honda instead of a BMW or a Hummer; you have to vacation in +Florida instead of Barbados or Paris, but what are such losses when set +against the opportunity to do work you believe in, work you’re suited +for, work you love, every day of your life? + +Yet it is precisely that opportunity that an elite education takes away. +How can I be a schoolteacher—wouldn’t that be a waste of my expensive +education? Wouldn’t I be squandering the opportunities my parents worked +so hard to provide? What will my friends think? How will I face my +classmates at our 20th reunion, when they’re all rich lawyers or +important people in New York? And the question that lies behind all +these: Isn’t it beneath me? So a whole universe of possibility closes, +and you miss your true calling. + +This is not to say that students from elite colleges never pursue a +riskier or less lucrative course after graduation, but even when they +do, they tend to give up more quickly than others. (Let’s not even talk +about the possibility of kids from privileged backgrounds not going to +college at all, or delaying matriculation for several years, because +however appropriate such choices might sometimes be, our rigid +educational mentality places them outside the universe of +possibility—the reason so many kids go sleepwalking off to college +with no idea what they’re doing there.) This doesn’t seem to make sense, +especially since students from elite schools tend to graduate with less +debt and are more likely to be able to float by on family money for a +while. I wasn’t aware of the phenomenon myself until I heard about it +from a couple of graduate students in my department, one from Yale, one +from Harvard. They were talking about trying to write poetry, how +friends of theirs from college called it quits within a year or two +while people they know from less prestigious schools are still at it. +Why should this be? Because students from elite schools expect success, +and expect it now. They have, by definition, never experienced anything +else, and their sense of self has been built around their ability to +succeed. The idea of not being successful terrifies them, disorients +them, defeats them. They’ve been driven their whole lives by a fear of +failure—often, in the first instance, by their parents’ fear of failure. +The first time I blew a test, I walked out of the room feeling like I no +longer knew who I was. The second time, it was easier; I had started to +learn that failure isn’t the end of the world. + +But if you’re afraid to fail, you’re afraid to take risks, which begins +to explain the final and most damning disadvantage of an elite +education: that it is profoundly anti-intellectual. This will seem +counterintuitive. Aren’t kids at elite schools the smartest ones around, +at least in the narrow academic sense? Don’t they work harder than +anyone else—indeed, harder than any previous generation? They are. They +do. But being an intellectual is not the same as being smart. Being an +intellectual means more than doing your +homework. + +[![](https://theamericanscholar.org/uploads/2010/03/deresiewicz-new.png)](https://ssl.drgnetwork.com/ecom/AMS/app/live/subscriptions?&org=AMS&publ=AS&key_code=WPDER1&type=S) + +If so few kids come to college understanding this, it is no wonder. They +are products of a system that rarely asked them to think about something +bigger than the next assignment. The system forgot to teach them, along +the way to the prestige admissions and the lucrative jobs, that the most +important achievements can’t be measured by a letter or a number or a +name. It forgot that the true purpose of education is to make minds, not +careers. + +Being an intellectual means, first of all, being passionate about +ideas—and not just for the duration of a semester, for the sake of +pleasing the teacher, or for getting a good grade. A friend who teaches +at the University of Connecticut once complained to me that his students +don’t think for themselves. Well, I said, Yale students think for +themselves, but only because they know we want them to. I’ve had many +wonderful students at Yale and Columbia, bright, thoughtful, creative +kids whom it’s been a pleasure to talk with and learn from. But most of +them have seemed content to color within the lines that their education +had marked out for them. Only a small minority have seen their education +as part of a larger intellectual journey, have approached the work of +the mind with a pilgrim soul. These few have tended to feel like freaks, +not least because they get so little support from the university itself. +Places like Yale, as one of them put it to me, are not conducive to +searchers. + +Places like Yale are simply not set up to help students ask the big +questions. I don’t think there ever was a golden age of intellectualism +in the American university, but in the 19th century students might at +least have had a chance to hear such questions raised in chapel or in +the literary societies and debating clubs that flourished on campus. +Throughout much of the 20th century, with the growth of the humanistic +ideal in American colleges, students might have encountered the big +questions in the classrooms of professors possessed of a strong sense of +pedagogic mission. Teachers like that still exist in this country, but +the increasingly dire exigencies of academic professionalization have +made them all but extinct at elite universities. Professors at top +research institutions are valued exclusively for the quality of their +scholarly work; time spent on teaching is time lost. If students want a +conversion experience, they’re better off at a liberal arts college. + +When elite universities boast that they teach their students how to +think, they mean that they teach them the analytic and rhetorical skills +necessary for success in law or medicine or science or business. But a +humanistic education is supposed to mean something more than that, as +universities still dimly feel. So when students get to college, they +hear a couple of speeches telling them to ask the big questions, and +when they graduate, they hear a couple more speeches telling them to ask +the big questions. And in between, they spend four years taking courses +that train them to ask the little questions—specialized courses, taught +by specialized professors, aimed at specialized students. Although the +notion of breadth is implicit in the very idea of a liberal arts +education, the admissions process increasingly selects for kids who have +already begun to think of themselves in specialized terms—the junior +journalist, the budding astronomer, the language prodigy. We are +slouching, even at elite schools, toward a glorified form of vocational +training. + +Indeed, that seems to be exactly what those schools want. There’s a +reason elite schools speak of training leaders, not thinkers—holders of +power, not its critics. An independent mind is independent of all +allegiances, and elite schools, which get a large percentage of their +budget from alumni giving, are strongly invested in fostering +institutional loyalty. As another friend, a third-generation Yalie, +says, the purpose of Yale College is to manufacture Yale alumni. Of +course, for the system to work, those alumni need money. At Yale, the +long-term drift of students away from majors in the humanities and basic +sciences toward more practical ones like computer science and economics +has been abetted by administrative indifference. The college career +office has little to say to students not interested in law, medicine, or +business, and elite universities are not going to do anything to +discourage the large percentage of their graduates who take their +degrees to Wall Street. In fact, they’re showing them the way. The +liberal arts university is becoming the corporate university, its center +of gravity shifting to technical fields where scholarly expertise can be +parlayed into lucrative business opportunities. + +It’s no wonder that the few students who are passionate about ideas find +themselves feeling isolated and confused. I was talking with one of them +last year about his interest in the German Romantic idea of bildung, the +upbuilding of the soul. But, he said—he was a senior at the time—it’s +hard to build your soul when everyone around you is trying to sell +theirs. + +Yet there is a dimension of the intellectual life that lies above the +passion for ideas, though so thoroughly has our culture been sanitized +of it that it is hardly surprising if it was beyond the reach of even my +most alert students. Since the idea of the intellectual emerged in the +18th century, it has had, at its core, a commitment to social +transformation. Being an intellectual means thinking your way toward a +vision of the good society and then trying to realize that vision by +speaking truth to power. It means going into spiritual exile. It means +foreswearing your allegiance, in lonely freedom, to God, to country, and +to Yale. It takes more than just intellect; it takes imagination and +courage. “I am not afraid to make a mistake,” Stephen Dedalus says, +“even a great mistake, a lifelong mistake, and perhaps as long as +eternity, too.” + +Being an intellectual begins with thinking your way outside of your +assumptions and the system that enforces them. But students who get into +elite schools are precisely the ones who have best learned to work +within the system, so it’s almost impossible for them to see outside it, +to see that it’s even there. Long before they got to college, they +turned themselves into world-class hoop-jumpers and teacher-pleasers, +getting A’s in every class no matter how boring they found the teacher +or how pointless the subject, racking up eight or 10 extracurricular +activities no matter what else they wanted to do with their time. +Paradoxically, the situation may be better at second-tier schools and, +in particular, again, at liberal arts colleges than at the most +prestigious universities. Some students end up at second-tier schools +because they’re exactly like students at Harvard or Yale, only less +gifted or driven. But others end up there because they have a more +independent spirit. They didn’t get straight A’s because they couldn’t +be bothered to give everything in every class. They concentrated on the +ones that meant the most to them or on a single strong extracurricular +passion or on projects that had nothing to do with school or even with +looking good on a college application. Maybe they just sat in their +room, reading a lot and writing in their journal. These are the kinds of +kids who are likely, once they get to college, to be more interested in +the human spirit than in school spirit, and to think about leaving +college bearing questions, not resumés. + +I’ve been struck, during my time at Yale, by how similar everyone looks. +You hardly see any hippies or punks or art-school types, and at a +college that was known in the ’80s as the Gay Ivy, few out lesbians and +no gender queers. The geeks don’t look all that geeky; the fashionable +kids go in for understated elegance. Thirty-two flavors, all of them +vanilla. The most elite schools have become places of a narrow and +suffocating normalcy. Everyone feels pressure to maintain the kind of +appearance—and affect—that go with achievement. (Dress for success, +medicate for success.) I know from long experience as an adviser that +not every Yale student is appropriate and well-adjusted, which is +exactly why it worries me that so many of them act that way. The tyranny +of the normal must be very heavy in their lives. One consequence is that +those who can’t get with the program (and they tend to be students from +poorer backgrounds) often polarize in the opposite direction, flying off +into extremes of disaffection and self-destruction. But another +consequence has to do with the large majority who can get with the +program. + +I taught a class several years ago on the literature of friendship. One +day we were discussing Virginia Woolf’s novel The Waves, which follows a +group of friends from childhood to middle age. In high school, one of +them falls in love with another boy. He thinks, “To whom can I expose +the urgency of my own passion?…There is nobody—here among these grey +arches, and moaning pigeons, and cheerful games and tradition and +emulation, all so skilfully organised to prevent feeling alone.” A +pretty good description of an elite college campus, including the part +about never being allowed to feel alone. What did my students think of +this, I wanted to know? What does it mean to go to school at a place +where you’re never alone? Well, one of them said, I do feel +uncomfortable sitting in my room by myself. Even when I have to write a +paper, I do it at a friend’s. That same day, as it happened, another +student gave a presentation on Emerson’s essay on friendship. Emerson +says, he reported, that one of the purposes of friendship is to equip +you for solitude. As I was asking my students what they thought that +meant, one of them interrupted to say, wait a second, why do you need +solitude in the first place? What can you do by yourself that you can’t +do with a friend? + +So there they were: one young person who had lost the capacity for +solitude and another who couldn’t see the point of it. There’s been much +talk of late about the loss of privacy, but equally calamitous is its +corollary, the loss of solitude. It used to be that you couldn’t always +get together with your friends even when you wanted to. Now that +students are in constant electronic contact, they never have trouble +finding each other. But it’s not as if their compulsive sociability is +enabling them to develop deep friendships. “To whom can I expose the +urgency of my own passion?”: my student was in her friend’s room writing +a paper, not having a heart-to-heart. She probably didn’t have the time; +indeed, other students told me they found their peers too busy for +intimacy. + +What happens when busyness and sociability leave no room for solitude? +The ability to engage in introspection, I put it to my students that +day, is the essential precondition for living an intellectual life, and +the essential precondition for introspection is solitude. They took this +in for a second, and then one of them said, with a dawning sense of +self-awareness, “So are you saying that we’re all just, like, really +excellent sheep?” Well, I don’t know. But I do know that the life of the +mind is lived one mind at a time: one solitary, skeptical, resistant +mind at a time. The best place to cultivate it is not within an +educational system whose real purpose is to reproduce the class system. + +The world that produced John Kerry and George Bush is indeed giving us +our next generation of leaders. The kid who’s loading up on AP courses +junior year or editing three campus publications while double-majoring, +the kid whom everyone wants at their college or law school but no one +wants in their classroom, the kid who doesn’t have a minute to breathe, +let alone think, will soon be running a corporation or an institution or +a government. She will have many achievements but little experience, +great success but no vision. The disadvantage of an elite education is +that it’s given us the elite we have, and the elite we’re going to have. diff --git a/_stories/2008/2527943.md b/_stories/2008/2527943.md index e57ba13..0cbb1b2 100644 --- a/_stories/2008/2527943.md +++ b/_stories/2008/2527943.md @@ -19,7 +19,64 @@ _tags: objectID: '2527943' --- -[Source](http://al3x.net/2008/09/08/al3xs-rules-for-computing-happiness.html "Permalink to ") +A list. +## Software + - Use as little software as possible. + - Use software that does one thing well. + - Do not use software that does many things poorly. + - Do not use software that must sync over the internet to function. + - Do not use web applications that should be desktop applications. + - Do not use desktop applications that should be web applications. + - Do not use software that isn’t made specifically for your operating + system. (You’ll know it when you see it because it won’t look right + or work correctly.) + - Do not run beta software unless you [know how to submit a bug + report](http://stevenf.com/archive/reporting-bugs-in-mac-os-x-apps.php) + and are eager to do so. + - Use a plain text editor that you know well.  Not a word processor, a + plain text editor. + - Do not use your text editor for tasks other than editing text. + - Use a [password + manager](http://agilewebsolutions.com/products/1Password). You + shouldn’t know any of your passwords save the one to your primary + email account and the one to your password manager. + - Do not use software that’s unmaintained. + - Pay for software that’s worth paying for, but only after evaluating + it for no less than two weeks. + - Thoroughly delete all traces of software that you no longer use. +## Hardware + + - Do not buy a desktop computer unless your daily computing needs + include video/audio editing, 3D rendering, or some other hugely + processor-intensive computing task.  Buy a portable computer + instead. + - Do not use your phone/smartphone/PDA/UMPC for tasks that would be + more comfortably and effectively accomplished on a full-fledged + computer. + - Use a Mac for personal computing. + - Use Linux or BSD on commodity hardware for server computing. + - Do not use anything other than a Mac at home and Linux/BSD on the + server. + - The only peripheral you absolutely need is a hard disk or network + drive to put backups on. + - Buy as large an external display as you can afford if you’ll be + working on the computer for more than three hours at a time. + - Use hosted services in lieu of hosting on your own hardware (or + virtual hardware) for all but the most custom applications. + +## File Formats + + - Keep as much as possible in plain text. Not Word or Pages documents, + plain text. + - For tasks that plain text doesn’t fit, store documents in an open + standard file format if possible. + - Do not buy digital media crippled by rights restriction technologies + unless your intention is to rent the content for a limited period of + time. + +These are my rules and they make me happy. I hope they make you happy +too. If you have computing rules of your own that make you happy, I +encourage you to publish them. diff --git a/_stories/2008/4068595.md b/_stories/2008/4068595.md index 09931f6..a7a3260 100644 --- a/_stories/2008/4068595.md +++ b/_stories/2008/4068595.md @@ -19,7 +19,142 @@ _tags: objectID: '4068595' --- -[Source](https://www.scottaaronson.com/blog/?p=304 "Permalink to ") +Yesterday several people asked my opinion of a +[preprint](http://arxiv.org/abs/0801.0398) claiming to solve the Graph +Isomorphism problem in deterministic polynomial time. I responded: +> If I read all such papers, then I wouldn’t have time for anything +> else. It’s an interesting question how you decide whether a given +> paper crosses the plausibility threshold or not. For me personally, +> the AKS [“PRIMES in +> P”](http://www.math.princeton.edu/~annals/issues/2004/Sept2004/Agrawal.pdf) +> paper somehow crossed it whereas this one somehow doesn’t. +> +> Of course, I’d welcome an opinion from anyone who’s actually read the +> paper. +Three commenters wrote in to say the paper looked good. Then the author +found a bug and retracted it. +**Update (1/5):** Laci Babai writes in to tell me that’s not quite what +happened. See +[here](http://people.cs.uchicago.edu/~laci/polytope-correspondence.pdf) +for what did happen, and +[here](http://people.cs.uchicago.edu/~laci/polytope.pdf) for an argument +that Friedland’s approach would if sound have implied P=NP. + +My purpose here is not to heap embarrassment on the author: he’s a +serious mathematician who had a well-defined and interesting approach, +and who (most importantly) retracted his claim as soon as a bug was +discovered. (Would that everyone did the same\!) Though the stakes are +usually smaller, similar things have happened to most of us, including +me. + +Instead I want to explore the following metaquestion: suppose someone +sends you a complicated solution to a famous decades-old math problem, +like P vs. NP. How can you decide, in ten minutes or less, whether the +solution is worth reading? + +For a blogger like me — whose opinions are both expected immediately and +googlable indefinitely — this question actually matters. Err in one +direction, and I’ll forever be known as the hidebound reactionary who +failed to recognize some 21st-century Ramanujan. Err in the other +direction, and I’ll spend my whole life proofreading the work of +crackpots. + +A few will chime in: “but if everyone wrote out their proofs in +computer-checkable form, there’d be no need for this absurd dilemma\!” +Sure, and if everyone buckled up there’d be fewer serious accidents. Yet +here’s the bloodied patient, and here we are in the emergency room. + +In deciding whether to spend time on a paper, obviously the identity of +the authors plays some role. If Razborov says he proved a superlinear +circuit lower bound for SAT, the claim on our attention is different +than if Roofus McLoofus says the same thing. But the danger of elitism +is obvious here — so in this post, I’ll only be interested in what can +be inferred from the text itself. + +Inspired by Sean Carroll’s closely-related [Alternative-Science +Respectability +Checklist](http://cosmicvariance.com/2007/06/19/the-alternative-science-respectability-checklist/), +without further ado I now offer the Ten Signs a Claimed Mathematical +Breakthrough is Wrong. + +**1. The authors don’t use TeX.** This simple test (suggested by Dave +Bacon) already catches at least 60% of wrong mathematical breakthroughs. +David Deutsch and Lov Grover are among the only known false positives. + +**2. The authors don’t understand the question.** Maybe they mistake +NP≠coNP for some claim about psychology or metaphysics. Or maybe they +solve the Grover problem in O(1) queries, under some notion of quantum +computing lifted from a magazine article. I’ve seen both. + +**3. The approach seems to yield something much stronger and maybe even +false (but the authors never discuss that).** They’ve proved 3SAT takes +exponential time; their argument would go through just as well for 2SAT. + +**4. The approach conflicts with a known impossibility result (which the +authors never mention).** The four months I spent proving the [collision +lower bound](http://www.scottaaronson.com/papers/collision.pdf) actually +saved me some time once or twice, when I was able to reject papers +violating the bound without reading them. + +**5. The authors themselves switch to weasel words by the end.** The +abstract says “we show the problem is in P,” but the conclusion contains +phrases like “seems to work” and “in all cases we have tried.” +Personally, I happen to be a big fan of heuristic algorithms, honestly +advertised and experimentally analyzed. But when a “proof” has turned +into a “plausibility argument” by page 47 — release the hounds\! + +**6. The paper jumps into technicalities without presenting a new +idea.** If a famous problem could be solved only by manipulating +formulas and applying standard reductions, then it’s overwhelmingly +likely someone would’ve solved it already. The exceptions to this rule +are interesting precisely because they’re rare (and even with the +exceptions, a new idea is usually needed to find the right manipulations +in the first place). + +**7. The paper doesn’t build on (or in some cases even refer to) any +previous work.** Math is cumulative. Even Wiles and Perelman had to +stand on the lemma-encrusted shoulders of giants. + +**8. The paper wastes lots of space on standard material.** If you’d +really proved P≠NP, then you wouldn’t start your paper by laboriously +defining 3SAT, in a manner suggesting your readers might not have heard +of it. + +**9. The paper waxes poetic about “practical consequences,” “deep +philosophical implications,” etc.** Note that most papers make exactly +the opposite mistake: they never get around to explaining why anyone +should read them. But when it comes to something like P≠NP, to +“motivate” your result is to insult your readers’ intelligence. + +**10. The techniques just seem too wimpy for the problem at hand.** Of +all ten tests, this is the slipperiest and hardest to apply — but also +the decisive one in many cases. As an analogy, suppose your friend in +Boston blindfolded you, drove you around for twenty minutes, then took +the blindfold off and claimed you were now in Beijing. Yes, you do see +Chinese signs and pagoda roofs, and no, you can’t immediately disprove +him — but based on your knowledge of both cars and geography, isn’t it +more likely you’re just in Chinatown? I know it’s trite, but this is +exactly how I feel when I see (for example) a paper that uses category +theory to prove NL≠NP. We start in Boston, we end up in Beijing, and at +no point is anything resembling an ocean ever crossed. + +Obviously, these are just some heuristics I’ve found successful in the +past. (The nice thing about math is that sooner or later the truth comes +out, and then you know for sure whether your heuristics succeeded.) If a +paper fails one or more tests (particularly tests 6-10), that doesn’t +necessarily mean it’s wrong; conversely, if it passes all ten that still +doesn’t mean it’s right. At some point, there might be nothing left to +do except to roll up your sleeves, brew some coffee, and tell your +graduate student to read the paper and report back to you. + +This entry was posted on Saturday, January 5th, 2008 at 12:17 am and is +filed under [Mirrored on CSAIL +Blog](https://www.scottaaronson.com/blog/?cat=30), [Mistake of the +Week](https://www.scottaaronson.com/blog/?cat=9), [Nerd +Interest](https://www.scottaaronson.com/blog/?cat=11). You can follow +any responses to this entry through the +[RSS 2.0](https://www.scottaaronson.com/blog/?feed=rss2&p=304) feed. +Both comments and pings are currently closed. diff --git a/_stories/2008/4736061.md b/_stories/2008/4736061.md index 22afd87..68e539c 100644 --- a/_stories/2008/4736061.md +++ b/_stories/2008/4736061.md @@ -19,7 +19,109 @@ _tags: objectID: '4736061' --- -[Source](https://www.wired.com/science/space/news/2008/08/musk_qa "Permalink to ") +[![](https://www.wired.com/wp-content/uploads/archive/images/article/full/2008/08/elon_musk_630px.jpg)](https://www.wired.com/science/space/news/2008/08/#) +Elon Musk +[briansolis/flickr](http://flickr.com/photos/briansolis/2685130533/) +The third time was definitely not a charm for SpaceX. +The spaceflight company run by PayPal founder Elon Musk suffered its +third high-profile mishap Saturday when an undisclosed problem caused a +rocket launch to fail. The light-lift Falcon 1 was lost after its two +stages failed to + +separate during the launch from the Kwajalein Atoll in the central +Pacific Ocean. + +Also lost were a Department of Defense satellite, two NASA satellites +and the ashes of 208 people, including astronaut Gordon Cooper and James +Doohan, the actor who played Scotty in the original Star Trek television +show, [according to The New York +Times](http://www.nytimes.com/2008/08/03/science/space/03launchweb.html?ref=science). + +Wired.com spoke with Musk about SpaceX's string of setbacks, the power +of patience and the future of privately funded spaceflight. + +**Wired.com:** What happened up there Saturday? + +**Elon Musk:** We're not quite ready to release details on the initial +investigation yet, but we should do it very soon. We think we have a +very good idea but I don't want to get ahead of ourselves and then be +wrong. We definitely know where the problem occurred, but 'why?' is the +question. We think we know, but have to be sure. We think it's very +small and will require a tiny change, so tiny that if we had another +rocket on the pad we could launch tomorrow. + +**Wired.com:** You always emphasize testing and testing and more +testing, and you've been super careful to make sure everything is right +before launching. So what's the disconnect – why do things still go +wrong? + +**Musk:** Some things can only be tested in space. Bear in mind, Falcon +1 is our test vehicle. The reason we started with F1 isn't because I'm +passionate about launching small satellites, but because I want to make +mistakes on a small scale and not a large one. And this doesn't appear +to be a quality issue or a manufacturing issue. It's a design issue +related to new hardware that has only flown on this flight. It was our +first with the new Merlin 1C regeneratively cooled engine. The problem +we think we've identified is a lesson learned and thus we won't make it +on the big Falcon 9, and in that sense it's helpful. + +**Wired.com:** Your whole mantra is "cheaper and more reliable." But so +far you're zero for three, which is anything but cheap and reliable, and +guys like GlobalSecurity.org's John Pike say the reason it has taken +billions of dollars and tens of thousands of people to successfully +launch rockets is physics, not some new design or economic model. + +**Musk:** Guys like John Pike have existed since the dawn of time, and +if you listen to people like that then things will never get better, +never change. It's a false point of view. Yes, we need to put some +rockets into orbit. But the first order of business is to get rid of +design errors, which we're doing, and once those are eliminated then +you're dealing with repeatability, and people should judge what we're +doing from the point of view of all the design issues we've ironed out +through these F1 test flights. + +**Wired.com:** You've been quoted many times saying you had enough money +for three unsuccessful flights, and then ... + +**Musk:** That was the dumbest thing I've ever said. I meant that after +three unsuccessful flights we might be abandoned by our customers – if +they abandoned us I couldn't see how it would work. But that has turned +out not to be the case. We've gained customers between missions and so +it would be silly to abandon the business when we have 12 flights ahead +of us. + +**Wired.com:** But you're about to formally announce SpaceX's first +outside investment? + +**Musk:** Yes, we took an investment from the Founder's Fund, a fund run +by a bunch of guys I used to work with at PayPal. They've been +interested in SpaceX for a long time and I knew that, and thought it +might be smart to take an investment from them to increase our war chest +in case something didn't go right on flight three. Which turned out to +be true. + +**Wired.com:** At the end of the day you're still zero for three; you +have so far failed to put a rocket into orbit. + +**Musk:** We haven't gotten into orbit, true, but we've made +considerable progress. If it's an all-or-nothing proposition then we've +failed. But it's not all or nothing. We must get to orbit eventually, +and we will. It might take us one, two or three more tries, but we will. +We will make it work. + +**Wired.com:** How do you maintain your optimism? + +**Musk:** Do I sound optimistic? + +**Wired.com:** Yeah, you always do. + +**Musk:** Optimism, pessimism, fuck that; we're going to make it happen. +As God is my bloody witness, I'm hell-bent on making it work. + +**Wired.com:** So what have you learned so far? + +**Musk:** Patience is a virtue, and I'm learning patience. It's a tough +lesson. diff --git a/_stories/2008/4874304.md b/_stories/2008/4874304.md index 9730227..5ed825f 100644 --- a/_stories/2008/4874304.md +++ b/_stories/2008/4874304.md @@ -19,7 +19,245 @@ _tags: objectID: '4874304' --- -[Source](https://www.varnish-cache.org/trac/wiki/ArchitectNotes "Permalink to ") +# Notes from the Architect +Once you start working with the Varnish source code, you will notice +that Varnish is not your average run of the mill application. +That is not a coincidence. +I have spent many years working on the FreeBSD kernel, and only rarely +did I venture into userland programming, but when I had occation to do +so, I invariably found that people programmed like it was still 1975. + +So when I was approached about the Varnish project I wasn't really +interested until I realized that this would be a good opportunity to try +to put some of all my knowledge of how hardware and kernels work to good +use, and now that we have reached alpha stage, I can say I have really +enjoyed it. + +## So what's wrong with 1975 programming ? + +The really short answer is that computers do not have two kinds of +storage any more. + +It used to be that you had the primary store, and it was anything from +acoustic delaylines filled with mercury via small magnetic dougnuts via +transistor flip-flops to dynamic RAM. + +And then there were the secondary store, paper tape, magnetic tape, disk +drives the size of houses, then the size of washing machines and these +days so small that girls get disappointed if think they got hold of +something else than the MP3 player you had in your pocket. + +And people program this way. + +They have variables in "memory" and move data to and from "disk". + +Take Squid for instance, a 1975 program if I ever saw one: You tell it +how much RAM it can use and how much disk it can use. It will then spend +inordinate amounts of time keeping track of what HTTP objects are in RAM +and which are on disk and it will move them forth and back depending on +traffic patterns. + +Well, today computers really only have one kind of storage, and it is +usually some sort of disk, the operating system and the virtual memory +management hardware has converted the RAM to a cache for the disk +storage. + +So what happens with squids elaborate memory management is that it gets +into fights with the kernels elaborate memory management, and like any +civil war, that never gets anything done. + +What happens is this: Squid creates a HTTP object in "RAM" and it gets +used some times rapidly after creation. Then after some time it get no +more hits and the kernel notices this. Then somebody tries to get memory +from the kernel for something and the kernel decides to push those +unused pages of memory out to swap space and use the (cache-RAM) more +sensibly for some data which is actually used by a program. This +however, is done without squid knowing about it. Squid still thinks that +these http objects are in RAM, and they will be, the very second it +tries to access them, but until then, the RAM is used for something +productive. + +This is what Virtual Memory is all about. + +If squid did nothing else, things would be fine, but this is where the +1975 programming kicks in. + +After some time, squid will also notice that these objects are unused, +and it decides to move them to disk so the RAM can be used for more busy +data. So squid goes out, creates a file and then it writes the http +objects to the file. + +Here we switch to the high-speed camera: Squid calls write(2), the +address i gives is a "virtual address" and the kernel has it marked as +"not at home". + +So the CPU hardwares paging unit will raise a trap, a sort of interrupt +to the operating system telling it "fix the memory please". + +The kernel tries to find a free page, if there are none, it will take a +little used page from somewhere, likely another little used squid +object, write it to the paging poll space on the disk (the "swap area") +when that write completes, it will read from another place in the paging +pool the data it "paged out" into the now unused RAM page, fix up the +paging tables, and retry the instruction which failed. + +Squid knows nothing about this, for squid it was just a single normal +memory acces. + +So now squid has the object in a page in RAM and written to the disk two +places: one copy in the operating systems paging space and one copy in +the filesystem. + +Squid now uses this RAM for something else but after some time, the HTTP +object gets a hit, so squid needs it back. + +First squid needs some RAM, so it may decide to push another HTTP object +out to disk (repeat above), then it reads the filesystem file back into +RAM, and then it sends the data on the network connections socket. + +Did any of that sound like wasted work to you ? + +Here is how Varnish does it: + +Varnish allocate some virtual memory, it tells the operating system to +back this memory with space from a disk file. When it needs to send the +object to a client, it simply refers to that piece of virtual memory and +leaves the rest to the kernel. + +If/when the kernel decides it needs to use RAM for something else, the +page will get written to the backing file and the RAM page reused +elsewhere. + +When Varnish next time refers to the virtual memory, the operating +system will find a RAM page, possibly freeing one, and read the contents +in from the backing file. + +And that's it. Varnish doesn't really try to control what is cached in +RAM and what is not, the kernel has code and hardware support to do a +good job at that, and it does a good job. + +Varnish also only has a single file on the disk whereas squid puts one +object in its own separate file. The HTTP objects are not needed as +filesystem objects, so there is no point in wasting time in the +filesystem name space (directories, filenames and all that) for each +object, all we need to have in Varnish is a pointer into virtual memory +and a length, the kernel does the rest. + +Virtual memory was meant to make it easier to program when data was +larger than the physical memory, but people have still not caught on. + +## More caches. + +But there are more caches around, the silicon mafia has more or less +stalled at 4GHz CPU clock and to get even that far they have had to put +level 1, 2 and sometimes 3 caches between the CPU and the RAM (which is +the level 4 cache), there are also things like write buffers, pipeline +and page-mode fetches involved, all to make it a tad less slow to pick +up something from memory. + +And since they have hit the 4GHz limit, but decreasing silicon feature +sizes give them more and more transistors to work with, multi-cpu +designs have become the fancy of the world, despite the fact that they +suck as a programming model. + +Multi-CPU systems is nothing new, but writing programs that use more +than one CPU at a time has always been tricky and it still is. + +Writing programs that perform well on multi-CPU systems is even +trickier. + +Imagine I have two statistics counters: + +``` wiki + unsigned n_foo; + unsigned n_bar; +``` + +So one CPU is chugging along and has to execute `n_foo++` + +To do that, it read n\_foo and then write n\_foo back. It may or may not +involve a load into a CPU register, but that is not important. + +To read a memory location means to check if we have it in the CPUs level +1 cache. It is unlikely to be unless it is very frequently used. Next +check the level two cache, and let us assume that is a miss as well. + +If this is a single CPU system, the game ends here, we pick it out of +RAM and move on. + +On a Multi-CPU system, and it doesn't matter if the CPUs share a socket +or have their own, we first have to check if any of the other CPUs have +a modified copy of n\_foo stored in their caches, so a special +bus-transaction goes out to find this out, if if some cpu comes back and +says "yeah, I have it" that cpu gets to write it to RAM. On good +hardware designs, our CPU will listen in on the bus during that write +operation, on bad designs it will have to do a memory read afterwards. + +Now the CPU can increment the value of n\_foo, and write it back. But it +is unlikely to go directly back to memory, we might need it again +quickly, so the modified value gets stored in our own L1 cache and then +at some point, it will end up in RAM. + +Now imagine that another CPU wants to `n_bar+++` at the same time, can +it do that ? No. Caches operate not on bytes but on some "linesize" of +bytes, typically from 8 to 128 bytes in each line. So since the first +cpu was busy dealing with `n_foo`, the second CPU will be trying to grab +the same cache-line, so it will have to wait, even through it is a +different variable. + +Starting to get the idea ? + +Yes, it's ugly. + +## How do we cope ? + +Avoid memory operations if at all possible. + +Here are some ways Varnish tries to do that: + +When we need to handle a HTTP request or response, we have an array of +pointers and a workspace. We do not call malloc(3) for each header. We +call it once for the entire workspace and then we pick space for the +headers from there. The nice thing about this is that we usually free +the entire header in one go and we can do that simply by resetting a +pointer to the start of the workspace. + +When we need to copy a HTTP header from one request to another (or from +a response to another) we don't copy the string, we just copy the +pointer to it. Provided we do not change or free the source headers, +this is perfectly safe, a good example is copying from the client +request to the request we will send to the backend. + +When the new header has a longer lifetime than the source, then we have +to copy it. For instance when we store headers in a cached object. But +in that case we build the new header in a workspace, and once we know +how big it will be, we do a single malloc(3) to get the space and then +we put the entire header in that space. + +We also try to reuse memory which is likely to be in the caches. + +The worker threads are used in "most recently busy" fashion, when a +workerthread becomes free it goes to the front of the queue where it is +most likely to get the next request, so that all the memory it already +has cached, stack space, variables etc, can be reused while in the +cache, instead of having the expensive fetches from RAM. + +We also give each worker thread a private set of variables it is likely +to need, all allocated on the stack of the thread. That way we are +certain that they occupy a page in RAM which none of the other CPUs will +ever think about touching as long as this thread runs on its own CPU. +That way they will not fight about the cachelines. + +If all this sounds foreign to you, let me just assure you that it works: +we spend less than 18 system calls on serving a cache hit, and even many +of those are calls tog get timestamps for statistics. + +These techniques are also nothing new, we have used them in the kernel +for more than a decade, now it's your turn to learn them :-) + +So Welcome to Varnish, a 2006 architecture program. + +Poul-Henning Kamp, Varnish architect and coder. diff --git a/_stories/2008/4912964.md b/_stories/2008/4912964.md index 929b9e2..e9d1c88 100644 --- a/_stories/2008/4912964.md +++ b/_stories/2008/4912964.md @@ -19,7 +19,96 @@ _tags: objectID: '4912964' --- -[Source](https://rogeralsing.com/2008/12/07/genetic-programming-evolution-of-mona-lisa/?hn "Permalink to ") +**Added FAQ here:** +[**http://rogeralsing.com/2008/12/09/genetic-programming-mona-lisa-faq/**](http://rogeralsing.com/2008/12/09/genetic-programming-mona-lisa-faq/) +**Added Gallery here:** +[**http://rogeralsing.com/2008/12/11/genetic-gallery/**](http://rogeralsing.com/2008/12/11/genetic-gallery/) +This weekend I decided to play around a bit with genetic programming and +put evolution to the test, the test of fine art :-) +I created a small program that keeps a string of DNA for polygon +rendering. +The procedure of the program is quite simple: + - Setup a random DNA string  (application start) + + + +1. Copy the current DNA sequence and mutate it slightly +2. Use the new DNA to render polygons onto a canvas +3. Compare the canvas to the source image +4. If the new painting looks more like the source image than the + previous + painting did, then overwrite the current DNA with the new DNA +5. Repeat from 1 + +Now to the interesting part: + +**Could you paint a replica of the Mona Lisa using only 50 semi +transparent polygons?** + +That is the challenge I decided to put my application up to. + +The image below is the result of that test: +The number below each image is the number of generations it took to +reach that specific +painting. + +![evolutionofmonalisa1](https://rogeralsing.files.wordpress.com/2008/12/evolutionofmonalisa1.gif?w=660 +"evolutionofmonalisa1") + +So what do you think? + +**\[EDIT\] +Added FAQ here: +[**http://rogeralsing.com/2008/12/09/genetic-programming-mona-lisa-faq/**](http://rogeralsing.com/2008/12/09/genetic-programming-mona-lisa-faq/) +**Added Gallery here:** +[**http://rogeralsing.com/2008/12/11/genetic-gallery/**](http://rogeralsing.com/2008/12/11/genetic-gallery/)** + +### Share this: + + - [](https://rogerjohansson.blog/2008/12/07/genetic-programming-evolution-of-mona-lisa/?share=twitter "Click to share on Twitter") + + Twitter + + - [](https://rogerjohansson.blog/2008/12/07/genetic-programming-evolution-of-mona-lisa/?share=facebook "Share on Facebook") + + Facebook + + - [](https://rogerjohansson.blog/2008/12/07/genetic-programming-evolution-of-mona-lisa/?share=reddit "Click to share on Reddit") + + Reddit + + - [](https://rogerjohansson.blog/2008/12/07/genetic-programming-evolution-of-mona-lisa/?share=google-plus-1 "Click to share on Google+") + + Google + + - [](https://rogerjohansson.blog/2008/12/07/genetic-programming-evolution-of-mona-lisa/?share=linkedin "Click to share on LinkedIn") + + LinkedIn + + - [](#) + + More + + - + + + - [](https://rogerjohansson.blog/2008/12/07/genetic-programming-evolution-of-mona-lisa/#print "Click to print") + + Print + + - [](https://rogerjohansson.blog/2008/12/07/genetic-programming-evolution-of-mona-lisa/?share=email "Click to email") + + Email + + - + - +### Like this: + +Like + +Loading... + +### Related diff --git a/_stories/2008/5493222.md b/_stories/2008/5493222.md index c57df3d..5c3ca9f 100644 --- a/_stories/2008/5493222.md +++ b/_stories/2008/5493222.md @@ -19,7 +19,8 @@ _tags: objectID: '5493222' --- -[Source](http://www.bmj.com/highwire/filestream/397551/field_highwire_article_pdf/0/bmj.a439 "Permalink to ") - - +Thank you for your interest in spreading the word about The BMJ. +NOTE: We only request your email address so that the person you are +recommending the page to knows that you wanted them to see it, and that +it is not junk mail. We do not capture any email address. diff --git a/_stories/2008/5770531.md b/_stories/2008/5770531.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..407e4b2 --- /dev/null +++ b/_stories/2008/5770531.md @@ -0,0 +1,393 @@ +--- +created_at: '2013-05-26T08:50:51.000Z' +title: 'Perl Cannot Be Parsed: A Formal Proof (2008)' +url: http://www.perlmonks.org/index.pl?node_id=663393 +author: dbaupp +points: 118 +story_text: '' +comment_text: +num_comments: 38 +story_id: +story_title: +story_url: +parent_id: +created_at_i: 1369558251 +_tags: +- story +- author_dbaupp +- story_5770531 +objectID: '5770531' + +--- + + +``` code +sub halts { + my $machine = shift; + my $input = shift; + is_whatever_nullary( + qq{ + run_turing_equivalent("\Q$machine\E", "\Q$input\E"); + sub whatever() {}; + } + ) +} +[download] +``` + +is\_whatever\_nullary() can certainly easily return a true value without +having to execute run\_turing\_equivalent(). The whatever prototype is a +compile-time property and the run-time impact of whatever +run\_turing\_equivalent() does will not change the fact that whatever() +is "nullary" at compile time. + +But it is quite obvious that Perl code can't be reliably parsed without +running Perl code by the simple example of: + +``` code +BEGIN { + if( 0.5 < rand() ) { + eval "sub whatever() { }; 1" or die $@; + } else { + eval "sub whatever { }; 1" or die $@; + } +} +whatever / 25 ; # / ; die "this dies!"; +[download] +``` + +You can, of course, replace the above conditional with some +high-falutin' comp sci construct of your choosing. But I find that such +just detracts from the obviousness. You have to run "`0.5 < rand()`" in +order to parse the last line of the above Perl code (which perl can +parse differently each time that it is run, as shown below). + +``` code + > perl -MO=Deparse above.pl +# ... +whatever / 25; +- syntax OK + + > perl -MO=Deparse above.pl +# ... +whatever(/ 25 ; # /); +die 'this dies!'; +- syntax OK +[download] +``` + +\- [tye](?node=tye)`        ` + + + +``` code +sub halts { + my $machine = shift; + my $input = shift; + is_whatever_nullary( + qq{ + BEGIN { + run_turing_equivalent("\Q$machine\E", "\Q$input\E"); + sub whatever() {}; + } + } + ) +} +[download] +``` + +Using *rand()* is indeed more obvious and it was how I tested my code +snippets (I lent my Halting Oracle to a friend and she never returned it +... but don't get me started.) I did not use it in the presentation +because while it makes the proof more obvious, it's a proof of a weaker +theorem. + +If you interpret *rand()* as truly random (and not as pseudo-random), +then we're dealing with non-deterministic programs. Someone might then +say, "as long as there is no non-determinism while compiling, Perl 5 is +statically parseable." But it's not and a proof using the Turing machine +simulator shows it is not. That Perl 5 is unparseable even when the code +is completely deterministic is a much stronger result, and the +distinction makes a difference in practice. + +The Turing simulation in this case is brought in for very practical +reasons. I can't claim the credit for that. Adam Kennedy's hint took me +in this direction. I suspect he also knew the business about *rand()*. +But with his many hours of real life experience trying to statically +parse Perl, he focused on the stronger proof -- the one that would give +him the most information about what he was up against in creating +[PPI](http://search.cpan.org/perldoc?PPI). + + + + + +``` code +BEGIN { + my $proto= ""; + $proto= "()" + if run_some_perl_code(); + eval "sub whatever$proto { }"; +} +whatever / 6; # /; +[download] +``` + +The fact that run\_some\_perl\_code() can be any arbitrary Perl code is +quite clear. I guess this then boils down to the argument that somehow +static analysis could be used to predict the results of +run\_some\_perl\_code() without actually running it. But the +[rand](?node=rand) example clearly shows that not to be the case. As +does using `if @ARGV` or `if =~ /^y/i` or `if +LWP::Simple::get("http://perlmonks.org/secretAlgorithm.pl") =~ /true/` +or `if unlink "/etc/passwd"` or `if find_prime_of_length( ~0 ) % 3 +== 1`. + +Sure, the fact that run\_some\_perl\_code() could be trying to solve the +halting problem also demonstrates something. Of course, if I'm writing +Perl support for an IDE, I'm not seriously concerned that the +declaration of function prototypes is being based on answers to +instances of the halting problem, so I'm likely to just dismiss your +proof (based on your own reaction to the [rand](?node=rand) case). I +find "You might have to run arbitrary Perl code" to be both a stronger +statement of the result and a more interesting and useful one. + +I also think there is a flaw in your proof in that it confuses solving +the halting problem with running code that may or may not halt. So your +conclusion would need to be more like "Here is some code that will +either determine that whatever() is nullary or that will never +terminate." Since just because the code has been taking 400 years +doesn't mean that you can determine that it will never halt, so your +code doesn't even have the potential of solving the halting problem. + +So the lemma that is needed here is that "Static analysis of a program +in a Turing-complete language (along with its 'input') can be +insufficient to determine its output". Frankly, this is where it becomes +uninteresting to me. + +(Minor updates applied during the 15 minutes after first posting.) + +\- [tye](?node=tye)`        ` + + + +``` code +eval $ARGV[ 0 ]; +[download] +``` + +Examine what is said, not who speaks -- Silence betokens consent -- Love +the truth but pardon error. + +"Science is about questioning the status quo. Questioning authority". + +In the absence of evidence, opinion is indistinguishable from prejudice. + +["Too many \[\] have been sedated by an oppressive environment of +political correctness and risk +aversion."](http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/education/6202877.stm) + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +``` code +my $x; +BEGIN { $x = time } +[download] +``` + +Unless the BEGIN block is executed both at compile time and once at +pre-run time. + +Of course, I might be a few months out of date. I got bored following +all the Perl 6 stuff, so I'm working on +[Smalltalk](http://methodsandmessages.vox.com) for a while until Perl6 +gets a bit closer to a release. + +\-- [Randal L. Schwartz, Perl hacker](http://www.stonehenge.com/merlyn/) + + + +``` code +multi sub prefix: (Str $a) { + return $a eq "foo" ?? "bar" !! "foo"; +} +[download] +``` + +This will define an unary prefix operator that takes one string as an +argument. When somebody writes + +``` code +foo "foo"; +[download] +``` + +You can't know if that's a method call or a call to an operator. You'd +think it makes no difference - but wait until precedence comes into the +play: + +``` code +BEGIN { + eval + " +multi * prefix: (Str $a) is tighter(&infix:<~>) { + return $a eq 'foo' ?? 'bar' !! 'foo'; + "; +} + +# and later in the code: +foo "fo" ~ "o"; +[download] +``` + +If that `foo` parsed as a sub call the precedence is lower than that of +the concatenation `~`, and the other way round if it's parsed as an +operator. + +This is quite a complicated example, but there are much easier ones with +"real" macros. (But since no implemenation really implements macros by +now, I don't really know much about them). + + + +``` code +foo =+= bar //|/ baz =+= qux +[download] +``` + +The parsing of this expression depends on the relative precedence of the +two operators and possibily, but not necessarily, on the associativity +of =+= It may also result in an error, if //|/ has higher precedence and +=+= is declared as non-associative. + +However, the parsing of this does not depend on executing any code in +the sense that the OP means, I think. That is, there must be a static +declaration somewhere else in the code that says what the properties of +these two operators should be. It need not lexically precede the usage, +but it has to appear somewhere in the relevant scope, and it cannot be +dynamically generated in any way. How would that fit in? + + + + + + + + + + if (is_nullary(whatever)) + { + whatever / 25; + } + else + { + whatever (/ 25 ; # /); + die "this dies!"; + } + +When we think about it, the Perl interpreter already does this. So +technicaly, parsing Perl is not a undecidable problem. You only proved +that there could not be a single way to parse Perl - and yes, it is a +problem for text editor's syntax-highlighting. + + + + + + + + + + + +``` code +import sys +import parser + +print parser.suite(open(__file__).read()).totuple() + +x = eval(sys.stdin.readline()) + +if x: + print "yes", x +else: + print "no", x +[download] +``` + +To bring this back to the original post, the "parser" module is the +Python equivalent of what Parse::Perl would be if Perl parsing were +possible. + + + + + + + + + + + +``` code + BEGIN { + x(); + sub foo { } + } +[download] +``` + +then foo() will be declared only when x() terminates. + +But that's like writing this Java code + +``` code + for(;;) { } + int x; +[download] +``` + +and asking whether "x" will ever be declared, which says absolutely +nothing about how this program is parsed (and it's parsed fine). + +Cheers. + + + + + +``` code +use Modern::Perl; + +sub x { say "In x!" } + +BEGIN { x() } + +sub foo!bar { say 'In foo!bar!' } + +BEGIN { foo!bar() } +[download] +``` + +For extra fun, run it through +[B::Deparse](http://search.cpan.org/search?mode=module&query=B%3A%3ADeparse). + + diff --git a/_stories/2008/5876887.md b/_stories/2008/5876887.md index 027e38b..4155aad 100644 --- a/_stories/2008/5876887.md +++ b/_stories/2008/5876887.md @@ -19,7 +19,238 @@ _tags: objectID: '5876887' --- -[Source](https://benlog.com/articles/2008/06/19/dont-hash-secrets/ "Permalink to ") +Building secure systems is difficult. It would be nice if we had a bunch +of well-designed crypto building blocks that we could assemble in all +sorts of ways and be certain that they would, no matter what, yield a +secure system overall. There are, in fact, folks working on such things +at a theoretical level \[[Universal +Composability](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_composability)\]. +But even if you had these building blocks, you would still have to use +them in their intended way. A component can only be secure under certain +well-defined circumstances, not for any use that happens to look +similar. +One area of secure protocol development that seems to consistently yield +poor design choices is the use of hash functions. What I’m going to say +is not 100% correct, but it is on the conservative side of correct, so +if you follow the rule, you (probably) can’t go wrong. You might be +considered overly paranoid, but as they say, just because you’re +paranoid doesn’t mean they’re not after you. +So here it is: Don’t hash secrets. Never. No, sorry, I know you think +your case is special but it’s not. No. Stop it. Just don’t do it. You’re +making the cryptographers cry. + +What the heck am I talking about, you say? I’ll explain. But before we +get lost in the details, just remember. Don’t hash secrets. Ever. +Kapish? + +#### What exactly do you mean by “Hash”? + +A hash function takes any document, big or small, and creates a short +fingerprint. That gigabyte movie of your newborn baby? Hash it with +SHA1, and you’ve got yourself a 160 bit (~30 alphanumeric characters) +fingerprint. Now, hold on, you say, 30 characters? You’ve hashed my baby +to pieces and all that’s left is a measly 30 characters? No, no, don’t +worry, your baby is still a unique snowflake. You can’t take those 30 +characters and, from them, recover your gigabyte video. This is not +uber-data-compression. + +But it’s going to be darn hard for you to find any other document, big +or small, that hashes to the same 30 characters. In fact, it’s so hard, +even the most powerful computer in the world dedicated to this one task +for hundreds of years won’t succeed at finding that doppelganger +document. You’ve got lots of computers you say? You’re Google and you +have hundreds of thousands of computers? Yeah, well…. tough. You still +won’t succeed. + +In fact, you can try something that should be easier: rather than find +another document that hashes specifically to those 30 characters that +represent your baby, you can go looking for any two documents that +happen to hash to the same thing (collide). And you won’t find any such +pair. Promised. We call that “collision resistance”. That thing about +how you can’t find another document that hashes to the same value as +your baby video? We call that “second pre-image resistance.” + +Oh, and I forgot to mention that this magical function, SHA1, is public. +Anyone can see the code. There are no secrets. Even if you see the code, +you can’t find a collision. No, really, I’m not screwing with you. + +#### I want to hash everything\! + +That’s usually the reaction after discovering the amazing power of hash +functions. There are all sorts of nails just waiting for this magical +hammer, so let’s start hashing everything in sight. De-duplicating large +documents? Hash and compare\! Passwords in a database? Hash and store\! +Anonymizing names in a database? Hash and pseudonymize\! + +After all, the magical power of a hash function is that you can’t “go +back,” right? Given a hash, it’s impossible to get that pre-image, so +hash away, my magical crypto friends\! + +#### Wrong. + +Yeah, so it’s not quite that magical. + +Let’s say I give you a SHA1 hash value +`29b0d7c86b88565b78efffeea634cee81a209c92`. From that hash alone, you +can’t tell what I hashed. But if I tell you that I hashed a password, +then all you need to do is try a bunch of common passwords and see which +one matches. In this case, I hashed “love”, one of the most common +passwords there is. + +Now you start to see how this “you can’t go back” reasoning fails: if +you know the domain of possible pre-images, and that domain is not too +large, then you can just try them all and see which one matches. That’s +a big strike against the “hash everything” approach. + +#### Sprinkle in some Salt + +It gets more interesting with the complete password use-case. Many web +developers already know that they shouldn’t store user passwords in the +clear in the database, just in case a break-in reveals every user’s +password. So, instead of storing passwords in the clear, let’s store a +SHA1 hash of the password, against which a candidate password can be +easily checked: hash it and compare. + +Now the web developers who have been around the block a few times know +that, if you just apply SHA1 blindly, you’ve got the “small domain” +problem I just mentioned. An attacker can build up a huge dictionary of +hashed passwords just once, and, when he breaks into your web site, +check the hashes against this pre-built dictionary. + +To prevent these “dictionary attacks”, we add salt to the hashing +process, so that each user’s password is hashed differently, and generic +attacks don’t work: you have to rebuild the dictionary for each user you +choose to attack. Sprinkling in salt is easy: just concatenate the +password with a random + string: + + SHA1("TheAnswerIs42" || "love") = ce75a1c90ed564a231de85d93520f1e47726df64 + +Then, when a user types in a password, e.g. “lvoe” (a typo), the system +checks: + + SHA1("TheAnswerIs42" || "lvoe") = f832b210d62251c19a374a175bff760935c540d4 + != ce75a1c90ed564a231de85d93520f1e47726df64 + +and sure enough, that doesn’t match, so the password is rejected. + +Of course, the system has to keep the salt “TheAnswerIs42” around to +check the password, otherwise, it can’t re-perform the hash. So, if an +attacker breaks in, he’ll find the salts, of course. This means that +salting won’t protect a user with a weak password. But it will provide +better protection for users with reasonable passwords, since, even with +the salt in hand, the attacker will have to re-compute the dictionary +for each salt, and thus each user. + +So the moral of the story is that hashing the secret password directly +is a bad idea. + +And this is typically where most developers stand. They understand that +hashing is good, they vaguely understand the notion of salting, and they +figure that salt+hash is all they need to know. Except it’s not. + +#### When hashing is really a signature + +One interesting application of hash functions that has spread like +wildfire in the last few years is in the realm of cheap signatures. +Consider an application, **SuperAnnoyingPoke** that wants to send an +authenticated message to **MyFace**. It could apply a full digital +signature, using say RSA, so that MyFace can be sure that the message +really came from SuperAnnoyingPoke. But that actually takes milliseconds +on an average computer, and milliseconds are a lot. Plus, there’s all +sorts of weird padding issues and size limitations that might require +hybrid encryption, so it’s messy. + +But hey, let’s take out our trusty cryptographic Swiss Army Knife, the +hash function\! Let’s salt+hash\! We’ll just make sure that +SuperAnnoyingPoke and MyFace share a secret string that’s a good 20 +characters long or so, and when SuperAnnoyingPoke wants to send a +message to MyFace, it will also send along a “Message Authentication +Code” (MAC) that is computed as: + + MAC = SHA1(secret_string || message) + +MyFace can easily look at the message that is sent, recompute the MAC +given the secret string it shares with SuperAnnoyingPoke, and compare it +to the MAC sent along with the message. Heck, you can even put a +timestamp in there to make sure the message can’t be re-played by an +attacker at a later date. After all, since the hash function makes it +hard to “go back” when you’re using a salt (the secret string), this +should be a secure and cheap way to sign messages\! Super\! + +Except this is where things really fall apart. + +The security property we want here is that, if the attacker sees a +message and its corresponding MAC, then it should not be able to figure +out the MAC for a different message. That’s the whole point of a +signature. And, unfortunately, there’s a property of SHA1 and lots of +other hash functions like it that make it a fast hash function, but a +terrible way to compute a MAC. + +Here’s the deal: if I tell you that `SHA1(foo)` is X, then it turns out, +in a lot of cases, to be quite easy for you to determine what `SHA1(foo +|| bar)` is. You don’t need to know what `foo` is. It’s just that, +because SHA1 is iterative and works block by block, if you know the hash +of `foo`, then you can extend the computation to determine the hash of +`foo || bar`. + +Oh crap. + +That means that if you know `SHA1(secret || message)`, then you can +compute `SHA1(secret || message || ANYTHING)`, which is a valid +signature for `message || ANYTHING`. So to break this system, you just +need to see one signature from SuperAnnoyingPoke, and then you can +impersonate SuperAnnoyingPoke for lots of other messages. + +Why? How??? But…. I thought hash functions didn’t let me “go back\!” +Well, note how I didn’t say the attacker would recover the secret. It’s +just that, given one hash, they can compute others for related +pre-images. That’s why you have to be careful about using hash functions +when you’re hashing secrets. Another strike against using hash functions +willy-nilly. + +(If you’re keeping up, your next suggestion is “well, put the secret +AFTER the message, not before”. And yeah, that’s a reasonable +suggestion, but it points out how you’re now assuming some extra +properties of the SHA1 hash function in your design, and that’s bad. +What if you upgrade to a different hash function in 5 years, do you then +have to update your protocol to match? The point is that you shouldn’t +be using a hash function for this, that’s not its purpose\!) + +#### HMAC + +What you should be using is HMAC: Hash-function Message Authentication +Code. You don’t need to know exactly how it works, just like you don’t +need to know exactly how SHA1 works. You just need to know that HMAC is +specifically built for message authentication codes and the use case of +SuperAnnoyingPoke/MyFace. Under the hood, what’s approximately going on +is two hashes, one after the other, with the secret combined after the +first hash… but don’t worry about it\! That’s the whole point\! HMAC is +built for this feature. + +HMAC has two inputs and one output: in go a message, and a secret, and +out comes a message authentication code (i.e. a signature). The security +of HMAC is such that, you can see as many messages and corresponding +signatures as your heart desires, and you still won’t be able to +determine the signature on a message you haven’t seen yet. That’s the +security property you’re looking for. And HMAC is built on top of a hash +function, so more specifically you should be using HMAC-SHA1. + +So, again, don’t hash secrets. HMAC them. + +#### In Conclusion + +There’s plenty more to read if you’re interested in this topic, but +chances are, you’re not and you just want a recommendation. “Don’t Hash +Secrets” is not always entirely necessary. In the password example, you +can hash a password as long as you salt it correctly. But do you really +want to have to worry about that? I don’t. In fact, I use HMAC for my +password databases, too. It’s overkill, but it lets me use a standard +library that likely makes me safer in the long run. + +So the next time you’re using a hash function on anything, ask yourself: +is any of the stuff I’m hashing supposed to stay secret? If so, don’t +hash. Instead, use HMAC. diff --git a/_stories/2008/6100034.md b/_stories/2008/6100034.md index f1077b3..d44d5c4 100644 --- a/_stories/2008/6100034.md +++ b/_stories/2008/6100034.md @@ -19,7 +19,723 @@ _tags: objectID: '6100034' --- -[Source](https://learn-cs.pbworks.com/w/page/15774601/FrontPage "Permalink to ") +**David Weekly's Practical Computer Science Primer** +  +**April 14, 2008 onwards: free in-person group study & lectures Monday +nights 7-11pm in South Bay, CA. Bring food & drink to share.** +  + +This evolving online curriculum is designed for a motivated and +intelligent college graduate with no formal training in computer science +to efficiently learn CS theory and culture in about a year of part-time +study. If this appeals to you, please [join the Google +Group](http://groups.google.com/group/learn_cs) to discuss, particularly +if you are in the San Francisco Bay Area and would like to attend the +in-person meetings.  + +  + +This curriculum is loosely based on [the CS core at +Stanford](http://www.stanford.edu/class/cs106x/) but also draws upon +MIT's "[Course +Six](http://courses.csail.mit.edu/6.01/spring08/general-information.html)" +and "post collegiate web CS," such as +[memcached](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memcached), +[MapReduce](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MapReduce), and +[Paxos](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paxos_algorithm). Portions of the +traditional CS curriculum less relevant to modern practice are +deliberately omitted (students will not be required to build their own +OS and compiler or build skip lists and red-black trees) and will +include some non-traditional curriculum (such as a datacenter tour). The +class is being offered without cost, but students are expected to devote +meaningful time to study, help fellow students with the curriculum, +share notes online, and bring food to the Monday night meetings. + +  + +Books are listed below with links to their Amazon pages and current +prices; these books are considered canonical in their subject area and +students particularly excited by a given topic are encouraged to +purchase the textbook, especially as most are very well-written and +approachable even from a layman perspective. Students are not expected +to purchase all or even most of the books when taking the overview +version of the course, as the overview will only quickly touch on the +key subjects from each topic. Lectures will be recorded and uploaded in +MP3 format as well as being summarized on this wiki. + +  + +The pace for the in-person lectures is deliberately aggressive, seeking +to compress about a semester's worth of college learning into each 2-3 +hour lecture / peer learning experience. This class has a secondary +purpose of being a learning lab, experimenting with more effective and +efficient ways to educate smart people. David's ultimate goal is to +[found a university](http://david.weekly.org/university/) based on the +findings from experiments like these. Other classes, such as compressing +an MBA into a few weeks of part time study, may be explored in 2009. + +  + +"...but why study computer science? There are many other interesting +things to study, like French Literature." + +  + +**Knowledge of practical computer science will let you leverage your +ideas and pave your own destiny.** There is almost no other field that +with basic training and minimal resources will let a person make such +widespread, rapid, and effective change in other people's lives. You can +take an idea from concept to use by thousands of people in a matter of +hours and use by millions of people in a matter of a year. Jobs in +computer science typically pay well ($70k-120k a year) and include a +wealth of benefits and exciting opportunities. There is a severe and +likely long-term shortage of programmers in the US - you'll have your +pick of work environments, in addition to the possibility of starting +your own venture or joining someone else as a technical co-founder. + +  + +"...but I'm not good at math\!" + +  + +That's okay\! **Most computer work has very little to do with math.** It +has everything to do with logic and philosophy. If you can write a +recipe and make a good argument from well-stated premises, you've got +the right kind of mind for computer science.  + +  + +**** + +1. [BASICS](#BASICS) +2. [COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE](#COMPUTERARCHITECTURE) +3. [ALGORITHMS](#ALGORITHMS) +4. [LANGUAGES & COMPILERS](#LANGUAGESampCOMPILERS) +5. [OPERATING SYSTEMS](#OPERATINGSYSTEMS) +6. [GRAPHICS](#GRAPHICS) +7. [AUDIO](#AUDIO) +8. [ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE](#ARTIFICIALINTELLIGENCE) +9. [CRYPTOGRAPHY](#CRYPTOGRAPHY) +10. [NETWORKING](#NETWORKING) +11. [SECURITY](#SECURITY) +12. [DATABASES](#DATABASES) +13. [MODERN WEB APPLICATION + PROGRAMMING](#MODERNWEBAPPLICATIONPROGRAMMING) +14. [GOING BIG: PRACTICAL SCALING](#GOINGBIGPRACTICALSCALING) +15. [MOBILE APPLICATIONS](#MOBILEAPPLICATIONS) +16. [SOFTWARE ENGINEERING](#SOFTWAREENGINEERING) + + + +# BASICS + +  + +Why is computer science an interesting field? Where did it come from? +Who are the notable figures and what did they do? What is the culture of +computer science? While many parts of computer science continue to +unfold anew, a surprising breadth of innovation and discovery in +symbolic processing began as early as 1822, and most modern computer +science theory had been firmly hashed out by the 1970's. Indeed, Douglas +Englebart's famous demo, given in 1968, demonstrates many technologies +that would still be considered quite modern / advanced. + +  + +## FIELD TRIP + +  + +## READING + +  + +## TOPICS + +  + +  + +# COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE + +  + +Most modern computers are made from several silicon chips that interface +on a "motherboard". Knowing how these chips operate to perform the +function of a computer and the fundamentals of logic involved is +important for designing systems that make the most out of their hardware +and software working in unison. + +  + +## READING + +  + +## TOPICS + + - Vacuum Tubes & Tansistors + - Logic Gates + - Signal Processing + - Hard drives + - Processors & Cache, Multicore Processors + - Motherboards: North Bridge / South Bridge + - RAID + +  + +  + +# ALGORITHMS + +  + +Algorithms are programming pattterns used to organize, store, and solve +certain classes of problems. There are a whole set of different +algorithms, for instance, to sort a list of numbers from lowest to +highest. They are all correct, but some may be faster than others in +certain (or all) circumstances. Knowing what algorithms are out there +and when to use each is at the core of a computer scientist's +competence. + +  + +## READING + +  + +## TOPICS + +Variable Types + + - arrays + - hash tables + - floating & fixed point + +Lists, queues, stacks & circular buffers + + - adding & deleting + - sorting + +Trees + +Relational Databases (more later) + +Indexes + +[State Machines](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finite_state_machine) + +[Big O Notation](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_O_notation) + +[Dynamic Programming](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamic_programming) + +[Dijkstra's +Algorithm](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dijkstra%27s_algorithm)  + +  + +# LANGUAGES & COMPILERS + +  + +While CPUs have a native instruction set of 1's and 0's called "machine +code", humans communicate more efficiently and naturally with  +instructions written in a human language. Because human languages can be +ambiguous in meaning and overly broad in scope, "computer languages" +were invented to allow humans to enter commands for the computer in a +human-readable format but one that the computer could also unambiguously +interpret. The process of turning a program written in a computer +language into machine code is called "compiling" and is usually done by +a separate program called a "compiler". Many different computer +langauges have been developed, but they generally fall into a relatively +small number of families. Understanding the strengths and weaknesses of +different languages and language families allows a programmer to +correctly select a language for use in a project. A deep enough +understanding of the design and implementation of computer languages +will allow the student to design their own computer language. + +  + +## READING + +  + +## TOPICS + +Overview of Language Families + + - **direct**: assembly, + brainfuck + - [**imperative**](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperative_programming): + [C](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C_%28programming_language%29), + [C++](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%2B%2B), FORTRAN, Pascal + - **message-based**: Smalltalk & Objective/C + - **interpreted**: Perl, Python, Ruby, BASIC, Javascript, Lua + - **web-integrated**: PHP, Coldfusion, ASP + - **managed**: C\#, ASP.NET, Java + - **functional**: Scheme, Lisp, Erlang + - **domain specific**: MatLab, R, Mathematica, SQL, ActionScript + +**Frameworks**: Rails, Symphony + +**Extending Languages**: BOOST, CPAN, Prototype + +**Grammars & Parsers**: lex & yacc, bison + +  + +  + +# OPERATING SYSTEMS + +  + +While historically computers simply ran one program at a time that had +access to all of the resources of the computer, it was later found that +it would be more useful to have multiple processes that could run at the +same time. Advanced techniques were required to keep these processes +from harming each other. The "master program" that oversees the running +of subprograms is called the "operating system". Operating systems +provide a number of useful services to running programs, most notably +abstracting away many of the particularities of the computer on which +the program is running. This allows the same program to be run on many +different computers with different accessories without having to be +rewritten. Understanding how operating systems function and allow +programs to run is a critical component of a modern CS curriculum. + +## READING + +  + +## TOPICS + +The Boot Process + +Schedulers + + - ring 0 + - prioritization & timeslicing + +drivers + +filesystems + +network filesystems + +virtual memory / swap + +strace + +building a kernel + +processes vs threads + +interrupts & signals + +select(), poll(), epoll + +32-bit vs 64-bit + +virtualization & virtual machines + +realtime operating systems + +  + +  + +# GRAPHICS + +  + +The main way that people receive information from computers is through +visually presentation on a flat, vertical surface in front of the user. +It's important for a computer scientist to understand how computers +prepare text, pictures, movies, and 3D information for a human user's +consumption and at a basic level how display devices work. + +  + +## READING + +## TOPICS + +raster versus vector, CRT vs LCDs + +anti-aliasing, shape-drawing, Painter's Method, z-buffering + +fonts & typography, kerning, postscript, ClearType + +camera sensors, RAW format + +perceptual coding & compression + +picture encoding - BMP, GIF, JPG, PNG + +video encoding - MPEG, AVI, MOV + +3D: raytracers vs rasterizers, shaders + + - matrix transforms + +modern graphics cards + +graphing information + +usability & user-centric design + +# AUDIO + +  + +While graphics form the principal method for computers to present +information to humans, most modern computers are equipped with the +ability to generate audio. It is useful to understand how computers +record, compress, transmit, and play audio. + +  + +## READING + +  + +## TOPICS + + - MIDI + - WAV, sampling rate / bit depth + - band-pass filters + - basics of perceptual coding + - fourier transforms + - fft & dft, mdct + - signal processing & compression + - MP3 + - Speech compression (ACELP.NET, GSM) + - 5.1 sound + - THX  + +  + +  + +# ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE + +  + +While computer intelligence works in a very different fashion than human +intelligence, we can teach computers to attack complicated problems in +logical ways. We can even teach computers to self-improve, modelling +decision functions after neurons. Knowing how to make computers +"artificially intelligent" and good decisionmakers is an important tenet +of modern computer science. + +  + +## READING + +  + +## TOPICS + + - Markov Chains + - Baysian Networks + - A\* Search + - Heuristics, Local Minima + - Neural Networks + - Simulated Annealing + - Genetic Algorithms  + +# CRYPTOGRAPHY + +  + +While techniques for keeping messages secret and verifying their +correctness and authenticity extend back thousands of years, new +mathematical techniques have become available in the past few decades +that enable much more powerful methods for verifying the identity of +someone you've never met before and even exchanging secret information +without having to have a meeting in advance to agree on a private +protocol. Knowing how data can be made secure against tampering or +discovery is a critical component of any system that handles +confidential data. + +  + +## READING + +## TOPICS + + - Caesar Ciphers & ROT-13 + - One-time pads + - Hashes (MD5 & SHA-1) + - Symmetric Cryptography + - Public Keys + - Galois Fields & ECC + - Digital Signatures + - Kerberos + - Zero-knowledge proofs + - Mixmasters + - Steganography + +  + +## SEE ALSO + +# NETWORKING + +  + +Most modern computer owners know that a computer is a lot less valuable +when not connected to thet network. The rapid exchange of information, +personal connections, and ideas through computer networks allow people +to be in touch with each other and participating in a global economy of +ideas on a continuous basis. Understanding how different kinds of +information are transmitted across a computer network will help students +build systems that make effective use of networks and diagnose problems +with network applications. + +  + +## READING + +## TOPICS + + - Ethernet + - OSI 7-layer stack + - Switches, Hubs, Routers & Managed vs Unmanaged + - IP: DHCP & BOOTP + - UDP: DNS & NTP + - TCP: 3-Way Handshake, Windows, Buffers, Nagle's Algorithm, Lingering + CLose + - SMTP & Email infrastructure + - HTTP &  Proxies + - SSL / HTTPS + - BGP, Routing + +# SECURITY + +  + +Now that you know about how computer systems are designed to operate, it +is important to study how accidents (even small things overlooked) in +the design of computer systems can lead to their compromise by +intelligent attackers armed with tools of increasing sophistication. +Attacks are possible on many levels, including physical penetration, +social engineering, internal compromise, password guessing, and +network-level attacks. + +  + +## PROGRAMS + + - [WireShark](http://www.wireshark.org/) (sniffer, free download, + formerly known as Ethereal) + - [Tor](http://www.torproject.org/) (onion router, free download) + +  + +## READING + +  + +## TOPICS + + - Viruses + - Worms + - Keysniffers & Dongles + - Man in the Middle + - [Phishing](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phishing) + - Brute Force Attacks + - Stack Smashing + - [Fuzzing](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuzz_testing) + - Phreaking & + [Redboxing](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_box_%28phreaking%29) + - Traffic Analysis + - Proxies & Onion Routing, [Tor](http://www.torproject.org/) + - Social Hacking + - Sniffers + - IDS + - Tripwire + - Kernel Hardening + - [XSS](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-site_scripting) & + [XSRF](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-site_request_forgery) + - [DNS Poisoning](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dns_poisoning) + - Zombies & Botnets + - Hacker culture: IRC, Defcon, 2600 + +  + +  + +# DATABASES + +  + +Relational databases like Oracle, MySQL, Postgres, and DB2 underlie +nearly every significant information repository on the planet. +Understanding how these databases work and how to efficiently store and +retrieve data is critical for modern programmers. + +## READING + +## TOPICS + +# MODERN WEB APPLICATION PROGRAMMING + +  + +Modern web application programming requires use of new tools and +techniques to address the peculiarities of client-server programming in +the land of the browser. Browsers are adopting more comprehensive +standards of higher quality and are more rigorously adhering to them, +allowing developers to make ever-more sophisticated applications +available to users. + +  + +## READING + +## TOPICS + +The DOM, DHTML, CSS + +Javascript + +AJAX (dojo, mootools, prototype, yui) + + - Examining Google Maps & GMail + +Comet + + - Examining Meebo + +Widgets (flash, iframe, and js) + +OpenID & OAuth + +webhooks + +RSS & Atom + +Facebook applications + +Standalone: TiddlyWiki + +Offline: Google Gears & AIR + +SEO: sitemaps & robots.txt + +  + +  + +# GOING BIG: PRACTICAL SCALING + +  + +Once an application is built and begins to become popular, the +techniques required to make the application available to a large number +of people, be resilient to attacks, and maintain a low per-user +operational cost comprise one of the most rapidly-evolving fields of +computer science. + +  + +## READING + +  + +## TOPICS + +loadbalancers + +filers + +hosting & colocation + +distributed transations + +robust queues + +virtualization + +partitioning + +heartbeats / round-robin + +[Paxos](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paxos_algorithm) + +Modern Cluster Tools + + - LJ: mogilefs, memcached, perlbal + - GOOG: [BigTable](http://labs.google.com/papers/bigtable.html), + [GFS](http://labs.google.com/papers/gfs.html), + [MapReduce](http://labs.google.com/papers/mapreduce.html), + [Chubby](http://labs.google.com/papers/chubby.html) + - AMZN: [EC2](http://aws.amazon.com/ec2), + [S3](http://aws.amazon.com/s3) + - YHOO: [Hadoop](http://hadoop.apache.org/core/) + +Resisting Abuse + + - DDOS Mitigation + - CAPTCHAs + - Reputation Systems + +  + +  + +# MOBILE APPLICATIONS + +  + +Making computer programs available for use on highly portable computers +requires knowledge of new protocols and techniques unique to the "cell +phone" industry. Learning how to effectively integrate cell phones into +an application can greatly enhance your application's reach and +usefulness. + +  + +## TOPICS + + - what is spectrum / RF? + - antennas + - bandwidth + - GSM / CDMA + - WiFi / 802.11n / WiMAX  + - SMS + - WAP + - Java apps + - iPhone Dev Kit + +  + +# SOFTWARE ENGINEERING + +While Computer Science concerns itself with the theory of software, +Software Engineering concerns itself with the real-world pragmatics of +building large software systems, attempting to answer the question of +how you can build the highest-quality software in the shortest time with +the most limited of resources. A programmer is the person who actually +implements such systems. By way of analogy to building bridges, the +programmer is a metalworker, the software engineer is an architect who +designs the bridge and ensures its proper construction, and the computer +scientist is the materials scientist who researches better steel. + +## READING + +## TOPICS + + - Process Development + - Defect Tracking + - Change Management + - Testing (Unit Tests, Whitebox Testing, Blackbox Testing, Load Tests) + - Continuous Integration + - Extreme Programming + - Agile Development + - Scrum diff --git a/_stories/2008/6429021.md b/_stories/2008/6429021.md deleted file mode 100644 index 3a16a8a..0000000 --- a/_stories/2008/6429021.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,25 +0,0 @@ ---- -created_at: '2013-09-23T03:17:03.000Z' -title: Things Caches Do (2008) -url: http://tomayko.com/writings/things-caches-do -author: dedalus -points: 63 -story_text: '' -comment_text: -num_comments: 5 -story_id: -story_title: -story_url: -parent_id: -created_at_i: 1379906223 -_tags: -- story -- author_dedalus -- story_6429021 -objectID: '6429021' - ---- -[Source](https://tomayko.com/writings/things-caches-do "Permalink to ") - - - diff --git a/_stories/2008/6710450.md b/_stories/2008/6710450.md index f6bbe07..eb3aeb3 100644 --- a/_stories/2008/6710450.md +++ b/_stories/2008/6710450.md @@ -19,7 +19,86 @@ _tags: objectID: '6710450' --- -[Source](http://stackoverflow.com/questions/93526/what-is-a-y-combinator "Permalink to ") +A Y-combinator is a "functional" (a function that operates on other +functions) that enables recursion, when you can't refer to the function +from within itself. In computer-science theory, it **generalizes +recursion**, abstracting its implementation, and thereby separating it +from the actual work of the function in question. The benefit of not +needing a compile-time name for the recursive function is sort of a +bonus. =) +This is applicable in languages that support [lambda +functions](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lambda_calculus). The +[expression](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expression_\(programming\))-based +nature of lambdas usually means that they cannot refer to themselves by +name. And working around this by way of declaring the variable, refering +to it, then assigning the lambda to it, to complete the self-reference +loop, is brittle. The lambda variable can be copied, and the original +variable re-assigned, which breaks the self-reference. +Y-combinators are cumbersome to implement, and often to use, in +[static-typed](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Type_system#Type_checking) +languages (which [procedural +languages](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Procedural_programming) often +are), because usually typing restrictions require the number of +arguments for the function in question to be known at compile time. This +means that a y-combinator must be written for any argument count that +one needs to use. +Below is an example of how the usage and working of a Y-Combinator, in +C\#. + +Using a Y-combinator involves an "unusual" way of constructing a +recursive function. First you must write your function as a piece of +code that calls a pre-existing function, rather than itself: + +``` lang-c# prettyprint-override +// Factorial, if func does the same thing as this bit of code... +x == 0 ? 1: x * func(x - 1); +``` + +Then you turn that into a function that takes a function to call, and +returns a function that does so. This is called a functional, because it +takes one function, and performs an operation with it that results in +another function. + +``` lang-c# prettyprint-override +// A function that creates a factorial, but only if you pass in +// a function that does what the inner function is doing. +Func, Func> fact = + (recurs) => + (x) => + x == 0 ? 1 : x * recurs(x - 1); +``` + +Now you have a function that takes a function, and returns another +function that sort of looks like a factorial, but instead of calling +itself, it calls the argument passed into the outer function. How do you +make this the factorial? Pass the inner function to itself. The +Y-Combinator does that, by being a function with a permanent name, which +can introduce the recursion. + +``` lang-c# prettyprint-override +// One-argument Y-Combinator. +public static Func Y(Func, Func> F) +{ + return + t => // A function that... + F( // Calls the factorial creator, passing in... + Y(F) // The result of this same Y-combinator function call... + // (Here is where the recursion is introduced.) + ) + (t); // And passes the argument into the work function. +} +``` + +Rather than the factorial calling itself, what happens is that the +factorial calls the factorial generator (returned by the recursive call +to Y-Combinator). And depending on the current value of t the function +returned from the generator will either call the generator again, with t +- 1, or just return 1, terminating the recursion. + +It's complicated and cryptic, but it all shakes out at run-time, and the +key to its working is "deferred execution", and the breaking up of the +recursion to span two functions. The inner F is **passed as an +argument**, to be called in the next iteration, **only if necessary**. diff --git a/_stories/2008/6787885.md b/_stories/2008/6787885.md deleted file mode 100644 index 711f5fd..0000000 --- a/_stories/2008/6787885.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,25 +0,0 @@ ---- -created_at: '2013-11-23T23:24:31.000Z' -title: What does \"HREF\" stand for? (2008) -url: http://tomayko.com/writings/wtf-is-an-href-anyway -author: sebkomianos -points: 208 -story_text: '' -comment_text: -num_comments: 49 -story_id: -story_title: -story_url: -parent_id: -created_at_i: 1385249071 -_tags: -- story -- author_sebkomianos -- story_6787885 -objectID: '6787885' - ---- -[Source](https://tomayko.com/writings/wtf-is-an-href-anyway "Permalink to ") - - - diff --git a/_stories/2008/690592.md b/_stories/2008/690592.md index dccfa36..94b0807 100644 --- a/_stories/2008/690592.md +++ b/_stories/2008/690592.md @@ -19,7 +19,11 @@ _tags: objectID: '690592' --- -[Source](https://www.nccgroup.trust/us/our-services/security-consulting/ "Permalink to ") - - +# NCC Group is a global expert in cyber security and risk mitigation +In today’s threat landscape understanding the risks, your organization +and customers are exposed to is more important than ever. +Our world leading experts use their unrivalled knowledge to fight the +threats that you face every day. With our technical depth and strategic +vision, we are best placed to help organizations identify, assess, +mitigate and respond to the risks they face. diff --git a/_stories/2008/7556773.md b/_stories/2008/7556773.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..c9b2d98 --- /dev/null +++ b/_stories/2008/7556773.md @@ -0,0 +1,864 @@ +--- +created_at: '2014-04-08T23:41:03.000Z' +title: Star Trek 1971 Text Game (2008) +url: http://www.codeproject.com/Articles/28228/Star-Trek-Text-Game +author: deanmen +points: 93 +story_text: '' +comment_text: +num_comments: 34 +story_id: +story_title: +story_url: +parent_id: +created_at_i: 1397000463 +_tags: +- story +- author_deanmen +- story_7556773 +objectID: '7556773' + +--- +## A Bit of History + +Two years after the original series was canceled in 1969, high school +senior Mike Mayfield was busy keeping the Star Trek universe alive by +feeding punched paper tape into a Sigma 7 in an effort to bring the crew +of the Enterprise and the Klingon Empire to life on a 10 +character-per-second teletype terminal. Soon after Mike ported his game +to HP BASIC, it entered the public domain. From there, early computer +enthusiasts enhanced and rewrote the game for every flavor of mini and +microcomputer BASIC imaginable and beyond. + +I remember encountering versions of the game back in the early 80s when +I was a little kid trying to learn BASIC on my IBM PCjr. Back then, +computer books and magazines distributed programs in printed form. +Meaning, you had to type them in to play the games. It was a pain in the +ass, but the process encouraged you to tinker. It motivated you to learn +to code and to tweak or even improve the programs you were entering in. + +Every BASIC game book that I picked up contained some version of the +Star Trek game. I recall loading it up a few times, but each time I +ended up staring at the screen in utter confusion. "How the heck is this +Star Trek?" I remember thinking. I couldn’t figure out how to play it. + +By the time I entered high school, I had graduated from BASIC and moved +onto to bigger and better things like C and C++. But, on occasion, I +often wondered about the Star Trek text game. What made it so popular? +After learning about the history that I touched upon above, I decided to +dig it up and take a second look. + +After a bit of web surfing, I came across Mike Mayfield’s original port +to HP BASIC. Here’s a snippet of the + code: + + 100 REM ***************************************************************** + 110 REM *** *** + 120 REM *** STAR TREK: BY MIKE MAYFIELD, CENTERLINE ENGINEERING *** + 130 REM *** *** + 140 REM *** TOTAL INTERACTION GAME - ORIG. 20 OCT 1972 + 150 REM *** *** + 160 REM ***************************************************************** + 170 GOSUB 5460 + 180 PRINT " STAR TREK " + 190 PRINT "DO YOU WANT INSTRUCTIONS (THEY'RE LONG!)"; + 200 INPUT A$ + 210 IF A$ <> "YES" THEN 230 + 220 GOSUB 5820 + 230 REM ***** PROGRAM STARTS HERE ***** + +Ah, good old line-numbered BASIC. It’s all coming back to me now. Those +line numbers were there to provide targets for GOTO and GOSUB +statements. But, line numbers made editing a tad difficult. It was +convention to enter in line numbers that were multiples of 10. That way, +as you developed the program, you could go back and insert up to 9 +additional statements in between existing lines without reworking all +the GOTO/GOSUB references. If you needed to insert more than 9 lines, I +remember a special feature in the BASIC editor on my PCjr. It would +append a zero to all line numbers and all line number references +throughout the program. Meaning, you could now insert up to 99 lines. +Couldn’t they just renumber the program in multiples of 10? Nah. The +PCjr wasn’t powerful enough for that. + +If you’re wondering about “Centerline Engineering,” it was an imaginary +company that Mike Mayfield coined to give his BASIC projects a level of +prominence to those reading the remarks section. + +With code in hand, I really wanted to play the game. I’m sure that there +are HP BASIC interpreters out there for modern machines, but what fun +would that be. Before I played it, I wanted do my own port. This game +was born in the hobbyist era. It was made to be reinterpreted and +enhanced as it traded handed. I wanted to bring back part of those +long-lost magical days of type-in programs. + +My first impression of the code was "what’s with all the single letter +variable names?" First I thought it was a limitation of HP BASIC, but +then I noticed the occasional 2-letter names. I guess 2 is better than +1. Everything is also in caps. Take a look at this line: + + 2140 T=T+1 + +That line increments T. But, due to the caps, I feel like the code is +screaming at me. ASIGN THE SUM OF T AND 1 BACK TO T DAMN IT\! Also, I’m +so used to writing `t++` or `t += x` that I forgot about the expanded +notation. In fact, entering 7th grade having mastered BASIC, I found +myself really confused when my math teacher introduced us to solving +simultaneous equations. For instance, find the value of X in this +equation: + + X = 2X - 6 + +That was the first time I was introduced to the concept of operator +overloading. The equals-sign can mean variable assignment or numerical +equivalence depending on the context. + +Here’s a cool block of code that I noticed: + + 4550 IMAGE 8(X,3A) + 4560 IMAGE 8(X,3A),8X,"STARDATE",8X,5D + 4570 IMAGE 8(X,3A),8X,"CONDITION",8X,6A + 4580 IMAGE 8(X,3A),8X,"QUADRANT",9X,D,",",D + 4590 IMAGE 8(X,3A),8X,"SECTOR",11X,D,",",D + 4600 IMAGE 8(X,3A),8X,"ENERGY",9X,6D + 4610 IMAGE 8(X,3A),8X,"PHOTON TORPEDOES",3D + 4620 IMAGE 8(X,3A),8X,"SHIELDS",8X,6D + +These are not executable statements. They’re strings that can be +referenced in PRINT commands. The unquoted symbols get substituted with +values of variables. It’s conceptually similar to C-style `printf()` +format placeholders. I didn’t realize that BASIC offered such a rich +numerical formatting notation. + +As I continued to examine the source, I found some statements that +didn’t make sense. For instance, even though you don’t have to declare +variables before you use them, you still need to specify the dimensions +of arrays. I came across some arrays that were never allocated as such. +Ultimately, I decided to seek out a better basis for my port. + +After a bit of Googling, I found a cleaned up version that maintained +the majority of Mike Mayfield’s code. Some of it was reworked, probably +to enable it to run on modern versions of BASIC. For instance, those +cool IMAGE statements were dropped and replaced with sets of simpler +PRINT commands. The variable names appear virtually identical, but at +least they are all accounted for in this version. + +## Porting the Game + +Next, I had to decide what language to port it to. Staring at that BASIC +code reminded me that C\# brought `goto` back into the mainstream. Would +it be possible to do an exact line-by-line port from BASIC to C\#? +Apparently so... and the result is some of the sickest code I’ve ever +keyed into a computer. Want a comparison? Here’s a segment of BASIC +code: + + 2950 PRINT "TORPEDO TRACK:" + 2960 LET X=X+X[1] + 2970 LET Y=Y+X[2] + 2980 IF X<.5 OR X >= 8.5 OR Y<.5 OR Y >= 8.5 THEN 3420 + 2990 LET V[4]=X + 2991 LET V[5]=Y + 2992 GOSUB 9000 + 2993 PRINT + 3020 IF A[INT(X+.5),INT(Y+.5)]#0 THEN 3080 + 3060 GOTO 2960 + 3080 IF A[INT(X+.5),INT(Y+.5)]#2 THEN 3230 + 3120 PRINT "*** KLINGON DESTROYED ***" + 3130 LET P[1]=P[1]-1 + 3140 LET P[3]=P[3]-1 + 3150 IF P[3] <= 0 THEN 4040 + 3160 FOR I=1 TO 3 + 3170 IF INT(X+.5)#K[I,1] THEN 3190 + 3180 IF INT(Y+.5)=K[I,2] THEN 3200 + 3190 NEXT I + 3200 LET K[I,3]=0 + 3210 GOTO 3370 + 3230 IF A[INT(X+.5),INT(Y+.5)]#4 THEN 3290 + 3270 PRINT "YOU CAN'T DESTROY STARS SILLY" + 3280 GOTO 3420 + +And the C\# version: + +``` cs +_2950: Console.WriteLine("TORPEDO TRACK:"); +_2960: X = X + _X[1]; +_2970: Y = Y + _X[2]; +_2980: if (X < .5 || X >= 8.5 || Y < .5 || Y >= 8.5) goto _3420; +_2990: _V[4] = X; +_2991: _V[5] = Y; +_2992: _9000(); +_2993: Console.WriteLine(); +_3020: if (_A[(int)(X + .5), (int)(Y + .5)] != 0) goto _3080; +_3060: goto _2960; +_3080: if (_A[(int)(X + .5), (int)(Y + .5)] != 2) goto _3230; +_3120: Console.WriteLine("*** KLINGON DESTROYED ***"); +_3130: _P[1] = _P[1] - 1; +_3140: _P[3] = _P[3] - 1; +_3150: if (_P[3] <= 0) goto _4040; +_3160: for(I = 1; I <= 3; I += 1) { +_3170: if ((int)(X + .5) != _K[(int)I, 1]) goto _3190; +_3180: if ((int)(Y + .5) == _K[(int)I, 2]) goto _3200; +_3190: ;} I = 3; +_3200: _K[(int)I, 3] = 0; +_3210: goto _3370; +_3230: if (_A[(int)(X + .5), (int)(Y + .5)] != 4) goto _3290; +_3270: Console.WriteLine("YOU CAN'T DESTROY STARS SILLY"); +_3280: goto _3420; +``` + +To simulate line numbers, each line starts with a label consisting of an +underscore followed by a number. That works fine for GOTO, but what +about GOSUB? Examine line 2992. Subroutines were replaced with methods. +That almost worked. In BASIC, you’re not forced to RETURN from +subroutines. You can leave them via GOTO. That was used only in the case +that the player is destroyed to send them back to the beginning of the +program to start over. I replaced that GOTO with a return statement that +passes a flag back to the caller. The caller inspects the flag and jumps +back to the program start if need be. I also discovered that at one +point, there is a GOTO that jumps into a FOR loop. C\# won’t let you +jump to a label in a sub-block of code. I transformed the FOR loop into +a GOTO loop to make C\# happy. + +All the variables in the BASIC program, including the arrays, are real +number type. However, in BASIC, an array and a scalar can share the same +name; the interpreter is able to sort it all out. But, C\# is less kind. +To solve the problem, I prefixed array names with underscores. Also, +arrays in BASIC are indexed from 1 instead of 0. To compensate, I +increased the length of all arrays by 1. Index 0 is never used. + +When I started testing my port, I noticed some string formatting +problems. Examine the following BASIC line: + + 2726 PRINT TAB(41);"("; + +That means: Print 41 spaces followed by left-parenthesis. That was easy +to translate, but the intension was to push the left-parenthesis onto +the next line by letting it wrap around the console. I cleaned some of +this stuff up. There are also some tables that get printed in the game. +I reformatted them a bit to make them easier to read. + +One other thing: notice that in this type of BASIC, \# indicates +not-equal-to. It took me a while to realize why they chose that symbol. +\# resembles ≠. + +## Entering the Star Trek Universe + +Now, I was ready to play the game. As I mentioned above, I never +understood the rules before. Luckily, when you run the program, it gives +you the option of viewing instructions. I studied them carefully. But, +the only way to really understand what to do is to play the game. Here’s +a walkthrough: + +``` + STAR TREK + + + +ENTER 1 OR 2 FOR INSTRUCTIONS (ENTER 2 TO PAGE) + +ENTER SEED NUMBER +INITIALIZING... + +YOU MUST DESTROY 17 KINGONS IN 30 STARDATES WITH 3 STARBASES + +-=--=--=--=--=--=--=--=- + * + STARDATE 2100 + * * CONDITION GREEN + <*> QUADRANT 5,2 + * SECTOR 5,4 + ENERGY 3000 + SHIELDS 0 + * PHOTON TORPEDOES 10 +-=--=--=--=--=--=--=--=- +COMMAND +``` + +The game makes itself known by printing out its title. Then, it asks you +if you want to view instructions. Every prompt in the game demands a +number. If you hit Enter, zero is assumed. In this case, I hit Enter to +skip the instructions. Next, it asks for a seed number to initialize the +randomizer. This is an artifact of BASIC. It doesn’t really have an +effect in C\#. In BASIC, just as in C\#, the randomizer could have been +initialized based off the system time. If that was not an option, they +should have taken advantage of the instructions prompt. When the +instructions prompt appears, it could have entered a loop that timed how +long it took the user to enter a value. That duration could have been +used to initialize the randomizer. Again, I simply pressed Enter to skip +it. + +Next, it prints out my mission. I have to destroy 17 Klingon (note the +game misspells it here) ships in 30 units of time with 3 starbases. Then +it runs the short range scanner. The short range scanner displays the +current quadrant. The game takes place in an 8×8 quadrant grid. Each row +and column is numbered 1 to 8. The text on the right indicates that I am +in quadrant (5,2). Each quadrant is partitioned into an 8×8 sector grid. +The Enterprise is located at sector (5,4). On the quadrant display, +`<*>` is the Enterprise. The remaining `*`’s are stars. Each = mark on +the top and bottom horizontal-line dividers indicates a column. If you +count, you’ll find that the Enterprise is in column 5. If you count the +rows, you’ll find it’s in row 4. Hence, within this quadrant, the +Enterprise is in sector (5,4) as specified. + +The goal is seek out quadrants containing Klingon ships and destroy +them. Let’s begin by doing a long range sensor scan (option 2): + + COMMAND 2 + LONG RANGE SENSOR SCAN FOR QUADRANT 5,2 + ------------------- + | 008 | 008 | 004 | + ------------------- + | 006 | 005 | 007 | + ------------------- + | 001 | 104 | 113 | + ------------------- + +This table summarizes 9 quadrants. The center quadrant is your current +quadrant. The digits indicate the number of Klingon ships, the number of +starbases and the number of stars. In our quadrant, there are no Klingon +ships and no starbases, but there are 5 stars. Stars act as annoying +obstacles as I’ll demonstrate later on. South of us, there is a quadrant +containing 1 Klingon ship. Let’s head there. But, first we need to raise +shields (option 5): + + COMMAND 5 + ENERGY AVAILABLE = 3000 + NUMBER OF UNITS TO SHIELDS 500 + +It asks me how much energy I want to devote to the shields. I entered +500. If I run out of energy, I lose the game. Starbases replenish +energy. They also restock photon torpedoes and repair damage. To see how +much energy I have left, I’ll run a short range scan again (option 1): + + COMMAND 1 + -=--=--=--=--=--=--=--=- + * + STARDATE 2100 + * * CONDITION GREEN + <*> QUADRANT 5,2 + * SECTOR 5,4 + ENERGY 2500 + SHIELDS 500 + * PHOTON TORPEDOES 10 + -=--=--=--=--=--=--=--=- + +Now, let’s head south. Navigation requires 2 parameters: direction and +distance. It’s a polar coordinate system, but an unconventional one. +Direction is specified using this: + + 4 3 2 + `. : .' + `.:.' + 5---<*>---1 + .':`. + .' : `. + 6 7 8 + +Angle goes from 1.0 (inclusive) to 9.0 (exclusive). Note that the y-axis +points downwards. So, although it appears to be a counterclockwise angle +system, it’s actually clockwise. You also need to consider the aspect +ratio. Each column is 3 characters wide, but each row is only 1 +character high. This means that it’s not a circular coordinate system. +Rather, it’s a swashed oval. + +Distance is measured in warp factor units. Such a unit is equal to the +length/height of a quadrant. To move to an adjacent sector, you need to +move a distance of 1/8 = 0.125. I’m going to move south (angle 7.0) a +distance of 1 warp factor. Navigation is option 0: + + COURSE (1-9) 7 + WARP FACTOR (0-8) 1 + + DAMAGE CONTROL REPORT: WARP ENGINES DAMAGED + + -=--=--=--=--=--=--=--=- + * + STARDATE 2101 + * CONDITION RED + <*> QUADRANT 5,3 + SECTOR 5,4 + * ENERGY 2497 + * SHIELDS 500 + +++ PHOTON TORPEDOES 10 + -=--=--=--=--=--=--=--=- + +Navigation automatically runs a short range scan. Note that I moved from +quadrant (5,2) to quadrant (5,3). Also, notice that is says that my warp +engines are damaged. Parts of the Enterprise fail spontaneously. As you +navigate around, they slowly get repaired. Let’s get a damage report +(option 6): + + COMMAND 6 + + DEVICE STATE OF REPAIR + WARP ENGINES -3 + S.R. SENSORS 0 + L.R. SENSORS 0 + PHASER CNTRL 0 + PHOTON TUBES 0 + DAMAGE CNTRL 0 + SHIELD CNTRL 0 + COMPUTER 0 + +A value of 0 indicates normal operation. Less-than 0 is damage. +Greater-than 0 indicates that the component is working above normal. + +The short range scan above shows a Klingon ship (the triple-plus). I’m +going to use the computer to help me target the ship (option 7 followed +by option 2): + + COMMAND 7 + COMPUTER ACTIVE AND AWAITING COMMAND 2 + DIRECTION = 7 + DISTANCE = 4 + + ENTER 1 TO USE THE CALCULATOR + +Photon torpedoes are fired using the same direction and distance +coordinate system as is used for navigation. The computer gave me the +coordinates. Then it asks if I want to use the navigation calculator. +The navigation calculator asks you to enter the coordinates of 2 +quadrants and it will output direction and distance between them. I’ll +press Enter to indicate I am not interested in doing this. Now, let’s +fire the torpedo (option 4): + + COMMAND 4 + TORPEDO COURSE (1-9) 7 + TORPEDO TRACK: + 5,5 + 5,6 + 5,7 + 5,8 + *** KLINGON DESTROYED *** + COMMAND 1 + -=--=--=--=--=--=--=--=- + * + STARDATE 2101 + * CONDITION GREEN + <*> QUADRANT 5,3 + SECTOR 5,4 + * ENERGY 2497 + * SHIELDS 500 + PHOTON TORPEDOES 9 + -=--=--=--=--=--=--=--=- + +The game outputs the track of the torpedo. In this case, it hit the +target. If the computer gets damaged, you have to estimate the direction +of the Klingon ship yourself. It may take a few tries. The torpedo track +will help you refine the direction. Also, sometimes a torpedo randomly +diverts a bit from the specified direction. + +Let’s get a status report using the computer (option 7, option 1): + + COMMAND 7 + COMPUTER ACTIVE AND AWAITING COMMAND 1 + + STATUS REPORT + + NUMBER OF KLINGONS LEFT = 16 + NUMBER OF STARDATES LEFT = 29 + NUMBER OF STARBASES LEFT = 3 + + DEVICE STATE OF REPAIR + WARP ENGINES -3 + S.R. SENSORS 0 + L.R. SENSORS 0 + PHASER CNTRL 0 + PHOTON TUBES 0 + DAMAGE CNTRL 0 + SHIELD CNTRL 0 + COMPUTER 0 + +One Klingon ship down, but my warp engine is still damaged. Let’s do a +long range scan: + + COMMAND 2 + LONG RANGE SENSOR SCAN FOR QUADRANT 5,3 + ------------------- + | 006 | 005 | 007 | + ------------------- + | 001 | 004 | 113 | + ------------------- + | 002 | 005 | 002 | + ------------------- + +I want to go east. The starbase there, indicated by the center 1, can +repair my warp drive. I’ll try to navigate there: + + COMMAND 0 + COURSE (1-9) 1 + WARP FACTOR (0-8) 1 + WARP ENGINES ARE DAMAGED, MAXIMUM SPEED = WARP .2 + COURSE (1-9) 1 + WARP FACTOR (0-8) .2 + -=--=--=--=--=--=--=--=- + * + STARDATE 2101 + * CONDITION GREEN + <*> QUADRANT 5,3 + SECTOR 6,4 + * ENERGY 2501 + * SHIELDS 500 + PHOTON TORPEDOES 9 + -=--=--=--=--=--=--=--=- + +As you can see, when the warp drive is damaged, I can only move 1 sector +at a time. + + DAMAGE CONTROL REPORT: L.R. SENSORS DAMAGED + + -=--=--=--=--=--=--=--=- + * + STARDATE 2101 + * CONDITION GREEN + <*> QUADRANT 5,3 + SECTOR 7,4 + * ENERGY 2505 + * SHIELDS 500 + PHOTON TORPEDOES 9 + -=--=--=--=--=--=--=--=- + COMMAND 0 + COURSE (1-9) 1 + WARP FACTOR (0-8) .2 + -=--=--=--=--=--=--=--=- + * + STARDATE 2101 + * CONDITION GREEN + <*> QUADRANT 5,3 + SECTOR 8,4 + * ENERGY 2509 + * SHIELDS 500 + PHOTON TORPEDOES 9 + -=--=--=--=--=--=--=--=- + COMMAND 0 + COURSE (1-9) 1 + WARP FACTOR (0-8) .2 + -=--=--=--=--=--=--=--=- + + +++ STARDATE 2102 + * * CONDITION RED + <*> QUADRANT 6,3 + SECTOR 1,4 + >!< ENERGY 2513 + SHIELDS 500 + * PHOTON TORPEDOES 9 + -=--=--=--=--=--=--=--=- + +I managed to get over there, but now my long range scanner is damaged. +Note that each time you cross a quadrant boundary, the stardate +advances. I have to destroy all the Klingons in the time restriction of +my mission. + +The `>!<` symbol indicates a starbase. If I navigate next to it, the +Enterprise will automatically dock at which time I’ll get everything +repaired. But, if I try to navigate there, the Klingon ship will fire at +me. I can’t send out a photon torpedo because of the stars. The stars +will obstruct the track. Let me check on those repairs: + + COMMAND 7 + COMPUTER ACTIVE AND AWAITING COMMAND 1 + + STATUS REPORT + + NUMBER OF KLINGONS LEFT = 16 + NUMBER OF STARDATES LEFT = 28 + NUMBER OF STARBASES LEFT = 3 + + DEVICE STATE OF REPAIR + WARP ENGINES 0 + S.R. SENSORS 0 + L.R. SENSORS 0 + PHASER CNTRL 0 + PHOTON TUBES 0 + DAMAGE CNTRL 0 + SHIELD CNTRL 0 + COMPUTER 0 + +Nice. The Enterprise is back to normal. I’ll try using my phasers to hit +the Klingons (option 3): + + COMMAND 3 + PHASERS LOCKED ON TARGET. ENERGY AVAILABLE = 2513 + NUMBER OF UNITS TO FIRE 500 + 19 UNIT HIT ON ENTERPRISE FROM SECTOR 7,2 + (480 LEFT) + 67 UNIT HIT ON KLINGON AT SECTOR 7,2 + (132 LEFT) + +The Enterprise was hit. My shields dropped a small amount. The Klingon +ship was damaged as well. I’ll fire again: + + COMMAND 3 + PHASERS LOCKED ON TARGET. ENERGY AVAILABLE = 2013 + NUMBER OF UNITS TO FIRE 1000 + 16 UNIT HIT ON ENTERPRISE FROM SECTOR 7,2 + (464 LEFT) + 100 UNIT HIT ON KLINGON AT SECTOR 7,2 + (31 LEFT) + COMMAND 3 + PHASERS LOCKED ON TARGET. ENERGY AVAILABLE = 1013 + NUMBER OF UNITS TO FIRE 300 + 5 UNIT HIT ON ENTERPRISE FROM SECTOR 7,2 + (458 LEFT) + 62 UNIT HIT ON KLINGON AT SECTOR 7,2 + (0 LEFT) + *** KLINGON AT SECTOR 7,2 DESTROYED *** + COMMAND 1 + -=--=--=--=--=--=--=--=- + + STARDATE 2102 + * * CONDITION GREEN + <*> QUADRANT 6,3 + SECTOR 1,4 + >!< ENERGY 713 + SHIELDS 458 + * PHOTON TORPEDOES 9 + -=--=--=--=--=--=--=--=- + +I fired twice, which severely lowered my energy level. Phaser strength +is a measure of the distance between the Enterprise the target. It +probably would have been better to navigate north for a clear path for a +photon torpedo. Luckily, I can dock with the starbase to replenish my +energy: + + COMMAND 0 + COURSE (1-9) 7 + WARP FACTOR (0-8) .25 + -=--=--=--=--=--=--=--=- + + STARDATE 2102 + * * CONDITION GREEN + QUADRANT 6,3 + SECTOR 1,6 + <*> >!< ENERGY 716 + SHIELDS 458 + * PHOTON TORPEDOES 9 + -=--=--=--=--=--=--=--=- + COMMAND 0 + COURSE (1-9) 1 + WARP FACTOR (0-8) 1 + WARP ENGINES SHUTDOWN AT SECTOR 6,6 DUE TO BAD NAVIGATION + SHIELDS DROPPED FOR DOCKING PURPOSES + -=--=--=--=--=--=--=--=- + + STARDATE 2103 + * * CONDITION DOCKED + QUADRANT 6,3 + SECTOR 5,6 + <*>>!< ENERGY 3000 + SHIELDS 0 + * PHOTON TORPEDOES 10 + -=--=--=--=--=--=--=--=- + +The starbase takes away all my shield energy before giving me back 3000. +If the game didn’t do this, the player could get infinite shield +strength by repeatedly docking and transferring energy to the shields. + +Also note that I docked by crashing into the starbase. While you are +within a quadrant, you can’t pass through stars, ships and starbases. +However, after leaving the current quadrant, those are no longer +obstacles. In fact, the positions of stars, starbases and Klingon ships +within a quadrant is not determined at the start of the game. Rather, +the positions are invented at the time you enter a quadrant. It creates +the illusion that stars, starbases and Klingon ships can move around +within a quadrant. Note that they can never move out of a quadrant. + + COMMAND 2 + LONG RANGE SENSOR SCAN FOR QUADRANT 6,3 + ------------------- + | 005 | 007 | 007 | + ------------------- + | 004 | 013 | 001 | + ------------------- + | 005 | 002 | 016 | + ------------------- + +The values you see in a long range scan are the only values tracked by +the game. It doesn’t store the exact sectors of each entity within a +quadrant until you enter it. On a related note, the computer can show +you a table of all scanned quadrants (option 7, option 0): + + COMMAND 7 + COMPUTER ACTIVE AND AWAITING COMMAND 0 + COMPUTER RECORD OF GALAXY FOR QUADRANT 6,3 + ------------------------------------------------- + | 000 | 000 | 000 | 008 | 008 | 004 | 000 | 000 | + ------------------------------------------------- + | 000 | 000 | 000 | 006 | 005 | 007 | 007 | 000 | + ------------------------------------------------- + | 000 | 000 | 000 | 001 | 004 | 013 | 001 | 000 | + ------------------------------------------------- + | 000 | 000 | 000 | 002 | 005 | 002 | 016 | 000 | + ------------------------------------------------- + | 000 | 000 | 000 | 000 | 000 | 000 | 000 | 000 | + ------------------------------------------------- + | 000 | 000 | 000 | 000 | 000 | 000 | 000 | 000 | + ------------------------------------------------- + | 000 | 000 | 000 | 000 | 000 | 000 | 000 | 000 | + ------------------------------------------------- + | 000 | 000 | 000 | 000 | 000 | 000 | 000 | 000 | + ------------------------------------------------- + +Anyway, that’s the gist of the game. + +So, what happens when you win? + + THE LAST KLIGON BATTLE CRUISER IN THE GALAXY HAS BEEN DESTROYED + THE FEDERATION HAS BEEN SAVED !!! + + YOUR EFFICIENCY RATING = ... + +And then it just starts over again with a new mission. The efficiency +rating is a function of the time remaining. In Mike Mayfield’s original +version, the time remaining was actually in minutes. As mentioned, in +this version, it’s in turns. + +## Super Star Trek + +In 1976, Creative Computing published a modified version of Mike +Mayfield’s program titled Super Star Trek. It’s virtually identical to +the original game. However, the menus accept 3 letter mnemonics instead +of numbers. The computer offers a few more options. And, just for fun, +each quadrant has a name. With those ideas in mind, I decided to code my +own version of the game. I began by digging up some ancient ASCII art... + +``` + ______ _______ ______ ______ _______ ______ ______ __ __ + / __ //__ __// __ // __ / /__ __// __ / / ____// / / / + / / /_/ / / / /_/ // /_/ / / / / /_/ / / /__ / // / + _\ \ / / / __ // __/ / / / __/ / __ / / / + / /_/ / / / / / / // /\ \ / / / /\ \ / /___ / /\ \ + /_____/ /_/ /_/ /_//_/ \_\ /_/ /_/ \_\/_____//_/ \_\ + + ________________ _ + \__(=======/_=_/____.--'-`--.___ + \ \ `,--,-.___.----' + .--`\\--'../ + '---._____.|] + +Mission: Destroy 20 Klingon ships in 46 stardates with 3 starbases. + +Enter command: + +--- Commands ----------------- +nav = Navigation +srs = Short Range Scan +lrs = Long Range Scan +pha = Phaser Control +tor = Photon Torpedo Control +she = Shield Control +com = Access Computer + +Enter command: srs + +-=--=--=--=--=--=--=--=- Region: Altair IV + Quadrant: [2,5] + * Sector: [1,6] + Stardate: 2287 + * Time remaining: 46 + Condition: GREEN +<*> Energy: 3000 + Shields: 0 + * Photon Torpedoes: 10 +-=--=--=--=--=--=--=--=- Docked: False + +Enter command: lrs + +------------------- +| 117 | 118 | 004 | +------------------- +| 006 | 003 | 008 | +------------------- +| 004 | 001 | 115 | +------------------- + +Enter command: nav + +Enter course (1.0--9.0): 3 +Enter warp factor (0.1--8): 1 + +Warp engines engaged. + +-=--=--=--=--=--=--=--=- Region: Risa + * * Quadrant: [2,4] + Sector: [1,6] + +++ * * Stardate: 2288 + * Time remaining: 45 +>!< Condition: RED +<*> * Energy: 3000 + Shields: 0 + * * Photon Torpedoes: 10 +-=--=--=--=--=--=--=--=- Docked: True + +Condition RED: Klingon ship detected. + +Lowering shields as part of docking sequence... +Enterprise successfully docked with starbase. + +Enter command: pha + +Phasers locked on target. +Enter phaser energy (1--3000): 500 + +Firing phasers... +Hit ship at sector [5,3]. Klingon shield strength dropped to 206. + +Enterprise hit by ship at sector [5,3]. No damage due to starbase shields. + +Enter command: pha + +Phasers locked on target. +Enter phaser energy (1--2500): 500 + +Firing phasers... +Klingon ship destroyed at sector [5,3]. + +Enter command: srs + +-=--=--=--=--=--=--=--=- Region: Risa + * * Quadrant: [2,4] + Sector: [1,6] + * * Stardate: 2288 + * Time remaining: 45 +>!< Condition: GREEN +<*> * Energy: 2000 + Shields: 0 + * * Photon Torpedoes: 10 +-=--=--=--=--=--=--=--=- Docked: True + +Enter command: +``` + +There are many subtle nuances in the original game. How often do +different parts of the Enterprise malfunction? How and when do photon +torpedoes randomly deviate from their specified targets? And so on. It +doesn’t really matter. As I said above, this is the kind of game that +deserves to be reinvented everytime it trades hands. The exact +parameters of the Star Trek universe are up to the coder. For example, +in my version, different parts of the Enterprise malfunction depending +on how often you use them. If you rely on the computer for targeting +Klingon ships too much, the computer will start to fail. + +Rewriting the game brought up an interesting aspect of the BASIC +version. Targeting is done using polar coordinates, but you won’t find +any trigonometric functions in the BASIC code. I assume the functions +were unavailable. Instead, the angle is converted into a direction +vector using different ratios that approximate the trigonometric +functions. That means even if you worked out perfect targeting using +trigonometry, when you entered in the angle, the actual trajectory will +be slightly off. Nonetheless, it’s a pretty clever math trick. As for +me, I took advantage of `Math.Sin()` and `Math.Cos()`. + +Finally, if you’re ready to enter the ASCII Star Trek universe and save +the Federation from attacking Klingon plus-signs, download the attached +source code. + +## References + + - Star Trek Game History: + + - Wiki: + - Mike Mayfield’s Original Code: + + - Enhanced Version: + - Super Star Trek: + diff --git a/_stories/2008/763491.md b/_stories/2008/763491.md index 3a8a59c..a7d1784 100644 --- a/_stories/2008/763491.md +++ b/_stories/2008/763491.md @@ -19,7 +19,110 @@ _tags: objectID: '763491' --- -[Source](https://gizmodo.com/343641/1960s-braun-products-hold-the-secrets-to-apples-future "Permalink to ") +![](https://i.kinja-img.com/gawker-media/image/upload/s--60zViWq_--/c_fit,fl_progressive,q_80,w_320/17id76bz1jgwnjpg.jpg) +The year 2008 marks the 10th Anniversary of the iMac, the computer that +changed everything at Apple, hailing a new design era spearheaded by +design genius Jonathan Ive. What most people don't know is that there's +another man whose products are at the heart of Ive's design philosophy, +an influence that permeates every single product at Apple, from hardware +to [user-interface +design](http://gizmodo.com/gadgets/great-artists-steal/is-that-a-braun-et44-in-your-iphone-280925.php). +That man is Dieter Rams, and his old designs for Braun during the '50s +and '60s hold all the clues not only for past and present Apple +products, but their future as well: +When you look at the Braun products by Dieter Rams—many of them at New +York's MoMA—and compare them to Ive's work at Apple, you can clearly see +the similarities in their philosophies way beyond the sparse use of +color, the selection of materials and how the products are shaped around +the function with no artificial design, keeping the design "honest." +This passion for "simplicity" and "honest design" that is always +declared by Ive whenever he's interviewed or appears in a promo video, +is at the core of Dieter Rams' 10 principles for good design: + +• Good design is innovative. + +• Good design makes a product useful. + +• Good design is aesthetic. + +• Good design helps us to understand a product. + +• Good design is unobtrusive. + +• Good design is honest. + +• Good design is durable. + +• Good design is consequent to the last detail. + +• Good design is concerned with the environment. + +• Good design is as little design as possible. + +Advertisement + +Ive's inspiration on Rams' design principles goes beyond the philosophy +and gets straight into a direct homage to real products created decades +ago. Amazing pieces of industrial design that still today remain fresh, +true classics that have survived the test of time. + +The similarities between products from Braun and Apple are sometimes +uncanny, others more subtle, but there's always a common root that +provides the new Apple objects not only with a beautiful simplicity but +also with a close +familiarity. + +![](data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAAAAACH5BAEKAAEALAAAAAABAAEAAAICTAEAOw==) + +Advertisement + +**Braun Atelier TV and latest iMac +24.** + +![](data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAAAAACH5BAEKAAEALAAAAAABAAEAAAICTAEAOw==) + +**Braun T1000 radio and PowerMac G5/Mac +Pro.** + +![](data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAAAAACH5BAEKAAEALAAAAAABAAEAAAICTAEAOw==) + +Advertisement + +**Detail of the radio perforated aluminum +surface.** + +![](data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAAAAACH5BAEKAAEALAAAAAABAAEAAAICTAEAOw==) + +**Braun T3 pocket radio and Apple +iPod.** + +![](data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAAAAACH5BAEKAAEALAAAAAABAAEAAAICTAEAOw==) + +Advertisement + +**Braun L60 sound system and Apple iPod +Hi-Fi.** + +![](data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAAAAACH5BAEKAAEALAAAAAABAAEAAAICTAEAOw==) + +**Braun LE1 speaker and Apple iMac.** + +Some people will probably call these examples a "rip-off" but, in a +world where industrial design and art are constantly being recycled into +new work, I just see Apple's products as a great evolution to classic +concepts. Now, as I look at Rams' work I can't help but to wonder: which +of these old Braun designs will Apple revive next? Is there a MacBook +Air—the rumored ultra-slim wire-free portable that seems to be the +favorite bet for tomorrow's keynote—in there? + +Advertisement + +Hopefully, we'll discover at least some answers tomorrow. See you at +Macworld\! \[[Design +Museum](http://www.designmuseum.org/design/dieter-rams), [Dieter +Rams](http://www.io.tudelft.nl/public/vdm/fda/rams/rams801.htm) and [O +Globo +Online](http://oglobo.globo.com/blogs/mac/post.asp?cod_Post=86062)\] diff --git a/_stories/2008/8026420.md b/_stories/2008/8026420.md deleted file mode 100644 index 2a2a12a..0000000 --- a/_stories/2008/8026420.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,25 +0,0 @@ ---- -created_at: '2014-07-13T02:17:14.000Z' -title: Microkernels vs. hypervisors (2008) -url: http://www.ok-labs.com/blog/entry/microkernels-vs-hypervisors/ -author: s-phi-nl -points: 54 -story_text: '' -comment_text: -num_comments: 9 -story_id: -story_title: -story_url: -parent_id: -created_at_i: 1405217834 -_tags: -- story -- author_s-phi-nl -- story_8026420 -objectID: '8026420' - ---- -[Source](http://www.ok-labs.com/blog/entry/microkernels-vs-hypervisors/ "Permalink to ") - - - diff --git a/_stories/2008/8065417.md b/_stories/2008/8065417.md index 4e80100..4bd7ffc 100644 --- a/_stories/2008/8065417.md +++ b/_stories/2008/8065417.md @@ -19,7 +19,1033 @@ _tags: objectID: '8065417' --- -[Source](https://www.wired.com/science/discoveries/magazine/16-03/ff_seacowboys?currentPage=all "Permalink to ") +![](https://www.wired.com/wp-content/uploads/archive/images/article/magazine/1603/ff_titan_f.jpg) +The Cougar Ace lists at a precarious angle in Wide Bay, Alaska. Photo: +Courtesy of US Coast Guard **Latitude 48° 14 North. Longitude 174° 26 +West.** +Almost midnight on the North Pacific, about 230 miles south of Alaska's +Aleutian Islands. A heavy fog blankets the sea. There's nothing but the +wind spinning eddies through the mist. +Out of the darkness, a rumble grows. The water begins to vibrate. +Suddenly, the prow of a massive ship splits the fog. Its steel hull +rises seven stories above the water and stretches two football fields +back into the night. A 15,683-horsepower engine roars through the holds, +pushing 55,328 tons of steel. Crisp white capital letters — COUGAR ACE — +spell the ship's name above the ocean froth. A deep-sea car transport, +its 14 decks are packed with 4,703 new Mazdas bound for North America. +Estimated cargo value: $103 million. +On the bridge and belowdecks, the captain and crew begin the intricate +process of releasing water from the ship's ballast tanks in preparation +for entry into US territorial waters. They took on the water in Japan to +keep the ship steady, but US rules require that it be dumped here to +prevent contaminating American marine environments. It's a tricky +procedure. To maintain stability and equilibrium, the ballast tanks need +to be drained of foreign water and simultaneously refilled with local +water. The bridge gives the go-ahead to commence the operation, and a +ship engineer uses a hydraulic-powered system to open the starboard tank +valves. Water gushes out one side of the ship and pours into the ocean. +It's July 23, 2006. +In the crew's quarters below the bridge, Saw "Lucky" Kyin, the ship's +41-year-old Burmese steward, rinses off in the common shower. The ship +rolls underneath his feet. He's been at sea for long stretches of the +past six years. In his experience, when a ship rolls to one side, it +generally rolls right back the other way. + +This time it doesn't. Instead, the tilt increases. For some reason, the +starboard ballast tanks have failed to refill properly, and the ship has +abruptly lost its balance. At the worst possible moment, a large swell +hits the Cougar Ace and rolls the ship even farther to port. Objects +begin to slide across the deck. They pick up momentum and crash against +the port-side walls as the ship dips farther. Wedged naked in the shower +stall, Kyin is confronted by an undeniable fact: The Cougar Ace is +capsizing. + +He lunges for a towel and staggers into the hallway as the ship's +windmill-sized propeller spins out of the water. Throughout the ship, +the other 22 crew members begin to lose their footing as the decks rear +up. There are shouts and screams. Kyin escapes through a door into the +damp night air. He's barefoot and dripping wet, and the deck is now a +slick metal ramp. In an instant, he's skidding down the slope toward the +Pacific. He slams into the railings and his left leg snaps, bone +puncturing skin. He's now draped naked and bleeding on the railing, +which has dipped to within feet of the frigid ocean. The deck towers 105 +feet above him like a giant wave about to break. Kyin starts to pray. + +**Jackson Hole, Wyoming, 4 am.** +A phone rings. Rich Habib opens his eyes and blinks in the darkness. He +reaches for the phone, disturbing a pair of dogs cuddled around him. He +was going to take them to the river for a swim today. Now the sound of +his phone means that somewhere, somehow, a ship is going down, and he's +going to have to get out of bed and go save it. + +It always starts like this. Last Christmas Day, an 835-foot container +vessel ran aground in Ensenada, Mexico. The phone rang, he hopped on a +plane, and was soon on a Jet Ski pounding his way through the Baja surf. +The ship had run aground on a beach while loaded with approximately +1,800 containers. He had to rustle up a Sikorsky Skycrane — one of the +world's most powerful helicopters — to offload the +cargo. + +![](https://www.wired.com/wp-content/uploads/archive/images/article/magazine/1603/ff_seacowboys_rich_habib.jpg)Rich +Habib, Senior Salvage Master +Photo: Andrew HetheringtonShip captains spend their careers trying to +avoid a collision or grounding like this. But for Habib, nearly every +month brings a welcome disaster. While people are shouting "Abandon +ship\!" Habib is scrambling aboard. He's been at sea since he was 18, +and now, at 51, his tanned face, square jaw, and +don't-even-try-bullshitting-me stare convey a world-weary air of +command. He holds an unlimited master's license, which means he's one of +the select few who are qualified to pilot ships of any size, anywhere in +the world. He spent his early years captaining hulking vessels that +lifted other ships on board and hauled them across oceans. He helped the +Navy transport a nuclear refueling facility from California to Hawaii. +Now he's the senior salvage master — the guy who runs the show at sea — +for Titan Salvage, a highly specialized outfit of men who race around +the world saving ships. + +They're a motley mix: American, British, Swedish, Panamanian. Each has a +specialty — deep-sea diving, computer modeling, underwater welding, +big-engine repair. And then there's Habib, the guy who regularly +helicopters onto the deck of a sinking ship, greets whatever crew is +left, and takes command of the stricken +vessel. + +![](https://www.wired.com/wp-content/uploads/archive/images/article/magazine/1603/ff_seacowboys_shipdiagram.jpg)\#\#\# +The Cougar Ace + +**Length:** 654 feet +**Weight:** 55,328 tons +**Decks:** 14 +**Max stowage capacity:** 5,542 cars +**Ballast:** 11 stabilization tanks (teal) +**Crew on July 23, 2006:** 23 + +Salvage work has long been viewed as a form of legal piracy. The +insurers of a disabled ship with valuable cargo will offer from 10 to 70 +percent of the value of the ship and its cargo to anyone who can save +it. If the salvage effort fails, they don't pay a dime. It's a risky +business: As ships have gotten bigger and cargo more valuable, the +expertise and resources required to mount a salvage effort have steadily +increased. When a job went bad in 2004, Titan ended up with little more +than the ship's bell as a souvenir. Around the company's headquarters in +Fort Lauderdale, Florida, it's known as the $11.6 million bell. + +But the rewards have grown as well. When the Titan team refloated that +container ship in Mexico, the company was offered $30 million, and it's +holding out for more. That kind of money finances staging grounds in +southern Florida, England, and Singapore and pays the salaries of 45 +employees who drive Lotuses, BMWs, and muscle cars tricked out with loud +aftermarket DynoMax exhaust systems. There's also a wall at Titan +headquarters with a row of photos of the men who died on the job. Three +have been killed in the past three years. + +Titan's biggest competitors are Dutch firms, which have dominated the +business for at least a century due in part to the pumping expertise +they developed to keep their low-lying lands dry. But 20 years ago, a +couple of yacht brokers in southern Florida — David Parrot and Dick +Fairbanks — got fed up dealing with crazy, rich clients and decided that +saving sinking ships would be more fun. They didn't really know much +about the salvage business but thought that the Dutch companies had come +to rely too much on heavy machinery. When a ship was in distress, the +Dutch firms invariably wanted to use their impressive fleet of tugs and +heavy-lift cranes. Fairbanks envisioned a different kind of salvage +company — one with no tugs or cranes of its own. Instead, the new outfit +would buy jet-ready containers for pumps and generators, and when a ship +called for help the Titan team would charter anything from a Learjet to +a 747, fly it to the airport nearest the ship, and then hire a speedboat +or a helicopter to get a team aboard. If they needed a tug, they'd rent +one. + +Titan's business plan hinged on the idea that ships could be saved by +human ingenuity, not horsepower, and the company's unconventional +approach worked. When a container ship ran aground in a remote part of +Iceland in the mid-'90s, the Dutch wanted to bring in their cranes. +Titan jury-rigged the ship's own 198-ton cranes and used those instead — +no long-distance transport needed. In 1992, a freighter sank alongside a +dock in Dunkirk, France. Again, the Dutch called for cranes, but Titan +won the contract by proposing a novel approach: It hired a naval +architect to create a computer model of the ship. The model indicated +that the vessel would float again if water was pumped out of the holds +in a specific sequence. Titan put the plan into action using a few +crates of relatively inexpensive pumps; the ship bobbed to the surface +as if by magic. Since then, a naval architect capable of rapidly +building digital 3-D ship models has been a key member of the Titan +team. + +Jolted awake in Wyoming, Habib pushes himself out of bed. His dogs +cluster around him. He gives Beauregard a scratch behind the ear. +Clearly the dogs want to go along, but he'll need a little more help +than they can give. It's time to mobilize the Titan A-team. + +**Seattle, Washington. Breezy, warm.** +Marty Johnson zips through the traffic in his black BMW Z3 convertible. +He's wearing shades, and though he just turned 40 he has a boyish look +that suits the car. But the cool-guy persona has its limits. He just +learned how to drive a stick shift, so he takes the long way around town +to avoid hills. He is actually a shy naval architect who likes to +discuss the early history of J. R. R. Tolkien's Middle-earth and certain +aspects of particle physics. But he has a taste for fast cars and the +money to buy them, thanks to an unusual ability to build digital models +of ships. + +Since graduating first in his class from New York's Webb Institute, a +preeminent undergraduate naval architecture school, Johnson has traveled +the world with his laptop, building 3-D models and helping refloat +sunken things. He was on the team that recovered the Japanese fishing +trawler sunk by a US submarine off Hawaii in 2001, and he oversaw a +system to lift a submerged F-14 from 220 feet of water near San Diego in +2004. In his free time, he wins boat races in which the skippers build +their vessels from scratch in six hours or less. + +But so far, Johnson has refloated only vessels that are already sunk. +Most days, he's cooped up in an office at the port, waiting for +something exciting to happen. His skills don't go to waste — he's +particularly well known for designing a 76-foot tugboat able to navigate +rivers as shallow as 3 feet. But Johnson wants more; he wants to be one +of those guys who drops onto the deck of a sinking ship and saves the +day. + +He's about to get his chance. His office calls: Rich Habib wants him on +a salvage job for the history books — one Johnson might have missed if +not for a lucky break. Habib's usual 3-D modeler, Phil Reed, is visiting +his in-laws in Chicago, and his wife won't let him go to Alaska. He +recommends Johnson, who has worked with Habib once +before. + +![](https://www.wired.com/wp-content/uploads/archive/images/article/magazine/1603/ff_seacowboys_p2.jpg) +Photo: Courtesy of US Coast GuardThe job is daunting: Board the Cougar +Ace with the team and build an on-the-fly digital replica of the ship. +The car carrier has 33 tanks containing fuel, freshwater, and ballast. +The amount of fluid in each tank affects the way the ship moves at sea, +as does the weight and placement of the cargo. It's a complex system +when the ship is upright and undamaged. When the cargo holds take on +seawater or the ship rolls off-center — both of which have occurred — +the vessel becomes an intricate, floating puzzle. + +Johnson will have to unravel the complexity. He'll rely on ship diagrams +and his own onboard measurements to re-create the vessel using an +obscure maritime modeling software known as GHS — General HydroStatics. +The model will allow him to simulate and test what will happen as water +is transferred from tank to tank in an effort to use the weight of the +liquid to roll the ship upright. If the model isn't accurate, the +operation could end up sinking the ship. + +Habib thinks Johnson is up to the task. In 2004 they worked together on +a partially sunken passenger ferry near Sitka, Alaska. The hull was +gashed open on a rock — water had flooded in everywhere. The US Coast +Guard safety officer told Habib and Johnson to get off the ship, saying +it was about to sink completely. It was too dangerous. + +Habib refused. His point of view: It was his ship now, and he would do +what he wanted. The safety officer reprimanded Habib and told him that +no ship was worth "even the tip of your pinky." + +Habib smiled. Insurance lawyers have calculated the value of a pinky — +$14,000, tops — and that's far less than the value of a modern +commercial vessel. + +Johnson told the Coast Guard not to worry; the ferry would be floating +again in three days at exactly 10:36 in the morning. The Coast Guard was +skeptical but, three days later, as the tide peaked at 10:36 am, the +ferry bobbed up and floated off the rock. It was a rush to be that +right. + +So when he gets the message inviting him to join the team headed to the +Cougar Ace, his only question is "When do we leave?" + +**Trinidad and Tobago. Offshore.** +And if I say to you tomorrow, take my hand child come with me. The +languid sound of Led Zeppelin's "What Is and What Should Never Be" +drifts across the Caribbean. A 24-foot fishing boat lolls in the blue +waters, the stereo cranked up in the wheelhouse. It's to a castle I will +take you, where what's to be they say will be. The island of Trinidad — +lush, green, rugged — is just off the port bow. A few beers remain in +the bottom of the boat's 98-can cooler, and a bottle of Guyanese rum +sloshes about on the floorboards. On the back deck, a fishing pole +droops lazily from the densely tattooed arm of Colin Trepte: boat owner, +rum drinker, and deep-sea diver who's always ready with a roguish grin +for the ladies. + +Trepte loves days like this — mid-80s, a couple of snapper in the +bucket, and the sun warm on his face. A sign in the wheelhouse states +"This is My Ship, and I'll Do as I Damn Please." A silver skull dangles +from a loop on his left +ear. + +![](https://www.wired.com/wp-content/uploads/archive/images/article/magazine/1603/ff_seacowboys_colin_trepte.jpg)Colin +Trepte, Lead Salvage Diver +Photo: Andrew Hetherington Trepte's youth in the east end of London +seems a long way off. The tattoos tell the story: The naked, +big-breasted woman on his forearm stares at a demon etched in Puerto +Rico, where a cargo ship ran aground. The dragon on his shoulder is from +Iceland, where he cut a grounded freighter into pieces. Some of the +designs have only been outlined — a crystal ball on his back remains +deliberately empty. It represents the fact that, as a Titan salvage +diver, he never knows when the phone will ring. And when it does, he +could be bound for Eritrea or Tierra del Fuego, and the only real +question is which bag to bring — cold weather or warm. Both are packed, +waiting ashore in his bungalow outside Port of Spain on Trinidad. + +His cell rings. It's Habib. Trepte sighs. All good days must come to an +end. + +"Cold weather or warm, mate?" Trepte +asks. + +![](https://www.wired.com/wp-content/uploads/archive/images/article/magazine/1603/ff_seacowboys_p4.jpg) +Photo: Courtesy of US Coast Guard**North Pacific. July 25, 2006.** +In the hours since the Cougar Ace rolled, the Coast Guard and Air +National Guard have scrambled three helicopters from Anchorage and, in a +daring rescue effort, plucked the entire 23-man crew off the ship. Nyi +Nyi Tun, the ship's captain, has ordered his crew to stay mum on the +cause of the accident, and Mitsui O.S.K. Lines — the ship's owners — +have declined to offer a detailed explanation. Because the incident +occurred in international waters, the Coast Guard has decided not to +investigate any further. Only Lucky Kyin talked that night. He was +whisked to an Anchorage hospital, where a reporter from the Anchorage +Daily News asked him how he felt. His answer: "The whole body is pain." +As to the cause of the accident, all Kyin will offer is that it +interrupted his shower. + +[Rich Habib's journal, July 24, +Monday](https://www.wired.com/science/discoveries/magazine/16-03/ff_seacowboys_journal#July24) +The phone wakes Rich Habib at 4 am in Jackson Hole on July 24. The +Cougar Ace has flipped, and he begins mobilizing the Titan team. Right +now, it doesn't really matter how it happened. What matters is that the +Cougar Ace has become a multimillion-dollar ghost ship drifting toward +the rocky shoals of the Aleutian Islands. What's worse, according to the +crew, the ship is taking on water. The Coast Guard alone doesn't have +the capability or expertise to handle this kind of emergency, and +officials fear that the ship will sink or break up on shore. Either way, +the cars would be lost, and the 176,366 gallons of fuel in the ship's +tanks would threaten the area's wildlife and fishing grounds. Mazda, +Mitsui, and their insurers would take a massive hit. + +At first, executives at Mitsui seem to think the ship is a lost cause. +They contact Titan, but then they wait for about 24 hours, apparently +under the impression that the vessel will go down before anybody can +save it. When they realize that it will stay afloat long enough to break +up on the shore of the Aleutians, they agree to sign what's known as a +Lloyd's Open Form agreement. It's a so-called no-cure, no-pay +arrangement. If Titan doesn't save the ship, it doesn't get paid. But if +it succeeds, its compensation is based on the value of the ship and the +cargo — in this case, a still-to-be-calculated fortune. + +With the deal done, Titan charters a Conquest turboprop out of +Anchorage. The propellers sputter to life. The Titan crew buckles in for +the three-and-a-half-hour journey to Dutch Harbor, a small fishing town +about 800 miles west of Anchorage on the Aleutian +chain. + +![](https://www.wired.com/wp-content/uploads/archive/images/article/magazine/1603/ff_seacowboys_hank_bergman.jpg)Hank +Bergman, Salvage Engineer +Photo: Andrew Hetherington But before they take off, a final member of +the team hops on. It's Titan mechanic Hank Bergman, the Swedish cowboy. +As a young man in a small town in Sweden, Bergman inexplicably developed +an affinity for Hank Williams and fantasized about the American West. He +took a job as a ship engineer to get out of Sweden and soon built a +reputation as a man who could fix anything, no matter how big. He has +been with Titan since its beginning; as a result, he's had the money to +buy land in Durango, Colorado, stock his 864-square-foot garage with two +Jeeps and a classic Mercedes-Benz 560SL, and play cowboy whenever he +wants. Now he boards the small plane wearing his trademark black leather +cowboy boots and says hello to everyone in his pronounced Swedish +accent. + +**The team — Habib, Johnson, Trepte, and Bergman** — arrives in Dutch +Harbor and heads out to sea at top speed aboard the Makushin Bay, a +130-foot ship readied for salvage work. It's stacked with generators, +steel-cutting equipment, machining tools, and salvage pumps that can +remove water from the ship or transfer it from one hold to another. +Johnson's laptop is loaded with GHS, and he begins building a rough +model of the ship based on photographs and diagrams emailed from the +owners. + +![](https://www.wired.com/wp-content/uploads/archive/images/article/magazine/1603/ff_seacowboys_p5.jpg) +Photo: Courtesy of Titan SalvageAfter more than a day of full-speed +motoring through the North Pacific, the Titan team spies the Cougar Ace. +At first, it's only a sharp rise on the horizon. But as the Makushin Bay +approaches, the scale of the ship dwarfs the salvage vessel. In the +distance, a 378-foot Coast Guard cutter — complete with helicopter and +76-mm cannon — looks puny compared with the car carrier. It's as if the +men have gone through some kind of black hole and emerged as miniatures +in a new and damaged world. The Cougar Ace lies on its side, its +enormous red belly exposed to the smaller boats around it. The propeller +floats eerily out of the water, the rudder flopped hard to port in the +air. + +[Rich Habib's journal, July 29, +Saturday](https://www.wired.com/science/discoveries/magazine/16-03/ff_seacowboys_journal#July29) +The Titan advance team arrives at the Cougar Ace. "Holy fuck," Trepte +mutters. + +Six hours later, an HH-65 Coast Guard helicopter flies the team to the +ship and lowers the guys one by one onto the tilted deck in a steel +basket. Dan Magone, the owner of the Makushin Bay, comes with them. He's +a local salvage master himself and an expert on the region's currents, +tides, weather, and shoals. He has spent more than 27 years saving +fishing boats in the area and is along as an adviser to, in his words, +"the big shots." + +The ship is rocking, but the sea is calm, and Habib thinks it's holding +steady at a list of about 60 degrees. Titan's first mission: hunt for +water on board. Johnson needs to know exactly how much water is sloshing +around the cargo holds so he can input the data into the digital model +he's constructing. + +Habib unloads coils of rope from his backpack. Descending into the +sharply tilted ship will require mountaineering skills. Fortunately, +Habib knows what he's doing: He once scaled a 2,300-foot frozen +waterfall and recalls with fondness summiting a notoriously difficult +peak in the Canadian Rockies. On the way down, he was attacked by a +wolf. The faded scar makes him chuckle. Maybe the mountain adventures +put things in perspective. After all, this is just a giant sideways ship +floating loose in the Pacific, not a deranged wolf on his back. + +The guys click their LED headlamps on. The generators have gone dead, +and it'll be pitch-dark below. The ship's thick steel sidewalls block +radio reception, so once the men are below they won't be able to +communicate with the outside world. All they'll have is each +other. + +[![](https://www.wired.com/wp-content/uploads/archive/images/article/magazine/1603/ff_seacowboys_p5_2.jpg)](https://www.wired.com/science/discoveries/magazine/16-03/#) +Photo: US Coast Guard **Deep within the ship,** the men dangle on ropes +inside an angled staircase and peer through a doorway into the +number-nine cargo deck. Their lights partially illuminate hundreds of +cars tilted on their side, sloping down into the darkness. Each is +cinched to the deck by four white nylon straps. Periodically a large +swell rolls the ship, straining the straps. A chorus of creaks echoes +through the hold. Then, as the ship rolls back, the hold falls silent. +It's a cold, claustrophobic nightmare slicked with trickling engine oil +and transmission fluid. Trepte lowers a rope and eases into the +darkness. + +Everyone is wearing a harness with two carabiners attached to short +straps. They've tied loops every few feet into some of their ropes, +creating a series of descending handholds. Like rock climbers rappelling +in slow motion, they back down the steep deck, lowering themselves one +looped handhold at a time. Habib tells them to always keep one carabiner +attached to a loop in the rope; that way, if they fall, the rope will +save them. + +They reach the middle of the deck. There's a ramp built into the side of +the hull at this level — it's for driving cars on and off the ship. Now +a good deal of the ramp's exterior is about 25 feet underwater. It's got +a thick rubber seal, but it wasn't designed to take the pressure of +submersion. Habib thinks it might be leaking. + +Sure enough, as they descend farther, Trepte sees green water with a +sheen of oil. The water is about 8 feet deep and runs the length of the +compartment — dozens of new Mazdas can be seen beneath the murky surface +like drowning victims. It means the seal has been compromised. It's +leaking slowly and could fail completely at any moment. If that +happened, seawater would fill the deck in a matter of minutes and drown +them all. But Habib figures that since it has lasted this long, it's +probably OK for now. + +![Navigating the +Ship](https://www.wired.com/wp-content/uploads/archive/images/article/magazine/1603/ff_seacowboys_navigating.jpg)**Navigating +the Ship** +When the Titan Salvage crew first boarded the Cougar Ace, they needed to +determine the extent of flooding in the holds. To get there, the men had +to climb using ropes and harnesses. The mission, step-by-step: + +**1.** Airlift to the ship on an HH-65 Coast Guard helicopter. +**2.** Use ropes to descend through a tilted stairwell. +**3.** Open the access hatch to the ninth deck and rappel past hundreds +of Mazdas. +**4.** Survey the flooding and retrace the route back to the surface of +the ship. +**5.** Shimmy along the top side to the rear of the ship, then climb a +ladder to the back-deck opening. +**6.** Use ropes to descend the back desk. From the low side, jump onto +a support boat. + +Trepte measures the dimensions of the wedge of water in the hold using a +metal weight and string and shouts out the numbers. While Johnson does +some trigonometry on a small pad of paper, Habib accidentally steps on +one of the straps securing a car, and the Mazda lurches downward with a +screech. Trepte looks up with a start and realizes that he's at the +bottom of a suspended automotive avalanche. Dozens of cars hang over his +head. If one broke its straps, it would trigger a domino effect, sending +a pile of Mazdas down on top of him. + +"Ay, mate, try not to kill me down here, won't ya?" Trepte shouts up to +Habib. + +"Rog-o," echoes the response from the shadows. + +Johnson finishes his calculations — the wedge of water weighs 1,026 +tons, part of the weight keeping the ship pinned on its side. They will +have to pump this water overboard and then fill the high-side tanks to +add enough ballast to bring the ship back to an even keel. According to +Johnson's preliminary computer simulations, pumping 160.9 tons into the +starboard-side tanks will do the trick. But the model shows that any +more than that may roll them all the way over to the other side. + +"You're talking about a flop?" Habib asks. + +"That's what I'm saying," Johnson replies. + +The situation is more precarious than Habib had thought. If they +overfill the high-side starboard tanks, the Cougar Ace will roll back to +normal — but then keep going, potentially in a matter of seconds. +Everybody on board would be catapulted from one side of the ship to the +other, and the car straps could snap. If the cars were to pile up on one +side, the added weight would create even more momentum, causing the ship +to roll upside down and sink. + +To avoid that, they need to pump a precise amount of water. It's +Johnson's job to figure out exactly how much. In an ideal world, he +would plug in data for the position and weight of all the cars and the +amount of liquid in each of the ship's 33 tanks and 14 decks. +Unfortunately, there's not enough time to collect all that information. +He'll have to do some guessing and hope his instincts are good. + +**It's getting dark** by the time they emerge from inside the ship — +they were down for more than three hours — and Habib decides not to ask +the Coast Guard to pull them off by helicopter. It would be risky in the +twilight. Given the calm sea, he figures they can make their way to the +back deck of the ship and jump from the low port side onto the Makushin +Bay. + +But when they reach the back and take stock of the situation, it doesn't +seem that simple. If the deck were flat, they could just walk straight +across. But now it's a 105-foot metallic cliff dotted with keg-sized +steel bollards. If one of the guys were to slip when not clipped in to a +rope, no amount of clawing on the hard surface would arrest his slide. +He would rocket down the 60-degree incline with only the blunt steel of +the bollards to break his fall. + +What's worse, the automated fire-prevention system vents onto the deck. +Since the generators have been down for days, the system's chilled +liquid carbon dioxide is warming and expanding. Every few minutes, the +oxygen-snuffing chemical explodes out of the vent in a raging, +negative-110-degree cloud. Direct exposure could cause frostbite and +even suffocation. Habib has tested the area with an oxygen monitor, and +despite the deafening white clouds of gas that periodically explode +across the deck he assures everyone that there's plenty of fresh, +breathable air. + +Still, the situation makes Johnson nervous. He's standing on the side of +a giant winch 25 feet above the vent. He'll have to climb through the +blast area to get off the ship, and his backpack is stuffed with 30 +pounds of gear. It's going to be difficult to move down the looped lines +with that extra, cumbersome weight. + +Magone is anxious to get off the ship before nightfall makes it too +difficult to jump onto the Makushin Bay. He begins to back down the +deck, followed by Trepte and Bergman. The carbon dioxide explodes out of +the vent, raining down slivers of dry ice. They pause to shield their +faces and then keep descending. + +Johnson's nervousness mounts, and he stays put. He tells Habib that his +backpack is bothering him. Habib offers to climb back up to the +helicopter drop zone — there's extra rope there, which he can use to +lower the backpack. While Johnson twists his way out of the pack, Habib +heads back up toward the drop zone. + +When he reaches the lower end of the deck, Magone looks up and sees that +Johnson still hasn't started his descent. "What's taking him so long," +Magone wonders. "Ready for the next guy\!" he shouts. + +A moment passes, and suddenly Johnson is hurtling down. He blurs past +Bergman, screaming. Johnson is falling, and he isn't clipped in to +anything. His body ricochets off a steel stanchion, sending him into an +uncontrollable spin. He plunges upside down past Trepte. Nobody has time +to react — in little more than a second, he has fallen 80 feet and his +head smashes into a winch, with a sickening thud. His face smacks the +metal, ripping a deep laceration in his forehead. Water sloshes just +below him. Blood drips into it. + +"Shit, shit, shit\!" Trepte shouts. He steadies himself for a moment, +then radios Habib: "Marty's had a tumble." + +On the top deck, Habib is coiling rope. "A tumble?" he thinks. He keeps +coiling for a few seconds. A tumble's not a big deal — a tumble is like +a slip and a twisted ankle. But then he realizes that a tumble for +someone like Trepte could mean falling out of an airplane with no +parachute. Trepte wouldn't call him unless it's serious, unless Johnson +were truly injured or unconscious. + +"Is he conscious?" Habib radios back, a note of rising fear in his +voice. + +"No," Trepte's voice squawks through the radio. + +Habib hurls the rope down and races back the length of the ship. He +climbs as fast as he can down the looped line through the carbon dioxide +blast zone. Magone has swung over to the winch in the center of the deck +and is struggling to stay in position over Johnson. + +"Is he breathing?" Habib shouts. + +Magone can't tell. Johnson is face down, and Magone is afraid to move +him by himself. Habib swings over on a rope, and together they roll +Johnson face up. His eyes are open, staring straight through Habib. No +blinking. No movement. There's blood everywhere and he doesn't seem to +be breathing, but he has a pulse. He's alive. + +Habib's heart is racing. There's a chance. He starts mouth-to-mouth just +as a boat crashes into the Cougar Ace only feet from Habib and Magone. +It's the Emma Foss, a 101-foot tug whose crew, alerted by the radio +exchange, has come to help. But the collision rips off a piece of the +railing that's supporting Habib. He splashes into the cold water beneath +the winch. In an instant, he muscles himself back up beside Johnson. + +"Let's get him off," Habib shouts. He's thinking, "He can make it. He's +got a pulse." + +A stretcher is passed over from the Emma Foss. The men strap Johnson in +and transfer him to the tug, which takes him to a Coast Guard cutter; +its medical facilities can keep him alive. It's not too late. + +"Come on, Marty," Habib says as they heft the litter back to the tug. +"We're gonna get you out of here. Just hang in a little longer." + +Johnson is hauled aboard the cutter, and the corpsmen establish a radio +connection with their onshore surgeon. Coast Guard medics take over +while Habib and his team jump onto the Makushin Bay and wait nervously +for an hour. At 11 o'clock, the captain of the cutter calls Habib. + +Marty Johnson is dead. + +![How Marty Johnson +Fell](https://www.wired.com/wp-content/uploads/archive/images/article/magazine/1603/ff_seacowboy_marty2_f.jpg)**How +Marty Johnson Fell** +To get off the ship, Johnson and the others on the Titan team made their +way to the back deck, then climbed down the steeply angled surface to +the low side. For Johnson, it was a daunting task — he was inexperienced +as a climber and carrying a pack loaded with 30 pounds of bulky gear. + +**1.** He was standing on the starboard winch. He wasn't clipped in to +his safety rope when he slipped and plummeted down the deck. +**2.** After 20 feet, he struck a bollard and began spinning. +**3.** He tumbled 60 feet more, coming to rest on the port-side winch. + +![Marty +Johnson](https://www.wired.com/wp-content/uploads/archive/images/article/magazine/1603/ff_seacowboy_marty_f.jpg) + +**Through an overcast sky**, the sun dawns faintly the next morning. The +Coast Guard sends a lieutenant to the Makushin Bay to find out what +happened and assess the state of the team. On the surface, Trepte and +Bergman seem fine. Trepte has already moved into Johnson's bunk — "he +won't be needin' it," Trepte says. But a numbness seems to have gripped +Habib. Maybe he should send his team home before any more lives are +lost. Maybe it's time to abandon the Cougar Ace. + +The lieutenant listens as Habib recounts the facts leading up to the +accident: Johnson was standing on the high-side winch. Somehow he +slipped and hadn't been clipped in to a rope. When Habib starts to talk +about trying to save his teammate, about staring into his blank eyes, he +feels a swelling in his throat. He can sense tears coming. Johnson was +one of Habib's guys and was among the nation's best naval architects. +Habib looks away. + +What he sees isn't comforting. The Cougar Ace looms over the Makushin +Bay like a rogue wave on pause. It can't be ignored — it's now 140 miles +from shore, and the weather is expected to deteriorate. Winds of 26 +miles per hour are expected by the next sunrise, and the weather service +predicts 16-foot waves within a few days. The team has to get back on +board and connect a towline to the Cougar Ace, or it will either sink or +be driven ashore. The Coast Guard, the area fishermen, the ship owners, +Mazda — everyone is depending on them, but they're battered, +undermanned, and flying blind without Johnson. Habib makes a decision: +He'll stay. But to see this job through, he needs more help. He makes a +call to headquarters in Florida. + +A Coast Guard ship takes Johnson's body back to Adak, a rugged Aleutian +island with an airstrip. Soon, a twin-propeller plane floats down out of +the sky and stops at the end of the runway. The plane's ramp flips open, +and guys lugging cold-weather gear hustle down to the tarmac. They +glance at the body bag and keep moving. The reinforcements have +arrived. + +![](https://www.wired.com/wp-content/uploads/archive/images/article/magazine/1603/ff_seacowboys_phil_reed.jpg)Phil +Reed, Senior Naval Architect +Photo: Andrew Hetherington Phil Reed — Titan's chief naval architect — +got the go-ahead from his wife and leads the men. In the early '90s, +Reed was one of the first to repurpose naval-architecture software for +use on salvage jobs. Now 48, he's Titan's most senior 3-D modeler — a +sort of geek in residence. But Reed is not a typical nerd. Sure, on +almost every job he's the only guy scampering across the decks with a +laptop, and he absentmindedly taps the tip of his fluorescent +highlighter on his head, leaving yellow streaks across his Titan +baseball cap. But he's also the guy who went into Banda Aceh after the +2004 Indian Ocean tsunami and persuaded the Indonesian military to +protect the Titan team while it hauled away an upside-down 684-foot +cement ship. He can take the heat as well as any guy on the team. + +Two deep-sea divers — Yuri Mayani and Billy Stender — follow Reed. They +look like a rough-and-tumble version of Laurel and Hardy. Mayani is a +foulmouthed, hot-tempered 5'2" Panamanian with rippling muscles. Stender +is a laconic 6'2" Michigan native who spends as much time as he can +living in a trailer in the woods near the Canadian border. Somehow, +these two have become good friends. If they're not on a job, Mayani +hangs out in Michigan, cursing wildly about the cold until Stender gets +enough Pabst Blue Ribbon in him. With Mayani around, Stender can sink +into his natural state of bemused reticence. Anything he's thinking — +whether it's about lining up the next drink or the knockers on that +blonde at the end of the bar — Mayani tends to say first and five times +louder. "We understand each others" is how Mayani puts it. Stender +refers to his friend as "the Panamaniac." + +The Sycamore, the Coast Guard ship that brought Johnson's body ashore, +takes the new guys on board, and they push off for a rendezvous with the +Cougar Ace. Someone from Titan headquarters in Florida calls Habib to +say that Mayani, Stender, and Reed are under way. Habib hopes they'll +arrive before the weather hits. The seas are already getting rougher, +and that can only mean more +trouble. + +![](https://www.wired.com/wp-content/uploads/archive/images/article/magazine/1603/ff_seacowboys_p10.jpg) +Photo: Courtesy of Titan Salvage**At 12:45 am, a fierce rain** and heavy +rolling ocean wakes Habib aboard the Makushin Bay. He asks the captain +of the Emma Foss to use its searchlight to survey the Cougar Ace's low +port-side cargo vents. Normally, these vents release car exhaust from +the deep holds as vehicles are driven on and off the vessel. When the +ship is upright, the vents sit about 70 feet above water and have flaps +to prevent rain from entering. They were never meant to be submerged, +but now the Emma Foss radios back that the high seas are churning to +within 3 feet of the vents. If they go under, seawater will likely push +open the flaps and surge into the ship's holds, sinking the Cougar Ace. + +By noon, Habib fears he's about to lose the ship. The rapidly building +swell is breaking on the port side, driving waves up to the vents. At +the same time, the swell has increased the ship's roll, dipping the +vents toward the waves. Habib's only hope is to tow the ship into the +Bering Sea on the lee side of the Aleutians — something the Coast Guard +wants him to avoid because of the potential risk to the environment. The +Sea Victory — a 150-foot tug — has arrived and managed to lasso a cleat +on the back of the Cougar Ace. The tug's 7,200-horsepower engine has the +strength to pull the ship through the fast currents of the Samalga Pass +and get to the lee side of the islands. If Habib can do that, the land +will act as a shield against the wind and waves. He's got no choice. +It's time to run the gauntlet. + +**Under low-hanging clouds,** the Cougar Ace and its convoy of tugs, +Coast Guard escort, and salvage craft crash through the swell in a mad +dash for the Bering Sea. The Sycamore, bearing Reed, Stender, and +Mayani, has gone full throttle to make this rendezvous, and the guys now +stand on the deck and watch the cursed armada bear down on them. + +Mayani stares at the sideways ship with disbelief. The Cougar Ace looks +like a death trap to him — the crew must have been hit hard. "How many +motherfuckers it died in there?" he asks. + +[Rich Habib's journal, August 3, +Thursday](https://www.wired.com/science/discoveries/magazine/16-03/ff_seacowboys_journal#Aug3) +Habib recounts discussions with Phil Reed regarding the possibility that +the Cougar Ace might flip during the righting operation."One," Stender +says. "Our guy." + +"Trick-Fuck," Mayani spits. He has a lot of respect for Habib but refers +to him as "Trick-Fuck" because Habib is always tricking him into doing +crazy things. And, from where Mayani is standing, this is going to be +the biggest trick-fuck yet. + +It's certainly one of the craziest things Reed has ever seen on the sea. +He boards the Makushin Bay, and Habib grimly hands him Johnson's +computer. Reed agrees with Johnson's assessment — the ship could easily +flop. To decrease that risk, the team needs to make sure that the +largest low-side ballast tank is filled, so it counterbalances any rapid +roll. The crew had reported that they left it half full. This will be +the team's first important task: a journey to the deepest part of the +ship to drill a hole in the tank and fill it all the way. + +To get there, they will have to descend like spelunkers. So Habib orders +his men onto the Redeemer, a 132-foot tug that has joined the operation. +He greets them gruffly and takes hold of a rope hanging from a railing +on the Redeemer's upper deck and begins to climb using a device called +an ascender. They're at the mouth of the Samalga Pass — there's no time +for small talk. + +Mayani looks at Stender out of the corner of his eye and asks him what's +wrong with Habib: "He a fucking monkey now?" + +[Rich Habib's journal, August 6, +Sunday](https://www.wired.com/science/discoveries/magazine/16-03/ff_seacowboys_journal#Aug6) +Titan reinforcements arrive. "Shut up\!" Habib shouts. He explains that +the Cougar Ace has become a labyrinth. Since it's heeled onto one side, +they'll have to learn how to walk on walls and scale the sloping, +perilous decks. Unfortunately, they'll have to learn to do it in the +middle of the ocean. This will be their only chance to practice before +they board the ship. Hopefully, no one else will die. + +While the team trains on the ropes, the tugs haul the Cougar Ace safely +through the pass and into the calm waters of the Bering Sea. The vents +ride higher above the surface — that's one less danger, for the time +being. Now they need to get back aboard. The Emma Foss deposits the +newly expanded team on the low side of the Cougar Ace's back deck, just +a few feet from where Johnson died. + +Reed serves as the navigator through the intricacies of the vessel's +holds — he has spent the past 24 hours memorizing the Cougar Ace's +complex design. But it's one thing to picture the orderly lines of a +blueprint, quite another to traverse the dark confines of a capsized +ship. As a result, Reed is not always sure where they are, and the +darkness fills with a steady stream of Mayani's elaborate Spanish +curses. Nobody wants to get lost inside this thing. + +It takes them almost three hours of rappelling and climbing to descend +to the 13th deck, and when they get there, no one is that excited to +have arrived. This far down, they are well below the waterline. The +Bering Sea presses in on the steel hull. They feel like they're inside +an abandoned submarine. + +Reed and Habib crawl along the tilted deck, periodically consulting a +drawing of the ship's internal compartments. They rap their knuckles on +a piece of steel — this is the top of the low-side ballast tank. Trepte +pulls out a drill and bores down. Suddenly, water erupts. The tank is +already full and pressurized — water must be flowing in through a broken +vent on the underwater side of the ship. It sprays furiously. They have +unwittingly caused the worst thing possible: The deepest cargo hold is +flooding. + +In an instant, Trepte covers the hole with the tip of a finger and +presses hard. The sound of gushing water abruptly stops, and the shouts +and curses of the moment before echo through the hold. Salt water drips +off Mazdas, and the panic the men all felt transforms into a contagious +laugh. + +Trepte is keeping the ship afloat with one finger. + +"Well, I guess the tank is already full," Reed chuckles. + +"Very funny," Trepte says. "Now whyn't some of you smart chaps go figure +out how to fix this bloody mess." + +While Habib races to the Makushin Bay to find a solution, Mayani plugs +the hole with his finger to give Trepte a break. They go back and forth +for an hour and a half before Habib returns with a tapered metal bolt to +jam into the hole. Their fingers took a beating, but now they know that +the tank is full. Reed enters the data into his computer model, runs the +numbers, and tells Habib how much water he needs to pump into the +high-side tanks. It's time to roll the ship. + +**The plan is to position** large pumps throughout the ship and begin +moving liquid in a sort of orchestrated water ballet. Reed has already +choreographed the dance in his GHS model but still hasn't been able to +find a solution that guarantees the ship won't flip. When he runs the +simulation, GHS sometimes shows the ship righting itself, but sometimes +it just keeps rolling until it's belly-up. Then it sinks. + +![Righting the +Ship](https://www.wired.com/wp-content/uploads/archive/images/article/magazine/1603/ff_seacowboys_righttheship.jpg)**Righting +the Ship** +The Titan Salvage crew built a digital model of the Cougar Ace so they +could develop the following plan for shifting water between ballast +tanks (teal) before attempting to right the ship. + +**1.** Position self-contained, diesel-powered pumps on the flooded +ninth deck and suction it dry, dumping water overboard. +**2.** Check water level in the fifth port ballast tank (red) to ensure +adequate counterbalance. Begin filling starboard ballast tank +(yellow). +**3.** Fill the fifth starboard tank with 160.9 tons of seawater to +bring the ship fully upright. + +Habib decides not to worry about that right now and tells Mayani and +Stender to position pumps near the water that has flooded into deck +nine. Though they are both highly trained deep-sea divers, they play +many roles on a salvage job. They can operate cranes, drive bulldozers, +and slice through metal with plasma torches; Stender can even fly a +helicopter. Right now, their role is to lug the 100-pound pumps into +place. Since there are no functioning winches on board, the two men haul +the pumps by hand, using, as Mayani likes to say, a combination of +"man-draulics and the man-crane." + +Mayani is assigned to play pump monkey. Stender ties one rope around his +buddy, a second rope around a pump, and then, using a rock-climbing +belay device, lowers both down the face of deck nine. Mayani hugs the +pump so that it doesn't get banged up on the way down. What happens to +Mayani is another matter. + +"I'm no fucking pinball, motherfucker\!" Mayani shouts as he slams +against walls and cars. Stender likes the pinball reference and starts +calling himself the pinball wizard. + +The shouting brings Habib rappelling down. He shines his headlamp on +Mayani, who — still hugging the pump — is swinging back and forth in an +attempt to build up enough momentum to hop over a column of cars. + +"What are you two doing?" he +asks. + +![](https://www.wired.com/wp-content/uploads/archive/images/article/magazine/1603/ff_seacowboys_yuri_mayani.jpg)Yuri +Mayani, Salvage Diver +Photo: Andrew Hetherington "What the fuck it look like we're doing?" +Mayani shouts. "Stealing cars?" + +"Listen, I don't want any damage," Habib says. "Not even a fingerprint." + +Mayani swings away from the cars with the pump and then back, picking up +more speed than he expected. He smashes into the windshield of a CX-7 +and clobbers the sideview mirror of another. + +"You're coming with me, bitch\!" Mayani screams at the mirror and rips +it clean off. + +Habib shakes his head. + +"Sorry\!" Mayani shouts. "It was either me or the fucking mirror." + +**Once the pumps** are set up, Stender and Mayani explore the ship. +Mayani is on the hunt for some binoculars — he likes to collect mementos +from jobs. He took a bright-yellow plastic radio beacon from the last +ship he helped save and displays it proudly next to the flat-screen TV +in his Florida condo. Sometimes the ship's crew objects, calling the +guys pirates. + +"What the fuck you think we are?" Mayani likes to say. "We look like +yuppies?" + +Luckily, the Cougar Ace is a ghost ship — there's no one to get in their +way. Stender and Mayani make their way to the bridge. There are no ropes +up here, so they're not clipped in to anything. They find a door on the +high side of the bridge, but when Mayani jostles it, it flies open, +throwing him off balance. Stender lunges for him, but Mayani falls +inside and slides down the steeply inclined bridge. As he accelerates, +he grasps for anything and manages to wrap an arm around the captain's +chair 40 feet down, arresting his fall. Amazingly, he sees a pair of +binoculars dangling from the +chair. + +![](https://www.wired.com/wp-content/uploads/archive/images/article/magazine/1603/ff_seacowboys_billy_stender.jpg)Billy +Stender, Salvage Diver +Photo: Andrew Hetherington "Are you OK?" Stender shouts, on the verge of +panic. + +"I found the motherfucking binoculars," Mayani responds, momentarily +forgetting that he's hanging off the chair as though it were a tree +sprouting off a cliff. + +"Good job," Stender shouts back. "You did that real nice. Now how the +hell you plan to get out of there?" + +Mayani doesn't have a good answer. Stender looks around and sees a fire +hose. He grabs the nozzle, lowers it down, and Mayani climbs up the +hose. He took the type of fall that killed Johnson, but Mayani doesn't +seem too bothered. Instead, he scrutinizes the binocs. One of the lenses +is cracked. + +"Shit," he says and throws them back down into the +bridge. + +![](https://www.wired.com/wp-content/uploads/archive/images/article/magazine/1603/ff_seacowboys_p14.jpg) +Photo: Courtesy of Titan Salvage**"OK everyone,"** Habib says into his +mic. Radios crackle across the Cougar Ace. Bergman, Trepte, Mayani, and +Stender are ready to drop down into the holds and fire up the pumps. An +additional four Titan guys have arrived to assist. "Let's get this ship +straightened up," Habib says. + +The pumps roar to life. Reed's model doesn't indicate how fast the ship +will roll upright. If it's anything like the time the ship first rolled, +it will be fast. It could be a dangerous roller-coaster ride. + +Since the radios aren't powerful enough to reach the lower holds, Habib +acts as both salvage master and radio relay, climbing halfway down into +the ship so that his radio is close enough to pick up the signal of the +guys up top and lower down. He follows Reed's plan and shouts orders: +"Pump the wedge of water on deck nine overboard. Begin filling the fifth +starboard ballast tank now." He's like the conductor of an unusual, +waterlogged symphony. + +Reed's calculations show that the fifth starboard ballast tank has to be +about 20 percent full to bring the Cougar Ace all the way up, and as +water begins to pour into the tank the ship starts to come off its +60-degree list. + +[Rich Habib's journal, August 11, +Friday](https://www.wired.com/science/discoveries/magazine/16-03/ff_seacowboys_journal#Aug11) +Habib is exhausted but continues to fight the battle to save the Cougar +Ace."We're rolling her," Habib radios calmly. + +Everyone aboard waits anxiously for the ship to flip in an instant, but +the vessel rises slowly, like a stunned boxer after a heavy blow. Water +cascades down its sides. It makes no sudden movements — it's as if the +ship itself has been trying to figure out whether it can do this, +whether it can really return to the land of the living. + +As the Titan team coaxes the Cougar Ace upright, Habib ties a water +bottle to one end of a rope and affixes the other end to a pipe, forming +an improvised plumb line. Using some basic trig, he calculates their +progress: 56.5 degrees ... 51 degrees ... 40 degrees. The Cougar Ace is +coming up. Every hour it looks more and more like a normal ship. + +Stender and Mayani stay on board, sleeping on cars, smoking cigarettes, +and tending the pumps. For lunch, they toss one end of a line out a door +that's halfway down the starboard hull. It reaches the Makushin Bay 50 +feet below, and the boat's crew ties some food on the line. But when +Stender and Mayani haul it up to discover a meal of boiled cabbage and +popcorn, they snap. "We don't eat cabbage, you fucking fucks\!" Mayani +screams, hurling the cabbage at the crew. The crew dodges the fusillade +of wet, steaming cabbage, and it splatters onto the decks and wheelhouse +of the Makushin Bay. + +As cabbage explodes out of the Cougar Ace, Habib checks his pendulum +again and sees that it's still moving: 34 degrees, then 28 degrees and +counting. + +[Rich Habib's journal, August 12, +Saturday](https://www.wired.com/science/discoveries/magazine/16-03/ff_seacowboys_journal#Aug12) +The Cougar Ace rises.By the end of the second day of pumping, the Cougar +Ace is upright. A few days later, the owners come aboard to reclaim the +ship. What initially seemed like a lost cause is now floating freely. It +did not sink. Ninety-nine percent of its cargo is intact. There was no +environmental disaster. + +Soon, a payment of more than $10 million is wired to Titan's account. + +**For more than a year,** the 4,703 Cougar Ace Mazdas sit in a huge +parking lot in Portland, Oregon. Then, in February 2008, the cars are +loaded one by one onto an 8-foot-wide conveyor belt. It lifts them 40 +feet and drops them inside a Texas Shredder, a 50-foot-tall, hulking +blue-and-yellow machine that sits on a 2.5-acre concrete pad. Inside the +machine, 26 hammers — weighing 1,000 pounds each — smash each car into +fist-sized pieces in two seconds. The chunks are then spit out the back +side. Though most of the cars appeared to be unharmed, they had spent +two weeks at a 60-degree angle. Mazda can't be sure that something isn't +wrong with them. Will the air bags function properly? Will the engines +work flawlessly throughout the warranty period? Rather than risk +lawsuits down the line, Mazda has decided to scrap the entire shipment. + +Habib and the guys don't really give a damn. In the 16 months since they +saved the Cougar Ace, the team has done laps around the globe. They +pulled a stranded oil derrick off the world's most remote island, 1,700 +miles west of South Africa. Then they wrangled a 1,000-foot container +ship off a sandbar in Mexico and rescued a loaded propane tanker in the +middle of a Caribbean storm. + +But none of the men will forget the Cougar Ace. When Mayani does shots +of Bacardi at clubs in Miami Beach, he sometimes thinks back to the +first time he saw the car carrier floating sideways on the sea. It gives +him a chill until the rum takes hold. For Stender, it's the same. Trepte +is the only one who doesn't seem affected. + +"Listen, mate, all I do is crazy shit," he says, on a cell phone from +his bungalow on Trinidad. "You get used to it." + +But Habib doesn't get used to it — Johnson's death still weighs on him. +When Titan asks him to attend a CPR refresher course, he arrives +solemnly in the hotel conference room near the Fort Lauderdale airport. +The instructor lays out a few plastic dolls on the carpeted floor and +asks Habib to demonstrate his technique. A couple of other Titan +employees in attendance joke that the emaciated mannequins resemble some +prostitutes they met on a recent job in Russia. Habib doesn't smile. He +doesn't join their laughter. He kneels down beside one of the pale +forms, breathes into its mouth, and tries to bring it back to life. + +Contributing editor Joshua Davis +([www.joshuadavis.net](http://www.joshuadavis.net)) wrote about the +cyberattack on Estonia in issue +15.09. + +Related[![](https://www.wired.com/wp-content/uploads/archive/images/article/magazine/1603/ff_seacowboy_ss_t.jpg)The +Titan Salvage +Crew](https://www.wired.com/science/discoveries/multimedia/2008/02/ff_seacowboys_ss)[![](https://www.wired.com/wp-content/uploads/archive/images/article/magazine/1603/ff_seacowboy_journal_t.jpg)Excerpts +from Captain Rich Habib's +Journal](https://www.wired.com/science/discoveries/magazine/16-03/ff_seacowboys_journal) diff --git a/_stories/2008/8589676.md b/_stories/2008/8589676.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..86391f8 --- /dev/null +++ b/_stories/2008/8589676.md @@ -0,0 +1,139 @@ +--- +created_at: '2014-11-11T13:32:57.000Z' +title: Analog's answer to FPGA opens field to masses (2008) +url: http://www.eetimes.com/document.asp?doc_id=1167814 +author: pointfree +points: 78 +story_text: '' +comment_text: +num_comments: 39 +story_id: +story_title: +story_url: +parent_id: +created_at_i: 1415712777 +_tags: +- story +- author_pointfree +- story_8589676 +objectID: '8589676' + +--- +Advertisement + +[![EE Times](https://m.eet.com/images/eetimes/ee-times.gif)](../) +[![](https://m.eet.com/images/images/spacer.gif)]() +![](https://m.eet.com/images/images/spacer.gif) + +[REGISTER | LOGIN]() [PROFILE |](profile.asp?screenToRender=editProfile) +[LOGOUT]() + +Sign Up / Sign In + +[Forgot your password?](#) [Create Account](#) + +{\* \#signInForm \*} {\* signInEmailAddress \*} {\* currentPassword +\*}{\* /signInForm \*} + +Sign In + +Welcome back, {\* welcomeName \*}\! + +{\* loginWidget \*} [Use another account](#) + +{\* loginWidget \*} + +Sign In + +Welcome Back + +{\* /signInForm \*} [Use another account](#) + +{\* \#signInForm \*} {\* signInEmailAddress \*} {\* currentPassword +\*}{\* /signInForm \*} + +Registration + +Please confirm the information below before signing in. 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Enter your email below, +and we'll send you another email. + +{\* \#resetPasswordForm \*} {\* signInEmailAddress \*} {\* +/resetPasswordForm \*} + +{\* \#resetPasswordForm \*} {\* signInEmailAddress \*} {\* +/resetPasswordForm \*} + +Create New Password + +We've sent you an email with instructions to create a new password. Your +existing password has not been changed. diff --git a/_stories/2008/8606956.md b/_stories/2008/8606956.md index 39a2b07..8fae60a 100644 --- a/_stories/2008/8606956.md +++ b/_stories/2008/8606956.md @@ -19,7 +19,157 @@ _tags: objectID: '8606956' --- -[Source](https://idp.nature.com/authorize?response_type=cookie&client_id=grover&redirect_uri=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nature.com%2Fnature%2Fjournal%2Fv453%2Fn7194%2Ffull%2F453562a.html "Permalink to ") +A question of breeding. +“You don't really want to know,” Beth said, her eyes glancing up from +her messy desk to the clock and back down without meeting mine. +“I do want to know,” I insisted. After three years of correlating the +reconstructed Neanderthal genome with modern human populations, she had +to have found something interesting. The idea had sounded great when she +had suggested it, and the grant committee had loved my proposal. But +with the final report ten months overdue, they wouldn't approve any new +proposals. +“You'll wish you hadn't said that if I tell you,” she said, staring +down. “People are going to be upset about this.” + +“I want to know,” I insisted. What I really wanted was a report to drop +on the contract officer's desk, but saying that hadn't worked the last +time. Or the time before that. Beth gets too deep into her research. I +run a big human-genetics lab. I deliver results; I don't invest my ego +in big-picture hypotheses or in worrying why the Neanderthals died out. +“I don't have an oar in the debate over whether or not the +Neanderthals interbred with Cro-Magnons. I just want to know what the +data +say.” + +![](https://media.nature.com/lw685/nature-assets/nature/journal/v453/n7194/images/453562a-i1.0.jpg) + +*Image: JACEY* + +“Really?” she asked, not looking convinced at all. “You said that the +last time, remember?” + +I didn't. I tried to ignore her obsessions. “Please,” I asked. + +“It's not just you. Nobody is going to want to hear this. Believe me, +John, believe me.” + +“I'm a scientist. I want to know the truth\!” More importantly, I wanted +to finish the contract; that was my job as principal investigator. I'd +always succeeded before; that was why after two decades at the +university I was department chair and Beth was still a research +assistant. + +“Are you sure?” Beth asked, looking a little less uncertain. + +“Yes,” I said, trying to smile. “I know you've got something very +interesting to tell me.” That sometimes worked. + +She nodded, her usually expressionless face showing a shadow of a smile. +“I found strong genetic correlations between Neanderthals and modern +subpopulations,” she said. “A lot more than I had expected.” + +“What about correlations coming from the last common ancestor?” That was +the safe correlation. Sapiens and Neanderthals had split around 800,000 +years ago, so they had to share lots of genes that chimps didn't have. + +“Some are,” she said. “They're easy to find because they're in all +modern populations. These genes are present in only some modern +subpopulations, and the statistics show only about 25,000 years of +divergence between the Neanderthals and Sapiens. That has to be +interbreeding. The earlier studies had missed it because they hadn't +considered the changing impact of natural selection over time.” + +“You can back that up?” + +“Absolutely.” Beth was always meticulous about her data. + +I didn't have to force a smile. “That's fascinating,” I said. “It will +make *Nature* for sure.” It would get a lot of people hot under their +collective collars, but that was fine. Evidence of interbreeding with +Neanderthals would create a new paradigm for hybridization being behind +the rapid advance of modern humans and make me famous. “What genes are +involved?” + +“That's the surprise,” Beth said, and she smiled so broadly that she +looked almost attractive despite her unkempt red-grey hair and +nondescript clothes. + +“Oh?” + +“The genes for red hair and pale skin didn't match well enough to show a +correlation, but I found a correlation for genes linked to other traits. +There's a gene cluster linked to advanced mathematics skills, +information processing, logic, analytical intelligence, concentration +skills, obsession–compulsion and Asperger's syndrome. That cluster +correlates very strongly. I can trace some genes back to the +interglacial around 450,000 years ago, and others back to another burst +of evolutionary innovation during the Eemian interglacial about 130,000 +years ago.” She rambled on with endless details. + +Something wasn't right. She was linking genes for advanced mental skills +to Neanderthals. “I'm confused,” I said when she paused for a breath. +“You're correlating genes linked to modern human intelligence with +Neanderthal populations. What am I missing?” + +“You didn't want to hear me, I knew that.” + +“No, I want to hear you. I just asked a question.” + +“You don't, because I already told you.” + +I looked at Beth blankly, realizing I was missing a key part of the +puzzle. “You said these were Neanderthal genes?” + +“Yes, they were,” she said. “They weren't in the modern human genome +until Neanderthals interbred with Cro-Magnons between 25,000 and 30,000 +years ago.” + +“Advanced mathematical processing? Shouldn't that have been missing from +the Neanderthal genome?” + +“No, I found that Neanderthals lacked genes linked to successful +socialization and management skills. They could count perfectly well, +but they couldn't deal with groups. Socialization genes came from +Sapiens” + +“You're trying to tell me ...” I said, but my mental censor blocked the +idea. + +“That human mathematical intelligence came from Neanderthals? That's +what the data say. The Cro-Magnons had the social skills. But that isn't +all.” + +I stared at her. I couldn't tell that to the research council. + +As usual, she couldn't read the warning look on my face. “The +hybridization was successful in the Stone Age, but the environment has +changed. I found that modern culture selects for socialization but +against the Neanderthal traits for mathematics and intelligence,” she +said, and looked down. “I don't know how you'll survive when our genes +are + gone.” + +## Author information + +## Affiliations + +1. ### Jeff Hecht () is Boston correspondent for *New Scientist* and contributing editor to *Laser Focus World*. + +## Authors + +1. ### Search for Jeff Hecht in: + + - [Nature Research + journals](/search/executeSearch?sp-q=%22Jeff+Hecht%22&sp-p=all&pag-start=1&sp-c=25&sp-m=1&sp-s=date_descending) + + • + + - [PubMed](http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=search&term=Jeff+Hecht) + + • + + - [Google + Scholar](http://scholar.google.co.uk/scholar?as_q=&num=10&btnG=Search+Scholar&as_epq=&as_oq=&as_eq=&as_occt=any&as_sauthors=%22Jeff+Hecht%22&as_publication=&as_ylo=&as_yhi=&as_allsubj=all&hl=en) diff --git a/_stories/2008/9454473.md b/_stories/2008/9454473.md index 41778c3..2da87ee 100644 --- a/_stories/2008/9454473.md +++ b/_stories/2008/9454473.md @@ -19,7 +19,116 @@ _tags: objectID: '9454473' --- -[Source](https://blogs.msdn.microsoft.com/b/oldnewthing/archive/2008/01/10/7047497.aspx "Permalink to ") +The Windows calculator percent sign works the same way as those cheap +pocket calculators (which are often called four-function calculators +even though they have around six function nowadays). What you first have +to understand is that the percent key on those pocket calculators was +not designed for mathematicians and engineers. It was designed for your +everyday person doing some simple calculations. Therefore, the behavior +of the key to you, an engineer, seems bizarrely counter-intuitive and +even buggy. But to an everyday person, it makes perfect sense. Or at +least that's the theory. +Let's look at it from the point of view of that everyday person. Suppose +you want to compute how much a $72 sweater will cost after including 5% +tax.¹ Pull out your handy pocket calculator² (or fire up Calc if you +don't have a pocket calculator) and type +> 72 + 5% = +The result is 75.6, or $75.60, which is the correct answer, because 5% +of 72 is 3.6. Add that to 72 and you get 75.6. + +Similarly, suppose that sweater was on sale at 20% off. What is the sale +price? + +> 72 − 20% = + +The result is 57.6 or $57.60. This is the correct answer, because 20% of +72 is 14.4. Subtract that from 72 and you get 57.6. + +You can chain these percentage operations, too. For example, how much +will you have to pay for that 20%-off sweater after adding 5% tax? + +> 72 − 20% + 5% = + +The result is 60.48. A mathematician or engineer would have calculated +the same result via the equivalent computation: + +> 72 × 0.80 × 1.05 = + +Okay, now that we see how the calculator product designer intended the +percent key to be used, let's look at what the calculator engineer it +has to do in order to match the specification. When the user enters A + +B % =, the result should be A × (1 + B/100) or A + (A × B/100) after you +distribute the multiplication over the addition. Similarly, when the +user enters A − B % =, the result should be A × (1 − B/100) or A − (A × +B/100). + +Aha, the calculator engineer says, we can achieve this result by +defining the percent key as follows: + +> When the user enters a value, an operator, a second value, and then +> the percent key, the first two values are multiplied and the product +> divided by 100, and that result replaces the second value in the +> ongoing computation. + +Let's walk through that algorithm with our first example. + +You type Remarks 72 First value is 72 + Operation is addition 5 Second +value is 5 % 72 × 5 ÷ 100 = 3.6 3.6 becomes the new second value = 72 + +3.6 = 75.6, the final result + +If you watch the display as you go through this exercise, you will even +see the number 3.6 appear in the display once you press the % key. The +percentage is calculated and replaces the original value in the ongoing +computation. + +This algorithm also works for the chained percentages. + +You type Remarks 72 First value is 72 − Operation is subtraction 20 +Second value is 20 % 72 × 20 ÷ 100 = 14.4 14.4 becomes the new second +value + 72 − 14.4 = 57.6, intermediate result 57.6 is the new first +value Operation is addition 5 Second value is 5 % 57.6 × 5 ÷ 100 = 2.88 +2.88 becomes the new second value = 57.6 + 2.88 = 60.48, the final +result + +This even works for multiplication and division, but there is much less +call for multiplying or dividing a number by a percentage of itself. + +> 500 × 5 % = + +The result of this is 12,500 because you are multiplying 500 by 5% of +500 (which is 25). The result of 500 × 25 is 12,500. You aren't +computing five percent *of* 500. You're multiplying 500 by 5% of 500. +(It appears that the authors of [this Knowledge Base +article](http://support.microsoft.com/kb/132984) didn't consult with the +calculator engineer before writing up their analysis. The percent key is +behaving as designed. The problem is that the percent key is not +designed for engineers.) + +What if you want to compute 5% of 500? Just pick a dummy operation and +view the result when you press the percent key. + +> 500 + 5 % + +When you hit the percent key, the answer appears: 25. You could've used +the minus key, multiplication key, or division key instead of the +addition key. It doesn't matter since all you care about is the +percentage, not the combined operation. Once you hit the % key, you get +your answer, and then you can hit Clear to start a new calculation. + +**Footnotes** + +¹In the United States, quoted prices typically do not include applicable +taxes. + +²In my limited experiments, it appears that no two manufacturers of +pocket calculators handle the percent key in exactly the same way. Casio +appears to handle it in a manner closest to the engineering way. TI is +closer to the layman algorithm. And when you get into cases like `1 ÷ 2 +%`, calculators start wandering all over the map. Should the answer be +`50`, since 1/2 is equal to 50%? Or should it be `0.005` since that is +the numeric value of 0.5%? Should that answer appear immediately or +should it wait for you to hit the equals sign? I don't know what the +intuitive result should be either. diff --git a/_stories/2008/9714046.md b/_stories/2008/9714046.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..f0b1fbd --- /dev/null +++ b/_stories/2008/9714046.md @@ -0,0 +1,393 @@ +--- +created_at: '2015-06-14T07:21:10.000Z' +title: 'Perl Cannot Be Parsed: A Formal Proof (2008)' +url: http://www.perlmonks.org/?node_id=663393 +author: __Joker +points: 57 +story_text: '' +comment_text: +num_comments: 12 +story_id: +story_title: +story_url: +parent_id: +created_at_i: 1434266470 +_tags: +- story +- author___Joker +- story_9714046 +objectID: '9714046' + +--- + + +``` code +sub halts { + my $machine = shift; + my $input = shift; + is_whatever_nullary( + qq{ + run_turing_equivalent("\Q$machine\E", "\Q$input\E"); + sub whatever() {}; + } + ) +} +[download] +``` + +is\_whatever\_nullary() can certainly easily return a true value without +having to execute run\_turing\_equivalent(). The whatever prototype is a +compile-time property and the run-time impact of whatever +run\_turing\_equivalent() does will not change the fact that whatever() +is "nullary" at compile time. + +But it is quite obvious that Perl code can't be reliably parsed without +running Perl code by the simple example of: + +``` code +BEGIN { + if( 0.5 < rand() ) { + eval "sub whatever() { }; 1" or die $@; + } else { + eval "sub whatever { }; 1" or die $@; + } +} +whatever / 25 ; # / ; die "this dies!"; +[download] +``` + +You can, of course, replace the above conditional with some +high-falutin' comp sci construct of your choosing. But I find that such +just detracts from the obviousness. You have to run "`0.5 < rand()`" in +order to parse the last line of the above Perl code (which perl can +parse differently each time that it is run, as shown below). + +``` code + > perl -MO=Deparse above.pl +# ... +whatever / 25; +- syntax OK + + > perl -MO=Deparse above.pl +# ... +whatever(/ 25 ; # /); +die 'this dies!'; +- syntax OK +[download] +``` + +\- [tye](?node=tye)`        ` + + + +``` code +sub halts { + my $machine = shift; + my $input = shift; + is_whatever_nullary( + qq{ + BEGIN { + run_turing_equivalent("\Q$machine\E", "\Q$input\E"); + sub whatever() {}; + } + } + ) +} +[download] +``` + +Using *rand()* is indeed more obvious and it was how I tested my code +snippets (I lent my Halting Oracle to a friend and she never returned it +... but don't get me started.) I did not use it in the presentation +because while it makes the proof more obvious, it's a proof of a weaker +theorem. + +If you interpret *rand()* as truly random (and not as pseudo-random), +then we're dealing with non-deterministic programs. Someone might then +say, "as long as there is no non-determinism while compiling, Perl 5 is +statically parseable." But it's not and a proof using the Turing machine +simulator shows it is not. That Perl 5 is unparseable even when the code +is completely deterministic is a much stronger result, and the +distinction makes a difference in practice. + +The Turing simulation in this case is brought in for very practical +reasons. I can't claim the credit for that. Adam Kennedy's hint took me +in this direction. I suspect he also knew the business about *rand()*. +But with his many hours of real life experience trying to statically +parse Perl, he focused on the stronger proof -- the one that would give +him the most information about what he was up against in creating +[PPI](http://search.cpan.org/perldoc?PPI). + + + + + +``` code +BEGIN { + my $proto= ""; + $proto= "()" + if run_some_perl_code(); + eval "sub whatever$proto { }"; +} +whatever / 6; # /; +[download] +``` + +The fact that run\_some\_perl\_code() can be any arbitrary Perl code is +quite clear. I guess this then boils down to the argument that somehow +static analysis could be used to predict the results of +run\_some\_perl\_code() without actually running it. But the +[rand](?node=rand) example clearly shows that not to be the case. As +does using `if @ARGV` or `if =~ /^y/i` or `if +LWP::Simple::get("http://perlmonks.org/secretAlgorithm.pl") =~ /true/` +or `if unlink "/etc/passwd"` or `if find_prime_of_length( ~0 ) % 3 +== 1`. + +Sure, the fact that run\_some\_perl\_code() could be trying to solve the +halting problem also demonstrates something. Of course, if I'm writing +Perl support for an IDE, I'm not seriously concerned that the +declaration of function prototypes is being based on answers to +instances of the halting problem, so I'm likely to just dismiss your +proof (based on your own reaction to the [rand](?node=rand) case). I +find "You might have to run arbitrary Perl code" to be both a stronger +statement of the result and a more interesting and useful one. + +I also think there is a flaw in your proof in that it confuses solving +the halting problem with running code that may or may not halt. So your +conclusion would need to be more like "Here is some code that will +either determine that whatever() is nullary or that will never +terminate." Since just because the code has been taking 400 years +doesn't mean that you can determine that it will never halt, so your +code doesn't even have the potential of solving the halting problem. + +So the lemma that is needed here is that "Static analysis of a program +in a Turing-complete language (along with its 'input') can be +insufficient to determine its output". Frankly, this is where it becomes +uninteresting to me. + +(Minor updates applied during the 15 minutes after first posting.) + +\- [tye](?node=tye)`        ` + + + +``` code +eval $ARGV[ 0 ]; +[download] +``` + +Examine what is said, not who speaks -- Silence betokens consent -- Love +the truth but pardon error. + +"Science is about questioning the status quo. Questioning authority". + +In the absence of evidence, opinion is indistinguishable from prejudice. + +["Too many \[\] have been sedated by an oppressive environment of +political correctness and risk +aversion."](http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/education/6202877.stm) + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +``` code +my $x; +BEGIN { $x = time } +[download] +``` + +Unless the BEGIN block is executed both at compile time and once at +pre-run time. + +Of course, I might be a few months out of date. I got bored following +all the Perl 6 stuff, so I'm working on +[Smalltalk](http://methodsandmessages.vox.com) for a while until Perl6 +gets a bit closer to a release. + +\-- [Randal L. Schwartz, Perl hacker](http://www.stonehenge.com/merlyn/) + + + +``` code +multi sub prefix: (Str $a) { + return $a eq "foo" ?? "bar" !! "foo"; +} +[download] +``` + +This will define an unary prefix operator that takes one string as an +argument. When somebody writes + +``` code +foo "foo"; +[download] +``` + +You can't know if that's a method call or a call to an operator. You'd +think it makes no difference - but wait until precedence comes into the +play: + +``` code +BEGIN { + eval + " +multi * prefix: (Str $a) is tighter(&infix:<~>) { + return $a eq 'foo' ?? 'bar' !! 'foo'; + "; +} + +# and later in the code: +foo "fo" ~ "o"; +[download] +``` + +If that `foo` parsed as a sub call the precedence is lower than that of +the concatenation `~`, and the other way round if it's parsed as an +operator. + +This is quite a complicated example, but there are much easier ones with +"real" macros. (But since no implemenation really implements macros by +now, I don't really know much about them). + + + +``` code +foo =+= bar //|/ baz =+= qux +[download] +``` + +The parsing of this expression depends on the relative precedence of the +two operators and possibily, but not necessarily, on the associativity +of =+= It may also result in an error, if //|/ has higher precedence and +=+= is declared as non-associative. + +However, the parsing of this does not depend on executing any code in +the sense that the OP means, I think. That is, there must be a static +declaration somewhere else in the code that says what the properties of +these two operators should be. It need not lexically precede the usage, +but it has to appear somewhere in the relevant scope, and it cannot be +dynamically generated in any way. How would that fit in? + + + + + + + + + + if (is_nullary(whatever)) + { + whatever / 25; + } + else + { + whatever (/ 25 ; # /); + die "this dies!"; + } + +When we think about it, the Perl interpreter already does this. So +technicaly, parsing Perl is not a undecidable problem. You only proved +that there could not be a single way to parse Perl - and yes, it is a +problem for text editor's syntax-highlighting. + + + + + + + + + + + +``` code +import sys +import parser + +print parser.suite(open(__file__).read()).totuple() + +x = eval(sys.stdin.readline()) + +if x: + print "yes", x +else: + print "no", x +[download] +``` + +To bring this back to the original post, the "parser" module is the +Python equivalent of what Parse::Perl would be if Perl parsing were +possible. + + + + + + + + + + + +``` code + BEGIN { + x(); + sub foo { } + } +[download] +``` + +then foo() will be declared only when x() terminates. + +But that's like writing this Java code + +``` code + for(;;) { } + int x; +[download] +``` + +and asking whether "x" will ever be declared, which says absolutely +nothing about how this program is parsed (and it's parsed fine). + +Cheers. + + + + + +``` code +use Modern::Perl; + +sub x { say "In x!" } + +BEGIN { x() } + +sub foo!bar { say 'In foo!bar!' } + +BEGIN { foo!bar() } +[download] +``` + +For extra fun, run it through +[B::Deparse](http://search.cpan.org/search?mode=module&query=B%3A%3ADeparse). + + diff --git a/_stories/2008/9929667.md b/_stories/2008/9929667.md index 5d4a0e7..a3b348d 100644 --- a/_stories/2008/9929667.md +++ b/_stories/2008/9929667.md @@ -19,125 +19,223 @@ _tags: objectID: '9929667' --- -[Source](http://www.nytimes.com/2008/11/23/magazine/23Netflix-t.html "Permalink to If You Liked This, Sure to Love That - Winning the Netflix Prize - The New York Times") +Bertoni says it’s partly because of “Napoleon Dynamite,” an indie comedy +from 2004 that achieved cult status and went on to become extremely +popular on Netflix. It is, Bertoni and others have discovered, +maddeningly hard to determine how much people will like it. When Bertoni +runs his algorithms on regular hits like “Lethal Weapon” or “Miss +Congeniality” and tries to predict how any given Netflix user will rate +them, he’s usually within eight-tenths of a star. But with films like +“Napoleon Dynamite,” he’s off by an average of 1.2 stars. -# If You Liked This, Sure to Love That - Winning the Netflix Prize - The New York Times +The reason, Bertoni says, is that “Napoleon Dynamite” is very weird and +very polarizing. It contains a lot of arch, ironic humor, including a +famously kooky dance performed by the titular teenage character to help +his hapless friend win a student-council election. It’s the type of +quirky entertainment that tends to be either loved or despised. The +movie has been rated more than two million times in the Netflix +database, and the ratings are disproportionately one or five stars. -__NYTimes.com no longer supports Internet Explorer 9 or earlier. Please upgrade your browser. [LEARN MORE »][1] +Worse, close friends who normally share similar film aesthetics often +heatedly disagree about whether “Napoleon Dynamite” is a masterpiece or +an annoying bit of hipster self-indulgence. When Bertoni saw the movie +himself with a group of friends, they argued for hours over it. “Half of +them loved it, and half of them hated it,” he told me. “And they +couldn’t really say why. It’s just a difficult movie.” -__Sections __ Home __Search [Skip to content][2] [Skip to navigation][3] [View mobile version][4] +Mathematically speaking, “Napoleon Dynamite” is a very significant +problem for the Netflix Prize. Amazingly, Bertoni has deduced that this +single movie is causing 15 percent of his remaining error rate; or to +put it another way, if Bertoni could anticipate whether you’d like +“Napoleon Dynamite” as accurately as he can for other movies, this +feat alone would bring him 15 percent of the way to winning the $1 +million prize. And while “Napoleon Dynamite” is the worst culprit, it +isn’t the only troublemaker. A small subset of other titles have caused +almost as much bedevilment among the Netflix Prize competitors. When +Bertoni showed me a list of his 25 most-difficult-to-predict movies, I +noticed they were all similar in some way to “Napoleon Dynamite” — +culturally or politically polarizing and hard to classify, including “I +Heart Huckabees,” “Lost in Translation,” “Fahrenheit 9/11,” “The Life +Aquatic With Steve Zissou,” “Kill Bill: Volume 1” and “Sideways.” -## [ The New York Times ][5] +So this is the question that gently haunts the Netflix competition, as +well as the recommendation engines used by other online stores like +Amazon and iTunes. Just how predictable is human taste, anyway? And if +we can’t understand our own preferences, can computers really be any +better at it? -###### [Magazine][6]|If You Liked This, You're Sure to Love That +**IT USED TO BE THAT** if you wanted to buy a book, rent a movie or shop +for some music, you had to rely on flesh-and-blood judgment — yours, or +that of someone you trusted. You’d go to your local store and look for +new stuff, or you might just wander the aisles in what librarians call a +stack search, to see if anything jumped out at you. You might check out +newspaper reviews or consult your friends; if you were lucky, your local +video store employed one of those young cinéastes who could size you up +in a glance and suggest something suitable. -__Search - -Subscribe Now Log In __0 __Settings - -__Close search - -## Site Search Navigation - -Search NYTimes.com - -__Clear this text input - -Go - -## Site Navigation - -## Site Mobile Navigation +The advent of online retailing completely upended this cultural and +economic ecosystem. First of all, shopping over the Web is not a social +experience; there are no clever clerks to ask for advice. What’s more, +because they have no real space constraints, online stores like Amazon +or iTunes can stock millions of titles, making a stack search +essentially impossible. This creates the classic problem of choice: how +do you decide among an effectively infinite number of options? Advertisement -Supported by +[Continue reading the main story](#story-continues-4) -### [Magazine][6] | The Screens Issue +But Web sites have this significant advantage over brick-and-mortar +stores: They can track everything their customers do. Every page you +visit, every purchase you make, every item you rate — it is all +recorded. In the early ’90s, scientists working in the field of “machine +learning” realized that this enormous trove of data could be used to +analyze patterns in people’s taste. In 1994, Pattie Maes, an M.I.T. +professor, created one of the first recommendation engines by setting up +a Web site where people listed songs and bands they liked. Her computer +algorithm performed what’s known as collaborative filtering. It would +take a song you rated highly, find other people who had also rated it +highly and then suggest you try a song that those people also said they +liked. -# If You Liked This, You're Sure to Love That +“We had this realization that if we gathered together a really large +group of people, like thousands or millions, they could help one another +find things, because you can find patterns in what they like,” Maes told +me recently. “It’s not necessarily the one, single smart critic that is +going to find something for you, like, ‘Go see this movie, go listen to +this band\!’ ” -By CLIVE THOMPSONNOV. 21, 2008 - -[Continue reading the main story][7] Share This Page - -[Continue reading the main story][7] - -**THE "NAPOLEON DYNAMITE"** problem is driving Len Bertoni crazy. Bertoni is a 51-year-old "semiretired" computer scientist who lives an hour outside Pittsburgh. In the spring of 2007, his sister-in-law e-mailed him an intriguing bit of news: [Netflix][8], the Web-based DVD-rental company, was holding a contest to try to improve Cinematch, its "recommendation engine." The prize: $1 million. - -Cinematch is the bit of software embedded in the Netflix Web site that analyzes each customer's movie-viewing habits and recommends other movies that the customer might enjoy. (Did you like the legal thriller "The Firm"? Well, maybe you'd like "Michael Clayton." Or perhaps "A Few Good Men.") The Netflix Prize goes to anyone who can make Cinematch's predictions 10 percent more accurate. One million dollars might sound like an awfully big prize for such a small improvement. But in fact, Netflix's founders tried for years to improve Cinematch, with only incremental results, and they knew that a 10 percent bump would be a challenge for even the most deft programmer. They also knew that, as Reed Hastings, the chief executive of Netflix, told me recently, "getting to 10 percent would certainly be worth well in excess of $1 million" to the company. The competition was announced in October 2006, and no one has won yet, though 30,000 hackers worldwide are hard at work on the problem. Each day, teams submit their updated solutions to the Netflix Prize Web page, and Netflix instantly calculates how much better than Cinematch they are. (There's even a live "leader board" ranking the top contestants.) - -In March 2007, Bertoni decided he wanted to give it a crack. So he downloaded a huge set of data that Netflix put online: an enormous list showing how 480,189 of the company's customers rated 17,770 Netflix movies. When Netflix customers log into their accounts, they can rate any movie from one to five stars, to help "teach" the Netflix system what their preferences are; the average customer has rated around 200 movies, so Netflix has a lot of information about what its customers like and don't like. (The data set doesn't include any personal information — names, ages, location and gender have been stripped out.) So Bertoni began looking for patterns that would predict customer behavior — specifically, an algorithm that would guess correctly the number of stars a given user would apply to a given movie. A year and a half later, Bertoni is still going, often spending 20 hours a week working on it in his home office. His two children — 12 and 13 years old — sometimes sit and brainstorm with him. "They're very good with mathematics and algebra," he told me, chuckling. "And they think of interesting questions about your movie-watching behavior." For example, one day the kids wondered about sequels: would a Netflix user who liked the first two "Matrix" movies be just as likely to enjoy the third one, even though it was widely considered to be pretty dreadful? - -Each time he or his kids think of a new approach, Bertoni writes a computer program to test it. Each new algorithm takes on average three or four hours to churn through the data on the family's "quad core" Gateway computer. Bertoni's results have gradually improved. When I last spoke to him, he was at No. 8 on the leader board; his program was 8.8 percent better than Cinematch. The top team was at 9.44 percent. Bertoni said he thought he was within striking distance of victory. - -Advertisement - -[Continue reading the main story][7] - -But his progress had slowed to a crawl. The more Bertoni improved upon Netflix, the harder it became to move his number forward. This wasn't just his problem, though; the other competitors say that their progress is stalling, too, as they edge toward 10 percent. Why? - -[Continue reading the main story][9] - -Advertisement - -[Continue reading the main story][10] - -Bertoni says it's partly because of "Napoleon Dynamite," an indie comedy from 2004 that achieved cult status and went on to become extremely popular on Netflix. It is, Bertoni and others have discovered, maddeningly hard to determine how much people will like it. When Bertoni runs his algorithms on regular hits like "Lethal Weapon" or "Miss Congeniality" and tries to predict how any given Netflix user will rate them, he's usually within eight-tenths of a star. But with films like "Napoleon Dynamite," he's off by an average of 1.2 stars. - -The reason, Bertoni says, is that "Napoleon Dynamite" is very weird and very polarizing. It contains a lot of arch, ironic humor, including a famously kooky dance performed by the titular teenage character to help his hapless friend win a student-council election. It's the type of quirky entertainment that tends to be either loved or despised. The movie has been rated more than two million times in the Netflix database, and the ratings are disproportionately one or five stars. - -Worse, close friends who normally share similar film aesthetics often heatedly disagree about whether "Napoleon Dynamite" is a masterpiece or an annoying bit of hipster self-indulgence. When Bertoni saw the movie himself with a group of friends, they argued for hours over it. "Half of them loved it, and half of them hated it," he told me. "And they couldn't really say why. It's just a difficult movie." - -Mathematically speaking, "Napoleon Dynamite" is a very significant problem for the Netflix Prize. Amazingly, Bertoni has deduced that this single movie is causing 15 percent of his remaining error rate; or to put it another way, if Bertoni could anticipate whether you'd like "Napoleon Dynamite" as accurately as he can for other movies, this feat alone would bring him 15 percent of the way to winning the $1 million prize. And while "Napoleon Dynamite" is the worst culprit, it isn't the only troublemaker. A small subset of other titles have caused almost as much bedevilment among the Netflix Prize competitors. When Bertoni showed me a list of his 25 most-difficult-to-predict movies, I noticed they were all similar in some way to "Napoleon Dynamite" — culturally or politically polarizing and hard to classify, including "I Heart Huckabees," "Lost in Translation," "Fahrenheit 9/11," "The Life Aquatic With Steve Zissou," "Kill Bill: Volume 1" and "Sideways." - -So this is the question that gently haunts the Netflix competition, as well as the recommendation engines used by other online stores like Amazon and iTunes. Just how predictable is human taste, anyway? And if we can't understand our own preferences, can computers really be any better at it? - -**IT USED TO BE THAT** if you wanted to buy a book, rent a movie or shop for some music, you had to rely on flesh-and-blood judgment — yours, or that of someone you trusted. You'd go to your local store and look for new stuff, or you might just wander the aisles in what librarians call a stack search, to see if anything jumped out at you. You might check out newspaper reviews or consult your friends; if you were lucky, your local video store employed one of those young _cinéastes_ who could size you up in a glance and suggest something suitable. - -The advent of online retailing completely upended this cultural and economic ecosystem. First of all, shopping over the Web is not a social experience; there are no clever clerks to ask for advice. What's more, because they have no real space constraints, online stores like Amazon or iTunes can stock millions of titles, making a stack search essentially impossible. This creates the classic problem of choice: how do you decide among an effectively infinite number of options? - -Advertisement - -[Continue reading the main story][11] - -But Web sites have this significant advantage over brick-and-mortar stores: They can track everything their customers do. Every page you visit, every purchase you make, every item you rate — it is all recorded. In the early '90s, scientists working in the field of "machine learning" realized that this enormous trove of data could be used to analyze patterns in people's taste. In 1994, Pattie Maes, an M.I.T. professor, created one of the first recommendation engines by setting up a Web site where people listed songs and bands they liked. Her computer algorithm performed what's known as collaborative filtering. It would take a song you rated highly, find other people who had also rated it highly and then suggest you try a song that those people also said they liked. - -"We had this realization that if we gathered together a really large group of people, like thousands or millions, they could help one another find things, because you can find patterns in what they like," Maes told me recently. "It's not necessarily the one, single smart critic that is going to find something for you, like, 'Go see this movie, go listen to this band!' " - -In one sense, collaborative filtering is less personalized than a store clerk. The clerk, in theory anyway, knows a lot about you, like your age and profession and what sort of things you enjoy; she can even read your current mood. (Are you feeling lousy? Maybe it's not the day for "Apocalypse Now.") A collaborative-filtering program, in contrast, knows very little about you — only what you've bought at a Web site and whether you rated it highly or not. But the computer has numbers on its side. It may know only a little bit about you, but it also knows a little bit about a huge number of other people. This lets it detect patterns we often cannot see on our own. For example, Maes's music-recommendation system discovered that people who like classical music also like the Beatles. It is an epiphany that perhaps make sense when you think about it for a second, but it isn't immediately obvious. +In one sense, collaborative filtering is less personalized than a store +clerk. The clerk, in theory anyway, knows a lot about you, like your age +and profession and what sort of things you enjoy; she can even read your +current mood. (Are you feeling lousy? Maybe it’s not the day for +“Apocalypse Now.”) A collaborative-filtering program, in contrast, +knows very little about you — only what you’ve bought at a Web site and +whether you rated it highly or not. But the computer has numbers on its +side. It may know only a little bit about you, but it also knows a +little bit about a huge number of other people. This lets it detect +patterns we often cannot see on our own. For example, Maes’s +music-recommendation system discovered that people who like classical +music also like the Beatles. It is an epiphany that perhaps make sense +when you think about it for a second, but it isn’t immediately obvious. Photo -![][12] +Soon after Maes’s work made its debut, online stores quickly understood +the value of having a recommendation system, and today most Web sites +selling entertainment products have one. Most of them use some variant +of collaborative filtering — like Amazon’s “Customers Who Bought This +Item Also Bought” function. Some setups ask you to actively rate +products, as Netflix does. But others also rely on passive information. +They keep track of your everyday behavior, looking for clues to your +preferences. (For example, many music-recommendation engines — like the +Genius feature on Apple’s iTunes, Microsoft’s Mixview music recommender +or the Audioscrobbler program at Last.fm — can register every time you +listen to a song on your computer or MP3 player.) And a few rare +services actually pay people to evaluate products; the Pandora +music-streaming service has 50 employees who listen to songs and tag +them with descriptors — “upbeat,” “minor key,” “prominent vocal +harmonies.” -**Chris Volinsky** (left) with **Robert Bell** working out Netflix algorithms at the AT&T; research labs in New Jersey. Credit Samantha Contis for The New York Times +Netflix came late to the party. The company opened for business in 1997, +but for the first three years it offered no recommendations. This wasn’t +such a big problem when Netflix stocked only 1,000 titles or so, because +customers could sift through those pretty quickly. But Netflix grew, and +today, it stocks more than 100,000 movies. “I think that once you get +beyond 1,000 choices, a recommendation system becomes critical,” +Hastings, the Netflix C.E.O., told me. “People have limited cognitive +time they want to spend on picking a movie.” -Soon after Maes's work made its debut, online stores quickly understood the value of having a recommendation system, and today most Web sites selling entertainment products have one. Most of them use some variant of collaborative filtering — like Amazon's "Customers Who Bought This Item Also Bought" function. Some setups ask you to actively rate products, as Netflix does. But others also rely on passive information. They keep track of your everyday behavior, looking for clues to your preferences. (For example, many music-recommendation engines — like the Genius feature on Apple's iTunes, Microsoft's Mixview music recommender or the Audioscrobbler program at Last.fm — can register every time you listen to a song on your computer or MP3 player.) And a few rare services actually pay people to evaluate products; the Pandora music-streaming service has 50 employees who listen to songs and tag them with descriptors — "upbeat," "minor key," "prominent vocal harmonies." +Cinematch was introduced in 2000, but the first version worked poorly — +“a mix of insightful and boneheaded recommendations,” according to +Hastings. His programmers slowly began improving the algorithms. They +could tell how much better they were getting by trying to replicate how +a customer rated movies in the past. They took the customer’s ratings +from, say, 2001, and used them to predict their ratings for 2002. +Because Netflix actually had those later ratings, it could discern what +a “perfect” prediction would look like. Soon, Cinematch reached the +point where it could tease out some fairly nuanced — and surprising — +connections. For example, it found that people who enjoy “The Patriot” +also tend to like “Pearl Harbor,” which you’d expect, since they’re both +history-war-action movies; but it also discovered that they like the +heartstring-tugging drama “Pay It Forward” and the sci-fi movie “I, +Robot.” -Netflix came late to the party. The company opened for business in 1997, but for the first three years it offered no recommendations. This wasn't such a big problem when Netflix stocked only 1,000 titles or so, because customers could sift through those pretty quickly. But Netflix grew, and today, it stocks more than 100,000 movies. "I think that once you get beyond 1,000 choices, a recommendation system becomes critical," Hastings, the Netflix C.E.O., told me. "People have limited cognitive time they want to spend on picking a movie." +Cinematch has, in fact, become a video-store roboclerk: its suggestions +now drive a surprising 60 percent of Netflix’s rentals. It also often +steers a customer’s attention away from big-grossing hits toward +smaller, independent movies. Traditional video stores depend on hits; +just-out-of-the-theaters blockbusters account for 80 percent of what +they rent. At Netflix, by contrast, 70 percent of what it sends out is +from the backlist — older movies or small, independent ones. A good +recommendation system, in other words, does not merely help people find +new stuff. As Netflix has discovered, it also spurs them to consume more +stuff. -Cinematch was introduced in 2000, but the first version worked poorly — "a mix of insightful and boneheaded recommendations," according to Hastings. His programmers slowly began improving the algorithms. They could tell how much better they were getting by trying to replicate how a customer rated movies in the past. They took the customer's ratings from, say, 2001, and used them to predict their ratings for 2002. Because Netflix actually had those later ratings, it could discern what a "perfect" prediction would look like. Soon, Cinematch reached the point where it could tease out some fairly nuanced — and surprising — connections. For example, it found that people who enjoy "The Patriot" also tend to like "Pearl Harbor," which you'd expect, since they're both history-war-action movies; but it also discovered that they like the heartstring-tugging drama "Pay It Forward" and the sci-fi movie "I, Robot." - -Cinematch has, in fact, become a video-store roboclerk: its suggestions now drive a surprising 60 percent of Netflix's rentals. It also often steers a customer's attention away from big-grossing hits toward smaller, independent movies. Traditional video stores depend on hits; just-out-of-the-theaters blockbusters account for 80 percent of what they rent. At Netflix, by contrast, 70 percent of what it sends out is from the backlist — older movies or small, independent ones. A good recommendation system, in other words, does not merely help people find new stuff. As Netflix has discovered, it also spurs them to consume _more_ stuff. - -For Netflix, this is doubly important. Customers pay a flat monthly rate, generally $16.99 (although cheaper plans are available), to check out as many movies as they want. The problem with this business model is that new members often have a couple of dozen movies in mind that they want to see, but after that they're not sure what to check out next, and their requests slow. And a customer paying $17 a month for only one movie every month or two is at risk of canceling his subscription; the plan makes financial sense, from a user's point of view, only if you rent a lot of movies. (My wife and I once quit Netflix for precisely this reason.) Every time Hastings increases the quality of Cinematch even slightly, it keeps his customers active. +For Netflix, this is doubly important. Customers pay a flat monthly +rate, generally $16.99 (although cheaper plans are available), to check +out as many movies as they want. The problem with this business model is +that new members often have a couple of dozen movies in mind that they +want to see, but after that they’re not sure what to check out next, and +their requests slow. And a customer paying $17 a month for only one +movie every month or two is at risk of canceling his subscription; the +plan makes financial sense, from a user’s point of view, only if you +rent a lot of movies. (My wife and I once quit Netflix for precisely +this reason.) Every time Hastings increases the quality of Cinematch +even slightly, it keeps his customers active. Advertisement -[Continue reading the main story][13] +[Continue reading the main story](#story-continues-5) -But by 2006, Cinematch's improving performance had plateaued. Netflix's programmers couldn't go any further on their own. They suspected that there was a big breakthrough out there; the science of recommendation systems was booming, and computer scientists were publishing hundreds of papers each year on the subject. At a staff meeting in the summer of 2006, Hastings suggested a radical idea: Why not have a public contest? Netflix's recommendation system was powered by the wisdom of crowds; now it would tap the wisdom of crowds to get better too. +But by 2006, Cinematch’s improving performance had plateaued. Netflix’s +programmers couldn’t go any further on their own. They suspected that +there was a big breakthrough out there; the science of recommendation +systems was booming, and computer scientists were publishing hundreds of +papers each year on the subject. At a staff meeting in the summer of +2006, Hastings suggested a radical idea: Why not have a public contest? +Netflix’s recommendation system was powered by the wisdom of crowds; now +it would tap the wisdom of crowds to get better too. -**AS HASTINGS HOPED**, the contest has galvanized nerds around the world. The Top 10 list for the Netflix Prize currently includes a group of programmers in Austria (who are at No. 2), a trained psychologist and Web consultant in Britain who uses his teenage daughter to perform his calculus (No. 9), a lone Ph.D. candidate in Boston who calls himself My Brain and His Chain (a reference to a Ben Folds song; he's at No. 6) and Pragmatic Theory — two French-Canadian guys in Montreal (No. 3). Nearly every team is working on the prize in its spare time. In October, when I dropped by the house of Martin Chabbert, a 32-year-old member of the Pragmatic Theory duo, it was only 8:30 at night, but we had to whisper: his four children, including a 2-month-old baby, had just gone to bed upstairs. In his small dining room, a laptop sat open next to children's books like "Les Robots: Au Service de L'homme" and a "Star Wars" picture book in French. +**AS HASTINGS HOPED**, the contest has galvanized nerds around the +world. The Top 10 list for the Netflix Prize currently includes a group +of programmers in Austria (who are at No. 2), a trained psychologist and +Web consultant in Britain who uses his teenage daughter to perform his +calculus (No. 9), a lone Ph.D. candidate in Boston who calls himself My +Brain and His Chain (a reference to a Ben Folds song; he’s at No. 6) and +Pragmatic Theory — two French-Canadian guys in Montreal (No. 3). Nearly +every team is working on the prize in its spare time. In October, when I +dropped by the house of Martin Chabbert, a 32-year-old member of the +Pragmatic Theory duo, it was only 8:30 at night, but we had to whisper: +his four children, including a 2-month-old baby, had just gone to bed +upstairs. In his small dining room, a laptop sat open next to children’s +books like “Les Robots: Au Service de L’homme” and a “Star Wars” picture +book in French. -"This is where I do everything," Chabbert said. "After the kids are asleep and I've packed the lunches for school, I come down at 9 in the evening and work until 11 or 12. It was very exciting in the beginning!" He laughed. "It still is, but with the baby now, going to bed at midnight is not a good idea." +“This is where I do everything,” Chabbert said. “After the kids are +asleep and I’ve packed the lunches for school, I come down at 9 in the +evening and work until 11 or 12. It was very exciting in the +beginning\!” He laughed. “It still is, but with the baby now, going to +bed at midnight is not a good idea.” -Pragmatic Theory formed last spring, when Chabbert's longtime friend Martin Piotte — a 43-year-old electrical and computer engineer — heard about the Netflix Prize. Like many of the amateurs trying to win the $1 million, they had no relevant expertise. ("Absolutely no background in statistics that was useful," Piotte told me ruefully. "Two guys, absolutely no clue.") But they soon discovered that the Netflix competition is a fairly collegial affair. The company hosts a discussion board devoted to the prize, and competitors frequently help one another out — discussing algorithms they've tried and publicly brainstorming new ways to improve their work, sometimes even posting reams of computer code for anyone to use. When someone makes a breakthrough, pretty soon every other team is aware of it and starts using it, too. Piotte and Chabbert soon learned the major mathematical tricks that had propelled the leading teams into the Top 10. +Pragmatic Theory formed last spring, when Chabbert’s longtime friend +Martin Piotte — a 43-year-old electrical and computer engineer — heard +about the Netflix Prize. Like many of the amateurs trying to win the $1 +million, they had no relevant expertise. (“Absolutely no background in +statistics that was useful,” Piotte told me ruefully. “Two guys, +absolutely no clue.”) But they soon discovered that the Netflix +competition is a fairly collegial affair. The company hosts a discussion +board devoted to the prize, and competitors frequently help one another +out — discussing algorithms they’ve tried and publicly brainstorming new +ways to improve their work, sometimes even posting reams of computer +code for anyone to use. When someone makes a breakthrough, pretty soon +every other team is aware of it and starts using it, too. Piotte and +Chabbert soon learned the major mathematical tricks that had propelled +the leading teams into the Top 10. ## Newsletter Sign Up -[Continue reading the main story][14] +[Continue reading the main story](#continues-post-newsletter) ### @@ -147,366 +245,267 @@ Invalid email address. Please re-enter. You must select a newsletter to subscribe to. -Sign Up - -You agree to receive occasional updates and special offers for The New York Times's products and services. +You agree to receive occasional updates and special offers for The New +York Times's products and services. ### Thank you for subscribing. ### An error has occurred. Please try again later. -### You are already subscribed to this email. +[View all New York Times newsletters.](/newsletters) -[View all New York Times newsletters.][15] +The first major breakthrough came less than a month into the +competition. A team named Simon Funk vaulted from nowhere into the No. 4 +position, improving upon Cinematch by 3.88 percent in one fell swoop. +Its secret was a mathematical technique called singular value +decomposition. It isn’t new; mathematicians have used it for years to +make sense of prodigious chunks of information. But Netflix never +thought to try it on movies. -* [See Sample][16] -* [Manage Email Preferences][17] -* [Not you?][18] -* [Privacy Policy][19] -* Opt out or [contact us][20] anytime +Singular value decomposition works by uncovering “factors” that Netflix +customers like or don’t like. Say, for example, that “Sleepless in +Seattle” has been rated by 200,000 Netflix users. In one sense, this is +just a huge list of numbers — user No. 452 gave it two stars; No. 985 +gave it five stars; and so on. But you could also think of those ratings +as individual reactions to various aspects of the movie. “Sleepless in +Seattle” is a “chick flick,” a comedy, a star vehicle for Tom Hanks; +each customer is reacting to how much — or how little — he or she likes +“chick flicks,” comedies and Tom Hanks. Singular value decomposition +takes the mass of Netflix data — 17,770 movies, ratings by 480,189 users +— and automatically sorts the films. The programmers do not actively +tell the computer what to look for; they just run the algorithm until it +groups together movies that share qualities with predictive value. -The first major breakthrough came less than a month into the competition. A team named Simon Funk vaulted from nowhere into the No. 4 position, improving upon Cinematch by 3.88 percent in one fell swoop. Its secret was a mathematical technique called singular value decomposition. It isn't new; mathematicians have used it for years to make sense of prodigious chunks of information. But Netflix never thought to try it on movies. +Sometimes when you look at the clusters of movies, you can deduce the +connections. Chabbert showed me one list: at the top were “Sleepless in +Seattle,” “Steel Magnolias” and “Pretty Woman,” while at the bottom were +“Star Trek” movies. Clearly, the computer recognized some factor that +suggests that someone who likes the romantic aspect of “Pretty Woman” +will probably like “Sleepless in Seattle” and dislike “Star Trek.” +Chabbert showed me another cluster: this time DVD collections of the TV +show “Friends” all clustered at the top of the list, while action movies +like “Reindeer Games” and thrillers like “Hannibal” clustered at the +bottom. Most likely, the computer had selected for “comic” content here. +Other lists appear to group movies based on whether they lean strongly +to the ideological right or left. -Singular value decomposition works by uncovering "factors" that Netflix customers like or don't like. Say, for example, that "Sleepless in Seattle" has been rated by 200,000 Netflix users. In one sense, this is just a huge list of numbers — user No. 452 gave it two stars; No. 985 gave it five stars; and so on. But you could also think of those ratings as individual reactions to various aspects of the movie. "Sleepless in Seattle" is a "chick flick," a comedy, a star vehicle for Tom Hanks; each customer is reacting to how much — or how little — he or she likes "chick flicks," comedies and Tom Hanks. Singular value decomposition takes the mass of Netflix data — 17,770 movies, ratings by 480,189 users — and automatically sorts the films. The programmers do not actively tell the computer what to look for; they just run the algorithm until it groups together movies that share qualities with predictive value. +As programmers extract more and more values, it becomes possible to draw +exceedingly sophisticated correlations among movies and hence to offer +incredibly nuanced recommendations. “We’re teasing out very subtle human +behaviors,” said Chris Volinsky, a scientist with AT\&T in New Jersey +who is one of the most successful Netflix contestants; his three-person +team held the No. 1 position for more than a year. His team relies, in +part, on singular value decomposition. “You can find things like ‘People +who like action movies, but only if there’s a lot of explosions, and not +if there’s a lot of blood. And maybe they don’t like profanity,’ ” +Volinsky told me when we spoke recently. “Or it’s like ‘I like action +movies, but not if they have Keanu Reeves and not if there’s a bus +involved.’ ” -Sometimes when you look at the clusters of movies, you can deduce the connections. Chabbert showed me one list: at the top were "Sleepless in Seattle," "Steel Magnolias" and "Pretty Woman," while at the bottom were "Star Trek" movies. Clearly, the computer recognized some factor that suggests that someone who likes the romantic aspect of "Pretty Woman" will probably like "Sleepless in Seattle" and dislike "Star Trek." Chabbert showed me another cluster: this time DVD collections of the TV show "Friends" all clustered at the top of the list, while action movies like "Reindeer Games" and thrillers like "Hannibal" clustered at the bottom. Most likely, the computer had selected for "comic" content here. Other lists appear to group movies based on whether they lean strongly to the ideological right or left. - -As programmers extract more and more values, it becomes possible to draw exceedingly sophisticated correlations among movies and hence to offer incredibly nuanced recommendations. "We're teasing out very subtle human behaviors," said Chris Volinsky, a scientist with AT&T in New Jersey who is one of the most successful Netflix contestants; his three-person team held the No. 1 position for more than a year. His team relies, in part, on singular value decomposition. "You can find things like 'People who like action movies, but only if there's a lot of explosions, and not if there's a lot of blood. And maybe they don't like profanity,' " Volinsky told me when we spoke recently. "Or it's like 'I like action movies, but not if they have Keanu Reeves and not if there's a bus involved.' " - -**MOST OF THE LEADING TEAMS** competing for the Netflix Prize now use singular value decomposition. Indeed, given how quickly word of new breakthroughs spreads among the competitors, virtually every team in the Top 10 makes use of similar mathematical ploys. The only thing that separates their scores is how skillfully they tweak their algorithms. The Netflix Prize has come to resemble a drag race in which everyone drives the same car, with only tiny modifications to the fuel injection. Yet those tweaks are crucial. Since the top teams are so close — there is less than a tenth of a percent between each contender — even tiny improvements can boost a team to the top of the charts. +**MOST OF THE LEADING TEAMS** competing for the Netflix Prize now use +singular value decomposition. Indeed, given how quickly word of new +breakthroughs spreads among the competitors, virtually every team in the +Top 10 makes use of similar mathematical ploys. The only thing that +separates their scores is how skillfully they tweak their algorithms. +The Netflix Prize has come to resemble a drag race in which everyone +drives the same car, with only tiny modifications to the fuel injection. +Yet those tweaks are crucial. Since the top teams are so close — there +is less than a tenth of a percent between each contender — even tiny +improvements can boost a team to the top of the charts. Advertisement -[Continue reading the main story][21] +[Continue reading the main story](#story-continues-6) -These days, the competitors spend much of their time thinking deeply about the math and psychology behind recommendations. For example, the teams are grappling with the problem that over time, people can change how sternly or leniently they rate movies. Psychological studies show that if you ask someone to rate a movie and then, a month later, ask him to do so again, the rating varies by an average of 0.4 stars. "The question is why," Len Bertoni said to me. "Did you just remember it differently? Did you see something in between? Did something change in your life that made you rethink it?" Some teams deal with this by programming their computers to gradually discount older ratings. +These days, the competitors spend much of their time thinking deeply +about the math and psychology behind recommendations. For example, the +teams are grappling with the problem that over time, people can change +how sternly or leniently they rate movies. Psychological studies show +that if you ask someone to rate a movie and then, a month later, ask him +to do so again, the rating varies by an average of 0.4 stars. “The +question is why,” Len Bertoni said to me. “Did you just remember it +differently? Did you see something in between? Did something change in +your life that made you rethink it?” Some teams deal with this by +programming their computers to gradually discount older ratings. -Another common problem is identifying overly punitive raters. If you're a really harsh critic and I'm a much more easygoing one, your two-star rating may be equal to my four-star rating. To compensate, an algorithm might try to detect when a Netflix customer tends to hand out only one- or two-star ratings — a sign of a strict, pursed-lip customer — and artificially boost his or her ratings by a half-star or so. Then there's the problem of movie raters who simply aren't consistent. They might be evenhanded most of the time, but if they log into Netflix when they're in a particularly bad mood, they might impulsively decide to rate a couple of dozen movies harshly. +Another common problem is identifying overly punitive raters. If you’re +a really harsh critic and I’m a much more easygoing one, your two-star +rating may be equal to my four-star rating. To compensate, an algorithm +might try to detect when a Netflix customer tends to hand out only one- +or two-star ratings — a sign of a strict, pursed-lip customer — and +artificially boost his or her ratings by a half-star or so. Then there’s +the problem of movie raters who simply aren’t consistent. They might be +evenhanded most of the time, but if they log into Netflix when they’re +in a particularly bad mood, they might impulsively decide to rate a +couple of dozen movies harshly. Photo -![][22] +TV shows, which are hot commodities on Netflix, present yet another +perplexing issue. Customers respond to TV series much differently than +they do to movies. People who loved the first two seasons of “The Wire” +might start getting bored during the third but keep on watching for a +while, then stop abruptly. So when should Cinematch stop recommending +“The Wire”? When do you tell someone to give up on a TV show? -**Len Bertoni** and his son, **Vincent**, attack the “Napoleon Dynamite” problem. Credit Samantha Contis for The New York Times +Interestingly, the Netflix Prize competitors do not know anything about +the demographics of the customers whose taste they’re trying to predict. +The teams sometimes argue on the discussion board about whether their +predictions would be better if they knew that customer No. 465 is, for +example, a 23-year-old woman in Arizona. Yet most of the leading teams +say that personal information is not very useful, because it’s too +crude. As one team pointed out to me, the fact that I’m a 40-year-old +West Village resident is not very predictive. There’s little reason to +think the other 40-year-old men on my block enjoy the same movies as I +do. In contrast, the Netflix data are much more rich in meaning. When I +tell Netflix that I think Woody Allen’s black comedy “Match Point” +deserves three stars but the Joss Whedon sci-fi film “Serenity” is a +five-star masterpiece, this reveals quite a lot about my taste. Indeed, +Reed Hastings told me that even though Net­flix has a good deal of +demographic information about its users, the company does not currently +use it much to generate movie recommendations; merely knowing who people +are, paradoxically, isn’t very predictive of their movie tastes. -TV shows, which are hot commodities on Netflix, present yet another perplexing issue. Customers respond to TV series much differently than they do to movies. People who loved the first two seasons of "The Wire" might start getting bored during the third but keep on watching for a while, then stop abruptly. So when should Cinematch stop recommending "The Wire"? When do you tell someone to give up on a TV show? +As the teams have grown better at predicting human preferences, the more +incomprehensible their computer programs have become, even to their +creators. Each team has lined up a gantlet of scores of algorithms, each +one analyzing a slightly different correlation between movies and users. +The upshot is that while the teams are producing ever-more-accurate +recommendations, they cannot precisely explain how they’re doing this. +Chris Volinsky admits that his team’s program has become a black box, +its internal logic unknowable. -Interestingly, the Netflix Prize competitors do not know anything about the demographics of the customers whose taste they're trying to predict. The teams sometimes argue on the discussion board about whether their predictions would be better if they knew that customer No. 465 is, for example, a 23-year-old woman in Arizona. Yet most of the leading teams say that personal information is not very useful, because it's too crude. As one team pointed out to me, the fact that I'm a 40-year-old West Village resident is not very predictive. There's little reason to think the other 40-year-old men on my block enjoy the same movies as I do. In contrast, the Netflix data are much more rich in meaning. When I tell Netflix that I think Woody Allen's black comedy "Match Point" deserves three stars but the Joss Whedon sci-fi film "Serenity" is a five-star masterpiece, this reveals quite a lot about my taste. Indeed, Reed Hastings told me that even though Net­flix has a good deal of demographic information about its users, the company does not currently use it much to generate movie recommendations; merely knowing who people are, paradoxically, isn't very predictive of their movie tastes. +There’s a sort of unsettling, alien quality to their computers’ results. +When the teams examine the ways that singular value decomposition is +slotting movies into categories, sometimes it makes sense to them — as +when the computer highlights what appears to be some essence of +nerdiness in a bunch of sci-fi movies. But many categorizations are now +so obscure that they cannot see the reasoning behind them. Possibly the +algorithms are finding connections so deep and subconscious that +customers themselves wouldn’t even recognize them. At one point, +Chabbert showed me a list of movies that his algorithm had discovered +share some ineffable similarity; it includes a historical movie, “Joan +of Arc,” a wrestling video, “W.W.E.: SummerSlam 2004,” the comedy “It +Had to Be You” and a version of Charles Dickens’s “Bleak House.” For the +life of me, I can’t figure out what possible connection they have, but +Chabbert assures me that this singular value decomposition scored 4 +percent higher than Cinematch — so it must be doing something right. As +Volinsky surmised, “They’re able to tease out all of these things that +we would never, ever think of ourselves.” The machine may be +understanding something about us that we do not understand ourselves. -As the teams have grown better at predicting human preferences, the more incomprehensible their computer programs have become, even to their creators. Each team has lined up a gantlet of scores of algorithms, each one analyzing a slightly different correlation between movies and users. The upshot is that while the teams are producing ever-more-accurate recommendations, they cannot precisely explain how they're doing this. Chris Volinsky admits that his team's program has become a black box, its internal logic unknowable. +Yet it’s clear that something is still missing. Volinsky’s momentum has +slowed down significantly, as everyone else’s has. There’s some X factor +in human judgment that the current bunch of algorithms isn’t capturing +when it comes to movies like “Napoleon Dynamite.” And the problem looms +large. Bertoni is currently at 8.8 percent; he says that a small group +of mainly independent movies represents more than half of the remaining +errors in the way of winning the prize. Most teams suspect that +continuing to tweak existing algorithms won’t be enough to get to 10 +percent. They need another breakthrough — some way to digitally +replicate the love/hate dynamic that governs hard-to-pigeonhole indie +films. -There's a sort of unsettling, alien quality to their computers' results. When the teams examine the ways that singular value decomposition is slotting movies into categories, sometimes it makes sense to them — as when the computer highlights what appears to be some essence of nerdiness in a bunch of sci-fi movies. But many categorizations are now so obscure that they cannot see the reasoning behind them. Possibly the algorithms are finding connections so deep and subconscious that customers themselves wouldn't even recognize them. At one point, Chabbert showed me a list of movies that his algorithm had discovered share some ineffable similarity; it includes a historical movie, "Joan of Arc," a wrestling video, "W.W.E.: SummerSlam 2004," the comedy "It Had to Be You" and a version of Charles Dickens's "Bleak House." For the life of me, I can't figure out what possible connection they have, but Chabbert assures me that this singular value decomposition scored 4 percent higher than Cinematch — so it must be doing something right. As Volinsky surmised, "They're able to tease out all of these things that we would never, ever think of ourselves." The machine may be understanding something about us that we do not understand ourselves. - -Yet it's clear that something is still missing. Volinsky's momentum has slowed down significantly, as everyone else's has. There's some X factor in human judgment that the current bunch of algorithms isn't capturing when it comes to movies like "Napoleon Dynamite." And the problem looms large. Bertoni is currently at 8.8 percent; he says that a small group of mainly independent movies represents more than half of the remaining errors in the way of winning the prize. Most teams suspect that continuing to tweak existing algorithms won't be enough to get to 10 percent. They need another breakthrough — some way to digitally replicate the love/hate dynamic that governs hard-to-pigeonhole indie films. - -"This last half-percent really is the Mount Everest," Volinsky said. "It's going to take one of these 'aha' moments." +“This last half-percent really is the Mount Everest,” Volinsky said. +“It’s going to take one of these ‘aha’ moments.” Advertisement -[Continue reading the main story][23] +[Continue reading the main story](#story-continues-7) -**SOME COMPUTER SCIENTISTS** think the "Napoleon Dynamite" problem exposes a serious weakness of computers. They cannot anticipate the eccentric ways that real people actually decide to take a chance on a movie. +**SOME COMPUTER SCIENTISTS** think the “Napoleon Dynamite” problem +exposes a serious weakness of computers. They cannot anticipate the +eccentric ways that real people actually decide to take a chance on a +movie. -The Cinematch system, like any recommendation engine, assumes that your taste is static and unchanging. The computer looks at all the movies you've rated in the past, finds the trend and uses that to guide you. But the reality is that our cultural tastes evolve, and they change in part because we interact with others. You hear your friends gushing about "Mad Men," so eventually — even though you have never had any particular interest in early-'60s America — you give it a try. Or you go into the video store and run into a particularly charismatic clerk who persuades you that you really, really have to give "The Life Aquatic With Steve Zissou" a chance. +The Cinematch system, like any recommendation engine, assumes that your +taste is static and unchanging. The computer looks at all the movies +you’ve rated in the past, finds the trend and uses that to guide you. +But the reality is that our cultural tastes evolve, and they change in +part because we interact with others. You hear your friends gushing +about “Mad Men,” so eventually — even though you have never had any +particular interest in early-’60s America — you give it a try. Or you go +into the video store and run into a particularly charismatic clerk who +persuades you that you really, really have to give “The Life Aquatic +With Steve Zissou” a chance. -As Gavin Potter, a Netflix Prize competitor who lives in Britain and is currently in ninth place, pointed out to me, a computerized recommendation system seeks to find the common threads in millions of people's recommendations, so it inherently avoids extremes. Video-store clerks, on the other hand, are influenced by their own idiosyncrasies. Even if they're considering your taste to make a suitable recommendation, they can't help relying on their own sense of what's good and bad. They'll make more mistakes than the Netflix computers — but they're also more likely to have flashes of inspiration, like pointing you to "Napoleon Dynamite" at just the right moment. +As Gavin Potter, a Netflix Prize competitor who lives in Britain and is +currently in ninth place, pointed out to me, a computerized +recommendation system seeks to find the common threads in millions of +people’s recommendations, so it inherently avoids extremes. Video-store +clerks, on the other hand, are influenced by their own idiosyncrasies. +Even if they’re considering your taste to make a suitable +recommendation, they can’t help relying on their own sense of what’s +good and bad. They’ll make more mistakes than the Netflix computers — +but they’re also more likely to have flashes of inspiration, like +pointing you to “Napoleon Dynamite” at just the right moment. -"If you use a computerized system based on ratings, you will tend to get very relevant but safe answers," Potter says. "If you go with the movie-store clerk, you will get more unpredictable but potentially more exciting recommendations." +“If you use a computerized system based on ratings, you will tend to get +very relevant but safe answers,” Potter says. “If you go with the +movie-store clerk, you will get more unpredictable but potentially more +exciting recommendations.” -Another critic of computer recommendations is, oddly enough, Pattie Maes, the M.I.T. professor. She notes that there's something slightly antisocial — "narrow-minded" — about hyperpersonalized recommendation systems. Sure, it's good to have a computer find more of what you already like. But culture isn't experienced in solitude. We also consume shows and movies and music as a way of participating in society. That social need can override the question of whether or not we'll like the movie. +Another critic of computer recommendations is, oddly enough, Pattie +Maes, the M.I.T. professor. She notes that there’s something slightly +antisocial — “narrow-minded” — about hyperpersonalized recommendation +systems. Sure, it’s good to have a computer find more of what you +already like. But culture isn’t experienced in solitude. We also consume +shows and movies and music as a way of participating in society. That +social need can override the question of whether or not we’ll like the +movie. -"You don't want to see a movie just because you think it's going to be good," Maes says. "It's also because everyone at school or work is going to be talking about it, and you want to be able to talk about it, too." Maes told me that a while ago she rented a "Sex and the City" DVD from Netflix. She suspected she probably wouldn't really like the show. "But everybody else was constantly talking about it, and I had to know what they were talking about," she says. "So even though I would have been embarrassed if Netflix suggested '[Sex and the City][24]' to me, I'm glad I saw it, because now I get it. I know all the in-jokes." +“You don’t want to see a movie just because you think it’s going to be +good,” Maes says. “It’s also because everyone at school or work is going +to be talking about it, and you want to be able to talk about it, too.” +Maes told me that a while ago she rented a “Sex and the City” DVD from +Netflix. She suspected she probably wouldn’t really like the show. “But +everybody else was constantly talking about it, and I had to know what +they were talking about,” she says. “So even though I would have been +embarrassed if Netflix suggested ‘[Sex and the +City](http://topics.nytimes.com/top/reference/timestopics/subjects/s/sex_and_the_city/index.html?inline=nyt-classifier "More articles about Sex and the City.")’ +to me, I’m glad I saw it, because now I get it. I know all the +in-jokes.” -Maes suspects that in the future, computer-based reasoning will become less important for online retailers than social-networking tools that tap into the social zeitgeist, that let customers see, in Facebook fashion, for example, what their close friends are watching and buying. (Potter has an even more intriguing idea. He says he thinks that a recommendation system could predict cultural microtrends by monitoring news events. His research has found, for example, that people rent more movies about Wall Street when the stock market drops.) In the world of music, there are already several innovative recommendation services that try to analyze buzz — by monitoring blogs for repeated mentions of up-and-coming bands, or by sifting through millions of people's playlists to see if a new band is suddenly getting a lot of attention. +Maes suspects that in the future, computer-based reasoning will become +less important for online retailers than social-networking tools that +tap into the social zeitgeist, that let customers see, in Facebook +fashion, for example, what their close friends are watching and buying. +(Potter has an even more intriguing idea. He says he thinks that a +recommendation system could predict cultural microtrends by monitoring +news events. His research has found, for example, that people rent more +movies about Wall Street when the stock market drops.) In the world of +music, there are already several innovative recommendation services that +try to analyze buzz — by monitoring blogs for repeated mentions of +up-and-coming bands, or by sifting through millions of people’s +playlists to see if a new band is suddenly getting a lot of attention. -Of course, for a company like Netflix, there's a downside to pushing exciting-but-risky movie recommendations on viewers. If Netflix tries to stretch your taste by recommending more daring movies, it also risks annoying customers. A bad movie recommendation can waste an evening. +Of course, for a company like Netflix, there’s a downside to pushing +exciting-but-risky movie recommendations on viewers. If Netflix tries to +stretch your taste by recommending more daring movies, it also risks +annoying customers. A bad movie recommendation can waste an evening. -Is there any way to find a golden mean? When I put the question to Reed Hastings, the Netflix C.E.O., he told me he suspects that there won't be any simple answer. The company needs better algorithms; it needs breakthrough techniques like singular value decomposition, with the brilliant but inscrutable insights it enables. But Hastings also says he thinks Maes is right, too, and that social-networking tools will become more useful. (Netflix already has one, in fact — an application that lets users see what their family and peers are renting. But Hastings admits it hasn't been as valuable as computerized intelligence; only a very small percentage of rentals are driven by what friends have chosen.) Hastings is even considering hiring cinephiles to watch all 100,000 movies in the Netflix library and write up, by hand, pages of adjectives describing each movie, a cloud of tags that would offer a subjective view of what makes films similar or dissimilar. It might imbue Cinematch with more unpredictable, humanlike intelligence. +Is there any way to find a golden mean? When I put the question to Reed +Hastings, the Netflix C.E.O., he told me he suspects that there won’t be +any simple answer. The company needs better algorithms; it needs +breakthrough techniques like singular value decomposition, with the +brilliant but inscrutable insights it enables. But Hastings also says he +thinks Maes is right, too, and that social-networking tools will become +more useful. (Netflix already has one, in fact — an application that +lets users see what their family and peers are renting. But Hastings +admits it hasn’t been as valuable as computerized intelligence; only a +very small percentage of rentals are driven by what friends have +chosen.) Hastings is even considering hiring cinephiles to watch all +100,000 movies in the Netflix library and write up, by hand, pages of +adjectives describing each movie, a cloud of tags that would offer a +subjective view of what makes films similar or dissimilar. It might +imbue Cinematch with more unpredictable, humanlike intelligence. Advertisement -[Continue reading the main story][25] +[Continue reading the main story](#story-continues-8) -"Human beings are very quirky and individualistic, and wonderfully idiosyncratic," Hastings says. "And while I love that about human beings, it makes it hard to figure out what they like."__ - -Clive Thompson, a contributing writer for the magazine, writes frequently about technology. - -A version of this article appears in print on , on Page MM74 of the Sunday Magazine with the headline: If You Liked This, Sure to Love That. 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human +beings, it makes it hard to figure out what they like.”** +[Continue reading the main story](#whats-next) diff --git a/_stories/2009/10016213.md b/_stories/2009/10016213.md index 1a2cb02..44e119c 100644 --- a/_stories/2009/10016213.md +++ b/_stories/2009/10016213.md @@ -19,7 +19,18 @@ _tags: objectID: '10016213' --- -[Source](https://github.com/golang/go/issues/9 "Permalink to ") +**Have a question about this project?** Sign up for a free GitHub +account to open an issue and contact its maintainers and the community. + - Pick a username + + - Email Address + + + + - Password + +Already on GitHub? [Sign +in](/login?return_to=%2Fgolang%2Fgo%2Fissues%2Fnew) to your account diff --git a/_stories/2009/10165681.md b/_stories/2009/10165681.md index 6b533ef..20243c1 100644 --- a/_stories/2009/10165681.md +++ b/_stories/2009/10165681.md @@ -19,7 +19,272 @@ _tags: objectID: '10165681' --- -[Source](https://github.com/blog/530-how-we-made-github-fast "Permalink to ") +Now that things have settled down from the move to Rackspace, I wanted +to take some time to go over the architectural changes that we’ve made +in order to bring you a speedier, more scalable GitHub. +In my first draft of this article I spent a lot of time explaining why +we made each of the technology choices that we did. After a while, +however, it became difficult to separate the architecture from the +discourse and the whole thing became confusing. So I’ve decided to +simply explain the architecture and then write a series of follow up +posts with more detailed analyses of exactly why we made the choices we +did. +There are many ways to scale modern web applications. What I will be +describing here is the method that we chose. This should by no means be +considered the only way to scale an application. Consider it a case +study of what worked for us given our unique requirements. +### Understanding the Protocols + +We expose three primary protocols to end users of GitHub: HTTP, SSH, and +Git. When browsing the site with your favorite browser, you’re using +HTTP. When you clone, pull, or push to a private URL like +git@github.com:mojombo/jekyll.git you’re doing so via SSH. When you +clone or pull from a public repository via a URL like +`git://github.com/mojombo/jekyll.git` you’re using the Git protocol. + +The easiest way to understand the architecture is by tracing how each of +these requests propagates through the system. + +### Tracing an HTTP Request + +For this example I’ll show you how a request for a tree page such as + happens. + +The first thing your request hits after coming down from the internet is +the active load balancer. For this task we use a pair of Xen instances +running [ldirectord](http://www.vergenet.net/linux/ldirectord/). These +are called `lb1a` and `lb1b`. At any given time one of these is active +and the other is waiting to take over in case of a failure in the +master. The load balancer doesn’t do anything fancy. It forwards TCP +packets to various servers based on the requested IP and port and can +remove misbehaving servers from the balance pool if necessary. In the +event that no servers are available for a given pool it can serve a +simple static site instead of refusing connections. + +For requests to the main website, the load balancer ships your request +off to one of the four frontend machines. Each of these is an 8 core, +16GB RAM bare metal server. Their names are `fe1`, …, `fe4`. +[Nginx](http://nginx.net/) accepts the connection and sends it to a Unix +domain socket upon which sixteen +[Unicorn](http://github.com/blog/517-unicorn) worker processes are +selecting. One of these workers grabs the request and runs the +[Rails](http://rubyonrails.org/) code necessary to fulfill it. + +Many pages require database lookups. Our MySQL database runs on two 8 +core, 32GB RAM bare metal servers with 15k RPM SAS drives. Their names +are `db1a` and `db1b`. At any given time, one of them is master and one +is slave. MySQL replication is accomplished via +[DRBD](http://www.drbd.org/). + +If the page requires information about a Git repository and that data is +not cached, then it will use our [Grit](http://github.com/mojombo/grit) +library to retrieve the data. In order to accommodate our Rackspace +setup, we’ve modified Grit to do something special. We start by +abstracting out every call that needs access to the filesystem into the +Grit::Git object. We then replace Grit::Git with a stub that makes RPC +calls to our Smoke service. Smoke has direct disk access to the +repositories and essentially presents Grit::Git as a service. It’s +called Smoke because Smoke is just Grit in the cloud. Get it? + +The stubbed Grit makes RPC calls to `smoke` which is a load balanced +hostname that maps back to the `fe` machines. Each frontend runs four +[ProxyMachine](http://github.com/mojombo/proxymachine) instances behind +[HAProxy](http://haproxy.1wt.eu/) that act as routing proxies for Smoke +calls. ProxyMachine is my content aware (layer 7) TCP routing proxy that +lets us write the routing logic in Ruby. The proxy examines the request +and extracts the username of the repository that has been specified. We +then use a proprietary library called Chimney (it routes the smoke\!) to +lookup the route for that user. A user’s route is simply the hostname of +the file server on which that user’s repositories are kept. + +Chimney finds the route by making a call to +[Redis](http://code.google.com/p/redis/). Redis runs on the database +servers. We use Redis as a persistent key/value store for the routing +information and a variety of other data. + +Once the Smoke proxy has determined the user’s route, it establishes a +transparent proxy to the proper file server. We have four pairs of +fileservers. Their names are `fs1a`, `fs1b`, …, `fs4a`, `fs4b`. These +are 8 core, 16GB RAM bare metal servers, each with six 300GB 15K RPM SAS +drives arranged in RAID 10. At any given time one server in each pair is +active and the other is waiting to take over should there be a fatal +failure in the master. All repository data is constantly replicated from +the master to the slave via DRBD. + +Every file server runs two [Ernie](http://github.com/mojombo/ernie) RPC +servers behind HAProxy. Each Ernie spawns 15 Ruby workers. These workers +take the RPC call and reconstitute and perform the Grit call. The +response is sent back through the Smoke proxy to the Rails app where the +Grit stub returns the expected Grit response. + +When Unicorn is finished with the Rails action, the response is sent +back through Nginx and directly to the client (outgoing responses do not +go back through the load balancer). + +Finally, you see a pretty web page\! + +The above flow is what happens when there are no cache hits. In many +cases the Rails code uses Evan Weaver’s Ruby +[memcached](https://github.com/evan/memcached) client to query the +[Memcache](http://www.danga.com/memcached/) servers that run on each +slave file server. Since these machines are otherwise idle, we place +12GB of Memcache on each. These servers are aliased as `memcache1`, …, +`memcache4`. + +### BERT and BERT-RPC + +For our data serialization and RPC protocol we are using BERT and +BERT-RPC. You haven’t heard of them before because they’re brand new. I +invented them because I was not satisfied with any of the available +options that I evaluated, and I wanted to experiment with an idea that +I’ve had for a while. Before you freak out about NIH syndrome (or to +help you refine your freak out), please read my accompanying article +[Introducing BERT and +BERT-RPC](http://github.com/blog/531-introducing-bert-and-bert-rpc) +about how these technologies came to be and what I intend for them to +solve. + +If you’d rather just check out the spec, head over to +. + +For the code hungry, check out my Ruby BERT serialization library +[BERT](http://github.com/mojombo/bert), my Ruby BERT-RPC client +[BERTRPC](http://github.com/mojombo/bertrpc), and my Erlang/Ruby hybrid +BERT-RPC server [Ernie](http://github.com/mojombo/ernie). These are the +exact libraries we use at GitHub to serve up all repository data. + +### Tracing an SSH Request + +Git uses SSH for encrypted communications between you and the server. In +order to understand how our architecture deals with SSH connections, it +is first important to understand how this works in a simpler setup. + +Git relies on the fact that SSH allows you to execute commands on a +remote server. For instance, the command ssh tom@frost ls -al runs `ls +-al` in the home directory of my user on the `frost` server. I get the +output of the command on my local terminal. SSH is essentially hooking +up the STDIN, STDOUT, and STDERR of the remote machine to my local +terminal. + +If you run a command like git clone tom@frost:mojombo/bert, what Git is +doing behind the scenes is SSHing to `frost`, authenticating as the +`tom` user, and then remotely executing `git upload-pack mojombo/bert`. +Now your client can talk to that process on the remote server by simply +reading and writing over the SSH connection. Neat, huh? + +Of course, allowing arbitrary execution of commands is unsafe, so SSH +includes the ability to restrict what commands can be executed. In a +very simple case, you can restrict execution to +[git-shell](http://www.kernel.org/pub/software/scm/git/docs/git-shell.html) +which is included with Git. All this script does is check the command +that you’re trying to execute and ensure that it’s one of `git +upload-pack`, `git receive-pack`, or `git upload-archive`. If it is +indeed one of those, it uses [exec(3)](http://linux.die.net/man/3/exec) +to replace the current process with that new process. After that, it’s +as if you had just executed that command directly. + +So, now that you know how Git’s SSH operations work in a simple case, +let me show you how we handle this in GitHub’s architecture. + +First, your Git client initiates an SSH session. The connection comes +down off the internet and hits our load balancer. + +From there, the connection is sent to one of the frontends where +[SSHD](http://www.au.kernel.org/software/scm/git/docs/git-daemon.html) +accepts it. We have patched our SSH daemon to perform public key lookups +from our MySQL database. Your key identifies your GitHub user and this +information is sent along with the original command and arguments to our +proprietary script called Gerve (Git sERVE). Think of Gerve as a super +smart version of `git-shell`. + +Gerve verifies that your user has access to the repository specified in +the arguments. If you are the owner of the repository, no database +lookups need to be performed, otherwise several SQL queries are made to +determine permissions. + +Once access has been verified, Gerve uses Chimney to look up the route +for the owner of the repository. The goal now is to execute your +original command on the proper file server and hook your local machine +up to that process. What better way to do this than with another remote +SSH execution\! + +I know it sounds crazy but it works great. Gerve simply uses `exec(3)` +to replace itself with a call tossh git@\ \ \. +After this call, your client is hooked up to a process on a frontend +machine which is, in turn, hooked up to a process on a file server. + +Think of it this way: after determining permissions and the location of +the repository, the frontend becomes a transparent proxy for the rest of +the session. The only drawback to this approach is that the internal SSH +is unnecessarily encumbered by the overhead of encryption/decryption +when none is strictly required. It’s possible we may replace this this +internal SSH call with something more efficient, but this approach is +just too damn simple (and still very fast) to make me worry about it +very much. + +### Tracing a Git Request + +Performing public clones and pulls via Git is similar to how the SSH +method works. Instead of using SSH for authentication and encryption, +however, it relies on a server side [Git +Daemon](http://www.au.kernel.org/software/scm/git/docs/git-daemon.html). +This daemon accepts connections, verifies the command to be run, and +then uses `fork(2)` and `exec(3)` to spawn a worker that then becomes +the command process. + +With this in mind, I’ll show you how a public clone operation works. + +First, your Git client issues a +[request](http://github.com/mojombo/egitd/blob/master/docs/protocol.txt) +containing the command and repository name you wish to clone. This +request enters our system on the load balancer. + +From there, the request is sent to one of the frontends. Each frontend +runs four ProxyMachine instances behind HAProxy that act as routing +proxies for the Git protocol. The proxy inspects the request and +extracts the username (or gist name) of the repo. It then uses Chimney +to lookup the route. If there is no route or any other error is +encountered, the proxy speaks the Git protocol and sends back an +appropriate messages to the client. Once the route is known, the repo +name (e.g. `mojombo/bert`) is translated into its path on disk (e.g. +`a/a8/e2/95/mojombo/bert.git`). On our old setup that had no proxies, we +had to use a modified daemon that could convert the user/repo into the +correct filepath. By doing this step in the proxy, we can now use an +unmodified daemon, allowing for a much easier upgrade path. + +Next, the Git proxy establishes a transparent proxy with the proper file +server and sends the modified request (with the converted repository +path). Each file server runs two Git Daemon processes behind HAProxy. +The daemon speaks the pack file protocol and streams data back through +the Git proxy and directly to your Git client. + +Once your client has all the data, you’ve cloned the repository and can +get to work\! + +### Sub- and Side-Systems + +In addition to the primary web application and Git hosting systems, we +also run a variety of other sub-systems and side-systems. Sub-systems +include the job queue, archive downloads, billing, mirroring, and the +svn importer. Side-systems include GitHub Pages, Gist, gem server, and a +bunch of internal tools. You can look forward to explanations of how +some of these work within the new architecture, and what new +technologies we’ve created to help our application run more smoothly. + +### Conclusion + +The architecture outlined here has allowed us to properly scale the site +and resulted in massive performance increases across the entire site. +Our average Rails response time on our previous setup was anywhere from +500ms to several seconds depending on how loaded the slices were. Moving +to bare metal and federated storage on Rackspace has brought our average +Rails response time to consistently under 100ms. In addition, the job +queue now has no problem keeping up with the 280,000 background jobs we +process every day. We still have plenty of headroom to grow with the +current set of hardware, and when the time comes to add more machines, +we can add new servers on any tier with ease. I’m very pleased with how +well everything is working, and if you’re like me, you’re enjoying the +new and improved GitHub every day\! diff --git a/_stories/2009/10186970.md b/_stories/2009/10186970.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..1a255d1 --- /dev/null +++ b/_stories/2009/10186970.md @@ -0,0 +1,1152 @@ +--- +created_at: '2015-09-08T17:18:54.000Z' +title: An Explanation of Cricket (2009) +url: https://www.cs.purdue.edu/homes/hosking/cricket/explanation.htm? +author: Bud +points: 117 +story_text: +comment_text: +num_comments: 63 +story_id: +story_title: +story_url: +parent_id: +created_at_i: 1441732734 +_tags: +- story +- author_Bud +- story_10186970 +objectID: '10186970' + +--- +An Explanation of Cricket + +# An Explanation of Cricket + +## Contents + +**Cricket** is a team sport for two teams of eleven players each. A +formal game of cricket can last anything from an afternoon to several +days. + +Although the game play and rules are very different, the basic concept +of cricket is similar to that of baseball. Teams bat in successive +**innings** and attempt to score **runs**, while the opposing team +fields and attempts to bring an end to the batting team's innings. After +each team has batted an equal number of innings (either one or two, +depending on conditions chosen before the game), the team with the most +runs wins. + +(Note: In cricket-speak, the word "innings" is used for both the plural +and the singular. "Inning" is a term used only in baseball.) + + - Cricket Ball: + Hard, cork and string ball, covered with leather. A bit like a + baseball (in size and hardness), but the leather covering is thicker + and joined in two hemispheres, not in a tennis ball pattern. The + seam is thus like an equator, and the stitching is raised slightly. + The circumference is between 224 and 229 millimetres (8.81 to 9.00 + inches), and the ball weighs between 156 and 163 grams (5.5 to 5.75 + ounces). Traditionally the ball is dyed red, with the stitching left + white. Nowadays white balls are also used, for visibility in games + played at night under artificial lighting. + + - Cricket Bat: + Blade made of willow, flat on one side, humped on the other for + strength, attached to a sturdy cane handle. The blade has a maximum + width of 108 millimetres (4.25 inches) and the whole bat has a + maximum length of 965 millimetres (38 inches). + + - Wickets: + There are two wickets - wooden structures made up of a set of three + stumps topped by a pair of bails. These are described below. + + - Stumps: + Three wooden posts, 25 millimetres (1 inch) in diameter and 813 + millimetres (32 inches) high. They have have spikes extending from + their bottom end and are hammered into the ground in an evenly + spaced row, with the outside edges of the outermost stumps 228 + millimetres (9 inches) apart. This means they are just close enough + together that a cricket ball cannot pass between them. + + - Bails: + Two wooden crosspieces which sit in grooves atop the adjacent pairs + of stumps. + + A complete wicket looks like this: ![](wicket.gif) + + - Protective Gear: + Pads, gloves, helmet, etc for batsmen to wear to prevent injury when + struck by the ball. + + - Shoes: + Leather, usually with spiked soles for grip on the grass. + + - Clothing: + Long pants, shirt (long or short sleeved depending on the weather), + possibly a sleeveless or long-sleeved woollen pullover in cold + weather. For games played with a red ball, the clothing must be + white or cream. With a white ball, players usually wear uniforms in + solid team colours. Add a hat or cap to keep the sun off. There are + no regulations regarding identifying marks or numbers on clothing. + +A cricket field is a roughly elliptical field of flat grass, ranging in +size from about 90 to 150 metres (100-160 yards) across, bounded by an +obvious fence or other marker. There is no fixed size or shape for the +field, although large deviations from a low-eccentricity ellipse are +discouraged. In the centre of the field, and usually aligned along the +long axis of the ellipse, is the **pitch** , a carefully prepared +rectangle of closely mown and rolled grass over hard packed earth. It is +marked with white lines, called **creases**, like this: + +![](pitch.gif) + +The dimensions are in centimetres (divide by 2.54 for inches). + +The order in which the teams bat is determined by a coin toss. The +captain of the side winning the toss may elect to bat or field first. + +All eleven players of the fielding team go out to field, two players of +the batting team go out to bat. The remainder of the batting team wait +off the field for their turn to bat. Each batsman wears protective gear +and carries a cricket bat. + +The game progresses by the **bowling** of **balls**. The sequence of +events which constitutes a ball follows: + +The fielding team disperses around the field, to positions designed to +stop runs being scored or to get batsmen out. One fielder is the +**bowler**. He takes the ball and stands some distance behind one of the +wickets (i.e., away from the pitch). Another fielder is the +**wicket-keeper**, who wears a pair of webbed gloves designed for +catching the ball and protective pads covering the shins. He squats +behind the opposite wicket. The rest of the fielders have no special +equipment - gloves to assist catching the ball are not allowed to anyone +but the wicket-keeper. + +One batsman stands behind each popping crease, near a wicket. The +batsman farthest from the bowler is the **striker**, the other is the +**non-striker**. The striker stands before his wicket, on or near the +popping crease, in the batting stance. For a right-handed batsman, the +feet are positioned like this: + +![](stance.gif) + +The batsman stands with his bat held down in front of the wicket, ready +to hit the ball, which will be bowled from the other end of the pitch. +The batsman usually rests the lower end of the bat on the pitch and then +taps the bat on the pitch a few times as "warm-up" backswings. + +The non-striker simply stands behind the other popping crease, waiting +to run if necessary. The bowler takes a run-up from behind the +non-striker's wicket. He passes to one side of the wicket, and when he +reaches the non-striker's popping crease he bowls the ball towards the +striker, usually bouncing the ball once on the pitch before it reaches +the striker. (The bowling action will be described in detail later.) + +The striker may then attempt to hit the ball with his bat. If he misses +it, the wicket-keeper will catch it and the ball is completed. If he +hits it, the two batsmen may score runs (described later). When the runs +are completed, the ball is also considered completed. The ball is +considered to be in play from the moment the bowler begins his run-up. +It remains in play until any of several conditions occur (two common +ones were just described), after which it is called **dead**. The ball +is also dead if it lodges in the striker's clothing or equipment. Once +the ball is dead, it is returned to the bowler for the next **delivery** +(another name for the bowling of a ball). Between deliveries, the +batsmen may leave their creases and confer with each other. + +When one bowler has completed six balls, that constitutes an **over**. A +different member of the fielding team is given the ball and bowls the +next over - from the opposite end of the pitch. The batsmen do not +change ends, so the roles of striker and non-striker swap after each +over. Any member of the fielding team may bowl, so long as no bowler +delivers two consecutive overs. Once a bowler begins an over, he must +complete it, unless injured or suspended during the over. + +Another possibility during a ball is that a batsman may get **out**. +There are ten different methods of being out - these will be described +in detail later. If a batsman gets out, the ball is dead immediately, so +it is impossible to get the other batsman out during the same ball. The +out batsman leaves the field, and the next batsman in the team comes in +to bat. The **not out** batsman remains on the field. The order in which +batsmen come in to bat in an innings is not fixed. The batting order may +be changed by the team captain at any time, and the order does not have +to be the same in each innings. + +When ten batsmen are out, no new batsmen remain to come in, and the +innings is completed with one batsman remaining not out. The roles of +the teams then swap, and the team which fielded first gets to bat +through an innings. When both teams have completed the agreed number of +innings, the team which has scored the most runs wins. + +Whenever a batsman hits the ball during a delivery, he may score runs. A +run is scored by the batsmen running between the popping creases, +crossing over midway between them. When they both reach the opposite +crease, one run is scored, and they may return for another run +immediately. The fielding side attempts to prevent runs being scored by +threatening to **run out** one of the batsmen. + +If the batsmen are attempting to take runs, and a fielder gathers the +ball and hits a wicket with it, dislodging one or both bails, while no +batsman is behind that wicket's popping crease, then the nearest batsman +is run out. Specifically, the batsman must have some part of his body or +his bat (provided he is holding it) grounded behind (not on) the crease. + +The batsmen carry their bats as they run, and turning for another run is +accomplished by touching the ground beyond the crease with an +outstretched bat. The batsmen do not have to run at any time they think +it is unsafe - it is common to hit the ball and elect not to run. + +If the batsmen run one or three (or five\! rare, but possible), then +they have swapped ends and their striker/non-striker roles are reversed +for the next ball (unless the ball just completed is the end of an +over). + +In addition to scoring runs like this, if a batsman hits the ball so +that it reaches the boundary fence, he scores four runs, without needing +to actually run them. If a batsman hits the ball over the boundary on +the full, he scores six runs. If a four or six is scored, the ball is +completed and the batsmen cannot be run out. If a spectator encroaches +on to the field and touches the ball, it is considered to have reached +the boundary. If a fielder gathers the ball, but then steps outside or +touches the boundary while still holding the ball, four runs are scored. +If a fielder catches the ball on the full and, either during or +immediately after the catch, steps outside or touches the boundary, six +runs are scored. + +The batsmen usually stop taking runs when a fielder is throwing the ball +back towards the pitch area. If no fielder near the pitch gathers the +ball and it continues into the outfield again, the batsmen may take more +runs. Such runs are called **overthrows**. If the ball reaches the +boundary on an overthrow, four runs are scored *in addition to* the runs +taken before the overthrow occurred. + +Runs scored by a batsman, including all overthrows, are credited to him +by the scorer. The number of runs scored by each batsman is an important +statistic. + +If, while running multiple runs, a batsman does not touch the ground +beyond the popping crease before he returns for the next run, then the +umpire at that end will signal **one short**, and the number of runs +scored is reduced by one. + +Here is a full list of the ten different ways of getting out. But first, +a few necessary definitions: + +The wicket is said to be **broken** if one or both of the bails have +been dislodged and fallen to the ground. If the bails have fallen off +for any reason and the ball is still in play, then breaking the wicket +must be accomplished by pulling a stump completely out of the ground. If +the wicket needs to be broken like this with the ball, the uprooting of +the stump must be done with the ball in contact with the stump. + +The field is notionally split into two halves, along a line down the +centre of the pitch. The half of the field in front of the striker is +called the **off side**, the half behind is called the **leg side**, or +sometimes the **on side**. Thus, standing at the bowler's wicket and +looking towards a right-handed striker's wicket, the off side is to the +left and the leg side to the right (and vice-versa for a left-handed +striker). The stumps of the striker's wicket are called **off stump**, +**middle stump**, and **leg stump**, depending on which side they are +on. + +When a batsman gets out, no matter by what method, his wicket is said to +have **fallen**, and the fielding team are said to have **taken a +wicket**. + +Now, the ways of getting out: + + - Caught: + If a fielder catches the ball on the full after the batsman has hit + it with his bat. However, if the fielder catches the ball, but + either during the catch or immediately afterwards touches or steps + over the boundary, then the batsman scores six runs and is not out. + - Bowled: + If the batsman misses the ball and it hits and breaks the wicket + directly from the bowler's delivery. The batsman is out whether or + not he is behind his popping crease. He is also out bowled if the + ball breaks the wicket after deflecting from his bat or body. The + batsman is not out if the wicket does not break. + - Leg Before Wicket: + If the batsman misses the ball with his bat, but intercepts it with + part of his body when it would otherwise have hit the wicket, and + provided several other conditions (described below) are satisfied. + An umpire must adjudicate such a decision, and will only do so if + the fielding team **appeal** the decision. This is a question asked + of the umpire, usually of the form "How's that?" (or "Howzat?"), and + usually quite enthusiastic and loud. If the ball bounces outside an + imaginary line drawn straight down the pitch from the outside edge + of leg stump, then the batsman cannot be out LBW, no matter whether + or not the ball would have hit the stumps. If the batsman attempts + to play a shot at the ball with his bat (and misses) he may only be + given out LBW if the ball strikes the batsman between imaginary + lines drawn down the pitch from the outside edges of leg and off + stumps (ie. directly in line with the wicket). If the batsman does + *not* attempt to play the ball with his bat, then he may be given + out LBW without satisfying this condition, as long as the umpire is + convinced the ball would have hit the wicket. If the ball has hit + the bat before the hitting the batsman, then he cannot be given out + LBW. + - Stumped: + If a batsman misses the ball and in attempting to play it steps + outside his crease, he is out stumped if the wicket-keeper gathers + the ball and breaks the wicket with it before the batsman can ground + part of his body or his bat behind his crease. + - Run Out: + If a batsman is attempting to take a run, or to return to his crease + after an aborted run, and a fielder breaks that batsman's wicket + with the ball while he is out of the crease. The fielder may either + break the wicket with a hand which holds the ball, or with the ball + directly. It is possible for the non-striker to be run out if the + striker hits the ball straight down the pitch towards the + non-striker's wicket, and the bowler deflects the ball on to the + wicket while the non-striker is out of his crease. If the ball is + hit directly on to the non-striker's wicket, *without* being touched + by a fielder, then the non-striker is not out. If the non-striker + leaves his crease (in preparation to run) while the bowler is + running up, the bowler may run him out without bowling the ball. + Batsmen cannot be run out while the ball is dead - so they may + confer in the middle of the pitch between deliveries if they desire. + - Hit Wicket: + If, in attempting to hit a ball or taking off for a first run, the + batsman touches and breaks the wicket. This includes with the bat or + dislodged pieces of the batsman's equipment - even a helmet or + spectacles\! + - Handle The Ball: + If a batsman touches the ball with a hand not currently holding the + bat, without the permission of the fielding side. This does not + include being hit on the hand by a delivery, or any other + non-deliberate action. + - Obstructing The Field: + If a batsman deliberately interferes with the efforts of fielders to + gather the ball or effect a run out. This does not include running a + path between the fielder and the wicket so that the fielder cannot + throw the stumps down with the ball, which is quite legal, but does + include any deliberate attempt to swat the ball away. + - Hit The Ball Twice: + If a batsman hits a delivery with his bat and then deliberately hits + the ball again for any reason other than to defend his wicket from + being broken by the ball. If the ball *is* bouncing or rolling + around near the stumps, the batsman is entitled to knock it away so + as to avoid being bowled, but not to score runs. + - Timed Out: + If a new batsman takes longer than two minutes, from the time the + previous wicket falls, to appear on the field. + +These methods of getting out are listed in approximate order of how +commonly they occur. The first five are reasonably common, the last five +quite rare. The last three methods are almost never invoked. + +If a batsman is out caught, bowled, LBW, stumped, or hit wicket, then +the bowler is credited with taking the wicket. No single person is +credited with taking a wicket if it falls by any other method. + +The game is adjudicated by two **umpires**, who make all decisions on +the field and whose word is absolutely final. One umpire stands behind +the non-striker's wicket, ready to make judgements on LBWs and other +events requiring a decision. The other umpire stands in line with the +striker's popping crease, about 20 metres (20 yards) to one side +(usually the leg side, but not always), ready to judge stumpings and +run-outs at his end. The umpires remain at their respective ends of the +pitch, thus swapping roles every over. + +If the technology is available for a given match, a third umpire is +sometimes used. He sits off the field, with a television replay monitor. +If an on-field umpire is unsure of a decision concerning either a run +out or a stumping attempt, he may signal for the third umpire to view a +television replay. The third umpire views a replay, in slow motion if +necessary, until he either reaches a decision or decides that he cannot +make a clear decision. He signals the result to the on-field umpire, who +must then abide by it. If the equipment fails, the replay umpire signals +no decision. The replay umpire cannot be used for any decisions other +than run outs and stumpings. + +Whenever any decision is in doubt, the umpire must rule in favour of the +batsman. + +If the ball hits an umpire, it is still live and play continues. If it +lodges in an umpire's clothing, then it is dead. + +The game is also presided over by a **match referee**, who watches from +outside the field. The referee makes no decisions of relevance to the +outcome of the game, but determines penalties for breaches of various +rules and misconduct. In professional games, these penalties are +monetary fines. + +Arguing with an umpire's decision is simply not tolerated. Anything more +than a polite question to the umpires is heavily frowned upon and could +attract a penalty from the referee. The most serious misconduct in a +cricket match is of the order of a rude gesture to an opponent or +throwing the ball into the ground in disgust. Such gross misbehaviour +would attract large fines and possibly match suspensions. Penalties for +physical violence can only be guessed at, but would possibly be a career +suspension. + +**Extras** are runs scored by means other than when the ball is hit by a +batsman. Extras are not credited to any batsman, and are recorded by the +scorer separately. The total number of runs for the innings is equal to +the sums of the individual batsmen's scores and the extras. There are +four types of extras: **no balls, wides, byes, and leg byes**. + +The bowler must bowl each ball with part of his frontmost foot behind +the popping crease. If he oversteps this mark, he has bowled a **no +ball**. The umpire at that end calls "no ball" immediately in a loud +voice. The batsman may play and score runs as usual, and may not be out +by any means except run out, handle the ball, hit the ball twice, or +obstructing the field. Further, if the batsman does not score any runs +from the ball, one run is added to the batting team's score. Also, the +bowler must bowl an extra ball in his over to compensate. A no ball is +also called if any part of the bowler's back foot is not within the area +between the return creases. + +If the bowler bowls the ball far to one side or over the head of the +batsman, so making it impossible to score, the umpire will signal the +ball as a **wide** . This gives the batting team one run and the bowler +must rebowl the ball. The striker may not be out hit wicket off a wide +ball. + +If the striker misses a ball and the wicket-keeper fails to gather it +cleanly, the batsmen may take runs. These runs are called **byes** and +are scored as extras. + +If the striker, in attempting to play a shot, deflects the ball with +part of his body, the batsmen may attempt to take a run. Such runs are +called **leg byes** . If the striker did not attempt to play a shot with +his bat, leg byes may not be taken. The umpire adjudicates by signalling +a dead ball if the batsmen attempt to run when, in his opinion, no +attempt was made to play a shot. + +Batsmen may be run out as usual while running byes and leg-byes. If, +while running either form of bye, the ball reaches the boundary, four +byes (of the appropriate type) are scored. + +The bowling action itself has to conform to several restrictions. The +bowler's arm must be straight when the ball is bowled (so no "throwing" +is allowed). The ball must be bowled overarm, not underarm. + +The difference between 'bowling' and 'throwing': When you throw the +ball, the elbow is cocked and used to impart energy to the ball by +straightening. When a ball is bowled, the elbow joint is held extended +throughout. All the energy is imparted by rotation of the arm about the +shoulder, and possibly a little by wrist motion. For a right-handed +bowler, the action goes roughly as follows: + +After the run-up, the right foot is planted on the ground with the +instep facing the batsman. The right arm is extended backwards and down +at this stage. The left foot comes down on the popping crease as the +bowler's momentum carries him forward - he is standing essentially +left-side on to the batsman. As the weight transfers to the left foot, +the right arm is brought over the shoulder in a vertical arc. The ball +is released near the top of the arc, and the follow-through brings the +arm down and the right shoulder forward rapidly. + +Bouncing the ball on the pitch is not mandatory. It's usually done +because the movement of the ball off the pitch makes it much harder to +hit. Unbounced deliveries, or **full tosses** are almost always much +easier to hit, and mostly they are bowled accidentally. A full toss +above hip height is no ball, and an umpire who suspects that such a ball +was deliberate will give the bowler an official warning. A warning is +also given if the umpire believes the bowler is bowling at the body of a +batsman in a deliberate attempt to injure the batsman. After two +warnings a bowler is barred from bowling for the rest of the innings. + +If any rule governing the bowling action is violated, a no ball results. + +Bowlers are allowed to polish the ball by rubbing it with cloth (usually +on their trouser legs) and applying saliva or sweat to it. Any other +substance is illegal, as is rubbing the ball on the ground. Usually one +side of the ball is polished smooth, while the other wears, so that the +bowler can achieve **swing** (curving the ball through the air). It is +also illegal to roughen the ball by any means, including scraping it +with the fingernails or lifting the seam. A bowler who illegaly tampers +with the ball is immediately suspended from bowling for the rest of that +innings. + +The bowler may bowl from either side of the wicket, but must inform the +umpire and the batsmen if he wishes to change sides. Bowling with the +bowling arm closest to the wicket is called **over the wicket**, and is +most common. Bowling with the non-bowling are closest to the wicket is +called **around the wicket**. + +The bowler may abort his run-up or not let go of the ball if he loses +his footing or timing for any reason. The umpire will signal dead ball +and the ball must be bowled again. If a bowler loses his grip on the +ball during the delivery action, it is considered to be a live ball only +if it is propelled forward of the bowler. If such a ball comes to rest +in front of the striker, but any distance to the side, the striker is +entitled to walk up to the ball and attempt to hit it with his bat. The +fielding team must not touch the ball until the striker either hits it +or declines to do so. + +A delivery may also be aborted by the striker stepping away from his +stumps, if distracted by an insect or dust in the eye, for example. + +Field placements in cricket are not standardised. There are several +named field positions, and the fielding captain uses different +combinations of them for tactical reasons. There are also further +descriptive words to specify variations on the positions labelled by +simple names, so that any position in which a fielder stands can be +described. + +The following diagram shows the rough positions of all of the simply +named field positions. In this diagram, the pitch is indicated by three +'\#' marks; the striker's end is at the top. The bowler is not shown, +but would be running upwards towards the bottom end of the pitch. The +approximate field positions are marked with numbers or letters, +according to the key on the right of the diagram. The three marks: '+', +'\*', and '~' indicate that the adjective shown at the bottom of the +list can be used to describe a modification of that position, as shown +in the example. + +``` + --------------------------------- 1 wicket keeper + / \ 2 first slip + / e h \ 3 second slip + / \ 4 third slip + / \ 5 gully + + / \ 6 point +*~ + / \ 7 cover + + / 2 j \ 8 extra cover + +| 43 1 d | 9 mid-off +* +| 5 | a mid-on +* +| 6 # i c | b mid-wicket + +| # | c square leg +~ +| 7 # b | d leg slip +| 8 | e third man +| | f long off + \ 9 a / g long on + \ / h fine leg + \ / i bat-pad + \ / + deep (near boundary) + \ / * silly (near batsman) + \ f g / ~ backward (more 'up') + \ / eg. + --------------------------------- j deep backward square leg +``` + +(This picture will be replaced with an inline image when I have time.) + +Other modifiers used to qualify positions: +square: close to a line perpendicular to the pitch, through the +batsman; +fine: close to a line straight along the pitch; +short: close to the batsman. + +The only restriction on field placements is that, at the time the ball +is delivered, there must be no more than two fielders in the quadrant of +the field backward of square leg. (This rule exists mainly for +historical reasons - see the **Bodyline** section below.) + +Sometimes fielders close to the bat wear helmets for safety. When not in +use, the helmet (or any other loose equipment) may be placed on the +field (usually behind the wicket-keeper, where it is unlikely to be hit +by the ball). If any such loose fielding equipment is hit with the ball, +five runs are scored, either to the batsman who hit the ball or as the +appropriate form of byes. The ball is then considered dead and no +further runs can be taken, nor can a batsman be run out. + +If a fielder is wearing a protective helmet, and the striker hits the +ball so that it bounces off the helmet, he may not be out caught off the +rebound. If a ball rebounds from any other part of the body of a +fielder, he may be out caught if another fielder (or the same one) then +catches the ball before it hits the ground. + +In case of injury, substitutes may replace any number of fielders. A +substitute may only field - he may not bowl, nor bat. A substitute may +not keep wicket. A substituted player must return to the field as soon +as he is able to resume playing without danger. + +If a batsman is injured, he may retire and resume his innings when fit +again, so long as his team's innings is not over. If a batsman is too +injured to bat when no other batsmen remain to come in after a wicket +falls, his innings must be forfeited and his team's innings ends. If a +batsman is able to bat, but not run, then another player may run for +him. The runner must wear the same equipment as the batter, and performs +all his running. The injured non-runner must remain behind his crease at +all times when the ball is in play or risk being run out, even if his +runner is safely behind a crease. + +If a bowler is injured during an over and cannot complete it, another +bowler must bowl the remaining deliveries in that over. The bowler +chosen to finish the over must not be the bowler who bowled the previous +over, and must not bowl the over immediately following either. + +A player may not leave the field for injury unless the injury is +sustained on the field. An injured player who takes the field may not +leave because of his pre-existing injury, unless it is clearly +aggravated further on the field. + +Play is suspended at the umpires' discretion for rain. Light rain is +usually tolerated, though nothing heavier, because of the possibility of +damage to the pitch. If the players are off the field, they must remain +off until the rain has stopped completely. During rain the pitch is +covered with waterproof material to protect it. Often the bowlers' +run-ups and an area around the pitch are also covered. + +During very windy conditions, sometimes the bails will tend to blow off +the top of the stumps. If this becomes a problem, the umpires can decide +to play without bails. In this case, the wicket does not need to be +broken by uprooting a stump, and the umpires must take full +responsibility for deciding, in a reasonable manner, whether the wicket +is broken or not. + +The umpires signal various events with gestures, as follows: + + - Out: + When a batsman is out, the umpire making the decision raises one + hand above his head, with the index finger extended. + - Not Out: + There is no formal signal to indicate that a batsman is not out. The + umpire can either shake his head 'no' or not signal at all. + - Four: + A four scored by the ball reaching the boundary is signalled by an + arm extended horizontally and waved briefly back and forth in a + horizontal arc. + - Six: + A six is signalled by raising both arms straight over the head. + - No Ball: + A no ball is signalled by holding an arm out horizontally. + - Wide: + A wide is signalled by holding both arms out horizontally. + - Byes: + Runs scored as byes are signalled by raising one arm over the head, + palm open. + - Leg Byes: + Leg byes are signalled by raising one leg and tapping the knee with + one hand. + - Dead Ball: + If the umpire has to signal dead ball to prevent the players from + assuming that the ball is still alive, he waves both arms across + each other in front of his abdomen. + - One Short: + One short is signalled by touching the tip of one hand to the same + shoulder. + - TV Replay: + If an umpire wishes the third umpire to make a decision based on a + TV replay, he signals by drawing a large square shape in the air + with both hands, spreading them out high in the air in front of him, + bringing them down, and then together again. + +Cricket is played in two very distinct forms. The first is limited +duration, in which a specific number of hours of playing time are +allocated and each team plays two innings. + +The second is limited overs, in which each team plays one innings of a +pre-determined number of overs. + +First class cricket matches are the most prestigious games, played at a +professional level. The top level games are international **Test +matches**, played between countries. There are also domestic first class +cricket competitions. First class matches are of limited duration. Test +matches will be described first, then any differences for other first +class matches will be described. + +Test matches are played over five days, with six hours of play each day. +Each day's play is divided into three **sessions** of two hours each, +with a 40 minute break between the first two session for lunch, and a 20 +minute tea break between the last two sessions. A short drinks break is +taken once an hour, or more often in very hot weather. Play usually goes +from 11:00 local time to 18:00, although this may be varied if sunset +occurs early. The scheduled close of play time is called **stumps**. +Test matches are never played under artificial lighting. + +Each team has two innings, usually played in alternating order. Each +innings is over when either ten batsmen are out, or the captain of the +batting side **declares** the innings closed (for strategic reasons, +more later). When all the innings are completed, the team with the most +runs wins. If there is a tie, the result stands (this is rare - it has +only ever happened twice). + +If by the end of the final day's play all the innings are not completed, +the game is a **draw**, no matter who appeared to be "winning". Thus the +strategic importance of sometimes declaring an innings closed, in order +to have enough time to dismiss the other team and so win the game. + +The order of the innings alternates except when the **follow-on** is +enforced. This can occur if the second team to bat in the first innings +scores 200 or more runs fewer than the first team. The captain of the +first team may then ask the second team to follow on: to bat its second +innings immediately, and defer his own team's second innings until +afterwards. + +Whenever a change of innings occurs during a session, a ten minute break +is taken. If the end of an innings occurs within ten minutes of the end +of the first or second sessions, the ten minute break is lost and the +scheduled interval is shifted to begin immediately. If the end of an +innings occurs within ten minutes of stumps, the day's play ends early. + +Test matches are played with a red cricket ball. A new ball is used for +the beginning of each innings. The same ball must be used throughout the +innings, being replaced only in the following cases: + +1. The captain of the bowling team may elect to take a new ball at any + time after 80 overs have been bowled with the previous ball. +2. If the ball is lost, it is replaced. +3. If the ball is damaged, either by the stitching coming undone or the + ball becoming clearly non-spherical, it is replaced. + +In cases 2 and 3, the ball must be replaced by a previously used ball of +similarly worn condition to the old ball, as chosen by the umpires. If +the ball is ever hit so that a spectator gathers it, the spectator must +return it so that play can continue. + +On each day of play in a Test match, a minimum of 90 overs must be +bowled. If the bowling team has not bowled the required minimum by the +scheduled stumps time, play is extended until the required number of +overs have been bowled. Whenever an innings ends, the number of overs to +be bowled is recalculated, disregarding the number of overs bowled so +far during the same day. The required minimum is calculated to be the +number of minutes of play remaining, divided by 4 and rounded up. On the +last day of play, this formula is used up until one hour before stumps, +then fifteen overs are added to the result. If extra overs are bowled +before the time one hour before stumps on the final day, then there +still must be a minimum of fifteen overs bowled after the time one hour +before stumps. All of these conditions are recalculated for time lost +due to poor weather, at a rate of one over per 4 minutes of lost time. +If a day's play ends early because of poor weather conditions, all +calculations are reset for the next day. + +If there is heavy cloud cover, the umpires may decide that the ambient +light level is too low and that the batsmen may be in danger because of +difficulty in sighting the ball. If so, they **offer the light** to the +batsmen, who may agree to leave the field or may decide to play on. If +the light deteriorates further, the umpires will offer again. If the +batsmen decide to leave the field and the light improves, the umpires +make the decision to resume play. + +If a fielder leave the field for any reason and then returns during the +same innings, he may not bowl until he has been on the field again for +as much time as he spent off the field. + +Test matches are played in Series between two of the official Test +nations. A Test Series consists of a set number of matches, from one to +six, all of which are played to completion, even if one team gains an +unassailable lead in the Series. Series of three or five matches are +most common. Some pairs of nations compete against one another for a +perpetual trophy. If a Series between two such nations is drawn, the +holder of the trophy retains it. + +Non-Test first class cricket differs from Test cricket in only a few +respects. A non-Test first class match is usually three or four days +long, not five. In a four-day game, the cut-off figure for enforcing the +follow-on is 150 or more runs behind the first team. The formula used to +determine the minimum number of overs bowled in a non-Test first class +match may be different to that used for a Test match; there is no +standard regulation. + +Non-Test first class competitions are usually round-robins amongst +several domestic teams. Other first class matches include single games +between visiting international sides and domestic first class teams. + +One-day cricket differs significantly from first class cricket. A +one-day match is played on a single day. Either a red or a white cricket +ball may be used, and play under artificial lighting is common. + +Each team gets only one innings, and that innings is restricted to a +maximum number of overs. Usual choices for the number of overs are 50, +55, or 60. Recently, an abbreviated form of the games has been developed +called Twenty20, with a maximum of 20 overs per innings. Each innings is +complete at the end of the stipulated number of overs, no matter how +many batsmen are out. If ten batsmen are out before the full number of +overs are bowled, the innings is also over. If the first team's innings +ends in this manner, the second team still has its full number of overs +to score the required runs. The timing of the innings and the break +between them are not regulated. + +Whichever team scores the most runs wins. A tied score stands. There is +no draw result. If the match is washed out, so that the innings are not +played, the game is declared a no-result. + +In each innings, each bowler is restricted to bowling a maximum number +of overs equal to one fifth of the total number of overs in the innings. +Either a single new ball is used for each innings, or two new balls +which are alternated between overs. (This is often done with white balls +because they wear much faster than red balls.) New balls are never taken +during an innings, but replacements for lost or damaged balls are taken +as in first class matches. + +In case of rain interruption to the first innings, the number of overs +for each innings is recalculated so that they will be the same. If rain +interrupts the second innings, making it impossible for an equal number +of overs to be bowled, the number of runs scored by the first team is +adjusted to compensate. The standard adjustment formula now used is the +"Duckworth-Lewis method", which is arcane even for cricket aficionados +and too complicated to describe here. There is also a predetermined +number of overs that must be bowled in each innings for any result to be +considered valid; if this limit is not reached the game is a no-result. + +Because of the emphasis on scoring runs quickly, wide balls and high +balls (called as no ball) are enforced much more strictly in one-day +cricket. + +One-day competitions are played either as Series between pairs of +international teams, round-robin competitions among groups of +international teams, or round-robins among domestic teams. A World Cup +one-day competition is played between all the Test nations every four +years. + +All of the rules of cricket have been described above, as well as some +other information which is not "rules", such as names of fielding +positions. The rest of this file concerns other information that is +useful to know, but not actually "rules". + +There are two basic approaches to bowling: fast and spin. A fast bowler +bowls the ball as fast as practicable, attempting to defeat the batsman +with its pace. If the ball also swings in the air, or **seams** (moves +sideways) off the pitch because of bouncing on the seam, it can be very +difficult to play. A spin bowler has a more ambling run-up and uses +wrist or finger motion to impart a spin to the ball. The ball then spins +to one side when it bounces on the pitch, thus also hopefully causing it +to be hard to hit. Fast bowlers are generally used with a new ball, +while spin bowlers get more spin with a worn ball. There is also medium +pace bowling, which concentrates more on swing and seam than pace. + +A swing bowler will hold the seam of the ball at a certain angle and +attempt to release the ball so that it spins with the seam at a constant +angle. With one side of the ball polished and the other rough, +differential air pressure will cause it to swing in the air. + +A seam bowler attempts to keep the seam vertical, so that the ball hits +the seam when it bounces on the pitch and deflects in its path either to +the right or left. + +A fast bowler can also pull his fingers down one side of the ball as he +lets it go, imparting a small amount of sideways spin to the ball. This +can cause the ball to move sideways off the pitch. Such a delivery is +called a **leg-cutter** if the ball moves from the leg side to the off +side of a right-handed batsman, or an **off-cutter** if moves from the +off to the leg. A specialist spin bowler can get a lot more spin that a +fast bowler bowling cutters, however. + +There are two types of spin bowling: **off-spin**, and **leg-spin**. +Imagine holding a ball in your right hand and, for simplicity's sake, +throwing it. If you twist your hand in a clockwise direction on release, +then the spin on the ball will be such that when it bounces it will spin +to your right. This is essentially off-spin bowling (so called because, +to a right-handed batsman, the ball spins *from* the off side to the leg +side). The off-spin delivery itself is called either an **off-spinner** +or an **off-break**. An off-spin bowler will sometimes not spin the ball +so much, putting more pace on the delivery. Such a delivery is called an +**arm-ball**. + +Now imagine twisting the ball anticlockwise and releasing it from the +palm so that it 'rolls' over the base of the little finger. This gives +the ball spin in the opposite direction, so it spins left when it +bounces. This is basic leg-spin (because to a right-handed batsman it +spins from leg to off). The basic leg-spin delivery is called a +**leg-spinner** or **leg-break**. + +The interesting thing about leg-spin is that if you cock your wrist at +various angles you can in fact, with the same basic bowling action, +produce spin in different directions. With the wrist cocked a little +towards the inside of the arm, you can produce **top-spinners**. Go +further and you actually end up producing spin in the same direction as +an off-spinner. A ball bowled in this way by a leg-spin bowler is called +a **wrong 'un**, or sometimes a **googly** . Probably trickiest of all +is a ball bowled with the hand in the same position as a top-spinner, +but released from *under* the hand, thereby gaining back-spin. This ball +is called a **flipper**. + +(Mike Whitaker tells me that a flipper is actually bowled from the back +of the hand like a normal leg-spinner, but with the forearm twisted +outwards, so the ball spins about a vertical axis. I'm not sure which of +these is correct, so I'm mentioning both here\!) + +Mike has also kindly supplied a graphic which attempts to show the arm +and wrist action of the different leg-spin deliveries. Sorry for those +with only ASCII browsers, but this is too difficult to show in ASCII\! +For those of you with graphical browsers, the following diagram shows a +view of a (right-handed) leg-spinner's arm, from in front (i.e., +batsman's point of view). The rotation of the ball out of the hand is +the same in each case, with the ball spinning with the seam as an +"equator". + +![](legspin.gif) + +So right handed spinners fall into two classes: off-spinners, with their +simple off-spin and arm-ball deliveries; and leg-spinners, with their +leg-spinners, top-spinners, wrong 'uns, and flippers. Leg-spinners are +naturally much more difficult to bat against, because of the great +variety of balls they can produce, but they are actually rarer than +off-spinners because it is so much more difficult to bowl reasonably +accurately with the leg-spin hand action. + +For left-handed spin bowlers there is a whole different system of +nomenclature\! + +A left-handed bowler who uses the same action as an off-spinner is +called an **orthodox** spinner. Such bowlers are not uncommon. A +left-hander who bowls with the same action as a leg-spinner is called an +**unorthodox** spinner - and these are the rarest bowlers in cricket. +The left-handed analogue of the leg-spin delivery (which spins the +opposite way, of course) is called an unorthodox spinner. The +top-spinner and flipper retain their names. And the left-handed analogue +of the wrong 'un is called a **Chinaman** . + +Typical bowling speeds are: + + - Fast bowler: + 130-140 km/h (80-90 mph) + - Medium pace bowler: + 100-130 km/h (60-80 mph) + - Spin bowler: + 70-90 km/h (45-55 mph) + +Bowlers also make use of the state of the pitch, which is quite crucial +to the game, and is one of the things the commentators look at in great +detail before the game begins. Because it's a natural surface, there are +usually small inconsistencies in its flatness, hardness and elasticity. +Over a multi-day game, or even over a single day, these become more +pronounced, so it often gets more difficult to bat as the game +progresses. Spin bowlers in particular often find that they get much +more spin from an old pitch than a freshly prepared one. + +Some of the different types of balls bowled have special names: + + - Bouncer: + A ball bounced short so that it bounces high, usually chest height + or higher as it passes the batsman. + - Yorker: + A ball bounced very close to the batsman's crease. This is difficult + to score from and often gets batsmen out, but is difficult to bowl + without accidentally bowling a full toss. + +The different types of shots a batsman can play are described by names: + + - Block: + A defensive shot played with the bat vertical and angled down at the + front, intended to stop the ball and drop it down quickly on to the + pitch in front of the batsman. + - Drive: + An offensive shot played with the bat sweeping down through the + vertical. The ball travels swiftly along the ground in front of the + striker. A drive can be an **on drive**, **straight drive**, **off + drive**, or **cover drive**, depending in which direction it goes. + - Cut: + A shot played with the bat close to horizontal, which hits the ball + somewhere in the arc between cover and gully. + - Edge, or Glance: + A shot played off the bat at a glancing angle, through the slips + area. + - Leg Glance: + A shot played at a glancing angle behind the legs, so that it goes + in the direction of fine leg. + - Pull: + A horizontal bat shot which pulls the ball around the batsman into + the square leg area. + - Sweep: + Like a pull shot, except played with the backmost knee on the + ground, so as to hit balls which bounce low. + - Hook: + Like a pull shot, but played to a bouncer and intended to hit the + ball high in the air over square leg - hopefully for six runs. + - French Cut: + An attempt at a cut shot which hits the bottom edge of the bat and + goes into the area behind square leg. + - Reverse Sweep: + A sweep with the bat reversed, into the point area. + +Most of these shots can also be **lofted**, in an attempt to hit the +ball over the close fielders (or the boundary). The batting strokes can +be divided into two categories: **Straight bat** and **cross bat**. The +straight bat shots are played with the bat held close to the vertical, +and are the blocks, drives and glances. Cross bat shots are played with +the bat held more horizontally, like a baseball bat. These include cuts, +pulls, sweeps and hooks. + +The following terms are used more informally and are not standard: + + - Hoik: + A wild swing intended only to hit the ball as hard and as far as + possible, usually with little or no control. + - Agricultural Shot: + Any shot played with very little skill. + +If a bowler completes an over without any runs being scored from it, it +is termed a **maiden**. + +If a batsman gets out without scoring any runs, he is said to be out for +a **duck** . The origin of this term is unclear, but commonly rumoured +to be because the '0' next to his name on the scorecard resembles a duck +egg. A batsman out for a duck while facing his first delivery of the +innings is out for a **golden duck**. + +The runs scored while two batsmen bat together are called their +**partnership**. There are ten partnerships per completed innings, +labelled from **first-wicket partnership** to **tenth-wicket +partnership**, in order. + +A **nightwatchman** is a batsman who comes in to bat out of order +towards the end of a day's play in a multi-day game, in order to +'protect' better batsmen. To elucidate, the batting order in an innings +is usually arranged with two specialists **openers** who begin the +innings, then the rest of the batsmen in order of skill, best to worst. +The job of the openers is to bat for a while against the new ball. A +brand new ball is very hard and bouncy, and fast bowlers can use this to +great advantage and can often get batsmen out. So it is harder to bat +against a new ball. It is also somewhat difficult to begin batting. A +new batsman is more likely to get out than one who has been on the field +and scoring runs for a while. + +Now, in a multi-day game, it sometimes happens that a team's innings +will have only a few men out towards the end of the day's play. If a +batsman gets out with about half an hour or less until stumps, the +batting captain will sometimes send in a poor batsman next instead of a +good one. The idea is that the poor batsman (the nightwatchman) will +last 20 minutes and so protect the good batsman from having to make a +fresh start that evening and again the next morning. It is essentially a +sacrifice ploy. Of course, it can backfire dangerously if the +nightwatchman does get out before stumps. The nightwatchman is a tactic +that is used about 50% of the time when the appropriate situation arises +(which itself occurs perhaps once every 4 or 5 games). It just depends +on how the captain feels at the time. + +A **sightscreen** is a large screen positioned on the boundary so that +it forms a backdrop behind the bowler, so that the striker can see the +ball clearly. Sightscreens are white when a red ball is used, and black +for a white ball. + +A **rabbit** is a player (almost invariably a bowler, but sometimes a +wicket-keeper) who is a very poor batsman. A **ferret** is an +*extremely* poor batsman (so called because he "goes in after the +rabbits"). + +The following statistics are recorded: + + - Batsmen: + number of runs scored, time spent batting, number of balls faced, + how out (and by which bowler and catcher if appropriate). + - Bowlers: + number of overs bowled, number of maidens bowled, number of wickets + taken, number of runs conceded (i.e., scored off his bowling). + - Team: + extras, total runs, wickets fallen, overs bowled, total at each fall + of wicket. + +A single innings scorecard might look like this: + + Australia - 1st Innings + M. Taylor c Richardson b Snell 12 + M. Slater lbw Donald 57 + D. Boon b de Villiers 68 + M. Waugh not out 184 + A. Border c Rhodes b Donald 0 + S. Waugh c Snell b de Villiers 34 + I. Healy c Snell b de Villiers 6 + S. Warne run out 35 + M. Hughes st Richardson b Cronje 10 + C. McDermott b de Villiers 41 + G. McGrath lbw de Villiers 9 + Extras 16 + Total 141 overs 10 for 472 + + Bowling - South Africa + O M R W + A. Donald 40 5 106 2 + F. de Villiers 37 7 85 5 + R. Snell 32 3 126 1 + C. Simons 15 0 82 0 + H. Cronje 17 2 73 1 + FOW: 25, 99, 164, 164, 225, 238, 315, 345, 446, 472 + + The abbreviations are: + b bowled by + c caught by + st stumped by + O overs + M maidens + R runs + W wickets + FOW fall of wicket + +The team score is usually given as "(number of wickets) for (number of +runs)" in Australia. In England, New Zealand, and some other countries +it is given as "(number of runs) for (number of wickets)". Bowling +figures are sometimes printed in shortened form, for example: Donald +40-5-106-2, de Villiers 37-7-85-5, etc. + +The partnership scores can be seen from the differences between +successive fall of wicket scores. + +Good performances are considered to be: + + - A batsman scoring 50, or 100, or multiples thereof. + - A partnership adding 50, or 100, or multiples thereof. + - A bowler taking five wickets in a single innings. + - A bowler taking ten wickets in a two innings match. (This is an + excellent performance and a relatively rare feat.) + - A bowler taking a **hat trick**, i.e., three wickets in three + successive balls (perhaps in different overs). This is even more + rare. + +Each of these tasks is usually greeted with enthusiastic applause from +the spectators. The crowd also usually applauds significant events such +as: any wicket falling, a six, a four, a good over from a bowler (one +that the batsmen have great difficulty playing safely), a good athletic +effort from a fielder to gather the ball, the innings total reaching a +multiple of 50. + +The number of runs scored in an innings average about 3 per over for a +first class match, and 4 per over in a one-day match. The variation in +these numbers can be quite large, differences of up to one run per over +being not uncommon. In a first class match, a captain makes his decision +on declaring the innings closed based on the remaining time in the match +and the size of his team's lead. He will try to allow as much time as +possible to bowl the opposition out, while ensuring they do not have +enough time to score enough runs to win. + +Over a single player's career, the two most important statistics are: + + - Batting Average: + The aggregate number of runs scored divided by the number of times + the batsman has been out. The higher, the better. + - Bowling Average: + The aggregate runs scored against a bowler divided by the number of + wickets taken. The lower, the better. + +Each of these averages is kept separately for Test cricket, first class +cricket in general, and one-day cricket. A batting average above 30 is +very good, 40 excellent, and 50 is legendary. Mention must be made of +the Australian batsman Sir Donald Bradman, whose career average was a +record 99.94, far and away the greatest batsman ever to play the game. A +bowling average below 25 is considered excellent. + +The official Test Cricket nations are currently: England, Australia, +West Indies, South Africa, India, Pakistan, New Zealand, Sri Lanka, +Zimbabwe, and Bangladesh. + +The West Indies is actually a consortium of Caribbean countries: +Barbados; Jamaica; Guyana; The Republic of Trinidad and Tobago; Antigua +and Barbuda; St. Kitt's-Nevis; Dominica; St. Lucia; St. Vincent and the +Grenadines; Montserrat; and Grenada, Carriacou and Petite Martinique. + +Minor cricketing nations (which do not play Test cricket, but do compete +for a place in the World Cup One-Day competition) include: Ireland, +Kenya, Fiji, Canada, The Netherlands, USA. + +The most famous Test cricket Series is The Ashes, played every two years +between Australia and England. The Ashes trophy is a small urn +containing "the ashes of English cricket" (in reality the ashes of a set +of bails), which "died" in a match in 1882 when Australia beat England +for the first time. The Ashes are currently held by Australia, although +the physical trophy is kept permanently in a room at Lord's Cricket +Ground in London. + +The most infamous event in cricket was the 1932-33 English tour of +Australia - the **Bodyline** tour. The English team used a new tactic to +get batsmen out, by bowling at their bodies and placing many fielders in +short fielding positions backward of square leg. As the batsmen fended +the ball away in an effort to protect themselves, the ball often flew +off the edge of the bat into the waiting hands of the fielders, getting +the batsman out caught. The English referred to this tactic as "Leg +Theory", but the Australians, angry that the English bowlers were aiming +at their bodies, christened it "Bodyline". + +Several Australian batsmen were injured because of this, some seriously. +The English tactics cause a diplomatic row between the countries. After +the tour was over, cricket officials introduced the rules against +dangerous bowling, and the restriction of no more than two fielders +backward of square leg. + +Last updated: 1-Dec-2009. diff --git a/_stories/2009/10373969.md b/_stories/2009/10373969.md index 5a2b0bb..a2e425f 100644 --- a/_stories/2009/10373969.md +++ b/_stories/2009/10373969.md @@ -19,7 +19,291 @@ _tags: objectID: '10373969' --- -[Source](https://gizmodo.com/5391271/giz-explains-why-every-country-has-a-different-fing-plug "Permalink to ") +![](https://i.kinja-img.com/gawker-media/image/upload/s--o_uihaNT--/c_scale,fl_progressive,q_80,w_800/18mn6p37pcy2gjpg.jpg) +Ok, maybe not every country, but with at least 12 different sockets in +widespread use it sure as hell feels like it to anyone who's ever +traveled. So why in the world, literally, are there so many? Funny +story\! +The more you look at the writhing orgy of plugs in the world, the +sillier it seems. If you buy a phone charger at the airport in Florida, +you won't be able to use it when your flight lands in France. If you buy +a three-pronged adapter for le portable in Paris, you might not be able +to plug it in when your train drops you off in Germany. And when your +flight finally bounces to a stop on the runway in London, get ready to +buy a comically large adapter to tap into the grid there. But that's +cool\! You can take the same adapter to Singapore with you\! And parts +of Nigeria\! Oh yeah, and if said charger doesn't support 240v power +natively, make sure you buy a converter, or else it might explode. +Advertisement + +And aside from a few oases, like the fledgling standardization of the +Type C Europlug in the European Union, this is the picture all across +the world. + +I'd hesitate to refer to power sockets as a part of a country's culture, +because they're plugs—they don't really mean anything. But in the sense +that they're probably not going to change until they're forcefully +replaced with something wildly new, it's kind of what they +are. + +## What's Out There + +![](data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAAAAACH5BAEKAAEALAAAAAABAAEAAAICTAEAOw==) + +Advertisement + +Click for larger + +There are around 12 major plug types in use today, each of which goes by +whatever name their adoptive countries choose. For our purposes, we're +going to stick with [U.S. Department of Commerce International Trade +Administration +names](http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&ct=res&cd=1&ved=0CA4QFjAA&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ita.doc.gov%2Fmedia%2Fpublications%2Fpdf%2Fcurrent2002final.pdf&ei=MnboSqTTHtTdlAf9wpj9Bw&usg=AFQjCNHsDqIMskNIE2F4O-rd6A2_rd8Z8Q&sig2=8E4MDqwwsI1Q9AC6ypW99g) +(PDF), which are neat and alphabetical: America uses A and B plugs\! +Turkey uses type C\! Etc. Thing is, these names are arbitrary: the +letters are just assigned to make talking about these plugs less +confusing—they don't actually mandate anything. They're not standards, +in any meaningful sense of the word. + +And even worse, these sockets are divided into two main groups: the +110-120v fellas, like the the ones we use in North America, and the +220-240v plugs, like most of the rest of the world uses. It's not that +the plugs and sockets themselves are somehow tied to one voltage or +another, but the devices and power grids they're attached to probably +are. + +Advertisement + +## How This Happened + +The history of the voltage split is a pretty short story, and one you've +probably heard bits and pieces of before. Edison's early experiments +with direct current (DC) power in the late 1800s netted the first useful +mainstream applications for electricity, but suffered from a tendency to +lose voltage over long distances. Nonetheless, when Nikola Tesla +invented a means of long-distance transmission with alternating current +(AC) power, he was doing so in direct competition with Edison's +technology, which happened to be 110v. He stuck with that. By the time +people started to realize that 240v power might not be such a bad idea +for the US, it was the 1950s, and switching was out of the question. + +Words were +[exchanged](http://muller.lbl.gov/teaching/Physics10/old%20physics%2010/physics%2010%20notes/Electrocution.html), +elephants were +[electrocuted](http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bowA1xUZpmA), and +eventually, the debate was settled: AC power was the only option, and +national standardization [started in +earnest](http://illumin.usc.edu/article.php?articleID=181&page=4). +Westinghouse Electric, the first company to buy Tesla's patents for +power transmission, settled on an easy standard: 60Hz, and 110v. In +Europe—Germany, specifically—a company called BEW exercised their +monopoly to push things a little further. They settled somewhat +arbitrarily on a 50Hz frequency, but more importantly jacked voltages up +to 240, because, you know, MORE POWER. And so, the 240 standard slowly +spread to the rest of the continent. All this happened before the turn +of the century, by the way. It's an old +beef. + +Advertisement + +![](data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAAAAACH5BAEKAAEALAAAAAABAAEAAAICTAEAOw==) + + +For decades after the first standards, newfangled el-ec-trick-al +dee-vices had to be patched directly into your house's wiring, which +today sounds like a terrifying prospect. Then, too, it was: Harvey +Hubbell's "[Separable Attachment +Plug](http://www.google.com/patents?id=mQBKAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&f=false)"—which +essentially allowed for non-bulb devices to be plugged into a light +socket for power—was designed with a simple intention: + +> My invention has for its object to...do away with the possibility of +> arcing or sparking in making connection, so that electrical power in +> buildings may be utilized by persons having no electrical knowledge or +> skill. + +Advertisement + +Thanks, Harvey\! He later adapted the original design to include a +two-pronged flat-blade plug, which itself was refined into a +three-pronged plug—the third prong is for grounding—by a guy named +Philip Labre in 1928. This design saw a few changes over the years too, +but it's pretty much the type Americans use now. + +Here's the thing: Stories like that of Harvey Hubbell's plug were +unfolding all over the world, each with their own twist on the concept. +This was before electronics were globalized, and before +country-to-country plug compatibility really mattered. The voltage +debate had been pared down to two(ish) which made life a bit easier for +power companies to set up shop across the world. \[Note: There are +technically more than two voltages in use, which reader Michael +clarifies rather wonderfully +[here](http://gizmodo.com/5391271/giz-explains-why-every-country-has-a-different-fing-plug#c16371711)\]. +But once they were set up, who cared what style plug their customers +used? What were you gonna do, lug your new vacuum cleaner across the +ocean on a boat? Early efforts to standardize the plug by organizations +like the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) had trouble +taking hold—who were they to tell a country which plug to adopt?—and +what little progress they did make was shattered by the Second World +War. + +Advertisement + +![](data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAAAAACH5BAEKAAEALAAAAAABAAEAAAICTAEAOw==) + +Take [the British +plug](http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&ct=res&cd=1&ved=0CAkQFjAA&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.theiet.org%2Fpublishing%2Fwiring-regulations%2Fmag%2F2006%2F18-plugorigin.cfm%3Ftype%3Dpdf&ei=H27oStjRLc7blAfU4JyGCA&usg=AFQjCNGzEqKJY-io2tvy0dSMjH0JNT_Zqg&sig2=c2vwWsPc74IcCcFTApD3mQ). +Today, it's a huge, three-pronged beast with a fuse built right into +it—one of the weirder plugs in the world, to anyone who's had a chance +to use one. But it isn't Britain's first plug, or even their first +proprietary plug. In the early 1900s the Isles' cords were capped with +the British Standard 546, or Type D hardware, which actually include six +subversions of its own, all of which were physically incompatible with +one another. This worked out fine until the Second World War, when they +got the shit bombed out of them by Germany, and had to rebuild entire +swaths of the country in the midst of a severe shortage of basic +building supplies— copper, in particular. This made rewiring stuff an +expensive proposition, so the government was all, "we need a new plug, +stat\!" + +Here was the pitch: Instead of wiring each socket to a fuseboard +somewhere in the house, which would take quite a bit of wire, why not +just daisy-chain them together on one wire, and put the fuses in each +plug? Hey presto, copper shortage, solved. This was called the British +Standard 1363, and you can still find them dangling from wires today. +Notice how even in the 1940s and '50s—practically yesterday\!—the UK was +devising a new type of plug without any regard for the rest of the +world. + +Advertisement + +Now imagine every other developed country in the world doing the same +thing, with a totally different set of historical circumstances. That's +how we ended up here, blowing fuses in our Paris hotel rooms because our +travel adapters' voltage warning were inexplicably written in Cyrillic. +Oh, and it gets +worse. + +![](data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAAAAACH5BAEKAAEALAAAAAABAAEAAAICTAEAOw==) + +You know how the British had control over India for, like, ninety years? +Well, along with exporting cricket and inflicting unquantifiable +cultural damage, they showed the subcontinent how to plug stuff in, the +British way\! Problem is, they left in 1947. The BS 1363 plug—the new +one—wasn't introduced until 1946, and didn't see widespread adoption +until a few years later. So India still uses the old British plug, as +does Sri Lanka, Nepal and Namibia. Basically, the best way to guess +who's got which socket is to brush up on your WW1/WW2 history, and to +have a deep passion for postcolonial literature. No, really. + +Advertisement + +## Is There Any Hope for the Future? + +No. I talked to Gabriela Ehrlich, head of communications for the +International Electrotechnical Commission, which is still doing its +thing over in Switzerland, and the outlook isn't great. "There are +standards, and there is a plug that has been designed. The problem is, +really, everyone's invested in their own system. It's difficult to get +away from that." + +When Holland's International Questions Commission first teamed up with +the IEC to form a committee to talk about this exact problem in 1934. +Meetings were stalled, there was some resistance, blah blah blah, and +the committee was delayed until 1940. Then a war—a World War, +even\!—threw a stick in the committee's spokes, (or a fork in their +socket? No?), and the issue was effectively dropped until about 1950, +when the IEC realized that there were "limited prospects for any +agreement even in this limited geographical region (Europe)." It'd be +expensive to tear out everyone's sockets, and the need didn't feel that +urgent, I guess. + +Advertisement + +Plus, the IEC can't force anyone to do anything—they're sort of like the +UN General Assembly for electronics standards, which means they can +issue them, but nobody has to follow them, no matter how good they are. +As time passed, populations grew, and hundred of millions of sockets +were installed all over the world. The prospect of switching hardware +looked more and more ridiculous. Who would pay for it? Why would a +country want to change? Wouldn't the interim, with mixed plug standards +in the same country, be +dangerous? + +![](data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAAAAACH5BAEKAAEALAAAAAABAAEAAAICTAEAOw==) + + +But the IEC didn't quite abandon hope, quietly pushing for a standard +plug for decades after. And they even came up with some\! In the late +80s, they came up with the IEC 60906 plug, a little, round-pronged +number for 240v countries. Then they codified a flat-pronged plug for +110-120v countries, which happened to be perfectly compatible with the +one we already use in the US. As of today, Brazil is the only country +that plans to has adopt\[ed\] the IEC 60906, so, uh, there's +that. + +Advertisement + +![](data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAAAAACH5BAEKAAEALAAAAAABAAEAAAICTAEAOw==) + +I asked Gabriela if there was any hope, any hope at all, for a future +where plugs could just get along: + +> Maybe in the future you'll have induction charging; you have a device +> planted into your wall, and you have a \[wireless\] charging +> mechanism. + +Advertisement + +Last time I saw a wireless power prototype was at the Intel Developer +Forum in 2008, and it [looked like a science fair +project](http://gizmodo.com/5039871/intel-says-theyve-taken-a-huge-leap-in-wireless-power-tech): +It consisted of two giant coils, just inches apart, which transmitted +enough electricity to light a 40w light bulb. So yeah, we'll get this +power plug problem all sorted by oh, let's say, 2050? + +She took care to emphasize that the standards are still there for people +to adopt, so countries could jump onboard, but even in a best-case +scenario, for as long as we use wires we'll have at least two standards +to deal with—a 110-120v flat plug and the 240-250v round plug. For now, +the Commission is taking a more practical approach to dealing with the +problem, issuing specs for things like laptop power bricks, which can +handle both voltages and come with interchangeable lead wires, as well +as as something near and dear to our hearts: "We have to move forward +into plugs we can really control," Gabriela told me. She means new stuff +like USB, which is turning into the de facto gadget charging standard. +The most we can hope for is a future where AC outlets are invisible to +us, sending power to newer, more universal plugs. My phone'll charge via +USB just as well in Sub-Saharan Africa as it will in New York City; just +give me the port. + +Advertisement + +In the meantime, this means that things really aren't going to change. +Your Walmart shaver will still die if you plug it into a European socket +with a bare adapter, Indians will still be reminded of the British +Empire every time they unplug a laptop, Israel will have their own plug +which works nowhere else in the world, and El Salvador, without a +national standard, will continue to wrestle with 10 different kinds of +plug. + +In other words, sorry. + +Many thanks to Gabriela Ehrlich and [the IEC](http://www.iec.ch/), as +well as the [Institute for Engineering and +Technology](http://www.theiet.org/) and Wiring Matters +([PDF](http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&ct=res&cd=1&ved=0CAkQFjAA&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.theiet.org%2Fpublishing%2Fwiring-regulations%2Fmag%2F2006%2F18-plugorigin.cfm%3Ftype%3Dpdf&ei=H27oStjRLc7blAfU4JyGCA&usg=AFQjCNGzEqKJY-io2tvy0dSMjH0JNT_Zqg&sig2=c2vwWsPc74IcCcFTApD3mQ)), +and USC Viterbi's illumin +[review](http://illumin.usc.edu/article.php?articleID=181&page=4). Map +adapted from [Wikimedia +Commons](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:WorldMap_PlugTypeInUse.png) +by Intern Kyle + +Advertisement + +Still something you wanna know? Still can't figure out how to plug in +your Bosnian knockoff iPhone? Send questions, tips, addenda or +complaints to tips@gizmodo.com, with "Giz Explains" in the subject line. diff --git a/_stories/2009/10575444.md b/_stories/2009/10575444.md index 604937c..c90d09e 100644 --- a/_stories/2009/10575444.md +++ b/_stories/2009/10575444.md @@ -19,7 +19,73 @@ _tags: objectID: '10575444' --- -[Source](https://www.reuters.com/article/2009/07/20/us-nasa-tapes-idUSTRE56F5MK20090720 "Permalink to ") +WASHINGTON (Reuters) - The original recordings of the first humans +landing on the moon 40 years ago were erased and re-used, but newly +restored copies of the original broadcast look even better, NASA +officials said on Thursday. +This NASA file image shows Apollo 11 U.S. astronaut Buzz Aldrin standing +on the Moon, next to the Lunar Module "Eagle" (R), July 20, 1969. +REUTERS/Neil Armstrong-NASA/Handout +NASA released the first glimpses of a complete digital make-over of the +original landing footage that clarifies the blurry and grainy images of +Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin walking on the surface of the moon. +The full set of recordings, being cleaned up by Burbank, +California-based Lowry Digital, will be released in September. The +preview is available at [www.nasa.gov](http://www.nasa.gov). + +NASA admitted in 2006 that no one could find the original video +recordings of the July 20, 1969, landing. + +Since then, Richard Nafzger, an engineer at NASA’s Goddard Space Flight +Center in Maryland, who oversaw television processing at the +ground-tracking sites during the Apollo 11 mission, has been looking for +them. + +The good news is he found where they went. The bad news is they were +part of a batch of 200,000 tapes that were degaussed — magnetically +erased — and re-used to save money. + +“The goal was live TV,” Nafzger told a news conference. + +The Apollo 11 Lunar Module ascent stage, with astronauts Neil A. +Armstrong and Edwin E. Aldrin Jr. aboard, is photographed from the +Command and Service Modules in lunar orbit in this July, 1969 file +photo. REUTERS/NASA NASA + +“We should have had a historian running around saying‘I don’t care if +you are ever going to use them — we are going to keep them’,” he said. + +They found good copies in the archives of CBS news and some recordings +called kinescopes found in film vaults at Johnson Space Center. + +Lowry, best known for restoring old Hollywood films, has been digitizing +these along with some other bits and pieces to make a new rendering of +the original landing. + +Slideshow + +(8 Images) + +Nafzger does not worry that using a Hollywood-based company might fuel +the fire of conspiracy theorists who believe the entire lunar program +that landed people on the moon six times between 1969 and 1972 was +staged on a movie set or secret military base. + +“This company is restoring historic video. It mattered not to me where +the company was from,” Nafzger said. + +“The conspiracy theorists are going to believe what they are going to +believe,” added Lowry Digital Chief Operating Officer Mike Inchalik. + +And there may be some unofficial copies of the original broadcast out +there somewhere that were taken from a NASA video switching center in +Sydney, Australia, the space agency said. Nafzger said someone else in +Sydney made recordings too. + +“These tapes are not in the system,” Nafzger said.“We are certainly open +to finding them.” + +Editing by Philip Barbara diff --git a/_stories/2009/10654794.md b/_stories/2009/10654794.md index 390473d..291b15e 100644 --- a/_stories/2009/10654794.md +++ b/_stories/2009/10654794.md @@ -19,7 +19,112 @@ _tags: objectID: '10654794' --- -[Source](https://oscarbonilla.com/2009/05/visualizing-bayes-theorem/ "Permalink to ") +One of the easiest ways to understand probabilities is to think of them +in terms of [Venn Diagrams](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venn_Diagram). +You basically have a Universe with all the possible outcomes (of an +experiment for instance), and you are interested in some subset of them, +namely some event. Say we are studying cancer, so we observe people and +see whether they have cancer or not. If we take as our Universe all +people participating in our study, then there are two possible outcomes +for any particular individual, either he has cancer or not. We can then +split our universe in two events: the event “people with cancer” +(designated as \\(A\\)), and “people with no cancer” (or \\(\\neg A\\)). +We could build a diagram like this: +![venn a](/assets/img/bayes/venn-a.png) +So what is the probability that a randomly chosen person has cancer? It +is just the number of elements in \\(A\\) divided by the number of +elements of \\(U\\) (the Universe). We denote the number of elements of +\\(A\\) as \\(|A|\\), and read it the cardinality of \\(A\\). And define +the probability of \\(A\\), \\(P(A)\\), as +\\\[P(A) = \\frac{|A|}{|U|}\\\] + +Since \\(A\\) can have at most the same number of elements as \\(U\\), +the probability \\(P(A)\\) can be at most one. + +Good so far? Okay, let’s add another event. Let’s say there is a new +screening test that is supposed to measure something. That test will be +“positive” for some people, and “negative” for some other people. If +we take the event B to mean “people for which the test is positive”. We +can create another diagram: + +![venn b](/assets/img/bayes/venn-b.png) + +So what is the probability that the test will be “positive” for a +randomly selected person? It would be the number of elements of \\(B\\) +(cardinality of \\(B\\), or \\(|B|\\)) divided by the number of elements +of \\(U\\), we call this \\(P(B)\\), the probability of event \\(B\\) +occurring. + +\\\[P(B) = \\frac{|B|}{|U|}\\\] + +Note that so far, we have treated the two events in isolation. What +happens if we put them together? + +![venn last](/assets/img/bayes/venn-last.png) + +We can compute the probability of both events occurring (\\(AB\\) is a +shorthand for \\(A∩B\\)) in the same way. + +\\\[P(AB) = \\frac{|AB|}{|U|}\\\] + +But this is where it starts to get interesting. What can we read from +the diagram above? + +We are dealing with an entire Universe (all people), the event \\(A\\) +(people with cancer), and the event \\(B\\) (people for whom the test is +positive). There is also an overlap now, namely the event \\(AB\\) which +we can read as “people with cancer and with a positive test result”. +There is also the event \\(B - AB\\) or “people without cancer and with +a positive test result”, and the event \\(A - AB\\) or “people with +cancer and with a negative test result”. + +Now, the question we’d like answered is “given that the test is positive +for a randomly selected individual, what is the probability that said +individual has cancer?”. In terms of our Venn diagram, that translates +to “given that we are in region \\(B\\), what is the probability that we +are in region \\(AB\\)?” or stated another way “if we make region +\\(B\\) our new Universe, what is the probability of \\(A\\)?”. The +notation for this is \\(P(A|B)\\) and it is read “the probability of A +given B”. + +So what is it? Well, it should be + +\\\[P(A|B) = \\frac{|AB|}{|B|}\\\] + +And if we divide both the numerator and the denominator by \\(|U|\\) + +\\\[P(A|B) = \\frac{\\frac{|AB|}{|U|}}{\\frac{|B|}{|U|}}\\\] + +we can rewrite it using the previously derived equations as + +\\\[P(A|B) = \\frac{P(AB)}{P(B)}\\\] + +What we’ve effectively done is change the Universe from \\(U\\) (all +people), to \\(B\\) (people for whom the test is positive), but we are +still dealing with probabilities defined in \\(U\\). + +![venn justb](/assets/img/bayes/venn-justb.png) + +Now let’s ask the converse question “given that a randomly selected +individual has cancer (event \\(A\\)), what is the probability that the +test is positive for that individual (event \\(AB\\))?”. It’s easy to +see that it is + +\\\[P(B|A) = \\frac{P(AB)}{P(A)}\\\] + +Now we have everything we need to derive Bayes' theorem, putting those +two equations together we get + +\\\[P(A|B)P(B) = P(B|A)P(A)\\\] + +which is to say \\(P(AB)\\) is the same whether you’re looking at it +from the point of view of \\(A\\) or \\(B\\), and finally + +\\\[P(A|B) = \\frac{P(B|A)P(A)}{P(B)}\\\] + +Which is Bayes' theorem. I have found that this Venn diagram method lets +me re-derive Bayes' theorem at any time without needing to memorize it. +It also makes it easier to apply it. diff --git a/_stories/2009/11037982.md b/_stories/2009/11037982.md index 8ad7551..00c41e0 100644 --- a/_stories/2009/11037982.md +++ b/_stories/2009/11037982.md @@ -19,7 +19,51 @@ _tags: objectID: '11037982' --- -[Source](https://www.wisdomandwonder.com/link/3022/why-church-chose-lambda "Permalink to ") +Todd +[asked](http://list.cs.brown.edu/pipermail/plt-scheme/2009-May/033320.html) +“Why \[did Church choose\] lambda and not some other Greek letter?”. +Here are three +answers: +### 1 +[Matthias](http://list.cs.brown.edu/pipermail/plt-scheme/2009-May/033321.html): +> The story is that in the 10s and 20s, mathematicians and logicians +> used ^ as a notation for set abstraction, as in ^i : i is prime. +> Church used ^\` (i.e., a primed version of this symbol) for function +> abstraction, because functions are just sets with extra properties. +> The first type setter/secretary read it as λ and Church was fine with. +> True or not? I don’t know but it’s fun. + +### 2 + +[This +paper](http://www-maths.swan.ac.uk/staff/jrh/papers/JRHHislamWeb.pdf) +(link provided by Dave Herman +[here](http://list.cs.brown.edu/pipermail/plt-scheme/2009-May/033322.html)): + +> (By the way, why did Church choose the notation “λ”? In \[Church, +> 1964, §2\] he stated clearly that it came from the notation “xˆ” used +> for class-abstraction by Whitehead and Russell, by first modifying +> “xˆ” to “ˆx” to distinguish function abstraction from +> class-abstraction, and then changing “ˆ” to “λ” for ease of printing. +> This origin was also reported in \[Rosser, 1984, p.338\]. On the other +> hand, in his later years Church told two enquirers that the choice was +> more accidental: a symbol was needed and “λ” just happened to be +> chosen.) + +### 3 + +[This +paper](http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.26.7908) +(link provided by Dave Herman +[here](http://list.cs.brown.edu/pipermail/plt-scheme/2009-May/033322.html)): + +> We end this introduction by telling what seems to be the story how the +> letter ‘λ’ was chosen to denote function abstraction. In \[100\] +> Principia Mathematica the notation for the function f with f(x) = 2x + +> 1 is 2xˆ +1. Church originally intended to use the notation xˆ .2x+1. +> The typesetter could not position the hat on top of the x and placed +> it in front of it, resulting in ˆx.2x + 1. Then another typesetter +> changed it into λx.2x + 1. diff --git a/_stories/2009/11492038.md b/_stories/2009/11492038.md index 944a7ed..b4adb94 100644 --- a/_stories/2009/11492038.md +++ b/_stories/2009/11492038.md @@ -19,7 +19,93 @@ _tags: objectID: '11492038' --- -[Source](https://www.quakenet.org/articles/99-trust-is-not-transitive-or-why-irc-over-ssl-is-pointless "Permalink to ") +Written by **slug** on **Monday 04 May 2009** +Several people have asked why we haven't added SSL support to snircd, +there's two reasons: + - we haven't got around to it. + - we don't think it adds any real security to IRC. The first should be + believable\! Here's our reasoning behind the second: +First some assumptions: + + - The IRC network has only one server, and it's not compromised, and + doesn't log anything. + - The server has an SSL certificate, with a fingerprint posted + somewhere out of band to enable people to verify it is correct. + - Each server only supports IRC over SSL, i.e. there's no support for + unencrypted connections. + - Each client has a uncompromised machine with logging turned off. Say + I create a new channel: \#secret, and I invite two of my friends + (Bob and Carol). + +Now since I'm a paranoid computer scientist with a background in +security, I verified that the certificate the ircd presented at connect +was valid by checking its fingerprint, as did Bob. + +Our connections to the ircd look like this: + + ircd <---SSL---(securenet.org:real)---> Me + ircd <---SSL---(securenet.org:real)---> Bob + +Since we verified the fingerprint of the ircd's certificate we are +certain there's no man in the middle. + +My second friend, Carol didn't bother verifying the certificate, she +just clicked 'accept' in the dialog blindly (as most users do with SSL +warnings, c.f. "Crying Wolf: An Empirical Study of SSL Warning +Effectiveness", "Why Phishing Works"). + +Unbeknown to Carol, she's being attacked by Eve, Carol's connection +looks like + this: + + ircd <---SSL---(securenet.org:real)---> Eve <---SSL---(securenet.org:fake)---> Carol + +Eve presented her own certificate to Carol rather than that of the ircd, +and can decrypt Carol's data, process it, then re-encrypt it and send it +off to the ircd. + +The ircd has no way of knowing that it is not talking to Carol, Carol is +responsible for verifying the ircd's fingerprint, and she couldn't be +bothered. + +Clearly if Carol joins \#secret, Eve can also see everything that's +going on too, and the other users of the channel have no way of knowing +their chat has been compromised. + +Now why doesn't SSH and HTTPS suffer from the same problems? + +Well they do, but the incentives are different. + +If your connection to your SSH server gets MITM'ed, you are the only one +to lose out as your server/shell gets rooted. + +If your connection to your bank gets MITM'ed, you are the only one to +lose out as the phisherman steal all your money. + +If your connection to an IRC server gets MITM'ed, you likely not to even +care, but other people in the channel probably do as they're talking +about naughty things. + +A lot of people will say that hey, that's not a problem, it's better +than plaintext. + +We don't agree, and feel that the false sense of security SSL provides +is worse than no SSL at all. + +If you'd like encryption the way we suggest to implement it is on top of +IRC, several scripts say they provide this functionality. + +As to how easy this sort of attack is, you can download software that'll +do it for you for HTTPS sites, this uses various techniques such as ARP +spoofing. + +I'm sure there's something kicking around on efnet that'll do it for IRC +with two clicks of a mouse. + +Another obvious example of SSL IRC being broken is mibbit, which allows +you to connect to an SSL'ed IRC server over HTTP. The ircd doesn't know +it's really going over unencrypted HTTP, so it'll even let you into SSL +only channels\! diff --git a/_stories/2009/11636002.md b/_stories/2009/11636002.md index 474ee04..ad0d560 100644 --- a/_stories/2009/11636002.md +++ b/_stories/2009/11636002.md @@ -19,7 +19,121 @@ _tags: objectID: '11636002' --- -[Source](https://rob-bell.net/2009/06/a-beginners-guide-to-big-o-notation/ "Permalink to ") +# A beginner's guide to Big O notation +Big O notation is used in Computer Science to describe the performance +or complexity of an algorithm. Big O specifically describes the +worst-case scenario, and can be used to describe the execution time +required or the space used (e.g. in memory or on disk) by an algorithm. +Anyone who's read [Programming +Pearls](https://www.amazon.com/Programming-Pearls-2nd-Jon-Bentley/dp/0201657880/ref=as_li_ss_tl?&imprToken=9UGy2f7-qyMHt7vt50adpw&slotNum=0&s=books&ie=UTF8&qid=1515001049&sr=1-1&keywords=programming+pearls&linkCode=ll1&tag=robbell-20&linkId=8d74e3c36a9652808aa9a59442b49036) +or any other Computer Science books and doesn’t have a grounding in +Mathematics will have hit a wall when they reached chapters that mention +O(N log N) or other seemingly crazy syntax. Hopefully this article will +help you gain an understanding of the basics of Big O and Logarithms. +As a programmer first and a mathematician second (or maybe third or +fourth) I found the best way to understand Big O thoroughly was to +produce some examples in code. So, below are some common orders of +growth along with descriptions and examples where possible. + +## O(1) + +O(1) describes an algorithm that will always execute in the same time +(or space) regardless of the size of the input data set. + + bool IsFirstElementNull(IList elements) + { + return elements[0] == null; + } + +## O(N) + +O(N) describes an algorithm whose performance will grow linearly and in +direct proportion to the size of the input data set. The example below +also demonstrates how Big O favours the worst-case performance scenario; +a matching string could be found during any iteration of the `for` loop +and the function would return early, but Big O notation will always +assume the upper limit where the algorithm will perform the maximum +number of iterations. + + bool ContainsValue(IList elements, string value) + { + foreach (var element in elements) + { + if (element == value) return true; + } + + return false; + } + +## O(N2) + +O(N2) represents an algorithm whose performance is directly proportional +to the square of the size of the input data set. This is common with +algorithms that involve nested iterations over the data set. Deeper +nested iterations will result in O(N3), O(N4) etc. + + bool ContainsDuplicates(IList elements) + { + for (var outer = 0; outer < elements.Count; outer++) + { + for (var inner = 0; inner < elements.Count; inner++) + { + // Don't compare with self + if (outer == inner) continue; + + if (elements[outer] == elements[inner]) return true; + } + } + + return false; + } + +## O(2N) + +O(2N) denotes an algorithm whose growth doubles with each additon to the +input data set. The growth curve of an O(2N) function is exponential - +starting off very shallow, then rising meteorically. An example of an +O(2N) function is the recursive calculation of Fibonacci numbers: + + int Fibonacci(int number) + { + if (number <= 1) return number; + + return Fibonacci(number - 2) + Fibonacci(number - 1); + } + +## Logarithms + +Logarithms are slightly trickier to explain so I'll use a common +example: + +[Binary search](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_search) is a +technique used to search sorted data sets. It works by selecting the +middle element of the data set, essentially the median, and compares it +against a target value. If the values match it will return success. If +the target value is higher than the value of the probe element it will +take the upper half of the data set and perform the same operation +against it. Likewise, if the target value is lower than the value of the +probe element it will perform the operation against the lower half. It +will continue to halve the data set with each iteration until the value +has been found or until it can no longer split the data set. + +This type of algorithm is described as **O(log N)**. The iterative +halving of data sets described in the binary search example produces a +growth curve that peaks at the beginning and slowly flattens out as the +size of the data sets increase e.g. an input data set containing 10 +items takes one second to complete, a data set containing 100 items +takes two seconds, and a data set containing 1000 items will take three +seconds. Doubling the size of the input data set has little effect on +its growth as after a single iteration of the algorithm the data set +will be halved and therefore on a par with an input data set half the +size. This makes algorithms like binary search extremely efficient when +dealing with large data sets. + +This article only covers the very basics or Big O and logarithms. For a +more in-depth explanation take a look at their respective Wikipedia +entries: [Big O Notation](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_O_notation), +[Logarithms](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logarithm). diff --git a/_stories/2009/11932675.md b/_stories/2009/11932675.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6d807f2 --- /dev/null +++ b/_stories/2009/11932675.md @@ -0,0 +1,402 @@ +--- +created_at: '2016-06-19T12:00:26.000Z' +title: Advanced programming languages (2009) +url: http://matt.might.net/articles/best-programming-languages/ +author: ZeljkoS +points: 219 +story_text: +comment_text: +num_comments: 202 +story_id: +story_title: +story_url: +parent_id: +created_at_i: 1466337626 +_tags: +- story +- author_ZeljkoS +- story_11932675 +objectID: '11932675' + +--- +## Some advanced languages + +## Haskell + +[Haskell](http://www.haskell.org/) excels as a language for writing a +compiler, an interpreter or a static analyzer. I don't do a lot of +artificial intelligence, natural-language processing or machine-learning +research, but if I did, Haskell would be my first pick there too. +([Scheme](#scheme) would be a strong second.) Haskell is the only widely +used pure, lazy functional programming language. + +Like Standard ML and OCaml, Haskell uses an extension of +[Hindley-Milner-style](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Type_inference) type +inference, which means that the programmer doesn't have to write down +(most) types, because the compiler can infer them. It has been my +experience that it is difficult to get a bug through the Hindley-Milner +type system. In fact, experienced programmers become adept at encoding +correctness constraints directly into the Haskell type system. A common +remark after programming in Haskell (or ML) for the first time is that +once the program compiles, it's almost certainly correct. + +As a pure language, side effects (mutations of variables or data +structures and I/O) are prohibited in the language proper. This has +forced the language's designers to think seriously about how to provide +such functionality. Their answer, +[monads](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monads_in_functional_programming), +enables one to perform side effects and I/O inside a safely constrained +framework. Naturally, Haskell lets users define their own monads, and +now the programmer has access to monads for continuations, transducers, +exceptions, logic programming and more. + +Aside from being pure, Haskell is also lazy. That is, an expression in +Haskell is not evaluated until (and unless) its result is required to +make forward computational progress. Some have argued that the promised +efficiency gains from laziness haven't materialized, but that's not of +concern for me. I appreciate laziness for the increase in +expressiveness. In Haskell, it is trivial to describe data structures of +infinite extent. Where other languages permit mutually recursive +functions, Haskell permits mutually recursive values. + +More pragmatically, I have found laziness useful in encoding option +types, where utilizing the empty case should always nuke the program. In +Haskell, you can avoid creating an option type and instead use `error` +to produce the empty value. Because of laziness, every type in Haskell +automatically has two additional values: non-termination and error. Used +well, this eliminates much tedious pattern matching. + +My favorite feature of Haskell is type classes. Haskell's type system +allows the compiler to infer the correct code to run based on its type +context, even when that type context is also inferred. The example of +type classes that got me excited was bounded lattices. A [bounded +lattice](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lattice_\(order\)) is a +mathematical structure that has a least element (`bot`), a greatest +element (`top`), a partially ordered less than relation (`<:`), a join +operation (`join`) and a meet operation (`meet`). + +In Haskell, one can define a bounded lattice as a type class: + +``` + class Lattice a where + top :: a + bot :: a + (<:) :: a -> a -> Bool + join :: a -> a -> a + meet :: a -> a -> a + +``` + +This says that if type `a` is a `Lattice`, then `a` supports the +expected operations. + +This says that if typeis a, thensupports the expected operations. + +What I really love about Haskell is that it lets the programmer define +conditional instances of a class; for example: + +``` + instance (Ord k, Lattice a) => Lattice (Map k a) where + bot = Map.empty + top = error $ "Cannot be represented." + f <: g = Map.isSubmapOfBy (<:) f g + f `join` g = Map.unionWith join f g + f `meet` g = Map.intersectionWith meet f g + +``` + +This rule says that if the type `k` is an instance of an order (class +`Ord`) and the type `a` is an instance of a lattice, then a map from `k` +to `a` is also an instance of a lattice. + +This rule says that if the typeis an instance of an order (class) and +the typeis an instance of a lattice, then a map fromtois also an +instance of a lattice. + +As another example, you can easily turn the Cartesian product of two +lattices into a lattice: + +``` + instance (Lattice a, Lattice b) => Lattice (a,b) where + bot = (bot,bot) + top = (top,top) + (a1,b1) <: (a2,b2) = (a1 <: a2) || + (a1 == a2 && b1 <: b2) + (a1,b1) `join` (a2,b2) = (a1 `join` a2, b1 `join` b2) + (a1,b1) `meet` (a2,b2) = (a1 `meet` a2, b1 `meet` b2) + +``` + +It's easy to make the "natural" lifting of the lattice operations, +relations and elements to almost any data structure. The end result is +that if you use the expression `bot` or the relation `<:` anywhere in +your code, Haskell can infer, at compile-time, their "appropriate" +meaning based on the type of the expression (which it can also infer). + +The ML languages have functors to play the role of type classes, but +they lack the ad hoc polymorphism support of Haskell's type classes. +Having spent a considerable amount of time programming in the MLs and in +Haskell, the practical ramifications of inference on expressiveness +cannot be overstated. + +### Favorite features + +### Resources + + - [haskell.org](http://www.haskell.org/). Downloads, documentation, + tutorials and more. + - [The Glasgow Haskell Compiler (GHC)](http://www.haskell.org/ghc/). + GHC provides robust support for Haskell on multiple platforms. + - [Kathleen Fisher's + slides](http://www.cs.tufts.edu/~kfisher/teaching.html) for her + class at Stanford are a good introduction to Haskell. + - [Real World Haskell](http://book.realworldhaskell.org/read/). As the + title implies, this book pays attention to using Haskell for real + applications (e.g., web programming), instead of just for compilers, + interpreters and program analyzers. + [![](images/51xQwhNrj6L._SL160_.jpg)](http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0596514980?ie=UTF8&tag=ucmbread-20&linkCode=as2&camp=1789&creative=390957&creativeASIN=0596514980)![](http://www.assoc-amazon.com/e/ir?t=aboutmatthewm-20&l=as2&o=1&a=0596514980) + +## Scala + +[Scala](http://www.scala-lang.com/) is a rugged, expressive, strictly +superior replacement for Java. Scala is the programming language I use +for tasks like writing web servers or IRC clients. In contrast to +[OCaml](#ml), which was a functional language with an object-oriented +system grafted to it, Scala feels more like a true hybrid. That is, +object-oriented programmers should be able to start using Scala +immediately, picking up the functional parts only as they choose to. + +I learned of Scala from [Martin +Odersky](http://icwww.epfl.ch/~odersky/)'s invited talk at POPL 2006. At +the time, I saw functional programming as strictly superior to +object-oriented programming, so I didn't see a need for a language that +fused functional and object-oriented programming. (That was probably +because all I wrote back then were compilers, interpreters and static +analyzers.) + +The need for Scala didn't become apparent to me until I wrote a +concurrent HTTPD from scratch to support long-polled AJAX for +[yaplet](http://www.yaplet.com/). In order to get multicore support, I +wrote the first version in Java. I don't think Java is all that bad, and +I can enjoy well-done object-oriented programming. As a functional +programmer, however, the lack of terse support for functional +programming features (like higher-order functions) grates on me. So, I +gave Scala a chance. + +Scala runs on the JVM, so I could gradually port my existing project +into Scala. It also means that Scala, in addition to its own rather +[large library](http://www.scala-lang.org/node/216), has access to the +entire Java library as well. This means you can get real work done in +Scala. + +As I started using Scala, I became impressed by how tightly the +functional and object-oriented worlds had been blended. In particular, +Scala has a powerful case class/pattern-matching system that addressed +annoyances lingering from my experiences with Standard ML, OCaml and +Haskell: the programmer can decide which fields of an object should be +matchable (as opposed to being forced to match on all of them), and +variable-arity arguments are permitted. In fact, Scala even allows +programmer-defined patterns. + +I write a lot of functions that operate on abstract syntax nodes, so +it's nice to match on only the syntactic children, while ignoring fields +for annotations or source location. + +The case class system lets one split the definition of an algebraic data +type across multiple files or across multiple parts of the same file. +Scala also supports well-defined multiple inheritance through class-like +constructs called traits. And, Scala allows operator overloading; even +function application and collection update can be overloaded. Used well, +this tends to make my Scala programs more intuitive and concise. + +One feature that turns out to save a lot of code, in the same way that +type classes save code in Haskell, is implicits. You can imagine +implicits as an API for the error-recovery phase of the type-checker. In +short, when the type checker needs an X but got a Y, it will check to +see if there's a function marked implicit in scope that converts Y into +X; if it finds one, it automatically applies the implicit function to +repair the type error. + +Implicits make it possible to look like you're extending the +functionality of a type for a limited scope. For example, suppose you +want to "add" an `escapeHTML()` method to type `String`. You can't +modify the definition of `String`, but with implicits, you can make it +so that when type-checking fails on `myString.escapeHTML()`, it will +look for an implicit function in scope that can convert a `String` +object into a type that supports the `escapeHTML()` method. + +Implicits also allow cleaner domain-specific embedded languages (DSELs) +in Scala, since they allow you to transparently map Scala literals (like +`3` or `"while"`) into literals in the DSEL. + +### Favorite features + + - [JVM](http://java.sun.com/docs/books/jvms/) support. + - Intelligent [operator + overloading](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operator_overloading). + - Extensive library. + - Case classes/pattern matching. + - Extensible pattern matching. + - Multiple inheritance via traits. + - Rich, flexible object constructors. + - Implicit type conversions. + - [Lazy fields and + arguments](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lazy_evaluation). + +### Related blog articles + +### Resources + + - [scala-lang.org](http://www.scala-lang.org/). Downloads, + documentation, tutorials and more. + - [Programming in + Scala](http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0981531601?ie=UTF8&tag=ucmbread-20&linkCode=as2&camp=1789&creative=390957&creativeASIN=0981531601)![](http://www.assoc-amazon.com/e/ir?t=ucmbread-20&l=as2&o=1&a=0981531601) + by Martin Odersky (creator of Scala), Lex Spoon, and Bill Venners is + great as both an introduction and a reference. + +## Standard ML and OCaml + +The ML family is a sweet spot in the language-design space: strict, +side-effectable and Hindley-Milner type-inferred. This makes these +languages practical for real-world projects that need high performance +and stronger guarantees of correctness. The ML family has gained +traction with aerospace engineers (for its support of bug-free code) and +with programmers in the financial industry (for the same reason). +Standard ML was the first functional language I learned well, so I still +remember being shocked by its expressiveness. + +Today, OCaml seems to be the popular ML to learn, but there is at least +one convincing argument in SML's favor: [MLton](http://www.mlton.org/). +MLton really delivers on the thesis that functional languages offer the +best opportunities at optimization. As a whole-program optimizing +compiler, I've yet to see another compiler match its performance. I once +created OpenGL bindings for MLton to toy around with 3D graphics, and +the resulting program ran faster than the C++-based model I had used as +a reference, with just 10% of the code. + +The functor system in SML, while more verbose than Haskell's type class +system, is more flexible. Once you instantiate a type class `T` for a +kind/type `k` in Haskell, you can't instantiate that type class again +for that kind/type. With functors, each instance gets its own name, so +you can have multiple instances of a given functor for the same type. +It's rarely been the case that I needed such expressiveness, but it has +been nice in those cases where I have. + +The other modern branch on the ML family tree, OCaml, is good to know +because there is a large community invested in it, which means that +there are a lot of libraries available. The OCaml tool-chain is also +rich, with interpreters, optimizing compilers and byte-code compilers +available to the developer. + +Because the ML languages are more expressive than all the mainstream +languages, but they still permit side effects, they make a nice stop on +the way to learning Haskell. In Haskell, programmers not yet well versed +in functional program design may find they repeatedly code themselves +into a corner, where they don't have access to the monad that they need. +The MLs keep the side effects "escape hatch" open to patch over +incomplete design, which prevents projects from coming to a sudden, +unexpected "refactor-or-abort" decision point. One useful measure of a +language is how well it tolerates a bad or incomplete design for the +software system, since design is something that inevitably changes as a +program evolves. In this regard, the MLs still have the upper hand over +Haskell. + +### Favorite features + + - Flex records. (SML only) + - Pattern matching. + - [Structures and + functors](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_ML#Module_System). + +### Resources + +## Scheme + +Scheme is a language with a pure core (λ-calculus and the theory of +lists) and a design mandate to maximize freedom of expression. It's +untyped, which makes it ideal for web-based programming and rapid +prototyping. Given its Lisp heritage, Scheme is a natural fit for +artificial intelligence. + +With its support for arbitrary-precision numerics, Scheme is also my +first choice for implementing cryptographic algorithms. \[For examples, +see my short implementations of +[RSA](../implementation-of-rsa-public-key-cryptography-algorithm-in-scheme-dialect-of-lisp/) +and the [Fermat and Solovay-Strassen primality +tests](../implementation-of-fermat-and-solovay-strassen-primality-tests-for-rsa-key-generation-in-scheme-dialect-of-lisp/) +in Scheme.\] + +By far, the most compelling reason to use Scheme is its macro system. +All of the macro systems available for Scheme, including the standard +`syntax-rules` and `syntax-case` systems, are Turing-equivalent. + +Consequently, the programmer can reconfigure Scheme to reduce the +impedance mismatch between the language and the task at hand. Combined +with support for first-class continuations, it is even possible to embed +alternate programming paradigms (like logic programming). + +For example, in the code: + +``` + (let ((x (amb 3 4 5)) + (y (amb 6 7 8 ))) + (assert (= (+ x y) 12)) + (display x) + (display y)) +``` + +it is possible to write an `amb` macro that "chooses" the right argument +to make a subsequent `assert` statement be true. (This program prints 4 +and then 8.) + +it is possible to write anmacro that "chooses" the right argument to +make a subsequentstatement be true. (This program prints 4 and then 8.) + +In Scheme, during any point in the computation, the program can capture +the current continuation as a procedure: invoking this procedure returns +the program to the evaluation context that existed when the continuation +was captured. Programming with continuations feels like traveling back +and forth in time and shifting between parallel universes. + +Ultimately, Scheme is so minimal and extensible that there's not a whole +lot to say about it, except that Scheme allows the programmer to extract +from the language whatever the programmer is willing to put into it. + +### Favorite features + +### Related blog articles + +### Resources + + - [Racket](http://www.racket-lang.org/) (formerly PLT Scheme) is a + "batteries included" Scheme system, including a battle-tested IDE, a + compiler and an interpreter. More importantly, the Racket library is + immense: it has a module that adds a type system to the language; it + has a module that adds pattern-matching; it has a module for OpenGL + programming; and it has a module for continuation-based web servers. + In Racket, there's already a module for just about everything. + - The best book I've seen on Racket -- [Realm of + Racket](http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1593274912/ref=as_li_ss_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=390957&creativeASIN=1593274912&linkCode=as2&tag=aboutmatthewm-20)![](http://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=aboutmatthewm-20&l=as2&o=1&a=1593274912) + -- introduces the features of the language through game programming: + [![](http://ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=1593274912&Format=_SL160_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=ucmbread-20)](http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1593274912/ref=as_li_ss_il?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=390957&creativeASIN=1593274912&linkCode=as2&tag=ucmbread-20)![](http://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=ucmbread-20&l=as2&o=1&a=1593274912) + - [Chicken scheme](http://www.call-with-current-continuation.org/) is + a hacker-friendly implementation of Scheme. + - [Gambit + Scheme](http://dynamo.iro.umontreal.ca/~gambit/wiki/index.php/Main_Page) + is popular for lower-level programming in Scheme, including iPhone + and iPad programming. + - [R6RS](http://www.r6rs.org/). The current Scheme standard. + - I recommend all Scheme programmers keep a copy of [Guy + Steele](http://research.sun.com/people/mybio.php?uid=25706)'s + [Common LISP: The + Language](http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1555580416?ie=UTF8&tag=ucmbread-20&linkCode=as2&camp=1789&creative=390957&creativeASIN=1555580416)![](http://www.assoc-amazon.com/e/ir?t=ucmbread-20&l=as2&o=1&a=1555580416) + around. After Guy Steele developed Scheme, which is a minimalist + expression of the λ-calculus as a programming language, he designed + Common Lisp, which is a maximalist expression of the λ-calculus as a + programming language. + [![](images/41VJS8YPYML._SL160_.jpg)](http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1555580416?ie=UTF8&tag=ucmbread-20&linkCode=as2&camp=1789&creative=390957&creativeASIN=1555580416)![](http://www.assoc-amazon.com/e/ir?t=aboutmatthewm-20&l=as2&o=1&a=1555580416) + - [Structure and Interpretation of Computer + Programs](http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0070004846?ie=UTF8&tag=ucmbread-20&linkCode=as2&camp=1789&creative=390957&creativeASIN=0070004846)![](http://www.assoc-amazon.com/e/ir?t=ucmbread-20&l=as2&o=1&a=0070004846) + is a classic. Until recently, this was the textbook for freshman + computer science at MIT. It teaches computer science by teaching + students how to implement interpreters. diff --git a/_stories/2009/12016234.md b/_stories/2009/12016234.md index db38b5d..5fc0b50 100644 --- a/_stories/2009/12016234.md +++ b/_stories/2009/12016234.md @@ -19,7 +19,325 @@ _tags: objectID: '12016234' --- -[Source](https://spectrum.ieee.org/computing/software/automated-to-death "Permalink to ") +The passengers and crew of Malaysia Airlines Flight 124 were just +settling into their five-hour flight from Perth to Kuala Lumpur that +late on the afternoon of 1 August 2005. Approximately 18 minutes into +the flight, as the Boeing 777-200 series aircraft was climbing through +36 000 feet altitude on autopilot, the aircraft—suddenly and without +warning—pitched to 18 degrees, nose up, and started to climb rapidly. As +the plane passed 39 000 feet, the stall and overspeed warning indicators +came on simultaneously—something that’s supposed to be impossible, and a +situation the crew is not trained to handle. +At 41 000 feet, the command pilot disconnected the autopilot and lowered +the airplane’s nose. The auto throttle then commanded an increase in +thrust, and the craft plunged 4000 feet. The pilot countered by manually +moving the throttles back to the idle position. The nose pitched up +again, and the aircraft climbed 2000 feet before the pilot regained +control. +The flight crew notified air-traffic control that they could not +maintain altitude and requested to return to Perth. The crew and the 177 +shaken but uninjured passengers safely returned to the ground. +The [Australian Transport Safety Bureau +investigation](http://www.atsb.gov.au/publications/investigation_reports/2005/aair/aair200503722.aspx) +discovered that the air data inertial reference unit (ADIRU)—which +provides air data and inertial reference data to several systems on the +Boeing 777, including the primary flight control and autopilot flight +director systems—had two faulty accelerometers. One had gone bad in +2001. The other failed as Flight 124 passed 36 571 feet. + +The fault-tolerant ADIRU was designed to operate with a failed +accelerometer (it has six). The redundant design of the ADIRU also meant +that it wasn’t mandatory to replace the unit when an accelerometer +failed. + +Photo: John Boyd + +Watch a forensic simulation of key moments of Malaysian Airlines Flight +124 + +However, when the second accelerometer failed, a latent software anomaly +allowed inputs from the first faulty accelerometer to be used, resulting +in the erroneous feed of acceleration information into the flight +control systems. The anomaly, which lay hidden for a decade, wasn’t +found in testing because the ADIRU’s designers had never considered that +such an event might occur. + +The Flight 124 crew had fallen prey to what psychologist Lisanne +Bainbridge in the early 1980s identified as the ironies and paradoxes of +automation. The irony, she said, is that the more advanced the automated +system, the more crucial the contribution of the human operator becomes +to the successful operation of the system. Bainbridge also discusses the +paradoxes of automation, the main one being that the more reliable the +automation, the less the human operator may be able to contribute to +that success. Consequently, operators are increasingly left out of the +loop, at least until something unexpected happens. Then the operators +need to get involved quickly and flawlessly, says Raja Parasuraman, +professor of psychology at George Mason University in Fairfax, Va., who +has been studying the issue of increasingly reliable automation and how +that affects human performance, and therefore overall system +performance. + +“There will always be a set of circumstances that was not expected, that +the automation either was not designed to handle or other things that +just cannot be predicted,” explains Parasuraman. So as system +reliability approaches—but doesn’t quite reach—100 percent, “the more +difficult it is to detect the error and recover from it,” he says. + +And when the human operator can’t detect the system’s error, the +consequences can be tragic. + +![DC crash](/image/1464827) + +Photo: Win McNamee/Getty Images + +In June of this year, a Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority +(Metro) red line subway train operated by Jeanice McMillan rear-ended a +stationary subway train outside Fort Totten station in northeast +Washington, killing McMillan and eight others and injuring 80. The cause +is still under investigation by the U.S. National Transportation Safety +Board (NTSB), but it appears that a safety-signal system design anomaly +was at fault, in which a spurious signal generated by a track circuit +module transmitter mimicked a valid signal and bypassed the rails via an +unintended signal path. The spurious signal was sensed by the module +receiver, which resulted in the train not being detected when it stopped +in the track circuit where the accident occurred. So the safety system +thought the track was clear when it was not. When she saw the other +train in her path, a surprised McMillan hit the emergency brake in an +attempt to slow her train, which may have been traveling nearly 95 +kilometers per hour (59 miles per hour), but it was too late. + +To put this accident in perspective, however, it was only the second +fatal crash involving Washington, D.C.’s Metro in its 33 years of +operation. In 2008, customers took 215 million trips on the system. Not +counting train-vehicle accidents, a total of 27 people were killed and +324 people were injured in [train accidents in the United States +in 2008](http://safetydata.fra.dot.gov/OfficeofSafety/publicsite/Query/statsSas.aspx). +This compares with statistics from 1910, when W.L. Park, general +superintendent of the Union Pacific Railroad, asserted that “one human +being is killed every hour, and one injured every 10 minutes.” + +Not only has automation improved train safety, but travel by plane, +ship, and automobile is safer too. [According to +Boeing](http://www.boeing.com/commercial/safety/pf/pf_howsafe.html), in +2000 the world’s commercial jet airlines carried approximately 1.09 +billion people on 18 million flights and suffered only 20 fatal +accidents. The NTSB estimates that traffic deaths in the United States +may drop by 30 percent after electronic stability control becomes +mandatory in 2012 for automobiles. + +Charles Perrow, professor emeritus of sociology at Yale University and +author of the landmark book Normal Accidents: Living With High-Risk +Technologies (Princeton University Press, 1999), contends that +“productivity, successful launches, successful targeting, and so on, +increase sharply with automation,” with the result being that “system +failures become more rare.” + +One can see this in aviation. As automation has increased aircraft +safety, the rarity of crashes has made it harder to find common causes +for them, the NTSB says. + +However, the underlying reason for this rarity, namely the ubiquity of +increasingly reliable automation, is also becoming a concern for system +designers and safety regulators alike, especially as systems become ever +more complex. While designers are trying to automate as much as they +can, complex interactions of hardware systems and their software end up +causing surprising emergencies that the designers never considered—as on +Flight 124—and which humans are often ill-equipped to deal with. + +“The really hard things to automate or synthesize, we leave to the +operator to do,” says Ericka Rovira, an assistant professor of +engineering psychology at the U.S. Military Academy at West Point. That +means people have to be alert and ready to act at the most crucial +moments, even though the monotony of monitoring supposedly reliable +systems can leave them figuratively or physically asleep at the wheel. + +![Royal Majesty cruise ship](/image/1464842) + +Photo: Steven Senne/AP Photo + +That was the case in June 1995, when the 568-foot-long [cruise ship +Royal Majesty ran +aground](http://www.ntsb.gov/publictn/1997/MAR9701.htm) onto the sandy +Rose and Crown Shoal about 10 miles east of Nantucket Island, off the +coast of Massachusetts. Fifty-two minutes after leaving St. George’s, +Bermuda, on its way to Boston, the Royal Majesty’s GPS antenna cable +became detached from the GPS antenna. This placed the GPS in +dead-reckoning mode, which does not take into consideration wind or sea +changes. The degraded GPS continued to feed the ship’s autopilot. No one +noticed the change in GPS status, even though the GPS position was +supposed to be checked hourly against the Loran-C radio navigation +system, which is accurate by roughly one-half to 1 nautical mile at sea, +and a quarter-mile as a ship approaches shore. The Royal Majesty +proceeded on autopilot for the next 34 hours until it hit the Rose and +Crown Shoal. + +Why hadn’t the watch officers noticed something was wrong? One major +reason, the NTSB said, was that the ship’s watch officers had become +overreliant on the automated features of the integrated bridge system. + +Watch officers, who in less-automated times actively monitored the +current environment and used this information to control the ship, are +now relegated to passively monitoring the status and performance of the +ship’s automated systems, the NTSB said. The previous flawless +performance of the equipment also likely encouraged this overreliance. +Checking the accuracy of the GPS system and autopilot perhaps seemed +like a waste of time to the watch officers, like checking a watch +against the Coordinated Universal Time clock every hour. + +In many ways, operators are being asked to be omniscient systems +administrators who are able to jump into the middle of a situation that +a complex automated system can’t or wasn’t designed to handle, quickly +diagnose the problem, and then find a satisfactory and safe solution. +And if they don’t, the operators, not the system’s designers, often get +the blame. + +Adding another system to help detect the error and recover from it isn’t +a straightforward solution either. In Flight 124, the fault-tolerant, +redundant system design helped to mask the problem. In fact, such +redundancy often merely serves to act as yet another layer that +abstracts the human operator from the system’s operational control. + +“In other words, the initial control loop is done by one system, and +then you have a computer that is backing up that system, and another is +backing up that one,” according to Parasuraman. “Finally, you have to +display some information to the operator, but the operator is now so far +from the system and the complexity is so great that their developing a +\[mental\] model of how to deal with something going wrong becomes very, +very difficult.” + +Economics also figures into the equation. The ADIRU in Flight 124’s +Boeing 777 was designed to be fault-tolerant and redundant not only to +increase safety but also to reduce operating costs by deferring +maintenance. + +“The assumption is that automation is not only going to make \[what you +are doing\] safer but that it will make it more efficient,” says Martyn +Thomas, a Fellow of the UK’s Royal Academy of Engineering. “This creates +a rather nasty feedback loop, which means that when adverse events +become relatively rare, it is taken as an opportunity to deskill the +people you’re employing or to reduce their number in order to reduce a +cost.” + +This erosion of skills in pilots was a major concern raised in the last +decade as glass cockpits in aircraft became common \[see IEEE Spectrum’s +article [The Glass +Cockpit,](http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?tp=&arnumber=406460&isnumber=9128) +September 1995\]. + +Peter Ladkin, a professor of computer networks and distributed systems +at Bielefeld University, in Germany, is heavily involved in aircraft +accident investigations and is a pilot himself. “Line pilots are trained +and told—and their procedures also say—to use the automation all the +time. Many older pilots are really worried that when they get into +difficulties, they aren’t going to \[know how to\] get out of them,” he +says. + +![Turkish Airlines photo](/image/1464857) + +Photo: United Photos/Reuters + +The crash in February of Turkish Airlines Flight 1951 just short of +Amsterdam’s Schiphol International Airport, which killed 9 people and +injured 86 others, raised this concern anew. As the aircraft passed +through 1950 feet, [the left radio altimeter failed and indicated an +altitude of –8 +feet](http://www.onderzoeksraad.nl/en/index.php/onderzoeken/Neergestort-tijdens-nadering/), +which it passed on to the autopilot, which in turn reduced engine power +because it assumed the aircraft was in the final stages of approach. The +pilots did not initially react to the warnings that something was wrong +until it was too late to recover the aircraft. + +“When we start removing active learning for the operator, the operator +begins to overtrust the automation,” Rovira says. “They’re not going +back and gathering those data pieces that they need” to make an +effective decision. + +Another issue associated with overtrusting the automation is that it can +encourage “practical drift,” a term coined by Scott Snook in his book +Friendly Fire: The Accidental Shootdown of U.S. Black Hawks over +Northern Iraq (Princeton University Press, 2002). The phrase refers to +the slow, steady uncoupling of practice from written procedures. + +![NW Flight 188 map](/image/1464873) + +Illustration: Boswell/MCT/Landov + +We see how that happened in the Royal Majesty incident, where the watch +officers failed to follow established procedures. This was also the case +in the October incident involving Northwest Airlines Flight 188 on its +way to Minneapolis-St. Paul International Airport, which overshot the +airport by 150 miles. The pilots claimed they were working on their +laptops and lost track of the time and their location. The aircraft was +on autopilot, which in normal circumstances leaves the pilots with +little left to do other than monitor the controls. + + Again, when you are only a system’s monitor, especially for an +automated system that rarely, if ever, fails, it is hard not to get +fatigued or bored and start taking shortcuts. + +The situation isn’t hopeless, however. For some time now, researchers +have been working to address the ironies and paradoxes of automation. +One new approach has been to address the issues from the human point of +view instead of the point of view of the system. + +“We draw a system’s boundary in the wrong place,” Thomas states. “There +is an assumption that the system boundary that the engineer should be +interested in \[sits\] at the boundary of the sensors and actuators of +the box that is being designed by the engineers. The humans who are +interrelating with these systems are outside it. Whether they are +operators, pilots, controllers, or clinicians, they are not part of the +system. + +“That is just wrong,” Thomas adds. “The system’s designer, engineer, and +overall architect all need to accept responsibility for the ways those +people are going to act.” + +Victor Riley, associate technical fellow in Boeing Flight Deck, Crew +Operations, argues that there needs to be a two-way dialogue between the +operator and the automated system. + +“The operator-to-the-system part of the dialogue is more important than +the system-to-the-operator part,” Riley says. “People see what they +expect to see, and what they expect to see is based on what they thought +they told the system to do.” + +Studies by Parasuraman, Rovira, and others have found that operators of +highly reliable automated systems will often perform worse than if they +were operating a lower-reliability system, which seems paradoxical. + +Parasuraman explains that “if you deliberately engineer anomalies into +the automation, people rely less on it and will perform a little bit +better in monitoring the system. For example, if the system is 90 +percent reliable, operators will be better at picking up the 10 percent +of the errors than if the system is 99 percent reliable.” + +Rovira also says that operators need to be able to see how well the +automation is working in a given context. + +“The goal for us as designers is to provide an interface that allows a +drill-down if the operator needs to query the system, in the event they +have a different perspective of the decision than the automation has +given them,” Rovira says. “Or if not a drill-down, there should be some +visibility or transparency right up front about what the underlying +constraints or variables are that make this decision not totally +reliable.” + +Maybe one way to remind ourselves of the potential effects of the +ironies and paradoxes of automation is to simply pull the plug. + +“If we don’t want people to depend on automated systems, we need to turn +them off sometimes,” Thomas observes. “People, after all, are the backup +systems, and they aren’t being exercised.” + +## About the Author + +Robert N. Charette, an IEEE Spectrum contributing editor, is a +self-described “risk ecologist” who investigates the impact of the +changing concept of risk on technology and societal development. +Charette also writes Spectrum ’s blog [The Risk +Factor](/blog/computing/it/riskfactor). + +Advertisement diff --git a/_stories/2009/12305128.md b/_stories/2009/12305128.md index 7a63223..2ccc53e 100644 --- a/_stories/2009/12305128.md +++ b/_stories/2009/12305128.md @@ -19,7 +19,95 @@ _tags: objectID: '12305128' --- -[Source](https://web.stanford.edu/~montanar/RESEARCH/BOOK/book.html "Permalink to ") +``` + +``` +Together with [Marc Mézard](http://www.lptms.u-psud.fr/membres/mezard/), +we recently finished our book. It is an introduction to a rich and +rapidly evolving research field at the interface between statistical +physics, theretical computer science/discrete mathematics, and +coding/information theory. It should be accessible to graduate students +an researchers without specific training in any of these three fields. +``` + +``` +``` + +``` + +``` + +``` + +``` + +``` + +``` + +``` + +The book has been published in 2009 by Oxford University Press. The +(ambitious) title is \`Information, Physics and Computation.' (Below are +some chapters in a not-final version.) + + - [Part A](partA.pdf): Basics. + - [Part B](partB.pdf): Independent states. + - [Part C](partC.pdf): Graphical models and factor graphs. + - [Part D](partD.pdf): Belief propagation and its applications. + - [Part E](partE.pdf): Glassy phases, clustering transition and all + that. + - [Part F](partF.pdf): Notations, references. + +Comments, suggestions, corrections are extremely welcome\! + +``` + +``` + +``` + +``` + +``` + +``` + +``` + +``` + +``` + +``` + +Errata to the first OUP edition are [here](erra.pdf). + +``` + +``` + +``` + +``` + +``` + +``` + +``` + +``` + +``` + +``` + +You can also return to [home](../index.html). + +``` + +``` diff --git a/_stories/2009/12451152.md b/_stories/2009/12451152.md index df13d95..7164f82 100644 --- a/_stories/2009/12451152.md +++ b/_stories/2009/12451152.md @@ -19,99 +19,55 @@ _tags: objectID: '12451152' --- -[Source](http://www.nytimes.com/2009/08/18/science/18angier.html?em "Permalink to Brain Is a Co-Conspirator in a Vicious Stress Loop - The New York Times") +Robert Sapolsky, a neurobiologist who studies stress at Stanford +University School of Medicine, said, “This is a great model for +understanding why we end up in a rut, and then dig ourselves deeper and +deeper into that rut.” -# Brain Is a Co-Conspirator in a Vicious Stress Loop - The New York Times +The truth is, Dr. Sapolsky said, “we’re lousy at recognizing when our +normal coping mechanisms aren’t working. Our response is usually to do +it five times more, instead of thinking, maybe it’s time to try +something new.” -__NYTimes.com no longer supports Internet Explorer 9 or earlier. Please upgrade your browser. [LEARN MORE »][1] - -__Sections __ Home __Search [Skip to content][2] [Skip to navigation][3] [View mobile version][4] - -## [ The New York Times ][5] - -###### [Science][6]|Brain Is a Co-Conspirator in a Vicious Stress Loop - -__Search - -Subscribe Now Log In __0 __Settings - -__Close search - -## Site Search Navigation - -Search NYTimes.com - -__Clear this text input - -Go - -1. Loading... - -See next articles - -See previous articles - -## Site Navigation - -## Site Mobile Navigation - -Advertisement - -Supported by - -### [Science][6] - -# Brain Is a Co-Conspirator in a Vicious Stress Loop - -[Basics][7] - -By [ NATALIE ANGIER ][8] AUG. 17, 2009 - -[Continue reading the main story][9] Share This Page - -[Continue reading the main story][9] - -If after a few months' exposure to our David Lynch economy, in which housing markets spontaneously combust, coworkers mysteriously disappear and the stifled moans of dying [401(k)][10] plans can be heard through the floorboards, you have the awful sensation that your body's [stress][11] response has taken on a self-replicating and ultimately self-defeating life of its own, congratulations. You are very perceptive. It has. - -As though it weren't bad enough that chronic stress has been shown to raise [blood pressure][12], stiffen arteries, suppress the immune system, heighten the risk of [diabetes][13], depression and [Alzheimer's disease][14] and make one a very undesirable dinner companion, now researchers have discovered that the sensation of being highly stressed can rewire the brain in ways that promote its sinister persistence. - -Reporting earlier this summer in the journal Science, Nuno Sousa of the Life and Health Sciences Research Institute at the University of Minho in Portugal and his colleagues [described experiments][15] in which chronically stressed rats lost their elastic rat cunning and instead fell back on familiar routines and rote responses, like compulsively pressing a bar for food pellets they had no intention of eating. - -Moreover, the rats' behavioral perturbations were reflected by a pair of complementary changes in their underlying neural circuitry. On the one hand, regions of the brain associated with executive decision-making and goal-directed behaviors had shriveled, while, conversely, brain sectors linked to habit formation had bloomed. - -Advertisement - -[Continue reading the main story][9] - -In other words, the rodents were now cognitively predisposed to keep doing the same things over and over, to run laps in the same dead-ended rat race rather than seek a pipeline to greener sewers. "Behaviors become habitual faster in stressed animals than in the controls, and worse, the stressed animals can't shift back to goal-directed behaviors when that would be the better approach," Dr. Sousa said. "I call this a vicious circle." - -[Continue reading the main story][16] - -Advertisement - -[Continue reading the main story][17] - -Robert Sapolsky, a neurobiologist who studies stress at Stanford University School of Medicine, said, "This is a great model for understanding why we end up in a rut, and then dig ourselves deeper and deeper into that rut." - -The truth is, Dr. Sapolsky said, "we're lousy at recognizing when our normal coping mechanisms aren't working. Our response is usually to do it five times more, instead of thinking, maybe it's time to try something new." - -And though perseverance can be an admirable trait and is essential for all success in life, when taken too far it becomes perseveration — uncontrollable repetition — or simple perversity. "If I were to try to break into the world of modern dance, after the first few rejections the logical response might be, practice even more," said Dr. Sapolsky, the author of "Why Zebras Don't Get [Ulcers][18]," among other books. "But after the 12,000th rejection, maybe I should realize this isn't a viable career option." +And though perseverance can be an admirable trait and is essential for +all success in life, when taken too far it becomes perseveration — +uncontrollable repetition — or simple perversity. “If I were to try to +break into the world of modern dance, after the first few rejections the +logical response might be, practice even more,” said Dr. Sapolsky, the +author of “Why Zebras Don’t Get +[Ulcers](http://health.nytimes.com/health/guides/disease/gastric-ulcer/overview.html?inline=nyt-classifier "In-depth reference and news articles about Ulcers."),” +among other books. “But after the 12,000th rejection, maybe I should +realize this isn’t a viable career option.” Photo -![][19] +Happily, the stress-induced changes in behavior and brain appear to be +reversible. To rattle the rats to the point where their stress response +remained demonstrably hyperactive, the researchers exposed the animals +to four weeks of varying stressors: moderate electric shocks, being +encaged with dominant rats, prolonged dunks in water. Those chronically +stressed animals were then compared with nonstressed peers. The stressed +rats had no trouble learning a task like pressing a bar to get a food +pellet or a squirt of sugar water, but they had difficulty deciding when +to stop pressing the bar, as normal rats easily did. -Credit Serge Bloch +But with only four weeks’ vacation in a supportive setting free of +bullies and Tasers, the formerly stressed rats looked just like the +controls, able to innovate, discriminate and lay off the bar. Atrophied +synaptic connections in the decisive regions of the prefrontal cortex +resprouted, while the overgrown dendritic vines of the habit-prone +sensorimotor striatum retreated. -Happily, the stress-induced changes in behavior and brain appear to be reversible. To rattle the rats to the point where their stress response remained demonstrably hyperactive, the researchers exposed the animals to four weeks of varying stressors: moderate electric shocks, being encaged with dominant rats, prolonged dunks in water. Those chronically stressed animals were then compared with nonstressed peers. The stressed rats had no trouble learning a task like pressing a bar to get a food pellet or a squirt of sugar water, but they had difficulty deciding when to stop pressing the bar, as normal rats easily did. - -But with only four weeks' vacation in a supportive setting free of bullies and Tasers, the formerly stressed rats looked just like the controls, able to innovate, discriminate and lay off the bar. Atrophied synaptic connections in the decisive regions of the prefrontal cortex resprouted, while the overgrown dendritic vines of the habit-prone sensorimotor striatum retreated. - -According to Bruce S. McEwen, head of the neuroendocrinology laboratory at Rockefeller University, the new findings offer a particularly elegant demonstration of a principle that researchers have just begun to grasp. "The brain is a very resilient and plastic organ," he said. "Dendrites and synapses retract and reform, and reversible remodeling can occur throughout life." +According to Bruce S. McEwen, head of the neuroendocrinology laboratory +at Rockefeller University, the new findings offer a particularly elegant +demonstration of a principle that researchers have just begun to grasp. +“The brain is a very resilient and plastic organ,” he said. “Dendrites +and synapses retract and reform, and reversible remodeling can occur +throughout life.” ## Newsletter Sign Up -[Continue reading the main story][20] +[Continue reading the main story](#continues-post-newsletter) ### @@ -121,293 +77,65 @@ Invalid email address. Please re-enter. You must select a newsletter to subscribe to. -Sign Up - -You agree to receive occasional updates and special offers for The New York Times's products and services. +You agree to receive occasional updates and special offers for The New +York Times's products and services. ### Thank you for subscribing. ### An error has occurred. Please try again later. -### You are already subscribed to this email. +[View all New York Times newsletters.](/newsletters) -[View all New York Times newsletters.][21] +Stress may be most readily associated with the attosecond pace of +postindustrial society, but the body’s stress response is one of our +oldest possessions. Its basic architecture, its linked network of neural +and endocrine organs that spit out stimulatory and inhibitory hormones +and other factors as needed, looks pretty much the same in a goldfish or +a red-spotted newt as it does in us. -* [See Sample][22] -* [Manage Email Preferences][23] -* [Not you?][24] -* [Privacy Policy][25] -* Opt out or [contact us][26] anytime - -Stress may be most readily associated with the attosecond pace of postindustrial society, but the body's stress response is one of our oldest possessions. Its basic architecture, its linked network of neural and endocrine organs that spit out stimulatory and inhibitory hormones and other factors as needed, looks pretty much the same in a goldfish or a red-spotted newt as it does in us. - -The stress response is essential for maneuvering through a dynamic world — for dodging a predator or chasing down prey, swinging through the trees or fighting off disease — and it is itself dynamic. As we go about our days, Dr. McEwen said, the biochemical mediators of the stress response rise and fall, flutter and flare. "[Cortisol][27] and adrenaline go up and down," he said. "Our inflammatory cytokines go up and down." +The stress response is essential for maneuvering through a dynamic world +— for dodging a predator or chasing down prey, swinging through the +trees or fighting off disease — and it is itself dynamic. As we go about +our days, Dr. McEwen said, the biochemical mediators of the stress +response rise and fall, flutter and flare. +“[Cortisol](http://health.nytimes.com/health/guides/test/cortisol-level/overview.html?inline=nyt-classifier "In-depth reference and news articles about Cortisol level.") +and adrenaline go up and down,” he said. “Our inflammatory cytokines go +up and down.” Advertisement -[Continue reading the main story][28] +[Continue reading the main story](#story-continues-4) -The target organs of stress hormones likewise dance to the beat: blood pressure climbs and drops, the heart races and slows, the intestines constrict and relax. This system of so-called allostasis, of maintaining control through constant change, stands in contrast to the mechanisms of homeostasis that keep the pH level and oxygen concentration in the blood within a narrow and invariant range. +The target organs of stress hormones likewise dance to the beat: blood +pressure climbs and drops, the heart races and slows, the intestines +constrict and relax. This system of so-called allostasis, of maintaining +control through constant change, stands in contrast to the mechanisms of +homeostasis that keep the pH level and oxygen concentration in the blood +within a narrow and invariant range. -Unfortunately, the dynamism of our stress response makes it vulnerable to disruption, especially when the system is treated too roughly and not according to instructions. In most animals, a serious threat provokes a serious activation of the stimulatory, sympathetic, "fight or flight" side of the stress response. But when the danger has passed, the calming parasympathetic circuitry tamps everything back down to baseline flickering. +Unfortunately, the dynamism of our stress response makes it vulnerable +to disruption, especially when the system is treated too roughly and not +according to instructions. In most animals, a serious threat provokes a +serious activation of the stimulatory, sympathetic, “fight or flight” +side of the stress response. But when the danger has passed, the calming +parasympathetic circuitry tamps everything back down to baseline +flickering. -In humans, though, the brain can think too much, extracting phantom threats from every staff meeting or high school dance, and over time the constant hyperactivation of the stress response can unbalance the entire feedback loop. Reactions that are desirable in limited, targeted quantities become hazardous in promiscuous excess. You need a spike in blood pressure if you're going to run, to speedily deliver oxygen to your muscles. But chronically elevated blood pressure is a source of multiple medical miseries. +In humans, though, the brain can think too much, extracting phantom +threats from every staff meeting or high school dance, and over time the +constant hyperactivation of the stress response can unbalance the entire +feedback loop. Reactions that are desirable in limited, targeted +quantities become hazardous in promiscuous excess. You need a spike in +blood pressure if you’re going to run, to speedily deliver oxygen to +your muscles. But chronically elevated blood pressure is a source of +multiple medical miseries. -Why should the stressed brain be prone to habit formation? Perhaps to help shunt as many behaviors as possible over to automatic pilot, the better to focus on the crisis at hand. Yet habits can become ruts, and as the novelist Ellen Glasgow observed, "The only difference between a rut and a grave are the dimensions." +Why should the stressed brain be prone to habit formation? Perhaps to +help shunt as many behaviors as possible over to automatic pilot, the +better to focus on the crisis at hand. Yet habits can become ruts, and +as the novelist Ellen Glasgow observed, “The only difference between a +rut and a grave are the dimensions.” -It's still August. Time to relax, rewind and remodel the brain. - -A version of this article appears in print on , on Page D2 of the New York edition with the headline: Brain Is a Co-Conspirator in a Vicious Stress Loop. 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Time to relax, rewind and remodel the brain. +[Continue reading the main story](#whats-next) diff --git a/_stories/2009/12518333.md b/_stories/2009/12518333.md index 48b0f04..7f43200 100644 --- a/_stories/2009/12518333.md +++ b/_stories/2009/12518333.md @@ -19,7 +19,140 @@ _tags: objectID: '12518333' --- -[Source](https://martin.kleppmann.com/2009/09/18/the-python-paradox-is-now-the-scala-paradox.html "Permalink to ") +[Tweet](https://twitter.com/share) +# The Python Paradox is now the Scala Paradox +Published by Martin Kleppmann on 18 Sep 2009. +[Paul Graham](http://www.paulgraham.com/) has written a bunch of good +essays on entrepreneurship, laying down much of the philosophy behind [Y +Combinator](http://ycombinator.com/). If you’ve not read any of them +yet, you should go and read them now – they contain lots of wisdom. + +In his 2004 short essay [The Python +Paradox](http://www.paulgraham.com/pypar.html), PG argues (perhaps +controversially) that a company can hire smarter programmers if it +chooses to write its code in a “comparatively esoteric” programming +language. At the time, Python was probably considered by most people to +be esoteric in comparison to Java – in the sense that not many people +would learn it at university or for career purposes. Therefore, the +programmers who knew Python were people who learnt it for fun; and +learning languages for fun is an activity which typically only the +bright and motivated people engage in. Which makes the language a good +“quality filter” for people. + +Of course times have moved on, and Python (and Ruby, for that matter) +are definitely entering the mainstream. They are still fine languages, +but they no longer carry as much of an early adopter aura about them. +The culture of testing and code beauty which is embraced by the Ruby and +Python communities is still something special, and that is now the +primary reason why I would choose Ruby and Python over Java or C\#. + +PG’s observation still holds true. But what are the new technologies to +look out for? What can you find in 2009 which has the same role as +Python did in 2004? + +**Choosing a programming language** + +A few months ago, when I was designing the system architecture for [Go +Test It, our awesome cross-browser testing product](http://go-test.it), +I had a lot of design choices to make. For some parts of the system it +was fairly clear what we were going to use: for instance, the frontend +web application was almost certainly going to be Rails, because I had +some existing tools like [the invoicing +gem](http://ept.github.com/invoicing/) which I wanted to reuse, and +because it was simply a good fit for the job. + +But what about the actual test management infrastructure? + +I chose to write it in [Scala](http://www.scala-lang.org/). There were +plenty of reasons why this could have seemed a bad idea: + + - I had hardly any experience in using Scala, so I would have to + invest a lot of time learning it as I went along; + - nobody else I knew had any experience in using Scala at all, so + anyone I hired would probably also have to learn it (at the cost of + slower progress); + - some of the tools (particularly the Eclipse plugin) were still + packed with bugs; + - although I had access to Java libraries, I knew that I would have to + write library wrappers of my own to make use of the Scala language + features; + - setting up a proper build process was [pretty + horrible](/2009/05/13/building-go-test-it-fun-with-scala-and-rest-apis.html). + +Scala also had some technical merits; particularly the actor model for +multithreaded programming was a good fit for our problem. Still, in a +purely technical consideration, it probably wouldn’t have made much +sense. But my heart still said yes. The prospect of working with a +language which looked pretty, had static type inference, nice functional +programming features, and runs on the JVM (battle-tested and optimised +over many years)… my heart just said yes. It wasn’t a rational choice, +but an instinctive, emotional one. + +**Paul Graham was right** + +Shortly after working this out and drawing my architecture diagram (a +pretty insane-looking tangle of boxes and arrows on a sheet of paper), I +was talking to [Sam Stokes](http://samstokes.co.uk/), a freelance +developer sitting next to me in our shared office. Sam is bright, +motivated and interested in the things going on in the software world. +We were talking casually about Go Test It and I showed him my messy +diagram. + +And when I had talked him through the architecture (“I think I’ll write +these three components in Scala, and they will talk to each other via a +[RabbitMQ message queue](http://www.rabbitmq.com/)”), Sam said, in +effect, “Hey, this is cool, I want to work on this”. + +And he did. Over the course of a few weekends, Sam spent several days +learning Scala and contributing to the [Go Test It](http://go-test.it) +codebase. When you use Go Test It today, you are using the Scala code he +wrote. He did this simply because he found it interesting and wanted to +learn something new. The code he wrote was good, production-quality +stuff. And he didn’t want a penny for it. + +It’s not often that you get high-quality contributions to a +closed-source project from a developer who is busy enough with several +other projects already, for free. + +Of course Sam cannot live on technical stimulation and my gratitude +alone, and since then, we have actually contracted him to do paid work +on Go Test It. But I found his initial reaction, and his approach to the +project, a great example to prove Paul Graham’s point. + +I would say **Scala in 2009 has the place which Python had in 2004**. +There are a few other languages I would also consider for this title: +[Haskell](http://www.haskell.org/), [Erlang](http://erlang.org/) and +[Clojure](http://clojure.org/) come to mind (but don’t take that as a +recommendation – I’ve not yet used any of them seriously myself). What +these languages all have in common is that they’ve been around for long +enough to come out of the purely academic space, are stable enough to be +production-worthy, but are also new and exciting enough to attract good +developers. + +**Fashion-Driven Development?** + +In [an article about non-relational +databases](http://carsonified.com/blog/dev/should-you-go-beyond-relational-databases/) +which [Ryan Carson](http://twitter.com/ryancarson) asked me to write a +few months ago, I suggested that fashion can and should play a role in +choosing which technologies to use. I got some criticism for this +remark, but I still stand by my view. It is effectively a different way +of looking at PG’s statement, provided you look for the fashion in the +right circles (i.e. amongst experienced developers working at the +cutting edge). + +I wouldn’t go with fashion against all technical merit, but provided the +technology is suitable and won’t increase your costs disproportionately, +why not do something fashionable and adventurous? In an innovation-based +technology business, the quality of your developers is key. Investments +into things which make your good developers happy will pay off +handsomely. + +Join the discussion about this article [on Hacker +News](http://news.ycombinator.com/item?id=831817) + +Join the discussion about this article [on Hacker +News](http://news.ycombinator.com/item?id=2218654) diff --git a/_stories/2009/12998673.md b/_stories/2009/12998673.md deleted file mode 100644 index 91a34a2..0000000 --- a/_stories/2009/12998673.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,25 +0,0 @@ ---- -created_at: '2016-11-20T13:12:43.000Z' -title: Anatomy of a Program in Memory (2009) -url: http://duartes.org/gustavo/blog/post/anatomy-of-a-program-in-memory/ -author: Tomte -points: 129 -story_text: -comment_text: -num_comments: 6 -story_id: -story_title: -story_url: -parent_id: -created_at_i: 1479647563 -_tags: -- story -- author_Tomte -- story_12998673 -objectID: '12998673' - ---- -[Source](https://manybutfinite.com/post/anatomy-of-a-program-in-memory/ "Permalink to ") - - - diff --git a/_stories/2009/1346536.md b/_stories/2009/1346536.md index 04db44c..71d6ae0 100644 --- a/_stories/2009/1346536.md +++ b/_stories/2009/1346536.md @@ -19,155 +19,431 @@ _tags: objectID: '1346536' --- -[Source](http://www.nytimes.com/2009/02/15/magazine/15Battier-t.html?_r=2&pagewanted=all "Permalink to The No-Stats All-Star - The New York Times") +**Early on, Hoop Scoop magazine** named Shane Battier the fourth-best +seventh grader in the United States. When he graduated from Detroit +Country Day School in 1997, he received the Naismith Award as the best +high-school basketball player in the nation. When he graduated from Duke +in 2001, where he won a record-tying 131 college-basketball games, +including that year’s N.C.A.A. championship, he received another +Naismith Award as the best college basketball player in the nation. He +was drafted in the first round by the woeful Memphis Grizzlies, not just +a bad basketball team but the one with the worst winning percentage in +N.B.A. history — whereupon he was almost instantly dismissed, even by +his own franchise, as a lesser talent. The year after Battier joined the +Grizzlies, the team’s general manager was fired and the N.B.A. legend +Jerry West, a k a the Logo because his silhouette is the official emblem +of the N.B.A., took over the team. “From the minute Jerry West got there +he was trying to trade me,” Battier says. If West didn’t have any +takers, it was in part because Battier seemed limited: most of the other +players on the court, and some of the players on the bench, too, were +more obviously gifted than he is. “He’s, at best, a marginal N.B.A. +athlete,” Morey says. -# The No-Stats All-Star - The New York Times +The Grizzlies went from 23-59 in Battier’s rookie year to 50-32 in his +third year, when they made the N.B.A. playoffs, as they did in each of +his final three seasons with the team. Before the 2006-7 season, Battier +was traded to the Houston Rockets, who had just finished 34-48. In his +first season with the Rockets, they finished 52-30, and then, last year, +went 55-27 — including one stretch of 22 wins in a row. Only the 1971-2 +Los Angeles Lakers have won more games consecutively in the N.B.A. And +because of injuries, the Rockets played 11 of those 22 games without +their two acknowledged stars, Tracy McGrady and Yao Ming, on the court +at the same time; the Rockets player who spent the most time actually +playing for the Rockets during the streak was Shane Battier. This year +Battier, recovering from off-season surgery to remove bone spurs from an +ankle, has played in just over half of the Rockets’ games. That has only +highlighted his importance. “This year,” Morey says, “we have been a +championship team with him and a bubble playoff team without him.” -__NYTimes.com no longer supports Internet Explorer 9 or earlier. Please upgrade your browser. [LEARN MORE »][1] +Here we have a basketball mystery: a player is widely regarded inside +the N.B.A. as, at best, a replaceable cog in a machine driven by +superstars. And yet every team he has ever played on has acquired some +magical ability to win. -__Sections __ Home __Search [Skip to content][2] [Skip to navigation][3] [View mobile version][4] +Solving the mystery is somewhere near the heart of Daryl Morey’s job. In +2005, the Houston Rockets’ owner, Leslie Alexander, decided to hire new +management for his losing team and went looking specifically for someone +willing to rethink the game. “We now have all this data,” Alexander told +me. “And we have computers that can analyze that data. And I wanted to +use that data in a progressive way. When I hired Daryl, it was because I +wanted somebody that was doing more than just looking at players in the +normal way. I mean, I’m not even sure we’re playing the game the right +way.” -## [ The New York Times ][5] +The virus that infected professional baseball in the 1990s, the use of +statistics to find new and better ways to value players and strategies, +has found its way into every major sport. Not just basketball and +football, but also soccer and +[cricket](http://topics.nytimes.com/top/reference/timestopics/subjects/c/cricket_game/index.html?inline=nyt-classifier "More articles about Cricket (Game).") +and rugby and, for all I know, snooker and darts — each one now supports +a subculture of smart people who view it not just as a game to be played +but as a problem to be solved. Outcomes that seem, after the fact, all +but inevitable — of course LeBron James hit that buzzer beater, of +course the Pittsburgh Steelers won the [Super +Bowl](http://topics.nytimes.com/top/reference/timestopics/subjects/s/super_bowl/index.html?inline=nyt-classifier "More articles about the Super Bowl.") +— are instead treated as a set of probabilities, even after the fact. +The games are games of odds. Like professional card counters, the modern +thinkers want to play the odds as efficiently as they can; but of course +to play the odds efficiently they must first know the odds. Hence the +new statistics, and the quest to acquire new data, and the intense +interest in measuring the impact of every little thing a player does on +his team’s chances of winning. In its spirit of inquiry, this subculture +inside professional basketball is no different from the subculture +inside baseball or football or darts. The difference in basketball is +that it happens to be the sport that is most like life. -###### [Magazine][6]|The No-Stats All-Star - -__Search - -Subscribe Now Log In __0 __Settings - -__Close search - -## Site Search Navigation - -Search NYTimes.com - -__Clear this text input - -Go - -## Site Navigation - -## Site Mobile Navigation - -Advertisement - -Supported by - -### [Magazine][6] - -# The No-Stats All-Star - -By [MICHAEL LEWIS][7]FEB. 13, 2009 - -[Continue reading the main story][8] Share This Page - -[Continue reading the main story][8] +When Alexander, a Wall Street investor, bought the Rockets in 1993, the +notion that basketball was awaiting some statistical reformation hadn’t +occurred to anyone. At the time, Daryl Morey was at Northwestern +University, trying to figure out how to get a job in professional sports +and thinking about applying to business schools. He was tall and had +played high-school basketball, but otherwise he gave off a quizzical, +geeky aura. “A lot of people who are into the new try to hide it,” he +says. “With me there was no point.” In the third grade he stumbled upon +the work of the baseball writer Bill James — the figure most responsible +for the current upheaval in professional sports — and decided that what +he really wanted to do with his life was put Jamesian principles into +practice. He nursed this ambition through a fairly conventional academic +career, which eventually took him to M.I.T.’s Sloan School of +Management. There he opted for the entrepreneurial track, not because he +actually wanted to be an entrepreneur but because he figured that the +only way he would ever be allowed to run a pro-sports franchise was to +own one, and the only way he could imagine having enough money to buy +one was to create some huge business. “This is the 1990s — there’s no +Theo,” Morey says, referring to Theo Epstein, the statistics-minded +general manager of the Boston Red Sox. “Sandy Alderson is progressive, +but nobody knows it.” Sandy Alderson, then the general manager of the +Oakland Athletics, had also read Bill James and begun to usher in the +new age of statistical analysis in baseball. “So,” Morey continues, “I +just assumed that getting rich was the only way in.” Apart from using it +to acquire a pro-sports team, Morey had no exceptional interest in +money. Photo -![][9] - -**Statistical Anomaly** His greatness is not marked in box scores or at slam-dunk contests, but on the court Shane Battier makes his team better, often much better, and his opponents worse, often much worse. Credit Robert Seale for The New York Times - -_**Out of Duke University. . . . A 6-foot-8-inch forward. . . .**_ - -**He had more or less admitted to me that this part of his job left him cold. 'It's the same thing every day,' he said**, as he struggled to explain how a man on the receiving end of the raging love of 18,557 people in a darkened arena could feel nothing. "If you had filet mignon every single night, you'd stop tasting it." - -To him the only pleasure in these sounds — the name of his beloved alma mater, the roar of the crowd — was that they marked the end of the worst part of his game day: the 11 minutes between the end of warm-ups and the introductions. Eleven minutes of horsing around and making small talk with players on the other team. All those players making exaggerated gestures of affection toward one another before the game, who don't actually know one another, or even want to. "I hate being out on the floor wasting that time," he said. "I used to try to talk to people, but then I figured out no one actually liked me very much." Instead of engaging in the pretense that these other professional basketball players actually know and like him, he slips away into the locker room. - -_Shane Battier!_ - -And up Shane Battier popped, to the howl of the largest crowd ever to watch a basketball game at the Toyota Center in Houston, and jumped playfully into Yao Ming (the center "out of China"). Now, finally, came the best part of his day, when he would be, oddly, most scrutinized and least understood. - -Seldom are regular-season games in the [N.B.A.][10] easy to get worked up for. Yesterday Battier couldn't tell me whom the team played three days before. ("The Knicks!" he exclaimed a minute later. "We played the Knicks!") Tonight, though it was a midweek game in the middle of January, was different. Tonight the [Rockets][11] were playing the Los Angeles Lakers, and so Battier would guard Kobe Bryant, the player he says is the most capable of humiliating him. Both Battier and the Rockets' front office were familiar with the story line. "I'm certain that Kobe is ready to just destroy Shane," Daryl Morey, the Rockets' general manager, told me. "Because there's been story after story about how Shane shut Kobe down the last time." Last time was March 16, 2008, when the Houston Rockets beat the Lakers to win their 22nd game in a row — the second-longest streak in N.B.A. history. The game drew a huge national television audience, which followed Bryant for his 47 miserable minutes: he shot 11 of 33 from the field and scored 24 points. "A lot of people watched," Morey said. "Everyone ­watches Kobe when the Lakers play. And so everyone saw Kobe struggling. And so for the first time they saw what we'd been seeing." Battier has routinely ­guarded the league's most dangerous offensive players — LeBron James, Chris Paul, Paul Pierce — and has usually managed to render them, if not entirely ineffectual, then a lot less effectual than they normally are. He has done it so quietly that no one really notices what exactly he is up to. +He didn’t need great wealth, as it turned out. After graduating from +business school, he went to work for a consulting firm in Boston called +Parthenon, where he was tapped in 2001 to advise a group trying to buy +the Red Sox. The bid failed, but a related group went and bought the +Celtics — and hired Morey to help reorganize the business. In addition +to figuring out where to set ticket prices, Morey helped to find a new +general manager and new people looking for better ways to value +basketball players. The Celtics improved. Leslie Alexander heard +whispers that Morey, who was 33, was out in front of those trying to +rethink the game, so he hired him to remake the Houston Rockets. Advertisement -[Continue reading the main story][8] +[Continue reading the main story](#story-continues-4) -Last season, in a bid to draw some attention to Battier's defense, the Rockets' public-relations department would send a staff member to the opponent's locker room to ask leading questions of whichever superstar Battier had just hamstrung: "Why did you have so much trouble tonight?" "Did he do something to disrupt your game?" According to Battier: "They usually say they had an off night. They think of me as some chump." He senses that some players actually look forward to being guarded by him. "No one dreads being guarded by me," he said. Morey confirmed as much: "That's actually true. But for two reasons: (a) They don't think anyone can guard them and (b) they really scoff at the notion Shane Battier could guard them. They _all_ think his reputation exceeds his ability." Even as Battier was being introduced in the arena, Ahmad Rashad was wrapping up his pregame report on NBA TV and saying, "Shane Battier will try to stop Kobe Bryant." This caused the co-host Gary Payton to laugh and reply, "Ain't gonna happen," and the other co-host, Chris Webber, to add, "I think Kobe will score 50, and they'll win by 19 going away." +When Morey came to the Rockets, a huge chunk of the team’s allotted +payroll — the N.B.A. caps payrolls and taxes teams that exceed them — +was committed, for many years to come, to two superstars: Tracy ­McGrady +and Yao Ming. Morey had to find ways to improve the Rockets without +spending money. “We couldn’t afford another superstar,” he says, “so we +went looking for nonsuperstars that we thought were undervalued.” He +went looking, essentially, for underpaid players. “That’s the scarce +resource in the N.B.A.,” he says. “Not the superstar but the undervalued +player.” Sifting the population of midlevel N.B.A. players, he came up +with a list of 15, near the top of which was the Memphis Grizzlies’ +forward Shane Battier. This perplexed even the man who hired Morey to +rethink basketball. “All I knew was Shane’s stats,” Alexander says, “and +obviously they weren’t great. He had to sell me. It was hard for me to +see it.” -[Continue reading the main story][12] +Alexander wasn’t alone. It was, and is, far easier to spot what Battier +doesn’t do than what he does. His conventional statistics are +unremarkable: he doesn’t score many points, snag many rebounds, block +many shots, steal many balls or dish out many assists. On top of that, +it is easy to see what he can never do: what points he scores tend to +come from jump shots taken immediately after receiving a pass. “That’s +the telltale sign of someone who can’t ramp up his offense,” Morey says. +“Because you can guard that shot with one player. And until you can’t +guard someone with one player, you really haven’t created an offensive +situation. Shane can’t create an offensive situation. He needs to be +open.” For fun, Morey shows me video of a few rare instances of Battier +scoring when he hasn’t ­exactly been open. Some large percentage of them +came when he was being guarded by an inferior defender — whereupon +Battier backed him down and tossed in a left jump-hook. “This is +probably, to be honest with you, his only offensive move,” Morey says. +“But look, see how he pump fakes.” Battier indeed pump faked, several +times, before he shot over a defender. “He does that because he’s +worried about his shot being blocked.” Battier’s weaknesses arise from +physical limitations. Or, as Morey puts it, “He can’t dribble, he’s slow +and hasn’t got much body control.” + +**Battier’s game is a weird** combination of obvious weaknesses and +nearly invisible strengths. When he is on the court, his teammates get +better, often a lot better, and his opponents get worse — often a lot +worse. He may not grab huge numbers of rebounds, but he has an uncanny +ability to improve his teammates’ rebounding. He doesn’t shoot much, but +when he does, he takes only the most efficient shots. He also has a +knack for getting the ball to teammates who are in a position to do the +same, and he commits few turnovers. On defense, although he routinely +guards the N.B.A.’s most prolific scorers, he significantly ­reduces +their shooting percentages. At the same time he somehow improves the +defensive efficiency of his teammates — probably, Morey surmises, by +helping them out in all sorts of subtle ways. “I call him Lego,” Morey +says. “When he’s on the court, all the pieces start to fit together. And +everything that leads to winning that you can get to through intellect +instead of innate ability, Shane excels in. I’ll bet he’s in the +hundredth percentile of every category.” + +There are other things Morey has noticed too, but declines to discuss as +there is right now in pro basketball real value to new information, and +the Rockets feel they have some. What he will say, however, is that the +big challenge on any basketball court is to measure the right things. +The five players on any basketball team are far more than the sum of +their parts; the Rockets devote a lot of energy to untangling subtle +interactions among the team’s elements. To get at this they need +something that basketball hasn’t historically supplied: meaningful +statistics. For most of its history basketball has measured not so much +what is important as what is easy to measure — points, rebounds, +assists, steals, blocked shots — and these measurements have warped +perceptions of the game. (“Someone created the box score,” Morey says, +“and he should be shot.”) How many points a player scores, for +example, is no true indication of how much he has helped his team. +Another example: if you want to know a player’s value as a ­rebounder, +you need to know not whether he got a rebound but the likelihood of the +team getting the rebound when a missed shot enters that player’s zone. + +There is a tension, peculiar to basketball, between the interests of the +team and the interests of the individual. The game continually tempts +the people who play it to do things that are not in the interest of the +group. On the baseball field, it would be hard for a player to sacrifice +his team’s interest for his own. Baseball is an individual sport +masquerading as a team one: by doing what’s best for himself, the player +nearly always also does what is best for his team. “There is no way to +selfishly get across home plate,” as Morey puts it. “If instead of there +being a lineup, I could muscle my way to the plate and hit every single +time and damage the efficiency of the team — that would be the analogy. +Manny Ramirez can’t take at-bats away from David Ortiz. We had a point +guard in Boston who refused to pass the ball to a certain guy.” In +football the coach has so much control over who gets the ball that +selfishness winds up being self-defeating. The players most famous for +being selfish — the Dallas Cowboys’ wide receiver Terrell Owens, for +instance — are usually not so much selfish as attention seeking. Their +sins tend to occur off the field. + +It is in basketball where the problems are most likely to be in the game +— where the player, in his play, faces choices between maximizing his +own perceived self-interest and winning. The choices are sufficiently +complex that there is a fair chance he doesn’t fully grasp that he is +making them. + +Taking a bad shot when you don’t need to is only the most obvious +example. A point guard might selfishly give up an open shot for an +assist. You can see it happen every night, when he’s racing down court +for an open layup, and instead of taking it, he passes it back to a +trailing teammate. The teammate usually finishes with some sensational +dunk, but the likelihood of scoring nevertheless declined. “The marginal +assist is worth more money to the point guard than the marginal point,” +Morey says. Blocked shots — they look great, but unless you secure the +ball afterward, you haven’t helped your team all that much. Players love +the spectacle of a ball being swatted into the fifth row, and it becomes +a matter of personal indifference that the other team still gets the +ball back. Dikembe Mutombo, Houston’s 42-year-old backup center, famous +for blocking shots, “has always been the best in the league in the +recovery of the ball after his block,” says Morey, as he begins to make +a case for Mutombo’s unselfishness before he stops and laughs. “But even +to Dikembe there’s a selfish component. He made his name by doing the +finger wag.” The finger wag: Mutombo swats the ball, grabs it, holds it +against his hip and wags his finger at the opponent. Not in my house\! +“And if he doesn’t catch the ball,” Morey says, “he can’t do the +finger wag. And he loves the finger wag.” His team of course would be +better off if Mutombo didn’t hold onto the ball long enough to do his +finger wag. “We’ve had to yell at him: start the break, start the break +— then do your finger wag\!” + +When I ask Morey if he can think of any basketball statistic that can’t +benefit a player at the expense of his team, he has to think hard. +“Offensive rebounding,” he says, then reverses himself. “But even that +can be counterproductive to the team if your job is to get back on +defense.” It turns out there is no statistic that a basketball player +accumulates that cannot be amassed selfishly. “We think about this +deeply whenever we’re talking about contractual incentives,” he says. +“We don’t want to incent a guy to do things that hurt the team” — and +the amazing thing about basketball is how easy this is to do. “They all +maximize what they think they’re being paid for,” he says. He laughs. +“It’s a tough environment for a player now because you have a lot of +teams starting to think differently. They’ve got to rethink how they’re +getting paid.” Advertisement -[Continue reading the main story][13] +[Continue reading the main story](#story-continues-5) -**Early on, Hoop Scoop magazine **named Shane Battier the fourth-best seventh grader in the United States. When he graduated from Detroit Country Day School in 1997, he received the Naismith Award as the best high-school basketball player in the nation. When he graduated from Duke in 2001, where he won a record-tying 131 college-basketball games, including that year's N.C.A.A. championship, he received another Naismith Award as the best college basketball player in the nation. He was drafted in the first round by the woeful Memphis Grizzlies, not just a bad basketball team but the one with the worst winning percentage in N.B.A. history — whereupon he was almost instantly dismissed, even by his own franchise, as a lesser talent. The year after Battier joined the Grizzlies, the team's general manager was fired and the N.B.A. legend Jerry West, a k a the Logo because his silhouette is the official emblem of the N.B.A., took over the team. "From the minute Jerry West got there he was trying to trade me," Battier says. If West didn't have any takers, it was in part because Battier seemed limited: most of the other players on the court, and some of the players on the bench, too, were more obviously gifted than he is. "He's, at best, a marginal N.B.A. athlete," Morey says. +Having watched Battier play for the past two and a half years, Morey has +come to think of him as an exception: the most abnormally unselfish +basketball player he has ever seen. Or rather, the player who seems one +step ahead of the analysts, helping the team in all sorts of subtle, +hard-to-measure ways that appear to violate his own personal interests. +“Our last coach dragged him into a meeting and told him he needed to +shoot more,” Morey says. “I’m not sure that that ever happened.” Last +season when the Rockets played the San Antonio Spurs Battier was +assigned to guard their most dangerous scorer, Manu Ginóbili. Ginóbili +comes off the bench, however, and his minutes are not in sync with the +minutes of a starter like Battier. Battier privately went to Coach Rick +Adelman and told him to bench him and bring him in when Ginóbili entered +the game. “No one in the N.B.A. does that,” Morey says. “No one says put +me on the bench so I can guard their best scorer all the time.” -The Grizzlies went from 23-59 in Battier's rookie year to 50-32 in his third year, when they made the N.B.A. playoffs, as they did in each of his final three seasons with the team. Before the 2006-7 season, Battier was traded to the Houston Rockets, who had just finished 34-48. In his first season with the Rockets, they finished 52-30, and then, last year, went 55-27 — including one stretch of 22 wins in a row. Only the 1971-2 Los Angeles Lakers have won more games consecutively in the N.B.A. And because of injuries, the Rockets played 11 of those 22 games without their two acknowledged stars, Tracy McGrady and Yao Ming, on the court at the same time; the Rockets player who spent the most time actually playing for the Rockets during the streak was Shane Battier. This year Battier, recovering from off-season surgery to remove bone spurs from an ankle, has played in just over half of the Rockets' games. That has only highlighted his importance. "This year," Morey says, "we have been a championship team with him and a bubble playoff team without him." - -Here we have a basketball mystery: a player is widely regarded inside the N.B.A. as, at best, a replaceable cog in a machine driven by superstars. And yet every team he has ever played on has acquired some magical ability to win. - -Solving the mystery is somewhere near the heart of Daryl Morey's job. In 2005, the Houston Rockets' owner, Leslie Alexander, decided to hire new management for his losing team and went looking specifically for someone willing to rethink the game. "We now have all this data," Alexander told me. "And we have computers that can analyze that data. And I wanted to use that data in a progressive way. When I hired Daryl, it was because I wanted somebody that was doing more than just looking at players in the normal way. I mean, I'm not even sure we're playing the game the right way." - -The virus that infected professional baseball in the 1990s, the use of statistics to find new and better ways to value players and strategies, has found its way into every major sport. Not just basketball and football, but also soccer and [cricket][14] and rugby and, for all I know, snooker and darts — each one now supports a subculture of smart people who view it not just as a game to be played but as a problem to be solved. Outcomes that seem, after the fact, all but inevitable — of course LeBron James hit that buzzer beater, of course the Pittsburgh Steelers won the [Super Bowl][15] — are instead treated as a set of probabilities, even after the fact. The games are games of odds. Like professional card counters, the modern thinkers want to play the odds as efficiently as they can; but of course to play the odds efficiently they must first know the odds. Hence the new statistics, and the quest to acquire new data, and the intense interest in measuring the impact of every little thing a player does on his team's chances of winning. In its spirit of inquiry, this subculture inside professional basketball is no different from the subculture inside baseball or football or darts. The difference in basketball is that it happens to be the sport that is most like life. - -When Alexander, a Wall Street investor, bought the Rockets in 1993, the notion that basketball was awaiting some statistical reformation hadn't occurred to anyone. At the time, Daryl Morey was at Northwestern University, trying to figure out how to get a job in professional sports and thinking about applying to business schools. He was tall and had played high-school basketball, but otherwise he gave off a quizzical, geeky aura. "A lot of people who are into the new try to hide it," he says. "With me there was no point." In the third grade he stumbled upon the work of the baseball writer Bill James — the figure most responsible for the current upheaval in professional sports — and decided that what he really wanted to do with his life was put Jamesian principles into practice. He nursed this ambition through a fairly conventional academic career, which eventually took him to M.I.T.'s Sloan School of Management. There he opted for the entrepreneurial track, not because he actually wanted to be an entrepreneur but because he figured that the only way he would ever be allowed to run a pro-sports franchise was to own one, and the only way he could imagine having enough money to buy one was to create some huge business. "This is the 1990s — there's no Theo," Morey says, referring to Theo Epstein, the statistics-minded general manager of the Boston Red Sox. "Sandy Alderson is progressive, but nobody knows it." Sandy Alderson, then the general manager of the Oakland Athletics, had also read Bill James and begun to usher in the new age of statistical analysis in baseball. "So," Morey continues, "I just assumed that getting rich was the only way in." Apart from using it to acquire a pro-sports team, Morey had no exceptional interest in money. +One well-known statistic the Rockets’ front office pays attention to is +plus-minus, which simply measures what happens to the score when any +given player is on the court. In its crude form, plus-minus is hardly +perfect: a player who finds himself on the same team with the world’s +four best basketball players, and who plays only when they do, will have +a plus-minus that looks pretty good, even if it says little about his +play. Morey says that he and his staff can adjust for these potential +distortions — though he is coy about how they do it — and render +plus-minus a useful measure of a player’s effect on a basketball game. A +good player might be a plus 3 — that is, his team averages 3 points more +per game than its opponent when he is on the floor. In his best season, +the superstar point guard Steve Nash was a plus 14.5. At the time of the +Lakers game, Battier was a plus 10, which put him in the company of +Dwight Howard and Kevin Garnett, both perennial All-Stars. For his +career he’s a plus 6. “Plus 6 is enormous,” Morey says. “It’s the +difference between 41 wins and 60 wins.” He names a few other players +who were a plus 6 last season: Vince Carter, Carmelo Anthony, Tracy +McGrady. Photo -![][16] +**As the game against** the Lakers started, Morey took his seat, on the +aisle, nine rows behind the Rockets’ bench. The odds, on this night, +were not good. Houston was playing without its injured superstar, +McGrady (who was in the clubhouse watching TV), and its injured best +supporting actor, Ron Artest (cheering in street clothes from the +bench). The Lakers were staffed by household names. The only Rockets +player on the floor with a conspicuous shoe contract was the center Yao +Ming — who opened the game by tipping the ball backward. Shane Battier +began his game by grabbing it. -Credit Dan Winters for The New York Times +Before the Rockets traded for Battier, the front-office analysts +obviously studied his value. They knew all sorts of details about his +efficiency and his ability to reduce the efficiency of his opponents. +They knew, for example, that stars guarded by Battier suddenly lose +their shooting touch. What they didn’t know was why. Morey recognized +Battier’s effects, but he didn’t know how he achieved them. Two hundred +or so basketball games later, he’s the world’s expert on the subject — +which he was studying all over again tonight. He pointed out how, +instead of grabbing uncertainly for a rebound, for instance, Battier +would tip the ball more certainly to a teammate. Guarding a lesser +rebounder, Battier would, when the ball was in the air, leave his own +man and block out the other team’s best rebounder. “Watch him,” a +Houston front-office analyst told me before the game. “When the shot +goes up, he’ll go sit on Gasol’s knee.” (Pau Gasol often plays center +for the Lakers.) On defense, it was as if Battier had set out to +maximize the misery Bryant experiences shooting a basketball, without +having his presence recorded in any box score. He blocked the ball when +Bryant was taking it from his waist to his chin, for instance, rather +than when it was far higher and Bryant was in the act of shooting. “When +you watch him,” Morey says, “you see that his whole thing is to stay in +front of guys and try to block the player’s vision when he shoots. We +didn’t even notice what he was doing until he got here. I wish we could +say we did, but we didn’t.” -He didn't need great wealth, as it turned out. After graduating from business school, he went to work for a consulting firm in Boston called Parthenon, where he was tapped in 2001 to advise a group trying to buy the Red Sox. The bid failed, but a related group went and bought the Celtics — and hired Morey to help reorganize the business. In addition to figuring out where to set ticket prices, Morey helped to find a new general manager and new people looking for better ways to value basketball players. The Celtics improved. Leslie Alexander heard whispers that Morey, who was 33, was out in front of those trying to rethink the game, so he hired him to remake the Houston Rockets. +People often say that Kobe Bryant has no weaknesses to his game, but +that’s not really true. Before the game, Battier was given his special +package of information. “He’s the only player we give it to,” Morey +says. “We can give him this fire hose of data and let him sift. Most +players are like golfers. You don’t want them swinging while they’re +thinking.” The data essentially broke down the floor into many discrete +zones and calculated the odds of Bryant making shots from different +places on the court, under different degrees of defensive pressure, in +different relationships to other players — how well he scored off +screens, off pick-and-rolls, off catch-and-shoots and so on. Battier +learns a lot from studying the data on the superstars he is usually +assigned to guard. For instance, the numbers show him that Allen Iverson +is one of the most efficient scorers in the N.B.A. when he goes to his +right; when he goes to his left he kills his team. The Golden State +Warriors forward Stephen Jackson is an even stranger case. “Steve +Jackson,” Battier says, “is statistically better going to his right, but +he loves to go to his left — and goes to his left almost twice as +often.” The San Antonio Spurs’ Manu Ginóbili is a statistical freak: +he has no imbalance whatsoever in his game — there is no one way to play +him that is better than another. He is equally efficient both off the +dribble and off the pass, going left and right and from any spot on the +floor. + +Bryant isn’t like that. He is better at pretty much everything than +everyone else, but there are places on the court, and starting points +for his shot, that render him less likely to help his team. When he +drives to the basket, he is exactly as likely to go to his left as to +his right, but when he goes to his left, he is less effective. When he +shoots directly after receiving a pass, he is more efficient than when +he shoots after dribbling. He’s deadly if he gets into the lane and also +if he gets to the baseline; between the two, less so. “The absolute +worst thing to do,” Battier says, “is to foul him.” It isn’t that Bryant +is an especially good free-throw shooter but that, as Morey puts it, +“the foul is the worst result of a defensive play.” One way the +Rockets can see which teams think about the game as they do is by +identifying those that “try dramatically not to foul.” The ideal +outcome, from the Rockets’ statistical point of view, is for Bryant to +dribble left and pull up for an 18-foot jump shot; force that to happen +often enough and you have to be satisfied with your night. “If he has 40 +points on 40 shots, I can live with that,” Battier says. “My job is not +to keep him from scoring points but to make him as inefficient as +possible.” The court doesn’t have little squares all over it to tell him +what percentage Bryant is likely to shoot from any given spot, but it +might as well. + +The reason the Rockets insist that Battier guard Bryant is his gift for +encouraging him into his zones of lowest efficiency. The effect of doing +this is astonishing: Bryant doesn’t merely help his team less when +Battier guards him than when someone else does. When Bryant is in the +game and Battier is on him, the Lakers’ offense is worse than if the +N.B.A.’s best player had taken the night off. “The Lakers’ offense +should obviously be better with Kobe in,” Morey says. “But if Shane is +on him, it isn’t.” A player whom Morey describes as “a marginal N.B.A. +athlete” not only guards one of the greatest — and smartest — offensive +threats ever to play the game. He renders him a detriment to his team. + +And if you knew none of this, you would never guess any of it from +watching the game. Bryant was quicker than Battier, so the latter spent +much of his time chasing around after him, Keystone Cops-like. Bryant +shot early and often, but he looked pretty good from everywhere. On +defense, Battier talked to his teammates a lot more than anyone else on +the court, but from the stands it was hard to see any point to this. And +yet, he swears, there’s a reason to almost all of it: when he decides +where to be on the court and what angles to take, he is constantly +reminding himself of the odds on the stack of papers he read through an +hour earlier as his feet soaked in the whirlpool. “The numbers either +refute my thinking or support my thinking,” he says, “and when there’s +any question, I trust the numbers. The numbers don’t lie.” Even when the +numbers agree with his intuitions, they have an effect. “It’s a subtle +difference,” Morey says, “but it has big implications. If you have an +intuition of something but no hard evidence to back it up, you might +kind of sort of go about putting that intuition into practice, because +there’s still some uncertainty if it’s right or wrong.” Advertisement -[Continue reading the main story][17] +[Continue reading the main story](#story-continues-6) -When Morey came to the Rockets, a huge chunk of the team's allotted payroll — the N.B.A. caps payrolls and taxes teams that exceed them — was committed, for many years to come, to two superstars: Tracy ­McGrady and Yao Ming. Morey had to find ways to improve the Rockets without spending money. "We couldn't afford another superstar," he says, "so we went looking for nonsuperstars that we thought were undervalued." He went looking, essentially, for underpaid players. "That's the scarce resource in the N.B.A.," he says. "Not the superstar but the undervalued player." Sifting the population of midlevel N.B.A. players, he came up with a list of 15, near the top of which was the Memphis Grizzlies' forward Shane Battier. This perplexed even the man who hired Morey to rethink basketball. "All I knew was Shane's stats," Alexander says, "and obviously they weren't great. He had to sell me. It was hard for me to see it." - -Alexander wasn't alone. It was, and is, far easier to spot what Battier doesn't do than what he does. His conventional statistics are unremarkable: he doesn't score many points, snag many rebounds, block many shots, steal many balls or dish out many assists. On top of that, it is easy to see what he can never do: what points he scores tend to come from jump shots taken immediately after receiving a pass. "That's the telltale sign of someone who can't ramp up his offense," Morey says. "Because you can guard that shot with one player. And until you can't guard someone with one player, you really haven't created an offensive situation. Shane can't create an offensive situation. He needs to be open." For fun, Morey shows me video of a few rare instances of Battier scoring when he hasn't ­exactly been open. Some large percentage of them came when he was being guarded by an inferior defender — whereupon Battier backed him down and tossed in a left jump-hook. "This is probably, to be honest with you, his only offensive move," Morey says. "But look, see how he pump fakes." Battier indeed pump faked, several times, before he shot over a defender. "He does that because he's worried about his shot being blocked." Battier's weaknesses arise from physical limitations. Or, as Morey puts it, "He can't dribble, he's slow and hasn't got much body control." - -**Battier's game is a weird **combination of obvious weaknesses and nearly invisible strengths. When he is on the court, his teammates get better, often a lot better, and his opponents get worse — often a lot worse. He may not grab huge numbers of rebounds, but he has an uncanny ability to improve his teammates' rebounding. He doesn't shoot much, but when he does, he takes only the most efficient shots. He also has a knack for getting the ball to teammates who are in a position to do the same, and he commits few turnovers. On defense, although he routinely guards the N.B.A.'s most prolific scorers, he significantly ­reduces their shooting percentages. At the same time he somehow improves the defensive efficiency of his teammates — probably, Morey surmises, by helping them out in all sorts of subtle ways. "I call him Lego," Morey says. "When he's on the court, all the pieces start to fit together. And everything that leads to winning that you can get to through intellect instead of innate ability, Shane excels in. I'll bet he's in the hundredth percentile of every category." - -There are other things Morey has noticed too, but declines to discuss as there is right now in pro basketball real value to new information, and the Rockets feel they have some. What he will say, however, is that the big challenge on any basketball court is to measure the right things. The five players on any basketball team are far more than the sum of their parts; the Rockets devote a lot of energy to untangling subtle interactions among the team's elements. To get at this they need something that basketball hasn't historically supplied: meaningful statistics. For most of its history basketball has measured not so much what is important as what is easy to measure — points, rebounds, assists, steals, blocked shots — and these measurements have warped perceptions of the game. ("Someone created the box score," Morey says, "and he should be shot.") How many points a player scores, for example, is no true indication of how much he has helped his team. Another example: if you want to know a player's value as a ­rebounder, you need to know not whether he got a rebound but the likelihood of the _team_ getting the rebound when a missed shot enters that player's zone. - -There is a tension, peculiar to basketball, between the interests of the team and the interests of the individual. The game continually tempts the people who play it to do things that are not in the interest of the group. On the baseball field, it would be hard for a player to sacrifice his team's interest for his own. Baseball is an individual sport masquerading as a team one: by doing what's best for himself, the player nearly always also does what is best for his team. "There is no way to selfishly get across home plate," as Morey puts it. "If instead of there being a lineup, I could muscle my way to the plate and hit every single time and damage the efficiency of the team — that would be the analogy. Manny Ramirez can't take at-bats away from David Ortiz. We had a point guard in Boston who refused to pass the ball to a certain guy." In football the coach has so much control over who gets the ball that selfishness winds up being self-defeating. The players most famous for being selfish — the Dallas Cowboys' wide receiver Terrell Owens, for instance — are usually not so much selfish as attention seeking. Their sins tend to occur off the field. - -It is in basketball where the problems are most likely to be in the game — where the player, in his play, faces choices between maximizing his own perceived self-interest and winning. The choices are sufficiently complex that there is a fair chance he doesn't fully grasp that he is making them. - -Taking a bad shot when you don't need to is only the most obvious example. A point guard might selfishly give up an open shot for an assist. You can see it happen every night, when he's racing down court for an open layup, and instead of taking it, he passes it back to a trailing teammate. The teammate usually finishes with some sensational dunk, but the likelihood of scoring nevertheless declined. "The marginal assist is worth more money to the point guard than the marginal point," Morey says. Blocked shots — they look great, but unless you secure the ball afterward, you haven't helped your team all that much. Players love the spectacle of a ball being swatted into the fifth row, and it becomes a matter of personal indifference that the other team still gets the ball back. Dikembe Mutombo, Houston's 42-year-old backup center, famous for blocking shots, "has always been the best in the league in the recovery of the ball after his block," says Morey, as he begins to make a case for Mutombo's unselfishness before he stops and laughs. "But even to Dikembe there's a selfish component. He made his name by doing the finger wag." The finger wag: Mutombo swats the ball, grabs it, holds it against his hip and wags his finger at the opponent. Not in my house! "And if he doesn't catch the ball," Morey says, "he can't do the finger wag. And he loves the finger wag." His team of course would be better off if Mutombo didn't hold onto the ball long enough to do his finger wag. "We've had to yell at him: start the break, start the break — then do your finger wag!" - -When I ask Morey if he can think of any basketball statistic that can't benefit a player at the expense of his team, he has to think hard. "Offensive rebounding," he says, then reverses himself. "But even that can be counterproductive to the team if your job is to get back on defense." It turns out there is no statistic that a basketball player accumulates that cannot be amassed selfishly. "We think about this deeply whenever we're talking about contractual incentives," he says. "We don't want to incent a guy to do things that hurt the team" — and the amazing thing about basketball is how easy this is to do. "They _all_ maximize what they think they're being paid for," he says. He laughs. "It's a tough environment for a player now because you have a lot of teams starting to think differently. They've got to rethink how they're getting paid." - -Advertisement - -[Continue reading the main story][18] - -Having watched Battier play for the past two and a half years, Morey has come to think of him as an exception: the most abnormally unselfish basketball player he has ever seen. Or rather, the player who seems one step ahead of the analysts, helping the team in all sorts of subtle, hard-to-measure ways that appear to violate his own personal interests. "Our last coach dragged him into a meeting and told him he needed to shoot more," Morey says. "I'm not sure that that ever happened." Last season when the Rockets played the San Antonio Spurs Battier was assigned to guard their most dangerous scorer, Manu Ginóbili. Ginóbili comes off the bench, however, and his minutes are not in sync with the minutes of a starter like Battier. Battier privately went to Coach Rick Adelman and told him to bench him and bring him in when Ginóbili entered the game. "No one in the N.B.A. does that," Morey says. "No one says put me on the bench so I can guard their best scorer all the time." - -One well-known statistic the Rockets' front office pays attention to is plus-minus, which simply measures what happens to the score when any given player is on the court. In its crude form, plus-minus is hardly perfect: a player who finds himself on the same team with the world's four best basketball players, and who plays only when they do, will have a plus-minus that looks pretty good, even if it says little about his play. Morey says that he and his staff can adjust for these potential distortions — though he is coy about how they do it — and render plus-minus a useful measure of a player's effect on a basketball game. A good player might be a plus 3 — that is, his team averages 3 points more per game than its opponent when he is on the floor. In his best season, the superstar point guard Steve Nash was a plus 14.5. At the time of the Lakers game, Battier was a plus 10, which put him in the company of Dwight Howard and Kevin Garnett, both perennial All-Stars. For his career he's a plus 6. "Plus 6 is enormous," Morey says. "It's the difference between 41 wins and 60 wins." He names a few other players who were a plus 6 last season: Vince Carter, Carmelo Anthony, Tracy McGrady. - -Photo - -![][19] - -**Revision Quest** Daryl Morey was hired by the Houston Rockets as a33-year-old to look at players in new ways. Credit Bill Baptiste/NBAE/Getty Images - -**As the game against **the Lakers started, Morey took his seat, on the aisle, nine rows behind the Rockets' bench. The odds, on this night, were not good. Houston was playing without its injured superstar, McGrady (who was in the clubhouse watching TV), and its injured best supporting actor, Ron Artest (cheering in street clothes from the bench). The Lakers were staffed by household names. The only Rockets player on the floor with a conspicuous shoe contract was the center Yao Ming — who opened the game by tipping the ball backward. Shane Battier began his game by grabbing it. - -Before the Rockets traded for Battier, the front-office analysts obviously studied his value. They knew all sorts of details about his efficiency and his ability to reduce the efficiency of his opponents. They knew, for example, that stars guarded by Battier suddenly lose their shooting touch. What they didn't know was why. Morey recognized Battier's effects, but he didn't know how he achieved them. Two hundred or so basketball games later, he's the world's expert on the subject — which he was studying all over again tonight. He pointed out how, instead of grabbing uncertainly for a rebound, for instance, Battier would tip the ball more certainly to a teammate. Guarding a lesser rebounder, Battier would, when the ball was in the air, leave his own man and block out the other team's best rebounder. "Watch him," a Houston front-office analyst told me before the game. "When the shot goes up, he'll go sit on Gasol's knee." (Pau Gasol often plays center for the Lakers.) On defense, it was as if Battier had set out to maximize the misery Bryant experiences shooting a basketball, without having his presence recorded in any box score. He blocked the ball when Bryant was taking it from his waist to his chin, for instance, rather than when it was far higher and Bryant was in the act of shooting. "When you watch him," Morey says, "you see that his whole thing is to stay in front of guys and try to block the player's vision when he shoots. We didn't even notice what he was doing until he got here. I wish we could say we did, but we didn't." - -People often say that Kobe Bryant has no weaknesses to his game, but that's not really true. Before the game, Battier was given his special package of information. "He's the only player we give it to," Morey says. "We can give him this fire hose of data and let him sift. Most players are like golfers. You don't want them swinging while they're thinking." The data essentially broke down the floor into many discrete zones and calculated the odds of Bryant making shots from different places on the court, under different degrees of defensive pressure, in different relationships to other players — how well he scored off screens, off pick-and-rolls, off catch-and-shoots and so on. Battier learns a lot from studying the data on the superstars he is usually assigned to guard. For instance, the numbers show him that Allen Iverson is one of the most efficient scorers in the N.B.A. when he goes to his right; when he goes to his left he kills his team. The Golden State Warriors forward Stephen Jackson is an even stranger case. "Steve Jackson," Battier says, "is statistically better going to his right, but he _loves_ to go to his left — and goes to his left almost twice as often." The San Antonio Spurs' Manu Ginóbili is a statistical freak: he has no imbalance whatsoever in his game — there is no one way to play him that is better than another. He is equally efficient both off the dribble and off the pass, going left and right and from any spot on the floor. - -Bryant isn't like that. He is better at pretty much everything than everyone else, but there are places on the court, and starting points for his shot, that render him less likely to help his team. When he drives to the basket, he is exactly as likely to go to his left as to his right, but when he goes to his left, he is less effective. When he shoots directly after receiving a pass, he is more efficient than when he shoots after dribbling. He's deadly if he gets into the lane and also if he gets to the baseline; between the two, less so. "The absolute worst thing to do," Battier says, "is to foul him." It isn't that Bryant is an especially good free-throw shooter but that, as Morey puts it, "the foul is the worst result of a defensive play." One way the Rockets can see which teams think about the game as they do is by identifying those that "try dramatically not to foul." The ideal outcome, from the Rockets' statistical point of view, is for Bryant to dribble left and pull up for an 18-foot jump shot; force that to happen often enough and you have to be satisfied with your night. "If he has 40 points on 40 shots, I can live with that," Battier says. "My job is not to keep him from scoring points but to make him as inefficient as possible." The court doesn't have little squares all over it to tell him what percentage Bryant is likely to shoot from any given spot, but it might as well. - -The reason the Rockets insist that Battier guard Bryant is his gift for encouraging him into his zones of lowest efficiency. The effect of doing this is astonishing: Bryant doesn't merely help his team less when Battier guards him than when someone else does. When Bryant is in the game and Battier is on him, the Lakers' offense is worse than if the N.B.A.'s best player had taken the night off. "The Lakers' offense should obviously be better with Kobe in," Morey says. "But if Shane is on him, it isn't." A player whom Morey describes as "a marginal N.B.A. athlete" not only guards one of the greatest — and smartest — offensive threats ever to play the game. He renders him a detriment to his team. - -And if you knew none of this, you would never guess any of it from watching the game. Bryant was quicker than Battier, so the latter spent much of his time chasing around after him, Keystone Cops-like. Bryant shot early and often, but he looked pretty good from everywhere. On defense, Battier talked to his teammates a lot more than anyone else on the court, but from the stands it was hard to see any point to this. And yet, he swears, there's a reason to almost all of it: when he decides where to be on the court and what angles to take, he is constantly reminding himself of the odds on the stack of papers he read through an hour earlier as his feet soaked in the whirlpool. "The numbers either refute my thinking or support my thinking," he says, "and when there's any question, I trust the numbers. The numbers don't lie." Even when the numbers agree with his intuitions, they have an effect. "It's a subtle difference," Morey says, "but it has big implications. If you have an intuition of something but no hard evidence to back it up, you might kind of _sort of _go about putting that intuition into practice, because there's still some uncertainty if it's right or wrong." - -Advertisement - -[Continue reading the main story][20] - -Knowing the odds, Battier can pursue an inherently uncertain strategy with total certainty. He can devote himself to a process and disregard the outcome of any given encounter. This is critical because in basketball, as in everything else, luck plays a role, and Battier cannot afford to let it distract him. Only once during the Lakers game did we glimpse a clean, satisfying comparison of the efficient strategy and the inefficient one — that is, an outcome that reflected the odds. Ten feet from the hoop, Bryant got the ball with his back to the basket; with Battier pressing against him, he fell back and missed a 12-foot shot off the front of the rim. Moments earlier, with Battier reclining in the deep soft chair that masquerades as an N.B.A. bench, his teammate Brent Barry found himself in an analogous position. Bryant leaned into Barry, hit a six-foot shot and drew a foul. But this was the exception; normally you don't get perfect comparisons. You couldn't see the odds shifting subtly away from the Lakers and toward the Rockets as Bryant was forced from 6 feet out to 12 feet from the basket, or when he had Battier's hand in his eyes. All you saw were the statistics on the board, and as the seconds ticked off to halftime, the game tied 54-54, Bryant led all scorers with 16 points. +Knowing the odds, Battier can pursue an inherently uncertain strategy +with total certainty. He can devote himself to a process and disregard +the outcome of any given encounter. This is critical because in +basketball, as in everything else, luck plays a role, and Battier cannot +afford to let it distract him. Only once during the Lakers game did we +glimpse a clean, satisfying comparison of the efficient strategy and the +inefficient one — that is, an outcome that reflected the odds. Ten feet +from the hoop, Bryant got the ball with his back to the basket; with +Battier pressing against him, he fell back and missed a 12-foot shot off +the front of the rim. Moments earlier, with Battier reclining in the +deep soft chair that masquerades as an N.B.A. bench, his teammate Brent +Barry found himself in an analogous position. Bryant leaned into Barry, +hit a six-foot shot and drew a foul. But this was the exception; +normally you don’t get perfect comparisons. You couldn’t see the odds +shifting subtly away from the Lakers and toward the Rockets as Bryant +was forced from 6 feet out to 12 feet from the basket, or when he had +Battier’s hand in his eyes. All you saw were the statistics on the +board, and as the seconds ticked off to halftime, the game tied 54-54, +Bryant led all scorers with 16 points. ## Newsletter Sign Up -[Continue reading the main story][21] +[Continue reading the main story](#continues-post-newsletter) ### @@ -177,393 +453,378 @@ Invalid email address. Please re-enter. You must select a newsletter to subscribe to. -Sign Up - -You agree to receive occasional updates and special offers for The New York Times's products and services. +You agree to receive occasional updates and special offers for The New +York Times's products and services. ### Thank you for subscribing. ### An error has occurred. Please try again later. -### You are already subscribed to this email. +[View all New York Times newsletters.](/newsletters) -[View all New York Times newsletters.][22] +But he required 20 possessions to get them. And he had started moaning +to the referees. Bryant is one of the great jawboners in the history of +the N.B.A. A major-league baseball player once showed me a slow-motion +replay of the Yankees’ third baseman Alex Rodriguez in the batter’s box. +Glancing back to see where the catcher has set up is not strictly +against baseball’s rules, but it violates the code. A hitter who does it +is likely to find the next pitch aimed in the general direction of his +eyes. A-Rod, the best hitter in baseball, mastered the art of glancing +back by moving not his head, but his eyes, at just the right time. It +was like watching a billionaire find some trivial and dubious deduction +to take on his tax returns. Why bother? I thought, and then realized: +this is the instinct that separates A-Rod from mere stars. Kobe Bryant +has the same instinct. Tonight Bryant complained that Battier was +grabbing his jersey, Battier was pushing when no one was looking, +Battier was committing crimes against humanity. Just before the half +ended, Battier took a referee aside and said: “You and I both know Kobe +does this all the time. I’m playing him honest. Don’t fall for his +stuff.” Moments later, after failing to get a call, Bryant hurled the +ball, screamed at the ref and was whistled for a technical foul. -* [See Sample][23] -* [Manage Email Preferences][24] -* [Not you?][25] -* [Privacy Policy][26] -* Opt out or [contact us][27] anytime +Just after that, the half ended, but not before Battier was tempted by a +tiny act of basketball selfishness. The Rockets’ front office has picked +up a glitch in Battier’s philanthropic approach to the game: in the +final second of any quarter, finding himself with the ball and on the +wrong side of the half-court line, Battier refuses to heave it honestly +at the basket, in an improbable but not impossible attempt to score. He +heaves it disingenuously, and a millisecond after the buzzer sounds. +Daryl Morey could think of only one explanation: a miss lowers Battier’s +shooting percentage. “I tell him we don’t count heaves in our stats,” +Morey says, “but Shane’s smart enough to know that his next team might +not be smart enough to take the heaves out.” -But he required 20 possessions to get them. And he had started moaning to the referees. Bryant is one of the great jawboners in the history of the N.B.A. A major-league baseball player once showed me a slow-motion replay of the Yankees' third baseman Alex Rodriguez in the batter's box. Glancing back to see where the catcher has set up is not strictly against baseball's rules, but it violates the code. A hitter who does it is likely to find the next pitch aimed in the general direction of his eyes. A-Rod, the best hitter in baseball, mastered the art of glancing back by moving not his head, but his eyes, at just the right time. It was like watching a billionaire find some trivial and dubious deduction to take on his tax returns. Why bother? I thought, and then realized: this is the instinct that separates A-Rod from mere stars. Kobe Bryant has the same instinct. Tonight Bryant complained that Battier was grabbing his jersey, Battier was pushing when no one was looking, Battier was committing crimes against humanity. Just before the half ended, Battier took a referee aside and said: "You and I both know Kobe does this all the time. I'm playing him honest. Don't fall for his stuff." Moments later, after failing to get a call, Bryant hurled the ball, screamed at the ref and was whistled for a technical foul. +Tonight, the ball landed in Battier’s hands milliseconds before the half +finished. He moved just slowly enough for the buzzer to sound, heaved +the ball the length of the floor and then sprinted to the locker room — +having not taken a single shot. -Just after that, the half ended, but not before Battier was tempted by a tiny act of basketball selfishness. The Rockets' front office has picked up a glitch in Battier's philanthropic approach to the game: in the final second of any quarter, finding himself with the ball and on the wrong side of the half-court line, Battier refuses to heave it honestly at the basket, in an improbable but not impossible attempt to score. He heaves it disingenuously, and a millisecond after the buzzer sounds. Daryl Morey could think of only one explanation: a miss lowers Battier's shooting percentage. "I tell him we don't count heaves in our stats," Morey says, "but Shane's smart enough to know that his next team might not be smart enough to take the heaves out." - -Tonight, the ball landed in Battier's hands milliseconds before the half finished. He moved just slowly enough for the buzzer to sound, heaved the ball the length of the floor and then sprinted to the locker room — having not taken a single shot. - -**In 1996 a young writer** for The Basketball Times named Dan Wetzel thought it might be neat to move into the life of a star high-school basketball ­player and watch up close as big-time basketball colleges recruited him. He picked Shane Battier, and then spent five months trailing him, with growing incredulity. "I'd covered high-school basketball for eight years and talked to hundreds and hundreds and hundreds of kids — really every single prominent high-school basketball player in the country," Wetzel says. "There's this public perception that they're all thugs. But they aren't. A lot of them are really good guys, and some of them are very, very bright. Kobe's very bright. LeBron's very bright. But there's absolutely never been anything like Shane Battier." +**In 1996 a young writer** for The Basketball Times named Dan Wetzel +thought it might be neat to move into the life of a star high-school +basketball ­player and watch up close as big-time basketball colleges +recruited him. He picked Shane Battier, and then spent five months +trailing him, with growing incredulity. “I’d covered high-school +basketball for eight years and talked to hundreds and hundreds and +hundreds of kids — really every single prominent high-school basketball +player in the country,” Wetzel says. “There’s this public perception +that they’re all thugs. But they aren’t. A lot of them are really good +guys, and some of them are very, very bright. Kobe’s very bright. +LeBron’s very bright. But there’s absolutely never been anything like +Shane Battier.” Photo -![][28] +Wetzel watched this kid, inundated with offers of every kind, take +charge of an unprincipled process. Battier narrowed his choices to six +schools — Kentucky, Kansas, North Carolina, Duke, Michigan and Michigan +State — and told everyone else, politely, to leave him be. He then set +out to minimize the degree to which the chosen schools could interfere +with his studies; he had a 3.96 G.P.A. and was poised to claim Detroit +Country Day School’s headmaster’s cup for best all-around student. He +granted each head coach a weekly 15-minute window in which to phone him. +These men happened to be among the most famous basketball coaches in the +world and the most persistent recruiters, but Battier granted no +exceptions. When the Kentucky coach Rick Pitino, who had just won a +national championship, tried to call Battier outside his assigned time, +Battier simply removed Kentucky from his list. “What 17-year-old has the +stones to do that?” Wetzel asks. “To just cut off Rick Pitino because he +calls outside his window?” Wetzel answers his own question: “It wasn’t +like, ‘This is a really interesting 17-year-old.’ It was like, ‘This +isn’t real.’ ” -**A Coach's Dream** Before one game, Shane Battier asked Coach Rick Adelman (right) if he could come off the bench to be able to guard the high-scoring sixth-man Manu Ginóbili. “No one in the N.B.A. does that,” says the Rockets’ general manager Daryl Morey. Credit Robert Seale for The New York Times +Battier, even as a teenager, was as shrewd as he was disciplined. The +minute he figured out where he was headed, he called a sensational +high-school power forward in Peekskill, N.Y., named Elton Brand — and +talked him into joining him at Duke. (Brand now plays for the +Philadelphia 76ers.) “I thought he’d be the first black president,” +Wetzel says. “He was Barack Obama before Barack Obama.” -Wetzel watched this kid, inundated with offers of every kind, take charge of an unprincipled process. Battier narrowed his choices to six schools — Kentucky, Kansas, North Carolina, Duke, Michigan and Michigan State — and told everyone else, politely, to leave him be. He then set out to minimize the degree to which the chosen schools could interfere with his studies; he had a 3.96 G.P.A. and was poised to claim Detroit Country Day School's headmaster's cup for best all-around student. He granted each head coach a weekly 15-minute window in which to phone him. These men happened to be among the most famous basketball coaches in the world and the most persistent recruiters, but Battier granted no exceptions. When the Kentucky coach Rick Pitino, who had just won a national championship, tried to call Battier outside his assigned time, Battier simply removed Kentucky from his list. "What 17-year-old has the stones to do that?" Wetzel asks. "To just cut off Rick Pitino because he calls outside his window?" Wetzel answers his own question: "It wasn't like, 'This is a really interesting 17-year-old.' It was like, 'This isn't real.' " +Last July, as we sat in the library of the Detroit Country Day School, +watching, or trying to watch, his March 2008 performance against Kobe +Bryant, Battier was much happier instead talking about Obama, both of +whose books he had read. (“The first was better than the second,” he +said.) He said he hated watching himself play, then proved it by +refusing to watch himself play. My every attempt to draw his attention +to the action on the video monitor was met by some distraction. -Battier, even as a teenager, was as shrewd as he was disciplined. The minute he figured out where he was headed, he called a sensational high-school power forward in Peekskill, N.Y., named Elton Brand — and talked him into joining him at Duke. (Brand now plays for the Philadelphia 76ers.) "I thought he'd be the first black president," Wetzel says. "He was Barack Obama before Barack Obama." - -Last July, as we sat in the library of the Detroit Country Day School, watching, or trying to watch, his March 2008 performance against Kobe Bryant, Battier was much happier instead talking about Obama, both of whose books he had read. ("The first was better than the second," he said.) He said he hated watching himself play, then proved it by refusing to watch himself play. My every attempt to draw his attention to the action on the video monitor was met by some distraction. - -I pointed to his footwork; he pointed to a gorgeous young woman in the stands wearing a ­Battier jersey. ("You don't see too many good-looking girls with Battier jerseys on," he said. "It's usually 12 and under or 60 and over. That's my demographic.") I noted the uncanny way in which he got his hand right in front of Bryant's eyes before a shot; he motioned to his old high school library ("I came in here every day before classes"). He took my excessive interest in this one game as proof of a certain lack of imagination, I'm pretty sure. "I've been doing the same thing for seven years," he said, "and this is the only game anyone wants to talk about. It's like, Oh, you can play defense?" It grew clear that one reason he didn't particularly care to watch himself play, apart from the tedium of it, was that he plays the game so self-consciously. Unable to count on the game to properly measure his performance, he learned to do so himself. He had, in some sense, already seen the video. When I finally compelled him to watch, he was knocking the ball out of Bryant's hands as Bryant raised it from his waist to his chin. "If I get to be commissioner, that will count as a blocked shot," Battier said. "But it's nothing. They don't count it as a blocked shot. I do that at least 30 times a season." +I pointed to his footwork; he pointed to a gorgeous young woman in the +stands wearing a ­Battier jersey. (“You don’t see too many good-looking +girls with Battier jerseys on,” he said. “It’s usually 12 and under or +60 and over. That’s my demographic.”) I noted the uncanny way in which +he got his hand right in front of Bryant’s eyes before a shot; he +motioned to his old high school library (“I came in here every day +before classes”). He took my excessive interest in this one game as +proof of a certain lack of imagination, I’m pretty sure. “I’ve been +doing the same thing for seven years,” he said, “and this is the only +game anyone wants to talk about. It’s like, Oh, you can play defense?” +It grew clear that one reason he didn’t particularly care to watch +himself play, apart from the tedium of it, was that he plays the game so +self-consciously. Unable to count on the game to properly measure his +performance, he learned to do so himself. He had, in some sense, already +seen the video. When I finally compelled him to watch, he was knocking +the ball out of Bryant’s hands as Bryant raised it from his waist to his +chin. “If I get to be commissioner, that will count as a blocked shot,” +Battier said. “But it’s nothing. They don’t count it as a blocked shot. +I do that at least 30 times a season.” Advertisement -[Continue reading the main story][29] +[Continue reading the main story](#story-continues-7) -In the statistically insignificant sample of professional athletes I've come to know a bit, two patterns have emerged. The first is, they tell you meaningful things only when you talk to them in places other than where they have been trained to answer questions. It's pointless, for instance, to ask a basketball player about himself inside his locker room. For a start, he is naked; for another, he's surrounded by the people he has learned to mistrust, his own teammates. The second pattern is the fact that seemingly trivial events in their childhoods have had huge influence on their careers. A cleanup hitter lives and dies by a swing he perfected when he was 7; a quarterback has a hitch in his throwing motion because he imitated his father. Here, in the Detroit Country Day School library, a few yards from the gym, Battier was back where he became a basketball player. And he was far less interested in what happened between him and Kobe Bryant four months ago than what happened when he was 12. +In the statistically insignificant sample of professional athletes I’ve +come to know a bit, two patterns have emerged. The first is, they tell +you meaningful things only when you talk to them in places other than +where they have been trained to answer questions. It’s pointless, for +instance, to ask a basketball player about himself inside his locker +room. For a start, he is naked; for another, he’s surrounded by the +people he has learned to mistrust, his own teammates. The second pattern +is the fact that seemingly trivial events in their childhoods have had +huge influence on their careers. A cleanup hitter lives and dies by a +swing he perfected when he was 7; a quarterback has a hitch in his +throwing motion because he imitated his father. Here, in the Detroit +Country Day School library, a few yards from the gym, Battier was back +where he became a basketball player. And he was far less interested in +what happened between him and Kobe Bryant four months ago than what +happened when he was 12. -When he entered Detroit Country Day in seventh grade, he was already conspicuous at 6-foot-4, and a year later he would be 6-foot-7. "Growing up tall was something I got used to," he said. "I was the kid about whom they always said, 'Check his birth certificate.' " He was also the only kid in school with a black father and a white mother. Oddly enough, the school had just graduated a famous black basketball player, Chris Webber. Webber won three state championships and was named national high-school player of the year. "Chris was a man-child," says his high school basketball coach, Kurt Keener. "Everyone wanted Shane to be the next Chris Webber, but Shane wasn't like that." Battier had never heard of Webber and didn't understand why, when he took to the Amateur Athletic Union circuit and played with black inner-city kids, he found himself compared unfavorably with Webber: "I kept hearing 'He's too soft' or 'He's not an athlete.' " His high-school coach was aware of the problems he had when he moved from white high-school games to the black A.A.U. circuit. "I remember trying to add some flair to his game," Keener says, "but it was like teaching a classical dancer to do hip-hop. I came to the conclusion he didn't have the ego for it." +When he entered Detroit Country Day in seventh grade, he was already +conspicuous at 6-foot-4, and a year later he would be 6-foot-7. “Growing +up tall was something I got used to,” he said. “I was the kid about whom +they always said, ‘Check his birth certificate.’ ” He was also the only +kid in school with a black father and a white mother. Oddly enough, the +school had just graduated a famous black basketball player, Chris +Webber. Webber won three state championships and was named national +high-school player of the year. “Chris was a man-child,” says his high +school basketball coach, Kurt Keener. “Everyone wanted Shane to be the +next Chris Webber, but Shane wasn’t like that.” Battier had never heard +of Webber and didn’t understand why, when he took to the Amateur +Athletic Union circuit and played with black inner-city kids, he found +himself compared unfavorably with Webber: “I kept hearing ‘He’s too +soft’ or ‘He’s not an athlete.’ ” His high-school coach was aware of +the problems he had when he moved from white high-school games to the +black A.A.U. circuit. “I remember trying to add some flair to his game,” +Keener says, “but it was like teaching a classical dancer to do hip-hop. +I came to the conclusion he didn’t have the ego for it.” -Battier was half-white and half-black, but basketball, it seemed, was either black or white. A small library of Ph.D. theses might usefully be devoted to the reasons for this. For instance, is it a coincidence that many of the things a player does in white basketball to prove his character — take a charge, scramble for a loose ball — are more pleasantly done on a polished wooden floor than they are on inner-city asphalt? Is it easier to "play for the team" when that team is part of some larger institution? At any rate, the inner-city kids with whom he played on the A.A.U. circuit treated Battier like a suburban kid with a white game, and the suburban kids he played with during the regular season treated him like a visitor from the planet where they kept the black people. "On Martin Luther King Day, everyone in class would look at me like I was supposed to know who he was and why he was important," Battier said. "When we had an official school picture, every other kid was given a comb. I was the only one given a pick." He was awkward and shy, or as he put it: "I didn't present well. But I'm in the eighth grade! I'm just trying to fit in!" And yet here he was shuttling between a black world that treated him as white and a white world that treated him as black. '_'Everything_ I've done since then is because of what I went through with this," he said. "What I did is alienate myself from everybody. I'd eat lunch by myself. I'd study by myself. And I sort of lost myself in the game." +Battier was half-white and half-black, but basketball, it seemed, was +either black or white. A small library of Ph.D. theses might usefully be +devoted to the reasons for this. For instance, is it a coincidence that +many of the things a player does in white basketball to prove his +character — take a charge, scramble for a loose ball — are more +pleasantly done on a polished wooden floor than they are on inner-city +asphalt? Is it easier to “play for the team” when that team is part of +some larger institution? At any rate, the inner-city kids with whom he +played on the A.A.U. circuit treated Battier like a suburban kid with a +white game, and the suburban kids he played with during the regular +season treated him like a visitor from the planet where they kept the +black people. “On Martin Luther King Day, everyone in class would look +at me like I was supposed to know who he was and why he was important,” +Battier said. “When we had an official school picture, every other kid +was given a comb. I was the only one given a pick.” He was awkward and +shy, or as he put it: “I didn’t present well. But I’m in the eighth +grade\! I’m just trying to fit in\!” And yet here he was shuttling +between a black world that treated him as white and a white world that +treated him as black. ‘‘Everything I’ve done since then is because of +what I went through with this,” he said. “What I did is alienate myself +from everybody. I’d eat lunch by myself. I’d study by myself. And I sort +of lost myself in the game.” -Losing himself in the game meant fitting into the game, and fitting into the game meant meshing so well that he became hard to see. In high school he was almost always the best player on the court, but even then he didn't embrace the starring role. "He had a tendency to defer," Keener says. "He had this incredible ability to make everyone around him better. But I had to tell him to be more assertive. The one game we lost his freshman year, it was because he deferred to the seniors." Even when he was clearly the best player and could have shot the ball at will, he was more interested in his role in the larger unit. But it is a mistake to see in his detachment from self an absence of ego, or ambition, or even desire for attention. When Battier finished telling me the story of this unpleasant period in his life, he said: "Chris Webber won three state championships, the Mr. Basketball Award and the Naismith Award. I won three state championships, Mr. Basketball and the Naismith Awards. All the things they said I wasn't able to do, when I was in the eighth grade." +Losing himself in the game meant fitting into the game, and fitting into +the game meant meshing so well that he became hard to see. In high +school he was almost always the best player on the court, but even then +he didn’t embrace the starring role. “He had a tendency to defer,” +Keener says. “He had this incredible ability to make everyone around him +better. But I had to tell him to be more assertive. The one game we lost +his freshman year, it was because he deferred to the seniors.” Even when +he was clearly the best player and could have shot the ball at will, he +was more interested in his role in the larger unit. But it is a mistake +to see in his detachment from self an absence of ego, or ambition, or +even desire for attention. When Battier finished telling me the story of +this unpleasant period in his life, he said: “Chris Webber won three +state championships, the Mr. Basketball Award and the Naismith Award. I +won three state championships, Mr. Basketball and the Naismith Awards. +All the things they said I wasn’t able to do, when I was in the eighth +grade.” -"Who's they?" I asked. +“Who’s they?” I asked. -"Pretty much everyone," he said. +“Pretty much everyone,” he said. -"White people?" +“White people?” -"No," he said. "The street." +“No,” he said. “The street.” -**As the third quarter **began, Battier's face appeared overhead, on the Jumbotron, where he hammed it up and exhorted the crowd. Throughout the game he was up on the thing more than any other player: plugging teeth-whitening formulas, praising local jewelers, making public-service announcements, telling the fans to make noise. When I mentioned to a Rockets' staff member that Battier seemed to have far more than his fair share of big-screen appearances, he said, "Probably because he's the only one who'll do them." +**As the third quarter** began, Battier’s face appeared overhead, on the +Jumbotron, where he hammed it up and exhorted the crowd. Throughout the +game he was up on the thing more than any other player: plugging +teeth-whitening formulas, praising local jewelers, making public-service +announcements, telling the fans to make noise. When I mentioned to a +Rockets’ staff member that Battier seemed to have far more than his fair +share of big-screen appearances, he said, “Probably because he’s the +only one who’ll do them.” -I spent the second half with Sam Hinkie, the vice president of basketball operations and the head of basketball analytics in the Rockets' front office. The game went back and forth. Bryant kept missing more shots than he made. Neither team got much of a lead. More remarkable than the game were Hinkie's reactions — and it soon became clear that while he obviously wanted the Rockets to win, he was responding to different events on the court than the typical Rockets (or N.B.A.) fan was. +I spent the second half with Sam Hinkie, the vice president of +basketball operations and the head of basketball analytics in the +Rockets’ front office. The game went back and forth. Bryant kept missing +more shots than he made. Neither team got much of a lead. More +remarkable than the game were Hinkie’s reactions — and it soon became +clear that while he obviously wanted the Rockets to win, he was +responding to different events on the court than the typical Rockets (or +N.B.A.) fan was. Photo -![][30] - -**Battier Knows Bryant is a Less-Efficient Scorer** **1** Off the dribble. **2** Shooting from long range with a hand in his face. **3** Going to his left, not his right. Credit Robert Seale for The New York Times - -"I care a lot more about what ought to have happened than what actually happens," said Hinkie, who has an M.B.A. from Stanford. The routine N.B.A. game, he explained, is decided by a tiny percentage of the total points scored. A team scores on average about 100 points a game, but two out of three N.B.A. games are decided by fewer than 6 points — two or three possessions. The effect of this, in his mind, was to raise significantly the importance of every little thing that happened. The Lakers' Trevor Ariza, who makes 29 percent of his 3-point shots, hit a crazy 3-pointer, and as the crowd moaned, Hinkie was almost distraught. "That Ariza shot, that is really painful," he said. "Because it's a near-random event. And it's a 3-point swing." When Bryant drove to the basket, instead of being forced to take a jump shot, he said: "That's three-eighths of a point. These things accumulate." +“I care a lot more about what ought to have happened than what actually +happens,” said Hinkie, who has an M.B.A. from Stanford. The routine +N.B.A. game, he explained, is decided by a tiny percentage of the total +points scored. A team scores on average about 100 points a game, but two +out of three N.B.A. games are decided by fewer than 6 points — two or +three possessions. The effect of this, in his mind, was to raise +significantly the importance of every little thing that happened. The +Lakers’ Trevor Ariza, who makes 29 percent of his 3-point shots, hit a +crazy 3-pointer, and as the crowd moaned, Hinkie was almost distraught. +“That Ariza shot, that is really painful,” he said. “Because it’s a +near-random event. And it’s a 3-point swing.” When Bryant drove to the +basket, instead of being forced to take a jump shot, he said: “That’s +three-eighths of a point. These things accumulate.” Advertisement -[Continue reading the main story][31] +[Continue reading the main story](#story-continues-8) -In this probabilistic spirit we watched the battle between Battier and Bryant. From Hinkie's standpoint, it was going extremely well: "With most guys, Shane can kick them from their good zone to bad zone, but with Kobe you're just picking your poison. It's the epitome of, Which way do you want to die?" Only the Rockets weren't dying. Battier had once again turned Bryant into a less-efficient machine of death. Even when the shots dropped, they came from the places on the court where the Rockets' front office didn't mind seeing them drop. "That's all you can do," Hinkie said, after Bryant sank an 18-footer. "Get him to an inefficient spot and contest." And then all of a sudden it was 97-95, Lakers, with a bit more than three minutes to play, and someone called timeout. "We're in it," Hinkie said, happily. "And some of what happens from here on will be randomness." +In this probabilistic spirit we watched the battle between Battier and +Bryant. From Hinkie’s standpoint, it was going extremely well: “With +most guys, Shane can kick them from their good zone to bad zone, but +with Kobe you’re just picking your poison. It’s the epitome of, Which +way do you want to die?” Only the Rockets weren’t dying. Battier had +once again turned Bryant into a less-efficient machine of death. Even +when the shots dropped, they came from the places on the court where the +Rockets’ front office didn’t mind seeing them drop. “That’s all you can +do,” Hinkie said, after Bryant sank an 18-footer. “Get him to an +inefficient spot and contest.” And then all of a sudden it was 97-95, +Lakers, with a bit more than three minutes to play, and someone called +timeout. “We’re in it,” Hinkie said, happily. “And some of what happens +from here on will be randomness.” -The team with the N.B.A.'s best record was being taken to the wire by Yao Ming and a collection of widely unesteemed players. Moments later, I looked up at the scoreboard: +The team with the N.B.A.’s best record was being taken to the wire by +Yao Ming and a collection of widely unesteemed players. Moments later, I +looked up at the scoreboard: Bryant: 30. Battier: 0. -Hinkie followed my gaze and smiled. "I know that doesn't look good," he said, referring to the players' respective point totals. But if Battier wasn't in there, he went on to say: "we lose by 12. No matter what happens now, none of our coaches will say, 'If only we could have gotten a little more out of Battier.' " +Hinkie followed my gaze and smiled. “I know that doesn’t look good,” he +said, referring to the players’ respective point totals. But if Battier +wasn’t in there, he went on to say: “we lose by 12. No matter what +happens now, none of our coaches will say, ‘If only we could have gotten +a little more out of Battier.’ ” -**One statistical rule** of thumb in basketball is that a team leading by more points than there are minutes left near the end of the game has an 80 percent chance of winning. If your team is down by more than 6 points halfway through the final quarter, and you're anxious to beat the traffic, you can leave knowing that there is slightly less than a 20 percent chance you'll miss a victory; on the other hand, if you miss a victory, it will have been an improbable and therefore sensational one. At no point on this night has either team had enough of a lead to set fans, or even Rockets management, to calculating their confidence intervals — but then, with 2:27 to play, the Lakers went up by 4: 99-95. Then they got the ball back. The ball went to Bryant, and Battier shaded him left — into Yao Ming. Bryant dribbled and took the best shot he could, from Battier's perspective: a long 2-point jump shot, off the dribble, while moving left. He missed, the Rockets ran back the other way, Rafer Alston drove the lane and hit a floater: 99-97, and 1:13 on the clock. The Lakers missed another shot. Alston grabbed the rebound and called timeout with 59 seconds left. +**One statistical rule** of thumb in basketball is that a team leading +by more points than there are minutes left near the end of the game has +an 80 percent chance of winning. If your team is down by more than 6 +points halfway through the final quarter, and you’re anxious to beat the +traffic, you can leave knowing that there is slightly less than a 20 +percent chance you’ll miss a victory; on the other hand, if you miss a +victory, it will have been an improbable and therefore sensational one. +At no point on this night has either team had enough of a lead to set +fans, or even Rockets management, to calculating their confidence +intervals — but then, with 2:27 to play, the Lakers went up by 4: 99-95. +Then they got the ball back. The ball went to Bryant, and Battier shaded +him left — into Yao Ming. Bryant dribbled and took the best shot he +could, from Battier’s perspective: a long 2-point jump shot, off the +dribble, while moving left. He missed, the Rockets ran back the other +way, Rafer Alston drove the lane and hit a floater: 99-97, and 1:13 on +the clock. The Lakers missed another shot. Alston grabbed the rebound +and called timeout with 59 seconds left. -Whatever the Rockets planned went ­instantly wrong, when the inbound pass, as soon as it was caught by the Rockets' Carl Landry, was swatted away by the Lakers. The ball was loose, bodies flew everywhere. +Whatever the Rockets planned went ­instantly wrong, when the inbound +pass, as soon as it was caught by the Rockets’ Carl Landry, was swatted +away by the Lakers. The ball was loose, bodies flew everywhere. 55 . . . 54 . . . 53 . . . -On the side of the court opposite the melee, Battier froze. The moment he saw that the loose ball was likely to be secured by a teammate — but before it was secured — he sprinted to the corner. +On the side of the court opposite the melee, Battier froze. The moment +he saw that the loose ball was likely to be secured by a teammate — but +before it was secured — he sprinted to the corner. 50 . . . 49 . . . 48 . . . -The 3-point shot from the corner is the single most efficient shot in the N.B.A. One way the Rockets can tell if their opponents have taken to analyzing basketball in similar ways as they do is their attitude to the corner 3: the smart teams take a lot of them and seek to prevent their opponents from taking them. In basketball there is only so much you can plan, however, especially at a street-ball moment like this. As it happened, Houston's Rafer Alston was among the most legendary street-ball players of all time — known as Skip 2 My Lou, a nickname he received after a single spectacular move at Rucker Park, in Harlem. "Shane wouldn't last in street ball because in street ball no one wants to see" his game, Alston told me earlier. "You better give us something to ooh and ahh about. No one cares about someone who took a charge." +The 3-point shot from the corner is the single most efficient shot in +the N.B.A. One way the Rockets can tell if their opponents have taken to +analyzing basketball in similar ways as they do is their attitude to the +corner 3: the smart teams take a lot of them and seek to prevent their +opponents from taking them. In basketball there is only so much you can +plan, however, especially at a street-ball moment like this. As it +happened, Houston’s Rafer Alston was among the most legendary +street-ball players of all time — known as Skip 2 My Lou, a nickname he +received after a single spectacular move at Rucker Park, in Harlem. +“Shane wouldn’t last in street ball because in street ball no one +wants to see” his game, Alston told me earlier. “You better give us +something to ooh and ahh about. No one cares about someone who took a +charge.” -The Rockets' offense had broken down, and there was no usual place for Alston, still back near the half-court line, to go with the ball. The Lakers' defense had also broken down; no player was where he was meant to be. The only person exactly where he should have been — wide open, standing at the most efficient spot on the floor from which to shoot — was Shane Battier. When Daryl Morey spoke of basketball intelligence, a phrase slipped out: "the I.Q. of where to be." Fitting in on a basketball court, in the way Battier fits in, requires the I.Q. of where to be. Bang: Alston hit Battier with a long pass. Bang: Battier shot the 3, guiltlessly. Nothing but net. +The Rockets’ offense had broken down, and there was no usual place for +Alston, still back near the half-court line, to go with the ball. The +Lakers’ defense had also broken down; no player was where he was meant +to be. The only person exactly where he should have been — wide open, +standing at the most efficient spot on the floor from which to shoot — +was Shane Battier. When Daryl Morey spoke of basketball intelligence, a +phrase slipped out: “the I.Q. of where to be.” Fitting in on a +basketball court, in the way Battier fits in, requires the I.Q. of where +to be. Bang: Alston hit Battier with a long pass. Bang: Battier shot the +3, guiltlessly. Nothing but net. Rockets 100, Lakers 99. 43 . . . 42 . . . 41 . . . -At this moment, the Rockets' front office would later calculate, the team's chances of winning rose from 19.2 percent to 72.6 percent. One day some smart person will study the correlation between shifts in probabilities and levels of noise, but for now the crowd was ignorantly berserk: it sounded indeed like the largest crowd in the history of Houston's Toyota Center. Bryant got the ball at half-court and dribbled idly, searching for his opening. This was his moment, the one great players are said to live for, when everyone knows he's going to take the shot, and he takes it anyway. On the other end of the floor it wasn't the shooter who mattered but the shot. Now the shot was nothing, the shooter everything. +At this moment, the Rockets’ front office would later calculate, the +team’s chances of winning rose from 19.2 percent to 72.6 percent. One +day some smart person will study the correlation between shifts in +probabilities and levels of noise, but for now the crowd was ignorantly +berserk: it sounded indeed like the largest crowd in the history of +Houston’s Toyota Center. Bryant got the ball at half-court and dribbled +idly, searching for his opening. This was his moment, the one great +players are said to live for, when everyone knows he’s going to take the +shot, and he takes it anyway. On the other end of the floor it wasn’t +the shooter who mattered but the shot. Now the shot was nothing, the +shooter everything. Advertisement -[Continue reading the main story][32] +[Continue reading the main story](#story-continues-9) 33 . . . 32 . . . 31 . . . -Bryant — 12 for 31 on the night — took off and drove to the right, his strength, in the middle of the lane. Battier cut him off. Bryant tossed the ball back out to Derek Fisher, out of shooting range. +Bryant — 12 for 31 on the night — took off and drove to the right, his +strength, in the middle of the lane. Battier cut him off. Bryant tossed +the ball back out to Derek Fisher, out of shooting range. 30 . . . 29 . . . -Like everyone else in the place, Battier assumed that the game was still in Bryant's hands. If he gave the ball up, it was only so that he might get it back. Bryant popped out. He was now a good four feet beyond the 3-point line, or nearly 30 feet from the basket. +Like everyone else in the place, Battier assumed that the game was still +in Bryant’s hands. If he gave the ball up, it was only so that he might +get it back. Bryant popped out. He was now a good four feet beyond the +3-point line, or nearly 30 feet from the basket. 28 . . . -Bryant caught the ball and, 27.4 feet from the basket, the Rockets' front office would later determine, leapt. Instantly his view of that basket was blocked by Battier's hand. This was not an original situation. Since the 2002-3 season, Bryant had taken 51 3-pointers at the very end of close games from farther than 26.75 feet from the basket. He had missed 86.3 percent of them. A little over a year ago the Lakers lost to the Cleveland Cavaliers after Bryant missed a 3 from 28.4 feet. Three nights from now the Lakers would lose to the Orlando Magic after Bryant missed a shot from 27.5 feet that would have tied the game. It was a shot Battier could live with, even if it turned out to be good. +Bryant caught the ball and, 27.4 feet from the basket, the Rockets’ +front office would later determine, leapt. Instantly his view of that +basket was blocked by Battier’s hand. This was not an original +situation. Since the 2002-3 season, Bryant had taken 51 3-pointers at +the very end of close games from farther than 26.75 feet from the +basket. He had missed 86.3 percent of them. A little over a year ago the +Lakers lost to the Cleveland Cavaliers after Bryant missed a 3 from 28.4 +feet. Three nights from now the Lakers would lose to the Orlando Magic +after Bryant missed a shot from 27.5 feet that would have tied the game. +It was a shot Battier could live with, even if it turned out to be good. -Battier looked back to see the ball drop through the basket and hit the floor. In that brief moment he was the picture of detachment, less a party to a traffic accident than a curious passer-by. And then he laughed. The process had gone just as he hoped. The outcome he never could control.__ - -Michael Lewis is the author of "Moneyball" and a contributing editor for Vanity Fair. His next book, "Home Game," a memoir about fatherhood, will be published in June. - -A version of this article appears in print on , on Page MM26 of the Sunday Magazine with the headline: The No-Stats All-Star. 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http://spiderbites.nytimes.com -[112]: https://www.nytimes.com/membercenter/sitehelp.html -[113]: https://myaccount.nytimes.com/membercenter/feedback.html -[114]: https://www.nytimes.com/subscriptions/Multiproduct/lp5558.html?campaignId=37WXW +Battier looked back to see the ball drop through the basket and hit the +floor. In that brief moment he was the picture of detachment, less a +party to a traffic accident than a curious passer-by. And then he +laughed. The process had gone just as he hoped. The outcome he never +could control.** +[Continue reading the main story](#whats-next) diff --git a/_stories/2009/13868090.md b/_stories/2009/13868090.md index 71beedd..39a919a 100644 --- a/_stories/2009/13868090.md +++ b/_stories/2009/13868090.md @@ -19,7 +19,62 @@ _tags: objectID: '13868090' --- -[Source](https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2009/may/09/health-and-wellbeing "Permalink to ") +A few sentences into this week's column, I'm going to reveal that I am +obsessed with index cards, and you're probably going to mock me. That's +OK; I can cope. But first let me just remind you of the company I'm in. +Vladimir Nabokov wrote several novels on index cards. The celebrated +nonfiction writer John McPhee has developed a whole system of research +and writing around them, and Ludwig Wittgenstein reportedly used them to +develop the Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus. Which means that index cards +played a critical role in modern literature, journalism and philosophy. +(And, incidentally, in the French Revolution, which some say was when +they were invented: the new government used the backs of playing cards +to record details of the books held in libraries seized from private +ownership.) Impressive, no? All right. We can proceed. +I am obsessed with index cards. +A number of us, actually, suffer from this condition. For several years, +the largely blog-based movement known as "lifehacking" has embraced the +unassuming index card as an unrivalled tool for personal organisation - +a dirt-cheap, portable medium for keeping lists, taking notes, +brainstorming, memorising, organising your schedule, or leaving +reminders for yourself. You might recall the "Hipster PDA" - a +tongue-in-cheek proposed replacement for electronic organisers, +consisting of a stack of cards, a bulldog clip ... and nothing else. +(For more uses of index cards, see the blogger Dustin Wax's exhaustive +summary at[tinyurl.com/cmov4s](tinyurl.com/cmov4s). And for photos of a +truly alarming effort to organise one's entire life on tiny card +rectangles, see [tinyurl.com/cfmttq](tinyurl.com/cfmttq).) +To get theoretical for a moment, the cards fulfil two requirements of +any good information storage system. First, it's easy to put stuff in: +I'm far less likely to record a thought if I have to fiddle with a +handheld device. Second, it's easy to manipulate stuff once it's in. You +can't, by contrast, endlessly rearrange the pages of a notebook in order +to prioritise tasks, structure a piece of writing, discard things you no +longer need, etc. + +But might the power of index cards be greater still - mysterious, +almost? I've wondered this ever since reading Robert Pirsig's novel +Lila, in which the lead character is a philosopher who lives on a boat, +writing his magnum opus on thousands of cards. As each thought occurs, +he records it. Then, for hours, he rearranges the cards, grouping +similar ideas together until a structure begins to emerge, seemingly +independent of his will. This kind of "emergent order" is a hallmark of +the web - think Wikipedia - but it's somehow spookier when it happens on +paper, and involves only one human. + +The German sociologist Niklas Luhmann did something similar in reality, +creating what he called his "secondary memory": an index-card system +that held, eventually, a lifetime of research notes. He came to think of +it not as an archive but as a collaborator: as in Lila, an order emerged +from the bottom up, and when he followed cross-references through the +system, he'd discover connections that took him by surprise. Since being +able to surprise someone is a characteristic of true communication, +Luhmann argued "that there was actually communication going on between +himself and his partner", writes the blogger at +takingnotenow.blogspot.com. Personally, I don't talk to my index cards. +But maybe it's only a matter of time. + +• [oliver.burkeman@theguardian.com](oliver.burkeman@theguardian.com) diff --git a/_stories/2009/13909175.md b/_stories/2009/13909175.md deleted file mode 100644 index c6385c7..0000000 --- a/_stories/2009/13909175.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,25 +0,0 @@ ---- -created_at: '2017-03-19T19:39:00.000Z' -title: Autofocus System (2009) -url: http://static1.1.sqspcdn.com/static/f/93510/2843401/1239306772237/Autofocus+system+instructions.pdf?token=WxRjqjmjdsuxbf%2BBScUJuDC7eq8%3D -author: Tomte -points: 44 -story_text: -comment_text: -num_comments: 7 -story_id: -story_title: -story_url: -parent_id: -created_at_i: 1489952340 -_tags: -- story -- author_Tomte -- story_13909175 -objectID: '13909175' - ---- -[Source](http://static1.1.sqspcdn.com/static/f/93510/2843401/1239306772237/Autofocus system instructions.pdf?token=WxRjqjmjdsuxbf+BScUJuDC7eq8= "Permalink to ") - - - diff --git a/_stories/2009/14167453.md b/_stories/2009/14167453.md index c9d1189..7e1767e 100644 --- a/_stories/2009/14167453.md +++ b/_stories/2009/14167453.md @@ -19,7 +19,31 @@ _tags: objectID: '14167453' --- -[Source](https://www.wisdomandwonder.com/link/2110/why-mit-switched-from-scheme-to-python "Permalink to ") - - - +> Costanza asked Sussman why MIT had switched away from Scheme for their +> introductory programming course, 6.001. This was a gem. He said that +> the reason that happened was because engineering in 1980 was not what +> it was in the mid-90s or in 2000. In 1980, good programmers spent a +> lot of time thinking, and then produced spare code that they thought +> should work. Code ran close to the metal, even Scheme — it was +> understandable all the way down. Like a resistor, where you could read +> the bands and know the power rating and the tolerance and the +> resistance and V=IR and that’s all there was to know. 6.001 had been +> conceived to teach engineers how to take small parts that they +> understood entirely and use simple techniques to compose them into +> larger things that do what you want. +> +> But programming now isn’t so much like that, said Sussman. Nowadays +> you muck around with incomprehensible or nonexistent man pages for +> software you don’t know who wrote. You have to do basic science on +> your libraries to see how they work, trying out different inputs and +> seeing how the code reacts. This is a fundamentally different job, and +> it needed a different course. +> +> So the good thing about the new 6.001 was that it was robot-centered — +> you had to program a little robot to move around. And robots are not +> like resistors, behaving according to ideal functions. Wheels slip, +> the environment changes, etc — you have to build in robustness to the +> system, in a different way than the one SICP discusses. +> +> And why Python, then? Well, said Sussman, it probably just had a +> library already implemented for the robotics interface, that was all. diff --git a/_stories/2009/14506401.md b/_stories/2009/14506401.md deleted file mode 100644 index d31bb56..0000000 --- a/_stories/2009/14506401.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,25 +0,0 @@ ---- -created_at: '2017-06-07T13:50:34.000Z' -title: Cache Organization in Intel CPUs (2009) -url: http://duartes.org/gustavo/blog/post/intel-cpu-caches/ -author: jxub -points: 60 -story_text: -comment_text: -num_comments: 19 -story_id: -story_title: -story_url: -parent_id: -created_at_i: 1496843434 -_tags: -- story -- author_jxub -- story_14506401 -objectID: '14506401' - ---- -[Source](https://manybutfinite.com/post/intel-cpu-caches/ "Permalink to ") - - - diff --git a/_stories/2009/14735384.md b/_stories/2009/14735384.md index f7c5f25..63ccbc4 100644 --- a/_stories/2009/14735384.md +++ b/_stories/2009/14735384.md @@ -19,7 +19,992 @@ _tags: objectID: '14735384' --- -[Source](https://www.rollingstone.com/politics/news/the-great-american-bubble-machine-20100405 "Permalink to ") +The first thing you need to know about Goldman Sachs is that it's +everywhere. The world's most powerful investment bank is a great vampire +squid wrapped around the face of humanity, relentlessly jamming its +blood funnel into anything that smells like money. In fact, the history +of the recent financial crisis, which doubles as a history of the rapid +decline and fall of the suddenly swindled dry American empire, reads +like a Who's Who of Goldman Sachs graduates. +By now, most of us know the major players. As George Bush's last +Treasury secretary, former Goldman CEO Henry Paulson was the architect +of the bailout, a suspiciously self-serving plan to funnel trillions of +Your Dollars to a handful of his old friends on Wall Street. Robert +Rubin, Bill Clinton's former Treasury secretary, spent 26 years at +Goldman before becoming chairman of Citigroup — which in turn got a $300 +billion taxpayer bailout from Paulson. There's John Thain, the asshole +chief of Merrill Lynch who bought an $87,000 area rug for his office as +his company was imploding; a former Goldman banker, Thain enjoyed a +multi-billion-dollar handout from Paulson, who used billions in taxpayer +funds to help Bank of America rescue Thain's sorry company. And Robert +Steel, the former Goldmanite head of Wachovia, scored himself and his +fellow executives $225 million in golden-parachute payments as his bank +was self-destructing. There's Joshua Bolten, Bush's chief of staff +during the bailout, and Mark Patterson, the current Treasury chief of +staff, who was a Goldman lobbyist just a year ago, and Ed Liddy, the +former Goldman director whom Paulson put in charge of bailed-out +insurance giant AIG, which forked over $13 billion to Goldman after +Liddy came on board. The heads of the Canadian and Italian national +banks are Goldman alums, as is the head of the World Bank, the head of +the New York Stock Exchange, the last two heads of the Federal Reserve +Bank of New York — which, incidentally, is now in charge of overseeing +Goldman — not to mention … +But then, any attempt to construct a narrative around all the former +Goldmanites in influential positions quickly becomes an absurd and +pointless exercise, like trying to make a list of everything. What you +need to know is the big picture: If America is circling the drain, +Goldman Sachs has found a way to be that drain — an extremely +unfortunate loophole in the system of Western democratic capitalism, +which never foresaw that in a society governed passively by free markets +and free elections, organized greed always defeats disorganized +democracy. +The bank's unprecedented reach and power have enabled it to turn all of +America into a giant pump-and-dump scam, manipulating whole economic +sectors for years at a time, moving the dice game as this or that market +collapses, and all the time gorging itself on the unseen costs that are +breaking families everywhere — high gas prices, rising consumer credit +rates, half-eaten pension funds, mass layoffs, future taxes to pay off +bailouts. All that money that you're losing, it's going somewhere, and +in both a literal and a figurative sense, Goldman Sachs is where it's +going: The bank is a huge, highly sophisticated engine for converting +the useful, deployed wealth of society into the least useful, most +wasteful and insoluble substance on Earth — pure profit for rich +individuals. + +[The Feds vs. +Goldman](../../../politics/news/the-feds-vs-goldman-20100426) + +They achieve this using the same playbook over and over again. The +formula is relatively simple: Goldman positions itself in the middle of +a speculative bubble, selling investments they know are crap. Then they +hoover up vast sums from the middle and lower floors of society with the +aid of a crippled and corrupt state that allows it to rewrite the rules +in exchange for the relative pennies the bank throws at political +patronage. Finally, when it all goes bust, leaving millions of ordinary +citizens broke and starving, they begin the entire process over again, +riding in to rescue us all by lending us back our own money at interest, +selling themselves as men above greed, just a bunch of really smart guys +keeping the wheels greased. They've been pulling this same stunt over +and over since the 1920s — and now they're preparing to do it again, +creating what may be the biggest and most audacious bubble yet. + +If you want to understand how we got into this financial crisis, you +have to first understand where all the money went — and in order to +understand that, you need to understand what Goldman has already gotten +away with. It is a history exactly five bubbles long — including last +year's strange and seemingly inexplicable spike in the price of oil. +There were a lot of losers in each of those bubbles, and in the bailout +that followed. But Goldman wasn't one of them. + +BUBBLE \#1 The Great Depression + +Goldman wasn't always a too-big-to-fail Wall Street behemoth, the +ruthless face of kill-or-be-killed capitalism on steroids —just almost +always. The bank was actually founded in 1869 by a German immigrant +named Marcus Goldman, who built it up with his son-in-law Samuel Sachs. +They were pioneers in the use of commercial paper, which is just a fancy +way of saying they made money lending out short-term IOUs to smalltime +vendors in downtown Manhattan. + +You can probably guess the basic plotline of Goldman's first 100 years +in business: plucky, immigrant-led investment bank beats the odds, pulls +itself up by its bootstraps, makes shitloads of money. In that ancient +history there's really only one episode that bears scrutiny now, in +light of more recent events: Goldman’s disastrous foray into the +speculative mania of pre-crash Wall Street in the late 1920s. + +[Wall Street's Big +Win](../../../politics/news/wall-streets-big-win-20100804) + +This great Hindenburg of financial history has a few features that might +sound familiar. Back then, the main financial tool used to bilk +investors was called an "investment trust." Similar to modern mutual +funds, the trusts took the cash of investors large and small and +(theoretically, at least) invested it in a smorgasbord of Wall Street +securities, though the securities and amounts were often kept hidden +from the public. So a regular guy could invest $10 or $100 in a trust +and feel like he was a big player. Much as in the 1990s, when new +vehicles like day trading and e-trading attracted reams of new suckers +from the sticks who wanted to feel like big shots, investment trusts +roped a new generation of regular-guy investors into the speculation +game. + +Beginning a pattern that would repeat itself over and over again, +Goldman got into the investmenttrust game late, then jumped in with both +feet and went hogwild. The first effort was the Goldman Sachs Trading +Corporation; the bank issued a million shares at $100 apiece, bought all +those shares with its own money and then sold 90 percent of them to the +hungry public at $104. The trading corporation then relentlessly bought +shares in itself, bidding the price up further and further. Eventually +it dumped part of its holdings and sponsored a new trust, the Shenandoah +Corporation, issuing millions more in shares in that fund — which in +turn sponsored yet another trust called the Blue Ridge Corporation. In +this way, each investment trust served as a front for an endless +investment pyramid: Goldman hiding behind Goldman hiding behind Goldman. +Of the 7,250,000 initial shares of Blue Ridge, 6,250,000 were actually +owned by Shenandoah — which, of course, was in large part owned by +Goldman Trading. + +[Taibblog: Commentary on Politics and the Economy by Matt +Taibbi](../../../politics/blogs/taibblog) + +The end result (ask yourself if this sounds familiar) was a daisy chain +of borrowed money, one exquisitely vulnerable to a decline in +performance anywhere along the line. The basic idea isn't hard to +follow. You take a dollar and borrow nine against it; then you take that +$10 fund and borrow $90; then you take your $100 fund and, so long as +the public is still lending, borrow and invest $900. If the last fund in +the line starts to lose value, you no longer have the money to pay back +your investors, and everyone gets massacred. + +In a chapter from The Great Crash, 1929 titled "In Goldman Sachs We +Trust," the famed economist John Kenneth Galbraith held up the Blue +Ridge and Shenandoah trusts as classic examples of the insanity of +leveragebased investment. The trusts, he wrote, were a major cause of +the market's historic crash; in today's dollars, the losses the bank +suffered totaled $475 billion. "It is difficult not to marvel at the +imagination which was implicit in this gargantuan insanity," Galbraith +observed, sounding like Keith Olbermann in an ascot. "If there must be +madness, something may be said for having it on a heroic scale." + +BUBBLE \#2 Tech Stocks + +Fast-forward about 65 years. Goldman not only survived the crash that +wiped out so many of the investors it duped, it went on to become the +chief underwriter to the country's wealthiest and most powerful +corporations. Thanks to Sidney Weinberg, who rose from the rank of +janitor's assistant to head the firm, Goldman became the pioneer of the +initial public offering, one of the principal and most lucrative means +by which companies raise money. During the 1970s and 1980s, Goldman may +not have been the planet-eating Death Star of political influence it is +today, but it was a top-drawer firm that had a reputation for attracting +the very smartest talent on the Street. + +It also, oddly enough, had a reputation for relatively solid ethics and +a patient approach to investment that shunned the fast buck; its +executives were trained to adopt the firm's mantra, "long-term greedy." +One former Goldman banker who left the firm in the early Nineties +recalls seeing his superiors give up a very profitable deal on the +grounds that it was a long-term loser. "We gave back money to 'grownup' +corporate clients who had made bad deals with us," he says. "Everything +we did was legal and fair — but 'long-term greedy' said we didn't want +to make such a profit at the clients' collective expense that we spoiled +the marketplace." + +But then, something happened. It's hard to say what it was exactly; it +might have been the fact that Goldman's cochairman in the early +Nineties, Robert Rubin, followed Bill Clinton to the White House, where +he directed the National Economic Council and eventually became Treasury +secretary. While the American media fell in love with the story line of +a pair of baby-boomer, Sixties-child, Fleetwood Mac yuppies nesting in +the White House, it also nursed an undisguised crush on Rubin, who was +hyped as without a doubt the smartest person ever to walk the face of +the Earth, with Newton, Einstein, Mozart and Kant running far behind. + +Rubin was the prototypical Goldman banker. He was probably born in a +$4,000 suit, he had a face that seemed permanently frozen just short of +an apology for being so much smarter than you, and he exuded a +Spock-like, emotion-neutral exterior; the only human feeling you could +imagine him experiencing was a nightmare about being forced to fly +coach. It became almost a national clichè that whatever Rubin thought +was best for the economy — a phenomenon that reached its apex in 1999, +when Rubin appeared on the cover of Time with his Treasury deputy, Larry +Summers, and Fed chief Alan Greenspan under the headline The Committee +To Save The World. And "what Rubin thought," mostly, was that the +American economy, and in particular the financial markets, were +over-regulated and needed to be set free. During his tenure at Treasury, +the Clinton White House made a series of moves that would have drastic +consequences for the global economy — beginning with Rubin's complete +and total failure to regulate his +old firm during its first mad dash for obscene short-term profits. + +The basic scam in the Internet Age is pretty easy even for the +financially illiterate to grasp. Companies that weren't much more than +potfueled ideas scrawled on napkins by uptoolate bongsmokers were taken +public via IPOs, hyped in the media and sold to the public for +mega-millions. It was as if banks like Goldman were wrapping ribbons +around watermelons, tossing them out 50-story windows and opening the +phones for bids. In this game you were a winner only if you took your +money out before the melon hit the pavement. + +It sounds obvious now, but what the average investor didn't know at the +time was that the banks had changed the rules of the game, making the +deals look better than they actually were. They did this by setting up +what was, in reality, a two-tiered investment system — one for the +insiders who knew the real numbers, and another for the lay investor who +was invited to chase soaring prices the banks themselves knew were +irrational. While Goldman's later pattern would be to capitalize on +changes in the regulatory environment, its key innovation in the +Internet years was to abandon its own industry's standards of quality +control. + +"Since the Depression, there were strict underwriting guidelines that +Wall Street adhered to when taking a company public," says one prominent +hedge-fund manager. "The company had to be in business for a minimum of +five years, and it had to show profitability for three consecutive +years. But Wall Street took these guidelines and threw them in the +trash." Goldman completed the snow job by pumping up the sham stocks: +"Their analysts were out there saying Bullshit.com is worth $100 a +share." + +The problem was, nobody told investors that the rules had changed. +"Everyone on the inside knew," the manager says. "Bob Rubin sure as hell +knew what the underwriting standards were. They'd been intact since the +1930s." + +Jay Ritter, a professor of finance at the University of Florida who +specializes in IPOs, says banks like Goldman knew full well that many of +the public offerings they were touting would never make a dime. "In the +early Eighties, the major underwriters insisted on three years of +profitability. Then it was one year, then it was a quarter. By the time +of the Internet bubble, they were not even requiring profitability in +the foreseeable future." + +Goldman has denied that it changed its underwriting standards during the +Internet years, but its own statistics belie the claim. Just as it did +with the investment trust in the 1920s, Goldman started slow and +finished crazy in the Internet years. After it took a little-known +company with weak financials called Yahoo\! public in 1996, once the +tech boom had already begun, Goldman quickly became the IPO king of the +Internet era. Of the 24 companies it took public in 1997, a third were +losing money at the time of the IPO. In 1999, at the height of the boom, +it took 47 companies public, including stillborns like Webvan and eToys, +investment offerings that were in many ways the modern equivalents of +Blue Ridge and Shenandoah. The following year, it underwrote 18 +companies in the first four months, 14 of which were money losers at the +time. As a leading underwriter of Internet stocks during the boom, +Goldman provided profits far more volatile than those of its +competitors: In 1999, the average Goldman IPO leapt 281 percent above +its offering price, compared to the Wall Street average of 181 percent. + +How did Goldman achieve such extraordinary results? One answer is that +they used a practice called "laddering," which is just a fancy way of +saying they manipulated the share price of new offerings. Here's how it +works: Say you're Goldman Sachs, and Bullshit.com comes to you and asks +you to take their company public. You agree on the usual terms: You'll +price the stock, determine how many shares should be released and take +the Bullshit.com CEO on a "road show" to schmooze investors, all in +exchange for a substantial fee (typically six to seven percent of the +amount raised). You then promise your best clients the right to buy big +chunks of the IPO at the low offering price — let's say Bullshit.com's +starting share price is $15 — in exchange for a promise that they will +buy more shares later on the open market. That seemingly simple demand +gives you inside knowledge of the IPO's future, knowledge that wasn't +disclosed to the day trader schmucks who only had the prospectus to go +by: You know that certain of your clients who bought X amount of shares +at $15 are also going to buy Y more shares at $20 or $25, virtually +guaranteeing that the price is going to go to $25 and beyond. In this +way, Goldman could artificially jack up the new company's price, which +of course was to the bank's benefit — a six percent fee of a $500 +million IPO is serious money. + +Goldman was repeatedly sued by shareholders for engaging in laddering in +a variety of Internet IPOs, including Webvan and NetZero. The deceptive +practices also caught the attention of Nicholas Maier, the syndicate +manager of Cramer & Co., the hedge fund run at the time by the +now-famous chattering television asshole Jim Cramer, himself a Goldman +alum. Maier told the SEC that while working for Cramer between 1996 and +1998, he was repeatedly forced to engage in laddering practices during +IPO deals with Goldman. + +"Goldman, from what I witnessed, they were the worst perpetrator," Maier +said. "They totally fueled the bubble. And it's specifically that kind +of behavior that has caused the market crash. They built these stocks +upon an illegal foundation — manipulated up — and ultimately, it really +was the small person who ended up buying in." In 2005, Goldman agreed to +pay $40 million for its laddering violations — a puny penalty relative +to the enormous profits it made. (Goldman, which has denied wrongdoing +in all of the cases it has settled, refused to respond to questions for +this story.) + +Another practice Goldman engaged in during the Internet boom was +"spinning," better known as bribery. Here the investment bank would +offer the executives of the newly public company shares at extra-low +prices, in exchange for future underwriting business. Banks that engaged +in spinning would then undervalue the initial offering price — ensuring +that those "hot" opening-price shares it had handed out to insiders +would be more likely to rise quickly, supplying bigger first-day rewards +for the chosen few. So instead of Bullshit.com opening at $20, the bank +would approach the Bullshit.com CEO and offer him a million shares of +his own company at $18 in exchange for future business — effectively +robbing all of Bullshit's new shareholders by diverting cash that should +have gone to the company's bottom line into the private bank account of +the company's CEO. + +In one case, Goldman allegedly gave a multimillion-dollar special +offering to eBay CEO Meg Whitman, who later joined Goldman's board, in +exchange for future i-banking business. According to a report by the +House Financial Services Committee in 2002, Goldman gave special stock +offerings to executives in 21 companies that it took public, including +Yahoo\! cofounder Jerry Yang and two of the great slithering villains of +the financial-scandal age — Tyco's Dennis Kozlowski and Enron's Ken Lay. +Goldman angrily denounced the report as "an egregious distortion of the +facts" — shortly before paying $110 million to settle an investigation +into spinning and other manipulations launched by New York state +regulators. "The spinning of hot IPO shares was not a harmless corporate +perk," then-attorney general Eliot Spitzer said at the time. "Instead, +it was an integral part of a fraudulent scheme to win new +investment-banking business." + +Such practices conspired to turn the Internet bubble into one of the +greatest financial disasters in world history: Some $5 trillion of +wealth was wiped out on the NASDAQ alone. But the real problem wasn't +the money that was lost by shareholders, it was the money gained by +investment bankers, who received hefty bonuses for tampering with the +market. Instead of teaching Wall Street a lesson that bubbles always +deflate, the Internet years demonstrated to bankers that in the age of +freely flowing capital and publicly owned financial companies, bubbles +are incredibly easy to inflate, and individual bonuses are actually +bigger when the mania and the irrationality are greater. + +Nowhere was this truer than at Goldman. Between 1999 and 2002, the firm +paid out $28.5 billion in compensation and benefits — an average of +roughly $350,000 a year per employee. Those numbers are important +because the key legacy of the Internet boom is that the economy is now +driven in large part by the pursuit of the enormous salaries and bonuses +that such bubbles make possible. Goldman's mantra of "long-term greedy" +vanished into thin air as the game became about getting your check +before the melon hit the pavement. + +The market was no longer a rationally managed place to grow real, +profitable businesses: It was a huge ocean of Someone Else's Money where +bankers hauled in vast sums through whatever means necessary and tried +to convert that money into bonuses and payouts as quickly as possible. +If you laddered and spun 50 Internet IPOs that went bust within a year, +so what? By the time the Securities and Exchange Commission got around +to fining your firm $110 million, the yacht you bought with your IPO +bonuses was already six years old. Besides, you were probably out of +Goldman by then, running the U.S. Treasury or maybe the state of New +Jersey. (One of the truly comic moments in the history of America's +recent financial collapse came when Gov. Jon Corzine of New Jersey, who +ran Goldman from 1994 to 1999 and left with $320 million in IPO-fattened +stock, insisted in 2002 that "I've never even heard the term 'laddering' +before.") + +For a bank that paid out $7 billion a year in salaries, $110 million +fines issued half a decade late were something far less than a deterrent +—they were a joke. Once the Internet bubble burst, Goldman had no +incentive to reassess its new, profit-driven strategy; it just searched +around for another bubble to inflate. As it turns out, it had one ready, +thanks in large part to Rubin. + +BUBBLE \#3 The Housing Craze + +Goldman's role in the sweeping global disaster that was the housing +bubble is not hard to trace. Here again, the basic trick was a decline +in underwriting standards, although in this case the standards weren't +in IPOs but in mortgages. By now almost everyone knows that for decades +mortgage dealers insisted that home buyers be able to produce a down +payment of 10 percent or more, show a steady income and good credit +rating, and possess a real first and last name. Then, at the dawn of the +new millennium, they suddenly threw all that shit out the window and +started writing mortgages on the backs of napkins to cocktail waitresses +and ex-cons carrying five bucks and a Snickers bar. + +None of that would have been possible without investment bankers like +Goldman, who created vehicles to package those shitty mortgages and sell +them en masse to unsuspecting insurance companies and pension funds. +This created a mass market for toxic debt that would never have existed +before; in the old days, no bank would have wanted to keep some addict +ex-con's mortgage on its books, knowing how likely it was to fail. You +can't write these mortgages, in other words, unless you can sell them to +someone who doesn't know what they are. + +Goldman used two methods to hide the mess they were selling. First, they +bundled hundreds of different mortgages into instruments called +Collateralized Debt Obligations. Then they sold investors on the idea +that, because a bunch of those mortgages would turn out to be OK, there +was no reason to worry so much about the shitty ones: The CDO, as a +whole, was sound. Thus, junk-rated mortgages were turned into AAA-rated +investments. Second, to hedge its own bets, Goldman got companies like +AIG to provide insurance — known as credit default swaps — on the CDOs. +The swaps were essentially a racetrack bet between AIG and Goldman: +Goldman is betting the ex-cons will default, AIG is betting they won't. + +There was only one problem with the deals: All of the wheeling and +dealing represented exactly the kind of dangerous speculation that +federal regulators are supposed to rein in. Derivatives like CDOs and +credit swaps had already caused a series of serious financial +calamities: Procter & Gamble and Gibson Greetings both lost fortunes, +and Orange County, California, was forced to default in 1994. A report +that year by the Government Accountability Office recommended that such +financial instruments be tightly regulated — and in 1998, the head of +the Commodity Futures Trading Commission, a woman named Brooksley Born, +agreed. That May, she circulated a letter to business leaders and the +Clinton administration suggesting that banks be required to provide +greater disclosure in derivatives trades, and maintain reserves to +cushion against losses. + +More regulation wasn’t exactly what Goldman had in mind. “The banks go +crazy — they want it stopped,” says Michael Greenberger, who worked for +Born as director of trading and markets at the CFTC and is now a law +professor at the University of Maryland. “Greenspan, Summers, Rubin and +\[SEC chief Arthur\] Levitt want it stopped.” + +Clinton's reigning economic foursome — “especially Rubin,” according to +Greenberger — called Born in for a meeting and pleaded their case. She +refused to back down, however, and continued to push for more regulation +of the derivatives. Then, in June 1998, Rubin went public to denounce +her move, eventually recommending that Congress strip the CFTC of its +regulatory authority. In 2000, on its last day in session, Congress +passed the now-notorious Commodity Futures Modernization Act, which had +been inserted into an 11,000-page spending bill at the last minute, with +almost no debate on the floor of the Senate. Banks were now free to +trade default swaps with impunity. + +But the story didn't end there. AIG, a major purveyor of default swaps, +approached the New York State Insurance Department in 2000 and asked +whether default swaps would be regulated as insurance. At the time, the +office was run by one Neil Levin, a former Goldman vice president, who +decided against regulating the swaps. Now freed to underwrite as many +housing-based securities and buy as much credit-default protection as it +wanted, Goldman went berserk with lending lust. By the peak of the +housing boom in 2006, Goldman was underwriting $76.5 billion worth of +mortgage-backed securities — a third of which were sub-prime — much of +it to institutional investors like pensions and insurance companies. And +in these massive issues of real estate were vast swamps of crap. + +Take one $494 million issue that year, GSAMP Trust 2006S3. Many of the +mortgages belonged to second-mortgage borrowers, and the average equity +they had in their homes was 0.71 percent. Moreover, 58 percent of the +loans included little or no documentation — no names of the borrowers, +no addresses of the homes, just zip codes. Yet both of the major ratings +agencies, Moody's and Standard & Poor's, rated 93 percent of the issue +as investment grade. Moody's projected that less than 10 percent of the +loans would default. In reality, 18 percent of the mortgages were in +default within 18 months. + +Not that Goldman was personally at any risk. The bank might be taking +all these hideous, completely irresponsible mortgages from +beneath-gangster-status firms like Countrywide and selling them off to +municipalities and pensioners — old people, for God's sake — pretending +the whole time that it wasn't grade D horseshit. But even as it was +doing so, it was taking short positions in the same market, in essence +betting against the same crap it was selling. Even worse, Goldman +bragged about it in public. "The mortgage sector continues to be +challenged," David Viniar, the bank's chief financial officer, boasted +in 2007. "As a result, we took significant markdowns on our long +inventory positions … However, our risk bias in that market was to be +short, and that net short position was profitable." In other words, the +mortgages it was selling were for chumps. The real money was in betting +against those same mortgages. + +"That's how audacious these assholes are," says one hedge fund manager. +"At least with other banks, you could say that they were just dumb — +they believed what they were selling, and it blew them up. Goldman knew +what it was doing." + +I ask the manager how it could be that selling something to customers +that you're actually betting against — particularly when you know more +about the weaknesses of those products than the customer — doesn't +amount to securities fraud. + +"It's exactly securities fraud," he says. "It's the heart of securities +fraud." + +Eventually, lots of aggrieved investors agreed. In a virtual repeat of +the Internet IPO craze, Goldman was hit with a wave of lawsuits after +the collapse of the housing bubble, many of which accused the bank of +withholding pertinent information about the quality of the mortgages it +issued. New York state regulators are suing Goldman and 25 other +underwriters for selling bundles of crappy Countrywide mortgages to city +and state pension funds, which lost as much as $100 million in the +investments. Massachusetts also investigated Goldman for similar +misdeeds, acting on behalf of 714 mortgage holders who got stuck holding +predatory loans. But once again, Goldman got off virtually scot-free, +staving off prosecution by agreeing to pay a paltry $60 million — about +what the bank's CDO division made in a day and a half during the real +estate boom. + +The effects of the housing bubble are well known — it led more or less +directly to the collapse of Bear Stearns, Lehman Brothers and AIG, whose +toxic portfolio of credit swaps was in significant part composed of the +insurance that banks like Goldman bought against their own housing +portfolios. In fact, at least $13 billion of the taxpayer money given to +AIG in the bailout ultimately went to Goldman, meaning that the bank +made out on the housing bubble twice: It fucked the investors who bought +their horseshit CDOs by betting against its own crappy product, then it +turned around and fucked the taxpayer by making him pay off those same +bets. + +And once again, while the world was crashing down all around the bank, +Goldman made sure it was doing just fine in the compensation department. +In 2006, the firm's payroll jumped to $16.5 billion — an average of +$622,000 per employee. As a Goldman spokesman explained, "We work very +hard here." + +But the best was yet to come. While the collapse of the housing bubble +sent most of the financial world fleeing for the exits, or to jail, +Goldman boldly doubled down — and almost single-handedly created yet +another bubble, one the world still barely knows the firm had anything +to do with. + +BUBBLE \#4 $4 a Gallon + +By the beginning of 2008, the financial world was in turmoil. Wall +Street had spent the past two and a half decades producing one scandal +after another, which didn't leave much to sell that wasn't tainted. The +terms junk bond, IPO, sub-prime mortgage and other once-hot financial +fare were now firmly associated in the public's mind with scams; the +terms credit swaps and CDOs were about to join them. The credit markets +were in crisis, and the mantra that had sustained the fantasy economy +throughout the Bush years — the notion that housing prices never go down +— was now a fully exploded myth, leaving the Street clamoring for a new +bullshit paradigm to sling. + +Where to go? With the public reluctant to put money in anything that +felt like a paper investment, the Street quietly moved the casino to the +physical-commodities market — stuff you could touch: corn, coffee, +cocoa, wheat and, above all, energy commodities, especially oil. In +conjunction with a decline in the dollar, the credit crunch and the +housing crash caused a "flight to commodities." Oil futures in +particular skyrocketed, as the price of a single barrel went from around +$60 in the middle of 2007 to a high of $147 in the summer of 2008. + +That summer, as the presidential campaign heated up, the accepted +explanation for why gasoline had hit $4.11 a gallon was that there was a +problem with the world oil supply. In a classic example of how +Republicans and Democrats respond to crises by engaging in fierce +exchanges of moronic irrelevancies, John McCain insisted that ending the +moratorium on offshore drilling would be "very helpful in the short +term," while Barack Obama in typical liberal-arts yuppie style argued +that federal investment in hybrid cars was the way out. + +But it was all a lie. While the global supply of oil will eventually dry +up, the short-term flow has actually been increasing. In the six months +before prices spiked, according to the U.S. Energy Information +Administration, the world oil supply rose from 85.24 million barrels a +day to 85.72 million. Over the same period, world oil demand dropped +from 86.82 million barrels a day to 86.07 million. Not only was the +short-term supply of oil rising, the demand for it was falling — which, +in classic economic terms, should have brought prices at the pump down. + +So what caused the huge spike in oil prices? Take a wild guess. +Obviously Goldman had help — there were other players in the physical +commodities market — but the root cause had almost everything to do with +the behavior of a few powerful actors determined to turn the once-solid +market into a speculative casino. Goldman did it by persuading pension +funds and other large institutional investors to invest in oil futures — +agreeing to buy oil at a certain price on a fixed date. The push +transformed oil from a physical commodity, rigidly subject to supply and +demand, into something to bet on, like a stock. Between 2003 and 2008, +the amount of speculative money in commodities grew from $13 billion to +$317 billion, an increase of 2,300 percent. By 2008, a barrel of oil was +traded 27 times, on average, before it was actually delivered and +consumed. + +As is so often the case, there had been a Depression-era law in place +designed specifically to prevent this sort of thing. The commodities +market was designed in large part to help farmers: A grower concerned +about future price drops could enter into a contract to sell his corn at +a certain price for delivery later on, which made him worry less about +building up stores of his crop. When no one was buying corn, the farmer +could sell to a middleman known as a "traditional speculator," who would +store the grain and sell it later, when demand returned. That way, +someone was always there to buy from the farmer, even when the market +temporarily had no need for his crops. + +In 1936, however, Congress recognized that there should never be more +speculators in the market than real producers and consumers. If that +happened, prices would be affected by something other than supply and +demand, and price manipulations would ensue. A new law empowered the +Commodity Futures Trading Commission — the very same body that would +later try and fail to regulate credit swaps — to place limits on +speculative trades in commodities. As a result of the CFTC's oversight, +peace and harmony reigned in the commodities markets for more than 50 +years. + +All that changed in 1991 when, unbeknownst to almost everyone in the +world, a Goldman-owned commodities-trading subsidiary called J. Aron +wrote to the CFTC and made an unusual argument. Farmers with big stores +of corn, Goldman argued, weren't the only ones who needed to hedge their +risk against future price drops — Wall Street dealers who made big bets +on oil prices also needed to hedge their risk, because, well, they stood +to lose a lot too. + +This was complete and utter crap — the 1936 law, remember, was +specifically designed to maintain distinctions between people who were +buying and selling real tangible stuff and people who were trading in +paper alone. But the CFTC, amazingly, bought Goldman's argument. It +issued the bank a free pass, called the "Bona Fide Hedging" exemption, +allowing Goldman's subsidiary to call itself a physical hedger and +escape virtually all limits placed on speculators. In the years that +followed, the commission would quietly issue 14 similar exemptions to +other companies. + +Now Goldman and other banks were free to drive more investors into the +commodities markets, enabling speculators to place increasingly big +bets. That 1991 letter from Goldman more or less directly led to the oil +bubble in 2008, when the number of speculators in the market — driven +there by fear of the falling dollar and the housing crash — finally +overwhelmed the real physical suppliers and consumers. By 2008, at least +three quarters of the activity on the commodity exchanges was +speculative, according to a congressional staffer who studied the +numbers — and that's likely a conservative estimate. By the middle of +last summer, despite rising supply and a drop in demand, we were paying +$4 a gallon every time we pulled up to the pump. + +What is even more amazing is that the letter to Goldman, along with most +of the other trading exemptions, was handed out more or less in secret. +"I was the head of the division of trading and markets, and Brooksley +Born was the chair of the CFTC," says Greenberger, "and neither of us +knew this letter was out there." In fact, the letters only came to light +by accident. Last year, a staffer for the House Energy and Commerce +Committee just happened to be at a briefing when officials from the CFTC +made an offhand reference to the exemptions. + +"I had been invited to a briefing the commission was holding on energy," +the staffer recounts. "And suddenly in the middle of it, they start +saying, 'Yeah, we've been issuing these letters for years now.' I raised +my hand and said, 'Really? You issued a letter? Can I see it?' And they +were like, 'Duh, duh.' So we went back and forth, and finally they said, +'We have to clear it with Goldman Sachs.' I'm like, 'What do you mean, +you have to clear it with Goldman Sachs?'" + +The CFTC cited a rule that prohibited it from releasing any information +about a company's current position in the market. But the staffer's +request was about a letter that had been issued 17 years earlier. It no +longer had anything to do with Goldman's current position. What's more, +Section 7 of the 1936 commodities law gives Congress the right to any +information it wants from the commission. Still, in a classic example of +how complete Goldman's capture of government is, the CFTC waited until +it got clearance from the bank before it turned the letter over. + +Armed with the semi-secret government exemption, Goldman had become the +chief designer of a giant commodities betting parlor. Its Goldman Sachs +Commodities Index — which tracks the prices of 24 major commodities but +is overwhelmingly weighted toward oil — became the place where pension +funds and insurance companies and other institutional investors could +make massive long-term bets on commodity prices. Which was all well and +good, except for a couple of things. One was that index speculators are +mostly "long only" bettors, who seldom if ever take short positions — +meaning they only bet on prices to rise. While this kind of behavior is +good for a stock market, it's terrible for commodities, because it +continually forces prices upward. "If index speculators took short +positions as well as long ones, you'd see them pushing prices both up +and down," says Michael Masters, a hedge fund manager who has helped +expose the role of investment banks in the manipulation of oil prices. +"But they only push prices in one direction: up." + +Complicating matters even further was the fact that Goldman itself was +cheerleading with all its might for an increase in oil prices. In the +beginning of 2008, Arjun Murti, a Goldman analyst, hailed as an "oracle +of oil" by The New York Times, predicted a "super spike" in oil prices, +forecasting a rise to $200 a barrel. At the time Goldman was heavily +invested in oil through its commodities trading subsidiary, J. Aron; it +also owned a stake in a major oil refinery in Kansas, where it +warehoused the crude it bought and sold. Even though the supply of oil +was keeping pace with demand, Murti continually warned of disruptions to +the world oil supply, going so far as to broadcast the fact that he +owned two hybrid cars. High prices, the bank insisted, were somehow the +fault of the piggish American consumer; in 2005, Goldman analysts +insisted that we wouldn't know when oil prices would fall until we knew +"when American consumers will stop buying gas-guzzling sport utility +vehicles and instead seek fuel-efficient alternatives." + +But it wasn't the consumption of real oil that was driving up prices — +it was the trade in paper oil. By the summer of 2008, in fact, +commodities speculators had bought and stockpiled enough oil futures to +fill 1.1 billion barrels of crude, which meant that speculators owned +more future oil on paper than there was real, physical oil stored in all +of the country's commercial storage tanks and the Strategic Petroleum +Reserve combined. It was a repeat of both the Internet craze and the +housing bubble, when Wall Street jacked up present-day profits by +selling suckers shares of a fictional fantasy future of endlessly rising +prices. + +In what was by now a painfully familiar pattern, the oil-commodities +melon hit the pavement hard in the summer of 2008, causing a massive +loss of wealth; crude prices plunged from $147 to $33. Once again the +big losers were ordinary people. The pensioners whose funds invested in +this crap got massacred: CalPERS, the California Public Employees' +Retirement System, had $1.1 billion in commodities when the crash came. +And the damage didn't just come from oil. Soaring food prices driven by +the commodities bubble led to catastrophes across the planet, forcing an +estimated 100 million people into hunger and sparking food riots +throughout the Third World. + +Now oil prices are rising again: They shot up 20 percent in the month of +May and have nearly doubled so far this year. Once again, the problem is +not supply or demand. "The highest supply of oil in the last 20 years is +now," says Rep. Bart Stupak, a Democrat from Michigan who serves on the +House energy committee. "Demand is at a 10-year low. And yet prices are +up." + +Asked why politicians continue to harp on things like drilling or hybrid +cars, when supply and demand have nothing to do with the high prices, +Stupak shakes his head. "I think they just don't understand the problem +very well," he says. "You can't explain it in 30 seconds, so politicians +ignore it." + +BUBBLE \#5 Rigging the Bailout + +After the oil bubble collapsed last fall, there was no new bubble to +keep things humming — this time, the money seems to be really gone, like +worldwide-depression gone. So the financial safari has moved elsewhere, +and the big game in the hunt has become the only remaining pool of dumb, +unguarded capital left to feed upon: taxpayer money. Here, in the +biggest bailout in history, is where Goldman Sachs really started to +flex its muscle. + +It began in September of last year, when then-Treasury secretary Paulson +made a momentous series of decisions. Although he had already engineered +a rescue of Bear Stearns a few months before and helped bail out +quasi-private lenders Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac, Paulson elected to let +Lehman Brothers — one of Goldman's last real competitors — collapse +without intervention. ("Goldman's superhero status was left intact," +says market analyst Eric Salzman, "and an investment banking competitor, +Lehman, goes away.") The very next day, Paulson green-lighted a massive, +$85 billion bailout of AIG, which promptly turned around and repaid $13 +billion it owed to Goldman. Thanks to the rescue effort, the bank ended +up getting paid in full for its bad bets: By contrast, retired auto +workers awaiting the Chrysler bailout will be lucky to receive 50 cents +for every dollar they are owed. + +Immediately after the AIG bailout, Paulson announced his federal bailout +for the financial industry, a $700 billion plan called the Troubled +Asset Relief Program, and put a heretofore unknown 35-year-old Goldman +banker named Neel Kashkari in charge of administering the funds. In +order to qualify for bailout monies, Goldman announced that it would +convert from an investment bank to a bank holding company, a move that +allows it access not only to $10 billion in TARP funds, but to a whole +galaxy of less conspicuous, publicly backed funding — most notably, +lending from the discount window of the Federal Reserve. By the end of +March, the Fed will have lent or guaranteed at least $8.7 trillion under +a series of new bailout programs — and thanks to an obscure law allowing +the Fed to block most congressional audits, both the amounts and the +recipients of the monies remain almost entirely secret. + +Converting to a bank-holding company has other benefits as well: +Goldman's primary supervisor is now the New York Fed, whose chairman at +the time of its announcement was Stephen Friedman, a former co-chairman +of Goldman Sachs. Friedman was technically in violation of Federal +Reserve policy by remaining on the board of Goldman even as he was +supposedly regulating the bank; in order to rectify the problem, he +applied for, and got, a conflict of interest waiver from the government. +Friedman was also supposed to divest himself of his Goldman stock after +Goldman became a bank holding company, but thanks to the waiver, he was +allowed to go out and buy 52,000 additional shares in his old bank, +leaving him $3 million richer. Friedman stepped down in May, but the man +now in charge of supervising Goldman — New York Fed president William +Dudley — is yet another former Goldmanite. + +The collective message of all this — the AIG bailout, the swift approval +for its bank holding conversion, the TARP funds — is that when it comes +to Goldman Sachs, there isn't a free market at all. The government might +let other players on the market die, but it simply will not allow +Goldman to fail under any circumstances. Its edge in the market has +suddenly become an open declaration of supreme privilege. "In the past +it was an implicit advantage," says Simon Johnson, an economics +professor at MIT and former official at the International Monetary Fund, +who compares the bailout to the crony capitalism he has seen in Third +World countries. "Now it's more of an explicit advantage." + +Once the bailouts were in place, Goldman went right back to business as +usual, dreaming up impossibly convoluted schemes to pick the American +carcass clean of its loose capital. One of its first moves in the +post-bailout era was to quietly push forward the calendar it uses to +report its earnings, essentially wiping December 2008 — with its $1.3 +billion in pretax losses — off the books. At the same time, the bank +announced a highly suspicious $1.8 billion profit for the first quarter +of 2009 — which apparently included a large chunk of money funneled to +it by taxpayers via the AIG bailout. "They cooked those first quarter +results six ways from Sunday," says one hedge fund manager. "They hid +the losses in the orphan month and called the bailout money profit." + +Two more numbers stand out from that stunning first-quarter turnaround. +The bank paid out an astonishing $4.7 billion in bonuses and +compensation in the first three months of this year, an 18 percent +increase over the first quarter of 2008. It also raised $5 billion by +issuing new shares almost immediately after releasing its first quarter +results. Taken together, the numbers show that Goldman essentially +borrowed a $5 billion salary payout for its executives in the middle of +the global economic crisis it helped cause, using half-baked accounting +to reel in investors, just months after receiving billions in a taxpayer +bailout. + +Even more amazing, Goldman did it all right before the government +announced the results of its new "stress test" for banks seeking to +repay TARP money — suggesting that Goldman knew exactly what was coming. +The government was trying to carefully orchestrate the repayments in an +effort to prevent further trouble at banks that couldn't pay back the +money right away. But Goldman blew off those concerns, brazenly +flaunting its insider status. "They seemed to know everything that they +needed to do before the stress test came out, unlike everyone else, who +had to wait until after," says Michael Hecht, a managing director of JMP +Securities. "The government came out and said, 'To pay back TARP, you +have to issue debt of at least five years that is not insured by FDIC — +which Goldman Sachs had already done, a week or two before." + +And here's the real punch line. After playing an intimate role in four +historic bubble catastrophes, after helping $5 trillion in wealth +disappear from the NASDAQ, after pawning off thousands of toxic +mortgages on pensioners and cities, after helping to drive the price of +gas up to $4 a gallon and to push 100 million people around the world +into hunger, after securing tens of billions of taxpayer dollars through +a series of bailouts overseen by its former CEO, what did Goldman Sachs +give back to the people of the United States in 2008? + +Fourteen million dollars. + +That is what the firm paid in taxes in 2008, an effective tax rate of +exactly one, read it, one percent. The bank paid out $10 billion in +compensation and benefits that same year and made a profit of more than +$2 billion — yet it paid the Treasury less than a third of what it +forked over to CEO Lloyd Blankfein, who made $42.9 million last year. + +How is this possible? According to Goldman's annual report, the low +taxes are due in large part to changes in the bank's "geographic +earnings mix." In other words, the bank moved its money around so that +most of its earnings took place in foreign countries with low tax rates. +Thanks to our completely fucked corporate tax system, companies like +Goldman can ship their revenues offshore and defer taxes on those +revenues indefinitely, even while they claim deductions upfront on that +same untaxed income. This is why any corporation with an at least +occasionally sober accountant can usually find a way to zero out its +taxes. A GAO report, in fact, found that between 1998 and 2005, roughly +two-thirds of all corporations operating in the U.S. paid no taxes at +all. + +This should be a pitchfork-level outrage — but somehow, when Goldman +released its post-bailout tax profile, hardly anyone said a word. One of +the few to remark on the obscenity was Rep. Lloyd Doggett, a Democrat +from Texas who serves on the House Ways and Means Committee. "With the +right hand out begging for bailout money," he said, "the left is hiding +it offshore." + +BUBBLE \#6 Global Warming + +Fast-forward to today. It's early June in Washington, D.C. Barack Obama, +a popular young politician whose leading private campaign donor was an +investment bank called Goldman Sachs — its employees paid some $981,000 +to his campaign — sits in the White House. Having seamlessly navigated +the political minefield of the bailout era, Goldman is once again back +to its old business, scouting out loopholes in a new government-created +market with the aid of a new set of alumni occupying key government +jobs. + +Gone are Hank Paulson and Neel Kashkari; in their place are Treasury +chief of staff Mark Patterson and CFTC chief Gary Gensler, both former +Goldmanites. (Gensler was the firm's co-head of finance.) And instead of +credit derivatives or oil futures or mortgage-backed CDOs, the new game +in town, the next bubble, is in carbon credits — a booming trillion +dollar market that barely even exists yet, but will if the Democratic +Party that it gave $4,452,585 to in the last election manages to push +into existence a groundbreaking new commodities bubble, disguised as an +"environmental plan," called cap-and-trade. + +The new carbon credit market is a virtual repeat of the +commodities-market casino that's been kind to Goldman, except it has one +delicious new wrinkle: If the plan goes forward as expected, the rise in +prices will be government-mandated. Goldman won't even have to rig the +game. It will be rigged in advance. + +Here's how it works: If the bill passes, there will be limits for coal +plants, utilities, natural-gas distributors and numerous other +industries on the amount of carbon emissions (a.k.a. greenhouse gases) +they can produce per year. If the companies go over their allotment, +they will be able to buy "allocations" or credits from other companies +that have managed to produce fewer emissions. President Obama +conservatively estimates that about $646 billion worth of carbon credits +will be auctioned in the first seven years; one of his top economic +aides speculates that the real number might be twice or even three times +that amount. + +The feature of this plan that has special appeal to speculators is that +the "cap" on carbon will be continually lowered by the government, which +means that carbon credits will become more and more scarce with each +passing year. Which means that this is a brand new commodities market +where the main commodity to be traded is guaranteed to rise in price +over time. The volume of this new market will be upwards of a trillion +dollars annually; for comparison's sake, the annual combined revenues of +all electricity suppliers in the U.S. total $320 billion. + +Goldman wants this bill. The plan is (1) to get in on the ground floor +of paradigm-shifting legislation, (2) make sure that they're the +profit-making slice of that paradigm and (3) make sure the slice is a +big slice. Goldman started pushing hard for cap-and-trade long ago, but +things really ramped up last year when the firm spent $3.5 million to +lobby climate issues. (One of their lobbyists at the time was none other +than Patterson, now Treasury chief of staff.) Back in 2005, when Hank +Paulson was chief of Goldman, he personally helped author the bank's +environmental policy, a document that contains some surprising elements +for a firm that in all other areas has been consistently opposed to any +sort of government regulation. Paulson's report argued that "voluntary +action alone cannot solve the climate change problem." A few years +later, the bank's carbon chief, Ken Newcombe, insisted that +cap-and-trade alone won't be enough to fix the climate problem and +called for further public investments in research and development. Which +is convenient, considering that Goldman made early investments in wind +power (it bought a subsidiary called Horizon Wind Energy), renewable +diesel (it is an investor in a firm called Changing World Technologies) +and solar power (it partnered with BP Solar), exactly the kind of deals +that will prosper if the government forces energy producers to use +cleaner energy. As Paulson said at the time, "We're not making those +investments to lose money." + +The bank owns a 10 percent stake in the Chicago Climate Exchange, where +the carbon credits will be traded. Moreover, Goldman owns a minority +stake in Blue Source LLC, a Utah-based firm that sells carbon credits of +the type that will be in great demand if the bill passes. Nobel Prize +winner Al Gore, who is intimately involved with the planning of +cap-and-trade, started up a company called Generation Investment +Management with three former bigwigs from Goldman Sachs Asset +Management, David Blood, Mark Ferguson and Peter Harris. Their business? +Investing in carbon offsets. There's also a $500 million Green Growth +Fund set up by a Goldmanite to invest in green-tech … the list goes on +and on. Goldman is ahead of the headlines again, just waiting for +someone to make it rain in the right spot. Will this market be bigger +than the energy futures market? + +"Oh, it'll dwarf it," says a former staffer on the House energy +committee. + +Well, you might say, who cares? If cap-and-trade succeeds, won't we all +be saved from the catastrophe of global warming? Maybe — but +cap-and-trade, as envisioned by Goldman, is really just a carbon tax +structured so that private interests collect the revenues. Instead of +simply imposing a fixed government levy on carbon pollution and forcing +unclean energy producers to pay for the mess they make, cap-and-trade +will allow a small tribe of greedy-as-hell Wall Street swine to turn yet +another commodities market into a private tax collection scheme. This is +worse than the bailout: It allows the bank to seize taxpayer money +before it's even collected. + +"If it's going to be a tax, I would prefer that Washington set the tax +and collect it," says Michael Masters, the hedge fund director who spoke +out against oil futures speculation. "But we're saying that Wall Street +can set the tax, and Wall Street can collect the tax. That's the last +thing in the world I want. It's just asinine." + +Cap-and-trade is going to happen. Or, if it doesn't, something like it +will. The moral is the same as for all the other bubbles that Goldman +helped create, from 1929 to 2009. In almost every case, the very same +bank that behaved recklessly for years, weighing down the system with +toxic loans and predatory debt, and accomplishing nothing but massive +bonuses for a few bosses, has been rewarded with mountains of virtually +free money and government guarantees — while the actual victims in this +mess, ordinary taxpayers, are the ones paying for it. + +It's not always easy to accept the reality of what we now routinely +allow these people to get away with; there's a kind of collective denial +that kicks in when a country goes through what America has gone through +lately, when a people lose as much prestige and status as we have in the +past few years. You can't really register the fact that you're no longer +a citizen of a thriving first-world democracy, that you're no longer +above getting robbed in broad daylight, because like an amputee, you can +still sort of feel things that are no longer there. + +But this is it. This is the world we live in now. And in this world, +some of us have to play by the rules, while others get a note from the +principal excusing them from homework till the end of time, plus 10 +billion free dollars in a paper bag to buy lunch. It's a gangster state, +running on gangster economics, and even prices can't be trusted anymore; +there are hidden taxes in every buck you pay. And maybe we can't stop +it, but we should at least know where it's all going. + +This article originally appeared in the July 9-23, 2009 of Rolling +Stone. diff --git a/_stories/2009/15711838.md b/_stories/2009/15711838.md index c0f46e7..32361c5 100644 --- a/_stories/2009/15711838.md +++ b/_stories/2009/15711838.md @@ -19,7 +19,251 @@ _tags: objectID: '15711838' --- -[Source](https://www.splcenter.org/fighting-hate/intelligence-report/2009/david-arenberg-reflects-being-jewish-state-prison "Permalink to ") +David Arenberg had everything going for him. He was smart, the son of a +research scientist and a teacher. He graduated in 1980 from the elite +University of Chicago with a degree in psychology, and went on to become +a left-wing tenants' rights organizer in New York City for seven years. +But in 1987, he suffered a "personal tragedy" and a "political defeat" +that he doesn't want to discuss but that prompted him to leave his +organizing work. Always a moderate drug user, he says, he began abusing +cocaine and "generally living a seedy life." His brother tried to rescue +him by recruiting him to run a small trucking company in a western +state, and for a time Arenberg did all right. But despite that work, and +later taking up tenants' rights once more, he continued his drug use and +also adopted a new line of work — using computers to engage in +sophisticated financial ripoffs. Arenberg was arrested and jailed +briefly for forgery in 1996, but only became an even more active con man +when he was released. Finally, in 2001, he was arrested for driving +under the influence. The arrest led to more serious charges of fraud, +forgery, identity theft and vehicle theft, culminating in consecutive +sentences totaling more than 13 years. Today, with about four years left +to serve, Arenberg, 53, is trying to sort his life out. He sent the +Intelligence Report the following account of his experiences as a Jew in +a state prison — a harrowing tale of surviving severe prejudice in an +unforgiving environment, but also the story of a remarkable journey of +self-discovery. +I am always the last person to eat. It's part of a compromise I worked +out with the skinheads who run the western state prison complex where I +am incarcerated. Under this compromise, I'm allowed to sit at the +whites' tables, but only after the "heads," and then the "woods," and +then the "lames" have eaten. I am lower on the totem pole than all of +them, the untouchable. I should feel lucky I'm allowed to eat at the +whites' tables at all. +Not that there's anywhere else I could eat. The prison yard is broken +down into five distinct racial categories and segregation is strictly +enforced. There are the "woods" (short for peckerwoods) that encompass +the whites, the "kinfolk" (blacks), the "Raza" (American-born people of +Mexican descent), the "paisas" (Mexico-born Mexicans), and the "chiefs" +(American Indians). Under the strict rules that govern interracial +relations, different races are allowed to play on the same sports teams +but not play individual games (e.g., chess) together; they may be in +each others' cubicles together if the situation warrants but not sit on +each others' beds or watch each others' televisions. They may go to the +same church services but not pray together. But if you accidentally +break one of these rules, the consequences are usually pretty mild: you +might get a talking to by one of the heads (who, of course, claims +exemption from this rule himself), or at worst, a "chin check." +Eating with another race, however, is a different story. It is an +inviolate rule that different races may not break bread together under +any circumstances. Violating this rule leads to harsh consequences. If +you eat at the same table as another race, you'll get beaten down. If +you eat from the same tray as another race, you'll be put in the +hospital. And if you eat from the same food item as another race, that +is, after another race has already taken a bite of it, you can get +killed. This is one area where even the heads don't have any play. + +This makes it difficult for me, of course, to fit into the chow hall. +Jews, as we all know, are not white but imposters who don white skin and +hide inside it for the purpose of polluting and taking over the white +race. The skinheads simply can't allow me to eat with them: that would +make them traitors of the worst kind — race traitors\! But my milky skin +and pasty complexion, characteristic of the Eastern European Ashkenazi, +make it impossible for me to eat with other races who don't understand +the subtleties of my treachery and take me for just another wood. So the +compromise is that I may sit at certain white tables after all the +whites have finished eating. In exchange, I must do free legal work as +directed by the heads (Jewish lawyers, even jailhouse lawyers, are hard +to come by in prison) and remit to them a portion of the legal fees I +collect from everyone else I do legal work for on the yard. + +This compromise was brokered by the more "mainstream" Nazis on the yard, +the Aryan Brotherhood. They became involved because when I first got +here, one of the first cases I handled resulted in my getting a 21-year +sentence for one of their members vacated. This gave me instant +credibility: even if a "hands-off-the-Jew" policy could not be +established, a "hands-off-the-Jewish-lawyer" policy could be and was. It +was this factor, I think, more than any other, that has kept me safe +here. + +The [Aryan +Brotherhood](/get-informed/intelligence-report/browse-all-issues/2005/fall/smashing-the-shamrock) +(AB) is the political rival of the skinheads. They are the old guard, +the white leadership that has run the yards for years. They control the +drug markets, the poker tables, the tattoo shops. Their membership +consists mostly of long-term inmates who have been on the yards for 15, +20, 25 years. Their average age is probably well over 40. By contrast, +the skinheads have a much younger membership (albeit also with long-term +sentences) that is rapidly advancing upon AB turf. So the AB's "defense" +of me has a political component as well: I am the enemy of their enemy +and therefore their friend. The AB understands that I provide a service +they can exploit. But they also perceive the skinheads' hatred of me and +realize they can use championing my cause to their advantage. So they +allow me to stay on the yard, taking credit for my providing legal work +and inadvertently discrediting the anti-Semitism of the skinheads in the +process. + +This was all allowed to happen because the AB, notwithstanding the +swastikas, lightning bolts and KKK hoods tattooed on their arms and +their vile racist rhetoric, are not fundamentally ideological. Their +racism derives primarily from economic considerations: by enjoining the +different races from trading with each other, they enforce their share +of the highly lucrative drug market. The price of drugs on the yards is +10 times higher than it is on the street, and the AB is the largest +single supplier, with drugs smuggled in not only by would-be recruits +trying to "earn their ink" by getting their girlfriends to hide them in +their body cavities when they come to visit, but by guards who are in +their employ (and sometimes in their membership) as well. The Raza's +drugs may be cheaper and better, but because of the segregation, they +are not available to the woods. + +The skinheads, by contrast, claim to be fundamentally ideological. They +exist as a political entity dedicated, they say, to organizing to fight +the big war, the race war, which will reassert white political dominance +in the world. They therefore take the public position that they do not +approve of drugs, and they try to foster the image that they are serious +warriors, that they keep their minds clean and spirits pure by reading +Nietzsche and Sun Tzu and Machiavelli, and that their bodies are highly +trained fighting machines that will kill the enemy without a second +thought. Every afternoon you can see them marching around the yard in +locked step, their polished boots gleaming in the baking sun, with +"SKINHEAD" tattooed on their foreheads and "SHAVED FOR WAR" carved on +the backs of their skulls and encircling swastikas made up of +interlocking axe handles. I used to wonder why skinheads made such a +fuss over insisting that whites fold their clothes in a specific way and +display them on their shelves. The party line is that we do this because +other races look to us as setting the standard, and it is therefore our +burden to do so. But I finally figured out the real reason: the +skinheads want the whites to appear totally disciplined, a tight +fighting unit ready to spring into war at the drop of a hat. Uniforms +that are folded and pressed maintain this posture. + +The skinheads are so ridiculous, both in the way they present themselves +and in their social views, that it is easy to caricature and dismiss +them. But that would be a mistake. The skinheads are the fastest growing +segment of the prison population. If at one time they were a fringe +group within prison, that is no longer the case. + +**I grew up in a Chicago suburb, Evanston, Ill., next door to Skokie,** +the infamous site of an attempted march by Nazis in the late 1970s +through a city with a large Jewish population, including a high number +of concentration camp survivors. Because Evanston and Skokie shared a +high school, I knew many of these survivors, whose children were friends +of mine. When the Nazis threatened to march, these were the people who +were prepared to take their places on the front lines, baseball bats in +hand, ready to meet the fascists. There is no question in my mind that +the Nazis ultimately backed down at the last minute not because they +were put off by the Skokie City Council when it hastily enacted an +ordinance preventing the march, nor because the Anti-Defamation League +made the Nazis "irrelevant" by advising people to ignore them, nor +because the ACLU helped the Nazis "make their point" that free speech is +allowed and this made the march moot. Rather, it was because they were +afraid of the Jewish and other anti-fascist demonstrators who organized +against them and made it clear that they were going to offer armed +resistance. The Nazis knew that if they came to Skokie, no amount of +police protection could keep them safe. + +This was the climate I grew up in. My parents were left-liberals, +one-time fellow travelers of the Communist Party who had become more +conservative over the years but in whom political activism, especially +against fascism, was instinctual. And it was one of their guiding +principles that there is no debating with fascists. Fascists are not +interested in ideas but in political power. So every time the Nazis did +publicly organize since then, I was there to oppose them, not with the +force of my intellect but with the strength of my fists. + +But despite my lifelong opposition to Nazis, this opposition stemmed +from political, not religious, considerations. I grew up with +essentially no identity as a Jew. My father, while of German-Jewish +origins (and a World War II vet), was a stone atheist and a scientist, +and my mother, while being a little fuzzy on the God question, sided +with my father in not providing my brother and me with any religious +training. I did not attend shul on the high holidays or go to Hebrew +school. Instead, I went to socialist summer camp where I was taught that +the most important spiritual value is "thou shalt never cross a picket +line." + +Nor did the neighborhood I grew up in or the schools I went to do +anything to confer a sense of Jewish identity on me. Although Evanston +was not as heavily Jewish as Skokie, my neighborhood was at least a +third Jewish and the high school even more so. But being immersed in a +heavily Jewish environment did not have the effect of enhancing my +identity as a Jew; if anything, it made being Jewish taken for granted +and therefore largely irrelevant. Jews were everywhere and represented +all perspectives. We were jocks and nerds, boozers and freaks, +businessmen and scientists, Republicans and radicals. Our Jewishness was +not a common denominator to us (because it was too common a denominator) +and therefore being Jewish was no big deal. + +Similarly, when I moved to New York City after college, I lived in a +heavily Jewish city in which I was part of the majority. If it was +something of a thrill to be living in a city where everything shut down +on Yom Kippur, the main identity I felt as a Jew was no identity: being +Jewish was as common and therefore as taken for granted as finding a +taxicab on Fifth Avenue. + +I suppose this paradoxical lack of a Jewish identity in people who live +in an overwhelmingly Jewish environment is characteristic only of those +for whom the environment is a privileged one. When Jews living together +is a feature of their oppression rather than privilege, such as in the +case of those who were forced to live in the shtetls of Russia or in the +concentration camps of Nazi Germany, Jewish identity becomes something +that is not shunned but clung to. The practice of Judaism now becomes a +raison d'etre, a thing which gives life meaning. If you are oppressed +because of your race, religion or national origin, you seize that +heritage as something bigger than yourself to give you the will to go +on. + +When I went to prison, it was the first time in my life that I really +stood out as a Jew. Jews are virtually unheard of in the state prison +system, and if going to prison was a cultural shock and eye-opening +experience for me, meeting a Jew was a cultural shock and eye-opening +experience for a good number of young men on the yard, some of whom had +never traveled more than 50 miles from their backwoods homes. I suppose +it should not have come as a surprise to me, then, that anti-Semitism +would be so rampant. Nevertheless, I was shocked by the blatant hatred +(and misperceptions) of Jews. All the old stereotypes — of Jews being +stingy, greedy and dishonest, of Jews controlling the world's money +supply, of Jews running the entertainment industry and establishing the +cultural standards of the world (thus allowing the proliferation of +homosexuality and interracial relationships); in short, all the old +stereotypes about Jews which I never really believed existed — were in +full force and effect on the yard. I have been able to remain safe, but +only because I reached an accommodation with my Nazi tormentors limiting +my presence and activities on the yard. But the bottom line is, I am, +and will remain, a pariah. + +Thus, it was precisely my own oppression by skinheads and others when I +went to prison that has caused me to discover a Jewish identity and has +allowed me to come into my own as a Jew. I had dealt with Nazis before, +as I mentioned above, but only in the aggregate, when I was part of a +large force opposing a clearly unwelcome and alien presence. But on the +prison yards, if Nazis are not in the mainstream, certainly hatred of +Jews is taken for granted. And for most of the time I have been in +prison I have been the only Jew here. As a result, the isolation and +extreme prejudice against Jews here has finally forced me to consider +myself to be, for the first time in my life, fundamentally a Jew; that +is, I am a Jew before I am a socialist, an activist, a lawyer, a convict +or a musician. + +When I first came to jail, I tried to hide my Judaism. I even thought +about changing my name so it would sound less Jewish. Not any more\! The +oppression I suffered, the alienation and loneliness I felt, and the +spiritual thirst that is starting to be quenched, have caused me to +finally come into my own. I am a Jew\! And this has become my +fundamental defeat of the Nazis. Because I have finally come to this +bone-deep understanding, I will walk out of the prison gates as a +changed man, a man who has returned to the mark after having strayed for +so many years. I will have finally come home. diff --git a/_stories/2009/1580144.md b/_stories/2009/1580144.md index 6f5a728..1dfe2d5 100644 --- a/_stories/2009/1580144.md +++ b/_stories/2009/1580144.md @@ -19,127 +19,112 @@ _tags: objectID: '1580144' --- -[Source](http://www.nytimes.com/2009/05/12/science/earth/12suburb.html?_r=2&em "Permalink to Germany Imagines Suburbs Without Cars - The New York Times") +While there have been efforts in the past two decades to make cities +denser, and better for walking, planners are now taking the concept to +the suburbs and focusing specifically on environmental benefits like +reducing emissions. Vauban, home to 5,500 residents within a rectangular +square mile, may be the most advanced experiment in low-car suburban +life. But its basic precepts are being adopted around the world in +attempts to make suburbs more compact and more accessible to public +transportation, with less space for parking. In this new approach, +stores are placed a walk away, on a main street, rather than in malls +along some distant highway. -# Germany Imagines Suburbs Without Cars - The New York Times - -__NYTimes.com no longer supports Internet Explorer 9 or earlier. Please upgrade your browser. [LEARN MORE »][1] - -__Sections __ Home __Search [Skip to content][2] [Skip to navigation][3] [View mobile version][4] - -## [ The New York Times ][5] - -###### [Environment][6]|In German Suburb, Life Goes On Without Cars - -__Search - -Subscribe Now Log In __0 __Settings - -__Close search - -## Site Search Navigation - -Search NYTimes.com - -__Clear this text input - -Go - -1. Loading... - -See next articles - -See previous articles - -## Site Navigation - -## Site Mobile Navigation - -Advertisement - -Supported by - -### [Environment][6] - -# In German Suburb, Life Goes On Without Cars - -By [ELISABETH ROSENTHAL][7]MAY 11, 2009 - -[Continue reading the main story][8] Share This Page - -[Continue reading the main story][8] +“All of our development since World War II has been centered on the car, +and that will have to change,” said David Goldberg, an official of +[Transportation for America](http://t4america.org/ "Group’s Web site."), +a fast-growing coalition of hundreds of groups in the United States — +including environmental groups, mayors’ offices and the American +Association of Retired People — who are promoting new communities that +are less dependent on cars. Mr. Goldberg added: “How much you drive is +as important as whether you have a hybrid.” Photo -![][9] +Levittown and Scarsdale, New York suburbs with spread-out homes and +private garages, were the dream towns of the 1950s and still exert a +strong appeal. But some new suburbs may well look more Vauban-like, not +only in developed countries but also in the developing world, where +emissions from an increasing number of private cars owned by the +burgeoning middle class are choking cities. -Biking and walking are the principal means of transport within the suburb of Vauban, Germany. Credit Martin Specht for The New York Times +In the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency is promoting +“car reduced” communities, and legislators are starting to act, if +cautiously. Many experts expect public transport serving suburbs to play +a much larger role in a new six-year federal transportation bill to be +approved this year, Mr. Goldberg said. In previous bills, 80 percent of +appropriations have by law gone to highways and only 20 percent to other +transport. -VAUBAN, Germany — Residents of this upscale community are suburban pioneers, going where few soccer moms or commuting executives have ever gone before: they have given up their cars. +In California, the [Hayward Area Planning +Association](http://www.haywardcal.us/links/links.html "Information from city’s Web site.") +is developing a Vauban-like community called Quarry Village on the +outskirts of Oakland, accessible without a car to the Bay Area Rapid +Transit system and to the California State University’s campus in +Hayward. -Street parking, driveways and home garages are generally forbidden in this experimental new district on the outskirts of Freiburg, near the French and Swiss borders. Vauban's streets are completely "car-free" — except the main thoroughfare, where the tram to downtown Freiburg runs, and a few streets on one edge of the community. Car ownership is allowed, but there are only two places to park — large garages at the edge of the development, where a car-owner buys a space, for $40,000, along with a home. +Sherman Lewis, a professor emeritus at Cal State and a leader of the +association, says he “can’t wait to move in” and hopes that Quarry +Village will allow his family to reduce its car ownership from two to +one, and potentially to zero. But the current system is still stacked +against the project, he said, noting that mortgage lenders worry about +resale value of half-million-dollar homes that have no place for cars, +and most zoning laws in the United States still require two parking +spaces per residential unit. Quarry Village has obtained an exception +from Hayward. -As a result, 70 percent of Vauban's families do not own cars, and 57 percent sold a car to move here. "When I had a car I was always tense. I'm much happier this way," said Heidrun Walter, a media trainer and mother of two, as she walked verdant streets where the swish of bicycles and the chatter of wandering children drown out the occasional distant motor. - -Vauban, completed in 2006, is an example of a growing trend in Europe, the United States and elsewhere to separate suburban life from auto use, as a component of a movement called "smart planning." +Besides, convincing people to give up their cars is often an uphill run. +“People in the U.S. are incredibly suspicious of any idea where people +are not going to own cars, or are going to own fewer,” said David +Ceaser, [co-founder of CarFree City +USA](http://new.carfreecity.us/AboutUs/OrganizationandMission/tabid/104/Default.aspx "Group’s Web site."), +who said no car-free suburban project the size of Vauban had been +successful in the United States. Advertisement -[Continue reading the main story][8] +[Continue reading the main story](#story-continues-4) -Automobiles are the linchpin of suburbs, where middle-class families from Chicago to Shanghai tend to make their homes. And that, experts say, is a huge impediment to current efforts to drastically reduce greenhouse gas emissions from tailpipes, and thus to reduce global warming. Passenger cars are responsible for 12 percent of [greenhouse gas emissions in Europe][10] — a proportion that is growing, according to the European Environment Agency — and up to 50 percent in some car-intensive areas in the United States. +In Europe, some governments are thinking on a national scale. In 2000, +Britain began a comprehensive effort to reform planning, to discourage +car use by requiring that new development be accessible by public +transit. -[Continue reading the main story][11] +“Development comprising jobs, shopping, leisure and services should not +be designed and located on the assumption that the car will represent +the only realistic means of access for the vast majority of people,” +said PPG 13, the British government’s [revolutionary 2001 planning +document](http://www.communities.gov.uk/documents/planningandbuilding/pdf/155634.pdf "From a government site, the 45-page planning document."). +Dozens of shopping malls, fast-food restaurants and housing compounds +have been refused planning permits based on the new British regulations. -Advertisement - -[Continue reading the main story][12] - -While there have been efforts in the past two decades to make cities denser, and better for walking, planners are now taking the concept to the suburbs and focusing specifically on environmental benefits like reducing emissions. Vauban, home to 5,500 residents within a rectangular square mile, may be the most advanced experiment in low-car suburban life. But its basic precepts are being adopted around the world in attempts to make suburbs more compact and more accessible to public transportation, with less space for parking. In this new approach, stores are placed a walk away, on a main street, rather than in malls along some distant highway. - -"All of our development since World War II has been centered on the car, and that will have to change," said David Goldberg, an official of [Transportation for America][13], a fast-growing coalition of hundreds of groups in the United States — including environmental groups, mayors' offices and the American Association of Retired People — who are promoting new communities that are less dependent on cars. Mr. Goldberg added: "How much you drive is as important as whether you have a hybrid." +In Germany, a country that is home to Mercedes-Benz and the autobahn, +life in a car-reduced place like Vauban has its own unusual gestalt. The +town is long and relatively narrow, so that the tram into Freiburg is an +easy walk from every home. Stores, restaurants, banks and schools are +more interspersed among homes than they are in a typical suburb. Most +residents, like Ms. Walter, have carts that they haul behind bicycles +for shopping trips or children’s play dates. Photo -![][14] +For trips to stores like IKEA or the ski slopes, families buy cars +together or use communal cars rented out by Vauban’s car-sharing club. +Ms. Walter had previously lived — with a private car — in Freiburg as +well as the United States. -Cars are forbidden on most of Vauban's streets, and houses cannot have driveways or garages. Credit Martin Specht for The New York Times +“If you have one, you tend to use it,” she said. “Some people move in +here and move out rather quickly — they miss the car next door.” -Levittown and Scarsdale, New York suburbs with spread-out homes and private garages, were the dream towns of the 1950s and still exert a strong appeal. But some new suburbs may well look more Vauban-like, not only in developed countries but also in the developing world, where emissions from an increasing number of private cars owned by the burgeoning middle class are choking cities. - -In the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency is promoting "car reduced" communities, and legislators are starting to act, if cautiously. Many experts expect public transport serving suburbs to play a much larger role in a new six-year federal transportation bill to be approved this year, Mr. Goldberg said. In previous bills, 80 percent of appropriations have by law gone to highways and only 20 percent to other transport. - -In California, the [Hayward Area Planning Association][15] is developing a Vauban-like community called Quarry Village on the outskirts of Oakland, accessible without a car to the Bay Area Rapid Transit system and to the California State University's campus in Hayward. - -Sherman Lewis, a professor emeritus at Cal State and a leader of the association, says he "can't wait to move in" and hopes that Quarry Village will allow his family to reduce its car ownership from two to one, and potentially to zero. But the current system is still stacked against the project, he said, noting that mortgage lenders worry about resale value of half-million-dollar homes that have no place for cars, and most zoning laws in the United States still require two parking spaces per residential unit. Quarry Village has obtained an exception from Hayward. - -Besides, convincing people to give up their cars is often an uphill run. "People in the U.S. are incredibly suspicious of any idea where people are not going to own cars, or are going to own fewer," said David Ceaser, [co-founder of CarFree City USA][16], who said no car-free suburban project the size of Vauban had been successful in the United States. - -Advertisement - -[Continue reading the main story][17] - -In Europe, some governments are thinking on a national scale. In 2000, Britain began a comprehensive effort to reform planning, to discourage car use by requiring that new development be accessible by public transit. - -"Development comprising jobs, shopping, leisure and services should not be designed and located on the assumption that the car will represent the only realistic means of access for the vast majority of people," said PPG 13, the British government's [revolutionary 2001 planning document][18]. Dozens of shopping malls, fast-food restaurants and housing compounds have been refused planning permits based on the new British regulations. - -In Germany, a country that is home to Mercedes-Benz and the autobahn, life in a car-reduced place like Vauban has its own unusual gestalt. The town is long and relatively narrow, so that the tram into Freiburg is an easy walk from every home. Stores, restaurants, banks and schools are more interspersed among homes than they are in a typical suburb. Most residents, like Ms. Walter, have carts that they haul behind bicycles for shopping trips or children's play dates. - -Photo - -![][19] - -Vauban, which was completed in 2006, has 5,500 residents. Credit The New York Times - -For trips to stores like IKEA or the ski slopes, families buy cars together or use communal cars rented out by Vauban's car-sharing club. Ms. Walter had previously lived — with a private car — in Freiburg as well as the United States. - -"If you have one, you tend to use it," she said. "Some people move in here and move out rather quickly — they miss the car next door." - -Vauban, the site of a former Nazi army base, was occupied by the French Army from the end of World War II until the reunification of Germany two decades ago. Because it was planned as a base, the grid was never meant to accommodate private car use: the "roads" were narrow passageways between barracks. +Vauban, the site of a former Nazi army base, was occupied by the French +Army from the end of World War II until the reunification of Germany two +decades ago. Because it was planned as a base, the grid was never meant +to accommodate private car use: the “roads” were narrow passageways +between barracks. ## Newsletter Sign Up -[Continue reading the main story][20] +[Continue reading the main story](#continues-post-newsletter) ### @@ -149,298 +134,46 @@ Invalid email address. Please re-enter. You must select a newsletter to subscribe to. -Sign Up - -You agree to receive occasional updates and special offers for The New York Times's products and services. +You agree to receive occasional updates and special offers for The New +York Times's products and services. ### Thank you for subscribing. ### An error has occurred. Please try again later. -### You are already subscribed to this email. +[View all New York Times newsletters.](/newsletters) -[View all New York Times newsletters.][21] +The original buildings have long since been torn down. The stylish row +houses that replaced them are buildings of four or five stories, +designed to reduce heat loss and maximize energy efficiency, and trimmed +with exotic woods and elaborate balconies; free-standing homes are +forbidden. -* [See Sample][22] -* [Manage Email Preferences][23] -* [Not you?][24] -* [Privacy Policy][25] -* Opt out or [contact us][26] anytime +By nature, people who buy homes in Vauban are inclined to be green +guinea pigs — indeed, more than half vote for the German Green Party. +Still, many say it is the quality of life that keeps them here. -The original buildings have long since been torn down. The stylish row houses that replaced them are buildings of four or five stories, designed to reduce heat loss and maximize energy efficiency, and trimmed with exotic woods and elaborate balconies; free-standing homes are forbidden. - -By nature, people who buy homes in Vauban are inclined to be green guinea pigs — indeed, more than half vote for the German Green Party. Still, many say it is the quality of life that keeps them here. - -Henk Schulz, a scientist who on one afternoon last month was watching his three young children wander around Vauban, remembers his excitement at buying his first car. Now, he said, he is glad to be [raising his children away from cars][27]; he does not worry much about their safety in the street. +Henk Schulz, a scientist who on one afternoon last month was watching +his three young children wander around Vauban, remembers his excitement +at buying his first car. Now, he said, he is glad to be [raising his +children away from +cars](http://www.nytimes.com/2009/03/27/world/europe/27bus.html "News article on Italian children walking to school."); +he does not worry much about their safety in the street. Advertisement -[Continue reading the main story][28] +[Continue reading the main story](#story-continues-5) -In the past few years, Vauban has become a well-known niche community, even if it has spawned few imitators in Germany. But whether the concept will work in California is an open question. +In the past few years, Vauban has become a well-known niche community, +even if it has spawned few imitators in Germany. But whether the concept +will work in California is an open question. -More than 100 would-be owners have signed up to buy in the Bay Area's "car-reduced" Quarry Village, and Mr. Lewis is still looking for about $2 million in seed financing to get the project off the ground. +More than 100 would-be owners have signed up to buy in the Bay Area’s +“car-reduced” Quarry Village, and Mr. Lewis is still looking for about +$2 million in seed financing to get the project off the ground. -But if it doesn't work, his backup proposal is to build a development on the same plot that permits unfettered car use. It would be called Village d'Italia. - -A version of this article appears in print on , on Page A1 of the New York edition with the headline: In German Suburb, Life Goes On Without Cars. 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https://www.nytimes.com/services/mobile/index.html -[96]: http://eedition.nytimes.com/cgi-bin/signup.cgi?cc=37FYY -[97]: https://www.nytimes.com/content/help/rights/copyright/copyright-notice.html -[98]: https://www.nytimes.com -[99]: http://query.nytimes.com/search/sitesearch/#/ -[100]: mailto:accessibility%40nytimes.com -[101]: https://www.nytimes.com/ref/membercenter/help/infoservdirectory.html -[102]: http://www.nytco.com/careers -[103]: http://nytmediakit.com/ -[104]: https://www.nytimes.com/content/help/rights/privacy/policy/privacy-policy.html#pp -[105]: https://www.nytimes.com/privacy -[106]: https://www.nytimes.com/ref/membercenter/help/agree.html -[107]: https://www.nytimes.com/content/help/rights/sale/terms-of-sale.html -[108]: http://spiderbites.nytimes.com -[109]: https://www.nytimes.com/membercenter/sitehelp.html -[110]: https://myaccount.nytimes.com/membercenter/feedback.html -[111]: https://www.nytimes.com/subscriptions/Multiproduct/lp5558.html?campaignId=37WXW +But if it doesn’t work, his backup proposal is to build a development on +the same plot that permits unfettered car use. It would be called +Village d’Italia. +[Continue reading the main story](#whats-next) diff --git a/_stories/2009/16038085.md b/_stories/2009/16038085.md index e5c2495..f3b96c6 100644 --- a/_stories/2009/16038085.md +++ b/_stories/2009/16038085.md @@ -19,7 +19,180 @@ _tags: objectID: '16038085' --- -[Source](https://news.stanford.edu/news/2009/september28/shloss-joyce-settlement-092809.html "Permalink to ") +# Stanford researcher gets six-figure settlement from James Joyce Estate +Stanford scholar Carol Shloss’ breakthrough settlement against the James +Joyce Estate gives hope to beleaguered researchers. +The Stanford scholar who wrote a controversial biography of James +Joyce's daughter has settled her claims for attorneys' fees against the +Joyce Estate for $240,000. The settlement successfully ends a tangled +saga that has continued for two decades. +As a result of an earlier settlement reached in 2007, consulting English +Professor Carol Loeb Shloss already had achieved the right to domestic +online publication of the supportive scholarship the Joyce Estate had +forced her to remove from Lucia Joyce: To Dance in the Wake (2003). She +also had achieved the right to republish the book in the United States +with the expurgated material restored. After that settlement was +reached, Shloss asked the court to award the attorneys' fees and costs +she had incurred in bringing her suit, and the court granted that +request. The parties eventually settled the amount of the fees and +litigation costs Shloss and her counsel were to receive at $240,000. + +Shloss' suit was championed by the Stanford Law School Center for +Internet and Society's Fair Use Project, with the assistance of +attorneys from Howard Rice Nemerovski Canady Falk & Rabkin and Keker & +Van Nest of San Francisco, and Doerner, Saunders, Daniel & Anderson of +Tulsa, Okla. + +The estate of the celebrated Irish author of Ulysses and Finnegans Wake, +under the guidance of Joyce's grandson, Stephen James Joyce, had become +notorious in scholarly circles for its conflicts with scholars, authors +and Joyce enthusiasts. The estate's history of suits and threats of suit +has been the subject of many articles. + +L.A. Cicero + +[![Stanford scholar Carol +Shloss](https://news.stanford.edu/news/2009/september28/gifs/shloss_news.jpg)](http://news.stanford.edu/news/2009/september28/gifs/shloss_news.jpg "Stanford scholar Carol Shloss") + +Stanford scholar Carol Shloss + +Stephen Joyce has stopped countless public readings of his grandfather's +works and discouraged a generation of research. At one point, he told a +prominent Joyce scholar that he was no longer giving permission to quote +from any of Joyce's work. He told one performer, who had simply +memorized a portion of Finnegans Wake for an onstage presentation, that +he had probably "already infringed" on the estate's copyright, according +to a 2006 New Yorker story. (The performer later discovered that Joyce +did not have the right to block his performance.) Shloss herself recalls +a conference where a scholar had Joyce's words projected on a screen +rather than risk pronouncing the words in a recorded session. + +"It's a breakthrough, not just for me but for everybody who has to deal +with a literary estate," said Shloss. "This has been going on for +decades. Scholars are not wealthy people. We don't have easy access to +the legal system to determine and vindicate our rights if someone +threatens us with a lawsuit. You just have to give in. + +"When the Stanford Law School took this on, Larry Lessig \[now at +Harvard University\] said, 'That's disgusting,' and the tables turned. +Suddenly scholars had some legal support for an issue that had been +stifling our lives for decades." + +Shloss said that the suit is a game-changer because now literary +"estates know they can get hurt." + +"They know that scholars have resources now. They just can't be +bullies," she said. "We've established that if you don't pay attention +to the rights of scholars, authors and researchers the copyright laws +protect, you might have to pay something as the Joyce Estate has had to +pay." + +In a tartly worded Feb. 24 filing to determine attorneys' fees and +costs, Shloss and her legal team argued that "the cost of litigating +this case, which was substantial, was a direct result of the Estate's +assiduous and energetic efforts to prevent Shloss from exercising the +rights the U.S. copyright laws encourage, and its 'scorched earth' +approach to litigating the early stages of the case to see if it could +bully Shloss into capitulation." + +Shloss began researching her book in 1988. During a visit to Stephen +Joyce's Paris home that year, the writer's grandson warned her of his +determination to protect what he considered the Joyce family's privacy +rights. After studying the 50 unpublished notebooks that the author used +to write Finnegans Wake, Shloss challenged the long-accepted image of +Lucia Joyce, who was institutionalized in mental asylums for decades, as +the schizophrenic daughter of a man of genius. Instead, Shloss saw the +young dancer as a creative, independent figure who was an inspiration +for her father's work. + +In subsequent years, according to a 2006 court filing, the author's +grandson and the estate's trustee made "attempts to interfere with +Shloss' research, to stop publication of her book, to damage her +relationship with her employer, and to misuse the copyrights they +control." + +  + +Photo by C. Ruf, Zurich, ca. 1918 Source: Cornell Joyce Collection + +[![James +Joyce](https://news.stanford.edu/news/2009/september28/gifs/shloss_joyce_news.jpg)](http://news.stanford.edu/news/2009/september28/gifs/shloss_joyce_news.jpg "James Joyce") + +James Joyce + +In 2002, when Shloss' book was nearing publication, Joyce pressured her +publisher, Farrar, Straus and Giroux, to delete material from the book +or face a lawsuit. The publisher complied rather than fight the issue. + +  + +In the deleted material, Shloss links Joyce's chronological observations +about his daughter, as related in his notebooks, as a "consistent +influence on the final text of Finnegans Wake." Joyce is in an "edgy, +almost surrealistic, comic mode" as he describes the budding sexuality +of his daughter in her interactions with his son, and himself as an +older man watching almost voyeuristically. The account "still bears the +specificity of his children's lives: Issy \[modeled on Lucia\] still +whistles, drops handkerchiefs, waits for her male counterpart to pick +them up with his feet, worries that she'll be forgotten." + +When an expurgated Lucia was published in 2003, the reviews were, as +Shloss said she had anticipated, mixed. The New York Times said her +unsupported arguments made the book "read more like an exercise in wish +fulfillment than a biography." The New Yorker noted that "the less +Shloss knows, the more she tells us." The San Francisco Chronicle noted +that Shloss added "a daunting quality of her own speculations, surmises +and unconvincingly supported suppositions." + +Shloss responded by creating in 2005, and later revising, [an electronic +supplement to Lucia](http://www.lucia-the-authors-cut.info). The website +was restricted to U.S. access only, and the additional material was +designed to be protected by copyright's "fair use" doctrine. + +The Joyce Estate responded with a series of strongly worded letters. To +protect herself and her work, Shloss filed a suit for declaratory relief +in June 2006, guided by the Stanford Center for Internet and Society and +the center's private-sector co-counsel. The estate fired back with a +475-page motion to dismiss and to strike, attacking the quality of +Shloss' scholarship and arguing that, despite the estate's threats, +there was no dispute for the court to adjudicate. The court ruled +against the estate in March 2007, finding that Shloss' suit should go +forward. A settlement in 2007 allowed Shloss to publish her supplement +on the Internet and in print in the United States, as she had sought in +her lawsuit, but did not address attorneys' fees.  A full settlement +including the payment of attorneys' fees and costs to Shloss and her +counsel was not completed until recently. + +For Shloss, the decision is "a vindication of my scholarship. I knew the +scholarship was excellent. But I'd had to take the evidence out." + +On the initial settlement in 2007, Lessig had said, "We will continue to +defend academics threatened by overly aggressive copyright holders, as +well as other creators for whom the intended protections of 'fair use' +do not work in practice. I am hopeful that this is the last time this +defendant will be involved in an action like this. But it is only the +first time that we will be defending academics in these contexts." + +Shloss said she is happy to leave behind the tangled legal saga that had +"defined my life for years." + +"This has always been running in the background, always something +happening in my name, filled with papers I have to read and understand," +she said. "It's a relief not to have double life – professional life and +legal life – running in parallel. I was receiving threatening letters +from the Joyce Estate long before I found the Fair Use Project and Larry +Lessig. + +"Larry's the one who said, 'This should not be happening to you.' And +then we began to work together with the Stanford center and the private +law firms. That's when the tables turned. It's a real Stanford story. +Most people can't do this. These are fabulous people to work with. +Really fabulous." + +## Media Contact + +Cynthia Haven, Stanford News Service: (650) 724-6184, + diff --git a/_stories/2009/16382322.md b/_stories/2009/16382322.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..3d5d019 --- /dev/null +++ b/_stories/2009/16382322.md @@ -0,0 +1,272 @@ +--- +created_at: '2018-02-15T06:38:22.000Z' +title: 'Your body wasn’t built to last: Math of human mortality (2009)' +url: https://gravityandlevity.wordpress.com/2009/07/08/your-body-wasnt-built-to-last-a-lesson-from-human-mortality-rates/ +author: lighttower +points: 87 +story_text: +comment_text: +num_comments: 25 +story_id: +story_title: +story_url: +parent_id: +created_at_i: 1518676702 +_tags: +- story +- author_lighttower +- story_16382322 +objectID: '16382322' + +--- +# Your body wasn’t built to last: a lesson from human mortality rates + +What do you think are the odds that you will die during the next year?  +Try to put a number to it — 1 in 100?  1 in 10,000?  Whatever it is, it +will be twice as large 8 years from now. + +This startling fact was first noticed by the British actuary Benjamin +Gompertz in 1825 and is now called the “Gompertz Law of human +mortality.”  Your probability of dying during a given year doubles +every 8 years.  For me, a 25-year-old American, the probability of dying +during the next year is a fairly minuscule 0.03% — about 1 in 3,000.  +When I’m 33 it will be about 1 in 1,500, when I’m 42 it will be about 1 +in 750, and so on.  By the time I reach age 100 (and I do plan on it) +the probability of living to 101 will only be about 50%.  This is +seriously fast growth — my mortality rate is increasing exponentially +with age. + +And if my mortality rate (the probability of dying during the next year, +or during the next second, however you want to phrase it) is rising +exponentially, that means that the probability of me surviving to a +particular age is falling super-exponentially.  Below are some +statistics for mortality rates in the United States in 2005, as reported +by the US Census Bureau (and displayed by [Wolfram +Alpha](http://www.wolframalpha.com/)): + +![USA-death\_rates](https://gravityandlevity.files.wordpress.com/2009/07/usa-death_rates.png?w=600&h=216 +"USA-death_rates")This data fits the Gompertz law almost perfectly, with +death rates doubling every 8 years.  The graph on the right also agrees +with the Gompertz law, and you can see the precipitous fall in survival +rates starting at age 80 or so.  That decline is no joke; the sharp fall +in survival rates can be expressed mathematically as an exponential +within an exponential: + +![P(t) \\approx e^{-0.003 +e^{(t-25)/10}}](https://s0.wp.com/latex.php?latex=P%28t%29+%5Capprox+e%5E%7B-0.003+e%5E%7B%28t-25%29%2F10%7D%7D&bg=ffffff&fg=333333&s=0 +"P(t) \\approx e^{-0.003 e^{(t-25)/10}}") + +Exponential decay is sharp, but an exponential within an exponential is +so sharp that I can say with 99.999999% certainty that no human will +ever live to the age of 130.  (Ignoring, of course, the upward shift in +the lifetime distribution that will result from future medical advances) + +Surprisingly enough, the Gompertz law holds across a large number of +countries, time periods, and even different species.  While the actual +average lifespan changes quite a bit from country to country and from +animal to animal, the same general rule that “your probability of dying +doubles every X years” holds true.  It’s an amazing fact, and no one +understands why it’s true. + +There is one important lesson, however, to be learned from Benjamin +Gompertz’s mysterious observation.  By looking at theories of human +mortality that are clearly wrong, we can deduce that our fast-rising +mortality is not the result of a dangerous environment, but of a body +that has a built-in expiration +date. + +![\\hspace{10mm}](https://s0.wp.com/latex.php?latex=%5Chspace%7B10mm%7D&bg=ffffff&fg=333333&s=0 +"\\hspace{10mm}") + +**The lightning bolt theory** + +If you had never seen any mortality statistics (or known very many old +people), you might subscribe to what I call the “lightning bolt theory” +of mortality.  In this view, death is the result of a sudden and +unexpected event over which you have no control.  It’s sort of an +ancient Greek perspective: there are angry gods carousing carelessly +overhead, and every so often they hurl a lightning bolt toward Earth, +which kills you if you happen to be in the wrong place at the wrong +time.  These are the “lightning bolts” of disease and cancer and car +accidents, things that you can escape for a long time if you’re lucky +but will eventually catch up to you. + +The problem with this theory is that it would produce mortality rates +that are nothing like what we see.  Your probability of dying during a +given year would be constant, and wouldn’t increase from one year to the +next.  Anyone who paid attention during introductory statistics will +recognize that your probability of survival to age t would follow a +Poisson distribution, which means exponential decay (and not +super-exponential decay). + +Just to make things concrete, imagine a world where every year a +“lightning bolt” gets hurled in your general direction and has a 1 in +80 chance of hitting you.  Your average life span will be 80 years, just +like it is in the US today, but the distribution will be very different: + +![Your probability of survival according to the "Lightning Bolt +Theory"](https://gravityandlevity.files.wordpress.com/2009/07/lightning_bolt_theory.png?w=600&h=450 +"lightning_bolt_theory") + +What a crazy world\!  The average lifespan would be the same, but out of +every 100 people 31 would die before age 30 and 2 of them would live to +be more than 300 years old.  Clearly we do not live in a world where +mortality is governed by “lightning +bolts”. + +![\\hspace{10mm}](https://s0.wp.com/latex.php?latex=%5Chspace%7B10mm%7D&bg=ffffff&fg=333333&s=0 +"\\hspace{10mm}") + +**The accumulated lightning bolt theory** + +I think most people will see pretty quickly why the “lightning bolt +theory” is flawed.  Our bodies accumulate damage as they get older.  +With each misfortune our defenses are weakened — a car accident might +leave me paralyzed, or a knee injury could give me arthritis, or a +childhood bout with pneumonia could leave me with a compromised immune +system.  Maybe dying is a matter of accumulating a number of “lightning +strikes”; none of them individually will do you in, but the accumulated +effect leads to death.  I think of it something like [Monty Python’s +Black Knight](http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zKhEw7nD9C4): the first +four blows are just flesh wounds, but the fifth is the end of the +line. + +![accumulated\_lightning\_bolt\_theory](https://gravityandlevity.files.wordpress.com/2009/07/accumulated_lightning_bolt_theory.png?w=600&h=450 +"accumulated_lightning_bolt_theory") + +Fortunately, this theory is also completely testable.  And, as it turns +out, completely wrong.  Shown above are the results from a simulated +world where “lightning bolts” of misfortune hit people on average every +16 years, and death occurs at the fifth hit.  This world also has an +average lifespan of 80 years (16\*5 = 80), and its distribution is a +little less ridiculous than the previous case.  Still, it’s no Gompertz +Law: look at all those 160-year-olds\!  You can try playing around with +different “lightning strike rates” and different number of hits required +for death, but nothing will reproduce the Gompertz Law.  No explanation +based on careless gods, no matter how plentiful or how strong their +blows are, will reproduce the strong upper limit to human lifespan that +we actually +observe. + +![\\hspace{10mm}](https://s0.wp.com/latex.php?latex=%5Chspace%7B10mm%7D&bg=ffffff&fg=333333&s=0 +"\\hspace{10mm}") + +**The cops and criminals inside your body +** + +Like I said before, no one knows why our lifespans follow the Gompertz +law.  But it isn’t impossible to come up with a theoretical world that +follows the same law.  The following argument comes from [this short +paper](http://arxiv.org/PS_cache/q-bio/pdf/0411/0411019v3.pdf), produced +by the Theoretical Physics Institute at the University of Minnesota +\[update: also published +[here](http://www.springerlink.com/content/lp63258564432853/) in the +journal Theory in Biosciences\]. + +Imagine that within your body is an ongoing battle between cops and +criminals.  And, in general, the cops are winning.  They patrol randomly +through your body, and when they happen to come across a criminal he is +promptly removed.  The cops can always defeat a criminal they come +across, unless the criminal has been allowed to sit in the same spot for +a long time.  A criminal that remains in one place for long enough (say, +one day) can build a “fortress” which is too strong to be assailed by +the police.  If this happens, you die. + +Lucky for you, the cops are plentiful, and on average they pass by every +spot 14 times a day.  The likelihood of them missing a particular spot +for an entire day is given (as you’ve learned by now) by the Poisson +distribution: it is a mere ![e^{-14} \\approx 8 \\times +10^{-7}](https://s0.wp.com/latex.php?latex=e%5E%7B-14%7D+%5Capprox+8+%5Ctimes+10%5E%7B-7%7D&bg=ffffff&fg=333333&s=0 +"e^{-14} \\approx 8 \\times 10^{-7}"). + +But what happens if your internal police force starts to dwindle?  +Suppose that as you age the police force suffers a slight reduction, so +that they can only cover every spot 12 times a day.  Then the +probability of them missing a criminal for an entire day increases to +![e^{-12} \\approx 6 \\times +10^{-6}](https://s0.wp.com/latex.php?latex=e%5E%7B-12%7D+%5Capprox+6+%5Ctimes+10%5E%7B-6%7D&bg=ffffff&fg=333333&s=0 +"e^{-12} \\approx 6 \\times 10^{-6}").  The difference between 14 and 12 +doesn’t seem like a big deal, but the result was that your chance of +dying during a given day jumped by more than 10 7 times.  And if the +strength of your police force drops linearly in time, your mortality +rate will rise exponentially. + +This is the Gompertz law, in cartoon form: your body is deteriorating +over time at a particular rate.  When its “internal policemen” are good +enough to patrol every spot that might contain a criminal 14 times a +day, then you have the body of a 25-year-old and a 0.03% chance of dying +this year.  But by the time your police force can only patrol every spot +7 times per day, you have the body of a 95-year-old with only a 2-in-3 +chance of making it through the +year. + +![\\hspace{10mm}](https://s0.wp.com/latex.php?latex=%5Chspace%7B10mm%7D&bg=ffffff&fg=333333&s=0 +"\\hspace{10mm}") + +**More questions than answers** + +The example above is tantalizing.  The language of “cops and criminals” +lends itself very easily to a discussion of the immune system fighting +infection and random mutation.  Particularly heartening is the fact that +rates of cancer incidence also follow the Gompertz law, doubling every 8 +years or so.  Maybe something in the immune system is degrading over +time, becoming worse at finding and destroying mutated and potentially +dangerous cells. + +Unfortunately, the full complexity of human biology does not lend itself +readily to cartoons about cops and criminals.  There are a lot of +difficult questions for anyone who tries to put together a serious +theory of human aging.  Who are the criminals and who are the cops that +kill them?  What is the “incubation time” for a criminal, and why does +it give “him” enough strength to fight off the immune response?  Why is +the police force dwindling over time?  For that matter, what kind of +“clock” does your body have that measures time at all? + +There have been attempts to describe DNA degradation (through the +shortening of your[telomeres](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telomere) or +through [methylation](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_methylation)) as +an increase in “criminals” that slowly overwhelm the body’s DNA-repair +mechanisms, but nothing has come of it so far.  I can only hope that +someday some brilliant biologist will be charmed by the simplistic +physicist’s language of cops and criminals and provide us with real +insight into why we age the way we +do. + +![\\hspace{10mm}](https://s0.wp.com/latex.php?latex=%5Chspace%7B10mm%7D&bg=ffffff&fg=333333&s=0 +"\\hspace{10mm}") + +![\\hspace{10mm}](https://s0.wp.com/latex.php?latex=%5Chspace%7B10mm%7D&bg=ffffff&fg=333333&s=0 +"\\hspace{10mm}") + +**UPDATE:** G\&L reader Michael has made a cool-looking (if slightly +morbid) [web +calculator](http://forio.com/simulate/simulation/mbean/death-probability-calculator/) +to evaluate the Gompertz law prediction for different ages.  If you want +to know what the law implies for you in particular, and are not terribly +handy with a calculator, then you might want to check it + out. + +Advertisements + +### Share this: + + - 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+num_comments: 58 +story_id: +story_title: +story_url: +parent_id: +created_at_i: 1287904729 +_tags: +- story +- author_starpilot +- story_1825525 +objectID: '1825525' + +--- +By and + +**ISAAC:** I've always considered myself to be a smart spender -- I +rarely, if ever, buy unnecessary stuff. I never get videogames, sports +equipment or new electronics like some people my age do, and I can't +remember the last time I spent money on nonessential new clothes. + +The truth is I just don't get a buzz from buying things. + +And yet...I still regularly withdraw money from my bank account. So if I +never buy "stuff," where does this money go? + +I have a confession to make: I like to make the occasional -- well, OK, +perhaps regular -- splurge on going out to lunch or attending a concert +on a weekend. + +But hey, what's wrong with enjoying some fresh food or good +entertainment? Besides, it would seem like a shame not to take advantage +of these cultural luxuries while I can, before I fly off to the +middle-of-nowhere for college. + +**STEVE:** I like to imagine myself a model of frugality for my +children. So I'm often a bit disappointed when I discover Isaac has +spent money on something fleeting or frivolous. + +![We Don't Buy Stuff. Except When We +Do.](https://si.wsj.net/public/resources/images/OB-DU941_sun060_D_20090605151553.jpg) + +Leonard Cadiente + +"How are you spending your money?" I asked him the other night. I'd +noticed some regular withdrawals from his bank account, which I can see +online because it's still associated with the family account. + +"Food, mostly," he replied. As the school year draws to a close, Isaac +apparently has developed a penchant for eating out with his friends. +It's not a ruinous habit yet, judging from his bank balance. But it's a +tad worrisome to a father who considers the epithet "cheapskate" to be +praise. + +A perfect opportunity to repeat the Delayed Gratification Speech\! +(Teenagers can't get enough of it.) "That's a slippery slope," I told +him. "Don't get used to spending on pleasures like that now, because +it's always much harder to stop spending on them than it is to not start +spending to begin with." + +Which is when the little voice in my head began asking: "Hmm, +hypocrisy?" + +When it comes to buying stuff, I'm still fiercely frugal. I drive a +17-year-old car and won't even think of replacing our battered kitchen +appliances. The last major "toy" I bought myself was a 40-year-old South +Bend 10K metal lathe for $1,500 four years ago, but that doesn't count +because it's a tool. + +As I've noted, my indulgence is paying for experiences. Money spent on +travel pays back richly, and I've spent thousands without batting an eye +on kids' lessons -- everything from guitar playing to welding. + +That's all very high-minded of me, except that there's a fine line +between "experience" and imprudent consumption. And I admit: I'm guilty +of crossing that line just as Isaac is. + +When Karen and I were first married, we ate out seldom, and frugally +when we did. Dinner and a movie in Tokyo, where we lived in the 1980s, +meant smuggling a bag of burgers and fries into the cinema; when we went +skiing, we stayed in youth hostels. + +But somewhere along the way -- in the past 10 years, mostly -- we've let +ourselves go. We've begun enjoying nice restaurants a bit too often. +When we travel, we splurge more often than we used to on nicer hotels. I +buy lattes regularly. + +And then there's the big skeleton in my cheapskate's closet. A few years +back, I spent an indefensible amount of money taking flying lessons. +Hey, it's an experience -- an education -- I told myself. But I knew it +was an expense that would have appalled my younger self. + +That younger self of mine, I often think, is what Isaac needs now as a +role model -- not my laxer, current self. When I was a teen, my parents +were excellent models of frugality because they didn't have much to +spend. I did as they did; delayed gratification was the only kind there +was. + +So Isaac, please do as I say I did when I was your age, not as I do now. + +**ISAAC:** Just as my dad justifies his tools and his flying, I've +always rationalized spending money on food and concerts. + +I don't eat at fine restaurants or go to concerts that cost hundreds. +What I spend my money on is, say, a burrito some afternoon or a local +$10 concert. My eating and concert-going isn't denting my savings. + +And I spend good time with people in the process. It's worthwhile to +spend money for valuable experiences that involve building friendships, +right? + +Having said all that, I'll concede that the memories I get out of eating +or concert-going are not nearly as concrete as learning to fly a plane +or owning tools (though I'm pretty sure my dad has still only used that +lathe a handful of times in the past four years). And I'll also concede +that my dad is right about the fine line. This habit of mine is just +like other people's habits of spending on stuff. We all justify our +purchases -- and we could all probably gain from saving more of this +money. + +Maybe my dad and I should start being more careful with unnecessary +purchases that we justify for one reason or another -- whether it be +labeling them as "tools" or "bonding experiences." Don't get me wrong, I +still think it's OK to splurge once in a while -- whether it is on stuff +or experiences -- as long we acknowledge that they are unnecessary +expenses and we keep them infrequent. + +To be honest, I'm not too worried about this becoming a bad lifelong +habit. I think the small amount of spending money I have during my +college years, if I have any at all, will have more important places to +go than spending on food. + +Steve Yoder is chief of The Wall Street Journal's San Francisco bureau. +His son, Isaac, is 18 years old and a senior in high school. **Email**: + diff --git a/_stories/2009/2250750.md b/_stories/2009/2250750.md index f4801e6..8311b1b 100644 --- a/_stories/2009/2250750.md +++ b/_stories/2009/2250750.md @@ -19,7 +19,272 @@ _tags: objectID: '2250750' --- -[Source](https://github.com/blog/530-how-we-made-github-fast "Permalink to ") +Now that things have settled down from the move to Rackspace, I wanted +to take some time to go over the architectural changes that we’ve made +in order to bring you a speedier, more scalable GitHub. +In my first draft of this article I spent a lot of time explaining why +we made each of the technology choices that we did. After a while, +however, it became difficult to separate the architecture from the +discourse and the whole thing became confusing. So I’ve decided to +simply explain the architecture and then write a series of follow up +posts with more detailed analyses of exactly why we made the choices we +did. +There are many ways to scale modern web applications. What I will be +describing here is the method that we chose. This should by no means be +considered the only way to scale an application. Consider it a case +study of what worked for us given our unique requirements. +### Understanding the Protocols + +We expose three primary protocols to end users of GitHub: HTTP, SSH, and +Git. When browsing the site with your favorite browser, you’re using +HTTP. When you clone, pull, or push to a private URL like +git@github.com:mojombo/jekyll.git you’re doing so via SSH. When you +clone or pull from a public repository via a URL like +`git://github.com/mojombo/jekyll.git` you’re using the Git protocol. + +The easiest way to understand the architecture is by tracing how each of +these requests propagates through the system. + +### Tracing an HTTP Request + +For this example I’ll show you how a request for a tree page such as + happens. + +The first thing your request hits after coming down from the internet is +the active load balancer. For this task we use a pair of Xen instances +running [ldirectord](http://www.vergenet.net/linux/ldirectord/). These +are called `lb1a` and `lb1b`. At any given time one of these is active +and the other is waiting to take over in case of a failure in the +master. The load balancer doesn’t do anything fancy. It forwards TCP +packets to various servers based on the requested IP and port and can +remove misbehaving servers from the balance pool if necessary. In the +event that no servers are available for a given pool it can serve a +simple static site instead of refusing connections. + +For requests to the main website, the load balancer ships your request +off to one of the four frontend machines. Each of these is an 8 core, +16GB RAM bare metal server. Their names are `fe1`, …, `fe4`. +[Nginx](http://nginx.net/) accepts the connection and sends it to a Unix +domain socket upon which sixteen +[Unicorn](http://github.com/blog/517-unicorn) worker processes are +selecting. One of these workers grabs the request and runs the +[Rails](http://rubyonrails.org/) code necessary to fulfill it. + +Many pages require database lookups. Our MySQL database runs on two 8 +core, 32GB RAM bare metal servers with 15k RPM SAS drives. Their names +are `db1a` and `db1b`. At any given time, one of them is master and one +is slave. MySQL replication is accomplished via +[DRBD](http://www.drbd.org/). + +If the page requires information about a Git repository and that data is +not cached, then it will use our [Grit](http://github.com/mojombo/grit) +library to retrieve the data. In order to accommodate our Rackspace +setup, we’ve modified Grit to do something special. We start by +abstracting out every call that needs access to the filesystem into the +Grit::Git object. We then replace Grit::Git with a stub that makes RPC +calls to our Smoke service. Smoke has direct disk access to the +repositories and essentially presents Grit::Git as a service. It’s +called Smoke because Smoke is just Grit in the cloud. Get it? + +The stubbed Grit makes RPC calls to `smoke` which is a load balanced +hostname that maps back to the `fe` machines. Each frontend runs four +[ProxyMachine](http://github.com/mojombo/proxymachine) instances behind +[HAProxy](http://haproxy.1wt.eu/) that act as routing proxies for Smoke +calls. ProxyMachine is my content aware (layer 7) TCP routing proxy that +lets us write the routing logic in Ruby. The proxy examines the request +and extracts the username of the repository that has been specified. We +then use a proprietary library called Chimney (it routes the smoke\!) to +lookup the route for that user. A user’s route is simply the hostname of +the file server on which that user’s repositories are kept. + +Chimney finds the route by making a call to +[Redis](http://code.google.com/p/redis/). Redis runs on the database +servers. We use Redis as a persistent key/value store for the routing +information and a variety of other data. + +Once the Smoke proxy has determined the user’s route, it establishes a +transparent proxy to the proper file server. We have four pairs of +fileservers. Their names are `fs1a`, `fs1b`, …, `fs4a`, `fs4b`. These +are 8 core, 16GB RAM bare metal servers, each with six 300GB 15K RPM SAS +drives arranged in RAID 10. At any given time one server in each pair is +active and the other is waiting to take over should there be a fatal +failure in the master. All repository data is constantly replicated from +the master to the slave via DRBD. + +Every file server runs two [Ernie](http://github.com/mojombo/ernie) RPC +servers behind HAProxy. Each Ernie spawns 15 Ruby workers. These workers +take the RPC call and reconstitute and perform the Grit call. The +response is sent back through the Smoke proxy to the Rails app where the +Grit stub returns the expected Grit response. + +When Unicorn is finished with the Rails action, the response is sent +back through Nginx and directly to the client (outgoing responses do not +go back through the load balancer). + +Finally, you see a pretty web page\! + +The above flow is what happens when there are no cache hits. In many +cases the Rails code uses Evan Weaver’s Ruby +[memcached](https://github.com/evan/memcached) client to query the +[Memcache](http://www.danga.com/memcached/) servers that run on each +slave file server. Since these machines are otherwise idle, we place +12GB of Memcache on each. These servers are aliased as `memcache1`, …, +`memcache4`. + +### BERT and BERT-RPC + +For our data serialization and RPC protocol we are using BERT and +BERT-RPC. You haven’t heard of them before because they’re brand new. I +invented them because I was not satisfied with any of the available +options that I evaluated, and I wanted to experiment with an idea that +I’ve had for a while. Before you freak out about NIH syndrome (or to +help you refine your freak out), please read my accompanying article +[Introducing BERT and +BERT-RPC](http://github.com/blog/531-introducing-bert-and-bert-rpc) +about how these technologies came to be and what I intend for them to +solve. + +If you’d rather just check out the spec, head over to +. + +For the code hungry, check out my Ruby BERT serialization library +[BERT](http://github.com/mojombo/bert), my Ruby BERT-RPC client +[BERTRPC](http://github.com/mojombo/bertrpc), and my Erlang/Ruby hybrid +BERT-RPC server [Ernie](http://github.com/mojombo/ernie). These are the +exact libraries we use at GitHub to serve up all repository data. + +### Tracing an SSH Request + +Git uses SSH for encrypted communications between you and the server. In +order to understand how our architecture deals with SSH connections, it +is first important to understand how this works in a simpler setup. + +Git relies on the fact that SSH allows you to execute commands on a +remote server. For instance, the command ssh tom@frost ls -al runs `ls +-al` in the home directory of my user on the `frost` server. I get the +output of the command on my local terminal. SSH is essentially hooking +up the STDIN, STDOUT, and STDERR of the remote machine to my local +terminal. + +If you run a command like git clone tom@frost:mojombo/bert, what Git is +doing behind the scenes is SSHing to `frost`, authenticating as the +`tom` user, and then remotely executing `git upload-pack mojombo/bert`. +Now your client can talk to that process on the remote server by simply +reading and writing over the SSH connection. Neat, huh? + +Of course, allowing arbitrary execution of commands is unsafe, so SSH +includes the ability to restrict what commands can be executed. In a +very simple case, you can restrict execution to +[git-shell](http://www.kernel.org/pub/software/scm/git/docs/git-shell.html) +which is included with Git. All this script does is check the command +that you’re trying to execute and ensure that it’s one of `git +upload-pack`, `git receive-pack`, or `git upload-archive`. If it is +indeed one of those, it uses [exec(3)](http://linux.die.net/man/3/exec) +to replace the current process with that new process. After that, it’s +as if you had just executed that command directly. + +So, now that you know how Git’s SSH operations work in a simple case, +let me show you how we handle this in GitHub’s architecture. + +First, your Git client initiates an SSH session. The connection comes +down off the internet and hits our load balancer. + +From there, the connection is sent to one of the frontends where +[SSHD](http://www.au.kernel.org/software/scm/git/docs/git-daemon.html) +accepts it. We have patched our SSH daemon to perform public key lookups +from our MySQL database. Your key identifies your GitHub user and this +information is sent along with the original command and arguments to our +proprietary script called Gerve (Git sERVE). Think of Gerve as a super +smart version of `git-shell`. + +Gerve verifies that your user has access to the repository specified in +the arguments. If you are the owner of the repository, no database +lookups need to be performed, otherwise several SQL queries are made to +determine permissions. + +Once access has been verified, Gerve uses Chimney to look up the route +for the owner of the repository. The goal now is to execute your +original command on the proper file server and hook your local machine +up to that process. What better way to do this than with another remote +SSH execution\! + +I know it sounds crazy but it works great. Gerve simply uses `exec(3)` +to replace itself with a call tossh git@\ \ \. +After this call, your client is hooked up to a process on a frontend +machine which is, in turn, hooked up to a process on a file server. + +Think of it this way: after determining permissions and the location of +the repository, the frontend becomes a transparent proxy for the rest of +the session. The only drawback to this approach is that the internal SSH +is unnecessarily encumbered by the overhead of encryption/decryption +when none is strictly required. It’s possible we may replace this this +internal SSH call with something more efficient, but this approach is +just too damn simple (and still very fast) to make me worry about it +very much. + +### Tracing a Git Request + +Performing public clones and pulls via Git is similar to how the SSH +method works. Instead of using SSH for authentication and encryption, +however, it relies on a server side [Git +Daemon](http://www.au.kernel.org/software/scm/git/docs/git-daemon.html). +This daemon accepts connections, verifies the command to be run, and +then uses `fork(2)` and `exec(3)` to spawn a worker that then becomes +the command process. + +With this in mind, I’ll show you how a public clone operation works. + +First, your Git client issues a +[request](http://github.com/mojombo/egitd/blob/master/docs/protocol.txt) +containing the command and repository name you wish to clone. This +request enters our system on the load balancer. + +From there, the request is sent to one of the frontends. Each frontend +runs four ProxyMachine instances behind HAProxy that act as routing +proxies for the Git protocol. The proxy inspects the request and +extracts the username (or gist name) of the repo. It then uses Chimney +to lookup the route. If there is no route or any other error is +encountered, the proxy speaks the Git protocol and sends back an +appropriate messages to the client. Once the route is known, the repo +name (e.g. `mojombo/bert`) is translated into its path on disk (e.g. +`a/a8/e2/95/mojombo/bert.git`). On our old setup that had no proxies, we +had to use a modified daemon that could convert the user/repo into the +correct filepath. By doing this step in the proxy, we can now use an +unmodified daemon, allowing for a much easier upgrade path. + +Next, the Git proxy establishes a transparent proxy with the proper file +server and sends the modified request (with the converted repository +path). Each file server runs two Git Daemon processes behind HAProxy. +The daemon speaks the pack file protocol and streams data back through +the Git proxy and directly to your Git client. + +Once your client has all the data, you’ve cloned the repository and can +get to work\! + +### Sub- and Side-Systems + +In addition to the primary web application and Git hosting systems, we +also run a variety of other sub-systems and side-systems. Sub-systems +include the job queue, archive downloads, billing, mirroring, and the +svn importer. Side-systems include GitHub Pages, Gist, gem server, and a +bunch of internal tools. You can look forward to explanations of how +some of these work within the new architecture, and what new +technologies we’ve created to help our application run more smoothly. + +### Conclusion + +The architecture outlined here has allowed us to properly scale the site +and resulted in massive performance increases across the entire site. +Our average Rails response time on our previous setup was anywhere from +500ms to several seconds depending on how loaded the slices were. Moving +to bare metal and federated storage on Rackspace has brought our average +Rails response time to consistently under 100ms. In addition, the job +queue now has no problem keeping up with the 280,000 background jobs we +process every day. We still have plenty of headroom to grow with the +current set of hardware, and when the time comes to add more machines, +we can add new servers on any tier with ease. I’m very pleased with how +well everything is working, and if you’re like me, you’re enjoying the +new and improved GitHub every day\! diff --git a/_stories/2009/2426825.md b/_stories/2009/2426825.md index baf5689..eb30778 100644 --- a/_stories/2009/2426825.md +++ b/_stories/2009/2426825.md @@ -19,7 +19,155 @@ _tags: objectID: '2426825' --- -[Source](https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=122114058 "Permalink to ") +# The Loudness Wars: Why Music Sounds Worse +[![](https://media.npr.org/assets/music/news/2009/12/dynamic_wide-c898637e90d85d0f536b39f9f24f797586dc957b-s1100-c15.jpg)](http://media.npr.org/assets/music/news/2009/12/poster2.pdf) +****toggle caption**** +Christopher Clark + +[!['A Visual History of Loudness' +poster](https://media.npr.org/assets/music/news/2009/12/poster200-c3c0b7b789635c7b4d7655e8ad74382aed86862f-s800-c15.jpg)](http://media.npr.org/assets/music/news/2009/12/poster2.pdf) + +Christopher Clark + +As we come to the end of the decade, we turn to one of the more dramatic +changes we've heard in music over those 10 years: It seems to have +gotten louder. + +We're talking about compression here, the dynamic compression that's +used a lot in popular music. There's actually another kind of +compression going on today — one that allows us to carry hundreds of +songs in our iPods. More on that in a minute. + +But first, host Robert Siegel talked to Bob Ludwig, a record mastering +engineer. For more than 40 years, he's been the final ear in the audio +chain for albums running from Jimi Hendrix to Radiohead, from Tony +Bennett to Kronos Quartet. + +Bob pointed to a YouTube video titled [The Loudness +War](http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Gmex_4hreQ). The video uses Paul +McCartney's 1989 song "Figure of Eight" as an example, comparing its +original recording with what a modern engineer might do with it. + +"It really no longer sounds like a snare drum with a very sharp attack," +Ludwig says. "It sounds more like somebody padding on a piece of leather +or something like that," Ludwig says. He's referring to the practice of +using compressors to squash the music, making the quiet parts louder and +the loud parts a little quieter, so it jumps out of your radio or iPod. + +Ludwig says the "Loudness War" came to a head last year with the release +of Metallica's album Death Magnetic. + +"It came out simultaneously to the fans as \[a version on\] Guitar Hero +and the final CD," Ludwig says. "And the Guitar Hero doesn't have all +the digital domain compression that the CD had. So the fans were able to +hear what it could have been before this compression." + +According to Ludwig, 10,000 or more fans signed an online petition to +get the band to remix the record. + +"That record is so loud that there is an outfit in Europe called ITU +\[International Telecommunication Union\] that now has standardization +measurements for long-term loudness," he says. "And that Metallica +record is one of the loudest records ever produced." + +**Old News** + +"The 'Loudness Wars' have gone back to the days of 45s," Ludwig says. +"When I first got into the business and was doing a lot of vinyl disc +cutting, one producer after another just wanted to have his 45 sound +louder than the next guy's so that when the program director at the Top +40 radio station was going through his stack of 45s to decide which two +or three he was going to add that week, that the record would kind of +jump out to the program director, aurally at least." + +That's still a motivation for some producers. If their record jumps out +of your iPod compared with the song that preceded it, then they've +accomplished their goal. + +Bob Ludwig thinks that's an unfortunate development. + +"People talk about downloads hurting record sales," Ludwig says. "I and +some other people would submit that another thing that is hurting record +sales these days is the fact that they are so compressed that the ear +just gets tired of it. When you're through listening to a whole album of +this highly compressed music, your ear is fatigued. You may have enjoyed +the music but you don't really feel like going back and listening to it +again." + +Ludwig's final assessment of the decade in music? + +"It's been really rough, folks," he says. "But it can get better and I +think it will get better. I'm glad it's going to be over." + +**Digital Compression** + +Digital compression is the process that allows a song to go from being a +very big sound file in its natural state to a very small file in your +iPod — so you can carry your entire record library in your pocket. But +at what cost? + +Dr. Andrew Oxenham is a professor in the psychology department at the +University of Minnesota. His specialty is auditory perception — how our +brains and ears interact. He also started out as a recording engineer. + +Robert Siegel asked him to explain digital compression. + +"Really, the challenge is to maintain the quality of a CD, but to stuff +it into a much smaller space," Oxenham says. "Let's think about how +digital recording works. You start out with a very smooth sound wave and +we're trying to store that in digital form. So we're really trying to +reproduce a smooth curve \[with\] these square blocks, which are the +digital numbers \[the 1s and 0s that are used to encode sound +digitally\]. + +"Now, the only way you can make square blocks look like a smooth curve +is by using very, very small blocks so it ends up looking as if it's +smooth. Now using lots and lots of blocks means lots of storage, so we +end up using \[fewer\] bigger blocks. Which means we end up not +representing that curve very smoothly at all." + +Lost? Go back and re-read it — you'll get it. + +"The difference between the smooth curve and the rough edges you end up +with in the digital recording, you can think of as noise because that is +perceived as noise," Oxenham says. "It's perceived as an error, +something that wasn't there in the original recording. The trick is to +take the noise — which is the loss of fidelity — and just make it so you +can't hear it anymore." + +**In Hiding** + +It's called "masking." Think of it this way: You're having a +conversation in a quiet room, and you can hear every word, every mouth +noise, every stomach rumble. But if you were having that same +conversation outside on a busy street, you'd get the gist of what was +said, but you'd probably miss a few words. The traffic noise would mask +them. + +So let's say you're listening to a Brahms symphony. + +"\[The loud parts of the music are\] giving the coding system a lot of +leeway to code things not quite as accurately as it would have to," +Oxenham says, "because the ear is being stimulated so much by the loud +sound it won't pick up very small variations produced by the coding +errors." + +In other words, the loud parts of a recording are used to "mask," or +hide that noise produced by the rough-edged squares of those digital 1s +and 0s. + +But are we missing something? + +"There are really different levels of MP3 coding," Oxenham says. "You +can go from much less data — which people can hear the difference — to +higher levels of coding which take up more space on your MP3 player but +sound better and are basically indistinguishable from a CD. And I would +argue that under proper listening conditions — if it's really +indistinguishable from the CD as far as your ear is concerned — then you +really haven't lost anything perceptually." + +Oxenham likes the convenience of portable MP3 players. But ultimately, +he says, he prefers going to concerts. diff --git a/_stories/2009/2766060.md b/_stories/2009/2766060.md index e955b7d..a07b658 100644 --- a/_stories/2009/2766060.md +++ b/_stories/2009/2766060.md @@ -19,7 +19,110 @@ _tags: objectID: '2766060' --- -[Source](https://sivers.org/kimo "Permalink to ") +[Articles](/blog): +# There’s no speed limit. (The lessons that changed my life.) +2009-12-01 +Whether you’re a student, teacher, or parent, I think you’ll appreciate +this story of how one teacher can completely and permanently change +someone’s life in only a few lessons. + +I met Kimo Williams when I was 17, the summer after I graduated high +school, a few months before I was starting Berklee College of Music. + +I called a local recording studio, with a random question about music +typesetting. + +When the studio owner heard I was going to Berklee, he said, “I +graduated from Berklee, and taught there for a few years, too. I’ll bet +I can teach you two years’ of theory and arranging in only a few +lessons. I suspect you can graduate in two years if you understand +**there’s no speed limit**. Come by my studio at 9:00 tomorrow for your +first lesson, if you’re interested. No charge.” + +Graduate college in two years? Awesome\! I liked his style. That was +Kimo Williams. + +Excited as hell, I showed up to his studio at 8:40 the next morning, +though I waited outside until 8:59 before ringing his bell. + +(Recently I heard him tell this same story from his perspective. He +said, “My doorbell rang at 8:59 one morning and I had no idea why. I run +across kids all the time who say they want to be a great musician. I +tell them I can help, and tell them to show up at my studio at 9am if +they’re serious. Almost nobody ever does. It’s how I weed out the really +serious ones from the kids who are just talk. But there he was, ready to +go.”) + +He opened the door. A tall black man in a Hawaiian shirt and big hat, a +square scar on his nose, a laid-back demeanor, and a huge smile, sizing +me up, nodding. + +After a one-minute welcome, we were sitting at the piano, analyzing the +sheet music for a jazz standard. He was quickly explaining the chords +based on the diatonic scale. How the dissonance of the tri-tone in the +5-chord with the flat-7 is what makes it want to resolve to the 1. +Within a minute, I was already being quizzed. “If the 5-chord with the +flat-7 has that tritone, then so does another flat-7 chord. Which one?” + +“Uh... the flat-2 chord?” + +“Right\! So that’s a substitute chord. Any flat-7 chord can always be +substituted with the other flat-7 that shares the same tritone. So +reharmonize all the chords you can in this chart. Go.” + +**The pace was intense, and I loved it. Finally, someone was challenging +me — keeping me in over my head — encouraging and expecting me to pull +myself up, quickly. I was learning so fast, it had the adrenaline of +sports or a video game.** A two-way game of catch, he tossed every fact +back at me and made me prove I got it. + +In our three-hour lesson that morning, he taught me a full semester of +Berklee’s harmony courses. In our next four lessons, he taught me the +next four semesters of harmony and arranging requirements. + +When I got to college and took my entrance exams, I tested out of those +six semesters of required classes. + +Then, as he suggested, I bought the course materials for other required +classes and taught myself, doing the homework on my own time, then went +to the department head and took the final exam, getting full credit for +the course. + +Doing this in addition to my full course load, I graduated college in +two and a half years. (I got my bachelor’s degree when I was 20.) I +squeezed every bit of education out of that place that I could. + +But the permanent effect was this: + +**Kimo’s high expectations set a new pace for me.** He taught me “**the +standard pace is for chumps**” — that the system is designed so anyone +can keep up. **If you’re more driven than “just anyone” — you can do so +much more than anyone expects. And this applies to ALL of life — not +just school.** + +Before I met him, I was just a kid who wanted to be a musician, doing it +casually. + +**Ever since our five lessons, high expectations became my norm, and +still are to this day.** Whether music, business, or personal — whether +I actually achieve my expectations or not — the point is that **I owe +every great thing that’s happened in my life to Kimo’s raised +expectations**. That’s all it took. A random meeting and five music +lessons to convince me I can do anything more effectively than anyone +expects. + +(And so can anyone else.) + +I wish the same experience for everyone. I have no innate abilities. +This article wasn’t meant to be about me as much as **the life-changing +power of a great teacher and raised expectations**. + +Kimo knows how much he means to me, and we’re friends to this day. Read +[the Wikipedia page about +him](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kimo_Williams). Also [see my talk to +incoming first-year Berklee students](/berklee). + +![Kimo Williams](/images/kimohat.jpg) diff --git a/_stories/2009/2933994.md b/_stories/2009/2933994.md index cbc97d9..16b3aeb 100644 --- a/_stories/2009/2933994.md +++ b/_stories/2009/2933994.md @@ -19,408 +19,147 @@ _tags: objectID: '2933994' --- -[Source](http://abcnews.go.com/Nightline/story?id=8462247&singlePage=true "Permalink to Antivirus Software Pioneer John McAfee Loses Fortune - ABC News") +John McAfee knows about risk. A mathematician by training, in the late +1980s he developed the antivirus computer software program that has +become a household name. In the 1990s he pioneered instant-messaging. In +both cases, he grew bored and cashed out. At his peak, he was reportedly +worth about $100 million. -# Antivirus Software Pioneer John McAfee Loses Fortune - ABC News +"I don't know and that's the honest truth, eventually you have so many +resources that a tiny fluctuation in the market can make you worth ten +million dollars more in the morning and ten million dollars less in the +evening," he explained of his ever-changing net worth. -* [ Sections ][1] - * # Sections +Like many [wealthy +Americans](http://abcnews.go.com/Business/story?id=5825220&page=1), +McAfee was hit hard with the simultaneous collapse of real estate, +stocks and [Wall +Street](http://abcnews.go.com/Business/Economy/story?id=7785304&page=1) +investment banks. But he got whacked more than most, since much of his +fortune was tied up in [luxury +properties](http://abcnews.go.com/2020/story?id=7844681&page=1). - * [ Top Stories ][2] - * [ Watch ][3] - * [ U.S. ][4] - * [ International ][5] - * [ Politics ][6] - * [ ABC News Features ][7] - * [ Lifestyle ][8] - * [ Entertainment ][9] - * [ Virtual Reality ][10] - * [ Health ][11] - * [ Technology ][12] - * [ Investigative ][13] - * [ Sports ][14] - * [ Weather ][15] -* [ Shows ][1] - * # Shows +![Everything Must +Go](https://s.abcnews.com/images/Nightline/abc_ntl_sales_090901_ms.jpg) - * [ Good Morning America ][16] - * [ World News Tonight ][17] - * [ Nightline ][18] - * [ 20/20 ][19] - * [ This Week ][20] - * [ The View ][21] - * [ What Would You Do? ][22] - * [ ABC News Features ][7] -* [ Live ][1] - * # Live +Play - * [ Soon: Trump addresses media on White House lawn ][23] - * [ Opening bell at the New York Stock Exchange, NASDAQ ][24] - * [ NYC skyline from Empire State Building to 1 WTC ][25] - * [ Heavy rain and ice in the Central US: Radar ][26] - * [ Pyeongchang stadium at the 2018 Winter Olympics ][27] - * [ Bald eagle tends to her chicks in Big Bear Lake, California ][28] -* [ More ][1] - * [ Privacy Policy ][29] - * [ Your CA Privacy Rights ][30] - * [ Children's Online Privacy Policy ][31] - * [ Interest-Based Ads ][32] - * [ Terms of Use ][33] - * [ Contact Us ][34] - * # Yahoo!-ABC News Network | © 2018 ABC News Internet Ventures. All rights reserved. -* [ Search ][1] - * [Menu][1] +"Oddly enough, when real estate markets crash, it's the higher end +properties that crash the most ... simply because they're not +necessities," he said. "My father always said, 'Real estate, you can't +lose in real estate' ... you know, oddly enough you can." -# [ ][35] +"Oddly enough, when real estate markets crash, it's the higher end +properties that crash the most ... simply because they're not +necessities," he said. "My father always said, 'Real estate, you can't +lose in real estate' ... you know, oddly enough you can." -Interest Successfully Added We'll notify you here with news about AlertTag Turn on desktop notifications for breaking stories about interest? Off On +Last Saturday, auctioneers worked up bids for his 80-acre retreat in the +high desert of Rodeo, N.M. With a private airstrip and hangar, it's a +slice of paradise, and it's all up for grabs. -* [ ][36] +"Everything that you see, from the real estate, the house, the +automobiles, artwork, furniture, the entire ball of wax," McAfee told +ABC News. -Notifications +Raising the stakes for McAfee, it's an absolute +[auction](http://abcnews.go.com/Business/Economy/story?id=7670690&page=1): +The highest bid wins, no matter how low it is. "It means if only one +person shows up and they bid fifty cents, that's the amount of money I +get," he said. - * Notifications For Interests: +McAfee's net worth dropped from within the ballpark of $100 million to +less than $10 million, he told ABC News. But instead of feeling a sense +of loss, he says he feels free. - * Breaking +"I feel a sense of freedom," he said. "People think that it's a joy to +own things. But it really isn't." - * Interests [See All][37] +McAfee has sold his private twin-engine plane, beachfront property in +Hawaii and a Colorado mansion in the shadow of Pike's Peak. His posh New +Mexico getaway is the last property to hit the auction block. -To save your interests across all devices [Log In][1] or [Sign Up][1] - -Turn on desktop notifications for breaking news? Off On - -* [Log In][1] [ ][1] -* [ Video ][3] -* [Live][38] -* [Shows][1] - - * [ Good Morning America Good Morning America ][16] - * [ World News Tonight World News Tonight ][17] - * [ Nightline Nightline ][18] - * [ 20/20 20/20 ][19] - * [ This Week This Week ][20] - * [ The View The View ][21] - * [ What Would You Do? 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All rights reserved. - -[ ][1] - -# Antivirus Software Pioneer Gets Dose of Reality - -* By CHRIS BURY -* Mary Marsh - -[ Close ][1] - -[ Follow on Twitter ][39] - -[ More from Mary ][40] - -Sept. 1, 2009 - -* 0 Shares -* [ ][41] -* [ ][42] -* [ ][43] -* [Email ][44] -* Star - -![Photo: Antivirus Software Pioneer Gets Dose of Reality: Falling From $100 Million Peak, John McAfee Says: I Feel a Sense of Freedom"][45]Mary Marsh/ABC News - -* 0 Shares -* [ ][41] -* [ ][42] -* [ ][43] -* [ Email ][44] - -John McAfee knows about risk. A mathematician by training, in the late 1980s he developed the antivirus computer software program that has become a household name. In the 1990s he pioneered instant-messaging. In both cases, he grew bored and cashed out. At his peak, he was reportedly worth about $100 million. - -"I don't know and that's the honest truth, eventually you have so many resources that a tiny fluctuation in the market can make you worth ten million dollars more in the morning and ten million dollars less in the evening," he explained of his ever-changing net worth. - -Like many [wealthy Americans][46], McAfee was hit hard with the simultaneous collapse of real estate, stocks and [Wall Street][47] investment banks. But he got whacked more than most, since much of his fortune was tied up in [luxury properties][48]. - -![Everything Must Go][49]Play - -John McAfee: Rich Man's Pricey Lifestyle for Sale - -"Oddly enough, when real estate markets crash, it's the higher end properties that crash the most ... simply because they're not necessities," he said. "My father always said, 'Real estate, you can't lose in real estate' ... you know, oddly enough you can." - -Last Saturday, auctioneers worked up bids for his 80-acre retreat in the high desert of Rodeo, N.M. With a private airstrip and hangar, it's a slice of paradise, and it's all up for grabs. - -"Everything that you see, from the real estate, the house, the automobiles, artwork, furniture, the entire ball of wax," McAfee told ABC News. - -Raising the stakes for McAfee, it's an absolute [auction][50]: The highest bid wins, no matter how low it is. "It means if only one person shows up and they bid fifty cents, that's the amount of money I get," he said. - -McAfee's net worth dropped from within the ballpark of $100 million to less than $10 million, he told ABC News. But instead of feeling a sense of loss, he says he feels free. - -"I feel a sense of freedom," he said. "People think that it's a joy to own things. But it really isn't." - -McAfee has sold his private twin-engine plane, beachfront property in Hawaii and a Colorado mansion in the shadow of Pike's Peak. His posh New Mexico getaway is the last property to hit the auction block. - -"At one point, I had five houses in five different locations and it's impractical, it's almost insane to have that much real estate," he conceded. "You can only be in one place at a time." +"At one point, I had five houses in five different locations and it's +impractical, it's almost insane to have that much real estate," he +conceded. "You can only be in one place at a time." ## McAfee: 'We Are the Ultimate Consumer Society' -McAfee admits that he got caught up in the culture of consumption. +McAfee admits that he got caught up in the culture of consumption. -"We are the ultimate consumer society," he said. "If you succeed within that culture, then you're simply more bonded to it. You feel like, 'Yes, I've got all this money, the ability to get things' ... and so you just do it. People buy yachts, they buy jets, they buy multiple homes." +"We are the ultimate consumer society," he said. "If you succeed within +that culture, then you're simply more bonded to it. You feel like, 'Yes, +I've got all this money, the ability to get things' ... and so you just +do it. People buy yachts, they buy jets, they buy multiple homes." -McAfee himself indulged his whims and passions, spending millions to promote the sport of aero-trekking: tiny motorized kites that enthusiasts fly to explore the remotest corners of the country. +McAfee himself indulged his whims and passions, spending millions to +promote the sport of aero-trekking: tiny motorized kites that +enthusiasts fly to explore the remotest corners of the country. -He built an aero-trekking playground in the Rodeo desert, which was auctioned off for $405,000 -- along with the vintage airstream trailers where his aero-trekking friends, known as "the sky gypsies," would stay, as well as his own customized camper, once owned by Howard Hughes. +He built an aero-trekking playground in the Rodeo desert, which was +auctioned off for $405,000 -- along with the vintage airstream trailers +where his aero-trekking friends, known as "the sky gypsies," would stay, +as well as his own customized camper, once owned by Howard Hughes. -#### Super-Rich Rapidly Downsize +#### Super-Rich Rapidly Downsize -In this recession, Jim Gall, McAfee's auctioneer say that even the rich have been rapidly downsizing, selling off the luxury items they accumulated in better times. +In this recession, Jim Gall, McAfee's auctioneer say that even the rich +have been rapidly downsizing, selling off the luxury items they +accumulated in better times. -"We've had corporate aircraft, we've had yachts, we've had fancy cars, Ferraris, we've had lots of jewelry. We've had lots of people saying, 'These are toys that I can live without,'" said Gall, chairman of the Auction Company of America. +"We've had corporate aircraft, we've had yachts, we've had fancy cars, +Ferraris, we've had lots of jewelry. We've had lots of people saying, +'These are toys that I can live without,'" said Gall, chairman of the +Auction Company of America. -McAfee says he expects no sympathy. "Oh, God, I hope they don't have sympathy. I don't have sympathy for my position," he said. "I'm perfectly happy." +McAfee says he expects no sympathy. "Oh, God, I hope they don't have +sympathy. I don't have sympathy for my position," he said. "I'm +perfectly happy." -In fact, he believes that to a certain extent, the recession has served a useful purpose: "It's brought home a dose of reality," he said. "And sometimes a little pain is necessary to see and understand the true circumstances of your life." +In fact, he believes that to a certain extent, the recession has served +a useful purpose: "It's brought home a dose of reality," he said. "And +sometimes a little pain is necessary to see and understand the true +circumstances of your life." ## McAfee's Outlook on Money Forever Changed -In McAfee's case, his Rodeo paradise -- on which he's spent millions -- drew only a few modest bids. The home, which included the airstrip and hangar, sold for $525,000 to a couple from the Washington, D.C., suburbs. +In McAfee's case, his Rodeo paradise -- on which he's spent millions -- +drew only a few modest bids. The home, which included the airstrip and +hangar, sold for $525,000 to a couple from the Washington, D.C., +suburbs. -"It's a little less than what I paid for the landscaping," he said. "Somebody got a great deal." +"It's a little less than what I paid for the landscaping," he said. +"Somebody got a great deal." -McAfee's entire estate -- including the "sky gypsies" complex, a store, furnishings, antique cars, trailers, and a vast collection of art work -- was auctioned off for $1.6 million to different buyers. Even after seeing his possessions that he acquired over a lifetime sold off in just a few hours, McAfee says that he has no regrets. +McAfee's entire estate -- including the "sky gypsies" complex, a store, +furnishings, antique cars, trailers, and a vast collection of art work +-- was auctioned off for $1.6 million to different buyers. Even after +seeing his possessions that he acquired over a lifetime sold off in just +a few hours, McAfee says that he has no regrets. -"I'm happy to get rid of them [possessions]. I have a few pennies in my pocket. I don't have stuff to worry about," he said. +"I'm happy to get rid of them \[possessions\]. I have a few pennies in +my pocket. I don't have stuff to worry about," he said. -Some of the "stuff" McAfee did not sell -- $2 million worth -- he says he gave away to residents of Hidalgo County in southwestern New Mexico. +Some of the "stuff" McAfee did not sell -- $2 million worth -- he says +he gave away to residents of Hidalgo County in southwestern New Mexico. -"I took a hangar and filled it with classic automobiles and art and furniture and put up notices up all over the county and people came and took what they wanted," he said. +"I took a hangar and filled it with classic automobiles and art and +furniture and put up notices up all over the county and people came and +took what they wanted," he said. -McAfee plans to take his remaining handful of millions and head to Central America, where he's started a new venture to develop natural medicines. +McAfee plans to take his remaining handful of millions and head to +Central America, where he's started a new venture to develop natural +medicines. -But for someone who's lost nearly $90 million, McAfee seemed remarkably relaxed. +But for someone who's lost nearly $90 million, McAfee seemed remarkably +relaxed. -"I feel freer. I have less responsibility and obligations. And I have enough money left to feed myself," he said. +"I feel freer. I have less responsibility and obligations. And I have +enough money left to feed myself," he said. -After 65 years, his attitude about money, he says, is forever changed. - -"I think most people don't sit down and ask, 'What do I need?" not "What do I want?" Because we all want everything," he explained. "But what do we need? We don't need very much. We really don't ... The things we want and the things we need are two different things." - -* 0 Shares -* [ ][41] -* [ ][42] -* [ ][43] -* [ Email ][44] -* Star - -Comments - -## Add Interests - -Customize your news feed by choosing the topics that interest you. - -To save your interests across all devices [Log In][1] or [Sign Up »][1] - -# [Antivirus Software Pioneer Catches Case of Reality][51] - -# [Ex-Trump aide poised to plead guilty, cooperate with special counsel, sources say ][52] - -# [Ivanka Trump arrives in South Korea ahead of Olympics closing ceremony][53] - -# [2nd Russian athlete fails doping test at Winter Olympics][54] - -# [New major storm will bring flooding, severe weather to central US][55] - -# [At least 3 killed as small plane crashes into field][56] - -# [Gov. 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http://abcnews.go.com/US/wireStory/immigrants-sue-trump-end-temporary-residency-program-53273181 -[88]: http://abcnews.go.com/GMA/Culture/curling-101-olympic-sport-harder/story?id=53244267 -[89]: http://abcnews.go.com/GMA/Culture/oprah-winfrey-responds-donald-trumps-tweet-calling-biased/story?id=53274397 -[90]: http://abcnews.go.com/GMA/Culture/quincy-jones-apologizes-word-vomit-silly-statements-made/story?id=53280450 -[91]: http://abcnews.go.com/Entertainment/late-night-host-comedian-graham-norton-releases-inspired/story?id=49608437 -[92]: http://abcnews.go.com/Lifestyle/female-high-school-quarterback-throws-td-1st-pass/story?id=49564020 -[93]: //secure-us.imrworldwide.com/cgi-bin/m?ci=us-704476h&cg=0&cc=1&ts=noscript -[94]: http://www.googleadservices.com/pagead/conversion/1005826543/?value=0&label=1GPKCOHYjwMQ7-PO3wM&guid=ON&script=0 +After 65 years, his attitude about money, he says, is forever changed. +"I think most people don't sit down and ask, 'What do I need?" not "What +do I want?" Because we all want everything," he explained. "But what do +we need? We don't need very much. We really don't ... The things we want +and the things we need are two different things." diff --git a/_stories/2009/3015479.md b/_stories/2009/3015479.md index df76781..cfc47a5 100644 --- a/_stories/2009/3015479.md +++ b/_stories/2009/3015479.md @@ -19,7 +19,555 @@ _tags: objectID: '3015479' --- -[Source](https://www.wired.com/medtech/drugs/magazine/17-09/ff_placebo_effect?currentPage=all "Permalink to ") +[![](https://www.wired.com/wp-content/uploads/archive/images/article/magazine/1709/ff_placebo_effect_f.jpg)](https://www.wired.com/medtech/drugs/magazine/17-09/#) +\* Photo: Nick Veasey \* **Merck was in trouble.** In 2002, the +pharmaceutical giant was falling behind its rivals in sales. Even worse, +patents on five blockbuster drugs were about to expire, which would +allow cheaper generics to flood the market. The company hadn't +introduced a truly new product in three years, and its stock price was +plummeting. +In interviews with the press, Edward Scolnick, Merck's research +director, laid out his battle plan to restore the firm to preeminence. +Key to his strategy was expanding the company's reach into the +antidepressant market, where Merck had lagged while competitors like +Pfizer and GlaxoSmithKline created some of the best-selling drugs in the +world. "To remain dominant in the future," he told Forbes, "we need to +dominate the central nervous system." +His plan hinged on the success of an experimental antidepressant +codenamed MK-869. Still in clinical trials, it looked like every pharma +executive's dream: a new kind of medication that exploited brain +chemistry in innovative ways to promote feelings of well-being. The drug +tested brilliantly early on, with minimal side effects, and Merck touted +its game-changing potential at a meeting of 300 securities analysts. +Behind the scenes, however, MK-869 was starting to unravel. True, many +test subjects treated with the medication felt their hopelessness and +anxiety lift. But so did nearly the same number who took a placebo, a +look-alike pill made of milk sugar or another inert substance given to +groups of volunteers in clinical trials to gauge how much more effective +the real drug is by comparison. The fact that taking a faux drug can +powerfully improve some people's health—the so-called placebo effect—has +long been considered an embarrassment to the serious practice of +pharmacology. + +Ultimately, Merck's foray into the antidepressant market failed. In +subsequent tests, MK-869 turned out to be no more effective than a +placebo. In the jargon of the industry, the trials crossed the futility +boundary. + +MK-869 wasn't the only highly anticipated medical breakthrough to be +undone in recent years by the placebo effect. From 2001 to 2006, the +percentage of new products cut from development after Phase II clinical +trials, when drugs are first tested against placebo, rose by 20 percent. +The failure rate in more extensive Phase III trials increased by 11 +percent, mainly due to surprisingly poor showings against placebo. +Despite historic levels of industry investment in R\&D, the US Food and +Drug Administration approved only 19 first-of-their-kind remedies in +2007—the fewest since 1983—and just 24 in 2008. Half of all drugs that +fail in late-stage trials drop out of the pipeline due to their +inability to beat sugar pills. + +The upshot is fewer new medicines available to ailing patients and more +financial woes for the beleaguered pharmaceutical industry. Last +November, a new type of gene therapy for Parkinson's disease, championed +by the Michael J. Fox Foundation, was abruptly withdrawn from Phase II +trials after unexpectedly tanking against placebo. A stem-cell startup +called Osiris Therapeutics got a drubbing on Wall Street in March, when +it suspended trials of its pill for Crohn's disease, an intestinal +ailment, citing an "unusually high" response to placebo. Two days later, +Eli Lilly broke off testing of a much-touted new drug for schizophrenia +when volunteers showed double the expected level of placebo response. + +It's not only trials of new drugs that are crossing the futility +boundary. Some products that have been on the market for decades, like +Prozac, are faltering in more recent follow-up tests. In many cases, +these are the compounds that, in the late '90s, made Big Pharma more +profitable than Big Oil. But if these same drugs were vetted now, the +FDA might not approve some of them. Two comprehensive analyses of +antidepressant trials have uncovered a dramatic increase in placebo +response since the 1980s. One estimated that the so-called effect size +(a measure of statistical significance) in placebo groups had nearly +doubled over that time. + +It's not that the old meds are getting weaker, drug developers say. It's +as if the placebo effect is somehow getting stronger. + +The fact that an increasing number of medications are unable to beat +sugar pills has thrown the industry into crisis. The stakes could hardly +be higher. In today's economy, the fate of a long-established company +can hang on the outcome of a handful of tests. + +Why are inert pills suddenly overwhelming promising new drugs and +established medicines alike? The reasons are only just beginning to be +understood. A network of independent researchers is doggedly uncovering +the inner workings—and potential therapeutic applications—of the placebo +effect. At the same time, drugmakers are realizing they need to fully +understand the mechanisms behind it so they can design trials that +differentiate more clearly between the beneficial effects of their +products and the body's innate ability to heal itself. A special task +force of the Foundation for the National Institutes of Health is seeking +to stem the crisis by quietly undertaking one of the most ambitious +data-sharing efforts in the history of the drug industry. After decades +in the jungles of fringe science, the placebo effect has become the +elephant in the boardroom. + +**The roots of the** placebo problem can be traced to a lie told by an +Army nurse during World War II as Allied forces stormed the beaches of +southern Italy. The nurse was assisting an anesthetist named Henry +Beecher, who was tending to US troops under heavy German bombardment. +When the morphine supply ran low, the nurse assured a wounded soldier +that he was getting a shot of potent painkiller, though her syringe +contained only salt water. Amazingly, the bogus injection relieved the +soldier's agony and prevented the onset of shock. + +Returning to his post at Harvard after the war, Beecher became one of +the nation's leading medical reformers. Inspired by the nurse's healing +act of deception, he launched a crusade to promote a method of testing +new medicines to find out whether they were truly effective. At the +time, the process for vetting drugs was sloppy at best: Pharmaceutical +companies would simply dose volunteers with an experimental agent until +the side effects swamped the presumed benefits. Beecher proposed that if +test subjects could be compared to a group that received a placebo, +health officials would finally have an impartial way to determine +whether a medicine was actually responsible for making a patient +better. + +![](https://www.wired.com/wp-content/uploads/archive/images/article/magazine/1709/ff_placebo_effect2_f.jpg)In +a 1955 paper titled "The Powerful Placebo," published in The Journal of +the American Medical Association, Beecher described how the placebo +effect had undermined the results of more than a dozen trials by causing +improvement that was mistakenly attributed to the drugs being tested. He +demonstrated that trial volunteers who got real medication were also +subject to placebo effects; the act of taking a pill was itself somehow +therapeutic, boosting the curative power of the medicine. Only by +subtracting the improvement in a placebo control group could the actual +value of the drug be calculated. + +The article caused a sensation. By 1962, reeling from news of birth +defects caused by a drug called thalidomide, Congress amended the Food, +Drug, and Cosmetic Act, requiring trials to include enhanced safety +testing and placebo control groups. Volunteers would be assigned +randomly to receive either medicine or a sugar pill, and neither doctor +nor patient would know the difference until the trial was over. +Beecher's double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized clinical trial—or +RCT—was enshrined as the gold standard of the emerging pharmaceutical +industry. Today, to win FDA approval, a new medication must beat placebo +in at least two authenticated trials. + +Beecher's prescription helped cure the medical establishment of outright +quackery, but it had an insidious side effect. By casting placebo as the +villain in RCTs, he ended up stigmatizing one of his most important +discoveries. The fact that even dummy capsules can kick-start the body's +recovery engine became a problem for drug developers to overcome, rather +than a phenomenon that could guide doctors toward a better understanding +of the healing process and how to drive it most effectively. + +In his eagerness to promote his template for clinical trials, Beecher +also overreached by seeing the placebo effect at work in curing ailments +like the common cold, which wane with no intervention at all. But the +triumph of Beecher's gold standard was a generation of safer medications +that worked for nearly everyone. Anthracyclines don't require an +oncologist with a genial bedside manner to slow the growth of tumors. + +What Beecher didn't foresee, however, was the explosive growth of the +pharmaceutical industry. The blockbuster success of mood drugs in the +'80s and '90s emboldened Big Pharma to promote remedies for a growing +panoply of disorders that are intimately related to higher brain +function. By attempting to dominate the central nervous system, Big +Pharma gambled its future on treating ailments that have turned out to +be particularly susceptible to the placebo effect. + +**The tall, rusty-haired son** of a country doctor, William Potter, 64, +has spent most of his life treating mental illness—first as a +psychiatrist at the National Institute of Mental Health and then as a +drug developer. A decade ago, he took a job at Lilly's neuroscience +labs. There, working on new antidepressants and antianxiety meds, he +became one of the first researchers to glimpse the approaching storm. + +To test products internally, pharmaceutical companies routinely run +trials in which a long-established medication and an experimental one +compete against each other as well as against a placebo. As head of +Lilly's early-stage psychiatric drug development in the late '90s, +Potter saw that even durable warhorses like Prozac, which had been on +the market for years, were being overtaken by dummy pills in more recent +tests. The company's next-generation antidepressants were faring badly, +too, doing no better than placebo in seven out of 10 trials. + +As a psychiatrist, Potter knew that some patients really do seem to get +healthier for reasons that have more to do with a doctor's empathy than +with the contents of a pill. But it baffled him that drugs he'd been +prescribing for years seemed to be struggling to prove their +effectiveness. Thinking that something crucial may have been overlooked, +Potter tapped an IT geek named David DeBrota to help him comb through +the Lilly database of published and unpublished trials—including those +that the company had kept secret because of high placebo response. They +aggregated the findings from decades of antidepressant trials, looking +for patterns and trying to see what was changing over time. What they +found challenged some of the industry's basic assumptions about its +drug-vetting process. + +Assumption number one was that if a trial were managed correctly, a +medication would perform as well or badly in a Phoenix hospital as in a +Bangalore clinic. Potter discovered, however, that geographic location +alone could determine whether a drug bested placebo or crossed the +futility boundary. By the late '90s, for example, the classic +antianxiety drug diazepam (also known as Valium) was still beating +placebo in France and Belgium. But when the drug was tested in the US, +it was likely to fail. Conversely, Prozac performed better in America +than it did in western Europe and South Africa. It was an unsettling +prospect: FDA approval could hinge on where the company chose to conduct +a trial. + +Mistaken assumption number two was that the standard tests used to gauge +volunteers' improvement in trials yielded consistent results. Potter and +his colleagues discovered that ratings by trial observers varied +significantly from one testing site to another. It was like finding out +that the judges in a tight race each had a different idea about the +placement of the finish line. + +Potter and DeBrota's data-mining also revealed that even superbly +managed trials were subject to runaway placebo effects. But exactly why +any of this was happening remained elusive. "We were able to identify +many of the core issues in play," Potter says. "But there was no clear +answer to the problem." Convinced that what Lilly was facing was too +complex for any one pharmaceutical house to unravel on its own, he came +up with a plan to break down the firewalls between researchers across +the industry, enabling them to share data in "pre-competitive space." + +After prodding by Potter and others, the NIH focused on the issue in +2000, hosting a three-day conference in Washington. For the first time +in medical history, more than 500 drug developers, doctors, academics, +and trial designers put their heads together to examine the role of the +placebo effect in clinical trials and healing in general. + +Potter's ambitious plan for a collaborative approach to the problem +eventually ran into its own futility boundary: No one would pay for it. +And drug companies don't share data, they hoard it. But the NIH +conference launched a new wave of placebo research in academic labs in +the US and Italy that would make significant progress toward solving the +mystery of what was happening in clinical trials. + +**Visitors to Fabrizio** Benedetti's clinic at the University of Turin +are asked never to say the P-word around the med students who sign up +for his experiments. For all the volunteers know, the trim, soft-spoken +neuroscientist is hard at work concocting analgesic skin creams and +methods for enhancing athletic performance. + +One recent afternoon in his lab, a young soccer player grimaced with +exertion while doing leg curls on a weight machine. Benedetti and his +colleagues were exploring the potential of using Pavlovian conditioning +to give athletes a competitive edge undetectable by anti-doping +authorities. A player would receive doses of a performance-enhancing +drug for weeks and then a jolt of placebo just before competition. + +Benedetti, 53, first became interested in placebos in the mid-'90s, +while researching pain. He was surprised that some of the test subjects +in his placebo groups seemed to suffer less than those on active drugs. +But scientific interest in this phenomenon, and the money to research +it, were hard to come by. "The placebo effect was considered little more +than a nuisance," he recalls. "Drug companies, physicians, and +clinicians were not interested in understanding its mechanisms. They +were concerned only with figuring out whether their drugs worked +better." + +Part of the problem was that response to placebo was considered a +psychological trait related to neurosis and gullibility rather than a +physiological phenomenon that could be scrutinized in the lab and +manipulated for therapeutic benefit. But then Benedetti came across a +study, done years earlier, that suggested the placebo effect had a +neurological foundation. US scientists had found that a drug called +naloxone blocks the pain-relieving power of placebo treatments. The +brain produces its own analgesic compounds called opioids, released +under conditions of stress, and naloxone blocks the action of these +natural painkillers and their synthetic analogs. The study gave +Benedetti the lead he needed to pursue his own research while running +small clinical trials for drug companies. + +Now, after 15 years of experimentation, he has succeeded in mapping many +of the biochemical reactions responsible for the placebo effect, +uncovering a broad repertoire of self-healing responses. +Placebo-activated opioids, for example, not only relieve pain; they also +modulate heart rate and respiration. The neurotransmitter dopamine, when +released by placebo treatment, helps improve motor function in +Parkinson's patients. Mechanisms like these can elevate mood, sharpen +cognitive ability, alleviate digestive disorders, relieve insomnia, and +limit the secretion of stress-related hormones like insulin and +cortisol. + +In one study, Benedetti found that Alzheimer's patients with impaired +cognitive function get less pain relief from analgesic drugs than normal +volunteers do. Using advanced methods of EEG analysis, he discovered +that the connections between the patients' prefrontal lobes and their +opioid systems had been damaged. Healthy volunteers feel the benefit of +medication plus a placebo boost. Patients who are unable to formulate +ideas about the future because of cortical deficits, however, feel only +the effect of the drug itself. The experiment suggests that because +Alzheimer's patients don't get the benefits of anticipating the +treatment, they require higher doses of painkillers to experience normal +levels of relief. + +Benedetti often uses the phrase "placebo response" instead of placebo +effect. By definition, inert pills have no effect, but under the right +conditions they can act as a catalyst for what he calls the body's +"endogenous health care system." Like any other internal network, the +placebo response has limits. It can ease the discomfort of chemotherapy, +but it won't stop the growth of tumors. It also works in reverse to +produce the placebo's evil twin, the nocebo effect. For example, men +taking a commonly prescribed prostate drug who were informed that the +medication may cause sexual dysfunction were twice as likely to become +impotent. + +Further research by Benedetti and others showed that the promise of +treatment activates areas of the brain involved in weighing the +significance of events and the seriousness of threats. "If a fire alarm +goes off and you see smoke, you know something bad is going to happen +and you get ready to escape," explains Tor Wager, a neuroscientist at +Columbia University. "Expectations about pain and pain relief work in a +similar way. Placebo treatments tap into this system and orchestrate the +responses in your brain and body accordingly." + +In other words, one way that placebo aids recovery is by hacking the +mind's ability to predict the future. We are constantly parsing the +reactions of those around us—such as the tone a doctor uses to deliver a +diagnosis—to generate more-accurate estimations of our fate. One of the +most powerful placebogenic triggers is watching someone else experience +the benefits of an alleged drug. Researchers call these social aspects +of medicine the therapeutic ritual. + +In a study last year, Harvard Medical School researcher Ted Kaptchuk +devised a clever strategy for testing his volunteers' response to +varying levels of therapeutic ritual. The study focused on irritable +bowel syndrome, a painful disorder that costs more than $40 billion a +year worldwide to treat. First the volunteers were placed randomly in +one of three groups. One group was simply put on a waiting list; +researchers know that some patients get better just because they sign up +for a trial. Another group received placebo treatment from a clinician +who declined to engage in small talk. Volunteers in the third group got +the same sham treatment from a clinician who asked them questions about +symptoms, outlined the causes of IBS, and displayed optimism about their +condition. + +**Rx for Success**—————— + +What turns a dummy pill into a catalyst for relieving pain, anxiety, +depression, sexual dysfunction, or the tremors of Parkinson's disease? +The brain's own healing mechanisms, unleashed by the belief that a phony +medication is the real thing. The most important ingredient in any +placebo is the doctor's bedside manner, but according to research, the +color of a tablet can boost the effectiveness even of genuine meds—or +help convince a patient that a placebo is a potent remedy.—Steve +Silberman + +![](/images/article/magazine/1709/ff_placebo_effect3_f.jpg)**Yellow +pills** +make the most effective antidepressants, like little doses of +pharmaceutical sunshine. + +![](/images/article/magazine/1709/ff_placebo_effect4_f.jpg)**Red +pills** +can give you a more stimulating kick. Wake up, Neo. + +![](/images/article/magazine/1709/ff_placebo_effect5_f.jpg)**The color +green** +reduces anxiety, adding more chill to the pill. + +![](/images/article/magazine/1709/ff_placebo_effect6_f.jpg)**White +tablets**— +particularly those labeled "antacid"—are superior for soothing ulcers, +even when they contain nothing but lactose. + +![](/images/article/magazine/1709/ff_placebo_effect7_f.jpg)**More is +better,** +scientists say. Placebos taken four times a day deliver greater relief +than those taken twice daily. + +![](/images/article/magazine/1709/ff_placebo_effect8_f.jpg)**Branding +matters.** +Placebos stamped or packaged with widely recognized trademarks are more +effective than "generic" placebos. + +![](/images/article/magazine/1709/ff_placebo_effect9_f.jpg)**Clever +names** +can add a placebo boost to the physiological punch in real drugs. Viagra +implies both vitality and an unstoppable Niagara of sexy. + +Not surprisingly, the health of those in the third group improved most. +In fact, just by participating in the trial, volunteers in this +high-interaction group got as much relief as did people taking the two +leading prescription drugs for IBS. And the benefits of their bogus +treatment persisted for weeks afterward, contrary to the +belief—widespread in the pharmaceutical industry—that the placebo +response is short-lived. + +Studies like this open the door to hybrid treatment strategies that +exploit the placebo effect to make real drugs safer and more effective. +Cancer patients undergoing rounds of chemotherapy often suffer from +debilitating nocebo effects—such as anticipatory nausea—conditioned by +their past experiences with the drugs. A team of German researchers has +shown that these associations can be unlearned through the +administration of placebo, making chemo easier to bear. + +Meanwhile, the classic use of placebos in medicine—to boost the +confidence of anxious patients—has been employed tacitly for ages. +Nearly half of the doctors polled in a 2007 survey in Chicago admitted +to prescribing medications they knew were ineffective for a patient's +condition—or prescribing effective drugs in doses too low to produce +actual benefit—in order to provoke a placebo response. + +The main objections to more widespread placebo use in clinical practice +are ethical, but the solutions to these conundrums can be surprisingly +simple. Investigators told volunteers in one placebo study that the +pills they were taking were "known to significantly reduce pain in some +patients." The researchers weren't lying. + +**These new findings** tell us that the body's response to certain types +of medication is in constant flux, affected by expectations of +treatment, conditioning, beliefs, and social cues. + +For instance, the geographic variations in trial outcome that Potter +uncovered begin to make sense in light of discoveries that the placebo +response is highly sensitive to cultural differences. Anthropologist +Daniel Moerman found that Germans are high placebo reactors in trials of +ulcer drugs but low in trials of drugs for hypertension—an undertreated +condition in Germany, where many people pop pills for herzinsuffizienz, +or low blood pressure. Moreover, a pill's shape, size, branding, and +price all influence its effects on the body. Soothing blue capsules make +more effective tranquilizers than angry red ones, except among Italian +men, for whom the color blue is associated with their national soccer +team—Forza Azzurri\! + +But why would the placebo effect seem to be getting stronger worldwide? +Part of the answer may be found in the drug industry's own success in +marketing its products. + +Potential trial volunteers in the US have been deluged with ads for +prescription medications since 1997, when the FDA amended its policy on +direct-to-consumer advertising. The secret of running an effective +campaign, Saatchi & Saatchi's Jim Joseph told a trade journal last year, +is associating a particular brand-name medication with other aspects of +life that promote peace of mind: "Is it time with your children? Is it a +good book curled up on the couch? Is it your favorite television show? +Is it a little purple pill that helps you get rid of acid reflux?" By +evoking such uplifting associations, researchers say, the ads set up the +kind of expectations that induce a formidable placebo response. + +The success of those ads in selling blockbuster drugs like +antidepressants and statins also pushed trials offshore as therapeutic +virgins—potential volunteers who were not already medicated with one or +another drug—became harder to find. The contractors that manage trials +for Big Pharma have moved aggressively into Africa, India, China, and +the former Soviet Union. In these places, however, cultural dynamics can +boost the placebo response in other ways. Doctors in these countries are +paid to fill up trial rosters quickly, which may motivate them to +recruit patients with milder forms of illness that yield more readily to +placebo treatment. Furthermore, a patient's hope of getting better and +expectation of expert care—the primary placebo triggers in the brain—are +particularly acute in societies where volunteers are clamoring to gain +access to the most basic forms of medicine. "The quality of care that +placebo patients get in trials is far superior to the best insurance you +get in America," says psychiatrist Arif Khan, principal investigator in +hundreds of trials for companies like Pfizer and Bristol-Myers Squibb. +"It's basically luxury care." + +Big Pharma faces additional problems in beating placebo when it comes to +psychiatric drugs. One is to accurately define the nature of mental +illness. The litmus test of drug efficacy in antidepressant trials is a +questionnaire called the Hamilton Depression Rating Scale. The HAM-D was +created nearly 50 years ago based on a study of major depressive +disorder in patients confined to asylums. Few trial volunteers now +suffer from that level of illness. In fact, many experts are starting to +wonder if what drug companies now call depression is even the same +disease that the HAM-D was designed to diagnose. + +Existing tests also may not be appropriate for diagnosing disorders like +social anxiety and premenstrual dysphoria—the very types of chronic, +fuzzily defined conditions that the drug industry started targeting in +the '90s, when the placebo problem began escalating. The neurological +foundation of these illnesses is still being debated, making it even +harder for drug companies to come up with effective treatments. + +What all of these disorders have in common, however, is that they engage +the higher cortical centers that generate beliefs and expectations, +interpret social cues, and anticipate rewards. So do chronic pain, +sexual dysfunction, Parkinson's, and many other ailments that respond +robustly to placebo treatment. To avoid investing in failure, +researchers say, pharmaceutical companies will need to adopt new ways of +vetting drugs that route around the brain's own centralized network for +healing. + +**Ten years and billions** of R\&D dollars after William Potter first +sounded the alarm about the placebo effect, his message has finally +gotten through. In the spring, Potter, who is now a VP at Merck, helped +rev up a massive data-gathering effort called the Placebo Response Drug +Trials Survey. + +Under the auspices of the +FNIH1[1](https://www.wired.com/medtech/drugs/magazine/17-09/#corrections), +Potter and his colleagues are acquiring decades of trial data—including +blood and DNA samples—to determine which variables are responsible for +the apparent rise in the placebo effect. Merck, Lilly, Pfizer, +AstraZeneca, GlaxoSmithKline, Sanofi-Aventis, Johnson & Johnson, and +other major firms are funding the study, and the process of scrubbing +volunteers' names and other personal information from the database is +about to begin. + +In typically secretive industry fashion, the existence of the project +itself is being kept under wraps. FNIH +staffers2[2](https://www.wired.com/medtech/drugs/magazine/17-09/#corrections) +are willing to talk about it only anonymously, concerned about offending +the companies paying for it. + +For Potter, who used to ride along with his father on house calls in +Indiana, the significance of the survey goes beyond Big Pharma's finally +admitting it has a placebo problem. It also marks the twilight of an era +when the drug industry was confident that its products were strong +enough to cure illness by themselves. + +"Before I routinely prescribed antidepressants, I would do more +psychotherapy for mildly depressed patients," says the veteran of +hundreds of drug trials. "Today we would say I was trying to engage +components of the placebo response—and those patients got better. To +really do the best for your patients, you want the best placebo response +plus the best drug response." + +The pharma crisis has also finally brought together the two parallel +streams of placebo research—academic and industrial. Pfizer has asked +Fabrizio Benedetti to help the company figure out why two of its pain +drugs keep failing. Ted Kaptchuk is developing ways to distinguish drug +response more clearly from placebo response for another pharma house +that he declines to name. Both are exploring innovative trial models +that treat the placebo effect as more than just statistical noise +competing with the active drug. + +Benedetti has helped design a protocol for minimizing volunteers' +expectations that he calls "open/hidden." In standard trials, the act of +taking a pill or receiving an injection activates the placebo response. +In open/hidden trials, drugs and placebos are given to some test +subjects in the usual way and to others at random intervals through an +IV line controlled by a concealed computer. Drugs that work only when +the patient knows they're being administered are placebos themselves. + +Ironically, Big Pharma's attempt to dominate the central nervous system +has ended up revealing how powerful the brain really is. The placebo +response doesn't care if the catalyst for healing is a triumph of +pharmacology, a compassionate therapist, or a syringe of salt water. All +it requires is a reasonable expectation of getting better. That's potent +medicine. + +Contributing editor Steve Silberman +([steve@stevesilberman.com](https://www.wired.com/medtech/drugs/magazine/17-09/mailto:steve@stevesilberman.com)) +wrote about the hunt for Jim Gray in issue 15.08. + +[Paging Dr. Pan: Placebos Work Better in +Children](https://www.wired.com/wiredscience/2008/08/paging-dr-pan-p/) + +[For Back Pain, Even Fake Acupuncture +Works](https://www.wired.com/wiredscience/2007/09/for-back-pain-e/) + +[Why Sugar Pills Cure Some +Ills](https://www.wired.com/medtech/health/news/2004/03/62296) + +[What We Don't +Know](https://www.wired.com/wired/archive/15.02/bigquestions.html?pg=3) diff --git a/_stories/2009/3047388.md b/_stories/2009/3047388.md deleted file mode 100644 index fcdee85..0000000 --- a/_stories/2009/3047388.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,25 +0,0 @@ ---- -created_at: '2011-09-28T11:42:36.000Z' -title: How Porsche hacked the financial system and made a killing (2009) -url: http://radian.org/notebook/porsche/ -author: mootothemax -points: 350 -story_text: '' -comment_text: -num_comments: 92 -story_id: -story_title: -story_url: -parent_id: -created_at_i: 1317210156 -_tags: -- story -- author_mootothemax -- story_3047388 -objectID: '3047388' - ---- -[Source](http://radian.org/notebook/porsche/ "Permalink to ") - - - diff --git a/_stories/2009/3242772.md b/_stories/2009/3242772.md index 46ff577..766fb27 100644 --- a/_stories/2009/3242772.md +++ b/_stories/2009/3242772.md @@ -19,7 +19,52 @@ _tags: objectID: '3242772' --- -[Source](https://www.johndcook.com/blog/2009/12/23/why-programmers-are-not-paid-in-proportion-to-their-productivity "Permalink to ") +The most productive programmers are orders of magnitude more productive +than average programmers. But salaries usually fall within a fairly +small range in any company. Even across the entire profession, salaries +don’t vary that much. If some programmers are 10x more productive than +others, why aren’t they paid 10x as much? +Joel Spolsky gave a couple answers to this question in his most recent +[podcast](http://itc.conversationsnetwork.org/shows/detail4328.html). +First, programmer productivity varies tremendously across the +profession, but it may not vary so much within a given company. Someone +who is 10x more productive than his colleagues is likely to leave, +either to work with other very talented programmers or to start his own +business. Second, extreme productivity may not be obvious. This post +elaborates on this second reason. +How can someone be 10x more productive than his peers without being +noticed? In some professions such a difference would be obvious. A +salesman who sells 10x as much as his peers will be noticed, and +compensated accordingly. Sales are easy to measure, and some salesmen +make orders of magnitude more money than others. If a bricklayer were +10x more productive than his peers this would be obvious too, but it +doesn’t happen: the best bricklayers cannot lay 10x as much brick as +average bricklayers. Software output cannot be measured as easily as +dollars or bricks. The best programmers do not necessarily write 10x as +many lines of code and they certainly do not work 10x longer hours. +Programmers are most effective when they avoid writing code. They may +realize the problem they’re being asked to solve doesn’t need to be +solved, that the client doesn’t actually want what they’re asking for. +They may know where to find reusable or +[re-editable](//www.johndcook.com/blog/2008/05/03/reusable-code-vs-re-editable-code/) +code that solves their problem. They may +[cheat](//www.johndcook.com/blog/2009/03/24/redbelt-problem-solving/). +But just when they are being their most productive, nobody says “Wow\! +You were just 100x more productive than if you’d done this the hard way. +You deserve a raise.” At best they say “Good idea\!” and go on.  It may +take a while to realize that someone routinely comes up with such +time-saving insights. Or to put it negatively, it may take a long time +to realize that others are programming with sound and fury but producing +nothing. + +The romantic image of an über-programmer is someone who fires up +[Emacs](//www.johndcook.com/blog/2008/04/27/one-program-to-rule-them-all/), +types like a machine gun, and delivers a flawless final product from +scratch. A more accurate image would be someone who stares quietly into +space for a few minutes and then says “Hmm. I think I’ve seen something +like this before.” + +**Related posts**: diff --git a/_stories/2009/3761013.md b/_stories/2009/3761013.md index c97ea30..612fbd0 100644 --- a/_stories/2009/3761013.md +++ b/_stories/2009/3761013.md @@ -19,7 +19,110 @@ _tags: objectID: '3761013' --- -[Source](https://sivers.org/kimo "Permalink to ") +[Articles](/blog): +# There’s no speed limit. (The lessons that changed my life.) +2009-12-01 +Whether you’re a student, teacher, or parent, I think you’ll appreciate +this story of how one teacher can completely and permanently change +someone’s life in only a few lessons. + +I met Kimo Williams when I was 17, the summer after I graduated high +school, a few months before I was starting Berklee College of Music. + +I called a local recording studio, with a random question about music +typesetting. + +When the studio owner heard I was going to Berklee, he said, “I +graduated from Berklee, and taught there for a few years, too. I’ll bet +I can teach you two years’ of theory and arranging in only a few +lessons. I suspect you can graduate in two years if you understand +**there’s no speed limit**. Come by my studio at 9:00 tomorrow for your +first lesson, if you’re interested. No charge.” + +Graduate college in two years? Awesome\! I liked his style. That was +Kimo Williams. + +Excited as hell, I showed up to his studio at 8:40 the next morning, +though I waited outside until 8:59 before ringing his bell. + +(Recently I heard him tell this same story from his perspective. He +said, “My doorbell rang at 8:59 one morning and I had no idea why. I run +across kids all the time who say they want to be a great musician. I +tell them I can help, and tell them to show up at my studio at 9am if +they’re serious. Almost nobody ever does. It’s how I weed out the really +serious ones from the kids who are just talk. But there he was, ready to +go.”) + +He opened the door. A tall black man in a Hawaiian shirt and big hat, a +square scar on his nose, a laid-back demeanor, and a huge smile, sizing +me up, nodding. + +After a one-minute welcome, we were sitting at the piano, analyzing the +sheet music for a jazz standard. He was quickly explaining the chords +based on the diatonic scale. How the dissonance of the tri-tone in the +5-chord with the flat-7 is what makes it want to resolve to the 1. +Within a minute, I was already being quizzed. “If the 5-chord with the +flat-7 has that tritone, then so does another flat-7 chord. Which one?” + +“Uh... the flat-2 chord?” + +“Right\! So that’s a substitute chord. Any flat-7 chord can always be +substituted with the other flat-7 that shares the same tritone. So +reharmonize all the chords you can in this chart. Go.” + +**The pace was intense, and I loved it. Finally, someone was challenging +me — keeping me in over my head — encouraging and expecting me to pull +myself up, quickly. I was learning so fast, it had the adrenaline of +sports or a video game.** A two-way game of catch, he tossed every fact +back at me and made me prove I got it. + +In our three-hour lesson that morning, he taught me a full semester of +Berklee’s harmony courses. In our next four lessons, he taught me the +next four semesters of harmony and arranging requirements. + +When I got to college and took my entrance exams, I tested out of those +six semesters of required classes. + +Then, as he suggested, I bought the course materials for other required +classes and taught myself, doing the homework on my own time, then went +to the department head and took the final exam, getting full credit for +the course. + +Doing this in addition to my full course load, I graduated college in +two and a half years. (I got my bachelor’s degree when I was 20.) I +squeezed every bit of education out of that place that I could. + +But the permanent effect was this: + +**Kimo’s high expectations set a new pace for me.** He taught me “**the +standard pace is for chumps**” — that the system is designed so anyone +can keep up. **If you’re more driven than “just anyone” — you can do so +much more than anyone expects. And this applies to ALL of life — not +just school.** + +Before I met him, I was just a kid who wanted to be a musician, doing it +casually. + +**Ever since our five lessons, high expectations became my norm, and +still are to this day.** Whether music, business, or personal — whether +I actually achieve my expectations or not — the point is that **I owe +every great thing that’s happened in my life to Kimo’s raised +expectations**. That’s all it took. A random meeting and five music +lessons to convince me I can do anything more effectively than anyone +expects. + +(And so can anyone else.) + +I wish the same experience for everyone. I have no innate abilities. +This article wasn’t meant to be about me as much as **the life-changing +power of a great teacher and raised expectations**. + +Kimo knows how much he means to me, and we’re friends to this day. Read +[the Wikipedia page about +him](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kimo_Williams). Also [see my talk to +incoming first-year Berklee students](/berklee). + +![Kimo Williams](/images/kimohat.jpg) diff --git a/_stories/2009/5114256.md b/_stories/2009/5114256.md index 722eb3a..bcd48d9 100644 --- a/_stories/2009/5114256.md +++ b/_stories/2009/5114256.md @@ -19,7 +19,125 @@ _tags: objectID: '5114256' --- -[Source](https://archives.sfweekly.com/2009-12-16/news/the-worst-run-big-city-in-the-u-s/ "Permalink to ") +Despite its good intentions, San Francisco is not leading the country in +gay marriage. Despite its good intentions, it is not stopping wars. +Despite its spending more money per capita on homelessness than any +comparable city, its homeless problem is worse than any comparable +city's. Despite its spending more money per capita, period, than almost +any city in the nation, San Francisco has poorly managed, budget-busting +capital projects, overlapping social programs no one is certain are +working, and a transportation system where the only thing running ahead +of schedule is the size of its deficit. +It's time to face facts: San Francisco is spectacularly mismanaged and +arguably the worst-run big city in America. This year's city budget is +an astonishing $6.6 billion — more than twice the budget for the entire +state of Idaho — for roughly 800,000 residents. Yet despite that +stratospheric amount, San Francisco can't point to progress on many of +the social issues it spends liberally to tackle — and no one is made to +answer when the city comes up short. +The city's ineptitude is no secret. "I have never heard anyone, even +among liberals, say, 'If only \[our city\] could be run like San +Francisco,'" says urbanologist Joel Kotkin. "Even other liberal places +wouldn't put up with the degree of dysfunction they have in San +Francisco. In Houston, the exact opposite of San Francisco, I assume +you'd get shot." +Who is to blame for this city's wretched state of affairs? Yomi +Agunbiade, that's who. Metaphorically, that is. + +An engineer by trade, Agunbiade was appointed by Mayor Gavin Newsom to +head the San Francisco Recreation and Park Department in 2004. Even +before Agunbiade's tenure, Rec and Park was the department other city +departments pointed and laughed at — but under Agunbiade, it became Amy +Poehler funny. + +During his reign, an audit revealed, rec centers frequently didn't open, +because staff simply didn't show up — and the department had no process +to do anything about it. Good news: New rec centers were slated to open. +Bad news: Agunbiade's department had no plan for how to staff them. But +that wasn't enough to cost Agunbiade his job. + +When the city controller's office made the common-sense recommendation +that groundskeepers ought to be where they were assigned to be when +they're supposed to be there, Agunbiade fought them on it for three +years. Running a department where no one knows where anyone is — and no +one even *wants* to know? Not a problem. + +Then a report by the city's budget analyst found massive fiscal +mismanagement at the Marina Yacht Harbor, which is run by Rec and Park. +Perhaps so much money wouldn't have gone unaccounted for, the audit +suggested, if the department had installed a cash register. Still, not a +problem for Agunbiade. Other reports exposed one organizational or +fiscal snafu after another, but his position was secure. In San +Francisco, running a city department like a Franz Kafka nightmare +doesn't cost a decisionmaker his job. + +Then, in July 2008, we apparently discovered what does. Rec and Park +spokeswoman Rose Dennis claimed that Agunbiade had been sexually and +religiously harassing her for years, and produced letters he'd sent to +her home as evidence. She confirmed to *SF Weekly* that Agunbiade's +letters urged her to stop wearing revealing clothes so that she could +get right with Jesus. Though she didn't release the letters publicly, +Dennis did bring them to the city attorney's office — which determined +that this could turn into a messy lawsuit. + +Agunbiade was subsequently called in to chat with Newsom. The +conversation between the mayor-who-slept-with-his-appointments-secretary +and the +department-head-accused-of-sexually-and-religiously-harassing-his-spokeswoman +(in writing\!) must have been one for the ages. Whatever was said, the +outcome was this: Agunbiade resigned not long after, and Dennis this +year received a $91,000 settlement from the city. + +Minus the alleged harassment, city government is filled with Yomi +Agunbiades — and they're hardly ever disciplined, let alone fired. When +asked, former Board of Supervisors President Aaron Peskin couldn't +remember the last time a higher-up in city government was removed for +incompetence. "There must have been *somebody*," he said at last, vainly +searching for a name. + +Accordingly, millions of taxpayer dollars are wasted on good ideas that +fail for stupid reasons, and stupid ideas that fail for good reasons, +and hardly anyone is taken to task. + +The intrusion of politics into government pushes the city to enter +long-term labor contracts it obviously can't afford, and no one is held +accountable. A belief that good intentions matter more than results +leads to inordinate amounts of government responsibility being shunted +to nonprofits whose only documented achievement is to lobby the city for +money. Meanwhile, piles of reports on how to remedy these problems go +unread. There's no outrage, and nobody is disciplined, so things don't +get fixed. + +San Francisco is the city that simply will not hold itself accountable. + +Here are a few examples of the best of San Francisco at its worst. + +Finding books in the library is easy: There are logical, organized +systems in place. Finding where the money to build libraries went — +that's hard. Last year, the Civil Grand Jury could not find — we +reiterate, *could not find* — up-to-date budget numbers for the city's +Branch Library Improvement Program. The numbers that were available +aren't pretty: Voters approved a $106 million bond in 2000 to rebuild 19 +libraries, and $28 million more was ponied up by the state and private +donors. That money was spent without a coherent building plan being +formulated between the Library Commission and Department of Public Works +— leading to such large cost overruns and long delays that the +commission abandoned five of the projects. In 2007, the city went back +to the voters, asking for another $50 million for libraries — without +publicizing that this would fund the five unfinished projects voters had +already paid for. Voters approved it. After all, who doesn't like +libraries? + +In 2002, the *San Francisco Chronicle* revealed that the city had, for +decades, been siphoning nearly $700 million from its Hetch Hetchy water +system into the San Francisco General Fund instead of maintaining the +aging aqueduct. Several mayors and boards of supervisors used that money +to fund pet causes, and the Public Utilities Commission didn't say no. +Unfortunately, spending maintenance money elsewhere doesn't diminish the +need for maintenance. By 2002, the water system was in such desperate +condition that voters were asked to pass a $3.6 billion bond measure to +make overdue fixes. Obligingly, they did — who doesn't like water? Since +then, the projected costs have swelled by $1 billion. So far. diff --git a/_stories/2009/5449873.md b/_stories/2009/5449873.md index 35f0b33..a9e72a9 100644 --- a/_stories/2009/5449873.md +++ b/_stories/2009/5449873.md @@ -19,392 +19,196 @@ _tags: objectID: '5449873' --- -[Source](http://abcnews.go.com/Technology/monopolys-hidden-maps-wwii-pows-escape/story?id=8605905 "Permalink to Monopoly's Hidden Maps Help World War II POWs Escape - ABC News") +It's a story that will forever change the way you think of the phrase, +"Get Out of Jail Free." -# Monopoly's Hidden Maps Help World War II POWs Escape - ABC News +During [World War II](http://abcnews.go.com/WNT/story?id=131624&page=1), +as the number of British airmen held hostage behind enemy lines +escalated, the country's secret service enlisted an unlikely partner in +the ongoing war effort: The board game +[Monopoly](http://abcnews.go.com/Technology/monopoly-city-streets-launches-google/story?id=8525472). -* [ Sections ][1] - * # Sections +It was the perfect accomplice. - * [ Top Stories ][2] - * [ Watch ][3] - * [ U.S. ][4] - * [ International ][5] - * [ Politics ][6] - * [ ABC News Features ][7] - * [ Lifestyle ][8] - * [ Entertainment ][9] - * [ Virtual Reality ][10] - * [ Health ][11] - * [ Technology ][12] - * [ Investigative ][13] - * [ Sports ][14] - * [ Weather ][15] -* [ Shows ][1] - * # Shows - - * [ Good Morning America ][16] - * [ World News Tonight ][17] - * [ Nightline ][18] - * [ 20/20 ][19] - * [ This Week ][20] - * [ The View ][21] - * [ What Would You Do? ][22] - * [ ABC News Features ][7] -* [ Live ][1] - * # Live - - * [ Pres. 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All rights reserved. - -[ ][1] - -# Get Out of Jail Free: Monopoly's Hidden Maps - -* By KI MAE HEUSSNER - -Sept. 18, 2009 - -* 0 Shares -* [ ][40] -* [ ][41] -* [ ][42] -* [Email ][43] -* Star - -![Photo: World War II Monopoly][44]Courtesy Philip Orbanes - -* 0 Shares -* [ ][40] -* [ ][41] -* [ ][42] -* [ Email ][43] - -It's a story that will forever change the way you think of the phrase, "Get Out of Jail Free." - -During [World War II][45], as the number of British airmen held hostage behind enemy lines escalated, the country's secret service enlisted an unlikely partner in the ongoing war effort: The board game [Monopoly][46]. - -It was the perfect accomplice. - -Included in the items the German army allowed humanitarian groups to distribute in care packages to imprisoned soldiers, the game was too innocent to raise suspicion. But it was the ideal size for a top-secret escape kit that could help spring British POWs from German war camps. - -nullPlay +Included in the items the German army allowed humanitarian groups to +distribute in care packages to imprisoned soldiers, the game was too +innocent to raise suspicion. But it was the ideal size for a top-secret +escape kit that could help spring British POWs from German war camps. null -The British secret service conspired with the U.K. manufacturer to stuff a compass, small metal tools, such as files, and, most importantly, a map, into cut-out compartments in the Monopoly board itself. +Play -"It was ingenious," said Philip Orbanes, author of several books on [Monopoly][47], including "The World's Most Famous Game and How it Got That Way." "The Monopoly box was big enough to not only hold the game but hide everything else they needed to get to POWs." +The British secret service conspired with the U.K. manufacturer to stuff +a compass, small metal tools, such as files, and, most importantly, a +map, into cut-out compartments in the Monopoly board itself. -British historians say it could have helped thousands of captured soldiers escape. +The British secret service conspired with the U.K. manufacturer to stuff +a compass, small metal tools, such as files, and, most importantly, a +map, into cut-out compartments in the Monopoly board itself. -So how did a simple [board game][48] end up in a position to help out one of the most powerful military forces on the planet? Silk and serendipity. +"It was ingenious," said Philip Orbanes, author of several books on +[Monopoly](http://abcnews.go.com/video/playerIndex?id=8518588), +including "The World's Most Famous Game and How it Got That Way." "The +Monopoly box was big enough to not only hold the game but hide +everything else they needed to get to POWs." + +British historians say it could have helped thousands of captured +soldiers escape. + +So how did a simple [board +game](http://abcnews.go.com/GMA/story?id=6845230&page=1) end up in a +position to help out one of the most powerful military forces on the +planet? Silk and serendipity. #### Silk Maps Were Key Escape Kit Elements -Of all the tools in a military-grade escape kit, the most critical item was the map. But paper maps proved too fragile and cumbersome, said Debbie Hall, a cataloguer in the map room at the Bodleian Library at the University of Oxford in Oxford, England. +Of all the tools in a military-grade escape kit, the most critical item +was the map. But paper maps proved too fragile and cumbersome, said +Debbie Hall, a cataloguer in the map room at the Bodleian Library at the +University of Oxford in Oxford, England. -For hundreds of years, even before World War II, silk was the material of choice for military maps, Hall said, because it wouldn't tear or dissolve in water as easily as paper and was light enough to stuff into a boot or cigarette packet. Unlike maps printed on paper, silk maps also wouldn't rustle and attract the attention of enemy guards, she said. +For hundreds of years, even before World War II, silk was the material +of choice for military maps, Hall said, because it wouldn't tear or +dissolve in water as easily as paper and was light enough to stuff into +a boot or cigarette packet. Unlike maps printed on paper, silk maps also +wouldn't rustle and attract the attention of enemy guards, she said. -"Initially, they had some problems printing on silk," Hall said. "It's quite technically challenging." +"Initially, they had some problems printing on silk," Hall said. "It's +quite technically challenging." -But then MI9, the British secret service unit responsible for escape and evasion, found the one British company that had mastered printing on silk: John Waddington Ltd., a printer and board game manufacturer that also happened to be the U.K. licensee for the Parker Bros. game Monopoly. +But then MI9, the British secret service unit responsible for escape and +evasion, found the one British company that had mastered printing on +silk: John Waddington Ltd., a printer and board game manufacturer that +also happened to be the U.K. licensee for the Parker Bros. game +Monopoly. -"Waddingtons in the pre-war era was printing on silk for theater programs. For celebration events for royalty and that kind of thing," said Victor Watson, 80, who retired as chairman of the company in 1993. "It made a name for itself for being able to print on silk." +"Waddingtons in the pre-war era was printing on silk for theater +programs. For celebration events for royalty and that kind of thing," +said Victor Watson, 80, who retired as chairman of the company in 1993. +"It made a name for itself for being able to print on silk." -He was just a child during the war but said his father Norman Watson, president of the company at the time, worked with British secret service to embed the maps in Monopoly games. +He was just a child during the war but said his father Norman Watson, +president of the company at the time, worked with British secret service +to embed the maps in Monopoly games. -He said a secret service officer named E.D. Alston (known around Waddington as "Mr. A.") used to come by to place the orders in person. +He said a secret service officer named E.D. Alston (known around +Waddington as "Mr. A.") used to come by to place the orders in person. -"Because he was in the secret service, I never knew who he was," Watson said. +"Because he was in the secret service, I never knew who he was," Watson +said. -![][49] +![](http://a.abcnews.com/images/Technology/ht_monopoly_ww2_090917_main.jpg) ## Maps, Compasses, Tools Hidden in Monopoly Boards -Watson said his father formed a small division of the company that first printed silk and rayon maps for the British military and later embedded escape kits in hundreds of Monopoly games. +Watson said his father formed a small division of the company that first +printed silk and rayon maps for the British military and later embedded +escape kits in hundreds of Monopoly games. -Before leaving for missions, British airmen were told that if they were captured, they should look for escape maps and kits in Monopoly boards and other games delivered by charity groups. They were told that "special edition" Monopoly sets would be marked with a red dot on the free parking space. +Before leaving for missions, British airmen were told that if they were +captured, they should look for escape maps and kits in Monopoly boards +and other games delivered by charity groups. They were told that +"special edition" Monopoly sets would be marked with a red dot on the +free parking space. -Watson said that in addition to the concealed compass, tools and maps, real bank notes were hidden under the fake money. +Watson said that in addition to the concealed compass, tools and maps, +real bank notes were hidden under the fake money. -During the war, the Official Secrets Act prevented anyone involved from disclosing the plan, and Watson said his father was concerned that the company could be targeted by the Germans if they were tipped off +During the war, the Official Secrets Act prevented anyone involved from +disclosing the plan, and Watson said his father was concerned that the +company could be targeted by the Germans if they were tipped off -"It was very special and very secretive," Watson said, adding that he didn't learn about the company's role helping the military until years later. +"It was very special and very secretive," Watson said, adding that he +didn't learn about the company's role helping the military until years +later. #### Different Maps for Different Regions -Waddington printed six different maps that corresponded with regions surrounding six different German camps, Orbanes said. Monopoly kits bound for a camp in Italy, for example, would include a map of Italy and Italian currency (lira). +Waddington printed six different maps that corresponded with regions +surrounding six different German camps, Orbanes said. Monopoly kits +bound for a camp in Italy, for example, would include a map of Italy and +Italian currency (lira). -To make sure each set reached its destination, the secret service devised another code. +To make sure each set reached its destination, the secret service +devised another code. -"Each game was pinpointed as to the camp it would go to," Orbanes said. To innocuously tag each board game, a period was added after different locations on the board. +"Each game was pinpointed as to the camp it would go to," Orbanes said. +To innocuously tag each board game, a period was added after different +locations on the board. -A period after "Mayfair," for example, meant that the game was intended for Norway, Sweden and Germany. And a period after Marylebone Station meant it was a game destined for Italy. (It being a British version of game, London streets replaced the Atlantic City streets used in the original American version.) +A period after "Mayfair," for example, meant that the game was intended +for Norway, Sweden and Germany. And a period after Marylebone Station +meant it was a game destined for Italy. (It being a British version of +game, London streets replaced the Atlantic City streets used in the +original American version.) ## Hundreds of Thousands of Silk Maps Helped POWs Escape During WWII -While "Mr. A." may have been responsible for bringing the war to Waddington's door, map experts credit another MI9 officer, Christopher Clayton Hutton, with hatching the master plan. +While "Mr. A." may have been responsible for bringing the war to +Waddington's door, map experts credit another MI9 officer, Christopher +Clayton Hutton, with hatching the master plan. -"He put two and two together," Hall said, adding that Hutton was likely not alone in implementing it. "He was the first who had this idea to get maps into camps concealed in board games. It looks innocent, they wouldn't arouse any suspicion... it just looked like someone was being charitable." +"He put two and two together," Hall said, adding that Hutton was likely +not alone in implementing it. "He was the first who had this idea to get +maps into camps concealed in board games. It looks innocent, they +wouldn't arouse any suspicion... it just looked like someone was being +charitable." -Hall and others familiar with the Monopoly maps say not wanting to compromise the integrity of the Red Cross, the secret service created fake charity groups to smuggle the games into the German camps. +Hall and others familiar with the Monopoly maps say not wanting to +compromise the integrity of the Red Cross, the secret service created +fake charity groups to smuggle the games into the German camps. -Barbara Bond, Pro-Chancellor at the U.K.'s University of Plymouth who is writing a book on silk maps, said Monopoly games weren't the only vehicles used to conceal escape maps. Decks of cards, the board game Snakes and Ladders and pencils also concealed maps for prisoners. +Barbara Bond, Pro-Chancellor at the U.K.'s University of Plymouth who is +writing a book on silk maps, said Monopoly games weren't the only +vehicles used to conceal escape maps. Decks of cards, the board game +Snakes and Ladders and pencils also concealed maps for prisoners. -"There was a whole industry going on," she said. +"There was a whole industry going on," she said. -During the war, hundreds of thousands of silk maps were used to help prisoners escape. And she said it marked a change in the way the military viewed POWs. +During the war, hundreds of thousands of silk maps were used to help +prisoners escape. And she said it marked a change in the way the +military viewed POWs. -During World War I, she said, "If you were captured in battle that was it." +During World War I, she said, "If you were captured in battle that was +it." -But after Winston Churchill and others shared their experiences as POWs, she said, the perception of them changed. +But after Winston Churchill and others shared their experiences as POWs, +she said, the perception of them changed. -"The POWs could still do a job," Bond said. "Not only was it their duty to fight if they were captured, it was their duty to escape." +"The POWs could still do a job," Bond said. "Not only was it their duty +to fight if they were captured, it was their duty to escape." -The silk (and rayon) maps and the clever ways they were distributed, she said, reflected that philosophy. +The silk (and rayon) maps and the clever ways they were distributed, she +said, reflected that philosophy. ## All 'Special Edition' Monopoly Sets Destroyed -Though silk maps from that era exist in libraries, homes and museums around the world, none of the original rigged Monopoly sets still remain. +Though silk maps from that era exist in libraries, homes and museums +around the world, none of the original rigged Monopoly sets still +remain. -After the war, everything was destroyed, Watson said. +After the war, everything was destroyed, Watson said. -But though the games themselves are gone, their legacy is a source of pride for the makers of Monopoly, past and present. +But though the games themselves are gone, their legacy is a source of +pride for the makers of Monopoly, past and present. -"Since Charles Darrow created Monopoly in the 1930s, the game has had a rich and interesting story. The use of Monopoly by the British government to sneak maps, money and supplies to prisoners of war during World War II is a little-known, but important part of our history," said a spokeswoman for toymaker Hasbro, Inc. "We are always honored when this iconic game becomes an important part of the fabric of a family's, or a country's, history and memories." +"Since Charles Darrow created Monopoly in the 1930s, the game has had a +rich and interesting story. The use of Monopoly by the British +government to sneak maps, money and supplies to prisoners of war during +World War II is a little-known, but important part of our history," said +a spokeswoman for toymaker Hasbro, Inc. "We are always honored when this +iconic game becomes an important part of the fabric of a family's, or a +country's, history and memories." -In the 1970s, Watson had the chance to meet a few former POWs who actually used Wadddington's maps to escape from a prisoner camp at Colditz Castle, near Leipzig, Germany. +In the 1970s, Watson had the chance to meet a few former POWs who +actually used Wadddington's maps to escape from a prisoner camp at +Colditz Castle, near Leipzig, Germany. -"It was really exciting," he said. Although it's impossible to know precisely how many prisoners escaped with the help of the hidden maps, experts estimate that about 35,000 members of the British, Commonwealth and U.S. forces who were taken prisoner during the war returned to Allied lines before the end of the war. +"It was really exciting," he said. Although it's impossible to know +precisely how many prisoners escaped with the help of the hidden maps, +experts estimate that about 35,000 members of the British, Commonwealth +and U.S. forces who were taken prisoner during the war returned to +Allied lines before the end of the war. 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+19,611 @@ _tags: objectID: '5785523' --- -[Source](http://stackoverflow.com/questions/487258/plain-english-explanation-of-big-o "Permalink to ") +Big-O notation (also called "asymptotic growth" notation) is what +functions "look like" when you ignore constant factors and stuff near +the origin. We use it to talk about **how thing scale**. +**Basics** +**for "sufficiently" large inputs...** + - `f(x) ∈ O(upperbound)` means `f` "grows no faster than" `upperbound` + - `f(x) ∈ Ɵ(justlikethis)` mean `f` "grows exactly like" + `justlikethis` + - `f(x) ∈ Ω(lowerbound)` means `f` "grows no slower than" `lowerbound` + +big-O notation doesn't care about constant factors: the function `9x²` +is said to "grow exactly like" `10x²`. Neither does big-O asymptotic +notation care about non-asymptotic stuff ("stuff near the origin" or +"what happens when the problem size is small"): the function `10x²` is +said to "grow exactly like" `10x² - x + 2`. + +Why would you want to ignore the smaller parts of the equation? Because +they become completely dwarfed by the big parts of the equation as you +consider larger and larger scales; their contribution becomes dwarfed +and irrelevant. (See example section.) + +Put another way, it's all about the **ratio** as you go to infinity. If +you divide the actual time it takes by the `O(...)`, you will get a +constant factor in the limit of large inputs. Intuitively this makes +sense: functions "scale like" one another if you can multiply one to get +the other. That is, when we say... + + actualAlgorithmTime(N) ∈ O(bound(N)) + e.g. "time to mergesort N elements + is O(N log(N))" + +... this means that **for "large enough" problem sizes N** (if we ignore +stuff near the origin), there exists some constant (e.g. 2.5, completely +made up) such +that: + +``` +actualAlgorithmTime(N) e.g. "mergesort_duration(N) " +────────────────────── < constant ───────────────────── < 2.5 + bound(N) N log(N) +``` + +There are many choices of constant; often the "best" choice is known as +the "constant factor" of the algorithm... but we often ignore it like we +ignore non-largest terms (see Constant Factors section for why they +don't usually matter). You can also think of the above equation as a +bound, saying "In the worst-case scenario, the time it takes will never +be worse than roughly `N*log(N)`, within a factor of 2.5 (a constant +factor we don't care much about)". + +In general, `O(...)` is the most useful one because we often care about +worst-case behavior. If `f(x)` represents something "bad" like processor +or memory usage, then "`f(x) ∈ O(upperbound)`" means "`upperbound` is +the worst-case scenario of processor/memory usage". + +**Applications** + +As a purely mathematical construct, big-O notation is not limited to +talking about processing time and memory. You can use it to discuss the +asymptotics of anything where scaling is meaningful, such as: + + - the number of possibly handshakes among `N` people at a party + (`Ɵ(N²)`, specifically `N(N-1)/2`, but what matters is that it + "scales like" `N²`) + - probabilistic expected number of people who have seen some viral + marketing as a function of time + - how website latency scales with the number of processing units in a + CPU or GPU or computer cluster + - how heat output scales on CPU dies as a function of transistor + count, voltage, etc. + - how much time an algorithm needs to run, as a function of input size + - how much space an algorithm needs to run, as a function of input + size + +**Example** + +For the handshake example above, everyone in a room shakes everyone +else's hand. In that example, `#handshakes ∈ Ɵ(N²)`. Why? + +Back up a bit: the number of handshakes is exactly n-choose-2 or +`N*(N-1)/2` (each of N people shakes the hands of N-1 other people, but +this double-counts handshakes so divide by 2): + + + + +However, for very large numbers of people, the linear term `N` is +dwarfed and effectively contributes 0 to the ratio (in the chart: the +fraction of empty boxes on the diagonal over total boxes gets smaller as +the number of participants becomes larger). Therefore the scaling +behavior is `order N²`, or the number of handshakes "grows like N²". + + #handshakes(N) + ────────────── ≈ 1/2 + N² + +It's as if the empty boxes on the diagonal of the chart (N\*(N-1)/2 +checkmarks) weren't even there (N2 checkmarks asymptotically). + +(temporary digression from "plain English":) If you wanted to prove this +to yourself, you could perform some simple algebra on the ratio to split +it up into multiple terms (`lim` means "considered in the limit of", +just ignore it if you haven't seen it, it's just notation for "and N is +really really big"): + +``` + N²/2 - N/2 (N²)/2 N/2 1/2 +lim ────────── = lim ( ────── - ─── ) = lim ─── = 1/2 +N→∞ N² N→∞ N² N² N→∞ 1 + ┕━━━┙ + this is 0 in the limit of N→∞: + graph it, or plug in a really large number for N +``` + +**tl;dr: The number of handshakes 'looks like' x² so much for large +values, that if we were to write down the ratio \#handshakes/x², the +fact that we don't need exactly x² handshakes wouldn't even show up in +the decimal for an arbitrarily large while.** + +> e.g. for x=1million, ratio \#handshakes/x²: 0.499999... + +**Building Intuition** + +This lets us make statements like... + +> "For large enough inputsize=N, no matter what the constant factor is, +> if I **double** the input size... + + - ... I double the time an O(N) ("linear time") algorithm takes." + + > **N** → (2N) = 2(**N**) + + - ... I double-squared (quadruple) the time an O(N²) ("quadratic + time") algorithm takes." (e.g. a problem 100x as big takes + 100²=10000x as long... possibly unsustainable) + + > **N²** → (2N)² = 4(**N²**) + + - ... I double-cubed (octuple) the time an O(N³) ("cubic time") + algorithm takes." (e.g. a problem 100x as big takes 100³=1000000x as + long... very unsustainable) + + > **cN³** → c(2N)³ = 8(**cN³**) + + - ... I add a fixed amount to the time an O(log(N)) ("logarithmic + time") algorithm takes." (cheap\!) + + > **c log(N)** → c log(2N) = (c log(2))+(**c log(N)**) = (fixed + > amount)+(**c log(N)**) + + - ... I don't change the time an O(1) ("constant time") algorithm + takes." (the cheapest\!) + + > **c\*1** → **c\*1** + + - ... I "(basically) double" the time an O(N log(N)) algorithm takes." + (fairly common) + + > it's less than O(N1.000001), which you might be willing to call + > basically linear + + - ... I ridiculously increase the time a O(2N) ("exponential time") + algorithm takes." (you'd double (or triple, etc.) the time just by + increasing the problem by a single unit) + + > **2N** → 22N = (4N)............put another way...... **2N** → 2N+1 + > = 2N21 = 2 **2N** + +\[for the mathematically inclined, you can mouse over the spoilers for +minor sidenotes\] + +(with credit to ) + +(technically the constant factor could maybe matter in some more +esoteric examples, but I've phrased things above (e.g. in log(N)) such +that it doesn't) + +These are the bread-and-butter orders of growth that programmers and +applied computer scientists use as reference points. They see these all +the time. (So while you could technically think "Doubling the input +makes an O(√N) algorithm 1.414 times slower," it's better to think of it +as "this is worse than logarithmic but better than linear".) + +**Constant factors** + +Usually we don't care what the specific constant factors are, because +they don't affect the way the function grows. For example, two +algorithms may both take `O(N)` time to complete, but one may be twice +as slow as the other. We usually don't care too much unless the factor +is very large, since optimizing is tricky business ( [When is +optimisation +premature?](https://stackoverflow.com/questions/385506/when-is-optimisation-premature) +); also the mere act of picking an algorithm with a better big-O will +often improve performance by orders of magnitude. + +Some asymptotically superior algorithms (e.g. a non-comparison `O(N +log(log(N)))` sort) can have so large a constant factor (e.g. `100000*N +log(log(N))`), or overhead that is relatively large like `O(N +log(log(N)))` with a hidden `+ 100*N`, that they are rarely worth using +even on "big data". + +**Why O(N) is sometimes the best you can do, i.e. why we need +datastructures** + +`O(N)` algorithms are in some sense the "best" algorithms if you need to +read all your data. The **very act of reading** a bunch of data is an +`O(N)` operation. Loading it into memory is usually `O(N)` (or faster if +you have hardware support, or no time at all if you've already read the +data). However if you touch or even look at every piece of data (or even +every other piece of data), your algorithm will take `O(N)` time to +perform this looking. Nomatter how long your actual algorithm takes, it +will be at least `O(N)` because it spent that time looking at all the +data. + +The same can be said for the **very act of writing**. All algorithms +which print out N things will take N time, because the output is at +least that long (e.g. printing out all permutations (ways to rearrange) +a set of N playing cards is factorial: `O(N!)`). + +This motivates the use of **data structures**: a data structure requires +reading the data only once (usually `O(N)` time), plus some arbitrary +amount of preprocessing (e.g. `O(N)` or `O(N log(N))` or `O(N²)`) which +we try to keep small. Thereafter, modifying the data structure +(insertions / deletions / etc.) and making queries on the data take very +little time, such as `O(1)` or `O(log(N))`. You then proceed to make a +large number of queries\! In general, the more work you're willing to do +ahead of time, the less work you'll have to do later on. + +For example, say you had the latitude and longitude coordinates of +millions of roads segments, and wanted to find all street intersections. + + - Naive method: If you had the coordinates of a street intersection, + and wanted to examine nearby streets, you would have to go through + the millions of segments each time, and check each one for + adjacency. + - If you only needed to do this once, it would not be a problem to + have to do the naive method of `O(N)` work only once, but if you + want to do it many times (in this case, `N` times, once for each + segment), we'd have to do `O(N²)` work, or 1000000²=1000000000000 + operations. Not good (a modern computer can perform about a billion + operations per second). + - If we use a simple structure called a hash table (an instant-speed + lookup table, also known as a hashmap or dictionary), we pay a small + cost by preprocessing everything in `O(N)` time. Thereafter, it only + takes constant time on average to look up something by its key (in + this case, our key is the latitude and longitude coordinates, + rounded into a grid; we search the adjacent gridspaces of which + there are only 9, which is a constant). + - Our task went from an infeasible `O(N²)` to a manageable `O(N)`, and + all we had to do was pay a minor cost to make a hash table. + - **analogy**: The analogy in this particular case is a jigsaw puzzle: + We created a data structure which exploits some property of the + data. If our road segments are like puzzle pieces, we group them by + matching color and pattern. We then exploit this to avoid doing + extra work later (comparing puzzle pieces of like color to each + other, not to every other single puzzle piece). + +The moral of the story: a data structure lets us speed up operations. +Even more advanced data structures can let you combine, delay, or even +ignore operations in incredibly clever ways. Different problems would +have different analogies, but they'd all involve organizing the data in +a way that exploits some structure we care about, or which we've +artificially imposed on it for bookkeeping. We do work ahead of time +(basically planning and organizing), and now repeated tasks are much +much easier\! + +**Practical example: visualizing orders of growth while coding** + +Asymptotic notation is, at its core, quite separate from programming. +Asymptotic notation is a mathematical framework for thinking about how +things scale, and can be used in many different fields. That said... +this is how you apply asymptotic notation to coding. + +The basics: Whenever we interact with every element in a collection of +size A (such as an array, a set, all keys of a map, etc.), or perform A +iterations of a loop, that is a multiplcative factor of size A. Why do I +say "a multiplicative factor"?--because loops and functions (almost by +definition) have multiplicative running time: the number of iterations, +times work done in the loop (or for functions: the number of times you +call the function, times work done in the function). (This holds if we +don't do anything fancy, like skip loops or exit the loop early, or +change control flow in the function based on arguments, which is very +common.) Here are some examples of visualization techniques, with +accompanying pseudocode. + +(here, the `x`s represent constant-time units of work, processor +instructions, interpreter opcodes, whatever) + + for(i=0; i A*1 --> O(A) time + + visualization: + + |<------ A ------->| + 1 2 3 4 5 x x ... x + + other languages, multiplying orders of growth: + javascript, O(A) time and space + someListOfSizeA.map((x,i) => [x,i]) + python, O(rows*cols) time and space + [[r*c for c in range(cols)] for r in range(rows)] + +Example 2: + + for every x in listOfSizeA: // A x ... + some O(1) operation // 1 + some O(B) operation // B + for every y in listOfSizeC: // C x ... + some O(1) operation // 1 + + --> O(A*(1 + B + C)) + O(A*(B+C)) (1 is dwarfed) + + visualization: + + |<------ A ------->| + 1 x x x x x x ... x + + 2 x x x x x x ... x ^ + 3 x x x x x x ... x | + 4 x x x x x x ... x | + 5 x x x x x x ... x B <-- A*B + x x x x x x x ... x | + ................... | + x x x x x x x ... x v + + x x x x x x x ... x ^ + x x x x x x x ... x | + x x x x x x x ... x | + x x x x x x x ... x C <-- A*C + x x x x x x x ... x | + ................... | + x x x x x x x ... x v + +Example 3: + + function nSquaredFunction(n) { + total = 0 + for i in 1..n: // N x + for j in 1..n: // N x + total += i*k // 1 + return total + } + // O(n^2) + + function nCubedFunction(a) { + for i in 1..n: // A x + print(nSquaredFunction(a)) // A^2 + } + // O(a^3) + +If we do something slightly complicated, you might still be able to +imagine visually what's going on: + + for x in range(A): + for y in range(1..x): + simpleOperation(x*y) + + x x x x x x x x x x | + x x x x x x x x x | + x x x x x x x x | + x x x x x x x | + x x x x x x | + x x x x x | + x x x x | + x x x | + x x | + x___________________| + +Here, the smallest recognizable outline you can draw is what matters; a +triangle is a two dimensional shape (0.5 A^2), just like a square is a +two-dimensional shape (A^2); the constant factor of two here remains in +the asymptotic ratio between the two, however we ignore it like all +factors... (There are some unfortunate nuances to this technique I don't +go into here; it can mislead you.) + +Of course this does not mean that loops and functions are bad; on the +contrary, they are the building blocks of modern programming languages, +and we love them. However, we can see that the way we weave loops and +functions and conditionals together with our data (control flow, etc.) +mimics the time and space usage of our program\! If time and space usage +becomes an issue, that is when we resort to cleverness, and find an easy +algorithm or data structure we hadn't considered, to reduce the order of +growth somehow. Nevertheless, these visualization techniques (though +they don't always work) can give you a naive guess at a worst-case +running time. + +Here is another thing we can recognize visually: + + <----------------------------- N -----------------------------> + x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x + x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x + x x x x x x x x + x x x x + x x + x + +We can just rearrange this and see it's O(N): + + <----------------------------- N -----------------------------> + x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x + x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x|x x x x x x x x|x x x x|x x|x + +Or maybe you do log(N) passes of the data, for O(N\*log(N)) total time: + +``` + <----------------------------- N -----------------------------> + ^ x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x|x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x + | x x x x x x x x|x x x x x x x x|x x x x x x x x|x x x x x x x x +lgN x x x x|x x x x|x x x x|x x x x|x x x x|x x x x|x x x x|x x x x + | x x|x x|x x|x x|x x|x x|x x|x x|x x|x x|x x|x x|x x|x x|x x|x x + v x|x|x|x|x|x|x|x|x|x|x|x|x|x|x|x|x|x|x|x|x|x|x|x|x|x|x|x|x|x|x|x +``` + +Unrelatedly but worth mentioning again: If we perform a hash (e.g. a +dictionary / hashtable lookup), that is a factor of O(1). That's pretty +fast. + + [myDictionary.has(x) for x in listOfSizeA] + \----- O(1) ------/ + + --> A*1 --> O(A) + +If we do something very complicated, such as with a recursive function +or divide-and-conquer algorithm, you can use the [Master +Theorem](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master_theorem) (usually works), +or in ridiculous cases the Akra-Bazzi Theorem (almost always works) you +look up the running time of your algorithm on Wikipedia. + +But, programmers don't think like this because eventually, algorithm +intuition just becomes second nature. You will start to code something +inefficient, and immediately think "am I doing something **grossly +inefficient?**". If the answer is "yes" AND you foresee it actually +mattering, then you can take a step back and think of various tricks to +make things run faster (the answer is almost always "use a hashtable", +rarely "use a tree", and very rarely something a bit more complicated). + +**Amortized and average-case complexity** + +There is also the concept of "amortized" and/or "average case" (note +that these are different). + +**Average Case**: This is no more than using big-O notation for the +expected value of a function, rather than the function itself. In the +usual case where you consider all inputs to be equally likely, the +average case is just the average of the running time. For example with +quicksort, even though the worst-case is `O(N^2)` for some really bad +inputs, the average case is the usual `O(N log(N))` (the really bad +inputs are very small in number, so few that we don't notice them in the +average case). + +**Amortized Worst-Case**: Some data structures may have a worst-case +complexity that is large, but guarantee that if you do many of these +operations, the average amount of work you do will be better than +worst-case. For example you may have a data structure that normally +takes constant `O(1)` time. However, occasionally it will 'hiccup' and +take `O(N)` time for one random operation, because maybe it needs to do +some bookkeeping or garbage collection or something... but it promises +you that if it does hiccup, it won't hiccup again for N more operations. +The worst-case cost is still `O(N)` per operation, but the amortized +cost over many runs is `O(N)/N` = `O(1)` per operation. Because the big +operations are sufficiently rare, the massive amount of occasional work +can be considered to blend in with the rest of the work as a constant +factor. We say the work is "amortized" over a sufficiently large number +of calls that it disappears asymptotically. + +> The analogy for amortized analysis: +> +> You drive a car. Occasionally, you need to spend 10 minutes going to +> the gas station and then spend 1 minute refilling the tank with gas. +> If you did this every time you went anywhere with your car (spend 10 +> minutes driving to the gas station, spend a few seconds filling up a +> fraction of a gallon), it would be very inefficient. But if you fill +> up the tank once every few days, the 11 minutes spent driving to the +> gas station is "amortized" over a sufficiently large number of trips, +> that you can ignore it and pretend all your trips were maybe 5% +> longer. + +Comparison between average-case and amortized worst-case: + + - If you use a data structure many times, the running time will tend + to the average case... eventually... assuming your assumptions about + what is 'average' were correct (if they aren't, your analysis will + be wrong). + - If you use an amortized worst-case data structure, the running is + guaranteed to be within the amortized worst-case... eventually (even + if the inputs are chosen by an evil demon who knows everything and + is trying to screw you over). (However unless your data structure + has upper limits for much outstanding work it is willing to + procrastinate on, an evil attacker could perhaps force you to catch + up on the maximum amount of procrastinated work all-at-once. Though, + if you're [reasonably + worried](https://www.usenix.org/conference/12th-usenix-security-symposium/denial-service-algorithmic-complexity-attacks) + about an attacker, there are many other algorithmic attack vectors + to worry about besides amortization and average-case.) + +Both average-case and amortization are incredibly useful tools for +thinking about and designing with scaling in mind. + +(See [Difference between average case and amortized +analysis](https://stackoverflow.com/q/7333376/711085) if interested on +this subtopic.) + +**Multidimensional big-O** + +Most of the time, people don't realize that there's more than one +variable at work. For example, in a string-search algorithm, your +algorithm may take time `O([length of text] + [length of query])`, i.e. +it is linear in two variables like `O(N+M)`. Other more naive algorithms +may be `O([length of text]*[length of query])` or `O(N*M)`. Ignoring +multiple variables is one of the most common oversights I see in +algorithm analysis, and can handicap you when designing an algorithm. + +**The whole story** + +Keep in mind that big-O is not the whole story. You can drastically +speed up some algorithms by using caching, making them cache-oblivious, +avoiding bottlenecks by working with RAM instead of disk, using +parallelization, or doing work ahead of time -- these techniques are +often independent of the order-of-growth "big-O" notation, though you +will often see the number of cores in the big-O notation of parallel +algorithms. + +Also keep in mind that due to hidden constraints of your program, you +might not really care about asymptotic behavior. You may be working with +a bounded number of values, for example: + + - If you're sorting something like 5 elements, you don't want to use + the speedy `O(N log(N))` quicksort; you want to use insertion sort, + which happens to perform well on small inputs. These situations + often comes up in divide-and-conquer algorithms, where you split up + the problem into smaller and smaller subproblems, such as recursive + sorting, fast Fourier transforms, or matrix multiplication. + - If some values are effectively bounded due to some hidden fact (e.g. + the average human name is softly bounded at perhaps 40 letters, and + human age is softly bounded at around 150). You can also impose + bounds on your input to effectively make terms constant. + +In practice, even among algorithms which have the same or similar +asymptotic performance, their relative merit may actually be driven by +other things, such as: other performance factors (quicksort and +mergesort are both `O(N log(N))`, but quicksort takes advantage of CPU +caches); non-performance considerations, like ease of implementation; +whether a library is available, and how reputable and maintained the +library is. + +Programs will also run slower on a 500MHz computer vs 2GHz computer. We +don't really consider this as part of the resource bounds, because we +think of the scaling in terms of machine resources (e.g. per clock +cycle), not per real second. However, there are similar things which can +'secretly' affect performance, such as whether you are running under +emulation, or whether the compiler optimized code or not. These might +make some basic operations take longer (even relative to each other), or +even speed up or slow down some operations asymptotically (even relative +to each other). The effect may be small or large between different +implementation and/or environment. Do you switch languages or machines +to eke out that little extra work? That depends on a hundred other +reasons (necessity, skills, coworkers, programmer productivity, the +monetary value of your time, familiarity, workarounds, why not assembly +or GPU, etc...), which may be more important than performance. + +The above issues, like programming language, are almost never considered +as part of the constant factor (nor should they be); yet one should be +aware of them, because sometimes (though rarely) they may affect things. +For example in cpython, the native priority queue implementation is +asymptotically non-optimal (`O(log(N))` rather than `O(1)` for your +choice of insertion or find-min); do you use another implementation? +Probably not, since the C implementation is probably faster, and there +are probably other similar issues elsewhere. There are tradeoffs; +sometimes they matter and sometimes they don't. + +(edit: The "plain English" explanation ends here.) + +Math addenda + +*For completeness, the precise definition of big-O notation is as +follows: `f(x) ∈ O(g(x))` means that "f is asymptotically upper-bounded +by const\*g": ignoring everything below some finite value of x, there +exists a constant such that `|f(x)| ≤ const * |g(x)|`. (The other +symbols are as follows: just like `O` means ≤, `Ω` means ≥. There are +lowercase variants: `o` means \<, and `ω` means \>.) `f(x) ∈ Ɵ(g(x))` +means both `f(x) ∈ O(g(x))` and `f(x) ∈ Ω(g(x))` (upper- and +lower-bounded by g): there exists some constants such that f will always +lie in the "band" between `const1*g(x)` and `const2*g(x)`. It is the +strongest asymptotic statement you can make and roughly equivalent to +`==`. (Sorry, I elected to delay the mention of the absolute-value +symbols until now, for clarity's sake; especially because I have never +seen negative values come up in a computer science context.)* + +People will often use `= O(...)`, which is perhaps the more correct +'comp-sci' notation, and entirely legitimate to use... but one should +realize `=` is not being used as equality; it is a compound notation +that must be read as an idiom. I was taught to use the more rigorous `∈ +O(...)`. `∈` means "is an element of". `O(N²)` is actually an +equivalence class, that is, it is a set of things which we consider to +be the same. In this particular case, `O(N²)` contains elements like {`2 +N²`, `3 N²`, `1/2 N²`, `2 N² + log(N)`, `- N² + N^1.9`, ...} and is +infinitely large, but it's still a set. The `=` notation might be the +more common one, and is even used in papers by world-renowned computer +scientists. Additionally, it is often the case that in a casual setting, +people will say `O(...)` when they mean `Ɵ(...)`; this is technically +true since the set of things `Ɵ(exactlyThis)` is a subset of +`O(noGreaterThanThis)`... and it's easier to type. ;-) diff --git a/_stories/2009/5900196.md b/_stories/2009/5900196.md index 48cf940..a8d3aea 100644 --- a/_stories/2009/5900196.md +++ b/_stories/2009/5900196.md @@ -19,123 +19,95 @@ _tags: objectID: '5900196' --- -[Source](http://www.nytimes.com/2009/06/17/us/17nsa.html?pagewanted=all "Permalink to E-Mail Surveillance Renews Concerns in Congress - The New York Times") +In an interview, Mr. Holt disputed assertions by Justice Department and +national security officials that the overcollection was inadvertent. -# E-Mail Surveillance Renews Concerns in Congress - The New York Times +“Some actions are so flagrant that they can’t be accidental,” Mr. Holt +said. -__NYTimes.com no longer supports Internet Explorer 9 or earlier. Please upgrade your browser. [LEARN MORE »][1] +Other Congressional officials raised similar concerns but would not +agree to be quoted for the record. -__Sections __ Home __Search [Skip to content][2] [Skip to navigation][3] [View mobile version][4] +Mr. Holt added that few lawmakers could challenge the agency’s +statements because so few understood the technical complexities of its +surveillance operations. “The people making the policy,” he said, “don’t +understand the technicalities.” -## [ The New York Times ][5] +The inquiries and analyst’s account underscore how e-mail messages, more +so than telephone calls, have proved to be a particularly vexing problem +for the agency because of technological difficulties in distinguishing +between e-mail messages by foreigners and by Americans. A new law +enacted by Congress last year gave the N.S.A. greater legal leeway to +collect the private communications of Americans so long as it was done +only as the incidental byproduct of investigating individuals +“reasonably believed” to be overseas. -###### [U.S.][6]|E-Mail Surveillance Renews Concerns in Congress +But after closed-door hearings by three Congressional panels, some +lawmakers are asking what the tolerable limits are for such incidental +collection and whether the privacy of Americans is being adequately +protected. -__Search +“For the Hill, the issue is a sense of scale, about how much domestic +e-mail collection is acceptable,” a former intelligence official said, +speaking on condition of anonymity because N.S.A. operations are +classified. “It’s a question of how many mistakes they can allow.” -Subscribe Now Log In __0 __Settings - -__Close search - -## Site Search Navigation - -Search NYTimes.com - -__Clear this text input - -Go - -1. Loading... - -See next articles - -See previous articles - -## Site Navigation - -## Site Mobile Navigation +While the extent of Congressional concerns about the N.S.A. has not been +shared publicly, such concerns are among national security issues that +the Obama administration has inherited from the Bush administration, +including the use of brutal interrogation tactics, the fate of the +prison at Guantánamo Bay, Cuba, and whether to block the release of +photographs and documents that show abuse of detainees. Advertisement -Supported by +[Continue reading the main story](#story-continues-4) -### [U.S.][6] +In each case, the administration has had to navigate the politics of +continuing an aggressive intelligence operation while placating +supporters who want an end to what they see as flagrant abuses of the +Bush era. -# E-Mail Surveillance Renews Concerns in Congress +The N.S.A. declined to comment for this article. Wendy Morigi, a +spokeswoman for Dennis C. Blair, the national intelligence director, +said that because of the complex nature of surveillance and the need to +adhere to the rules of the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court, the +secret panel that oversees surveillance operation, and “other relevant +laws and procedures, technical or inadvertent errors can occur.” -By [JAMES RISEN][7] and [ERIC LICHTBLAU][8]JUNE 16, 2009 - -[Continue reading the main story][9] Share This Page - -[Continue reading the main story][9] +“When such errors are identified,” Ms. Morigi said, “they are reported +to the appropriate officials, and corrective measures are taken.” Photo -![][10] +In April, the Obama administration said it had taken comprehensive steps +to bring the security agency into compliance with the law after a +periodic review turned up problems with “overcollection” of domestic +communications. The Justice Department also said it had installed new +safeguards. -Kenneth L. Wainstein testified about surveillance in Fall 2007 at a Senate committee hearing. Credit Alex Wong/Getty Images +Under the surveillance program, before the N.S.A. can target and monitor +the e-mail messages or telephone calls of Americans suspected of having +links to international terrorism, it must get permission from the +Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court. Supporters of the agency say +that in using computers to sweep up millions of electronic messages, it +is unavoidable that some innocent discussions of Americans will be +examined. Intelligence operators are supposed to filter those out, but +critics say the agency is not rigorous enough in doing so. -WASHINGTON — The National Security Agency is facing renewed scrutiny over the extent of its domestic surveillance program, with critics in Congress saying its recent intercepts of the private telephone calls and e-mail messages of Americans are broader than previously acknowledged, current and former officials said. - -The agency's monitoring of domestic e-mail messages, in particular, has posed longstanding legal and logistical difficulties, the officials said. - -Since April, when it was disclosed that the intercepts of some private communications of Americans went beyond legal limits in late 2008 and early 2009, several Congressional committees have been investigating. Those inquiries have led to concerns in Congress about the agency's ability to collect and read domestic e-mail messages of Americans on a widespread basis, officials said. Supporting that conclusion is the account of a former N.S.A. analyst who, in a series of interviews, described being trained in 2005 for a program in which the agency routinely examined large volumes of Americans' e-mail messages without court warrants. Two intelligence officials confirmed that the program was still in operation. - -Both the former analyst's account and the rising concern among some members of Congress about the N.S.A.'s recent operation are raising fresh questions about the spy agency. - -Advertisement - -[Continue reading the main story][9] - -Representative Rush Holt, Democrat of New Jersey and chairman of the House Select Intelligence Oversight Panel, has been investigating the incidents and said he had become increasingly troubled by the agency's handling of domestic communications. - -[Continue reading the main story][11] - -Advertisement - -[Continue reading the main story][12] - -In an interview, Mr. Holt disputed assertions by Justice Department and national security officials that the overcollection was inadvertent. - -"Some actions are so flagrant that they can't be accidental," Mr. Holt said. - -Other Congressional officials raised similar concerns but would not agree to be quoted for the record. - -Mr. Holt added that few lawmakers could challenge the agency's statements because so few understood the technical complexities of its surveillance operations. "The people making the policy," he said, "don't understand the technicalities." - -The inquiries and analyst's account underscore how e-mail messages, more so than telephone calls, have proved to be a particularly vexing problem for the agency because of technological difficulties in distinguishing between e-mail messages by foreigners and by Americans. A new law enacted by Congress last year gave the N.S.A. greater legal leeway to collect the private communications of Americans so long as it was done only as the incidental byproduct of investigating individuals "reasonably believed" to be overseas. - -But after closed-door hearings by three Congressional panels, some lawmakers are asking what the tolerable limits are for such incidental collection and whether the privacy of Americans is being adequately protected. - -"For the Hill, the issue is a sense of scale, about how much domestic e-mail collection is acceptable," a former intelligence official said, speaking on condition of anonymity because N.S.A. operations are classified. "It's a question of how many mistakes they can allow." - -While the extent of Congressional concerns about the N.S.A. has not been shared publicly, such concerns are among national security issues that the Obama administration has inherited from the Bush administration, including the use of brutal interrogation tactics, the fate of the prison at Guantánamo Bay, Cuba, and whether to block the release of photographs and documents that show abuse of detainees. - -Advertisement - -[Continue reading the main story][13] - -In each case, the administration has had to navigate the politics of continuing an aggressive intelligence operation while placating supporters who want an end to what they see as flagrant abuses of the Bush era. - -The N.S.A. declined to comment for this article. Wendy Morigi, a spokeswoman for Dennis C. Blair, the national intelligence director, said that because of the complex nature of surveillance and the need to adhere to the rules of the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court, the secret panel that oversees surveillance operation, and "other relevant laws and procedures, technical or inadvertent errors can occur." - -"When such errors are identified," Ms. Morigi said, "they are reported to the appropriate officials, and corrective measures are taken." - -Photo - -![][14] - -Representative Rush Holt Credit Brendan Smialowski for The New York Times - -In April, the Obama administration said it had taken comprehensive steps to bring the security agency into compliance with the law after a periodic review turned up problems with "overcollection" of domestic communications. The Justice Department also said it had installed new safeguards. - -Under the surveillance program, before the N.S.A. can target and monitor the e-mail messages or telephone calls of Americans suspected of having links to international terrorism, it must get permission from the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court. Supporters of the agency say that in using computers to sweep up millions of electronic messages, it is unavoidable that some innocent discussions of Americans will be examined. Intelligence operators are supposed to filter those out, but critics say the agency is not rigorous enough in doing so. - -The N.S.A. is believed to have gone beyond legal boundaries designed to protect Americans in about 8 to 10 separate court orders issued by the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court, according to three intelligence officials who spoke anonymously because disclosing such information is illegal. Because each court order could single out hundreds or even thousands of phone numbers or e-mail addresses, the number of individual communications that were improperly collected could number in the millions, officials said. (It is not clear what portion of total court orders or communications that would represent.) +The N.S.A. is believed to have gone beyond legal boundaries designed to +protect Americans in about 8 to 10 separate court orders issued by the +Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court, according to three intelligence +officials who spoke anonymously because disclosing such information is +illegal. Because each court order could single out hundreds or even +thousands of phone numbers or e-mail addresses, the number of individual +communications that were improperly collected could number in the +millions, officials said. (It is not clear what portion of total court +orders or communications that would represent.) ## Newsletter Sign Up -[Continue reading the main story][15] +[Continue reading the main story](#continues-post-newsletter) ### @@ -145,286 +117,94 @@ Invalid email address. Please re-enter. You must select a newsletter to subscribe to. -Sign Up - -You agree to receive occasional updates and special offers for The New York Times's products and services. +You agree to receive occasional updates and special offers for The New +York Times's products and services. ### Thank you for subscribing. ### An error has occurred. Please try again later. -### You are already subscribed to this email. +[View all New York Times newsletters.](/newsletters) -[View all New York Times newsletters.][16] +“Say you get an order to monitor a block of 1,000 e-mail addresses at a +big corporation, and instead of just monitoring those, the N.S.A. also +monitors another block of 1,000 e-mail addresses at that corporation,” +one senior intelligence official said. “That is the kind of problem they +had.” -* [See Sample][17] -* [Manage Email Preferences][18] -* [Not you?][19] -* [Privacy Policy][20] -* Opt out or [contact us][21] anytime +Overcollection on that scale could lead to a significant number of +privacy invasions of American citizens, officials acknowledge, setting +off the concerns among lawmakers and on the secret FISA court. -"Say you get an order to monitor a block of 1,000 e-mail addresses at a big corporation, and instead of just monitoring those, the N.S.A. also monitors another block of 1,000 e-mail addresses at that corporation," one senior intelligence official said. "That is the kind of problem they had." - -Overcollection on that scale could lead to a significant number of privacy invasions of American citizens, officials acknowledge, setting off the concerns among lawmakers and on the secret FISA court. - -"The court was not happy" when it learned of the overcollection, said an administration official involved in the matter. +“The court was not happy” when it learned of the overcollection, said an +administration official involved in the matter. Advertisement -[Continue reading the main story][22] +[Continue reading the main story](#story-continues-5) -Defenders of the agency say it faces daunting obstacles in trying to avoid the improper gathering or reading of Americans' e-mail as part of counterterrorism efforts aimed at foreigners. +Defenders of the agency say it faces daunting obstacles in trying to +avoid the improper gathering or reading of Americans’ e-mail as part of +counterterrorism efforts aimed at foreigners. -Several former intelligence officials said that e-mail traffic from all over the world often flows through Internet service providers based in the United States. And when the N.S.A. monitors a foreign e-mail address, it has no idea when the person using that address will send messages to someone inside the United States, the officials said. +Several former intelligence officials said that e-mail traffic from all +over the world often flows through Internet service providers based in +the United States. And when the N.S.A. monitors a foreign e-mail +address, it has no idea when the person using that address will send +messages to someone inside the United States, the officials said. -The difficulty of distinguishing between e-mail messages involving foreigners from those involving Americans was "one of the main things that drove" the Bush administration to push for a more flexible law in 2008, said Kenneth L. Wainstein, the homeland security adviser under President George W. Bush. That measure, which also resolved the long controversy over N.S.A.'s program of wiretapping without warrants by offering immunity to telecommunications companies, tacitly acknowledged that some amount of Americans' e-mail would inevitably be captured by the N.S.A. +The difficulty of distinguishing between e-mail messages involving +foreigners from those involving Americans was “one of the main things +that drove” the Bush administration to push for a more flexible law in +2008, said Kenneth L. Wainstein, the homeland security adviser under +President George W. Bush. That measure, which also resolved the long +controversy over N.S.A.’s program of wiretapping without warrants by +offering immunity to telecommunications companies, tacitly acknowledged +that some amount of Americans’ e-mail would inevitably be captured by +the N.S.A. -But even before that, the agency appears to have tolerated significant collection and examination of domestic e-mail messages without warrants, according to the former analyst, who spoke only on condition of anonymity. +But even before that, the agency appears to have tolerated significant +collection and examination of domestic e-mail messages without warrants, +according to the former analyst, who spoke only on condition of +anonymity. -He said he and other analysts were trained to use a secret database, code-named Pinwale, in 2005 that archived foreign and domestic e-mail messages. He said Pinwale allowed N.S.A. analysts to read large volumes of e-mail messages to and from Americans as long as they fell within certain limits — no more than 30 percent of any database search, he recalled being told — and Americans were not explicitly singled out in the searches. +He said he and other analysts were trained to use a secret database, +code-named Pinwale, in 2005 that archived foreign and domestic e-mail +messages. He said Pinwale allowed N.S.A. analysts to read large volumes +of e-mail messages to and from Americans as long as they fell within +certain limits — no more than 30 percent of any database search, he +recalled being told — and Americans were not explicitly singled out in +the searches. -The former analyst added that his instructors had warned against committing any abuses, telling his class that another analyst had been investigated because he had improperly accessed the personal e-mail of former President Bill Clinton. +The former analyst added that his instructors had warned against +committing any abuses, telling his class that another analyst had been +investigated because he had improperly accessed the personal e-mail of +former President Bill Clinton. -Other intelligence officials confirmed the existence of the Pinwale e-mail database, but declined to provide further details. +Other intelligence officials confirmed the existence of the Pinwale +e-mail database, but declined to provide further details. -The recent concerns about N.S.A.'s domestic e-mail collection follow years of unresolved legal and operational concerns within the government over the issue. Current and former officials now say that the tracing of vast amounts of American e-mail traffic was at the heart of a crisis in 2004 at the hospital bedside of John Ashcroft, then the attorney general, as top Justice Department aides staged a near revolt over what they viewed as possibly illegal aspects of the N.S.A.'s surveillance operations. +The recent concerns about N.S.A.’s domestic e-mail collection follow +years of unresolved legal and operational concerns within the government +over the issue. Current and former officials now say that the tracing of +vast amounts of American e-mail traffic was at the heart of a crisis in +2004 at the hospital bedside of John Ashcroft, then the attorney +general, as top Justice Department aides staged a near revolt over what +they viewed as possibly illegal aspects of the N.S.A.’s surveillance +operations. -James Comey, then the deputy attorney general, and his aides were concerned about the collection of "meta-data" of American e-mail messages, which show broad patterns of e-mail traffic by identifying who is e-mailing whom, current and former officials say. Lawyers at the Justice Department believed that the tracing of e-mail messages appeared to violate federal law. +James Comey, then the deputy attorney general, and his aides were +concerned about the collection of “meta-data” of American e-mail +messages, which show broad patterns of e-mail traffic by identifying who +is e-mailing whom, current and former officials say. Lawyers at the +Justice Department believed that the tracing of e-mail messages appeared +to violate federal law. Advertisement -[Continue reading the main story][23] +[Continue reading the main story](#story-continues-6) -"The controversy was mostly about that issue," said a former administration official involved in the dispute. - -A version of this article appears in print on , on Page A1 of the New York edition with the headline: Extent of E-Mail Surveillance Renews Concerns in Congress. 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https://www.nytimes.com/subscriptions/Multiproduct/lp5558.html?campaignId=37WXW +“The controversy was mostly about that issue,” said a former +administration official involved in the dispute. +[Continue reading the main story](#whats-next) diff --git a/_stories/2009/6199050.md b/_stories/2009/6199050.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..22a98aa --- /dev/null +++ b/_stories/2009/6199050.md @@ -0,0 +1,978 @@ +--- +created_at: '2013-08-12T13:30:14.000Z' +title: LavaBit's Architecture (2009) +url: http://possibility.com/LavabitArchitecture.html +author: yankcrime +points: 130 +story_text: '' +comment_text: +num_comments: 57 +story_id: +story_title: +story_url: +parent_id: +created_at_i: 1376314214 +_tags: +- story +- author_yankcrime +- story_6199050 +objectID: '6199050' + +--- +## Getting to Know You + +### \* What is the name of your system and where can we find out more about it? + +Lavabit +[http://lavabit.com](http://lavabit.com/) + + + + +### \* What is your system for? + +Lavabit is a mid-sized email service provider. We currently have about +140,000 registered users with more than 260,000 email addresses. While +most of our accounts belong to individual users, we also provide +corporate email services to approximately 70 companies. + +### \* Why did you decide to build this system? + +We built the system to compete against the other large free email +providers, with an emphasis on serving the privacy conscious and +technically savvy user. Lavabit was one of the first free email +companies to provide free access via POP and later via IMAP. To this day +over 90 percent of our users access the system using POP or IMAP. + +### \* How is your project financed? + +The project was initially financed by the founders, but now lives off +money collected via advertising and paid users. Ongoing development +efforts are subsidized by our consulting business; quite simply we work +on the code base for Lavabit when we have slowdowns in our consulting +business. + +### \* What is your revenue model? + +Offer a superior product and hope that its increasing use leads to +advertising revenues, and paid account upgrades. + +### \* How do you market your product? + +We rely on word of mouth to grow the service. Since most of what we +provide is free, we can't justify the cost of advertising (at least +right now). + +### \* How long have you been working on it? + +The service has been running since the summer of 2004. Originally we +called the service Nerdshack, but changed the name to Lavabit at the +request of our users in December of +2005. + +### \* How big is your system? Try to give a feel for how much work your system does. + +Every day the system handles approximately 200,000 email messages, while +rejecting another 400,000 messages as spam. Lavabit currently averages +about 12,000 daily logins, of which 80 percent are via POP, 10 percent +are via IMAP and 10 percent are via the webmail system. The website +itself sees about 2,500 unique visitors per day, resulting in +approximately 170,000 page and file requests. + +### \* Number of unique visitors? + +Approximately 12,000 unique visitors per day and approximately 28,000 +unique visitors per month. + +### \* Number of monthly page views? + +3,728,686 for Jan 2009 +3,929,292 for Feb 2009 +These numbers only consider HTTP requests. + +### \* What is your in/out bandwidth usage? + +We currently send about 70 gigabytes per day through our upstream +Internet connection. See this page for a graph: + + + +### \* How many documents, do you serve? How many images? How much data? + +Our system currently handles approximately 180,000 inbound emails, and +another 20,000 outbound emails per day. This translates into about 70 +gigabytes of traffic. + +### \* How fast are you growing? + +We see about 150 new user registrations per day. + +### \* What is your ratio of free to paying users? + +We currently have approximately 1,500 actively paying customers. + +### \* What is your user churn? + +Our daily login average has recently been growing by about 250 per +month. We hope to grow a lot faster when our new website and webmail +system launch later this year. + +### \* How many accounts have been active in the past month? + +34,247 between 2/10/2009 and +3/10/2009. + +## How is your system architected? + +### \* What is the architecture of your system? Talk about how your system works in as much detail as you feel comfortable with. + +**For SMTP, POP and IMAP Connections** +We use a 2-tier architecture. There is an application tier that runs our +custom mail daemon and a support tier made up of NFS and MySQL servers. +A hardware based load balancer (Alteon AD4) is used to split incoming +SMTP, POP and IMAP connections across the 8 application servers (Dell +1650's with 4gb of RAM). The application servers also run memcached +instances. + +The application servers are used to handle the bulk of the processing +load. The daemon itself is a single process, multi-threaded application +written in C. Currently each daemon is configured to pre-spawn 512 +threads for handling incoming connections. Another 8 threads are used to +asynchronously pull ads from our advertising partner's HTTP API, and +perform maintenance functions. Maintenance functions involve updating +in-memory tables, expiring stale sessions, log file rotation and keeping +the ClamAV signatures up to date. + +From an architecture standpoint, each incoming connection gets its own +thread. This allows us to use blocking IO. We currently rely on the +Linux kernel to evenly split the processor among the connections. + +We currently call our mail daemon "lavad" and it fluently speaks SMTP, +POP and IMAP. The daemon is also responsible for applying all of our +business logic and interfacing with the different open source libraries +we use. + +When accepting messages from the outside world via SMTP, the daemon will +perform the following checks: + + - If the recipient is valid + - Whether the incoming IP is listed on an RBL + - If the return path can be validated using SPF (libspf2) + - Against any size or rate limits for the account + - Against the user’s gray list + - For viruses (libclamav) + - For a valid domain key signature (libdomainkeys) + - Whether the message looks like spam based statistical token data + (libdspam) + - And finally against any filters used to sort or delete messages + matching a regular expressions + +Whether a specific check is used depends on the user’s preferences, and +the account plan they have. For example, the spam filter is limited to +paid users (because of the load it places on the database). + +Depending on the outcome of the different checks, the user can choose to +label the message, reject it, or in some cases delete it silently. If +the message needs to be bounced, a bounce message is only sent if the +return path can be verified using a) SPF or b) if the sender is verified +using domain keys, and the sender matches the return path. + +As a final step, the message is encrypted using ECC (if applicable), +compressed using LZO and then stored on the NFS server. + +For POP connections, the process is relatively simple. The user +authenticates and requests a message. The daemon loads the message, +checks the hash to make sure the date hasn’t been corrupted, +decompresses the data, and then decrypts it (if applicable) before +sending it along to the client. + +Because we need the plain text password to decrypt a user’s private key, +we don’t support secure password authentication. We decided to support +SSL instead (which encrypts everything; not just the password). We +handle the SSL encryption at the application tier rather than on the +load balancer because we feel the application tier is easier to scale. + +On a side note are failure to support secure password authentication +hasn’t stopped people from clicking the Secure Password Authentication +checkbox in Outlook, and creating a support nightmare for us. Outlook +doesn’t enable SMTP authentication by default either, so that creates +another support nightmare for us. If any mail client developers read +this; please start making port 587 the default instead of port 25, and +auto detect SMTP authentication. + +When retrieving messages for users that have the statistical spam filter +enabled or users who have selected a plan with advertising, the daemon +will also insert small text signature. The signature will have a link +for training the server side spam filter and/or a small text +advertisement. + +For IMAP connections, the daemon also presents messages in folders and +allows server side searches of messages. Currently searches are handled +by reading in all of the message data from disk; which results in a +large performance hit if the folder is large. If the user connects +multiple times using the same credentials, the connections will share a +centralized copy of their mailbox state, which also creates lock +contention issues. Search is certainly one area where we need to +improve. + +For outbound messages, the daemon will authenticate the user's +credentials against the database, apply any sending limits for the +account (to prevent abuse), check whether the From address matches an +email address associated with the credentials provided (to prevent +spoofing), and finally the daemon checks whether the message contains a +virus. Assuming all of the checks are passed, the message is cleaned up, +signed using domain keys, and then relayed via our internal network to a +Postfix server that handles relaying it to the final destination. + +The daemon uses pools for sharing anything it can, including MySQL +connections, ClamAV instances, cURL instances (for pulling ads), +Memcached instances, libspf2 instances, etc. To keep deployments simple, +we compile all of the open source libraries we rely upon into a single +archive that is then dynamically loaded at runtime. We don’t compile the +libraries directly into our application because doing so would require +us to release the daemon under the GPL, and we don’t rely on dynamic +linking since we don’t want any of the key libraries to be automatically +updated by the operating system without us knowing. + +**For HTTP Connections** +Like inbound mail connections, HTTP connections are split between two +servers using the load balancer. Apache is currently used to handle the +requests. While most of the website is static XHTML files, our +registration engine is written in C (with libgd for the CAPTCHA images, +and libcurl for processing credit cards using the PayFlow Pro HTTP API). +All of our C applications rely on the Apache CGI interface. + +The preferences portal is currently written in Perl and the webmail +system is based on a popular open source client and is written in PHP. +We modified the webmail system to fit more smoothly into our site. The +webmail client currently connects to the mail system using IMAP, with +each web server getting a dedicated IMAP +server. + +### \* What particular design/architecture/implementation challenges does your system have? + +**The Big Problem** +While it is very easy to setup a mail system that reliably handles email +for a few thousand users, it is incredibly difficult to scale that same +system beyond a single server. This is because most email servers were +originally designed for use on a single server. If you grow these same +systems beyond a single server you typically need to use a database +and/or a NFS server to keep everything synchronized between the +different nodes. And while it is possible to build large database and +NFS instances, it is also very expensive, and depending on the setup it +can be very inefficient. + +If you want to avoid the single database or NFS server problem, you can +do so by adding a lot of complexity. For example, if you wanted to +implement a very large Cyrus system the typical solution is to use LDAP +for authentication, and then use an IMAP/POP reverse proxy to intercept +incoming connections and forward them to the specific Cyrus server for +that user. The problem with managing a system like this is the +relatively high number of critical pieces that can fail. The following +image visualizes what a system like this might look like: + +![Embedded +Image](data:image/png;base64,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) + +For a full write up on this design, see + + +The problem with systems designed this way is the large number of +critical services. If a Cyrus server goes down, then all of the users +hosted on that system are offline. You can mitigate this risk with a +failover system that is periodically rsync’ed with the master, or by +using a SAN, but these options are either inefficient or expensive. +(There is at least one medium sized free/paid email company that uses a +system like this, and presumably this is why the limits on their free +plan are so low.) + +At one point Yahoo Mail relied on a very large NetApp device to +centrally store mail. And while the NetApp devices scale well, they are +also very expensive. It was this high cost that kept Yahoo Mail from +matching Gmail’s 1GB quota for almost a year. When they finally +completed their move to a distributed architecture in 2007, they began +offering unlimited storage. + +It is precisely because of how easy it is to implement small mail +systems, and so difficult to implement large mail systems that the +Internet sees literally hundreds if not thousands of free email +companies start and then fail each year. If the system becomes popular +they have no easy way to scale it, so they are forced to either stop +accepting free accounts, or shut down the system. Only a small number of +companies have the financial and technical resources to build systems +from the ground up to support a large user base. It is also why Lavabit +followed the example of the large providers, and implemented a +completely custom platform; it was the only way we could support 100k+ +users with a cost basis low enough to make the business profitable. + +The key to keeping any large system manageable and cost effective is to +keep it simple. The fewer critical failure points you have in the +system, the better things will run. + +**Current Problems with Our Implementation** +We have locking issues when multiple IMAP connections try to access the +same mailbox; only one thread is currently allowed access to the mailbox +at a time, which can present a problem if the user makes a request that +takes a long time to process (ie search or bulk fetches via IMAP). + +Reading in the full message when only the header is needed has caused a +performance problem. We also need to implement code for indexing +messages and processing searches using an index instead of reading in +all of the data for each search request. Unfortunately we don’t have +dedicated search gurus on hand to help with this like our competitors. + +The statistical spam filter currently stores all of its token and +signature data in the database. Checking the tokens in a message against +a database using SQL is very inefficient. And because of how difficult +it is to scale MySQL databases, doing this for 200,000+ messages a day +would be very expensive. At some point we will change the way token data +stored so that the load is more evenly distributed across the cluster +and then we will be able to offer the filter to everyone. + +The webmail system does not keep IMAP connections open. As a result data +is freed and then reloaded frequently. Also because the whole message is +loaded when the webmail system is only requesting the header, a lot of +unnecessary data is often pulled from the NFS servers. + +Naturally were working to fix all of these issues. + +### \* What did you do to meet these challenges? + +We implemented a custom mail system, which was designed from the ground +up to efficiently handle a large number of users. A custom platform has +also allowed us to implement a lot of custom business logic that would +have been difficult, if not impossible using an off-the-shelf system. + +### \* How did your system evolve to meet new scaling challenges? + +We started with a single server that used Postfix and Qpopper. We used +amavisd for virus and spam filtering and a custom policy daemon to make +sure users didn’t send to much mail, or spoof someone else’s address. +This system worked well for about 4 months; but with a few thousand +users the system started to choke. We had to turn off new user +registrations until we could transition onto a custom multi-server +platform. + +Originally there was an application for handling SMTP connections and a +separate one for POP connections. Each application would spawn multiple +processes with multiple threads so that if one died from a segmentation +fault another could take its place. (This is how Apache and Postfix are +designed for both reliability and security.) Over time we combined the +protocols into a single process which spawns a larger number of threads. +We could do this because over time we worked out the memory bugs. In the +last year we’ve only had 4 nodes die from segmentation faults, all of +which were triggered by bugs in the libraries we use. (But we also +haven’t released any major changes into production in the last year.) +This single daemon design has made our use of things like database +connections much more efficient. + +### \* Do you use any particularly cool technologies or algorithms? + +The way we encrypt messages before storing them is relatively unique. We +only know of one commercial service, and one commercial product that +will secure user data using asymmetric encryption before writing it to +disk. Basically we generate public and private keys for the user and +then encrypt the private key using a derivative of the plain text +password. We then encrypt user messages using their public key before +writing them to disk. (Alas, right now this is only available to paid +users.) + +We also think the way our system is architected, with an emphasis on +being used in a cluster is rather unique. We would like to someday +release our code as free software. We haven’t yet because a) we don’t +want anyone else building a competing system using our code, b) while +we’ve moved more settings and logic into a configuration file over the +last couple of years, there is still a lot of logic hard coded, and c) +we’ve created the code specifically for Cent OS, and don’t have the +resources to test and support it on other operating systems right now. +We’ve spent some time looking for a company to sponsor open sourcing the +code, but haven’t found one +yet. + +### \* What did you do that is unique and different that people could best learn from? + +One of the ways to gain an advantage over your competition is to invest +the time and money needed to build systems that are better than what is +easily available to your competition. It is the custom platform we +developed that has allowed us to thrive while many other free email +companies either stopped offering their service for free, or shut down +altogether. + +That said, you should always start by improving the components that will +make the most difference to your users, and move on from there. For +Lavabit that meant starting out with a custom mail platform, but +continuing to use Postfix for outbound mail, MySQL for synchronization, +and NFS for file storage. + +This may be a good place to note that in 2004 the only major database +system with production ready cluster support was Oracle and it remains a +very expensive option (way beyond the budget of a free service like +ours). Since then SQL Server and MySQL have both improved/added support +for clustering (replication and failover is \_not\_ not the same as +cluster support). And while the MySQL cluster implementation still needs +work before developers can stop worrying about the scalability of the +database, the world is getting closer to that point. Distributed caching +(memcached) and distributed file systems (Lustre/GFS) have also matured +since we started in 2004. Throw in cloud services like S3 into the +equation and it is almost easy to implement a highly scalable website or +service. + +### \* What lessons have you learned? + +The only way to guarantee success is through hard work. + +### \* Why have you succeeded? + +We are committed to providing a superior service and offering it on +terms we think all users should be demanding. We are also committed to +continually improving the service we offer. + +### \* What do you wish you would have done differently? + +There are a number of areas in our platform we wish were implemented +differently. In most cases we made the decisions we did because +implementing them the "right" way would have taken longer. + +A good example is the IO model were using. The asynchronous IO model +used by lighttpd and memcached is more efficient than our current model, +but we felt doing things this way would have taken longer while giving +us little initial benefit. See this quite famous web page for a full +write up on the issue: + + +We also wish we had finished the IMAP server earlier than October of +2007, and finished our custom webmail system by now. + +### \* What wouldn't you change? + +We are happy with the decision to enter the email service business. +Overcoming the challenges involved in building a reliable and scalable +mail platform has been rewarding. + +Personally I also enjoy knowing that the system I helped create is being +used by 12,000 each day. Sometimes I find myself thinking "there are +1,000 people connected to this system right now." I like those numbers. + +### \* How much up front design should you do? + +Collectively, the engineering team has spent thousands of hours doing +research to help make our mail system better. This knowledge has been +invaluable not only in improving the mail system, but also in helping +our professional services clients. + +The bottom line is that it is easier to make changes to a design +document than it is to the code. What this means is that if you don’t +clearly understand how something should be implemented, it pays to write +design documents first. The hours you save in the end will far outweigh +the hours you spend writing the documentation. + +### \* How are you thinking of changing your architecture in the future? + +We’ve had a major update to our website and our application tier in the +works for almost a year already. The details involved in this update +(outside of what has already been mentioned here) are still a secret. I +will definitely need to update this write up when we are ready to push +the development tree into production. + +## What infrastructure do you use? + +### \* Which programming languages does your system use? + +The main application daemon is written in C. Web pages generally use +XHTML, CSS and Javascript. + +We still have a number of legacy web applications and maintenance +scripts written in Perl, and the webmail system is currently in PHP, but +these are all slated for conversion to C as time allows. + +Our consulting projects typically involve development in C\#; and we +spent a lot of time thinking about whether to implement the system in +C\# back in 2004. In the end, we felt that Windows and .NET would not be +a good choice for a scalable mail platform. We felt that the increased +performance, the lack of licensing costs, and the availability of so +many open source libraries for handling mail meant that the best choice +for us was to go with Linux and C. + +If we had to make a similar decision today, there is a chance we would +not have chosen to go with C. Given the stability and efficiency of +Windows 2008, the growing amount of open source C\# code on the Internet +and the availability of Mono as an alternative to .NET, we may have +opted for C\# instead. + +In our experience, the decision on what platform to choose for a project +can often be broken down into simple math. Building applications in C\# +is typically faster than C. For us that typically means 3 to 4 times +faster than using C, and about 1.5 faster than using PHP. If you can +figure out how much additional development time it will take to use one +platform over another, it becomes easy to calculate whether the +performance and license savings of one platform will offset the +increased cost of development. In general hardware and software is cheap +compared to development time, so the number of applications which can +justify being built in C or C++ is getting very small. + +On a side note, we think the productivity gap between IIS/.NET/SQL +Server/Visual Studio and Apache/PHP/MySQL/Eclipse is largely a result of +how well the Microsoft tools have been integrated with each other. + +### \* How many servers do you have? + +We have 14 servers dedicated to the mail platform. We have 1 server +dedicated to monitoring, and another 11 servers used for website +hosting. Most of the websites we host were developed by the Lavabit +team, so we don’t consider it part of our core business. + +### \* How is functionality allocated to the servers? + +We move services from one server to another as necessary. Our long term +goal is to create a global pool of servers than can handle everything, +so fewer clusters are needed, and the load is distributed more evenly. + +### \* How are the servers provisioned? + +We typically buy servers on eBay, and then install and configure them +ourselves. + +### \* What operating systems do you use? + +The mail system is currently using Cent OS 4. The application servers +use the 32 bit version, and the database and storage servers use the 64 +bit version. + +We also use Windows 2003 for hosting other things not related to the +mail service. + +### \* Which web server do you use? + +Apache 2.0 + +### \* Which database do you use? + +MySQL 4.1 + +### \* Do you use a reverse proxy? + +Our load balancer will route connections from the same IP to the same +node, which tends to make caching easier, but we do not use a "true" +reverse proxy to route connections based on user credentials. + +### \* Do you collocate, use a grid service, use a hosting service, etc? + +We’ve created our own platform. We lease space inside a colo facility to +host all of our equipment. + +### \* What is your storage strategy? + +The storage servers have 3ware RAID cards, and use SATA drives. We are +currently using the ext3 file system, and share files via NFS. The +database servers have PERC 4 cards and use SCSI. + +### \* How much capacity do you have? + +Overall, we are only using about 10 percent of our total processing +power, and about 25 percent of our currently subscibed bandwidth. The +two areas where we currently have issues are the IMAP servers dedicated +to handling webmail connections, and disk throughput on the NFS servers. +Throughput on the NFS servers is limited by the IO controller cards, and +the file system in use (ext3). Ultimately we feel there is a lot of room +for growth available to us by making our code more efficient. + +The servers in the "earth" cluster are only averaging about 8 percent +utilization. This 8 node cluster is used to handle inbound SMTP, POP and +IMAP connections, and run memcached instances. A typical CPU graph for a +server in that cluster looks like: + +![Embedded +Image](data:image/png;base64,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) + +As you can see the servers allocated to the "earth" cluster still have +plenty of room for growth. In contrast, if you compare this to a CPU +graph from one of the servers in the "mars" cluster you will notice one +of our current capacity problems. The "mars" cluster is made up of the +two nodes dedicated to handling IMAP connections from the webmail +system, and the CPU graphs for both nodes looks like: + +![Embedded +Image](data:image/png;base64,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) + +As you can see from the above graph, this server is having issues. Both +servers dedicated to handling webmail traffic will get memory upgrades +sometime next week which will help, we also have plans to push a new +build with some minor improvements that we hope will help with the +problem. This utilization issue has only shown up in the last month or +so. + +Some of you may be wondering why we don’t use servers from our "earth" +cluster to handle more of the webmail load. The source of this +utilization issue is the way our code is written. Adding more hardware +to the application layer would actually make the problem worse, as it +would further stress our NFS servers, and hurt the performance seen by +users not connected via the webmail system. The root problem is that +when a request comes in via IMAP for a message header our code loads the +entire message off the NFS server. As a result instead of having to make +a 4kb read per email we are pulling what in some cases might be a 128 +megabyte message off the NFS server. The result is about 100 times more +data is transferred than is actually needed to satisfy the IMAP request. +We’ve tried using memcached to cache messages, but unfortunately too +many of the messages are larger than 1 megabyte and can’t be stored in +memcached. + +Why didn’t this problem show up sooner? Most IMAP clients store a copy +of the message header locally, so they only need to download new message +headers when they connect. However because the webmail client is +stateless, it needs to download the message headers every time a user +logs in. Because our current webmail system has only been available +publicly for about a year, it took some time for webmail traffic to grow +large enough to make this problem critical. + +From a database standpoint we still have plenty of capacity. Here is a +CPU graph of our master database: + +![Embedded +Image](data:image/png;base64,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) + +We’ve spent a lot of time optimizing our database usage because of how +difficult it is to scale out a database. + +Unlike our database servers, the NFS servers are currently disk bound. +While I don’t have a graph of disk utilization (it averages 95 percent), +I do have a graph of the network utilization: + +![Embedded +Image](data:image/png;base64,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) + +As you can see, these servers are being seriously taxed. I should note +that 85 percent of this traffic is for the two IMAP servers handling +webmail traffic. We are hoping to push a new build that will fix this +problem soon. + +And finally, our two HTTP servers running Apache are quite happy as you +can see from this utilization graph: + +![Embedded +Image](data:image/png;base64,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) + +The spike is from the nightly slocate and rsync cron jobs. + +### \* How do you grow capacity? + +We added 8 application servers about 1 year ago, and we still have +plenty of capacity. We ordered more memory for the nodes in the "mars" +cluster, and will install it next week. We also have plans to add more +memory to our database server and hard drives to our NFS server this +summer. + +If our growth rate remains close to what it has been historically, we +will to keep using our current hardware until the summer of 2010. At +that point we are hoping to make the jump from Cent OS 4, to Cent OS 6, +and move the application tier from 32 bit hardware to 64 bit hardware. + +### \* How do you handle session management? + +We use sticky sessions. The load balancer routes incoming connections to +nodes based on the incoming IP. Session state is then maintained +internally by our application using custom code. In a handful of +specific scenarios we also serialize a portion of the session state data +and then store it in memcached so it is available to the other nodes. + +### \* How is your database/datatier architected? + +We have a master database which replicates critical tables to a slave +server for backup purposes. All of our application traffic goes to the +master database, since the slave server uses significantly older +hardware. We pull the offline backups from the slave database server +using mysqldump. We can afford to have the slave tables locked for +extended periods because no production traffic goes to it. + +Our overall strategy is to use highly optimized SQL with no views, +stored procedures or triggers. We only use joins when absolutely +necessary. As a result, we have gotten very good throughput from our +database server. We also place an emphasis on minimizing database use by +caching anything we can either at the application level or with +memcached. We try to save CPU cycles on the database server by +performing as much work as we can on the application servers (sort +operations are good example of that). Our theory is that even if it +takes ten times the amount of work to sort a result set at the +application layer, it is a hundred times easier to scale out the +application cluster than it is to scale out the database servers. + +Stats from our primary database server (as of March 11th, 2009): + +Uptime: 495 days 2 hours 37 min 17 sec + +Questions: 4896924841 + +Queries per second avg: 114.474 + +And some typical performance numbers: + +% user % nice % system % iowait % idle + +1.35 0.00 0.60 0.48 97.57 + +The hardware for the database server was acquired in 2005 and is a dual +Opteron, with 8 GB of RAM, and 6 SCSI drives in a RAID 5 configuration. + +### \* Which web framework/AJAX Library do you use? + +Jquery on the client side. We have our own C framework on the server +side. + +### \* How do you handle ad serving? + +We download the ads from our current ad network via their HTTP interface +and then insert them into messages as they leave the server via POP or +IMAP. + +While there are a lot of ad networks on the Internet today, we have only +found a couple that provide an API which allow us to download ads onto +the server and then insert them into emails (or web pages). It seems the +more widely used strategy is to use Javascript on the client, which in +our opinion is an inferior delivery method. + +### \* What is your object and content caching strategy? + +We currently use memcached for storing objects, and the libmemcached +library for interfacing with memcached servers. We’ve also implemented +custom C code for handling serialization. + +One major drawback we’ve run into is that memcached is not designed for +caching objects larger than 1 megabyte. This is a problem for us, as we +like to store the compressed (and in some cases encrypted) version of +emails in memcached to reduce the load on our NFS servers. Since a +significant percentage of emails are larger than 1 megabyte, we can only +partially implement this strategy. + +We have looked into increasing the size limit for memcached but found +that the current memcached codebase doesn’t handle small objects as +efficiently when the slab size is increased. In the future we may start +breaking large messages up into chunks and spreading them across +servers. + +### \* Which third party services did you use to help build your system? + +We’ve used contract programmers in the past to develop tools for +managing the platform; but these days we prefer to keep things in house. +We currently don’t rely on any 3rd parties for anything critical (other +than our colo provider for space, power, cooling and bandwidth). We +don’t like the idea of making excuses if another company makes a +mistake. We also believe that given the nature of the service were +providing keeping things in house results in competitive advantages. + +### \* How do you health check your server and networks? + +We have Nagios setup with just over 500 different checks (across 24 +total hosts). A number of the checks are custom Perl scripts that can +check specific things inside our database, or at the application layer. +We also have a third party service checking for sanity on our critical +load balanced ports just in case something breaks between our network +and the outside world. + +### \* How you do graph network and server statistics and trends? + +We use Cacti. And while Cacti is not the easiest tool to use, it is both +powerful and free. One of our engineers spent a week or so and learned +enough about Cacti to create the 120 or so different graphs we currently +have setup. + +### \* How do you test your system? + +We’ve written several command line programs that emulate the various +protocols for testing during development. When were ready to deploy we +will also test the build with several of the more popular email clients. + +When were ready, we will deploy a new build onto a single node and let +it run for a week or more to make sure it is stable. During that time we +monitor support emails and log files for any hidden problems. + +### \* How do you analyze performance? + +We pull statistics into Cacti via SNMP and custom scripts, and then +monitor the resulting graphs. We then focus our development efforts on +the areas we think will make the most difference. During development we +will also use gprof to profile the code and optimize the functions we +spend the most time executing. + +### \* How do you handle security? + +We keep all of our servers on a private subnet, and use the load +balancer to provide connectivity to the ports we care about (DNS, HTTP, +SMTP, POP, IMAP and the SSL alternatives). We use OpenVPN to get access +to other ports (SSH, MySQL, NFS, SNMP from outside the facility). + +We have an Intrusion Detection System in place along with some custom +scripts to make sure things stay secure (the details of which are +secret). We also use a least privilege model (chroot and suid) to +minimize the amount of damage someone could do if they did compromise a +service. + +### \* How do you handle customer support? + +Currently the engineering team takes turns handling support requests. We +feel this keeps the engineers aware of what could be improved. Support +requests are primarily received via our contact form and email. + +### \* How do you decide what features to add/keep? + +We listen to our users and try to focus on what they ask for. We also +use the service ourselves, so we have a good feel for what improvements +would make the biggest impact. Our list of desired features has grown +very long... + +### \* Do you implement web analytics? + +Yes, we use Awstats for simple log file analytics. + +### \* Do you do A/B testing? + +Not specifically, but we have written a number of small programs that +test specific functionality, and use them to verify builds. We’ve also +written a number of unit tests that are executed when the server starts +to make sure the environment is sane and everything is working +correctly. + +### \* How many data centers do you run in? + +So far we’ve kept the system inside one 42U rack. At least in the short +term, we plan to grow the system through hardware upgrades (if the need +arises). + +### \* How do you handle fail over and load balancing? + +We use a hardware load balancer (Alteon AD4). The load balancer presents +a single virtual IP to the internet and then splits incoming connection +requests among the different application servers. The load balancer +modifies the IP packets in realtime to maintain the illusion. The load +balancer also monitors the different application server nodes and +automatically removes any that fail. + +### \* Which DNS service do you use? + +Good old fashioned BIND for the domains we care about. Requests are +split among the different DNS servers using the load balancer. We let +our registrar handle DNS for the domains that we don’t consider +critical. + +### \* Which routers do you use? + +Our colo provider has Cisco 6509 routers. + +### \* Which switches do you use? + +Linksys gigabit switches. Since all of our app servers have two gigabit +interfaces we take advantage of this with a physical/logical network for +public traffic, and a separate physical/logical network for database, +NFS, and memcached traffic. + +Technically the Alteon AD4 is considered a Layer 7 switch. + +### \* Which email system do you use? + +We use our own custom platform, although Postfix is still used to relay +outbound mail. + +### \* How do you handle spam? + +We rely on 3rd party RBL’s, along with several of our own additions. +Paid users also have access to a statistical filter based on DSPAM. + +### \* How do you handle virus checking of email and uploads? + +ClamAV is used to scan inbound and outbound messages. In 2004 we looked +at using the Sophos library, but it was too expensive for us to license. +Since we don’t want to involve another process, our options remain +limited to products that have library APIs. + +### \* How do you backup and restore your system? + +All critical servers use RAID 5. The MySQL database is replicated to a +slave server, which is then used to create offline backups. + +As for the mail data, we feel it changes too frequently to make an +offline backup solution viable (not to mention the security implications +of keeping messages after a user deletes them). For a handful of our +corporate users, mail data is stored on at least two NFS servers, and +then deleted by the client app from both servers when the time comes. + +### \* How are software and hardware upgrades rolled out? + +Individual nodes are taken offline, the software upgraded, and then +brought back online. Typically we test new versions on one of the nodes +for a week or more before rolling it out across the entire cluster. As a +result we spend a lot of time making sure we have version N and version +N – 1 compatibility. + +### \* How do you handle major changes in database schemas on upgrades? + +We test, we pray, and we monitor. + +We’ve only done two non-compatible rollouts since coming online in 2004. +The first was when we switched to our custom platform in February/March +of 2005 (we had to fail back to the old system twice before our daemon +was stable enough to use full time). The second upgrade was in October +of 2007 (I think) when we changed the file format used to store messages +and had to convert all of the existing data over. This cutover went +smoothly, because we minimized the code that was changed between the two +versions to just that used for decrypting and compressing messages. +During the upgrade, unconverted messages were hidden from users via the +database. + +We may need to make one more leap sometime in 2009/2010 as we have +several major database and file system changes planned that won’t be +backwards compatible. Stay tuned... + +### \* What is your fault tolerance and business continuity plan? + +We keep offsite backups of application code, configuration information, +and key database tables. + +### \* Do you have a separate operations team managing your website? + +Yes. Only two people have access to the production equipment and +databases. + +### \* Do you use a content delivery network? If so, which one and what for? + +The mail system data changes far too frequently for a CDN to make sense. + +In contrast the consulting side of our company has deployed three +websites that used Akamai or Internap to deliver video. We recommend +their use if your hosting static content that is particularly sensitive +to latency (audio and video primarily) or you have a web application +that must load quickly all over the globe. + +### \* How much do you pay monthly for your setup? + +We feel our current pricing for space, power and bandwidth with +Colo4Dallas is a very competitive 4 figure amount; but we’ll keep the +exact amount to ourselves for now. + +## Miscellaneous + +### \* Who do you admire? + +Google, Amazon, Live Journal and Facebook on a technical level. I feel +these companies succeeded because their founders built better websites +than the competition and then coupled their initial success with good +technical and business decisions as their sites grew. The jury is still +out on Google on an ethical level. + +I also admire Fog Creek software for how it (supposedly) treats both +customers and employees. + +In the same vein, I still wonder how MySpace survived after making so +many poor technical decisions early on. Although I will admit they have +improved tremendously since their early days. + +### \* Have you patterned your company/approach on someone else? + +Our corporate philosophy is a combination of many different approaches. +The biggest influences have probably been the book [Founders at Work by +Jessica Livingston](http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1590597141) and the +Joel Spolsky books [Joel on +Software](http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1590593898) and [The Best of +Software Writing](http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1590595009). + +### \* Are there any questions you would add/remove/change in this list? + +You might want to consider creating a short form of this questionnaire. +It took awhile to write all of this. :) diff --git a/_stories/2009/6485845.md b/_stories/2009/6485845.md index 8aaf298..38cf03d 100644 --- a/_stories/2009/6485845.md +++ b/_stories/2009/6485845.md @@ -19,7 +19,197 @@ _tags: objectID: '6485845' --- -[Source](https://bitquabit.com/post/one-which-i-call-out-hacker-news/ "Permalink to ") +> “Implementing caching would take thirty hours. Do you have thirty +> extra hours? No, you don’t. I actually have no idea how long it would +> take. Maybe it would take five minutes. Do you have five minutes? No. +> Why? Because I’m lying. It would take much longer than five minutes. +> That’s the eternal optimism of programmers.” +> +> — Professor [Owen Astrachan](http://www.cs.duke.edu/~ola/) during 23 +> Feb 2004 lecture for +> [CPS 108](http://www.cs.duke.edu/courses/cps108/spring04/) +[Accusing open-source software of being a royal pain to +use](http://blog.bitquabit.com/2009/06/30/one-which-i-say-open-source-software-sucks/) +is not a new argument; it’s been said before, by those much more +eloquent than I, and even by some who are highly sympathetic to the +open-source movement. Why go over it again? +On Hacker News on Monday, I was amused to read some people saying that +[writing StackOverflow was hilariously +easy](http://news.ycombinator.com/item?id=678501)—and proceeding to back +up their claim by [promising to clone it over July 4th +weekend](http://news.ycombinator.com/item?id=678704). Others chimed in, +pointing to [existing](http://code.google.com/p/cnprog/) +[clones](http://code.google.com/p/soclone/) as a good starting point. +Let’s assume, for sake of argument, that you decide it’s okay to write +your StackOverflow clone in ASP.NET MVC, and that I, after being +hypnotized with a pocket watch and a small club to the head, have +decided to hand you the StackOverflow source code, page by page, so you +can retype it verbatim. We’ll also assume you type like me, at a cool +100 WPM ([a smidge over eight characters per +second](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Words_per_minute)), and unlike me, +you make zero mistakes. StackOverflow’s `*.cs`, `*.sql`, `*.css`, +`*.js`, and `*.aspx` files come to 2.3 MB. So merely typing the source +code back into the computer will take you about eighty hours if you make +zero mistakes. + +Except, of course, you’re not doing that; you’re going to implement +StackOverflow from scratch. So even assuming that it took you a mere ten +times longer to design, type out, and debug your own implementation than +it would take you to copy the real one, that already has you coding for +several weeks straight—and I don’t know about you, but I am okay +admitting I write new code considerably less than one tenth as fast as I +copy existing code. + +Well, okay, I hear you relent. So not the whole thing. But I can do +**most** of it. + +Okay, so what’s “most”? There’s simply asking and responding to +questions—that part’s easy. Well, except you have to implement voting +questions and answers up and down, and the questioner should be able to +accept a single answer for each question. And you can’t let people +upvote or accept their own answers, so you need to block that. And you +need to make sure that users don’t upvote or downvote another user too +many times in a certain amount of time, to prevent spambots. Probably +going to have to implement a spam filter, too, come to think of it, even +in the basic design, and you also need to support user icons, and you’re +going to have to find a sanitizing HTML library you really trust and +that interfaces well with Markdown (provided you do want to reuse [that +awesome editor](http://github.com/derobins/wmd/tree/master) +StackOverflow has, of course). You’ll also need to purchase, design, or +find widgets for all the controls, plus you need at least a basic +administration interface so that moderators can moderate, and you’ll +need to implement that scaling karma thing so that you give users +steadily increasing power to do things as they go. + +But if you do all that, you will be done. + +Except…except, of course, for the full-text search, especially its +appearance in the search-as-you-ask feature, which is kind of +indispensable. And user bios, and having comments on answers, and having +a main page that shows you important questions but that bubbles down +steadily à la reddit. Plus you’ll totally need to implement bounties, +and support multiple OpenID logins per user, and send out email +notifications for pertinent events, and add a tagging system, and allow +administrators to configure badges by a nice GUI. And you’ll need to +show users’ karma history, upvotes, and downvotes. And the whole thing +has to scale really well, since it could be +slashdotted/reddited/StackOverflown at any moment. + +But then\! **Then** you’re done\! + +…right after you implement upgrades, internationalization, karma caps, a +CSS design that makes your site not look like ass, AJAX versions of most +of the above, and G-d knows what else that’s lurking just beneath the +surface that you currently take for granted, but that will come to bite +you when you start to do a real clone. + +Tell me: which of those features do you feel you can cut and still have +a compelling offering? Which ones go under “most” of the site, and which +can you punt? + +Developers think cloning a site like StackOverflow is easy for the same +reason that open-source software remains such a horrible pain in the ass +to use. When you put a developer in front of StackOverflow, they don’t +really see StackOverflow. What they actually see is this: + +``` chroma +create table QUESTION (ID identity primary key, + TITLE varchar(255), --- why do I know you thought 255? + BODY text, + UPVOTES integer not null default 0, + DOWNVOTES integer not null default 0, + USER integer references USER(ID)); +create table RESPONSE (ID identity primary key, + BODY text, + UPVOTES integer not null default 0, + DOWNVOTES integer not null default 0, + QUESTION integer references QUESTION(ID)) +``` + +If you then tell a developer to replicate StackOverflow, what goes into +his head are the above two SQL tables and enough HTML to display them +without formatting, and that really is completely doable in a weekend. +The smarter ones will realize that they need to implement login and +logout, and comments, and that the votes need to be tied to a user, but +that’s still totally doable in a weekend; it’s just a couple more tables +in a SQL back-end, and the HTML to show their contents. Use a framework +like Django, and you even get basic users and comments for free. + +But that’s not what StackOverflow is about. Regardless of what your +feelings may be on StackOverflow in general, most visitors seem to agree +that the user experience is smooth, from start to finish. They feel that +they’re interacting with a polished product. Even if I didn’t know +better, I would guess that very little of what actually makes +StackOverflow a continuing success has to do with the database +schema—and having had a chance to read through StackOverflow’s source +code, I know how little really does. There is a tremendous amount of +spit and polish that goes into making a major website highly usable. A +developer, asked how hard something will be to clone, simply does not +think about the polish, because the polish is incidental to the +implementation. + +That is why an open-source clone of StackOverflow will fail. Even if +someone were to manage to implement most of StackOverflow “to spec,” +there are some key areas that would trip them up. Badges, for example, +if you’re targeting end-users, either need a GUI to configure rules, or +smart developers to determine which badges are generic enough to go on +all installs. What will actually happen is that the developers will +bitch and moan about how you can’t implement a really comprehensive GUI +for something like badges, and then bikeshed any proposals for standard +badges so far into the ground that they’ll hit escape velocity coming +out the other side. They’ll ultimately come up with the same solution +that bug trackers like Roundup use for their workflow: the developers +implement a generic mechanism by which anyone, truly anyone at all, who +feels totally comfortable working with the system API in Python or PHP +or whatever, can easily add their own customizations. And when PHP and +Python are so easy to learn and so much more flexible than a GUI could +ever be, why bother with anything else? + +Likewise, the moderation and administration interfaces can be punted. If +you’re an admin, you have access to the SQL server, so you can do +anything really genuinely administrative-like that way. Moderators can +get by with whatever django-admin and similar systems afford you, since, +after all, few users are mods, and mods should understand how the sites +work, dammit. And, certainly, none of StackOverflow’s interface failings +will be rectified. Even if StackOverflow’s stupid requirement that you +have to have and know how to use an OpenID (its worst failing) +eventually gets fixed, I’m sure any open-source clones will rabidly +follow it—just as GNOME and KDE for years slavishly copied off Windows, +instead of trying to fix its most obvious flaws. + +Developers may not care about these parts of the application, but +end-users do, and take it into consideration when trying to decide what +application to use. Much as a good software company wants to minimize +its support costs by ensuring that its products are top-notch before +shipping, so, too, savvy consumers want to ensure products are good +before they purchase them so that they won’t have to call support. +Open-source products fail hard here. Proprietary solutions, as a rule, +do better. + +That’s not to say that open-source doesn’t have its place. This blog +runs on Apache, [Django](http://www.djangoproject.com/), +[PostgreSQL](http://www.postgresql.org/), and Linux. But let me tell +you, configuring that stack is not for the faint of heart. PostgreSQL +needs vacuuming configured on older versions, and, as of recent versions +of Ubuntu and FreeBSD, still requires the user set up the first database +cluster. MS SQL requires neither of those things. Apache…dear heavens, +don’t even get me started on trying to explain to a novice user how to +get virtual hosting, MovableType, a couple Django apps, and WordPress +all running comfortably under a single install. Hell, just trying to +explain the forking vs. threading variants of Apache to a technically +astute non-developer can be a nightmare. IIS 7 and Apache with OS X +Server’s very much closed-source GUI manager make setting up those same +stacks vastly simpler. Django’s a great a product, but it’s nothing but +infrastructure—exactly the thing that I happen to think open-source does +do well, precisely because of the motivations that drive developers to +contribute. + +The next time you see an application you like, think very long and hard +about all the user-oriented details that went into making it a pleasure +to use, before decrying how you could trivially reimplement the entire +damn thing in a weekend. Nine times out of ten, when you think an +application was ridiculously easy to implement, you’re completely +missing the user side of the story. diff --git a/_stories/2009/6559071.md b/_stories/2009/6559071.md index d1cbf2f..50b8b58 100644 --- a/_stories/2009/6559071.md +++ b/_stories/2009/6559071.md @@ -19,7 +19,17 @@ _tags: objectID: '6559071' --- -[Source](http://stackoverflow.com/questions/713247/what-is-the-best-way-to-programatically-detect-porn-images/713414 "Permalink to ") +Akismet does an amazing job at detecting spam comments. But comments are +not the only form of spam these days. What if I wanted something like +akismet to automatically detect porn images on a social networking site +which allows users to upload their pics, avatars, etc? +There are already a few image based search engines as well as face +recognition stuff available so I am assuming it wouldn't be rocket +science and it could be done. However, I have no clue regarding how that +stuff works and how I should go about it if I want to develop it from +scratch. +How should I get started? +Is there any open source project for this going on? diff --git a/_stories/2009/6817587.md b/_stories/2009/6817587.md index b2ec5bc..accb587 100644 --- a/_stories/2009/6817587.md +++ b/_stories/2009/6817587.md @@ -19,7 +19,534 @@ _tags: objectID: '6817587' --- -[Source](https://www.menshealth.com/nutrition/soys-negative-effects "Permalink to ") +“Men aren’t supposed to have breasts,” he says today in a quiet Texas +drawl. “It was like my body was feminizing.” +A lean and wiry man, the breast development stood in stark contrast to +the rest of his body. But it was not Price's only symptom. +His beard growth had slowed, he’d lost hair from his arms, chest, and +legs, and he’d stopped waking up with morning erections. +“My sexual desire disappeared,” he says. “My penis—I won’t say it +atrophied, but it was so flaccid that it looked very small in comparison +with the way it used to be. Even my emotions changed.” + +**Related: **[The Men’s Health Guide To Erectile Dysfunction: Everything +You Need to Know to Keep Your Penis Healthy For +Life](https://www.rodaleu.com/courses/the-mens-health-guide-to-erectile-dysfunction?utm_source=MensHealth&utm_medium=article&utm_campaign=soy's-negative-effects) + +The first three doctors Price consulted diagnosed him with gynecomastia, +or the abnormal enlargement of the mammary glands in men. + +Tests further revealed that estrogen levels in his bloodstream were +eight times higher than the normal limits for men, higher even than the +levels typically seen in healthy women. Price’s estrogen was so high, in +fact, that the doctors were at a loss to explain it. One physician +became so frustrated he eventually accused Price of secretly taking +estrogen. + +“He thought I was a mental case,” says Price, still angry as he recalls +the experience. + +Dispirited and in pain, he decided to try one more doctor, this time a +fellow military man. + +**Related Video: ** + +He made an appointment with Lieutenant Colonel Jack E. Lewi, M.D., chief +of endocrinology at the San Antonio Military Medical Center. During that +first meeting, neither doctor nor patient had any inkling of just how +long and complex this medical mystery would prove to be. + +  + +Dr. Lewi initially checked for “usual suspect” lifestyle factors known +to trigger gynecomastia, from alcoholism to certain herbal ingredients, +like tea-tree oils and lavender. With those ruled out, Dr. Lewi was left +with a more dreaded suspect: an estrogen-secreting tumor. + +Over the next few months, Dr. Lewi ran multiple tests, checking Price +for +[cancer](http://www.menshealth.com/health/cancer-second-most-common-man-killer) +of the testicles, adrenal glands, chest, and lungs. + +The good news: When the final test came back negative, Price was in the +clear on all fronts. The not-so-good news: Dr. Lewi still had no clue +what was causing his patient’s hormones to go haywire. But he was +determined not to be the fourth doctor to leave James Price in limbo. + +In the classes that Dr. Lewi teaches to medical students and residents, +he has long offered this advice: If you’re not finding the right +answers, you’re not asking the right questions. + +Though he’d asked Price about his lifestyle and habits innumerable +times, he decided to go back once again, and this time to make his +questions as specific as possible. + +**Related: **[Top Cancer Doc Gives 5 Lifestyle Strategies to Avoid +Cancer](http://www.menshealth.com/health/stay-cancer-free) + +“I said, ‘Let’s go over your diet, meal by meal, and you tell me every +single thing you eat and drink.’ He said, ‘Sure, Dr. Lewi. I get up and +usually have some cereal.’ I said, ‘Do you put anything on it?’ He said +‘[Soy +milk](article.do?category=other.diseases.ailments&channel=health&conitem=43f999edbbbd201099edbbbd2010cfe793cd____).’” + +Price explained that he’d developed [lactose +intolerance](http://www.menshealth.com/nutrition/you-might-be-lactose-intolerant) +in recent years and had switched to [soy +milk](article.do?category=other.diseases.ailments&channel=health&conitem=43f999edbbbd201099edbbbd2010cfe793cd____) +exclusively. It had, in fact, become one of his favorite drinks, a great +thirst quencher in the Texas heat. + +  + +Dr. Lewi suddenly felt his excitement building. He asked Price how much +soy milk, on average, he drank each day. + +“He told me, ‘Probably about 3 quarts,’” recalls Dr. Lewi about the +moment that changed everything. + +Over the past decade, +[soy](article.do?category=other.diseases.ailments&channel=health&conitem=43f999edbbbd201099edbbbd2010cfe793cd____) +foods and good health have become inextricably linked in the national +consciousness. + +According to annual U.S. consumer attitude surveys by the United Soybean +Board, 85 percent of those polled in 2008 rated soy products as +“healthy,” a significant increase from the 59 percent who in 1997 +thought this was the case. Many men, to be sure, are hard pressed to +explain why soy is supposed to be so healthy, but they take it on faith +that they should embrace the bean. + +“It’s something you need to train yourself to like, you know, for the +health benefits," my friend Larry, a distance runner, opined recently. + +“Tofu’s the modern equivalent of cod liver oil,” added another buddy, +Bill. Three times a week, his wife stir-fries tofu with chard. “It’s +this gunk she calls superfood. I call it soylent green.” + +He pauses a beat before adding, “I guess I’m grateful she gets me to eat +it.” + +**Related: **[The Best Sources Of Protein For +Men](http://www.menshealth.com/weight-loss/worlds-best-protein-sources) + +Long the foundation of a vegetarian diet, tofu provides protein with +little of the saturated fat and none of the moral indigestion that comes +with meat. + +Moreover, in the past decade, research has emerged suggesting that +scarfing down soy may also play an active role in extending our lives. +In 1999, [soy +protein](article.do?site=MensHealth&channel=nutrition&category=diet.strategies&conitem=4e1a99edbbbd201099edbbbd2010cfe793cd____) +earned a highly coveted FDA-allowed health claim: Diets that include 25 +grams—about a pound of tofu—a day may reduce the risk of heart disease. + +**Related: **[30 Easy Ways to Save Your +Heart](http://www.menshealth.com/health/heart-saving-tips) + +Add to this the number of studies showing that soy protein might also +help protect against prostate cancer, and suddenly the stuff starts +looking like powerful medicine for men. + +Of course, most medicines have side effects. + +And when you consume soy protein, you’re actually courting the Mr. Hyde +side of two natural drugs: genistein and daidzein. Both act so similarly +to estrogen that they’re known as phytoestrogens (plant-produced +estrogens). + +Soybeans couldn’t care less about human sex characteristics—genistein +and daidzein may have evolved to act as chemical defenses against fungi +and grazing animals. (They aren't very effective deterrents, apparently, +since soy meal is widely used to feed livestock.) + +But when humans consume these compounds in high enough quantities, they +may experience gender-bending nightmares like James Price’s. + +**Related: **[How to Banish Your Man +Boobs](http://www.menshealth.com/fitness/banish-your-man-boobs-0) + +What’s more, studies of these phytoestrogens in leading peer-reviewed +medical journals suggest that even lower doses—such as the amount in the +25-gram [soy +protein](article.do?site=MensHealth&channel=nutrition&category=diet.strategies&conitem=4e1a99edbbbd201099edbbbd2010cfe793cd____) +target cited by the FDA—have the potential to wreak hormonal havoc. + +Here are a few of the recent findings across the life stages of men. + +**Babies: Weaned On the Bean** + +A whopping 35 percent of bottle-fed babies in the United States receive +at least some of their protein from soy. + +The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) is taking steps to change this: +It recommends that all infants who cannot be breastfed be given +cow’s-milk formulas as the first preferred alternative. Healthy +full-term infants should be given soy formula only when medically +necessary, the AAP’s 2008 report states. + +**Relate: **[5 Parenting Hacks You Won’t Find In Baby +Books](http://www.menshealth.com/guy-wisdom/easy-parenting-hacks) + +Babies with an extreme form of lactose intolerance fall into this +category, but many others who suffer from colic and excessive crying are +switched to soy formula despite a lack of proven benefits. + +Paul Cooke, Ph.D., a reproductive biologist at the University of +Illinois, has studied mice raised on enough genistein to make their +blood levels comparable to those of human infants fed soy formula. + +Among other worrisome findings, he discovered significant shrinkage of +the thymus gland, a key part of the immune system. “The thymus,” says +Cooke, “is like a finishing school for white blood cells—it’s where they +go to mature.” + +Whether the same effect occurs in human infants is difficult to say, but +a 2001 study in the Journal of the American Medical Association surveyed +over 800 adults, ages 20 to 34, who were fed either soy-based or +cow’s-milk formulas during their infancy. + +One of the few differences to emerge was that the group raised on soy +formula regularly used more asthma and allergy medications in adulthood. +Was this just a quirk of the sampling—or could it represent a subtle +impairment of immune function? + +“I don’t know the answer,” says Cooke. “But the point is I don’t think +anyone knows. There are 20 million people in the United States alone who +have consumed soy formula as infants. When people ask me about doing +experiments, I tell them we already are—with a large chunk of the +country’s population.” + +For now, at least, the United States is gambling that widespread use of +soy formula won’t lead to long-term consequences. + +In 2005, Israel’s health ministry recommended that soy products be +limited in young children and, if possible, avoided altogether in +infants. In issuing such a caution, Israel joined France, New Zealand, +and Australia in officially embracing a better-safe-than-sorry approach +for the next generation. + +**Teens to 20s: Faux Muscle Fuel** + +Most weightlifters, whether they’re dedicated competitors or occasional +gym rats, understand the importance of protein in muscle building and +repair. And research has shown that the timing of when you swallow that +protein is just as critical—a fact that’s created a market for +easy-to-consume protein supplements. + +**Related: **[Workout Nutrition: What and When to Eat to Build +Muscle](http://www.menshealth.com/nutrition/workout-nutrition-for-muscle-building) + +“It’s kind of hard to throw a steak down right before or after a +strength workout,” says William Kraemer, Ph.D., a professor of +kinesiology and a preeminent researcher of strength training and human +performance at the University of Connecticut. + +Protein supplements allow an athlete to dump a scoop of powder in with +some juice and chug what he needs, when he needs it. + +Giant canisters of the stuff line the shelves at GNC and similar +health-food stores nationwide, each brand touting its unique +muscle-building properties. The most common sources of protein used in +them are soy, whey, and casein. + +But the latter two, which come from animal sources, are more expensive +to produce than soy. The question currently being debated by strength +trainers and researchers is this: Does soy’s relative affordability come +at a cost to muscle gains? + +**Related: **[The Best Protein Powder For +Men](http://www.menshealth.com/nutrition/best-whey-powder) + +In a 2005 study in the Journal of Nutrition, researchers comparing soy +to casein concluded that “the biological value of soy protein must be +considered inferior to that of casein protein in humans.” + +Among other disadvantages, the researchers found, a significantly larger +portion of soy is degraded to the waste product urea. Moreover, it +contributes to less protein synthesis in the body. + +"A protein like whey has much more robust biological effects than soy,” +acknowledges Kraemer. + +In terms of strength gains, however, he says more research is needed +before he can provide definitive guidelines. + +“But my personal opinion is that soy protein is cheaper and whey protein +is higher quality,” he says. “There are also concerns that soy might +decrease a man’s testosterone production and increase his estradiol +production, which we tend to associate with female hormone production.” + +**Related: **[Is Testosterone Therapy +Safe?](http://www.menshealth.com/health/low-testosterone-treatment) + +After retiring from military service, James Price and his wife, Donna, +moved to a small farm in Texas. + +He had a commercial pilot’s license and split his time between flying +and working the land. His passion was raising and training quarter +horses that he broke himself. Price lived the kind of cowboy lifestyle +that few of his friends, even those decades younger, had the stamina to +sustain. + +Donna cooked well-balanced meals, nothing fancy, just standard American +fare. It was a good life. + +Then Donna developed glioblastoma multi-forme, a lethal type of brain +cancer. When she died, Price, then 55, was left to cope not only with +his grief but a radical change in his daily routine. Not surprisingly, +the diet of the new widower took a hit. + +“All of a sudden,” he says, “I was living on not-so-healthy meals I’d +make for myself.” + +**Related: **[5 Healthy Eating Hacks For Guys Who Hate to +Cook](http://www.menshealth.com/nutrition/easy-ways-eat-healthy) + +He saw a product advertised on TV called Ensure; it was supposed to +provide adults all the vitamins and minerals and other vital nutrients +necessary for health. He also started drinking milk, a favorite from his +childhood that he figured would supply protein and other nutrients. + +Unfortunately, Price soon discovered he was lactose intolerant. + +“I switched to soy milk because it’s lactose-free,” he says, “and I had +heard that soy milk is supposed to be good for you.” + +He tried it and liked it. Soon soy milk became a regular item on his +shopping list, something he bought on autopilot. + +In the wake of Donna’s death, Price’s body as well as his emotions began +to change, often in ways that were hard to separate from normal grief. + +Mood swings and a decrease in libido are not unusual companions to +bereavement. But Price had a nagging sense that something was off. + +“I was becoming much more sentimental,” he recalls, describing his +emotions as almost feminine. “I’d break out and cry at a sad movie, that +kind of thing. It just wasn’t like me.” + +When Price began dating again, it was as if the sexual aspect had +evaporated. “I enjoyed the company of women,” he says, “but it was just +like they were my friends. Even if I had wanted to do anything physical, +I couldn’t have.” + +**Related: **[5 Easy Ways to Increase Your +Manpower](http://www.menshealth.com/health/5-easy-ways-increase-your-manpower) + +The gynecomastia that eventually developed became deeply humiliating for +Price. He stopped wearing T-shirts even on the hottest days, fearing his +friends and neighbors might see the telltale bumps beneath the fabric. +His breasts by this point resembled the buds of a pubescent girl. + +Never once in the subsequent yearlong ordeal of medical testing did it +cross his mind that soy milk might be the cause. + +“I had no idea,” he says. “I never gave it a second thought.” + +The day Dr. Lewi asked him to stop drinking the stuff, he immediately +complied. He also began checking the ingredient labels on all other +items he regularly consumed. If Dr. Lewi was right, going cold turkey on +soy just might begin to reverse the symptoms. + +Over the next several months, blood tests revealed Price’s estrogen +levels were, indeed, dropping steadily back toward normal. + +Even better, the extreme nipple tenderness began abating. Eventually, +his breasts stopped hurting completely and he gradually began feeling a +little more like his old self. + +Dr. Lewi, who had searched the medical literature extensively when +trying to solve Price’s case, had come across no papers linking soy to +gynecomastia. + +Realizing his obligation to warn other doctors about the possibility, he +told Price he wanted to follow him for several more months and +eventually write up his case for a medical journal. + +Price readily agreed, grateful for the chance to spare others from his +ordeal. + +**20s to 40s: Privates in Peril** + +In a Harvard study published last year in the journal Human +Reproduction, Jorge E. Chavarro, M.D., Sc.D., and his colleagues found a +strong association between men’s consumption of soy foods and decreased +sperm counts. + +**Related: **[4 Ways to Boost Your +Fertility](http://www.menshealth.com/sex-women/fertility-cheat-sheet) + +Ninety-nine men reported their intake of 15 different soy-based foods, +then underwent semen analysis. Those in the highest category of daily +soy intake averaged 32 percent fewer sperm per milliliter of ejaculate +than those who went sans soy. + +Dr. Chavarro cautions that this doesn’t prove cause and effect, and that +it’s too early to counsel men to avoid soy foods in the hope of boosting +fertility. + +“But clearly, this story is just starting,” he says. “More studies need +to be conducted.” + +If shooting blanks is worrisome, how about being unable to shoot at all? +Two other recently published papers reveal that at least one soy +component clearly impairs erectile function in animals—and may do so in +men as well. + +The studies, published in the Journal of Andrology and Urology +respectively, looked at the effect of daidzein on the sexual function of +male rats. + +Moderate doses of the phyto-estrogen administered either in youth or +adulthood significantly affected the quality of their erections. Among +other changes, the daidzein-exposed males produced less testosterone, +had softer erections, and experienced biochemical changes to their +penile tissues that left these tissues less elastic and less capable of +complete blood engorgement. + +**Related: **[10 Myths About Erectile +Dysfunction](http://www.menshealth.com/health/erectile-dysfunction-myths) + +While acknowledging that rat results do not always directly translate to +humans, the authors of the first study suggest that this time there’s +reason to believe they will. + +They cite, among other things, a 10 percent higher incidence of erectile +dysfunction in Chinese men known to consume high amounts of soy compared +with Americans who avoid it. + +The authors of the Urology study sound a similar warning. They argue +that it’s reasonable to believe that men who consume lots of daidzein +could experience tissue changes similar to those seen in another mammal. + +Yufeng Huang, M.D., a coauthor on both papers, says that the “moderate” +dose used in the animal studies leads to approximately the same blood +level of daidzein in men who eat soy every day, a common practice in +Asia. He believes soy represents a novel and previously overlooked risk +factor for ED. + +“We are now recommending that soy be avoided by patients with erectile +dysfunction,” Dr. Huang says. And because erectile dysfunction increases +with age, he also suggests that men ages 40 and above limit their soy +intake. + +**Related: **[Do You Need Erectile Dysfunction +Drugs?](http://www.menshealth.com/health/erectile-dysfunction-drugs) + +**50s and Beyond: Brain Drain** + +Last summer, Eef Hogervorst, Ph.D., of England’s Loughborough +University, and other researchers published a study on soy products and +dementia risk. + +The researchers focused their attention on older Indonesians, members of +a culture in which tofu has long been a dietary staple. Hogervorst says +her team began the study confident of finding a benefit from tofu’s +phytoestrogens. + +“Almost everything we’d learned from animal and cell-culture work +indicated that estrogenlike compounds protect the brain,” she says. + +In older men and older women alike, however, they found exactly the +opposite indication: Participants over age 68 who were regularly eating +the most tofu had double the risk of dementia and memory impairment as +those consuming a more moderate amount. + +“We were very surprised by this at the time,” says Hogervorst, “but a +new consensus is starting to form now. Hormones and hormonelike products +are not very good for people over 65.” + +**Related: **[8 Daily Habits That Will Keep Your Brain Young and +Sharp](http://www.menshealth.com/health/keep-your-brain-sharp) + +In terms of soy itself, Hogervorst suspects its reputation is changing. + +“For a long time now,” she says, “people have been finding only good +things about phytoestrogens. Gradually, as some contrasting information +accumulates, the paradigm changes 180 degrees and you see people arguing +that phytoestrogens are all bad. The truth probably lies somewhere in +the middle.” + +Dr. Lewi's case report on James Price's condition was published in the +May/June 2008 edition of Endocrine Practice, a journal read by many of +the nation’s in-the-trenches endocrinologists. Thanks to this, doctors +now have a newly documented agent to consider when evaluating +gynecomastia. + +For his part, Dr. Lewi believes that soy products in moderation can +still be a healthy part of a man’s diet. + +“The problem,” he says, “is when a thing like soy is touted as this +wonderful panacea for health, and people end up going overboard on it.” + +A final twist in the Price case, however, shows how difficult it can be +to avoid soy. During the follow-up blood testing Price agreed to +undergo, his estrogen levels continued to drop, in a virtually linear +fashion, back toward normal. + +Then, several months later, and seemingly for no reason, the positive +trend reversed. As soon as he saw that Price’s estrogen was once again +climbing, Dr. Lewi called his patient. + +Before Dr. Lewi could even announce the results, Price said, “I already +know what you’re going to tell me, Dr. Lewi. You’re going to say my +estrogen level is coming up." + +Dumbfounded, Dr. Lewi asked Price how he knew that without seeing the +test results. + +Price explained that after switching from soy milk to lactose-free milk, +he was in the grocery store one day and bought some more Ensure. Though +he’d followed Dr. Lewi’s advice and checked the labels on virtually +every product he purchased, he’d neglected to check Ensure. + +“It’s advertised as having vitamins and minerals and all the stuff you +need to stay healthy,” he says. + +**Related: **[The Best Multivitamins For +Men](http://www.menshealth.com/health/best-multivitamins-men) + +Only after his breasts started hurting and growing again did it occur to +Price that Ensure might also contain the last thing his body needed. He +checked the label: Ensure contained soy protein. He told Dr. Lewi that +he threw out the rest and was no longer drinking it. + +Subsequent blood tests showed that this was enough to send Price’s +estrogen back in the healthy direction. + +Several months later, his estrogen levels—once higher than those of most +women—were in the low-to-normal range for healthy men. They’ve remained +in that range ever since, but the physical changes to his penis, his +loss of sexual desire, and his heightened emotions have persisted. + +**Related: **[The Male Libido +Crisis](http://www.menshealth.com/sex-women/male-libido-crisis) + +And while all pain associated with his breasts has disappeared, the +tissue unfortunately remains swollen, a consequence of fibrotic tissue +changes that take place with long-term gynecomastia. + +Although Price remains self-conscious about it, he’s reluctant to try +the only cure—cosmetic surgical reduction. There are too many risks, he +says—bleeding, infection, problems with anesthesia—to justify going +under the knife at this point in his life. + +As for other men who might one day develop a similar problem, Price’s +advice is unequivocal: Go to your doctor at the first sign of pain or +swelling. Symptoms caught and treated early are often reversible. + +Price also acknowledges that his body may have an above-average +sensitivity to soy’s phytoestrogens. + +Still, his experiences have taught him that the foods we eat are not +always what we think they are. Soy protein today is an ubiquitous, +profitable, and often buried ingredient in a bewildering number of +packaged foods. More than most people, Price was doing his best to avoid +it. But he was still tripped up. + +“In today’s supermarkets,” he says, his voice weary, “you can’t hardly +get anything without at least some soy in it.” diff --git a/_stories/2009/7471550.md b/_stories/2009/7471550.md index ad15214..83ef76e 100644 --- a/_stories/2009/7471550.md +++ b/_stories/2009/7471550.md @@ -19,7 +19,102 @@ _tags: objectID: '7471550' --- -[Source](https://www.macworld.com/article/1144929/apple_printers.html "Permalink to ") +Apple improved music players with the iPod, and revolutionized the cell +phone with the iPhone. So why shouldn’t it do the same thing with +printers? +That’s the question a Macworld editor put to me when describing the +[slideshow look at Apple-built printers over the +years](http://www.macworld.com/article/144736/2009/12/appleprinters.html). +I’m not sure if the editor was joking, but it took me a while to stop +laughing before I could remind him why some things are better left in +the past. +Frankly, there’s no money in printers, only in printer supplies—and you +can only get that revenue if you make the printing engine. Apple never +did. +As discussed in this [overview of Apple’s printer +business](http://www.macworld.com/article/144880/2009/12/five_important_printers.html), +the company sold printers throughout the 1980s and 1990s because it +needed to be sure that high-quality printers were available for its +computers. You may forget that the “Windows monopoly” didn’t really +consolidate until around 1995-1996. In the ’80s there were lots of +computer makers; in the early ’90s, the operating systems were so +fragmented that every application supported its own graphic printer +drivers. Consider yourself lucky if you don’t remember the days when PC +owners had to check every application to see if it was compatible with +their particular printer. + +Graphical operating systems with their own printer drivers helped +reverse that trend, but far more gradually than you may realize. The +Classic Mac OS had no “printing architecture.” Each printer driver +implemented everything, from the ground up, including figuring out how +to emulate every hack that every application had used to get better +results from the ImageWriter and LaserWriter drivers. (My favorite: +Until about 1998, unless printer drivers set a specific address to +non-zero while the Finder was printing, the Finder refused to print +icons.) QuickDraw GX hoped to change that, but died under pressure from +application developers who didn’t want to rewrite their printing code. + +By the late 1980s, HP and some other innovative printing vendors had +done the thankless work of figuring this out; they started shipping +their own Mac printer drivers. By the time Steve Jobs returned to Apple, +there were plenty of high-quality Mac-compatible printers available from +a wide variety of manufacturers. When the company had to winnow projects +to focus on the basics, lower-margin printers were an easy cut to make. + +If you long for the days of Apple printer innovation, you should know +that Apple never made its own printing technology. The print heads in +its dot matrix printers came from C. Itoh; the inkjet engines from Canon +or HP; the laser engines from Canon or Fuji-Xerox. Early on, Apple built +some printers itself with OEM parts, but by the end, StyleWriters were +merely rebranded HP printers built with Apple’s logo. The innovation, at +the time, was in the drivers. Thanks to CUPS in Mac OS X, printer +drivers are no longer nearly the black art they used to be. There’s +finally a real printing architecture open to everyone. + +That’s all background to the main point—there’s no money in printers. +Macworld’s own comparison pricing site lists a 4800-by-1200-DPI color HP +DeskJet printer, capable of 20 pages per minute, available new for [as +low as +$30](http://macbuy.macworld.com/search_getprod.php?masterid=740315673). +[HP’s annual +report](http://www.corporate-ir.net/seccapsule/seccapsule.asp?m=f&c=71087&fid=6045810&dc=) +says that the money in printing is in supplies—some specialty papers, +but mostly ink and toner. [Lexmark’s SEC +filings](http://investor.lexmark.com/phoenix.zhtml?c=92369&p=irol-SEC_other) +describe no fewer than six restructuring programs since 2006 and detail +the company’s efforts to focus its products on “high-usage” markets—the +ones that consume the most supplies. + +Printer companies have been trying to protect the fat margins on their +printer supplies with everything up to and including smart chips that +only accept digitally signed supplies, leading to lots of lawsuits and +consumer enmity. And those margins remain under pressure as consumers +look for lower-cost ink, with new services such as [Costco’s on-site +inkjet cartridge refill service](http://www.costcoinkjetrefill.com/) +emerging to put even more of a squeeze on printer manufacturers. + +Even if you want to ignore those problems, you’d still face the dozens +of extra parts Apple would have to add, stock, and track for supplying +and servicing any printers it made. Apple’s retail stores would need +additional repair space and staffing. And printers introduce a large +class of technical support problems that Apple currently avoids. And +after all that, unless Apple made the print engine, it wouldn’t make the +ink, and that’s where all the money is. + +There are hundreds of printers available to today’s Mac users at no cost +to Apple, and no money to be made by competing with them. Unless Apple +has a game-changing printing technology hidden in its labs somewhere—and +there’s no indication that it does—then printing is a game Apple can’t +beat. The only winning move is not to play. + +\[Matt Deatherage is the publisher of [MDJ and +MWJ](http://macjournals.com/), journals for serious Macintosh users. He +saw the innards of the classic Mac OS “printing manager” in a previous +life and has yet to fully recover.\] + +To comment on this article and other Macworld content, visit our +[Facebook](https://www.facebook.com/Macworld/) page or our +[Twitter](https://twitter.com/macworld) feed. diff --git a/_stories/2009/7496923.md b/_stories/2009/7496923.md index c0d12e1..baebef8 100644 --- a/_stories/2009/7496923.md +++ b/_stories/2009/7496923.md @@ -19,7 +19,72 @@ _tags: objectID: '7496923' --- -[Source](https://sivers.org/zipit "Permalink to ") +[Articles](/blog): +# Announcing your plans makes you less motivated to accomplish them +2009-06-16 +Shouldn’t you announce your goals, so friends can support you? + +Isn’t it good networking to tell people about your upcoming projects? + +Doesn’t the “[law of +attraction](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_attraction_%28New_Thought%29)” +mean you should state your intention, and visualize the goal as already +yours? + +Nope. + +Tests done since 1933 show that **people who talk about their intentions +are less likely to make them happen**. + +**Announcing your plans to others satisfies your self-identity just +enough that you’re less motivated to do the hard work needed.** + +In 1933, W. Mahler found that if a person announced the solution to a +problem, and was acknowledged by others, it was now in the brain as a +“social reality”, even if the solution hadn’t actually been achieved. + +NYU psychology professor [Peter +Gollwitzer](http://www.psych.nyu.edu/gollwitzer/) has been studying this +since his 1982 book “[Symbolic +Self-Completion](https://books.google.com/books?id=29xuRaMr1sIC&hl=en)” +([pdf article +here](http://interruptions.net/literature/Wicklund-BASP81.pdf)) — and +recently published results of new tests in a research article, “[When +Intentions Go Public: Does Social Reality Widen the Intention-Behavior +Gap?](http://www.psych.nyu.edu/gollwitzer/09_Gollwitzer_Sheeran_Seifert_Michalski_When_Intentions_.pdf)” + +Four different tests of 63 people found that **those who kept their +intentions private were more likely to achieve them** than those who +made them public and were acknowledged by others. + +Once you’ve told people of your intentions, it gives you a “premature +sense of completeness.” + +You have “identity symbols” in your brain that make your self-image. +**Since both actions and talk create symbols in your brain, talking +satisfies the brain enough that it “neglects the pursuit of further +symbols.”** + +A related +[test](http://psycnet.apa.org/?fa=main.doiLanding&doi=10.1037/0022-3514.91.2.232) +found that **success on one sub-goal** (like eating healthy meals) +**reduced efforts on other important sub-goals** (like going to the gym) +for the same reason. + +It may seem unnatural to keep your intentions and plans private, but +[try it](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V68SMFrpFt8). If you do tell a +friend, make sure not to say it as a satisfaction (“I’m going to run a +marathon\!”), but as dissatisfaction (“I want to lose 20 pounds, so kick +my ass if I don’t, +OK?”) + +![http://www.flickr.com/photos/30368039@N06/2891452910/](/images/zipit.jpg) + +Thanks to [Wray Herbert](https://twitter.com/wrayherbert)’s +[article](http://www.newsweek.com/does-announcing-your-goals-help-you-succeed-79645) +about this. Also [please see this +article](http://www.colipera.com/csi-ted-talks-what-derek-sivers-was-really-saying/) +for more clarification. diff --git a/_stories/2009/7522539.md b/_stories/2009/7522539.md index 3d2c330..15cc12e 100644 --- a/_stories/2009/7522539.md +++ b/_stories/2009/7522539.md @@ -19,7 +19,55 @@ _tags: objectID: '7522539' --- -[Source](http://www.apcmag.com/apollo-11-code-goes-open-source.htm "Permalink to ") +  +It’s been famously remarked that the on-board systems in Apollo 11 had +less computing power than a modern pocket calculator. +Now we can see that the code which ran those systems was probably less +complicated than the code behind the Windows Calculator. +As part of its celebration of the 40th anniversary of Apollo 11 and +man’s first steps on the moon the spaceheads at Google have published +the [original +code](http://googlecode.blogspot.com/2009/07/apollo-11-missions-40th-anniversary-one.html) +from the [Apollo Guidance +Computer](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_Guidance_Computer) or AGC. + +The code was transcribed from scanned images of printouts for the AGC in +both the Command Module (codenamed Comanche054) which reached moon orbit +and was the return vehicle; and the Lunar Module (Luminary099) which +took astronauts Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin to the moon. + +While the code itself is primarily of interest to programmers there are +some amusing snippets which show that the geek sense of humour never +changes. + +Line 666 in the Lunar Module’s code has a comment identifying it as +“NUMERO MYSTERIOSO” or the number of mystery while Lines 179 and 180 +have both been commented by the programmer as “TEMPORARY I HOPE HOPE +HOPE”. + +If you want to load up the code and try it for yourself Google also +provides links to an open-source AGC +emulator. + +![](http://media.apcmag.com/wp-content/uploads/sites/20/2009/07/apcnewslunar-hot_mainImage1.jpg1.jpg) + +What’s a GUI? The Apollo systems were controlled through a simple ‘Dsky’ +(display and keyboard) console + +  + +Alternatively you can take a virtual flight to the Moon with the latest +update to [Google Earth](http://earth.google.com/) which now adds lunar +images and related content to the program. + +The ‘Moon in Google Earth’ feature lets you take a tour of the landing +sites with narration by Apollo astronauts; view 3D models of the landed +spacecraft; zoom into 360 degree photos to see the footprints left by +the astronauts; and watch archival TV footage of the Apollo missions. + +The lunar panoramas can be explored using the same format as Google +Street View format although so far there haven’t been any privacy +complaints. diff --git a/_stories/2009/7992934.md b/_stories/2009/7992934.md index 36a7d25..c93729a 100644 --- a/_stories/2009/7992934.md +++ b/_stories/2009/7992934.md @@ -19,7 +19,454 @@ _tags: objectID: '7992934' --- -[Source](http://www.moreintelligentlife.com/content/edward-carr/last-days-polymath "Permalink to ") +**Carl Djerassi can** remember the moment when he became a writer. It +was 1993, he was a professor of chemistry at Stanford University in +California and he had already written books about science and about his +life as one of the inventors of the Pill. Now he wanted to write a +literary novel about writers’ insecurities, with a central character +loosely modelled on Norman Mailer, Philip Roth and Gore Vidal. +His wife, Diane Middlebrook, thought it was a ridiculous idea. She was +also a professor—of literature. “She admired the fact that I was a +scientist who also wrote,” Djerassi says. He remembers her telling him, +“‘You’ve been writing about a world that writers know little about. +You’re writing the real truth inside of almost a closed tribe. But there +are tens of thousands, hundreds of thousands of people who know more +about writing than you do. I advise you not to do this.’” +Even at 85, slight and snowy-haired, Djerassi is a det­ermined man. You +sense his need to prove that he can, he will prevail. Sitting in his +London flat, he leans forward to fix me with his hazel eyes. “I said, +‘ok. I’m not going to show it to you till I finish. And if I find a +publisher then I’ll give it to you.’ ” +Eventually Djerassi got the bound galleys of his book. “We were leaving +San Francisco for London for our usual summer and I said ‘Look, would +you read this now?’ She said, ‘Sure, on the plane.’ So my wife sits next +to me and of course I sit and look over. And I still remember, I had a +Trollope, 700 pages long, and I couldn’t read anything because I wanted +to see her expression.” + +Diane Middlebrook died of cancer in 2007 and, as Djerassi speaks, her +presence grows stronger. By the end it is as if there are three of us in +the room. “She was always a fantastic reader,” he says. “She read fast +and continuously. And suddenly you hear the snap of the book closing, +like a thunder clap. And I looked at her, and she then looked at me.  +She always used to call me, not ‘Carl’ or ‘Darling’, she used to call me +‘Chemist’ in a dear, affectionate sort of way. It was always ‘Chemist’. +And she said, ‘Chemist, this is good’.” + +Carl Djerassi is a polymath. Strictly speaking that means he is someone +who knows a lot about a lot. But Djerassi also passes a sterner test: he +can do a lot, too. As a chemist (synthesising cortisone and helping +invent the Pill); an art collector (he assembled one of the world’s +largest collections of works by Paul Klee); and an author (19 books and +plays), he has accomplished more than enough for one lifetime. + +His latest book, “Four Jews on Parnassus”, is an ima­gined series of +debates between Theodor Adorno, Arnold Schönberg, Walter Benjamin and +Gershom Scholem, which touches on art, music, philosophy and Jewish +identity. In itself, the book is an exercise in polymathy. At a reading +in the Austrian Cultural Forum in London this summer, complete with +Schönberg’s songs and four actors, including Djerassi himself, it drew +a good crowd and bewitched them for an hour and a half. Sitting down +with the book the next day, I found it sharp, funny, mannered and +dazzlingly erudite—sometimes, like a bumptious student, too erudite for +its own good. I enjoy Djerassi’s writing, though not everyone will. But +even his critics would admit that he really is more than “a scientist +who writes”. + +The word “polymath” teeters somewhere between Leo­nardo da Vinci and +Stephen Fry. Embracing both one of history’s great intellects and a +brainy actor, writer, director and TV personality, it is at once +presumptuous and banal. Djerassi doesn’t want much to do with it. +“Nowadays people that are called polymaths are dabblers—are dabblers +in many different areas,” he says. “I aspire to be an intellectual +polygamist. And I deliberately use that metaphor to provoke with its +sexual allusion and to point out the real difference to me between +polygamy and promiscuity." + +“To me, promiscuity is a way of flitting around. Polygamy, serious +polygamy, is where you have various marriages and each of them is +important. And in the ideal polygamy I suspect there’s no number one +wife and no number six wife. You have a deep connection with each +person.” + +Djerassi is right to be suspicious of flitting. We all know a gifted +person who cannot stick at anything. In his book “Casanova: A Study in +Self-Portraiture” Stefan Zweig describes an extreme case: + +\[Casanova\] excelled in mathematics no less than in philosophy. He was +a competent theologian, preaching his first sermon in a Venetian church +when he was not yet 16 years old. As a violinist, he earned his daily +bread for a whole year in the San Samuele theatre. When he was 18 he +became doctor of laws at the University of Padua—though down to the +present day the Casanovists are still disputing whether the degree was +genuine or spurious...He was well informed in chemistry, medicine, +history, philosophy, literature, and, above all, in the more lucrative +(because perplexing) sciences of astrology and alchemy...As universal +dilettante, indeed, he was perfect, knowing an incredible amount of all +the arts and all the sciences; but he lacked one thing, and this lack +made it impossible for him to become truly productive. He lacked will, +resolution, patience. + +Mindful of that sort of promiscuity, I asked my colleagues to suggest +living polymaths of the polygamous sort—doers, not dabblers. One test I +imposed was breadth. A scientist who composes operas and writes novels +is more of a polymath than a novelist who can turn out a play or a +painter who can sculpt. For Djerassi, influence is essential too. “It +means that your polymath activities have passed a certain quality +control that is exerted within each field by the competition. If they +accept you at their level, then I think you have reached that state +rather than just dabbling.” They mentioned a score of names—Djerassi was +prominent among them. Others included Jared Diamond, Noam Chomsky, +Umberto Eco, Brian Eno, Michael Frayn and Oliver Sacks. + +It is an impressive list, by anyone’s standards. You can find +scientists, writers, actors, artists—the whole range of human +creativity. Even so, what struck me most strongly was how poorly today’s +polymaths compare with the polymaths of the past. + +In the first half of 1802 a physician and scientist called Thomas Young +gave a series of 50 lectures at London’s new Royal Institution, arranged +into subjects like “Mechanics” and “Hydro­dynamics”. By the end, says +Young’s biographer Andrew Robinson, he had pretty much laid out the sum +of scientific knowledge. Robinson called his book “The Last Man Who Knew +Everything". + +Young’s achievements are staggering. He smashed Newtonian orthodoxy by +showing that light is a wave, not just a particle; he described how the +eye can vary its focus; and he proposed the three-colour theory of +vision. In materials science, engineers dealing with elasticity still +talk about Young’s modulus; in linguistics, Young studied the grammar +and voc­abulary of 400 or so languages and coined the term +“Indo-European”; in Egyptology, Jean-François Champollion drew on his +work to decode the Rosetta stone. Young even tinkered around with life +insurance. + +When Young was alive the world contained about a billion people. Few of +them were literate and fewer still had the chance to experiment on the +nature of light or to examine the Rosetta stone. Today the planet teems +with 6.7 billion minds. Never have so many been taught to read and write +and think, and then been free to choose what they would do with their +lives. The electronic age has broken the shackles of knowledge. Never +has it been easier to find something out, or to get someone to explain +it to you. + +Yet as human learning has flowered, the man or woman who does great +things in many fields has become a rare species. Young was hardly +Aristotle, but his capacity to do important work in such a range of +fields startled his contemporaries and today seems quite bewildering. +The dead cast a large shadow but, even allowing for that, the 21st +century has no one to match Michelangelo, who was a poet as well as a +sculptor, an architect and a painter. It has no Alexander von Humboldt, +who towered over early-19th-century geography and science. And no +Leibniz, who invented calculus at the same time as Newton and also wrote +on technology, philosophy, biology, politics and just about everything +else. + +Although you may be able to think of a few living polymaths who rival +the breadth of Young’s knowledge, not one of them beg­ins to rival the +breadth of his achievements. Over the past 200 years the nature of +intellectual endeavour has changed profoundly. The polymaths of old were +one-brain universities. These days you count as a polymath if you excel +at one thing and go on to write a decent book about another. + +Young was just 29 when he gave his lectures at the Royal Institution. +Back in the early 19th century you could grasp a field with a little +reading and a ready wit. But the distinction between the dabbling and +doing is more demanding these days, because breaking new ground is so +much harder. There is so much further to trek through other researchers’ +territory before you can find a patch of unploughed earth of your own. + +Even the best scientists have to make that journey. Benjamin Jones, of +the Kellogg School of Management near Chicago, looked at the careers of +Nobel laureates. Slightly under half of them did their path-breaking +work in their 30s, a smattering in their 20s—Einstein, at 26, was +unusually precocious. Yet when the laureates of 1998 did their seminal +research, they were typically six years older than the laureates of 1873 +had been. It was the same with great inventors. + +Once you have reached the vanguard, you have to work harder to stay +there, especially in the sciences. So many scientists are publishing +research in each specialism that merely to keep up with the reading is a +full-time job. “The frontier of knowledge is getting longer,” says +Professor Martin Rees, the president of the Royal Society, where Young +was a leading light for over three decades. “It is impossible now for +anyone to focus on more than one part at a time.” + +Specialisation is hard on polymaths. Every moment devoted to one area is +a moment less to give over to something else. Researchers are focused on +narrower areas of work. In the sciences this means that you often need +to put together a team to do anything useful. Most scientific papers +have more than one author; papers in some disciplines have 20 or 30. +Only a fool sets out to cure cancer, Rees says. You need to concentrate +on some detail—while remembering the big question you are ultimately +trying to answer. “These days”, he says, “no scientist makes a unique +contribution.” + +It is not only the explosion of knowledge that puts polymaths at a +disadvantage, but also the vast increase in the number of specialists +and experts in every field. This is because the learning that creates +would-be polymaths creates monomaths too and in overwhelming numbers. If +you have a multitude who give their lives to a specialism, their +combined knowledge will drown out even a gifted generalist. And while +the polymath tries to take possession of a second expertise in some +distant discipline, his or her first expertise is being colonised by +someone else. + +The arts are more forgiving than the sciences. Rees is reminded of a +remark by Peter Medawar, the zoologist, who pointed out that, after +finishing a draft of “Siegfried” in 1857, Wagner was able to put the +opera aside for 12 years before setting out to complete his Ring Cycle +with “Götterdämmerung”. A scientist would have had to worry about a +rival stealing his thunder. But nobody else was about to compose the +destruction of Valhalla. + +Perhaps that explains why would-be polymaths these days so often turn to +writing books. Yet, as Richard Posner has discovered, even that is often +enemy territory. + +Unlike France, America and Britain don’t tend to encourage public +intellectuals. But if they did, Richard Posner would be their +standard-bearer. Posner’s day job is as an appeals-court judge in +Chicago—a career founded upon his reputation as America’s pre-eminent +thinker on anti-trust law. But Posner is not just a lawyer. In his spare +time he has written on sex, security, politics, Hegel, Homeric society, +medieval Iceland and a whole lot more. The Wall Street Journal once +called him a “one-man think-tank”. + +Posner thinks like a polymath. “I’m impatient and I’m restless,” he +says, in a matter-of-fact way. “After I graduated from law school, I +worked first in government for six years. I enjoyed it but I didn’t +really want to make a career of that. I went into teaching without any +great sense of commitment, but I couldn’t think of anything else. But +gradually I lost int­erest, as the 1970s wore on, I became involved in +consulting. So when the judgeship came along in 1981—quite out of the +blue—I was happy to take that. I just kind of slid into law. It is sort +of the default career choice in the United States.” + +Posner first made his name as a monomath. “I had a very big intellectual +commitment for many years to anti-trust law. I wrote a lot about that.” +Eventually, though, the polymath rose to the surface and he put +anti-trust behind him. “I just got bored with it, I think the field +slowed down—it happens with fields,” he says. These days most people +cling to their expertise; Posner talks about it as if he were trading in +an old car. + +After he became immersed in the intellectual life of the University of +Chicago, Posner started to apply insights from economics to a broad +range of subjects. In his book “Sex and Reason”, written in 1990, he +used economics to explain a part of life that specialist lawyers and +economists had tended to think was beyond their reach. To take a simple +example, the AIDS epidemic made gay sex unavoidably more costly, either +because of the risk of disease or of switching to safe sex. It therefore +reduced the amount of gay sex—and, by the same mechanism, cut the number +of illegitimate births and inc­reased the number of legitimate ones. + +The book was a success because Posner had the field pretty much to +himself. “Sometimes one goes into a new area and there hasn’t been much +done in it and then you are a little ahead of the curve,” he says. Even +then, the monomaths were in hot pursuit. “After a while there is so much +in it that you don’t know what you’re going to do. Since 1990 the field +has become extremely crowded because of specialisation and not very +attractive.” Time to move on. + +The monomaths do not only swarm over a specialism, they also play dirty. +In each new area that Posner picks—policy or science—the experts start +to erect barricades. “Even in relatively soft fields, specialists tend +to develop a specialised vocabulary which creates barriers to entry,” +Posner says with his economic hat pulled down over his head. +“Specialists want to fend off the generalists. They may also want to +convince themselves that what they are doing is really very difficult +and challenging. One of the ways they do that is to develop what they +regard a rigorous methodology—often mathematical. + +“The specialist will always be able to nail the generalists by pointing +out that they don’t use the vocabulary quite right and they make +mistakes that an insider would never make. It’s a defence mechanism. +They don’t like people invading their turf, especially outsiders +criticising insiders. So if I make mistakes about this economic +situation, it doesn’t really bother me tremendously. It’s not my field. +I can make mistakes. On the other hand for me to be criticising someone +whose whole career is committed to a particular outlook and method and +so on, that is very painful.” + +For a polymath, the charge of dabbling never lies far below the surface. +“With the amount of information that’s around, if you really want to +understand your topic thoroughly then, yes, you have to specialise,” +says Chris Leek, the chairman of British Mensa, a club for people who +score well on IQ tests. “And if you want to speak with authority, then +it’s important to be seen to specialise.” + +That is why modern institutions tend to exclude polymaths, he says. +“It’s very hard to show yourself as a polymath in the current +academic climate. If you’ve got someone interested in going across +departments, spending part of the time in physics and part of the time +elsewhere, their colleagues are going to kick them out. They’re not +contributing fully to any single department. OK, every so often you’re +going to get a huge benefit, but from day to day, where the universities +are making appointments, they want the focus in one field.” + +Britain goes out of its way to create monomaths, by asking students aged +15 to choose just three or four subjects to study at A-level. Djerassi +thinks this is a mistake. “There’ll be students here at age 16 or 17 who +are much better than many Americans at French or maths or something, but +abysmally ignorant in another area,” he says. “We really preach +intellectual monogamy more and more in this day and age. That’s by +necessity, but we’re overdoing it. And what we really ought to do is +start with intellectual polygamy.” + +Djerassi has also suffered in his own work because of monomaths’ +hostility, especially as a playwright. “They always keep crying out ‘the +co-inventor, father, the mother of the Pill’,” he growls. “Without +having any knowledge about the play, they start with it. As if it’s got +anything to do with it.” Djerassi thinks that this means he has to work +harder to promote his work. “No agent has ever been interested in me. +They want 29-year-old Irish playwrights, not 86-year-old expatriates.” A +trace of bitterness creeps into his voice, but he concedes: “If I were +an agent I’d feel the same way.” + +Overwhelmed by specialists and attacked by experts as dilettantes, it is +amazing that there are any polymaths at all. How do they manage? + +Alexander McCall Smith is a natural writer. “I just have to do it,” he +says. “I suppose I write four novels a year now, which I don’t have to +do. In one sense, that is breaking all the rules in publishing: you’re +only meant to write one, but I write four, sometimes five. But I just +feel that I have got to do it and I enjoy it greatly. I suppose I am +very fortunate. The way I work is I go into a trance and write. I don’t +have to sit there and think: it happens. It just comes, so I am very, +very lucky.” + +These days McCall Smith is best-known as the man behind “The No. 1 +Ladies’ Detective Agency”. But his first career, as a university +professor, was eminent in its own right. “My interest was medical law. +That, I suppose, was cross-disciplinary. You had to be able to +understand the scientific issues and the medical issues, but you just +had to have a sound lay understanding of them. So, for example, I worked +as a member of the Human Genetics Commission for a while. And that meant +I had to go off and make sure that I understood what the issues in +genetics were.” + +He is also musical—though in a dabbling way. “I play wind instruments, +but I don’t play them very well,” he says. “My wife and I set up an +orchestra, which is called the Really Terrible Orchestra, and indeed +that is absolutely accurate. Virtually everybody I know is better at +music than I am.” + +McCall Smith is a polymath by necessity. He wrote while he was an +academic, producing fiction, about 30 children’s books, short stories +and plays for radio. He paid a price. “I probably would have made more +of my academic career had I not had another interest, I think, yes. +Academia requires a lot of commitment, so I suppose I could have done +more.” But, speaking to him, I don’t think he had a choice. + +Circumstance also played its part. McCall Smith was able to write +because university life allowed it. “It would have been different had I +been somebody who practised commercial law in a law firm, for instance. +That wouldn’t be compatible with doing anything else. If you were a +futures trader or something like that—there are some jobs where the +pressure is so intense that it must be very difficult to have any energy +by the time you come home at night.” + +Posner could become a polymath because he has a unifying set of ideas. +“A lot of this work is economic theory in new areas. So applying a +method to a new field is not the same thing as mastering multiple +fields. To achieve mastery in unrelated areas in an age of +specialisation is exceedingly difficult. On the other hand, to take a +technique that can be applied to a variety of substantive fields is not +as difficult. So if I write about the economics of old age and the +economics of sex and the economics of the national security and +intelligence services, I am not mastering the field. I am not becoming a +sociologist, or a psychiatrist or what have you.” + +Djerassi could become a polymath because he has had two careers, one +after the other—he did his science and, having made a fortune, he +concentrated on his writing. He was helped by his wife. “She was a very +sophisticated writer and an extremely tough critic and she managed to +divorce affection from criticism. She thought ‘this is terrible’ or +‘this is clichéd’.” He also has ambition and the willpower of someone +on borrowed time. At 62 he was diagnosed with cancer. “Suddenly, from +one day to another, I didn’t even know what my life expectancy would be +before I got the pathology back after the operation. And I remember +being very depressed and afterwards I didn’t want to talk to anyone.” He +said to himself, “‘Gee, now if I’d known five years earlier it would +come out that I’d have cancer and be told I’d live for another few +years, would I live a different life?’ And I said, ‘Absolutely’.” + +Not all polymaths find their way. Andrew Robinson, Young’s biographer, +gives the example of Michael Ventris, who died aged 34, having tried to +satisfy both his urge to be an architect and also his fascination with +codes. Ventris was the first to make sense of Linear B, an early Greek +script, but he could not apply himself as successfully to architecture. + +“With Michael Ventris, the polymathy gradually des­troyed him,” Robinson +says. “He was famous for cracking Linear B, but I believe he was +depressed. Architecture was not enough. He was a logician. Linear B took +him over. He couldn’t reach the standard he had set in another field, he +couldn’t do justice to his own gifts, he couldn’t let it all go and give +it up.” + +Robinson thinks that Young also ran up against his limits. “Young +understood after 1814 that he couldn’t carry on with serious medicine. +He could have pursued it but even then it was clear that he wouldn’t be +taken seriously. People love a sole genius with tunnel vision—a focus,” +Robinson says. Darwin spent several years thinking about barnacles. But +because Young’s work was in so many different fields, he was accused of +being a dilettante. “Polymaths are disconcerting,” Robinson says. +“People feel they are trespassing.” + +Even Leonardo warned against being spread thin. The other day Robinson +came across one of his late notebooks, in which he had written, “Like a +kingdom divided, which rushes to its doom, the mind that engages in +subjects of too great variety becomes confused and weakened.” + +In an age of specialists, does it matter that generalists no longer +thrive? The world is hardly short of knowledge. Countless books are +written, canvases painted and songs recorded. A torrent of research is +pouring out. A new orthodoxy, popularised by Malcolm Gladwell, sees +obsessive focus as the key that unlocks genius. + +Just knowing about a lot of things has never been easier. Never before +have dabblers been so free to paddle along the shore and dip into the +first rock pool that catches the eye. If you have an urge to take off +your shoes and test the water, countless specialists are ready to hold +your hand. + +And yet you will never get very deep. Depth is for monomaths—which is +why experts so often seem to miss what really matters. Specialisation +has made the study of English so sterile that students lose much of the +joy in reading great literature for its own sake. A generation of +mathematically inclined economists neglected many of  Keynes’s insights +about the Depression because he put them into words. For decades +economists sweated over fiendish mathematical equations, only to be +brought down to earth by the credit crunch: Keynes’s well-turned phrases +had come back to life. + +Part of my regret at the scarcity of polymaths is sentimental. Polymaths +were the product of a particular time, when great learning was a mark of +distinction and few people had money and leisure. Their moment has +passed, like great houses or the horse-drawn carriage. The world may +well be a better place for the specialisation that has come along +instead. The pity is that progress has to come at a price. Civilisation +has put up fences that people can no longer leap across; a certain type +of mind is worth less. The choices modern life imposes are duller, more +cramped. + +The question is whether their loss has affected the course of human +thought. Polymaths possess something that monomaths do not. Time and +again, innovations come from a fresh eye or from another discipline. +Most scientists devote their careers to solving the everyday problems in +their specialism. Everyone knows what they are and it takes ingenuity +and perseverance to crack them. But breakthroughs—the sort of idea that +opens up whole sets of new problems—often come from other fields. The +work in the early 20th century that showed how nerves work and, later, +how DNA is structured originally came from a marriage of physics and +biology. Today, Einstein’s old employer, the Institute for Advanced +Study at Princeton, is laid out especially so that different disciplines +rub shoulders. I suspect that it is a poor substitute. + +Isaiah Berlin once divided thinkers into two types. Foxes, he wrote, +know many things; whereas hedgehogs know one big thing. The foxes used +to roam free across the hills. Today the hedgehogs rule. diff --git a/_stories/2009/8206124.md b/_stories/2009/8206124.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..cddaf33 --- /dev/null +++ b/_stories/2009/8206124.md @@ -0,0 +1,2916 @@ +--- +created_at: '2014-08-21T06:25:47.000Z' +title: Dynamically Typed Languages (2009) +url: http://tratt.net/laurie/research/pubs/html/tratt__dynamically_typed_languages/ +author: dkarapetyan +points: 55 +story_text: '' +comment_text: +num_comments: 56 +story_id: +story_title: +story_url: +parent_id: +created_at_i: 1408602347 +_tags: +- story +- author_dkarapetyan +- story_8206124 +objectID: '8206124' + +--- +**Cite this paper as:** Dynamically typed languages, Laurence Tratt, +Advances in Computers, vol. 77, pages 149-184, July 2009 ( + +Dynamically typed languages, Laurence Tratt, Advances in Computers, vol. +77, pages 149-184, July 2009 ( [BibTeX +file](../../bibtex/tratt__dynamically_typed_languages.bib) ). + +**Also available as:** +[PDF](../../papers/tratt__dynamically_typed_languages.pdf). + +# Dynamically Typed Languages + +[](/cdn-cgi/l/email-protection#15797460677c705561677461613b7b7061) + +\[email protected\] + + +Bournemouth University, Poole, Dorset, BH12 5BB, United Kingdom. + +Laurence TrattBournemouth University, Poole, Dorset, BH12 5BB, United +Kingdom. + +**Abstract.** Dynamically typed languages such as Python and Ruby have +experienced a rapid growth in popularity in recent times. However, there +is much confusion as to what makes these languages interesting relative +to statically typed languages, and little knowledge of their rich +history. In this chapter I explore the general topic of dynamically +typed languages, how they differ from statically typed languages, their +history, and their defining features. + +### + +1 + +Introduction + +As computing is often split into software and hardware, so programming +languages are often split into dynamically and statically typed +languages. The traditional, simplified, definition of dynamically typed +languages are that they do not enforce or check type-safety at +compile-time, deferring such checks until run-time. While factually +true, this definition leaves out what makes dynamically typed languages +interesting—for example that they lower development costs +\[[Ous98](#Xousterhout__scripting_higher_level_programming_for_the_21st_century)\] +and provide the flexibility required by specific domains such as data +processing +\[[MD04](#Xmeijer_drayton__static_typing_when_possible_dynamic_typing_when_needed_the_end_of_the_cold_war_between_programming_languages)\]. + +For many people, dynamically typed languages are the youthful face of a +new style of programming introduced in the past few years. In fact, they +trace their roots back to the earliest days of high-level programming +languages in the 1950’s via +Lisp \[[McC60](#Xmccarthy__recursive_functions_of_symbolic_expressions_and_their_computation_by_machine_part_i)\]. +Many important techniques have been pioneered in dynamically typed +languages from lexical +scoping \[[SJ75](#Xsussman_steele__scheme_an_interpreter_for_extended_lambda_calculus)\] +to Just-In-Time (JIT) +compilation \[[Ayc03](#Xaycock__a_brief_history_of_just_in_time)\], and +they remain a breeding ground for new ideas. + +Systems programming – seen as ‘serious’ and thus demanding statically +typed languages – is often contrasted with scripting programming – seen +as ‘amateurish’ and thus needing little more than dynamically typed +languages \[[Ous98](#Xousterhout__scripting_higher_level_programming_for_the_21st_century)\]. +The derogative use of the term ‘scripting’ led to the creation of other +terms such as ‘latently typed’ and ‘lightweight languages’ to avoid the +associated stigma. In reality the absence or presence of static typing +has a number of effects on the use and applicability of a language that +simple comparisons +ignore \[[Pau07](#Xpaulson__developers_shift_to_dynamic_programming_languages)\]. +So while some tasks such as low-level systems (e.g. operating systems), +resource critical systems (e.g. databases), or safety critical systems +(e.g. systems for nuclear reactors) benefit from the extra rigour of +statically typed languages, for many other systems the associated costs +outweigh the +benefits \[[Lou08](#Xloui__in_praise_of_scripting_real_programming_pragmatism)\]. +Gradually, dynamically typed languages have come to be seen as a valid +part of the software development toolkit, and not merely second-class +citizens \[[SG97](#Xspinellis_guruprasad__lightweight_languages_as_software_engineering_tools)\]. + +From the mainstream’s perspective, dynamically typed languages have +finally come of age. More than ever before, they are used to build +widely used real-world systems, often for the web, but increasingly for +domains that were previously the sole preserve of statically typed +languages +(e.g. \[[KG07](#Xkarabuk_grant__a_common_medium_for_programming_operations_research_models)\]), +often because of lower development costs and increased +flexibility \[[MMMP90](#Xmadsen_magnusson_molier_pedersen__strong_typing_of_object_oriented_languages_revisited), [Nor92](#Xnorvig__paradigms_of_artificial_intelligence_programming_case_studies_in_common_lisp)\]. + +It should be noted that since there is no central authority defining +dynamically typed languages, there is great variation within those +languages which are typically classified as dynamically typed languages; +nevertheless all such languages share a great deal in common. In this +chapter, I explore the general topic of dynamically typed languages, how +they differ from statically typed languages, their history, and their +defining features. The purpose of this chapter is not to be a +cheer-leader for dynamically typed languages—it is my contention that +both statically typed and dynamically typed languages are required for +the increasingly broad range of tasks that software is put to. Rather +this chapter aims to explain what dynamically typed languages are and, +by extension, to show where they may and may not be useful. + +### + +2 + +Defining types + +The lack of a widely understood definition of dynamically typed +languages has resulted in many misunderstandings about what dynamic +typing is. Perhaps because of this, alternative terms such as ‘soft +typing’ are sometimes used instead. Earlier I gave the simplified, and +oft-heard, definition that a dynamically typed language is one that does +not check or enforce type-safety at compile-time. Inevitably this +simplified definition does not capture everything it should—the +subtleties and variations in the use of dynamic typing preclude a short, +precise definition. + +In this section, I define various terms relating to dynamically typed +languages, building up an increasingly accurate picture of what is meant +by this term. Further reading on these topics can be found +in \[[Car97](#Xcardelli__type_systems), [Pie02](#Xpierce__types_and_programming_languages)\]. + +#### + +2.1 + +Types + +At an abstract level, a type is a constraint which defines the set of +valid values which conform to it. At the simplest level all apples +conform to an ‘Apples’ type and all oranges to an ‘Oranges’ type. Types +often define additional constraints: red apples are conformant to the +‘Red Apples’ type, whereas green apples are not. Types are typically +organised into hierarchies, meaning that all apples which conform to the +‘Red Apples’ type also conform to the ‘Apples’ type but not necessarily +vice versa. + +In programming languages, types are typically used to both classify +values, and to determine the valid operations for a given type. For +example the int type in most programming language represents integers, +upon which the operations +, -, and so on are valid. Most programming +languages define a small number of built-in types, and allow user +programs to add new types to the system. While, abstractly, most types +define an infinite set, many built-in programming language types +represent finite sets; for example, in most languages the int type is +tied to an underlying machine representation of n bits meaning that only +a finite subset of integers conform to it. + +In many Object Orientated (OO) programming languages, the notions of +type and class are conflated. That is, a class ‘Apple’ which defines the +attribute ‘pip’ and the operation ‘peel’ also implicitly defines a type +of the same name to which instances of the class automatically conform +to. Because classes do not always define types to which the classes’ +instances +conform \[[CHC90](#Xcook_hill_canning__inheritance_is_not_subtyping), [AC96](#Xtheory_of_objects)\], +in this chapter I treat the two notions separately. This means that, +abstractly, one must define a separate type ‘Apples Type’ to which +instances of the ‘Apple Class’ conform to. This definition of types may +seem unnecessarily abstract but, as shall be seen later, the notion of +type is used in many different contexts. + +#### + +2.2 + +Compile-time vs. run-time + +In this chapter, I differentiate between errors which happen at +compile-time and run-time. Compile-time errors are those which are +determined by analyzing program code without executing it; run-time +errors are those that occur during program execution. + +Statically typed languages typically have clearly distinct compile-time +and run-time phases, with program code converted by a compiler into a +binary executable which is then run separately. In most dynamically +typed languages (e.g. Converge, Perl, and Python) ‘running’ a file both +compiles and executes it. The blurring, from an external perspective, of +these two stages often leads to dynamically typed languages being +incorrectly classified as ‘interpreted’ languages. Internally, most +dynamically typed languages have distinct compilation and execution +phases and therefore I use the terms compile-time and run-time +identically for both statically and dynamically typed languages. + +#### + +2.3 + +Static typing + +Before defining what dynamic typing is, it is easiest to define its +‘opposite’. Statically typed languages are those which define and +enforce types at compile-time. Consider the following +Java \[[GJSB00](#Xgosling00java)\] code: + +  + + int + + i + + = + + 3; + + + +  + + String + + s + + = + + "4"; + + + +  + + int + + x + + = + + i + + + + + s; + +It uses two built-in Java types: int (representing integers) and String +(Unicode character arrays). While a layman might expect that when this +program is run, x will be set to 7, the Java compiler refuses to compile +this code; the compile-time error that results says that the + operation +is not defined between values of type int and String (though see +Section [2.6](#x1-100002.6) to see why the opposite does in fact work). +This is the essence of static typing: code which violates a type’s +definition is invalid and is not compiled. Such type related errors can +thus never occur in run-time code. + +##### Implicit type declarations + +Many statically typed languages, such as Java, require the explicit +static declaration of types. That is, whenever a type is used it must be +declared before hand, hence int i = 3 and so on. + +It is often incorrectly assumed that all statically typed languages +require explicit type declarations. Some statically typed languages can +automatically infer the correct type of many expressions, requiring +explicit declarations only when automatic inference by the compiler +fails. For example, the following +Haskell \[[Jon03](#Xpeyton_jones__haskell_98_languages_and_libraries)\] +code gives an equivalent compile-time error message to its Java cousin, +despite the fact that the types of i and s are not explicitly declared: + +  + + let + + + +  + +  + +  + + i + + = + + 3 + + + +  + +  + +  + + s + + = + + "4" + + + +  + + in + + + +  + +  + +  + + i + + + + + s + +In this chapter, I define the term ‘statically typed languages’ to +include both implicitly and explicitly statically typed languages. + +##### Nominal and structural typing + +As stated earlier, types are typically organised into hierarchies. There +are two chief mechanisms for organising such hierarchies. Nominal +typing, as found in languages such as Java, is when an explicit named +relationship between two types is recorded; for example, a user +explicitly stating that Oranges are a sub-type of Fruit. Structural +typing, as found in languages such as Haskell, is when the components of +two types allow a type system to automatically infer that they are +related in some way. For example, the Orange type contains all the +components of the Fruit type, plus an extra ‘peel thickness’ component—a +structurally typed system will automatically infer that all Oranges are +Fruits, but that opposite is not necessarily true. Sturctural typing as +described here is only found in statically typed languages although a +similar feature – duck typing – is found in dynamically typed languages +(see Section [5.7](#x1-420005.7)). + +#### + +2.4 + +Dynamic typing + +Dynamic typing, at its simplest level, is when type checks are left +until run-time. It is important to note that this is different than +being typeless: both statically and dynamically typed languages are +typed, the chief technical difference between them being when types are +enforced. For example the following +Converge \[[Tra07](#Xtratt__converge_manual)\] code compiles correctly +but when run, the Int.+ function raises a run-time type exception +Expected arg 2 to be conformant to Number but got instance of String: + +  + + i + + := + + 3 + + + +  + + s + + := + + "4" + + + +  + + x + + := + + i + + + + + s + +In this example one can trivially statically analyse the code and +determine the eventual run-time error. However, in general, dynamically +typed languages allow code which is more expressive than any current +type system can statically +check \[[CF91](#Xcartwright_fagan__soft_typing)\]. For example, in +non-OO languages static type systems typically prevent an individual +function from having multiple return points if each returns results of +differing, incompatible, types. In OO languages, on the other hand, the +compiler statically determines the set of methods (considering subtypes) +that an object method call refers to; in dynamically typed languages the +method lookup happens at run-time. This run-time lookup is known as late +binding and allows objects to dynamically alter their behaviour, +allowing greater flexibility in the manipulation of objects, the price +being that lookups can fail as in the above example. + +#### + +2.5 + +Safe and unsafe typing + +Programs written with static types are often said to be safe in the +sense that type-related errors caught at compile-time can not occur at +run-time. However most statically typed languages allow user programs to +cast (i.e. force) values of one type to be considered as conformant to +another type. For example, in C one can cast an underlying int value to +be considered as an Orange, even if this is semantically nonsensical; +instances of the two types are unlikely to share the same memory +representation, and indeed may use different quantities of memory. +Programs which abuse this feature can crash arbitrarily. Languages whose +type systems can be completely overruled by the user are said to have an +unsafe typing system. + +In contrast to unsafe typing, languages with a safe type system do not +allow the user to subvert it. This can be achieved either by disallowing +casting (e.g. Haskell) or inserting run-time checks to ensure that casts +do not subvert the type system (e.g. Java). For example, an object which +conforms to the Red Apple type can always be cast to the Apple type. +However objects which conform to the Apple type can only be cast to the +Red Apple type if the object genuinely conforms to the Red Apple type +(or one of its sub-types); attempting to cast a Green Apple object to +the Red Apple type will cause a run-time check to fail and an exception +to be raised. + +The concept of safe and unsafe type systems is orthogonal to that of +static and dynamic typing. Static type systems can be safe (Java) or +unsafe (C); all dynamically typed languages of which I am aware are +safe. + +#### + +2.6 + +Implicit type conversions + +In many languages – both statically and dynamically typed – a number of +implicit type conversions (also known as ‘coercions’) are defined. This +means that, in a given context, values of an ‘incorrect’ type are +automatically converted into the ‘correct’ type. For example, in +Perl \[[WCO00](#Xwall00programming)\], the addition of a number and a +string evaluates to a number as the string is implicitly converted into +a number; in contrast in Python \[[vR03](#Xpython2.3languagereference)\] +a run-time type error is raised. The C language defines a large number +of implicit type conversions between number types. At the extreme end of +the spectrum, the TCL language implicitly converts every type into a +string \[[Ous94](#Xousterhout__tcl_and_the_tk_toolkit)\]. Implicit type +conversions need not be symmetrical; for example in Java adding a string +to a number gives a compile-time warning (see Section [2.3](#x1-50002.3) +for an example) while adding a number to a string returns a string. + +#### + +2.7 + +Terminology summary + +CConvergeHaskellJavaPerlPythonRuby Compile-time type checking + +∙ + +∘ + +∙ + +∙ + +∘ + +∘ + +∘ + +Run-time type checking + +∘ + +∙ + +∘ + +∙ + +∙ + +∙ + +∙ + +Safe typing + +∘ + +∙ + +∙ + +∙ + +∙ + +∙ + +∙ + +Implicit typing + +∘ + +n/a + +∙ + +∘ + +n/a n/a n/a Structural typing + +∘ + +n/a + +∙ + +∘ + +n/a n/a n/a Run-time type errors + +∘ + +∙ + +∘ + +∙ + +∙ + +∙ + +∙ + +Implicit type conversions + +∙ + +∘ + +∘ + +∙ + +∙ + +∘ + +∙ + +Table [1](#x1-110011) shows a comparison of a number of languages with +respect to the terms defined in this section. As is clearly shown, +languages utilise types in almost every conceivable combination, making +the traditional ‘hard’ distinction between statically and dynamically +typed languages seem very simplistic. Both classes of languages are +typed, the chief technical difference between them being when types are +enforced. The terms ‘statically typed’ and ‘dynamically typed’ are the +source of much confusion but are sufficiently embedded within the +community that it is unlikely that they will be superseded—hence why I +use those terms in this chapter. However readers may find it more +helpful to think of ‘static typing’ as that performed at compile-time +and dynamic typing that performed at run-time. This can help understand +the real-world, where most ‘statically typed’ languages also utilise +run-time type checking, and where some ‘dynamically typed’ languages +allow optional compile-time type checking. + +### + +3 + +Disadvantages of static typing + +The advantages of static typing are widely +known \[[Bra04](#Xbracha__pluggable_type_systems)\] and include: + + - Each error detected at compile-time prevents a run-time error. + - Types are a form of documentation / comment. + - Types enable many forms of optimisation. + +Taken at face value, the first of these is a particularly compelling +argument: why would anyone choose to use less reliable languages? In +reality the absence or presence of static typing has a number of effects +on the use and applicability of a language that are not explained by the +above. In particular, because the overwhelming body of research on +programming languages has been on statically typed languages, the +disadvantages of statically typed languages are rarely enumerated. In +this section I enumerate some of the weaknesses of static typing and why +it is therefore not equally applicable to every programming task. + +#### + +3.1 + +Static types are inexpressive + +As defined in Section [2.1](#x1-30002.1), types are constraints. In +practice, programming language types most closely conform to the +intuitive notion of ‘shape’ or ‘form’. Perhaps surprisingly, in some +situations types can be too permissive and in others too restrictive +(for an extreme example of this duality, see overloading in +Java \[[AZD01](#Xancona_zucca_drossopoulou__overloading_and_inheritance)\]). +Furthermore as static types need to be checked at compile-time, by +definition they lack run-time information about values, further limiting +their expressivity (interestingly, the types used in dynamically typed +languages are virtually identical in expressivity to those used in +statically typed languages, probably due to cultural expectations rather +than technical issues). + +##### Overly permissive types + +Consider the following Java code which fails at run-time with a division +by zero exception: + +  + + int + + x + + = + + 2; + + + +  + + int + + y + + = + + 0; + + + +  + + int + + z + + = + + x + + / + + y; + +Looking at this, programmers of even moderate experience can statically +spot the cause of the error: the divisor should not be zero. Java’s +compiler can not statically detect this error because the int type +represents real numbers including zero; thus the above code is +statically type correct according to Java’s types. Not only is there not +a type in Java which represents the real numbers excluding zero, there +is no mechanism for defining such a type in a way that would result in +equivalent code leading to a compile-time error. This limitation is +shared by virtually all statically typed languages. + +As suggested above, the static types available in todays mainstream +languages are particularly inexpressive. Though research languages such +as Haskell contain more advanced type systems, they still have many +practical limitations. Consider the head function, which takes a list +and returns its first element; given an empty list, head raises a +run-time exception. Taking the head of an empty list is a common +programming error, and is particularly frustrating in programming +languages such as Haskell whose run-time error reporting makes tracking +down run-time errors +difficult \[[SSJ98](#Xshields_sheard_peyton_jones__dynamic_typing_as_staged_type_inference)\]. +It is possible to make a new list type, and a corresponding head +function, which can statically guarantee that the head of an empty list +will never be +taken \[[XP98](#Xxi_pfenning__eliminating_array_bound_checking_through_dependent_types)\]; +however this only works for lists whose size is always statically known. +Lists that are created on the basis of user input – a far more likely +scenario – are highly unlikely to be statically checkable. Trying to use +a type system in this way adds significant complexity to user programs +with only minimal benefits. + +Because of the general inexpressiveness of static types, an entirely +separate strand of research tries to statically analyse programs to +detect errors that escape static type checkers (see +e.g. \[[MR05](#Xmitchell_runciman__unfailing_haskell_a_static_checker_for_pattern_matching)\] +for work directly related to the head function). + +##### Overly restrictive types + +Since any practical type system needs to be both decidable and sound, +they are not complete; in other words, certain valid programs will be +rejected by the type +checker \[[AWL94](#Xaiken_wimmers_lakshman__soft_typing_with_conditional_types), [Mat90](#Xmatthews__static_and_dynamic_type_checking)\]. +For example, type systems provide a fixed, typically small (or even +empty), number of ways of relating types, with object orientated +languages allowing types to be defined as sub-types of others allowing a +certain kind of polymorphism. However programmers often need to express +relationships between types that static types prevent, even in research +languages with advanced type systems such as +ML \[[CF91](#Xcartwright_fagan__soft_typing)\]. + +##### Type system complexity + +From a pragmatic point of view, relatively small increases in the +expressivity of static type systems cause a disproportionately large +increase in +complexity \[[Mac93](#Xmacqueen__reflections_on_standard_ml), [MD04](#Xmeijer_drayton__static_typing_when_possible_dynamic_typing_when_needed_the_end_of_the_cold_war_between_programming_languages)\]. +This can be seen clearly in Abadi and Cardelli’s theoretical work which +defines static type systems of increasing expressiveness for object +orientated languages \[[AC96](#Xtheory_of_objects)\]; their latter +systems, though expressive, are sufficiently complex that, to the best +of my knowledge, they have never been implemented in any language. + +#### + +3.2 + +Types are represented by a separate language + +Since most of us are used to the presence of explicit static types, it +is easy to overlook the fact that they are represented by an entirely +different language from the base programming language. In other words, +when learning the syntax and semantics of programming X, one must also +learn the syntactically and semantically distinct static type language +XT. That X and XT are, at heart, separate languages can be seen by the +very different types of errors that result from violating each’s +semantics. While programming languages have developed various mechanisms +when presenting error information to aid programmers, the error messages +from static type systems are often baroque and hard to +understand \[[Mei07](#Xmeijer__confessions_of_a_used_programming_language_salesman)\]. + +#### + +3.3 + +Type systems’ correctness + +Static type systems are often the most complex parts of a programming +language’s specification. Because of this it is easy for them to contain +errors which then result in ‘impossible’ run-time +behaviour \[[Car97](#Xcardelli__type_systems)\]. + +A famous example comes from +Eiffel \[[Mey92](#Xmeyer__eiffel_the_language)\], one of the first +‘mainstream’ object orientated languages. Eiffel allows overridden +methods to use subtypes of the parameters in the superclass. Consider +classes A1, A2, B1, B2, and B3, where A2 subclasses A1, and B3 +subclasses B2 which subclasses B1. In object orientated languages in +general, instances of subclasses (e.g. A2) can be considered as +instances of superclasses (e.g. A1); intuitively this is because +subclasses have type-identical versions of everything in the superclass +plus, optionally, extra things. Eiffel subtly changes this, so that +subclasses can contain type-compatible versions of everything in the +superclass plus, optionally, extra things. Therefore in Eiffel one can +define a method m(p1:B2) (meaning that m has a parameter p1 of type B2) +in class A1 that is overridden in class A2 by m(p1:B3). If an instance +of A2 is considered to be an instance of its superclass A1, then an +instance of B2 can validly be passed to A2::m which may then attempt to +access an attribute present only in instances of the subclass B3. Such +covariant typing is unsafe and programs which utilise it can crash +arbitrarily at run-time despite it satisfying Eiffel’s type safety +rules \[[Coo89](#Xcook__a_proposal_for_making_eiffel_type_safe)\]. + +As the Eiffel example suggests, and despite their formal veneer, the +vast majority of static type systems are not proved correct; some are +sufficiently complex that a full proof of correctness is impractical or +impossible \[[Bra04](#Xbracha__pluggable_type_systems)\]. Eiffel again +gives us a good example of the subtleties that type systems involve: +counter-intuitively type theory shows that A2::m could safely use +super-types of the parameter types in A1::m (i.e. contravariant typing), +so A2::m(p1:B1) is +type-safe \[[Cas95](#Xcastagna__covariance_versus_contravariance_conflict_without_a_cause)\]. + +Flaws discovered in type systems are particularly invidious, because +changes to type systems will typically break most extant programs; for +this reason, even modern versions of Eiffel contain the above flaw +(whilst alleviating it to some extent). + +#### + +3.4 + +System ossification + +Virtually all software systems are changed, often continuously, and +rarely in a planned or anticipated manner, after their original +development \[[LB85](#Xlehman_belady__program_evolution_processes_of_software_change)\]. +It is therefore an implicit requirement that software be amenable to +such change, which further implies that programming languages facilitate +such change. + +When changing a program, it is often desirable to change small sections +at a time and see the effect of that change on that particular part of +the program, so that any new errors can be easily related to the change; +when performing such changes it is often expected that the program as a +whole may not work correctly. Static type systems often prevent this +type of development, because they require that the system as a whole is +always type correct: it is not possible to temporarily turn off static +type-checking. As static types make changing a system difficult, they +inevitably cause systems to prematurely ossify, making them harder to +adapt to successive +changes \[[NBD+05](#Xnierstrasz_bergel_denker_ducasse_galli_wuyts__on_the_revival_of_dynamic_languages)\]. + +#### + +3.5 + +Run-time dynamicity + +Software is increasingly required to inspect and alter its behaviour at +run-time, often in the context of critical systems that are expected to +run without downtime, which must be patched whilst still +running \[[HN05](#Xhicks_nettles__dynamic_software_updating)\]. +Traditionally statically typed languages’ compilers have discarded most +information about a programs structure, its types, and so on during the +compilation process, as they are not considered central to the programs +execution. This means that most such languages are incapable of +meaningful +reflection \[[DM95](#Xdemers_malenfant__reflection_in_logic_functional_and_object_oriented_programming_a_short_comparative_study)\]. +Of those that do (e.g. Java), the ability to change the run-time +behaviour of a program is relatively limited because of the possibility +of subverting the type system. This means that statically typed +languages have typically proved difficult to use in systems that require +run-time +dynamicity \[[NBD+05](#Xnierstrasz_bergel_denker_ducasse_galli_wuyts__on_the_revival_of_dynamic_languages)\]. + +### + +4 + +History + +Dynamically typed languages have a long and varied history. While few +dynamically typed languages have had a direct impact on the programming +mainstream, they have had a disproportionate effect on programming +languages in general. Perhaps because of their inherently flexible +nature, or the nature of the people attracted to them, dynamically typed +languages have pioneered a bewildering array of features. Thus the +history of dynamically typed languages is intertwined with that of +statically typed programming languages which, often after a significant +delay, have incorporated the features pioneered in dynamically typed +languages. + +To the best of my knowledge, a history of dynamically typed languages +has not yet been published, although the History of Programming +Languages (HOPL) conferences include histories of several of the most +important languages (see +e.g. \[[SG96](#Xsteele_gabriel__the_evolution_of_lisp), [Kay96](#Xkay__the_early_history_of_smalltalk), [GG96a](#Xgriswold_griswold__history_of_the_icon_programming_language)\]). +A full history is far beyond the scope of this chapter. However there +have been several important innovations and trends which explain the +direction that dynamically typed languages have taken and why current +dynamically typed languages take the shape they do. The initial history +of dynamically typed languages is largely of individual languages – Lisp +and Smalltalk in particular – while the more recent history sees groups +of languages – such as so-called ‘scripting’ languages including Perl, +Python, and Ruby – forging a common direction. Therefore this section +enumerates, in approximately chronological order, the major points in +the evolution of dynamically typed languages. + +#### + +4.1 + +Lisp and its derivatives + +Arguably the first dynamically typed language, certainly the oldest +still in use, and without doubt the most influential dynamically typed +language is +Lisp \[[McC60](#Xmccarthy__recursive_functions_of_symbolic_expressions_and_their_computation_by_machine_part_i)\]. +Created in the 1950’s, Lisp was originally intended as a practical +notation for the λ-calculus  \[[McC78](#Xmccarthy__history_of_lisp)\]. +Lisp is notable for its minimal syntax, the smallest of any extant +programming language used in the real-world, allowing it a similarly +small and uniform semantics. This simplicity – it was quickly discovered +that it is possible to specify a minimal Lisp interpreter in a single +page of Lisp code – made its implementation practical on machines of the +day. That the innovations pioneered by, and within, Lisp are too many +too mention can be inferred from its introduction of the if-then-else +construct now taken for granted in virtually all programming languages. + +Simply labelled, Lisp is an impure functional language. To modern eyes, +Lisp is unusual because its concrete syntax uses prefix notation as can +be seen from this simple example of a Fibonacci function: + +  + + (defun + + fib + + (n) + + + +  + +  + +  + + (if + + (= + + n + + 0) + + + +  + +  + +  + +  + +  + + 0 + + + +  + +  + +  + +  + +  + + (if + + (= + + n + + 1) + + + +  + +  + +  + +  + +  + +  + +  + + 1 + + + +  + +  + +  + +  + +  + +  + +  + + (+ + + (fib + + (- + + n + + 1)) + + (fib + + (- + + n + + 2)))))) + +Lisp’s minimal syntax allows it to be naturally represented by Lisp +lists. Since lists can be inspected, altered, and created this led to +what is arguably Lisp’s most distinctive feature: macros. A macro is +effectively a special function which, at compile-time, generates code. +Macros allow users to extend a programming language in ways unforeseen +by its +creators \[[BS00](#Xbrabrand_schwartzbach__growing_languages_with_metamorphic_syntax_macros)\]. +Macros have therefore been a key facilitator in Lisp’s continued +existence, as they allow the spartan base language to be seamlessly +extended: a typical Lisp implementation will implement most of its +seemingly ‘primitive’ control structures through macros (see +Section [5.3](#x1-360005.3)). Despite many attempts, it was not until +the late 1990’s that a syntactically rich, statically typed language +gained a practical macro-like facility broadly equivalent to Lisp’s +(see \[[She98](#Xsheard__using_metaml_a_staged_programming_language), [SJ02](#Xsheard_peyton_jones__template_meta_programming_for_haskell)\]). + +Lisp invented the concept of garbage +collection \[[JL99](#Xjones_lins__garbage_collection_algorithms_for_automatic_dynamic_memory_management)\] +where memory allocation and deallocation is handled automatically by the +Lisp interpreter or VM. Lisp was also the first language whose +implementations made significant efforts to address performance +concerns \[[Gab86](#Xgabriel__performance_and_evaluation_of_lisp_systems)\]; +many of the resulting implementation techniques have become standard +parts of subsequent language implementations. + +##### Scheme + +Lisp has spawned many dialects, the most significant of which is +Scheme \[[SJ75](#Xsussman_steele__scheme_an_interpreter_for_extended_lambda_calculus)\]. +For the purposes of this chapter, Scheme can be thought of as a version +of Lisp with a minimalist aesthetic, particularly with regard to its +libraries. While Lisp has seen reasonable industrial usage (particularly +in the 1980’s, when it was the language of choice for artificial +intelligence work), Scheme has largely been a research language, albeit +a very influential one. + +Scheme was the first language to introduce closures, allowing full +lexical scoping, simplifying many types of programming such as Graphical +User Interface (GUI) programming. It also popularised the concept of +continuations, allowing arbitrary control structures to be constructed +by the +user \[[HFW84](#Xhaynes_friedman_wand__continuations_and_coroutines)\]. +Scheme also showed that functions and continuations could be treated as +first-class objects. Much of the foundational work on safe, powerful, +macros was done in Scheme (see +e.g. \[[KFFD86](#Xkohlbecker_friedman_felleisen_duba__hygienic_macro_expansion), [CR91](#Xclinger_rees__macros_that_work)\]). + +#### + +4.2 + +Smalltalk + +Smalltalk is Lisp’s nearest rival in influence. Put simply, Smalltalk is +a small, uniform object orientated language, heavily influenced by Lisp +and +Simula \[[DN66](#Xdahl_nygaard__an_algol_based_simulation_language)\]. +Compared to later languages, Smalltalk’s syntax is small and +uncomplicated (though not as minimalistic in nature as Lisp’s); however, +in most other ways, +Smalltalk-80 \[[GR89](#Xgoldberg_robson__smalltalk_80_the_language)\] +(the root of all extant Smalltalk’s) is recognisably a modern, object +orientated, imperative programming language. + +Smalltalk pioneered the idea of ‘everything is an object’ where even +primitive values (integers etc.) appear as normal objects whose classes +are part of the standard class hierarchy. Smalltalk has extensive +meta-programming abilities. Reflection allows programs to query and +alter +themselves \[[Mae87](#Xmaes__concepts_and_experiments_in_computational_reflection)\]. +A Meta-Object Protocol +(MOP) \[[KdRB91](#Xkiczales_des_rivieres_bobrow__the_art_of_the_metaobject_protocol)\] +allows objects to change the way they behave; from the perspective of +this chapter, the most significant of these abilities is +meta-classes \[[FD98](#Xforman_danforth__putting_metaclasses_to_work_a_new_dimension_in_object_oriented_programming)\] +(see Section [5.3](#x1-350005.3)). + +In Smalltalk every object can be queried at run-time to find out its +type. In common with most object orientated languages, a Smalltalk class +also implicitly defines a type (see Section [2.1](#x1-30002.1)), so the +‘type’ of an object is the Class object which created it. A meta-class +is simply the type of a class. In Smalltalk the default meta-class for a +class is called Metaclass; a cycle is created in the type hierarchy so +that Metaclass is its own type. Meta-classes allow Smalltalk to present +a uniform, closed world where every object in a running system is typed +by an object in the same running system. Only a small amount of +bootstrapping is needed to create this powerful illusion (later +proposals have shown how the meta-class concept can be further +simplified \[[Coi87](#Xcointe__metaclasses_are_first_class_the_objvlisp_model)\]). + +#### + +4.3 + +Text processing languages + +Text processing is a perennial programming task, and several languages +have been wholly or mostly designed with this in mind. This domain has +been dominated by dynamically typed languages, because the processing of +unstructured data benefits greatly from the flexibility afforded by such +languages \[[MD04](#Xmeijer_drayton__static_typing_when_possible_dynamic_typing_when_needed_the_end_of_the_cold_war_between_programming_languages)\]. + +The first languages aimed at these tasks, most noticeably +SNOBOL4 \[[GPP71](#Xgriswold_poage_polonsky__the_snobol4_programming_language)\], +were effectively Domain Specific Languages (DSLs) for text processing, +and were not suitable for more general +tasks \[[Gri78](#Xgriswold__a_history_of_the_snobol_programming_languages)\]. +One of SNOBOL4’s direct successor languages was +Icon \[[GG96b](#Xgriswold96icon)\], which introduced a unique +expression evaluation system which dispenses with boolean logic and +allows limited backtracking within an imperative language. This allows +one to express complex string matching which can naturally evaluate +multiple possibilities. + +Sed and AWK + \[[AKW98](#Xaho_kernighan_weinberger__the_awk_programming_language)\] +represent an entirely different strand of text processing languages from +SNOBOL and Icon. They can be thought of as enhanced UNIX shell +languages, with AWK extending Sed with a number of more general +programming language constructs. Perl \[[WCO00](#Xwall00programming)\] +represents the final evolution of this family of languages. Reflecting +its role as a tool for ad-hoc development, it integrates a bewildering +number of influences to an AWK base, and is notable for having arguably +the most sophisticated – or, depending on ones point of view, complex – +syntax of any programming language. + +Most of the above languages are not, in the widely understood sense, +general purpose languages. Icon is the most obviously general purpose +language, although because of the many idioms it encompasses, Perl has +been used in many domains. Because of the ubiquity of Sed and AWK and, +in the early years of the web, Perl’s dominance of server side +processing, these languages have been more widely used than any other +category of dynamically typed languages. + +#### + +4.4 + +Declarative languages + +Although dynamically typed languages are often implicitly assumed to be +imperative languages, dynamic typing is equally applicable to +declarative languages which, for the purposes of this chapter, I define +to mean logic and ‘pure’ functional languages (i.e. those without side +effects). Prolog \[[SS94](#Xsterling94prolog)\] was amongst the first, +and remains the most widely used, logic language. Logic languages are +very unlike ‘normal’ languages, with the user declaring relations +amongst data, and then stating a goal over this which the language +engine then attempts to solve—the order in which statements in the +language are executed is non-linear. + +Pure functional languages have largely been confined to the research lab +and have tended to be coupled with exotic static type systems. Although +Erlang \[[VWWA96](#Xvirding_wikstrom_williams_armstrong__concurrent_programming_in_erlang)\] +started existence as a distributed variant of Prolog, it has since +evolved to become one of the few dynamically typed pure functional +languages. This perhaps reflect its industrial origins where it was +designed to implement robust, scalable, distributed systems, +particularly telephony +systems \[[Arm07](#Xarmstrong__a_history_of_erlang)\]. Erlang is +arguably the most successful pure functional language yet with several +million LoC systems. By eschewing static types, it is able to focus on +the hard issues surrounding distributed systems, including a number of +unique concepts relating to message passing and fault tolerance. + +#### + +4.5 + +Prototyping languages + +Object orientated languages derived from SIMULA such as Smalltalk are +class-based languages: objects are created by instantiating classes. +While everything in Smalltalk is an object, practically speaking classes +are a very distinguished type of object from the users perspective. +Self \[[US87](#Xungar_smith__self_the_power_of_simplicity)\] aimed to +distill the object orientated paradigm down to its bare essentials: +objects, methods, and message sends. In particular Self removed classes +as a fundamental construct; new objects are created by cloning another +object. The notion of type in Self, and other prototyping languages, is +thus subtly different than in other languages. + +Because of their minimalistic nature, raw prototyping languages tend to +be particularly inefficient. Self pioneered a number of important +implementation +techniques \[[CU89](#Xchambers_ungra__customization_optimizing_compiler_technology_for_self_a_dynamically_typed_object_oriented_programming_language)\] +that ultimately allowed Self to become one of the highest performing +dynamically typed languages. Much of this work has found its way into +other languages, including statically typed languages such as +Java \[[Ayc03](#Xaycock__a_brief_history_of_just_in_time)\]. + +#### + +4.6 + +Modern ‘scripting’ languages + +The resurgence of interest in dynamically typed languages is largely due +to what were originally dismissively called ‘scripting’ +languages \[[Ous98](#Xousterhout__scripting_higher_level_programming_for_the_21st_century)\], +which had their roots in text processing languages such as Sed and AWK +(see Section [4.3](#x1-250004.3)). Unlike many of the languages +described earlier in this section, these languages were not designed +with innovation as a primary goal, and instead emphasised consolidation +and popularisation. They have therefore focused on practical issues such +as portability, and shipping with extensive libraries. +TCL \[[Ous94](#Xousterhout__tcl_and_the_tk_toolkit)\] was the first +such language, which gained reasonable popularity in large part because +of its bundled GUI toolkit. Python and +Ruby \[[TH00](#Xthomas_hunt__programming_ruby_a_pragmatic_programmers_guide)\] +– fundamentally very similar languages once surface syntax issues are +ignored – can be seen as modernised, if less internally consistent, +versions of Smalltalk. Because of their inherent flexibility, such +languages were initially often used to ‘glue’ other systems together, +but have increasingly seen to be useful for a wide range of programming +tasks, such as web programming tasks. +Lua \[[Ier06](#Xierusalimschy__programming_in_lua)\] is a smaller +language (both conceptually, and in its implementation) than either +Python and Ruby, and has been more explicitly designed as an embeddable +programming language; it has been used widely in the computer games +industry to allow the high-level definition and extension of +games \[[IdFC07](#Xierusalimschy_figueiredo_celes__the_evolution_of_lua)\]. + +While this sub-category of dynamically typed languages has not greatly +advanced the state of the art, it has been the driving factor in +validating dynamically typed languages and making them a respected part +of a programmers toolbox. Most new systems written using dynamically +typed languages use this category of languages. + +### + +5 + +Defining features + +In previous sections I have defined the fundamental terms surrounding +types and programming languages, and presented a brief history of +dynamically typed languages. In this section I enumerate the defining +features and characteristics of dynamically typed languages, and explain +why they make such languages interesting and useful. Some of these +features and characteristics have recently found their way into new +statically typed languages, either as a core feature or as library +add-ons. However no statically typed language contains all of them, nor +is that likely to occur both for technical and cultural reasons. + +#### + +5.1 + +Simplicity + +A defining characteristic of virtually all dynamically typed languages +is conceptual simplicity. Fundamentally dynamically typed languages are +willing to trade run-time efficiency for programmer productivity. Such +simplicity makes both learning and using dynamically typed languages +simpler, in general, than statically typed languages since there are +less ‘corner cases’ to be aware of. At its most extreme, Lisp’s minimal +syntax means that a full interpreter written in Lisp can fit on one +page. Although most dynamically typed languages include as standard a +greater degree of syntax and control structures than Lisp, this general +principle remains. + +At the risk of stating the obvious, dynamically typed languages do not +contain constructs relating to static types. This is a significant form +of simplification, as although static typing is sometimes considered to +be the simple ‘tagging’ of variables with a given type name, static +typing has a much more pervasive effect on a language. For example: +static typing requires an (often significant) extension to a language’s +grammar to allow type ‘tags’ to be expressed and requires concept(s) +allowing static types to be related to one another (e.g. the Java +concept of interface). + +The learning curve of dynamically typed languages is considerably +shallower than for most statically typed languages. For example, in many +dynamically typed languages the classic ‘hello world’ program is simply +print "Hello world\!" or a minor syntactic variant. In Java, at the +other extreme, it requires a 7 line program – in a file whose name must +exactly match the class contained within it – using a bewildering array +of unfamiliar concepts. While programming beginners obviously struggle +with the complexity that a language like Java forces on every user, it +is widely known that programming professionals find it easier to learn +new dynamically typed +languages \[[Ous98](#Xousterhout__scripting_higher_level_programming_for_the_21st_century)\]. + +#### + +5.2 + +High level features + +Dynamically typed languages pioneered what are often informally known as +‘high level features’—those which abstract away from low-level machine +concerns. + +##### Built-in Data types + +Whereas many statically typed languages provide only very simple +built-in data types – integers and user-defined structures – dynamically +typed languages typically provide a much richer set. The two universal +data types are lists (automatically resizing arrays) and strings +(arbitrary character arrays); most dynamically typed languages also +provide support for dictionaries (also known as associative arrays or +hash tables; fast key / value lookup) and sets. These data types are +typically tightly integrated into the main language, often with their +own syntax, and used consistently and frequently throughout libraries. +In contrast, most statically typed languages defer most such data types +to libraries; consequently they are rarely as consistently or frequently +used. + +Complex data structures are often naturally expressed using just +built-in data types. For example, the following Converge code shows how +dictionaries of sets representing room numbers and employees are +naturally represented: + +  + + x + + := + + Dict{10 + + : + + Set{"Fred","Sue"}, + + 17 + + : + + Set{"Barry","George","Steve"}, + + 18 + + : + + Set{"Mark"}} + + + +  + + x\[10\].add("Andy") + + + +  + + x\[17\].del("Steve") + +After the above has been evaluated the dictionary referenced by x looks +as follows: + +  + + Dict{10 + + : + + Set{"Fred", + + "Andy", + + "Sue"}, + + 17 + + : + + Set{"Barry", + + "George"}, + + 18 + + : + + Set{"Mark"}} + +Using built-in data types not only improves programmer productivity, but +also execution speed as built-in data types are highly optimised. + +##### Automatic memory management + +Manual memory management – when the programmer must manually allocate +and free memory – wastes programmer resources (consuming perhaps around +30% – 40% of a programmer’s +time \[[Rov85](#Xrovner__on_adding_garbage_collection_and_runtime_types_to_a_strongly_typed_statically_checked_concurrent_language)\]) +and is a significant source of +bugs \[[JL99](#Xjones_lins__garbage_collection_algorithms_for_automatic_dynamic_memory_management)\]. +Lisp was the first programming language to introduce the concept of +garbage collection, meaning that memory is automatically allocated and +freed by the language run-time, largely removing this burden from the +programmer. Virtually all dynamically typed languages (and, more +recently, most statically typed languages) have followed this lead. + +#### + +5.3 + +Meta-programming + +Meta-programming is the querying, manipulation, or creation of one +program by another; often a program will perform such actions upon +itself. Meta-programming can occur at either, or both of, compile-time +or run-time. Dynamically typed languages have extensive meta-programming +abilities. + +##### Reflection + +Formally, reflection can be split into three main +aspects \[[BU04](#Xbracha_ungra__mirrors_design_principles_for_meta_level_facilities_of_object_oriented_programming_languages), [MvCT+08](#Xmostinckx_van_cutsem_timbermont_tanter__mirror_based_reflection_in_ambienttalk)\]: + +Introspection: + +the ability of a program to examine itself. + +Self-modification: + +the ability of a program to alter its structure. + +Intercession: + +the ability of a program to alter its behaviour. + +For the purposes of this chapter, reflection is considered to be a +run-time ability. For example in Smalltalk, programs can perform deep +introspection on objects at run-time to determine their types (see +Section [4.2](#x1-240004.2)). In the following Smalltalk examples ‘→’ +means ‘evaluates to’: + +2 + 2 + +→ + +4 + +(2 + 2) class + +→ + +SmallInteger + +(2 + 2) class class + +→ + +SmallInteger class + +(2 + 2) class class class + +→ + +Metaclass + +Self-modification allows behaviour to be added, removed, or changed at +run-time. For example in Smalltalk if a variable ie references an +appropriate method (the definition of which is left to the reader), then +it can be added to the Number class, so that all numbers can easily test +whether they are odd or even: + +3 isEven + +→ + +Message not understood + +Number addSelector: + + \#isEven withMethod: ie + +→ + +Adds method + +isEven + +to + +Number + +3 isEven + +→ + +false + +Unfettered run-time modification of a system is dangerous, since it can +have subtle, unintended consequences. However careful use of reflection +allows programmers to bend a language to their particular circumstances +rather than the other way round. Most dynamically typed languages are +capable of introspection; many are capable of self-modification; +relatively few are capable of intercession (Smalltalk being one of the +few). While a few statically typed languages such as Java support the +introspective aspects of reflection, few are as consistently reflective +as Smalltalk and its descendants, and none allow the level of +manipulation as shown above. + +Some OO languages have a meta-object protocol +(MOP) \[[KdRB91](#Xkiczales_des_rivieres_bobrow__the_art_of_the_metaobject_protocol)\] +which allows intercession, as objects can alter the way they respond to +message sends. For example in Python objects can override the +\_\_getattribute\_\_ function which receives a message name and returns +an object of its choosing. The following example code (although too +simple for production use) shows how Python objects can be made to +appear to automatically have automatic ‘getter’ methods if they don’t +exist: + +  + + class + + C(object): + + + +  + +  + +  + +  + +  + + x + + = + + 2 + + + +  + +  + +  + +  + +  + + def + + \_\_getattribute\_\_(self, + + name): + + + +  + +  + +  + +  + +  + +  + +  + +  + +  + + if + + name.startswith("get\_"): + + + +  + +  + +  + +  + +  + +  + +  + +  + +  + +  + +  + +  + +  + + v + + = + + object.\_\_getattribute\_\_(self, + + name\[4 + + : + + \]) + + + +  + +  + +  + +  + +  + +  + +  + +  + +  + +  + +  + +  + +  + + return + + lambda + + : + + v + + + +  + +  + +  + +  + +  + +  + +  + +  + +  + + else: + + + +  + +  + +  + +  + +  + +  + +  + +  + +  + +  + +  + +  + +  + + return + + object.\_\_getattribute\_\_(self, + + name) + + + +  + +  + + + +  + + i + + = + + C() + + + +  + + print + + i.x + + + +  + + print + + i.get\_x() + +In this example, both i.x and i.get\_x() evaluate to the same result. +Similar tricks can be played with the setting and querying of object +slots. While delving into the MOP can easily introduce complications +such as infinite loops, it can be useful, as in this example, to allow +one object to emulate the behaviour of another, allowing otherwise +incompatible frameworks and libraries to interact. Reflection also +allows much deeper changes to a system such as allowing run-time +modification of whole program +aspects \[[OC04](#Xdynamic_adaptation_of_application_aspects__ortin_cueva)\]. + +##### Compile-time meta-programming + +Compile-time meta-programming allows the user to interact with the +compiler to allow the construction of arbitrary program fragments. +Lisp’s macros are the traditional form of compile-time +meta-programming and are used extensively to extend the minimal base +language. For example the when control structure is a specialised form +of if, taking a condition and a list of expressions; if the condition +holds, when evaluates all expressions, returning the result of the final +expression. In Common Lisp \[[Ste90](#Xsteel90clos)\] (alongside Emacs +Lisp, one of the major extant Lisp implementations) when can be +implemented as follows: + +  + + (defmacro + + when + + (cond + + \&rest + + body) + + + +  + +  + +  + + ‘(if + + ~cond + + (progn + +[\[email protected\]](/cdn-cgi/l/email-protection) ))) + +Whenever a ‘function call’ to when is encountered during compilation, +the above macro is executed and the resultant generated code statically +replaces the ‘function call’. The two major features in the above are +the quote ‘ which in essence returns the quoted expression as an +Abstract Syntax Tree (AST) (i.e. without evaluating it) and the +insertion ~ which inserts one Lisp AST in another. + +Because macros in Lisp are often considered to rely on some of Lisp’s +defining features – in particular its minimal syntax which means that +Lisp ASTs are simply lists of lists – subsequent dynamically typed +languages did not have an equivalent system. In a rare occurrence, the +statically typed languages +MetaML \[[She98](#Xsheard__using_metaml_a_staged_programming_language)\] +and then Template +Haskell \[[SJ02](#Xsheard_peyton_jones__template_meta_programming_for_haskell)\] +showed how a practical compile-time meta-programming system could be +naturally integrated into a modern syntactically rich language. +Compile-time meta-programming is slightly more generic in concept than +traditional macros, as it allows users to interact with the compiler, +where such interactions may not always lead to the generation of code. +Converge (created by this chapters author) integrates a Template +Haskell-like system into a dynamically typed language, and uses it to +implement a syntax extension feature which allows syntactically distinct +DSLs to be embedded into normal programs. + +##### Eval + +Colloquially referred to by its short name, ‘eval’ refers to the +ability, almost wholly confined to dynamically typed languages, to +evaluate arbitrary code expressions as strings at run-time. In other +words, code fragments can be received from, for example, end users, +evaluated and the resulting value used for arbitrary purposes. Note that +eval is very different from compile-time meta-programming, since +expressions are evaluated at run-time, not compile-time, and any value +can be returned (not just ASTs). While eval has many obvious downsides – +allowing arbitrary code to be executed at run-time has severe security +implications – when used carefully (e.g. in configuration files) it can +reduce the need for arbitrary mini-programming languages to be +implemented within a system. + +##### Continuations + +Popularised in Scheme, continuations remain a relatively exotic +construct, with support only found in a handful of other languages, +noticeably including Smalltalk. At a high-level, they can be thought of +as a generalised form of +co-routine \[[HFW84](#Xhaynes_friedman_wand__continuations_and_coroutines)\] +which allows a safe way of defining ‘goto‘ points, capturing a certain +part of the current program state and allowing that part to be suspended +and later resumed. Continuations are sufficiently powerful that all +other control structures can be defined in terms of them. + +The low-level power of continuations, and the fact that they subvert +normal expectations of control flow, has meant that they have been +talked about rather more than they have been used. However they have +recently shown to be a natural match for web programming, where the back +button in web browsers causes huge problems because it is effectively an +‘undo’; most web systems give unpredictable and confusing results if the +back button is used frequently. Continuations can naturally model the +chain of resumption points that represent each point in the users +browsing history, as can be seen in the Smalltalk Seaside +framework \[[DLR07](#Xducasse_lienhard_renggli__seaside_a_flexible_environment_for_building_dynamic_web_applications)\]. +This means that web systems respect users intuition when the back button +is used, but are not unduly difficult to develop. + +#### + +5.4 + +Refactoring + +Refactoring is the act of applying small, behaviour-preserving +transformations, to a +system \[[FBB+99](#Xfowler_beck_brant_opdyke_roberts__refactoring_improving_the_design_of_existing_code)\]. +The general aim of refactoring is to maintain, or restore, the internal +quality of a system after a series of changes so that further changes to +the system are practical. A key part of the refactoring definition +‘behaviour-preserving’: it is vital that refactorings do not introduce +new errors into a system. In practice, two distinct types of +refactorings can be identified: + +1. Small, tightly defined, and automatable refactorings. Exemplified by + the ‘move method’ refactoring where a method is moved from class + + C + + to + + D + + . + +2. Larger, typically project specific, non-automatable refactorings. A + typical example is splitting a module or class into two to separate + out functionality. + +Statically typed languages have an inherent advantage over dynamically +typed languages in the first type of refactoring because of the extra +information encoded in static types. However static types are a burden +in the second type of refactoring because they always require the entire +system to be type correct. This means that it is not possible to make, +and test, small local changes to a sub-system when such changes +temporarily violate the type system; instead the entire refactoring must +be implemented in one fell swoop which means that any resulting errors +are difficult to relate to an individual action. Counter-intuitively, +perhaps, static types inhibit large-scale refactorings, tending to +ossify a program’s structure (see Section [3.4](#x1-190003.4)). The +flexibility of dynamically typed languages on the other hand encourages +continual changes to a +system \[[NBD+05](#Xnierstrasz_bergel_denker_ducasse_galli_wuyts__on_the_revival_of_dynamic_languages)\], +though it is often wise to pair it with a suitable test suite to prevent +regressions (see Section [6.2](#x1-480006.2)). + +#### + +5.5 + +‘Batteries included’ libraries + +Traditionally, many statically typed languages – from Algol to Ada – +have been designed as paper standards, detailing their syntax and +semantics, but typically agnostic as to libraries. Such languages are +then implemented by multiple vendors, each of which is likely to provide +different libraries. In contrast, most dynamically typed languages – +with the notable exception of the Lisp family – have been defined by +their initial implementation and its accompanying libraries. The +majority of modern dynamically typed languages (see +Section [4.6](#x1-280004.6)) come with a rich set of standard libraries +– the so-called ‘batteries included’ +approach \[[Oli07](#Xolihpant__python_for_scientific_computing)\] – +which encompass enough functionality to be suitable for a majority of +common programming tasks. Implicit in this is the assumption that if the +initial implementation is replaced, the standard library will be +provided in a backwards-compatible fashion; in comparison to paper-based +standards, it is often difficult to distinguish between the language and +its libraries. Furthermore, due to the emphasis on a rich set of +standard libraries, it is relatively easy to define new, external +libraries without requiring the installation of many dependent +libraries. + +As described in Section [6.1](#x1-470006.1), the performance of +dynamically typed languages varies from slightly to significantly slower +than statically typed languages; however, suitable use of libraries +(which are typically highly optimised) can often significantly diminish +performance issues. + +#### + +5.6 + +Portability + +Portable software is that which runs on multiple target platforms. For +the purposes of this chapter, a platform can be considered to be a +combination of hardware and operating system. For most non-specialised +purposes, users wish their software to run on as many platforms as +practical. + +One way of achieving portability is to allow programs to deal, on an +as-needs basis, with known variations in the underlying platform; the +other is to provide abstractions which abstract away from the hardware +and the operating +system \[[SC92](#Xspencer_collyer__ifdef_considered_harmful_or_portability_experience_with_cnews)\]. +Since dynamically typed languages aim to present a higher-level view of +the world to programs (see e.g. Section [5.2](#x1-310005.2)), they +follow this latter philosophy. There are many examples of such +abstractions, but two in particular show the importance of abstracting +away from the hardware and the operating system. First, ‘primitive +types’ such as integers will typically automatically change their +representation from an efficient but limited machine type to a variably +sized container as necessary, thus preventing unintended overflow +errors. Second, file libraries provide simple open and read calls (note +that garbage collection typically closes files automatically in +dynamically typed languages, so explicit calls to close are less +important) which abstract away from the wide variety of file processing +calls found in different operating systems. By providing such +abstractions, dynamically typed programs are typically more portable +than most statically typed languages because there is less direct +reliance on features of the underlying platform. + +#### + +5.7 + +Unanticipated reuse + +A powerful type of reuse is when functionality is composed from smaller +units in ways that are reasonable and valid, but not anticipated by the +authors of each sub-unit. Ousterhout shows how, by using untyped text as +its medium and lazy evaluation as its process, the UNIX shell can chain +together arbitrary commands with +pipes \[[Ous98](#Xousterhout__scripting_higher_level_programming_for_the_21st_century)\]. +For example the following command counts how many lines the word +‘dynamic’ occurs in .c files: + +  + + find + + . + + -name + + "\*.c" + + | + + grep + + -i + + dynamic + + | + + wc + + -l + +The enabling factor in such reuse is the loose contracts placed on input +and output data: if the UNIX shell, for example, forced data passed +through pipes to be statically typed it is unlikely that such powerful +chains of commands could be created as commands would not be as easily +reusable. + +Dynamically typed languages allow similar reuse to the UNIX shell, but +with a subtle twist. While most Unix shell commands demand nothing of +input text (which may be empty, all on one line etc.), and statically +typed languages demand the complete typing of all inputs, dynamically +typed languages allow shades of grey in-between. Essentially the idea is +that functions should demand (and, possibly, check) the minimum of any +inputs to ensure correct functionality, thus allowing functions to +operate correctly on a wide range of seemingly unrelated input. This +philosophy, while long-standing, has recently acquired the name duck +typing to reflect the intuitive notion that if an input ‘talks like a +duck and quacks like a duck, it is a duck’—even if other aspects of the +input may not look like a +duck \[[KM05](#Xkoenig_moo__templates_and_duck_typing)\]. Duck typing +can be seen as the run-time, dynamically typed equivalent of structural +typing (see Section [2.3](#x1-70002.3)). A good example of the virtues +of duck typing can be found in Python where functions that deal with +files often expect only a simple read method in any input objects; this +allows programs to make many non-file objects (e.g. network streams) +appear as files, thus reducing the number of cases where specialised +functions must be created for different types. + +#### + +5.8 + +Interactivity + +Virtually all dynamically typed languages are interactive, in the sense +that users can execute commands on a running instance of the system and, +if desired, perform further interactive computations on the result. +Arguably the most powerful interactive systems are for Smalltalk, where +systems are generally developed within an interactive GUI system +containing both system tools (the compiler etc.) and the users +code \[[GR89](#Xgoldberg_robson__smalltalk_80_the_language)\]. Most +languages however provide such interactivity via a command-line +interface which allows normal expressions to be entered and immediately +evaluated. This allows the run-time system presented by the language to +be explored and understood. For example the following session shows how +the Python shell can be used to explore the type system and find out +help on a method: + +  + + \>\>\> + + True.\_\_class\_\_ + + + +  + + \ + + + +  + + \>\>\> + + True.\_\_class\_\_.\_\_class\_\_ + + + +  + + \ + + + +  + + \>\>\> + + dir(True.\_\_class\_\_.\_\_class\_\_) + + + +  + + \[’\_\_base\_\_’, + + ’\_\_bases\_\_’, + + ’\_\_basicsize\_\_’, + + ’\_\_call\_\_’, + + ’\_\_class\_\_’, + + ’\_\_cmp\_\_’, + + + +  + + ’\_\_delattr\_\_’, + + ’\_\_dict\_\_’, + + ’\_\_dictoffset\_\_’, + + ’\_\_doc\_\_’, + + ’\_\_flags\_\_’, + + + +  + + ’\_\_getattribute\_\_’, + + ’\_\_hash\_\_’, + + ’\_\_init\_\_’, + + ’\_\_itemsize\_\_’, + + ’\_\_module\_\_’, + + ’\_\_mro\_\_’, + + + +  + + ’\_\_name\_\_’, + + ’\_\_new\_\_’, + + ’\_\_reduce\_\_’, + + ’\_\_reduce\_ex\_\_’, + + ’\_\_repr\_\_’, + + ’\_\_setattr\_\_’, + + + +  + + ’\_\_str\_\_’, + + ’\_\_subclasses\_\_’, + + ’\_\_weakrefoffset\_\_’, + + ’mro’\] + + + +  + + \>\>\> + + help(True.\_\_class\_\_.\_\_class\_\_.mro) + + + +  + + mro(...) + + + +  + +  + +  + +  + +  + + mro() + + -\> + + list + + + +  + +  + +  + +  + +  + + return + + a + + type’s + + method + + resolution + + order + + + +  + + \>\>\> + +By providing an interactive interface, dynamically typed languages +encourage exploration of the run-time system, and also allow small +examples to be worked on without any ‘compile link’ overhead. + +#### + +5.9 + +Compile-link-run cycle + +In the majority of programming languages – with the notable exception of +Smalltalk and languages directly influenced by it such as Self (see +Section [5.8](#x1-430005.8)) – programs are stored in one or more files. +In order to run a program in a statically typed language, one must +typically compile each individual file of the program, and link them +together to produce a binary, which can then be run. This process is +know as the ‘compile-link-run’ cycle. Because statically typed languages +are relatively complex to compile and link, this is often a lengthy +process—even on modern machines, large applications can take several +hours to compile and link from scratch. This is often a limiting factor +in rapid application +development \[[TW07](#Xtratt_wuyts__dynamically_typed_languages)\]. + +In contrast, most dynamically typed languages conflate the +compile-link-run cycle, allowing source files to be directly ‘run’. As +compilation of individual modules is often done on an ‘as needs’ basis, +and since the compilation and linking of dynamically typed languages is +much simpler since no static types need to be checked, this means the +user experiences a much shorter compile-link-run cycle. + +#### + +5.10 + +Run-time updates + +With the increasing trend of software providing long-running services +(e.g. switches, financial applications), it is necessary to upgrade +software without stopping +it \[[HN05](#Xhicks_nettles__dynamic_software_updating)\]. This means +replacing or augmenting values in the run-time system, typically with +data and functionality in the ‘old’ system existing side-by-side with +the ‘new’. + +While it is possible to perform limited run-time updates with statically +typed languages, the general requirement to retain the type safety of +the running system (without which random low-level crashes are likely), +and the difficulty of migrating data, makes this extremely challenging +in such languages (see Section [3.5](#x1-200003.5)). Dynamically typed +languages have two significant advantages in such situations. First +reflection allows arbitrary manipulation and emulation of data. Second +there is no absolute requirement to maintain type safety in the updated +system as, at worse, any type errors resulting from updating data or +functionality will result in a standard run-time type error (in +contrast, subverting the type system of a statically typed language is +likely to lead to a low-level crash). Erlang makes heavy use of these +features to allow extensive run-time updating in a way that allows +resultant systems to keep running for very long periods of +time \[[VWWA96](#Xvirding_wikstrom_williams_armstrong__concurrent_programming_in_erlang)\]. + +### + +6 + +Disadvantages of dynamic typing + +#### + +6.1 + +Performance + +Much has been said and written about the relative performance of various +programming languages over the years; regrettably, much has been based +on superstition, supposition, or unrepresentatively small examples. +There is little doubt that, in practice, equivalent programs in +dynamically typed languages are slower than in statically typed +languages. While on certain macro benchmarks some language +implementations (typically Lisp or Smalltalk implementations) can +achieve approximate parity with statically typed languages, a general +rule of thumb is that the most finely tuned dynamically typed language +implementations are approximately two times slower than the equivalent +statically typed implementation. + +The performance gap between dynamically typed and statically typed +languages has lowered over recent years, in large part due to +innovations surrounding JIT +compilation \[[Ayc03](#Xaycock__a_brief_history_of_just_in_time)\]—the +difference in speed between dynamically typed language implementations +with and without JIT compilation is typically a factor of three to five. +Currently the performance between different dynamically typed language +implementations varies wildly, with languages such as Ruby an order of +magnitude slower than leading Lisp’s. As there are few technical reasons +for such differences, and given recent trends such as common virtual +machines and the awareness of the benefits of JIT compilation, it is +likely that the performance gap between implementations will narrow +considerably. + +Arguably more important than absolute performance measured in minutes +and seconds is the performance relative to requirements: in other words, +does the program ‘run fast enough?’ Thanks in part to the advancements +of commodity computers, for most real-world purposes, this question is +often redundant. For certain tasks, particularly very low-level tasks, +or those on low-performance computers such as some embedded systems, +statically typed languages retain an important advantage. However it is +interesting to note that in certain data-intensive and performance +sensitive domains such as scientific computing dynamically typed +languages have proved to be very successful (see +e.g. \[[CLM05](#Xcai_langtangen_moe__on_the_performance_of_the_python_programming_language_for_serial_and_parallel_scientific_computations), [Oli07](#Xolihpant__python_for_scientific_computing)\]). +There are two explanations for this. First, the high-level nature of +dynamically typed languages allows programmers to focus on improving +algorithms rather than low-level coding tricks. Second, dynamically +typed languages typically come with extensive, highly optimised +libraries to which the most performance critical work is often deferred +(the so-called ‘batteries included’ +approach \[[Oli07](#Xolihpant__python_for_scientific_computing)\]). + +#### + +6.2 + +Debugging + +A fundamental difference between statically and dynamically typed +languages is that the former can detect and prevent certain errors at +compile-time (see Section [2.3](#x1-50002.3)). Logically this implies +that dynamically typed programs are inherently more error-prone than +statically typed languages. This is potentially a real problem, hence +why it is included in the ‘disadvantages’ section. However in practice, +run-time type errors in deployed programs are exceedingly +rare \[[TW07](#Xtratt_wuyts__dynamically_typed_languages)\]. + +There are three main reasons why run-time type errors are rarely an +issue. First, type errors represent a small, generally immediately +obvious, trivially fixed class of errors and are thus typically detected +and fixed quickly during development. Second – as shown in +Section [3](#x1-120003) – static types do not capture many of the more +important and subtle errors that one might hoped would have been +detected; such errors thus occur with equal frequency in statically and +dynamically typed programs. Third, automated testing will tend to detect +most type errors. This last point is particularly interesting. Unit +testing is when a test suite is created that can, without user +intervention, be used to check that a system conforms to the tests. Unit +tests are often called ‘regression suites’ to emphasise that they are +intended to prevent errors creeping back into a system. The first unit +test suite was for +Smalltalk \[[Bec94](#Xbeck__simple_smalltalk_testing_with_patterns)\], +but virtually all languages now have an equivalent library or facility +e.g. +Java \[[LF03](#Xlink_froehlich__unit_testing_in_java_how_tests_drive_the_code)\]. +As this suggests, unit testing allows developers to make guarantees of +their programs that are considerably in excess of anything that static +typing can provide. + +#### + +6.3 + +Code completion + +Many modern developers make use of sophisticated Integrated Development +Environments (IDEs) to edit programs. One feature associated with such +tools is code completion. In particular when a variable of type T is +used in a slot lookup, the functions and attributes of the type are +automatically displayed. This feature makes use of static types to +ensure that (modulo any use of reflection) its answers are fully +accurate. A fully equivalent feature is not possible for dynamically +typed languages since it is not possible to accurately determine the +static type of an arbitrary expression. + +#### + +6.4 + +Types as documentation + +Since most statically typed languages force users to explicitly state +the types that functions consume and return, statically typed programs +have an implicit form of documentation within them, which happens to be +machine checkable \[[Bra04](#Xbracha__pluggable_type_systems)\]. There +is little doubt that this form of documentation is often useful and that +dynamically typed languages do not include it. However since it is +possible to informally notate the expected types of a function in +comments, or associated documentation strings processed by external +tools, this is not a major disadvantage; furthermore some dynamically +typed languages include optional type systems (see +Section [7.2](#x1-530007.2)) that allow code to be annotated with type +declarations when desired. + +### + +7 + +Variations + +In the majority of this chapter I have described a homogenised picture +of dynamically typed languages, emphasising the culturally common +aspects of most languages. Inevitably this smooths over some important +differences and variations between languages; this section details some +of these. + +#### + +7.1 + +Non-OO and OO languages + +Dynamically typed languages come in both OO (e.g. Converge, Python) and +non-OO (e.g. Lisp) flavours. Unsurprisingly, older dynamically typed +languages tend to be non-OO, with languages of the past decade or more +almost exclusively OO. Interestingly, the transition between these two +schools can be seen in languages such as Python (and, to a lesser +extent, Lua) which started as non-OO languages but which were +subsequently retro-fitted with sufficient OO features that their early +history is only rarely evident. The general principles are largely the +same in both cases, and in most of this chapter I have avoided taking an +exclusively OO or non-OO approach. + +OO does however introduce some new differentiating factors between +statically and dynamically typed languages. In particular, static typing +allows OO languages to introduce new ways of method dispatch (such as +method overloading) due to polymorphism. While meta-programming allows +dynamically typed languages to introduce analogous features, they are +not tightly integrated into the language, or frequently used. In part +because of this, it is generally easier to move between non-OO and OO +programming styles in dynamically typed languages such as Python than to +attempt the same in a statically typed OO language such as Java. + +It is notable that dynamically typed languages have played a major part +in the continued development of OO. For example, languages such as Self +introduced the notable concept of +prototyping \[[US87](#Xungar_smith__self_the_power_of_simplicity)\]; +Smalltalk has been used as the workbench for innovations such as +traits \[[SDNB03](#Xscharli_ducasse_nierstrasz_black__traits_composable_units_of_behaviour)\] +which defines an alternative to inheritance for composing functionality. + +#### + +7.2 + +Optional types + +In most of this chapter, dynamic and static typing have been talked +about as if they are mutually exclusive—and in most current languages +this is true. While not integrated into any mainstream language, there +is a long history of work which aims to utilise the benefits of both +approaches \[[MD04](#Xmeijer_drayton__static_typing_when_possible_dynamic_typing_when_needed_the_end_of_the_cold_war_between_programming_languages)\] +and blur this distinction. There are three main ways of achieving this. +First, one can add a ‘dynamic type’ to a statically typed language, +meaning that most data is statically typed, with some ‘dynamically +typed’ (see +e.g. \[[ACPP91](#Xabadi_cardelli_pierce_plotkin__dynamic_typing_in_a_statically_typed_language), [Hen94](#Xhenglein__dynamic_typing_syntax_and_proof_theory)\]). +Second, and of greater interest to this chapter, one can add an optional +type system to a dynamically typed language. + +Intuitively, optional typing is easily defined: static types can be +added at selected points in a program, or discovered through type +inference, and those types are statically checked by a compiler. +Optional typing thus means that portions a program can be guaranteed not +to have type errors. Exactly how much of a program needs to be +statically typed varies between approaches e.g. some proposal require +whole modules to be fully statically +typed \[[THF08](#Xtobin_hochstadt_felleisen__the_design_and_implementation_of_typed_scheme)\] +where others allow a free mixture of dynamic and static +typing \[[SV08](#Xsiek_vacharajani__gradual_typing_with_unification_based_inference)\]. +Optional types have two further advantages: they offer the possibility +that extra optimisations can be used on statically typed +portions \[[CF91](#Xcartwright_fagan__soft_typing)\]; they also provide +a machine-checkable form of documentation within source code (see +Section [6.4](#x1-500006.4)). + +Optional typing raises two particularly important questions: + +1. Are type violations fatal errors (as they are in fully statically + typed languages), or merely informative warnings? +2. Should static typing effect the run-time semantics of the system? + +There is currently no agreement on either of these points. For example, +as described in Section [7.1](#x1-520007.1) static typing in OO +languages can affect method dispatch, meaning that OO programs could +perform method dispatch differently in statically and dynamically typed +portions. Because of this, one possibility is to make optional types +truly optional, in that their presence or absence does not effect the +run-time semantics of a +program \[[Bra04](#Xbracha__pluggable_type_systems)\]. Taking this +route also raises the possibility of using different type systems within +one program. + +For the purposes of this chapter, optional typing is considered to +subsume a number of related concepts – including gradual typing, soft +typing, and pluggable typing. As this may suggest, optional typing in +its various form is still relatively immature and remains an active area +of research. + +#### + +7.3 + +Analysis + +One approach to validating the correctness of a program is analysis. +Static analysis involves analysing the source code of a system for +errors, and is capable of finding various classes of errors, not just +type errors. Static analysis is a well-established technique in certain +limited areas, such as safety critical systems, where developers are +prepared to constrain the systems they write in order to be assured of +correctness. Such a philosophy is at odds with that of dynamically typed +languages, which emphasise flexibility. Furthermore the inherent +flexibility of dynamically typed languages would lead to a huge increase +in the search space. Therefore static analysis is unlikely to be a +practical approach for analysing dynamically typed programs. Another +approach to analysis is to perform it at run-time – dynamic analysis – +when virtual machines, libraries and so on are augmented with extra +checks which aim to detect many errors at the earliest possible point, +rather than waiting until a program crashes. Although such tools are in +their infancy some, such as the Dialyzer system which performs such +analysis for Erlang +systems \[[LS04](#Xlindahl_sagonas__detecting_software_defects_in_telecom_applications_through_lightweight_static_analysis_a_war_story)\], +are in real-world use. + +### + +8 + +The future + +Definitively predicting the future of dynamically typed languages is +impossible since there is no central authority, or single technology, +which defines such languages. Nevertheless certain trends are currently +evident. The increasing popularity of dynamically typed languages mean a +revived interest in performance issues; while languages such as Self +have shown that dynamically typed languages can have efficient +implementations, few current languages have adopted such techniques. As +dynamically typed languages continue to be used in the real-world, +increasingly for larger systems, users are likely to demand better +performance. Experimentation in optional typing is likely to continue, +with optional type systems eventually seeing real use in mainstream +languages. The cross-fertilisation of ideas between statically and +dynamically typed languages will continue, with language features such +as compile-time meta-programming crossing both ways across the divide. +It is also likely that we will see an increase in the number of +dynamically typed domain specific languages, since such languages tend +by nature to be small and ‘lightweight’ in feel. + +### + +9 + +Conclusions + +In this chapter I detailed the general philosophy, history, and defining +features of dynamically typed languages. I showed that, while a broad +banner, such languages share much in common. Furthermore I have +highlighted their contribution to the development of programming +languages in general and, I hope, a sense of why they are currently +enjoying such a resurgence. + +I am grateful to Éric Tanter who provided insightful comments on a draft +of this chapter. All remaining errors and infelicities are my own. + +### References + +\[AC96\] Martín Abadi and Luca Cardelli. 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Conference on Programming Language +Design and Implementation, pages 249–257, 1998. diff --git a/_stories/2009/8250052.md b/_stories/2009/8250052.md deleted file mode 100644 index c12817b..0000000 --- a/_stories/2009/8250052.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,25 +0,0 @@ ---- -created_at: '2014-08-31T18:56:24.000Z' -title: Interview with an Adware Author (2009) -url: http://philosecurity.org/2009/01/12/interview-with-an-adware-author -author: ANTSANTS -points: 54 -story_text: '' -comment_text: -num_comments: 17 -story_id: -story_title: -story_url: -parent_id: -created_at_i: 1409511384 -_tags: -- story -- author_ANTSANTS -- story_8250052 -objectID: '8250052' - ---- -[Source](http://philosecurity.org/2009/01/12/interview-with-an-adware-author "Permalink to ") - - - diff --git a/_stories/2009/8421518.md b/_stories/2009/8421518.md index fc65e05..9eaae91 100644 --- a/_stories/2009/8421518.md +++ b/_stories/2009/8421518.md @@ -19,7 +19,458 @@ _tags: objectID: '8421518' --- -[Source](https://spectrum.ieee.org/semiconductors/optoelectronics/the-leds-dark-secret "Permalink to ") +![](/img/520659-1367523519626.jpg) Illustration: Bryan Christie Design +**The blue light-emitting diode,** arguably the greatest optoelectronic +advance of the past 25 years, harbors a dark secret: Crank up the +current and its efficiencies will plummet. The problem is known as +droop, and it’s not only puzzling the brightest minds in the field, it’s +also threatening the future of the electric lighting industry. +Tech visionaries have promised us a bright new world where cool and +efficient white LEDs, based on blue ones, will replace the wasteful +little heaters known as incandescent lightbulbs. More than a dozen +countries have already enacted legislation that bans, or will soon ban, +incandescent bulbs. But it’s hard to imagine LEDs dislodging +incandescents and coming to dominate the world electric lighting +industry, unless we can defeat droop. +In flashlights, in backlights for screens in cellphones and now +televisions, and in a bunch of other applications, white LEDs already +constitute a multibillion-dollar market. But that’s just a US $5 billion +niche compared to the overall lighting industry, whose sales next year +should reach $100 billion, according to the market research firm Global +Industry Analysts. The trick will be to make LEDs turn electricity into +light efficiently enough to offset their relatively high cost—roughly 16 +cents per lumen, at lightbulb-type brightness, as opposed to about 0.1 +cents or less for incandescents. + +Look at the competition and you’d think the job was easy. Today’s +garden-variety incandescent bulbs aren’t much different from the ones +Thomas Edison sold more than a century ago. They still waste 90 percent +of their power, delivering roughly 16 lumens per watt. Fluorescent tubes +do a lot better, at more than 100 lm/W, but even they pale next to the +best LEDs. The current state-of-the-art white LED pumps out around 250 +lm/W, and there’s no reason why that figure won’t reach 300 lm/W. + +Unfortunately, these LEDs perform at their best only at low power—the +few milliamps it takes to backlight the little screen on your mobile +phone, for instance. At the current levels needed for general lighting, +droop kicks in, and down you go, below 100 lm/W. + +[![LED +Architecture](/img/520290-620px-1412782576788.jpg)](/img/520290-1412782534145.jpg) + +  + +Illustration: Bryan Christie Design **LED Architecture:** At the heart +of every white LED is a semiconductor chip made from nitride-based +materials. The chip is traditionally positioned on top of the cathode +lead. Applying several volts across this device makes the chip emit blue +light. Passing the light through a yellow phosphor yields white light. +Modern, high-power LEDs are variants of this architecture, featuring +more complex packages for superior thermal management. + +**The first-ever report of** light emission from a semiconductor was by +the British radio engineer Henry Joseph Round, who noted a yellowish +glow emanating from silicon carbide in 1907. However, the first devices +at all similar to today’s LEDs arrived only in the 1950s, at Signal +Corps Engineering Laboratories, at Fort Monmouth, in New Jersey. +Researchers there fabricated orange-emitting devices; green, red, and +yellow equivalents followed in the ’60s and ’70s, all of them quite +inefficient. + +The great leap toward general lighting came in the mid-1990s, when Shuji +Nakamura, then at Nichia Corp., in Tokushima, Japan, developed the first +practical bright-blue LED using nitride-based compound semiconductors. +(Nakamura’s achievement won him the 2006 Millennium Technology Prize, +the approximate equivalent in engineering of a Nobel Prize.) Once you’ve +got blue light, you can get white by passing the blue rays through a +yellow phosphor. The phosphor absorbs some of the blue and reradiates it +as yellow; the combination of blue and yellow makes white. + +All LEDs are fabricated as aggregated sections, or regions, of different +semiconductor materials. Each of these regions plays a specific role. +One region serves as a source of electrons; it consists of a crystal of +a compound semiconductor into which tiny amounts of an impurity, such as +silicon, have been introduced. Each such atom of impurity, or dopant, +has four electrons in its outer shell, compared with the three in an +atom of gallium, aluminum, or indium. When a dopant takes a place that +one of these other atoms would normally occupy, it adds an electron to +the crystalline lattice. The extra electron moves easily though the +crystal, acting as a carrier of negative charge. With this surfeit of +negative charges, such a material is called n-type. + +At the opposite end of the LED is a region of p-type material, so called +because it has excess positive-charge carriers, created by doping with +an element such as zinc or magnesium. These metals are made up of atoms +with only two electrons in their outer shell. When such an atom sits in +place of an atom of aluminum, gallium, or a chemically similar element +(from group III in the periodic table), the lattice ends up an electron +short. That vacancy behaves as a positive charge, moving throughout the +crystal like the missing tile in a sort-the-number puzzle. That mobile +vacancy is called a hole. + +In the middle of the sandwich are several extraordinarily thin layers. +These constitute the active region, where light is produced. Some layers +made of one semiconducting material surround a central layer made of +another, creating a “well” just a few atoms thick—a trench so confined +that the laws of quantum mechanics rule supreme. When you inject +electrons and holes into the well by applying a voltage to the n - and +p-type regions, the two kinds of charge carriers will be trapped, +maximizing the likelihood that they will recombine. When they do, a +photon pops out. + +To make an LED, you must grow a series of highly defined semiconductor +layers on a thin wafer of a crystalline material, called a substrate. +The substrate for red, orange, and yellow LEDs is gallium arsenide, +which works wonderfully because its atoms are spaced out identically to +those of the layers built on top of it. Hardly any mechanical strain +develops in the semiconductor’s crystalline lattice during fabrication, +so there are very few defects, which would quench light generation. + +Unfortunately, blue and green LEDs lack such a good platform. They’re +called nitride LEDs because their fundamental semiconductor is gallium +nitride. The n-type gallium nitride is doped with silicon, the p-type +with magnesium. The quantum wells in between are gallium indium nitride. +To alter the light color emitted from green to violet, researchers vary +the gallium-to-indium ratio in the quantum wells. A little indium +produces a violet LED; a little more of it produces green. + +Such LEDs would ideally be manufactured on gallium nitride substrates. +But it has proved impossible to grow the large, perfect crystals of +gallium nitride that would be necessary to make such wafers. Unipress, +of Warsaw, the world leader in this field, cannot make crystals bigger +than a few centimeters, and then only by keeping the growth chamber at a +temperature of 2200 C and a pressure of almost 20 000 atmospheres. + +So the makers of blue LEDs instead typically build their devices on +wafers of sapphire, whose crystalline structure does not quite match +that of the nitrides. And that discrepancy gives rise to many +defects—billions of them per square centimeter. + +[![combatting droop +illustration](/img/520305-620-1412783091916.jpg)](/img/520305-620-1412782905853.jpg) + +  + +Illustration: Bryan Christie Design **Combatting Droop** Droop—the loss +of efficiency at high power—afflicts conventional nitride LED +structures. These feature an active region with gallium indium nitride +quantum wells and GaN barriers, and an electron-blocking layer to keep +electrons in this region. Researchers at Rensselaer Polytechnic +Institute have reduced droop with new active regions, made first by +combining GaInN wells and aluminum gallium indium nitride barriers and, +more recently, by pairing GaInN wells with GaInN barriers. Meanwhile, +Philips Lumileds has also developed a structure that is less prone to +droop, thanks to a far thicker quantum well. + +It is amazing that such LEDs work at all. Any arsenide-based red, +orange, or yellow LED that contained as many defects would emit +absolutely no light. To this day, researchers, including Nakamura +himself—who moved to the University of California, Santa Barbara (UCSB) +in 1999—can’t agree on the cause of the phenomenon. Perhaps the solution +to this problem may also explain droop. + +**The explanation won’t come easily.** When researchers set out to find +the cause of droop in nitride LEDs, one of their first suspects was +heat, which they knew could cause droop in arsenide LEDs. There, heat +imparts so much energy to the electrons and holes that the quantum well +can no longer trap them. Instead of recombining, some of them escape, +only to be swept away by the electric fields in the device. But +researchers dismissed this possibility after noting that nitride LEDs +suffered from droop even when driven by short, pulsed voltages spaced +far enough apart to let the devices cool down. + +Another theory was proposed as far back as 1996 by Nakamura. He argued +that everything could be explained by the structure of the quantum well. +Nakamura and his colleagues looked at LEDs with a transmission electron +microscope and were surprised to find light and dark areas within the +quantum well, suggesting that the material there was not uniform. They +then investigated the crystalline structure more closely, using X-ray +diffraction, and found that the quantum well had indium-rich clusters +(bright) next to indium-poor areas (dark). + +Nakamura conjectured that because the indium clusters were free from +defects, the electrons and holes would be trapped in them, making bright +emission possible, at least at low currents. Continuing with this line +of reasoning, Nakamura’s team argued that LEDs’ high efficiency at low +currents stemmed from a very high proportion of electron-hole +recombination in defect-free clusters. At higher currents, however, +these clusters would become saturated, and any additional charge +carriers would spill over into regions having defects dense enough to +kill light emission. The saturation at high current, they suggested, +accounted for the observed droop. + +This theory has fallen out of favor in recent years. “To start with, we +saw indium-rich clusters in InGaN quantum wells, just as the rest of the +world did,” explains Colin Humphreys, the head of the Cambridge Centre +for Gallium Nitride at the University of Cambridge, in England. But then +he and his team began to suspect that their electron microscope was +causing the very thing it was detecting. So the group carried out +low-dose electron microscopy. “We looked at the first few frames—a very +low exposure—and saw no indium clustering at all. But as we exposed the +material to the beam, these clusters developed,” he says. They concluded +that the clustering was merely an artifact of measurement. + +In 2003, Humphreys presented that jaw-dropping finding at the Fifth +International Conference on Nitride Semiconductors, in Nara, Japan. It +wasn’t well received. Many delegates contended that something must have +gone wrong with the Cambridge samples. So Humphreys’s group went back +and studied a wider variety of specimens, including LEDs supplied by +Nichia. Their work only reinforced their view that the clusters were +formed by electron-beam damage. + +In 2007, Humphreys’s Cambridge team, together with researchers at the +University of Oxford, described how they had attacked the problem with +what’s known as a three-dimensional atom probe. This device applies a +high voltage that evaporates atoms on a surface, then sends them +individually through a mass spectroscope, which identifies each one by +its charge-to-mass ratio. By evaporating one layer after the other and +putting all the data together, you can render a 3-D image of the surface +with atomic precision. + +The resulting images confirmed, again, what the electron microscope had +shown: There is no clustering. Discrediting the cluster theory was an +important step, even though it left the research community without an +alternative explanation for droop. + +Then, on 13 February 2007, the California-based LED manufacturing giant +Philips Lumileds Lighting Co. made the stunning claim that it had +“fundamentally solved” the problem of droop. It even said that it +would soon include its droop-abating technology in samples of its +flagship Luxeon LEDs. + +Lumileds kept the cause of droop under wraps for several months. Then, +at the meeting of the International Conference of Nitride +Semiconductors, held September 2007 in Las Vegas, it presented a paper +putting the blame on Auger recombination—a process, named after the +20th-century French physicist Pierre-Victor Auger, that involves the +interaction of an electron and a hole with another carrier, all without +the emission of light. + +The idea was pretty radical, and it has had a mixed reception. Applied +Physics Letters published Lumileds’ paper only after repeated rejections +and revisions. “In my experience, it was one of the most difficult +papers to get out there,” says Mike Krames, director of the company’s +Advanced Laboratories. + +**Krames’s team used a laser** to probe a layer of gallium indium +nitride, the semiconductor used for quantum wells in a nitride LED. They +tuned the laser to a wavelength that only the gallium indium nitride +layer would absorb, so that each zap created pairs of electrons and +holes that then recombined to produce photons. When the researchers +graphed the resulting photoluminescence against different intensities +impinging on the sample, they produced curves that closely fit an +equation that described the effects of Auger recombination. + +The bad news is that you can’t eliminate this kind of recombination, +which is proportional to the cube of the density of carriers. So in a +nutshell, if you’ve got carriers—which of course you need to generate +light—you’ve also got Auger recombination. The good news, though, is +that Lumileds has shown that you can push the peak of your efficiency to +far higher currents by cutting carrier density—that is, by spreading the +carriers over more material. The company does so with what’s known as a +double heterostructure (DH), essentially a quantum well that’s 13 +nanometers wide, rather than the usual 3 or 4 nm. It still shows quantum +effects, although they are not so pronounced, and the design is less +efficient than the standard one at low currents. Still, it excels at +higher currents. The Lumileds team has created a test version that +delivers a peak efficiency slightly higher than that of a conventional +LED. + +Promising though this new crystalline structure may be, it is difficult +to grow. Perhaps this is why Lumileds has yet to incorporate the design +into its Luxeon LEDs. “There are multiple paths to dealing with droop, +and we’ve investigated most of these paths,” says Krames. “We have new +structures in the pipeline, DH as well as non-DH, and we will move +forward with the best structure.” + +**Not everyone is convinced** that Auger recombination is the cause of +droop. One such skeptic is Jörg Hader, a University of Arizona theorist, +who works with former colleagues in Germany at Philipps-Universität +Marburg and at one of the world’s biggest LED manufacturers, Osram Opto +Semiconductors, in Regensburg. + +“All \[Lumileds\] showed was that they can fit the results with a +dependence that is like Auger,” claims Hader. “It’s a fairly weak +argument to see a fit that fits, and see what might correspond to that +fitting.” In his view, there’s a good chance that the Lumileds data +could also be fitted with other density dependencies, as well as the +cubed dependence that is classically associated with Auger +recombination. + +Hader has calculated the magnitude of direct Auger recombination for a +typical blue LED. The equations that describe this interaction of an +electron and a hole with a third carrier date back to the 1950s, but +that doesn’t mean that they are easy to solve. Hader says he took no +shortcuts. Instead, he accounted for all physical interactions in a +program tens of thousands of lines long, a program that in its initial +form would have taken several years to run. However, Hader says he’s +learned what he can omit safely in order to get the running time down to +just 1 minute. He says the model shows that Auger losses are too small +to account for LED droop, although he does allow that droop might be +caused by other processes related to Auger recombination. These +processors are more complicated because they also involve defects in the +material or thermal vibrations (phonons, in quantum terms) of the +semiconductor crystal. + +Krames criticizes Hader’s calculations for leaving out the possibility +that electrons might occupy higher energy levels, known as higher +conduction bands. But Hader believes that including these bands would +hardly affect his conclusions. + +This May, computer scientists at UCSB brought new evidence to bear on +this debate. Chris Van de Walle’s team included a second conduction band +in their calculations of Auger recombination in nitrides and concluded +that Auger contributes strongly to droop. However, they modeled only the +bulk materials, not realistic quantum wells, for which Van de Walle +admits his methods cannot handle the calculations, at least not on +today’s computers. + +Hader does not doubt the general shape of the UCSB results. However, he +points out that the value Van de Walle’s team has taken for the second +conduction band substantially differs from that given in certain +academic papers. Using these published values would have profound +effects on any estimate of the magnitude of Auger recombination. The +conclusions of Hader and Van de Walle highlight the lack of consensus +among theorists over the cause of droop. + +![Less Leakage: POLARIZATION FIELDS may cause LED droop](/image/520319) +Illustration: Bryan Christie Design **Less Leakage:** Polarization +fields may cause LED droop. Such fields are claimed to drive electrons +out of the active region and into the p-type layer, where some recombine +without emitting light \[top\]. A “polarization matched” structure +\[bottom\] has a far weaker internal field and therefore suffers less +electron leakage, leaving more electrons to recombine with holes. + +Meanwhile, a group headed by E. Fred Schubert at the Rensselaer +Polytechnic Institute, in Troy, N.Y., has proposed yet another theory. +His team, in collaboration with Samsung, blames droop on the leakage of +too many electrons from the quantum well. + +Interestingly, Schubert’s team, like the researchers at Lumileds, drew +its conclusions by pumping light into the nitride structures and +observing the light that those structures emitted in response. But +Schubert and company investigated full LED structures, and they compared +the results they’d obtained from optical pumping with light output +generated when a voltage was applied, as it is in normal operation. As +expected, droop kicked in when the device was pumped electrically. But +the researchers saw no sign of droop in the photoluminescence data. + +They then brought in Joachim Piprek, a theorist from the NUSOD +Institute, a device simulation consultancy in Newark, Del. He used a +computer model to simulate the behavior of a blue LED and found that the +strong internal fields characteristic of nitrides must be causing +electrons to leak out of the wells. + +Now Schubert and his colleagues have produced direct evidence to back up +their argument for leakage. They took an LED unconnected to any circuit +and hit it with light at a wavelength of 405 nm, which is absorbed only +in the quantum wells. The researchers detected a voltage across the +diode, implying that carriers must leave the wells, contradicting +Lumileds’ theory. + +Schubert’s team has tried to control electron leakage by redesigning the +LED. By carefully selecting the materials for the active +region—switching from the conventional gallium nitride barrier to an +aluminum gallium indium nitride version—they have been able to eliminate +the charges that tend to form wherever distinct crystalline layers meet. +They say such “polarization matching” consistently cuts droop, raising +power output by 25 percent at high currents. + +Schubert believes that the electrons that leak out of the wells +recombine with holes in the p -type region. If he could detect this +recombination, it would certainly add weight to his explanation. “We’ve +looked for that luminescence,” says Schubert, “but we have not seen it.” +He’s not surprised, though, because p -type gallium nitride is a very +inefficient light emitter, and the LED’s surface is nearby, so surface +recombination at the top contact is also likely. + +However, it is possible to detect electrons in the p -type region by +modifying the standard LED structure, and researchers at UCSB have done +just this. This team, led by Steven DenBaars and Nakamura, did the job +of fitting the p -type region with an additional quantum well, one that +emits light of a color different from that of the main LED. At a +workshop in Montreux, Switzerland, in the fall of 2008, the group +reported that they had found just this sort of emission. + +Although this experiment proved that electrons do flow into the p -type +region, it can’t tell us where they came from. And while Schubert’s +theory of electron leakage could explain the results, there may well be +other things that can also account for them. We can’t even rule out +Auger recombination as the dominant mechanism, because the proportion of +electrons flowing into the p -type region is still to be quantified. + +**Each theory has its champions.** Theoreticians at Philipps-Universität +Marburg support Auger recombination, mainly the phonon-assisted form, as +the main cause of droop. So does Semiconductor Technology Research, a +device-modeling company based in Richmond, Va. Meanwhile, Hadis Morkoç’s +group at Virginia Commonwealth University seconds Schubert’s support of +electron leakage, which they attribute to the poor efficiency with which +holes are injected into the quantum well. + +Confused? Join the club—and realize that this controversy is precisely +what you’d expect to find in a field that has suddenly begun to make +great progress. Even if we don’t have a universally agreed-upon theory +to account for droop, we do have a growing arsenal of proven weapons to +fight it—Schubert’s polarization-matched devices, Lumileds’ wide quantum +well structures, as well as designs that improve hole injection, among +others. Too bad that we still can’t agree on how they work. + +The industry will move forward. LEDs are just starting to supplant +fluorescent as well as incandescent lighting. Someday, in our lifetimes, +incandescent filaments will finally stop turning tens of gigawatts into +unwanted heat. Smokestacks will spew less carbon into the global +greenhouse. And we won’t have to get up on stepladders to change +burned-out bulbs nearly so often as we do today. + +And around that time, when you’re reading this magazine by the light of +an LED, perhaps the theorists will have watertight explanations for the +experimentalists, and we’ll know the answer to the burning question that +remains: What causes droop? + +## About the Author + +Richard Stevenson, author of “The LED’s Dark Secret” \[p. 22\], got a +Ph.D. at the University of Cambridge, where he studied compound +semiconductors. Then he went into industry and made the things. Now, as +a freelance journalist based in Wales, he writes about them. Between +assignments, he builds traditional class A hi-fi amplifiers, as opposed +to the class D type favored by IEEE Spectrum’s Glenn Zorpette. “If we +were to share an office,” Stevenson says, “many hours would be lost to +discussions of the path to hi-fi nirvana.” + +## To Probe Further + +The Philips Lumileds papers are “Auger Recombination in InGaN Measured +by Photoluminescence,” by Y. C. Shen, G. O. Mueller, S. Watanabe, N. F. +Gardner, A. Munkholm, and M. R. Krames, Applied Physics Letters 91 **** +141101, 1 October 2007, and “Blue-Emitting InGaN–GaN +Double-Heterostructure Light-Emitting Diodes Reaching Maximum Quantum +Efficiency Above 200 A/cm2,” by N. F. Gardner, G. O. Müller, Y. C. Shen, +G. Chen, S. Watanabe, W. Götz, and M. R. Krames, APL 91 **** 243506, 12 +December 2007. + +The papers from Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute are “Origin of +Efficiency Droop in GaN-Based Light-Emitting Diodes,” by M.-H. Kim, M. +F. Schubert, Q. Dai, J. K. Kim, and E. Fred Schubert, J. Piprek, APL 91 +**** 183507, 30 October 2007; “Effect of Dislocation Density on +Efficiency Droop in GaInN/GaN Light-Emitting Diodes,” by M. F. Schubert, +S. Chhajed, J. K. Kim, and E. Fred Schubert, D. D. Koleske, M. H. +Crawford, S. R. Lee, A. J. Fischer, G. Thaler, and M. A. Banas, APL 91 +**** 231114, 7 December 2007; and “Polarization-Matched GaInN/AlGaInN +Multi-Quantum-Well Light-Emitting Diodes With Reduced Efficiency Droop,” +by M. F. Schubert, J. Xu, J. K. Kim, E. F. Schubert, M.-H. Kim, S. Yoon, +S. M. Lee, C. Sone, T. Sakong, and Y. Park, APL 93 **** 041102, 28 July +2008. + +The paper from Jorg Hader, et al., is “On the Importance of Radiative +and Auger Losses in GaN-Based Quantum Wells, APL 92 **** 261103, 1 July +2008. + +The paper from Virginia Commonwealth University is “On the Efficiency +Droop in InGaN Multiple-Quantum-Well Blue-Light-Emitting Diodes and Its +Reduction with p-Doped Quantum-Well Barriers,” by J. Xie, X. Ni, Q. Fan, +R. Shimada, Ü. Özgür, and H. Morkoç, APL 93 **** 121107, 23 September +2008. diff --git a/_stories/2009/8525044.md b/_stories/2009/8525044.md index a0e340d..7c912e8 100644 --- a/_stories/2009/8525044.md +++ b/_stories/2009/8525044.md @@ -19,7 +19,2107 @@ _tags: objectID: '8525044' --- -[Source](https://www.orionmagazine.org/index.php/articles/article/4801/ "Permalink to ") +I want to thank Derrick Jensen for writing another wise and honest +column. Also, I’m pleased to see the serious engagement with Mr. +Jensen’s ideas by the readership of Orion. I’d like to respond to a +few of the earlier posters. Having read most of Jensen’s published work +and being someone who largely shares his perspective on social, +ecological, and political issues, I think I may be able to offer a +useful counterpoint to a few of the criticisms. +Joel (\#1) and Chris (\#4), your critiques seem to take as a given that +we have a truly free-market economy in this society. Noam Chomsky and +many others on the left have, I think, effectively debunked this idea. +The largest heavy industry in America (also the largest polluter) is the +weapons industry, and the military uses more oil than any other +industry. Clearly, neither my consumption choices nor my vote plays a +factor in these. The government funnels endless billions (ultimately, +probably trillions) of dollars into military R\&D (also NASA and other +agencies), and then, oftentimes, they bring these technologies to the +market (as microwaves, cell phones, personal computers, the internet, +etc.) as a means of privatizing and concentrating that massive public +investment, while externalizing (laying on the public, humans and +non-humans) as many costs as possible. Not exactly Smithian capitalism. +More like sheer plunder. Actually, Adam Smith warned explicitly against +such abuses, and supported strong unions to prevent them. Moreover, as +Jensen showed in his book Strangely Like War (on the timber industry, +co-authored with George Draffan), paper mills continually churn out far +more paper than the economy calls for. Likewise, the federally +subsidized, biotech, pesticide laden, fossil fuel fertilized corn, soy, +cotton, etc. is being produced at levels beyond what the market can +bear. Hence all the crazy, energy intensive, unhealthy innovations for +dumping it (HFCS, lecithin, TVP, corn oil, soy oil, inappropriate animal +feed, and now, of course, biofuels). Monsanto didn’t invent Posilac +(rBGH) to meet a public demand for slightly cheaper milk, loaded with +puss, hormones, anti-biotics, etc, at the expense of sick and dying +cattle and people (themselves). They did it simply because they knew +their boys in Washington would approve it and that their propaganda +would sell it to farmers, and that Monsanto would make a fortune. Major +corporations are not out there trying to meet public needs. Major +industries do not produce less (or destroy less) when demand falls off +(which it does almost exclusively for economic reasons, very rarely for +political reasons… even less so ecological ones). They turn to the +government for bailouts, and they use their massive propaganda industry +(PR) to manufacture new demand. Look, I, like Jensen, compost, recycle, +drive very little, buy almost only ethically produced local foods, buy +only used clothes, occasionally dumpster dive, pee outside, bring +tupperware to restaurants, and do many other little, tiny things to +reduce my impact. Is it worth it? Absolutely. Does it pose any threat +whatsoever to those who are destroying the planet? No, and that is +Jensen’s point. We need lifestyle changes in order to sleep at night and +be able to look at ourselves in the mirror, but we also need to stop +kidding ourselves that these changes will suffice to save the profoundly +imperiled community of life on this planet. Moreover, to refuse to fight +back as effectively as possible is to value my luxuries, my relative +freedom, my so-called life over future generations, over the planet, +over my own dignity. I’ll choose to resist. +Wes (\#3), you may be interested to know that Derrick is working on a +book explicitly about dreams, and based on dreams. I know him, and he +speaks of his dreams more than anyone I’ve met except indigenous people, +Sufis, or Jungians. And, as Chris (\#4) noted, he definitely offers a +clear vision, whether or not you agree with it. He is saying to resist +by all means necessary. People understood what that meant when Malcolm X +said it. +Amanda (\#6), it is really good that you (like me) bring tupperware for +your leftovers at restaurants. Hey, I’ve gotten my parents to (on rare +occasion when they remember) do the same. Yet I taught for four years at +a very liberal private school on Manhattan’s Upper West Side, one of the +most staunchly liberal neighborhoods in the country. Hell, the school +building is named for Andrew Goodman, an alum who fought and died for +civil rights. And yet I was appalled on my first day when I saw every +single student, teacher, administrator, and staff member throwing away +disposable utensils, plates, bowls, cups, napkins, and a lot of food, +with every meal. I pretty much always eat what I buy (or forage), and I +compost the rest. I never, ever use disposables. I brought in a set of +dishes and utensils the next day. For the next four years, I established +myself as, frankly, a widely liked and respected member of the +community, one of a couple of leaders on ecological issues. After four +years (and innumerable statements like, “Oh man, I’m going to start +bringing my own stuff, too,” and “Gee, we really need to get the school +to switch away from disposables”), the school has not budged an inch on +waste (despite a little greenwashing) and all of two other faculty +members have brought in and regularly use non-disposable stuff. A few +others, including some students, brought in mugs and sometimes use them. +And this is one of the most liberal communities you will find, where +everyone talks about ecological issues daily. This is a rich community, +where we could easily afford to change our behavior. This is a community +where I was not strictly a peer to most, but in a clearly defined +authority position, and I was widely liked, even loved by many, yet +almost no one followed my lead on this one, tiny, easy issue. If you’re +going to do the right thing in these tiny ways, do it because it’s the +right thing to do. Not because you’re changing the people around you, +because with very few and pretty much negligible exceptions, you’re not. +And we have far, far, bigger levers to use in our fight against global +ecocide. And we must use them, if we truly value life. By all means, +compost too. + +Stephen (\#11), fair enough. I’m just like Jensen, in this sense. In my +history classes, I am constantly making parallels to Hitler and the +Nazis. Also to slavery. I do so, as I suspect Jensen does, because these +are two of the only historical atrocities with which we, as a society, +have any degree of both familiarity and moral clarity. I’d love to +change it up more, and I do with my students who have been in my classes +for a while and have developed both familiarity and moral clarity about +the Vietnam war, about the genocide of the indigenous Americans, about +the genocide in East Timor, about the Crusades, about the Opium Wars, +about the US sponsored horrors in El Salvador, Guatemala, Nicaragua, +etc. But I always start with the Nazis, because we all already know +they’re bad. So it’s a useful reference point. And what happens if we +apply the justice at Nuremberg to the Reagan administration? Or the +Clinton administration? Or Obama? Or, of course, Monsanto, Rio Tinto, +Weyerhauser, Shell, ExxonMobil, Raytheon, Halliburton, etc? Or, given +the fate of Julius Streicher, to the willing propagandists of the +corporate-imperial omnicide, propagandists widely read/seen/heard in the +New York Times, the Wall Street Journal, Fox, CNN, The Economist, and so +on? + +Geektronica (\#12), I’ll address your post last. + +Harry (\#18), I hear you, and I think you make a valid editorial +critique, but I think it’s ultimately superficial. Jensen says over and +over, including in this column, that we should make those tiny, +eensy-weensy changes, and that he does so himself. He also says that we +must rid ourselves of the delusion that doing so will suffice to stop +the omnicide. So taken in context, I think it’s pretty clear that Jensen +means “forget that things like taking shorter showers will lead to a +sane and sustainable culture.” Also, Derrick is ALL ABOUT local action. +Read his work. He’s done a ton of local organizing to stop deforesters, +to stop “developers,” etc. He does not rule out engagement in the +political process. He also says, very clearly and forcefully in his new +book (What We Leave Behind, co-authored with Aric McBay) that these must +be done in the context of a culture of resistance. So environmental +activists who run for public office, or focus on permaculture, or focus +on urban gardening, or focus on education (like me), or focus on writing +books (like him), etc, must see not only each other as allies to be +supported but also people doing the crucial front-line work of +confronting and dismantling the systems and infrastructures through +which the dominant culture oppresses and destroys all living beings. Be +in politics, as the Sinn Fein leaders were in politics. Not as the +current Democrats or even Greens are, who are clearly opposed to +militant action against the destroyers (Democrats because they are, +themselves, corporatist destroyers, and Greens because they’re stuck in +the futile and self-defeating pathology of pacifism… and/or they’re also +corporatists destroyers, just “green” corporatist destroyers). You want +to run for office? I’ll vote for you… if I know you have the back of the +resistance movement, including those who will do the most dangerous and +important work. + +Flaneuse (\#20), I don’t see him stopping short. I see him tailoring his +message to his audience. If you have not read Endgame, I strongly +suggest you (and everyone) do so. It will leave little question about +Derrick’s commitment to revolution. BUT, it should also be clear that +Derrick is not proposing some grand political program for us all to +follow, like Lenin or even Bakunin. The revolution he supports is to +dismantle empire and replace it with thousands of small, local cultures +that are inextricable from their landbases. Which is to say, indigenous +cultures. Which are, by virtue of their size, their technics, and their +oneness with the broader community of life, highly democratic, +egalitarian, and most importantly, sustainable. + +Now, back to Geektronica (\#12). You write, “…but a Luddite one.” Yeah? +So? OK, Derrick Jensen is a Luddite. And then some. Because the Luddites +only opposed industrial technology. Jensen goes further, to the dawn of +agriculture (as in, the dawn of ecocidal monocropping of annuals, not +the dawn of putting seeds in the ground, which has always been done, +including by non-humans). He is opposed to all civilized technology. +Including metallurgy. Including the plow. But he is most opposed to +industrial technology because it is so much more extreme and rapid in +its destructiveness than pre-industrial civilized technology. And yes, +he, and I, and many others “really think we’d be better off abandoning +modern technology (‘industrial society’).” That’s the whole point. +Industrial society, despite the myths and propaganda we’ve ben fed since +birth, is based, on the most physically real level, on the converting of +the living to the dead. Living forests into junk mail and toilet paper. +Living rivers into hydro-electricity, canned salmon, and bottles of wine +from irrigated vineyards. Living prairies into stockpiles of grain. +Living mountains into beer cans (using hydro-electricity from murdered +rivers), jewelry, and whole ecosystems laid waste by toxic tailings. And +so forth. And this is in contrast to wild animals, including wild human +cultures, who obviously also consume the lives and bodies of others +(while honoring them), but enhance and protect the communities from +which those individuals come. That is the crucial difference. In +industrial society, salmon are a commodity, a resource. That is, when +they’re not merely a political impediment to dam-building, waste +dumping, or irrigation. And how does one treat a resource, a commodity? +How does this compare to how an indigenous Klamath human, or Tolowa, or +Salish, or Pomo, or Aleut, or Ainu, or Nikvh, or, on the Atlantic, +Lenape, Abenaki, Innu, Inuit, Celt, etc, behaves in relation to the +salmon, which s/he also eats, but sees as a living, unique, spiritual +being, who must be honored and whose community must be honored, for +their own sake and for the sake of the human and non-human communities +that depend on them, have always depended on them, and will always +depend on them? It’s the difference between, as Jensen sometimes +says/writes, seeing a woman as a resource for sexual release and/or +conquest (as so many men in this culture clearly do) versus seeing each +individual woman as a unique, spiritual being with intrinsic value and +an independent will and identity. It’s the difference between abuse and +relationship. No surprise that the culture that sees land as a resource, +that sees trees, salmon, rivers, mountains, indeed the whole Earth as +resources, also treats women, children, foreigners, minorities, the +laboring classes, and so forth as resources. It, civilization (in its +most fully realized and pathological form, industrial civilization), is +a culture based on objectification and exploitation. It rewards +objectification and exploitation, and those who objectify and exploit +most thoroughly, effectively, and “profitably” wind up as the elite +(they’re usually born into the elite, anyhow). Not all human cultures +are like this. Indeed, ONLY civilized cultures are like this. It is a +pathology that is literally consuming the planet, and if it is not +stopped, there will be very little, if anything, left of the community +of life by the time it has collapsed and its impact has been fully +absorbed. + +Further, the Abenaki lived where I now sit for thousands of years, and +they did not deplete the forests, the cod (now locally extirpated), the +passenger pigeons (fully extinct), the lobsters, the aquifers, the +topsoil, and so on. They did not leave the land despoiled with waste and +toxins. The only “waste” they produced was food for other beings. They +took no more than the land could willingly and healthily give. For +thousands of years. And they did not oppress women. And they did not +invent money, or slavery. And they did not commit genocide against their +human neighbors. And they did not expand beyond the land’s carrying +capacity. Same goes for the Mohawks who lived for eons where I grew up. +Same goes for the Lenape who lived for eons where I spent my 20’s. Same +goes for the paleolithic predecessors of the Etruscans who lived for +eons where I lived for a year in Italy. Same goes for the Tolowa who +lived for eons where Jensen now lives. Same goes for the San in Namibia, +living much like their ancestors from hundreds of thousands of years +ago: sustainably, peacefully, profoundly, democratically. The qualities +of civilization are not the qualities of the human. Indeed, they are +starkly at odds with the qualities of the human, which is why life in +civilized society produces so many discontents (as noted by Freud and +Jung), so many schizophrenics (as noted by Joseph Campbell and Stanley +Diamond), so many depressives, addicts, sociopaths, and so forth (as +should be obvious to anyone). We are still wild beings, tamed into a +highly imperfect submission, under which we rankle. But all that aside, +civilization has already wiped out 90% of the large fish in the oceans, +95% of the original forests in this country, roughly a third of all the +wildlife on Earth just since 1970 (not including the vastly more lost +before 1970). There is now far more plastic than plankton in the oceans. +Amphibians are dying off en masse, worldwide. The major agricultural +regions are being thoroughly denuded of topsoil, which will leave them +deserts, jut like the “Fertile Crescent,” the original cradle of +agriculture. The whole planet is on a horrific, anthropogenic warming +cycle that will surely take an extremely heavy toll and even threatens +the continuation of life itself. This culture is omnicidal, and it will +collapse by virtue of the fact that it destroys the basis for its own +survival, along with everyone else’s. The question is whether or not +much of the still surviving community of life will make it long enough +to weather that collapse and begin restoring health to this planet, so +we might all have a future. + +As for the current human population level, it is grossly, absurdly +beyond carrying capacity, and that is a major product of the dominant +culture (indigenous cultures maintained stable population levels). The +population is coming down, sooner or later, more or less horrifically. +Should we continue assaulting and damaging and destroying the +foundations upon which life is built in order to forestall (and +intensify) the eventual collapse for another day, or week, or year? It +won’t be more than, at most, a couple decades. If it takes that long, +how much worse will the collapse be? Will there be nine billion people? +Will we have lost 50% of all remaining species? Will the Great Plains be +the new Sahara? Will there be any vertebrates left on the oceans? Will +there be any indigenous human cultures left? Will not only Greenland but +Antacrtica meltdown in whole or in large part, raising sea levels by +around 150 ft? Will all the methane in the permafrost and the oceanic +clathrates release and spiral the planet toward irreversible warming and +a Venus effect? Do you want to wait and see? I don’t. I want to fight +like hell on the side of life, and bring down the death culture before +it plays out to its own apocalyptic endgame (and one need only look at +the civilized myths to see that it’s always known it was driving toward +apocalypse). I hope you’ll fight on the side of life, too. I hope we all +will, but I recognize that most people won’t. And we can’t wait until +they will, or it will be too late for much of, even all of, the +community of life on Earth. + +David + +A very good article indeed, apart from this bit: “We, as individuals, +are not creating the crises, and we can’t solve them.” (admittedly a +requote) — which I disagree with because, in fact, it contradicts +Derrick’s own dictum that you \*can\* used the master’s tools to bring +down the master’s house. Just because we are not individually the cause +of the problem doesn’t mean we cannot, as individuals or collective +groups, bring down the system in a variety of ways – what about the one +person who might bring down a large financial computer system; or the +small collective that might block various broadcasting hubs for a +commercial radio network? + +There is not so much difference between these people, and those Derrick +mentions in his last paragraph. + +Hey Jim Bier (\#26), I can define solipsism for you. It is the extreme +pathology of viewing everyone/everything outside of you as not truly +real. The consequences are that no one else has a will, feelings, spirit +and so forth, and that therefore there are no true moral implications to +doing whatever one pleases with them or to them. Descartes’ parable of +the “brain in a vat” is the classic example. And Descartes actually +operated on these principles toward non-humans. Of course, the dominant +culture operates in this fundamentally objectifying, abusive, +destructive, insane way on every possible level. And Derrick Jensen says +we should do all we can to stop the dominant culture from obliterating +the community of life. He is against patriarchy, against the concept of +“resources,” against denying others their own unique will (except in +defense of others when an individual, notably a civilized human, is +wreaking havoc). Jensen recognizes that all beings, not just humans, not +just organic life forms, value their own existence, probably no less +than we do. He literally listens to and speaks to non-humans, as have +indigenous people and many poets throughout time. So no, you are dead +wrong. Jensen is the absolute opposite (and worst nightmare) of +solipsists. + +I have gone back and forth on this issue of what can I do, etc etc. +especially with regard to water. Sometimes I am convinced that I should +be saving water, because it is the right thing to do. Other times I want +to NOT save it because then they can’t use it for development and +therefore I am banking it for the fish. Seriously, in our area, they +tell us to conserve water but there is no mechanism to know that I am +leaving the water in the river. It just gets alloted out to the next +subdivision because it is available. I appreciate Jensen’s comments on +how we are now consumers instead of citizens and that has limited our +options for action. So well put. Also, I too am sick of being blamed for +a lack of water because I like a bath once in a while. Why am I being +asked to change my little habits when it is just a drop in the bucket +when industry isn’t asked to change at all when it can make such a +difference? It is to keep us complacent. We need to change our +industrial culture. I know, people will want some sort of concrete +answer from anyone saying this, well, it’s not that easy. Every +community has a different answer that only that community can figure out +and hopefully it all leads to the same result. + +Good points about water. That’s why we need to focus more on securing +water efficiency measures in our businesses, farms, and communities, as +opposed to telling people to stop showering, plant cacti, etc. + +American Rivers released a report called “Hidden Reservoir” that lists 8 +steps communities should take to save water (and money) — like updating +development codes, metering all water users, and pricing water +appropriately. Read about it +here: + + + +Shout it, brother. + +Identification of the leading cause of problems is the critical thing. + +However, I wouldn’t say it’s all down to our evil corporate overlords. + +We are also a pretty demanding bunch. + +A car takes 1000+ gallons of water to build. That environmental cost is +not listed among the features/drawbacks of owning that particular car. I +would argue, however, that water was consumed by proxy by the owner who +purchased the car. He demanded 1000+ gallons of water be used \[wasted\] +in that way in exchange for the low price and efficiency of the end +product. + +No? + +I’d like to add something from a faith perspective in support of what +Jensen is arguing. This comes from Katharine Jefferts Schori, presiding +bishop of the Episcopal Church. “The overarching connection in all of +these crises has to do with the great Western heresy – that we can be +saved as individuals, that any of us alone can be in right relationship +with God…That individualist focus is a form of idolatry, for it puts me +and my words in the place that only God can occupy, at the center of +existence, as the ground of all being.” + +I’ve posted a short response to this article on my blog. +Be The Change or Fight the System +Thanks, +Jeremy + +Sorry, html didn’t work. Here’s the +link: +[http://jmtrom.blogspot.com/2009/07/to-be-change-or-fight-system.html](https://jmtrom.blogspot.com/2009/07/to-be-change-or-fight-system.html) + +A number of comments above had appropriately indicated that the link +between industrial use and consumer demand is complex. Golf players +create a demand for golf courses, for example. + +In naming this complexity, they note that demand is the sum of +individual choices which, if changed in some way, would affect the +industry supplying the demand. + +I get hung up with another part of this linkage. Which, IMHO, weakens +the individual-as-the-solution answer. That is advertising. Industry +spends billions to stimulate demand for the most profitable products – +which often means the products which are created on the greatest +environmental subsidy (the amount of “free” environmental damage the +builder takes advantage of.) + +And advertising is carefully designed to remove reason from the buying +decision. Making the purchase an impulse or an image choice rather than +a utility choice. This makes rational and value based buying difficult. + +So we’re back to industry. One solution is to base profit and price on +the true cost of manufacture. Pollution controls, for example, moves +some of the cost from the environment to the manufacture of the product. + +Let the consumer buy what he/she wants but also insist that the full +price is paid. That would create a basis for simpler living to change +the industrial system. + +I’ve appreciated many of the comments in this discussion – in some ways, +more than the original article itself. Jensen’s cut-to-the-chase style +does a great job of smacking down ambivalence, but invites a response +that may be less than thoughtful. I came away wondering if universal +lobotomies, vasectomies, or monkey-wrench-gang-style economic policies +were the logical next step. + +Seems to me, as far as the environment is concerned, we’ve already +jumped out of the plane. There’s no going back to a level of +“sustainable” that will sustain seven billion and counting human +beings and restore ecosystems to their pristine condition. No public +action, no matter how radical, will make that happen. + +The question instead is whether or not we’ll pull the parachute in time +to land softly. If that’s what we’re seeking, then by all means, let’s +begin taking down the “dark satanic mills” – but let’s not pretend that +restoration of the biosphere is within our power, whether as +individuals, as nations, or as a species. Only time, evolution, and a +cultural shift from “me” to “we” can accomplish that. + +@John +Srsly. +“Your order was shipped\! +You bought: +1x$2K Laptop computer +– 500GB HD +– 4GB RAM +– 3hr battery (now with toxic chemicals\!) +– 2Lb chassis (now from mined iron ore\!) +– 200g waste water +– never-biodegradable components +…” + +Good God. Everyone in America should read Comment \#28\! + +Thank you Mark, for stating the most important part of the change that +is necessary – the shifting from “me” to “we.” + +Also, evolution. Perhaps evolution is the real revolution\! Since the +industrial revolution Western culture has been in huge hurry to get +somewhere fast. Here’s an excerpt from an unpublished article of mine: + +It’s as if there is a need to rush evolution into making changes, just +as the creation of genetically modified foods have, and just as the +Industrial Revolution did in 18th century England. + +In fact the shift that took place in the human psyche, as a result of +the mechanization of production, was so dramatic that there is every +reason to believe that the suffering we have been experiencing and +trying to heal from, is nothing less that the human divorce from nature. +Frederick Engels, in the middle of the 19th century, described the toll +that the Industrial Revolution had on the lives of the English working +person in his book, The Condition of the Working Class in England. It +was nothing short of traumatic. Change during this time was swift, +stressful, and wholly unnatural. + +Industrialism created a degraded environment and, for 75% of the +population of England, a degraded human being. The making of a +working-class, that toiled 12 hours a day, 6 days a week, for close to a +century, was the un-doing of centuries of rural peasant life. Moving +from a predominantly outdoor, rural, community based, and sustainable +lifestyle that provided adequate food and shelter, to living in the +crowded, unhealthy tenements of the cities and working in poorly lit +factories would, undoubtedly, bequeath a sickness of mind, body, and +spirit. E.J. Hobsbawm, professor emeritus of economic and social history +at the University of London, unequivocally, states that the lives of the +English working men were transformed, “. . . beyond recognition.” +Indeed: +. . . pre-industrial experience, tradition, wisdom and morality provided +no adequate guide for the kind of behaviour which a capitalist economy +required . . . His sheer material ignorance of the best way to live in a +city, or eat industrial food (so very different from village food) might +actually \[have made\] his poverty worse than it ‘need have been’. + +The cultural rebellion of the nineteen sixties certainly helped create a +growing awareness that mechanization, the commanding cultural force of +Western culture since the 18th century, created a new sense of self that +does not exactly go with the flow of nature. Rather, the growing +preference to manipulate, divert or alter interrupted the very essence +of natural living, natural livelihood and the natural relationship that +existed with the land. Siegfried Giedion – an historian writing in the +1940’s – saw this clearly when he stated that mechanization created “. . +. catastrophes that threaten to destroy civilization and existence . . +.” and that they are, “. . . outward signs that our organism has lost +its balance.” Indeed, he goes on to say that, “\[o\]ur contact with the +organic forces within us and outside of us has been interrupted . . .” +We have ceased living in accordance to the natural rhythmic relationship +that exists between humans and nature. + +England in the early 18th century was, according to Hobsbawm, still a +clean and beautiful country. Artisans, journeymen, and peasants alike +enjoyed a slow paced work life, which included family and community. +Food was grown locally and the diet low in protein, and almost devoid of +stimulants. Life was not easy but it was simple, healthy, and, for the +most part, relaxed. The experience of community was not separate from +work and joy was, undoubtedly, present in all aspects of work in +pre-industrial peasant life. + +Changing the means of production, therefore, radically changed the lives +of rural dwellers (then at least three quarters of the population) and +our relationship to food, family, community and the natural world. +English culture, as well as the entire Western world (and those that +were affected by Westernization), saw the most profound human +transformation since the advent of agriculture some 10,000 years ago. + +This cultural detour, which I describe as an unwholesome transformation, +has taken us in the Western world, into a way of life that is no longer +nourishing, no longer full of the wholeness of an alive and vibrant +existence and unconnected to the natural rhythms and cycles of nature. +It was obvious to Giedion that, “beginning with the 19th century, the +power to see things in their totality \[became\] obscured.” Getting back +on track, therefore, is no easy task when the exploits of this 400 year +diversion has been so profitable to some, and the suffering of being +enslaved so demoralizing for others. + +Lorraine Fish, Ph.D. + +Mr. Jensen, + +I agree with you 100% that we need active citizens, not just aware +consumers. However, I also agree with the other side 100%, that +individual action and mindset is equally important. + +I’m either being contradictory, or a paradox emerges. I agree with both +sides completely. In reality, this is not an either-or thing. In fact, +they can inform and temper and inspire each other. I will be a terrible +activist if I am not motivated for right reasons and am not living the +lifestyle I preach. Similarly, I will be changing nothing if I simply +change myself and then pat myself on the back in front of the mirror +while the outside world falls to ruin. + +Let’s transcend this petty debate. Your logic sounds too similar to the +“you’re either with us or against us” of past years. You see, for +many, a new enlightened consumer choice can be the first step on a path +to activism. I can produce a whole flock of “black swans” to refute your +whole argument. I’ve met dozens of people who never thought about making +an active stand for environment, but started doing so only when they saw +people around them buying green, joining CSAs, changing lightbulbs, +hanging laundry outside to dry, and other things that reflect values. +They might have been alienated by a raw activist type, but a green +consumer was a bridge to a new way of thinking… and acting. + +Although you are a very intelligent person, don’t forget that most +others go with the crowd. For you, thought precedes action. For them, it +can be the other way around. What you see as a trendy and futile +dead-end (such as bringing your own bags to grocery store) can actually +be the first domino for someone. They ask themselves “why would this +person inconvenience themselves?” and then … boom… they start extending +that question to other areas. + +Keep up the good work, but don’t position this as a “sophie’s choice”. +Please don’t use the same heavy handed divisionary logic of those “owls +or jobs” people. We can do better than that. Be more visionary and less +divisionary. If we are defined by what we are against, we will never +become greater than that. + +We need not look further than American revolution. Many petty consumer +acts regarding stamps, tea, and other boycotting and consumer-based +activism was the tinder that lit the fire underneath citizen and soldier +action. + +Let’s all try not to alienate any potential supporters of this cause. +Since we’re defending something that doesn’t have a voice, we need as +many voices, ballets and wallets that we can get. + +Jensen: “Would any sane person think dumpster diving would have stopped +Hitler?” + +Jensen’s tendency to reduce to the absurd the arguments he can’t +understand only undermines whatever credibility he might have had. In +historical fact, the only thing which effectively turned back the +advance of fascism (WWII didn’t – it only shifted it to the +Anglo-American Empire) was the nation-wide non-violent resistance of the +Danes. But Jensen refuses to recognize the historical truth that violent +revolutions/resistance/wars only serve to shift the locus of violence +from one group to another and perpetuate, feed and encourage more +violence. + +“Any option is a better option than a dead planet.” That’s the logic of +desperation that imprisons creative imagination. It also over-rates +humanity’s capacity to destroy the web-of-life. + +Jensen’s repeated refrain that “we can destroy the industrial economy +that is destroying the real, physical world” is precisely the +double-bind that he pretends to transcend. The choice is not between +supporting the violence of the status quo or using violence to “destroy” +it. First, no amount of violence that we can muster could begin to +compete with the violent potential of the system. In that sense, it’s +the tactic of the foolish and naïve. Second, the only way out of a +double-bind – or the horns of a rampaging dilemma – is to stop +presenting ourselves as a target and to stop feeding the beast. + +The dichotomy between the individual and the societal, between +individual action and social/political/collective action is a false one +that the system creates. Every personal act that feeds the beast is a +political act, and the most powerful political action is to refuse it +sustenance. We refuse it sustenance when we choose to disengage from the +system, and we make it possible for many to refuse when we create +alternative life-enhancing systems. + +To step outside of the materialist paradigm that has engendered our +global crises, is to rediscover the spiritual principle that the wolf +who wins the fight is the one we feed. If we use violence, we feed the +predatory wolf. If we put our energy into creating small-scale, +grass-roots, re-localized, democratically-organized, sustainable +human/non-human community – then we feed the playful, nurturing, +pack-oriented wolf. + +David killed Goliath with his sling, and then grew up to become the +predatory nation of Israel. If David had simply tended his own garden +and let Goliath fall of his own weight, a different story would have +emerged – and we wouldn’t be having this discussion. + +I agree with Bjorn Beer. Not an either/or, but a both/and….. and +everything we can do makes us stronger and is part of removing the +legitimacy and power of the power over. + +It’s true that shorter showers won’t save much water. Bathing in the +river saves water. Bathing in the river, drinking from the river, +cooking soup with river water. Cleaning pots with sand, eating every +meal from the same bowl. + +The issue is not that personal action can’t be revolutionary, but that +it isn’t, not yet. It’s not shocking enough. So you take a 1-minute +military shower in your private home, so what? Who sees it? If everyone +who today claims to be “living simply” went to the river every morning +to bathe — well, now there’s a statement. And sure to get you arrested, +in the best activist tradition. + +Robert Riversong (\#43), if I’m understanding you correctly, you’re +arguing a form of the “walk away” model. This beast is coming down, so +just tend your garden and let it crash. You sound like an intelligent, +well-informed, sensitive person, so I assume you have at least a fair +grasp of the enormity of the devastation that has been and continues to +be inflicted. I won’t assume you know any particular piece of info I’ve +stumbled across, but I’ll assume you would, at least, not be surprised +to hear that the total environment is now drenched in PCB, dioxin, and a +host of other powerful toxins. Likewise that according to mainstream +sources, 1% of all species are going extinct annually, and up to one +third of all wildlife on Earth has been extirpated in the past few +decades. Likewise that every year we lose a few more of the handful of +remaining indigenous languages, and therefore, all or nearly all of +their stories, myths, wisdom, spirituality, medicine, technology, +knowledge of how to live sustainably, and so on. Likewise that the US +and a few of its allies are irradiating the planet more or less +permanently with millions and millions of pounds of depleted uranium +munitions. And so on. Now, if you, and I, and the rest of the Orion +readership, the rest of the people who care more about life on this +planet than they do about the death culture, step aside and tend our +gardens, perhaps some of us together in egalitarian permaculture +communes (which, frankly, sounds like fun to me), writing poetry, +playing drums and guitars, learning acupuncture and ayurvedic medicine, +etc, what in the world are we going to do when we can’t breathe the air +or drink the water? What are we going to do when we all develop tumors? +What are we going to do when the dominant culture, in its final throes, +sees our verdant lands (and/or the minerals, fuels, or water beneath +them) and decides to take them and kill us, as it has done consistently +throughout history? Or just kills us for having shown another way to +live, as it has so often done from indigenous cultures to John Africa? +Where, precisely, are we supposed to step away TO where we will not be +subject to the realities of the dominant culture’s devastation of the +planet? And when they come to plunder us, the last reserve of free, sane +people, and destroy our land, what do we do? Beg them to take us on as +slaves rather than kill us? Say, “I’m so very, very sorry” to our +children and our non-human friends and neighbors as they, and we, are +destroyed? Or would we fight back? I’ll let you decide for yourself. +I’ll fight back, and sooner rather than later. + +I’ll fight back right now to protect those being raped, murdered, and +destroyed right now. To step aside as industrial civilization, or +capitalism, or patriarchy, or Leviathan, or Goliath, or whatever you +want to call it commits further atrocities is A) utterly callous and a +complete abdication of our responsibility to those we purport to love +and B) just postponing the inevitable confrontation when Goliath catches +up with us. And he will. Because the whole planet is dying, or, more +accurately, being murdered. + +Your lifeboat community better be well armed. I hope it will also +support those who will fight to defend others and precipitate the crash. + +Also, the notion that the Danish resistance was purely non-violent is +ahistorical, it’s untrue. A few moments of research make that abundantly +clear. The idea that the US picked up the mantle of fascism is, of +course, true, and a truth lost on nearly all Americans. Actually, +though, let’s look for a moment at the Norwegian resistance, which was +considerably more fierce than the Danish resistance, from what I gather. +The Norwegians (just a few of them, in fact) took out (with, ahem, +force) the Nazi’s heavy water plant, a crucial piece of their nuclear +program. If they had not done this, Hitler would likely have gotten the +bomb. I am very, very happy that those resistance fighters took that +action and succeeded. Hypotheticals are tricky, but I am pretty +confident that things would have been worse if Hitler had gotten the +bomb. + +Anyhow, the basic questions remain: +1\. Where will you walk away to? +2\. How do you explain this behavior to those being exploited, raped, +abused, murdered right now? +3\. How will you avoid being, along with your lifeboat community, +consumed by the death culture in its final throes? + +Oh, and here’s one more: +4\. When a caged tiger mauls a zookeeper, does she risk becoming a +zookeeper? The community of life is already fighting back, as it must. +What will it take for you to stand up and do whatever it takes to join +the community of life and help bring down the death culture while +there’s still anyone left to save? + +David + +for those of you who are advocating “drastic action”, etc, what does +that mean, exactly? chaining yourself to trees? Running for office? Is +it actual action or just more “slacktivism”? + +Honestly, I’m open to suggestions. What gets people to listen? What is +truly a thorn in side of dominant paradigm? And what actually produces +more adherents and support than it detracts and dissuades? Are you +thinking more civil disobedience? Do you have specific ideas that would +do more good, or does it just give the dominant paradigm more cannon +fodder? Will the crackdown be worse than the crack think you are +causing? + +Bjorn + +Here’s the biggie: what Industrial Civilization — it’s rulers and it’s +beneficiaries — fears most of all, is a connected population; connected +with the real world rather than the synthetic world created for +civilians, so they can continue making money for the machine. A +connected person \*is\* an enemy of the system: first and foremost, they +think as a liberated human being, rather than a machine part. + +The way to allow people to connect is to remove the Tools Of +Disconnection that Industrial Civilization has created, specifically to +keep us living the way “good consumers” should. I have documented these +in [A Matter Of +Scale](http://www.farnish.plus.com/amatterofscale/chapter13.htm). + +There are many ways of destroying these (BTW, I don’t consider it +possible to be violent against a machine), some of which I document in +later chapters. And yes, the system will fight back, but perhaps not +before it has been sabotaged. + +Keith + +Jensen pretty much nails it. +As did Karl Marx. Marx was an \_anti-corporatist\_, not an +anti-capitalist. Marx saw soul-less, yet, ironically, \_immortal\_ +corporations as the \_real\_ problem. Corporations, man-made legal-paper +creations, “exist” in order to acquire endless amounts of capital and +resources. Corporations merely hire humans to do the actual work of +extracting and working the resources. The earth has been progressively +destroyed, the commons have been cordoned off, and ordinary workers +“live” in an ever-diminished, ravaged environment. +Corporations need no air, water, food to “live.” They merely require +human gullibility. +Hence, CEO’s (AKA high-priced corporate valets/bodyguards) hire private +armies, corrupt governments that–in turn–tax the rest of us to hire +national armies to prevent armed insurrection against corporate +apologists. +Did the wonderful human beings who constitute our lovely Jeffersonian +republic fall asleep in Econ 101 or History 101 when we hit the chapter +on corporations? + +Everything that you lament is a human creation, but you expect humans en +masse to tear down the things they have spent so long creating. We +preserve the system because we LOVE the system. It’s that simple. + +Only when this way of living applies too much negative pressure on us as +individuals will we do anything about it, and, at that time, political +activism will be redundant. + +All is decided by the forces of equilibrium. + +“Transcendent generosity is a state of mind. If I wanted to walk around +the world, I could not possibly find enough leather to cover the surface +of the earth. But just covering the soles of my shoes with leather works +even better. Likewise, I could not possibly transform all bad things +outside in the world. But if I can transform this mind of mine, what +need do I have to transform everything else?”–eighth-century Buddhist +teacher Shantideva. + +Dumpster diving wouldn’t have stopped Hitler. But having given him a +childhood full of love, encouragement and affection most likely could +have. Nothing is more radical than the small and daily acts of Love. + +Right on. And I might add that the whole system of ‘volunteerism’ in +this country is also a ‘feel good’ approach…thereby releasing the +government of taking care of the people they’re supposed to be +governing.. + +hey derrick…love love love your writing, have for ten years….just look +at this…everyone….just look at this…within a mere 30-some hours +derrick’s thoughts have provoked such response….such dialogue…soooooo +cool…one of my most favorite places your work has taken me is to +whaleman extraordinaire Jim Nollman and his sweet Interspecies +site…what’s not to love there….the logo alone is enough….but his +thoughts expressed in his essay titled Why Wash Birds are +profound….please everyone go there and read that piece………….thank you +derrick…can’t even remember how I found my way to your work…so grateful +i did + +davidscottlevi (\#46) said: ” +Robert Riversong (\#43), if I’m understanding you correctly, you’re +arguing a form of the “walk away” model. This beast is coming down, so +just tend your garden and let it crash.” + +You’re completely misunderstanding me. But that could be because I was +responding to elements of Jensen’s belief system which he carefully +danced around in this latest essay. Specifically, his belief that the +only effective response to systemic violence is violently tearing down +the machine of violence. Stating it that clearly should be enough to +demonstrate its inherent contradiction. + +I would never advocate mere escapism. What I not only propose but have +lived for the 40 years of my adult life is a combination of non-violent +but fierce confrontation, and building a new society within the shell of +the old. I have publicly refused to pay taxes to the Empire for 30 +years, have been jailed for non-violent resistance, and have spent much +of that 40 years actively educating and organizing others for +constructive social change. + +What you dismiss as “ahistorical” is, in fact, the hidden history of +modern civilization. The downfall of most tyrants and of major empires +has been either initiated or facilitated by predominantly non-violent +movements, several of which have been undertaken after the failure of +violent resistance. + +I have no problem with authentic self-defense (including of those we +love), and I’ll admit to celebrating the occasional act of creative +sabotage. But an offensive violent resistance, even with the intent to +avoid human casualty (which is more hope than certainty) will not only +elicit severe repression and state violence, but result in inculcating +violence into our very souls and poisoning any positive future we hope +to enjoy. + +We are witnessing the collapse of Western civilization and Empire. The +most powerful weapon we have to facilitate that collapse is the +withholding of our support. What “they” fear most is awake and aware +people refusing to play by their rules – refusing to be a subject or a +consumer or a parrot of propaganda. + +Yes, there’ll be much collateral damage as the Goliath falls. That +cannot be avoided. But what is most important now is to build +alternative structures and relationships that can sustain us after the +Fall. Otherwise, we’ll be wandering aimlessly in a wasteland created, in +part, by our focus on the problem rather than on the solution. + +Folks, he’s flat wrong, and I grow tired of hearing his unrelenting +pessimism. + +Either we have enough time to change minds, and thus effectively change +the culture of the entire planet; or it’s already far far too late and +we’re all doomed. + +I believe that we do have enough time, and that individual, personal +change is the ONLY possible method that will get us to the goal. All of +recorded history backs me up. The books “Beyond Civilization”, (by +Daniel Quinn) and “Cows, Pigs, Wars, and Witches” (By Marvin Harris) +address this point succintly. + +He can belittle it to his heart’s content, but if you follow his line of +thinking you’ll end up with the same old, same old – one group holding +out a ‘One Right Way’, and needing to conquer others to enact it. + +For a while now he’s advocated violent change in his writings and video +interviews, as sure a method of failure as could exist. I’d take this +article apart point by point, but will instead simply posit this: +We change ourselves, in real and lasting ways. We serve as examples to +others, and they are attracted to our more successful mode of being. In +turn, they attract others with their actions. Eventually the tide turns, +and the bad ways are abandoned. That’s it. The entire game plan, the +only winning strategy that has ever worked or will ever. + +So with all due respect, Derrick Jenson can go stuff it. The problems he +calls out are real enough, but they are merely symptoms, not the +disease. + +\-Franco + +PS: if you haven’t yet had a chance, reading Alam Weisman’s latest will +convince you: “The World Without Us”. We have the time, though it sure +does feel as if we don’t. It’s all relative. + +A historical fact understood even by Michael Wood, British BBC/PBS +film-maker: All empires have eventually over-used resources and have +succumbed thereby. The Fertile Crescent was, 4,000 yrs. (or so) a green +verdant place, that supported vast populations who lived behind garden +walls (hence, the “Garden of Eden” story) to protect against floods +every year, in the good years. + +Now, its Iraq. + +The old prehistoric Manas people of the Andes also died as a result of +over-use and insufficient stores. There is not, in history or +geology/anthroplology, \_one\_ large (+2500 pop.) urban entity that has +lasted beyond 250-300 years, before “taking for granted” ecosystems led +them over the abyss of time. The tradition is too deeply seated in those +of us descended from the early Aryan (“the noble ones”) (light-skinned +pastoral folk from Russian steppes) invaders into the Punjab. The +contentious nature of our kind was thus born. Consumptives never have +gone on long. Later, a lord called Ashoka realized the forest holy-men +were right: “I wish for all beings contentment, happiness, freedom from +war, etc. It worked while he was alive to model it. His most memorable +stele says: “The hardest thing to do is to get people to be \_good\_.” + +His sons killed him and his great grandson in a feud over who’d inherit +the throne. Power doth corrupt, as the state of our un-sustainable +ecosystem slowly unravells, shows all too well. + +Not much can be done, short of a Monkey Wrench Gang weilding supreme +power. Golf courses and Corporate domination would be gone. + +Namaste. + +Robert, I honor the wisdom you’ve garnered over your years. I am +younger. We need not agree on all points. Clearly, we are, in the broad +scheme of things, on the same side. + +If I misunderstood you, I apologize for that. Honestly, looking at what +you wrote, I thought that my interpretation of what you said was hardly +an interpretation at all… it was nearly verbatim. Either way, if you do +not suggest the “walk away” model, that’s good. + +What I called “ahistorical” was the notion that the Danish resistance +was non-violent. That is, I believe, clear from my post, and I have the +facts on my side. There was considerable militancy in the Danish +resistance, especially as the Nazi occupation dragged on. So it is not +quite fair to say that I used the term “ahistorical” in reference to +your notion that non-violence is what always brings down empires. +Whether or not your assertion about non-violence is true, I had not +argued that specific point. + +I am glad to hear that you have no problem with authentic self-defense +(presumably with violence if necessary), of yourself or of those you +love. I had not gotten that from your first post, but I suspect only a +deeply insane person would not fight back if she or her friend or her +child was being raped or battered. So let me ask you this. Do you stand +by MEND, the Ogoni resistance movement that is fighting for the very +survival of the Ogoni people, their own families, their own land, +themselves? Note that a large, organized non-violent movement in the +Niger Delta resulted in nothing but a massacre of the movement’s +leaders, conducted by the Nigerian state with not a word from the +international community. Since then, MEND has taken out 20% of Shell’s +oil extracting capacity in the delta and opened the possibility that +Shell may withdraw from Nigeria completely. MEND has given the Ogoni a +chance, and done the same for their landbase. Do you stand by the +Zapatistas, who rose up with arms (and have rarely used them) when the +very existence of their indigenous Mayan communities was under dire +threat? Do you think it is appropriate to use all means necessary +(including, if necessary, violence) when you and your community are +being invisibly assaulted with PCB, plutonium, mercury, or any other +industrial toxin that may or may not be prevalent in your neighborhood, +your food supply, your water, your air? If not, why would you act any +differently when the attackers use poison than when they use a machine +gun? Now, what if “developers” are wiping out the trees, the wetlands, +the frogs, the songbirds, and much of the rest of the community of life +in your neighborhood. And all legal means fail. Perhaps now a little +“creative sabotage”? I could extend this line of questions +considerably further, but here’s where it’s heading. The whole community +of life is under dire, existential attack. It’s not abstract. It’s not +just a looming threat, but an assault in progress, innumerable murders +every moment, 200 species a day lost forever. Do you love the community +of life? Do you see whom is oppressing and destroying whom? The war we +are in is not even a war, because there is only one side fighting. Well, +I think it’s high time (beyond high time) we fight back. It would not be +offensive violence, it would be defensive counter-violence, but it +better be fierce, smart, and effective. + +I’m all for building alternative structures. I help to do so, as a +teacher, as a forager, as a poet, as a helper on organic farms, as an +avid nutritionist and novice herbalist, and so forth. Yes, we need to be +ready to support our communities and heal our landbases. If your calling +is to devote yourself to building alternative structures, by all means, +do it, and I’ve got your back. But I want to know if you will support +those who will do the monkey-wrenching, those who will stop hard-core +criminals from committing further atrocities, with violence if +necessary. I want to know if you’ll support those who use physical +actions to grind the economy to a halt. + +I’m sorry but I do not buy that the most powerful weapon I have is +withholding my support. I have largely withheld my support for a long +time, as have innumerable other aware people. Those in power don’t care. +They have the doctrinal systems in place to ensure that the large +majority of people will not withdraw their support. Just by being a +teacher and using that leverage, I effect far more change than by simply +withdrawing my support. I’m sorry to return to this, but saying that our +most powerful tool is to withdraw our support is, in fact, the “walk +away” model in a nutshell. + +BTW, here are a few examples of successful militant resistance +movements: +1\. The underground railroad +2\. The IRA +3\. The Bougainville Revolutionary Army +4\. The Vandals and Visigoths against the Romans +5\. The Ostrogoths against the Byzantines +6\. The Viet Cong +7\. The Cuban Revolution +8\. FRETILIN (East Timor) +9\. The Zapatistas +10\. Quilombo dos Palmares + +If you choose to reject some of the above because the militants were not +pure enough, I would simply encourage you to compare them to those they +were fighting. Harriet Tubman carried a gun and was not afraid to use +it. Would you have supported her? Or would there have been too much risk +of “inculcating violence into our very souls and poisoning any positive +future we hope to enjoy”? It’s not a rhetorical question. Would you have +provided a safe house for the armed militants ferrying refugee slaves +(stolen property) to the north? + +Finally, severe state repression and violence are a reality. Those in +power will, of course, use at least as much violence as they feel they +need to remain in power. So any movement that seriously threatens them +will elicit severe repression and violence, whether it is a strictly a +civil disobedience movement or whether it also has a militant component. +It is not violence that begets violence from the powerful. It is +threatening the basis for their power that begets violence. But forget +that, because they’re plenty violent already, so violent they’re +destroying the planet, so it’s absurd and counterproductive for me to +speak of \_us\_ begetting \_their\_ violence. The real question is, are +we willing to risk our very real necks by effectively countering the +system? And if not, are we willing to support those who will? + +We need not choose between focusing on the problem and focusing on the +solution. We can do both. If you want to focus on the solution, great, +just please don’t hinder those focusing on the huge, ecocidal, genocidal +problem. In fact, please help them in any way you can. But the very +least is not turning them in. There is a madman in the house. By all +means, learn how to heal the physical and psychic wounds of those he’s +already harmed, but do not neglect to stop the madman. + +David + +davidscottlevi (\#58) says: “I am glad to hear that you have no problem +with authentic self-defense (presumably with violence if necessary), of +yourself or of those you love.” + +You presume far too much. Self-defense is not violence. Violence is +whatever violates the integrity of another person (or one’s self). +Defending against violence is not violence. Retaliation or preemptive +response is violence against the other and against one’s own soul. + +“I suspect only a deeply insane person would not fight back if she or +her friend or her child was being raped or battered.” + +Then you have not met the most sane of people. I’ve known several who +have interrupted violence with a hug or a disarming word or a vulnerable +smile. Gandhi, MLK, Caesar Chavez, Dorothy Day were of that kind. + +“I do not buy that the most powerful weapon I have is withholding my +support. I have largely withheld my support for a long time, as have +innumerable other aware people.” + +Have you? There are only three things the Empire requires of us: wage +slavery and material consumption, our bodies for war, and our tax money +to feed their machine. If you have not withheld at least two of those +three, then you are an enabler not a resister. + +“saying that our most powerful tool is to withdraw our support is, in +fact, the “walk away” model” + +Then you are saying that Gandhi “walked away” from British colonial +oppression. + + Slobodan Milosevic was thrown out by a nonviolent movement. + Philippines dictator Marcos similarly in 1986 + the East German, Hungarian, Czech, and Polish dictatorships in 1989 + The Shah of Iran had one of the ten most powerful armies in the world +and a secret police whose ruthlessness was second to none. He was +overthrown 1977-79, nonviolently. + El Salvador in 1944, an armed uprising failed to overthrow dictator +Hernandez Martinez, so the students initiated a nonviolent insurrection +and threw Martinez out nonviolently + The students in neighboring Guatemala were so impressed that they +initiated a nonviolent insurrection against the “iron dictator of the +Caribbean” – Jorge Ubico – and Ubico was thrown out, too. + The Zapatistas of Chiapas have abandoned armed struggle as having +failed. + In the early 1980s the African National Congress realized that its +armed struggle strategy was failing; it was woefully insufficient to +defeat apartheid. So they plunged into nonviolent struggle: boycotts, +strikes, demonstrations of all kinds. The result was the end of +apartheid despite a very well-armed state with a terroristic police +force. + Kwame Nkrumah led a successful nonviolent campaign for Ghana’s +independence in the ’50s. + Kenneth Kaunda led another in Zambia in the ’60s. + +During the Nazi occupation of Denmark, the Danes engaged in a “diversity +of tactics.” In the first phase their tactics ranged from collaboration +to petitions to sabotage. The diversity didn’t work: some tactics worked +against each other. The Danes moved on to another set of diverse +tactics: sabotage, nonviolent demonstrations, and labor strikes. Again, +the tactics undermined each other; each act of sabotage gave the Germans +fresh excuse to come down hard on the workers and the demonstrators. +What really worked in maintaining Danish integrity and undermining the +Nazi war effort was the strategy which emerged: it included the +underground press, major strikes (even at one point a general strike), +nonviolent demonstrations, and smuggling the Jews out to a safe haven in +Sweden. The strategy that emerged was internally consistent, and the +tactics therefore supported each other instead of subtracting from each +other. + +In a strange twist, there are times when violent forces actually need to +be protected by nonviolent action. When the Black Panther Party wanted +to have a national convention in Philadelphia, they had difficulty +getting a venue. Quakers gave them the use of their largest +Meetinghouse. Police chief Frank Rizzo saw this as an opportunity to +swagger and threaten, and no one could be sure what the provocation +might lead to. So Quakers circled the Meetinghouse and stood shoulder to +shoulder to create a protective shield between the police and the +Panthers. But eventually the Panthers, who primarily advocated armed +self-defense, were brutally eliminated by the state. + +On a larger scale this was repeated in the Philippines during the 1986 +overthrow of dictator Ferdinand Marcos. Toward the end of the struggle a +part of the army, led by General Ramos, went over to the people’s side. +Marcos still controlled the larger part of the army, which he ordered to +attack Ramos’ camp and subdue the rebellion. Catholic radio stations +working with the people power movement sounded the alarm. Many thousands +of Filipinos rushed to the site, intervened between the Marcos loyalists +and the rebels, and nonviolently immobilized the loyalist troops, +thereby saving the outgunned rebel soldiers. + +“The real question is, are we willing to risk our very real necks by +effectively countering the system?” + +The real question is: Do we have the courage to risk our lives, or +merely the ruthlessness to take the lives of others? + +“It would not be offensive violence, it would be defensive +counter-violence…” + +The rationalization of every violent revolution. + +“There is a madman in the house.” + +And, until we realize that the madman “out there” is nothing more than +the projection of our own inner demons, we will continue to tilt at +windmills. When we tame and disarm those demons, then our true power +emerges and there is nothing we cannot do. + +The article made only one point I disagree with, which is the idea that +the powerful people who profit from the industrial economy might try to +kill us if we take action. There’s no “might” about it. The only way to +stop the destruction of the planet is to stop the industrial economy. If +you do that, there’s no “try” about it either. They won’t try to kill +you. They’ll just kill you. Moreover, the industrial economy is +everywhere. You have to stop it in Brazil, in Tokyo, in Kansas, in +Madagascar, EVERYWHERE. I admire you for talking sense into these +shorter-shower dipshits but there’s a much, much harder problem, which +is how do you affect worldwide political change when it’s guaranteed to +get you killed if you have any success at all? Notice how police-state +even the free-est “democracies” are becoming. Keep in mind that there +are a lot of countries where it’s suicide just disagreeing with these +powerful people in public. How many people have died for opposing the +diamond trade in Africa? How many people have died over the oil trade in +the Middle East? How are you going to change things in places like +Honduras, Colombia, China, or Iran? The moral imperative is clear but +the practical imperative is BAFFLING. + +This is a response to David’s post \#58, \#28, and the rest of them. + +Thank you for taking the time to post your thoughts. I usually don’t +follow discussion threads like this, but I find myself coming back to +read your responses. They’re clear, concise and make a lot of sense to +me. + +One thing I hear you saying is that the state does not have a monopoly +on violence. And all your really asking is that we support those who +realize this and choose to fight back. It seems simple to me. Yet some +people will spend a tremendous amount of energy arguing with you and +others who share a similar perspective. This has always baffled me. I’ve +always wondered what there true motives are. And if push ever comes to +shove what side will they choose to be on: Those in power or those +fighting like hell for the diversity of life. + +I believe personal action is where it is all at. Starting a garden and +buying some chickens is a revolutionary act. I like the idea that people +are riding bikes, shopping at farmer’s markets, buying locally, buying +unpasteurized goat milk (illegally) directly from some gal who happens +to raise them, showering with a friend, and otherwise adopting a way of +life that embraces more sustainable practices. There is so much going on +under the radar and away from the glare of the media that resists, +subverts, and (I hope) eventually replaces the industrial food paradigm, +the world of Monsanto, corn derivatives, ADM, irradiated food, and +terminator genes, and, generally, the system of industrial-consumer +capitalism. Taken individually perhaps personal action does not amount +to much, but when these small acts are repeated a hundred thousand +times, or more, every day soon they begin to have a big impact. The +paradigm is shifting right beneath our feet and we barely notice it, but +it is happening. There is a long way to go but a lot of things are +happening, a great barely noticed underground movement. Personally, I +love it. Voltaire once said, “Tend your garden.” I will take this to +heart. + +Another thought: why not limit your income. We make a mere $35,000 a +year. That level of income fairly well eliminates you from participation +in the consumer culture. You have no choice but to raise some of your +own food, purchase second hand items when you really need them. By +limiting your income you eliminate needless purchases and in Thoreau’s +terms, travel at home, rather than taking expensive exotic vacations +halfway around the world. + +Finally, I have little time for doom-and-gloom environmentalism. That +said, I actually believe things are really bad, worse than +environmentalists say they are, worse than even Derrick Jensen says they +are. But Mr.Jensen is so deadly humorless, lighten up a little, crack a +joke or two. If you allow yourself to get all worked up like Mr. Jensen +does, you just pollute your body with excess cortisol and all sorts of +other toxins (added to all the mercury. PCBs, plutonium particles et al +that are already out there). Take Ed Abbey’s advice (remember him?), be +a half-assed crusader, a part-time fanatic and leave time for laughter, +making love, dancing in the streets, skinny dipping in a remote alpine +lake deep in the wilderness (preferably with member of both sexes +present), or enjoying a good stiff drink. Above all, resistance should +be fun. I don’t want to be a part of any revolution where nobody dances. + +In response \#62 Carl D. Esbjornson said: “But Mr.Jensen is so +deadly humorless, lighten up a little, crack a joke or two.” + +How many Derrick Jensen talks or interviews have you listened to? +Because everyone that I’ve listened to he is always cracking jokes and +laughing. + +When it comes to his writing, a google search reveals this funny passage +out of his book ENDGAME. I’ll post the link and passage below. + + – Romantic Nihilist.html + +“During the conversation in which my former agent told me that if I ever +wanted to reach an audience, I’d have to tone down my work, she also +told me that I was a nihilist. + +“I felt vaguely insulted. I didn’t know what a nihilist was, but I knew +from her tone that it must be a bad thing. I pictured an angry teenager +leaning against a building, wearing black slacks, turtleneck, and beret, +scowling and chain-smoking. + +“But that’s not me, so I looked up nihilist in the dictionary. + +“The first definition—that life is meaningless and that there are no +grounds for any moral truths—clearly doesn’t fit me. Nor is it true that +I do not believe in truth, beauty, or love. The second definition—that +the current social order is so destructive and irredeemable that it +needs to be taken down to its core, and to have its core removed—fits me +like a glove, I suppose the kind you’d put on to not leave fingerprints. + +“I’ve had a lot of conversations with Casey about nihilism, and about +how the whole black turtleneck thing really doesn’t work for me. And how +I rarely scowl. Emma Goldman is famously (and incorrectly) quoted as +saying, ‘If I can’t dance, I don’t want to be part of your revolution.’ +Well, I don’t like to dance, but if I can’t laugh, then you can start +the revolution without me. + +“One day Casey said, ‘I’ve got you figured out.’ + +“I raised my eyebrows. + +“‘You,’ he said, ‘are a romantic nihilist.’ And then he laughed. + +“So did I. I laughed and laughed. Yes, I thought, a revolution of +romantic nihilists. I would be down for that. Count me in.” pg.363 + +Curt, thanks, I really appreciate that\! + +Robert, I am frustrated. + +1\. I have asked you a number of simple questions, the most recent of +which was the Harriet Tubman question, which could be answered with a +simple yes or no. You have written long responses but have not even +acknowledged any of my questions. That makes me think that either you’re +not listening or you’re avoiding the questions. + +2\. The Danes, again, used considerable militancy. Those who didn’t had +a huge advantage that the Jews, Gypsies, and Slavs did not have. They +were regarded by the Nazis as being “racially pure.” Same went for the +Dutch and the Norweigans. The Czechs were not so lucky. And as for the +Jews, Jensen has pointed out, rightly, time and again, that the Jews who +rose up and fought in the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising and the Sobibor +Uprising had a better chance of surviving than those who went quietly to +the camps. Let me be clear. Are you really proposing that either a women +being raped or a Jew in the Warsaw Ghetto should have used hugs and kind +words against her assailant? I’m sorry, but abusers do not magically +cease being abusers when their victims show them lovingkindness. The +great tragedy of Christianity is that it was the great non-violent +resistance movement against Rome, and it became the new basis for Roman +power and the power of the kings of Rome’s successor states. Nothing is +better for abusers, exploiters, and destroyers than for their victims to +dogmatically refuse to fight back. That’s why Christianity was so +thoroughly pushed by the Western elite from Constantine to Obama. + +3\. Before you lump Dr. King in with Gandhi, let’s look at a striking +difference. King said that “those who make peaceful revolution +impossible make violent revolution inevitable.” Meanwhile, Gandhi, in +1946, scolded the few Jews who actually had fought back against the +Nazis saying, “the Jews should have offered themselves to the butcher’s +knife…They should have thrown themselves into the sea from cliffs.” I’m +sorry, but that is insane, and deeply offensive. I could go on about the +hypocrisies, misogyny, and self-righteousness of the self-proclaimed +Mahatma, but let’s just stick with his statement about the resisters of +the Holocaust. I honor King to the utmost. I honor Gandhi’s great +accomplishments with considerably more reservations (as do a great many +Indians, to put it mildly). It is well recognized in India, at least, +that India’s independence movement benefitted greatly from the enormous +violence of WWII. Also crucial was the militancy of the Sikhs. + +4\. All that said about Gandhi, his boycott of British salt and his +famed march to the sea with hordes of Indians who made their own sea +salt is an inspiring and classic act of disobedience. That was possible +because he had a mass movement. He had the backing of a culture of +resistance. We do not have that, so our tiny, and largely unnoticed +civil disobedience ploys remain isolated and ineffectual. It’s pretty +simple: a boycott needs mass numbers. Rosa Parks needed the support of +the black community of Montgomery. So another point I made which you +conveniently ignored was the point about how civil disobedience +requires, in order to be effective, a mass movement, and that having +nothing close to a mass movement in the midst of such extreme horrors +and such late-stage planetary death, we must use other strategies. +History shows time and again, when civil disobedience works, it is based +on mass numbers. Militancy often works without mass numbers. + +5\. The examples you gave of “successful” non-violent movements were +mostly far less successful than the ten examples I gave of militant +ones. The Philippines remains a poor and abused colony, full of the +sweatshops and plantations that the US started setting up shortly after +invading in 1902. Eastern Europe was hardly liberated. Sure, Prague and +Budapest are now flooded with tourists (many of the locals priced out). +But has life gotten better in Bratislava? Many Germans who lived in East +Germany are not convinced that their new system is better than the old, +which at least seemed better at keeping them employed. Eastern Europe +has been swallowed up by NATO and American fascism. The CIA now houses +“black sites,” actual concentration camps, in Poland. Romania is still +a mess, but better than under Ceauşescu, dspite the fact that the +Romanian people killed Ceauşescu. The Iranian Revolution had major +militant elements. Regardless, it succeeded at overthrowing a brutal US +puppet but utterly failed at creating a better state. If anything, the +theocracy is even worse, especially for women. Non-violence in Central +America did nothing to stop the death squads. The militant FMNL and the +FSLN, however, achieved a great deal, and are, today, holding the +presidencies of both countries (El Salvador and Nicaragua). The +Zapatistas remain armed. Being militant does not mean being +bloodthirsty. Not at all. But the Zapatistas say and show that they are +ready and able to use force if necessary. Anyhow, I am not trying to +argue that civil disobedience is never effective… clearly it can be. You +are trying to argue that militancy is never effective, which is +demonstrably untrue. By the way, you also never responded to my +questions about MEND or the Zapatistas. + +6\. That the Quakers showed solidarity with not only the Black Panthers +but, much earlier, with the Underground Railroad, only underscores my +central point: that those who choose the path of non-violent resistance +should support their fellow resisters who choose militancy. The Quakers +get it. Do you? + +7\. “And, until we realize that the madman “out there” is nothing more +than the projection of our own inner demons, we will continue to tilt at +windmills.” BS. Industrial civilization is not a projection of my own +inner demons. It is a real culture, with real institutions, real +propaganda, real fuel, real leaders. It has very real sweatshops, very +real nukes, very real mine tailings, very real dams, very real +fertilizer and pesticide runoff, very real dead zones in the oceans, +very real CEOs, very real henchmen, very real victims, and very real +choke points. The death culture is real, and to see it as a projection +is out of touch with reality. I am not an indigenous person, but I have +also long since liberated my heart and mind from identification with the +death culture. I live in opposition to it. Industrial civilization is no +more a projection of my inner demons than Bergen-Belsen was a projection +of Anne Frank’s. It is a physically real and phenomenally destructive +infrastructure of death, undergirded by a pathological worldview +inculcated into its human parts. I am not one of those parts. I feel +pity for those who still are, and I try to help them liberate +themselves, but my primary focus is on protecting, defending, and +showing solidarity with the victims. How you can say that industrial +civilization is a “projection,” let alone a projection of my inner +demons is totally baffling to me. It is a denial of physical reality, a +denial of the reality of the victims’ suffering, and a massive +assumption about me, someone you do not know. Liberating hearts and +minds is crucial, but it is not enough. It is a necessary prelude to +action. If the apparatus of destruction were a mere projection, then +education and group therapy would do the trick (might be tougher to +organize those sessions in the slums of Jakarta or Lagos). But it is not +a projection. It runs on very real oil. It relies on a very real +infrastructure of telecommunications. It uses very real natural gas for +fertilizer. It imprisons very real and very abused animals in very real +feedlots. It is spraying very real DU all over Palestine, Iraq, +Afghanistan, and elsewhere. Industrial civilization is not Quixote’s +windmill. The windmill was not harming Quixote until he charged it. The +windmill was not harming anyone (unlike a modern turbine, it was too +slow to kill birds). Your metaphor implies that the death culture is not +essentially harmful, that it will only harm us if we attack it. If, on +reflection, you no longer like the metaphor, I suggest that you take +greater care in your choice of words. + +OK, some questions remain: +1\. Would you have supported the Underground Railroad, given that it was +run by militants? +2\. Will you show solidarity with indigenous and non-indigenous militant +resistance movements against the death culture? +3\. If not, will you betray them to the agents of the death culture? +4\. Do you agree with Gandhi that the few Jews who saved their lives by +fighting back at the Warsaw Ghetto and Sobibor were wrong to have done +so? +5\. Do you concede that different tactics are appropriate to different +circumstances, such that the “Aryan” Danes could use civil disobedience +at least somewhat effectively while the Czechs, Poles, Jews, Gypsies, +etc. could not? +6\. Do you agree that it is actively harmful to hold off on acting until +we have sufficient numbers for a meaningful non-violent resistance? + +David + +I entirely agree with Derrick’s outlook here. Besides negating the +efficacy of token day-to-day gestures, this column also points to a pet +peeve of mine: the belief that one needs to change oneself, improve +oneself, before taking on the world. We’ve not enough leisure for such +New Age claptrap. + +davidscottlevi (\#64) said: “I am frustrated…either you’re not listening +or you’re avoiding the questions.” + +Clearly you’re frustrated, and caught in the net of all kinds of +negative emotions which deeply color your perspective and your +responses. Carl D. Esbjornson was right on about taking Ed Abbey’s +advice: don’t take either the world or yourself so seriously. Corollary: +if you do, you’ll just recreate the world you’re trying to eliminate. + +No, I won’t answer leading questions which are intended to pin me down +into one of your two Manichean categories. As Curt mused: “I’ve always +wondered what there (sic) true motives are. And if push ever comes to +shove what side will they choose to be on: Those in power or those +fighting like hell for the diversity of life.” Or as you ask: “will you +betray them to the agents of the death culture?” Each of you seems to +believe that there can be only allies or enemies, that if one will not +condone violence one must betray those who do. + +You misunderstand the Quaker pacifist tradition (with which I’ve been +closely allied for decades). They did not defend the Panthers’ right to +violently resist, but only the right of the Panthers to be safe from +violence. It takes far more courage to resist without arms, and +non-violence differentiates between the actor and the action. Not only +would I have similarly supported the Underground Railroad, but I built a +way-station for the second Underground Railroad of the 1980’s for +Central American refugees fleeing to Canada from Reagan’s terrorism. + +But, more fundamentally, you miss the entire lesson of movement history: +that neither violence nor non-violence can make foundational changes in +a culture unless they challenge and alter the paradigm which supports it +rather than its mere material manifestations or power relationships. +Your exclusive focus on the physical manifestations of our global +dysfunction is a good place to start but a dangerous place to get stuck. + +Reagan and Bush were projections of the American psyche, just as Hitler +was a projection of the German psyche. Our current projection is a +“leader” who insists on pretending that the system which has given us +so many apparent material rewards is reformable and redeemable. For you +to insist that ” I am not one of those parts” only indicates that you +have not taken an honest look within. Every one of us Americans, no +matter how radical we think we are, is part of the problem. \[Speaking +of skirting the real questions, I notice you have not acknowledged which +of the three enabling roles you continue to play.\] + +I admire your sharp (though self-limited) perception, your conviction, +your spunk. But you need to look more deeply into the well of grief to +see the true source of our dysfunction. It is not “out there”. The only +interesting question you’ve asked is: “Do you agree that it is actively +harmful to hold off on acting until we have sufficient numbers for a +meaningful non-violent resistance?”, though even that begs the question. +It assumes that quantity is more important than quality – which is the +calculus of our social dysfunction. And it begs the question about what +constitutes effective action, with the ungrounded assumption that only +hard physical action is “real”. + +For all Jensen’s self-proclaimed spirituality, his prescription for +action denies and denigrates spiritual truth, as does yours. All +material manifestation is nothing more than dense energy. Adding to the +density does not make the world a lighter place. Whatever we fight, we +feed. That’s a law of nature. It is only when we’re able to step outside +of the narrowly-defined ring that our efforts have any chance of +success. + +Those who are mired in the ugly material “reality” cannot see the dance +of life that contains it. Transcending the quicksand does not mean +leaving the battle – it means confronting it with more powerful weapons +– weapons that those who know only swords cannot begin to understand. + +@Paul + +Well put. + +Jensen is so right when he says that personal actions must be coupled +with other action— citizen action. We can’t just consume differently. We +need to act on our birthright as citizens—global citizens—and not “buy +into” the new idea that we are “consumers” which implies consumption, +which is the problem. He is saying “forget shorter showers” as the +end-all answer to the problems we are having, he’s not saying to forget +them entirely. Go ahead and be inspired through personal action, sure, +and let it lead to action that creates movements like the civil rights +movement. + +The debate so far is best summarized as such: those who cut down the +unwanted species, and those who try to plant seeds. + +Maybe, just maybe, you need both (if you’ve ever tried to “remove” an +invasive species, you’ll understand this point). Some will try to take +down “the system” with direct action maybe because they can or that’s +their disposition, or perhaps their only tool is a knife. While others +focus on planting the seeds of an alternative paradigm, because that’s +their predisposition or they just have tons of seeds to share… or… maybe +that’s all they have. + +While we might not see those seeds sprout right away, their presence is +just as important as the absence of the unwanted plant. + +So, I’d encourage everyone to remember that both approaches are equally +important, and are two separate tactics of a larger strategy. + +I’m very hesitant to criticize anyone for chopping the unwanted plant +down (or trying to), just as I am very hesitant to criticize that +idealistic person who plants their one seed. I’d only criticize the +cutter or the seed planter if they think their approach in isolation +would ever work. + +To those who focus only on cutting down the kudzu, keep up the good +work. To those who focus on planting an alternative to kudzu, keep up +the good work. Both of your contributions will not go unnoticed or +unsung by those who survive this mess we’re in. Take heart that the +paradigm that emerges over the next couple hundred years will likely +thank you for its existence. + +Its taken us about 10,000 years to get to this point. The transition to +something more “sustainable” will not be pretty no matter how much you +or I do today. But then again, such has been our existence on this +planet for hundreds of thousands of years. Poor, nasty, brutish and +short. Why do you expect that not to be the case? Do you expect a +painless and protected existence for yourself? Maybe you’re clinging to +something that’s sinking anyway. Before we rush to “self” defense, we +ought to really explore the “self” we are defending. + +So keep cutting down the kudzu, and keep planting seeds, because we +don’t know what we’ll end up with. Some days we cut, some days we +dance, some days we plant. + +If the kudzu cutters are only concerned with their own “self defense” +etc then their effect will be no larger than that narrow concern. If, +alternatively, they are genuinely doing so out of a wellspring of +concern for fellow man and its future on this planet, they might just +have an effect that outlasts them. + +If the seed planters think that their plant will grow without light and +being starved of nutrients, well, I think Jensen hits the nail on the +head on this point. + +You’re both right, and, to the few parties debating, get back to kudzu +cutting and seed planting, (or dancing) because every minute is a +beautiful, divine thing. However you spend it, spend it fully and with +the passion of a person who knows their days are numbered. + +You can tell when a debate is going to end in stalemate when the average +word length gets longer and longer, the references get more obscure and +subjects start flying off at a tangent. + +I’m never impressed by attempts to blind people with vocubulary and +obscurity: real mastery of a subject is only truly shown when you can +explain something to a child, and they can then explain it back to you. + +🙂 + +I posted this response to someone who shared Jensen’s article with a +local list: + +Isn’t it interesting that throughout all his polemics, Jensen NEVER even +touched on the one OVERRIDING factor — the planet-killing weight of the +human herd that continues to grow at a clearly unsustainable rate. Sure, +we would do less damage — or viewed through the alternative lens that +Jensen suggests, do more improvement — if we tempered some of the +economic activity that has created contemporary civilization (he left it +undefined exactly which activities to reduce or eliminate, exactly what +“standard of living” we must all settle for, you might note, which +rendered his whole line of argument pretty much just a “bitch” without a +real point), but how much less imperiled would the planet be if there +were only, say, 2 billion instead of 6.5 billion and counting +“consumers” subject to the foibles of the human condition. And make +no mistake that it is indeed the human condition that drives all of the +ills which Jensen decries. We are products of our evolution, with an +innate drive to enhance our position — or viewed at a “higher” level, +the position of our genes — to satisfy our needs and ensure our +survival. Sure, a part of this is the question of how much is “enough” +to ensure survival (say, with “reasonable comfort”?) — Schumacher put +his finger right on heart of the issue when he said that the tragedy of +Western Man is that he has not been able to figure out the concept of +“enough”. + +But still, at its root the problem is that there are just too many +people demanding too many resources, that the weight of the human herd +is crushing the ecosystem upon which it depends to support it, and at +some point that ecosystem will “collapse” from this weight. We see signs +of it everywhere we look today, and all the “projections” are that the +herd will increase to over 9 billion by mid-century. I cannot believe +that will happen, there will be the sort of breakdowns before we +approach that level which will catastrophically REDUCE the population — +what a friend of mine calls “the Adjustment”, as in the human population +will be “adjusted” to the carrying capacity of the planet. + +But the whole subject of if and how we might blunt or avoid that seems +to be just too much for anyone to address. Indeed, even if we posit that +we can take a full generation to turn the population curve downward — +and I doubt we have that much time — who is going to “play God” and say +who can reproduce and how many times? And take whatever actions, no +matter how draconian, to enforce it? It is indeed a conundrum. Part of +the human condition. + +But if it makes you feel righteous to assert that “industrial economy” +is the culprit, as if that is something that is divorced from the human +condition, that it is a crime being perpetrated on the earth by +“others”, a condition that “right thinking” would “cure”, go ahead, +carry on with the delusion. But as long as there are people, there will +be people trying to “get ahead”, and that individual drive will manifest +itself as activities that do not well serve the long-term best interests +of the ecology as a whole, of which we humans are only a part. The only +way to hold the cumulative impact of all that in check to the point +where it does not crush the world ecosystem is to hold in check the +number of potential perpetrators of those actions — the human +population. And — as always — that is the ONE action that is steadfastly +ignored by all “prescriptions” such as that offered by Jensen. + +David Venhuizen (\#71) claims that it is the “human condition” of +self-interest which is the root of all our ills, such that any attempt +at “right thinking” is delusional. + +The delusion is that modern humanity represents the highest evolution of +our innate nature. Homo Sapiens, like all natural creatures, evolved as +a social, cooperative being. In fact, biological evolution on earth is +far more characterized by self-less cooperation than by the modern +selfish competitive impulse. + +Thus a return to “right thinking” and right living – that is, the way we +evolved to be in the world – would render all this talk about resisting +the evil empire meaningless and unnecessary. + +But authentic human nature and the spiral of evolution are as +misunderstood as is Gandhian non-violence. + +Gandhi was very clear that “I do believe that, where there is only a +choice between cowardice and violence, I would advise violence.” + +He understood, as some here do not, that non-violence is only for the +courageous and selfless. For the rest, fighting back is preferable to +cowardice. + +Keith, debates almost always end in stalemates, with both sides +thoroughly calcified in their positions, which is why I almost always +avoid them in my relationships and only chose to engage with one here +for the sake of whomever is reading and may be swayed by the better +case. + +Bjorn, I think it should be clear from each of my posts that I fully +endorse metaphorical (and literal) seed planting as well as cutting down +the noxious invasive. In fact, it should be clear from my postings that +I devote my life to the former, while consciously supporting those who +chose the latter (who are, as far as I’m concerned, sadly quite +hypothetical). It should also be clear that Robert is denying a major, +very possibly crucial, mode of resistance. + +And Robert, that brings us to the irony of your accusation that I am the +one falling into Manichean duality (if that is, a priori, a bad thing… +if believing in the difference between right and wrong makes me a +Manichean, then I’m guilty as charged). I am not discounting your +preferred tactics. You are refusing to express solidarity with those who +use force against the oppressive system (or, if you prefer, against the +extremely destructive physical manifestations of the oppressive system +which is, in origin, a projection of cultural consciousness). + +You assume far too much to think that because I am arguing that abusive +and destructive individuals and institutions must be confronted and +stopped that I therefore fail to acknowledge the spiritual or psychic +underpinnings of the abusive culture. That is an illogical conclusion, +and an inaccurate one. When a woman is being raped (and something like +25% of American women are raped at some point in their lives), I think +her first goal, and the first goal of anyone who might help her, must be +to stop the rapist, and to do so by all means necessary. Should she go +out of her way to kill him? I don’t know… I think many women I know +would say yes, but I’ll just say I don’t know. I do know that she should +not value his life more than her right to not be raped, and I know that +anyone else who might save her should not value the rapist’s rights over +hers. Once the rape is over, the process of healing can begin. If the +rapist was stopped and not killed, perhaps he can be reformed. I hope he +can. I see no need for vengeance. Personally, I deplore violence. That +is the point. The wetikos, the abusers, those who hate life and value +nothing but control over others are committing horrific violence, such +that they are actually, unfathomable though this is, killing the world. +I do not see how anything you are suggesting poses any threat to the +wetikos, at least not unless there were a hundred million or more Robert +Riversongs out there (and the world would be a far better place if there +were, no doubt, even if I might find the conversations frustrating). But +there aren’t a hundred million of you. Nowhere close. Those who have +decolonized their hearts and minds are few indeed, and you continue to +dodge the question about how we can strategize and support each other +given A) the extreme direness of the situation (which is undeniable and +physically real, no?) and B) our small and scattered numbers (also +undeniable and physically real). + +One of the core pathologies of civilization is that the physical world +is not primary. You are manifesting this pathology. I wish you wouldn’t, +because the real world really needs you. + +About my supposed negativity, aside from my frustration with your +avoidance of clear and fair questions, your apparent lack of solidarity +with those fighting for the community life, I am experiencing a +fantastic day. I was loathe to return to this draining discourse, but am +doing so because I feel I have committed myself. Right now, it is 68 +degrees in coastal Maine, sunny and beautiful for the first time this +week, I just took a long barefoot walk through the sopping wet woods +with my two dogs, and we romped on the granite boulders by the sea for a +while, splashing in the water. I read a little philosophy, thought about +a few germs for future poems, stared at the patterns in the water, felt +the sun and wind on my chest and face. I watched little crabs doing +little crab things, and gave deep thanks to this island, this sea, and +this world. On the way home, I befriended a hitchhiker, who, it turns +out, knows my girlfriend’s family (not surprising since she’s from this +small community). This afternoon I’m going to my girlfriend’s art show. +Maybe I’ll eat a lobster for dinner. Life is really, really good +(vacation all the more so\!). And my experience of my life is profoundly +positive. Frustration and some measure of anger are healthy and normal +responses to the experience of encountering a smart, sensitive activist +who has somehow explained away physical reality. You deem only one +question I have asked to be worth answering, which I find patronizing +and unbefitting your continued engagement in this discussion, but then +you did not even answer it\! You seem to be unwilling to commit to +anything, least of all the defense of those victimized by the dominant +culture. I’m sorry, but in an indigenous or any healthy culture, that +would not be considered adult behavior. How can I trust anyone who won’t +commit to something as basic as defending the innocent? Who will not +even commit to not defending the innocent, but just makes abstract +claims about how if we use force in self-defense or mutual-defense we +internalize a violent paradigm. No. When a mother grizzly charges a +hunter to protect her cubs she does not risk becoming a hunter. When +Tecumseh rallied the tribes to take a stand against the conquest of +their continent, he did not risk becoming William Henry Harrison. He did +not risk becoming a white, slave-owning, objectifying, exploitative +“wetiko” (cannibal, in the Powhattan language, used by Jack D. Forbes +to categorize the Western pathology). + +Oh, and if you really want to pin me down, I’ve already written on this +comments page about my spending habits. In synopsis, I buy almost no new +goods (this computer being a glaring exception). My clothes are all +second-hand. My guitar is old. I often get things off the street (like +my bike… don’t worry, it was being thrown away) and I sometimes dumpster +dive. The food I eat is all organic and overwhelmingly local, from +small, good farmers (and, in Maine, small fishermen). Any food I don’t +buy directly from the farmers or fishermen, along with my few +toiletries, come from a worker-owned, non-profit coop. I have not +shopped at a corporate store in years (again, except for buying this +computer from Mac). So that’s me as a consumer. As far as serving in the +military, big shock here, I have not served in the military. As for +paying taxes, I refused to earn enough to have to do so until I decided +to become a high school teacher (at 26, four years ago). It wrenched my +guts to have to pay taxes, but I decided it was worth it to be able to +have such a powerful forum for reaching young people. And I do not +regret that decision. I am now in the process of moving and happily +taking a 40% pay cut. Less money for Uncle Sam. I think, though, that +you overestimate the importance of tax receipts. The government +obviously takes little heed of how much it takes in in relation to how +much it spends. What is this year’s budget deficit? Nearly a trillion +dollars, no? For what it’s worth, I’m glad you didn’t contribute $15,000 +or whatever, but that’s a pretty small lever. I think we can safely +estimate the impact as zero. Again, it would be a different story if +millions of people did it. Like the rest of the strategies you endorse, +they are ineffectual without mass numbers, and we do not have mass +numbers. So, either we wait until we do (and countenance the further +evisceration of the planet in the meantime… “sorry critically endangered +species and indigenous cultures, but I can neither fight back nor +support anyone, including you, who will”) or we develop strategies that +can have an immediate impact (or at least support those who do). + +Whew. I want to get back to my nice day, now. + +David + +Mostly for David \#28… + +The article in Orion on the “Transition Inititive” this issue is a nice +contrast to Jensen’s current “Forget Shorter Showers” piece. The most +striking contrast is the way Jensen’s piece is once again filled with +the energy of anger while Jay Griffiths’ is filled with the energy of +compassion, as is the Transition Movement itself filled with the energy +of compassion. I think Derrick would pooh-pooh most of the Transition +Movement’s focus on tending to the psychological needs of those +transitioning. I am not sure he would even care, since most of my +reading of his work has led me to believe he only cares about those folk +who are “already there, thinking just like him, anti-civ gaga all the +way.” + +And why are there so many participating in this discussion, rather than +the Transition piece by Griffiths? Simple. Jensen writes with a debate +style, Griffiths does not…and we are all addicts of debate/war/conflict. +We are all drama queens. It’s not his ideas. I don’t give him any credit +for that. He hasn’t said anything new. It’s an old idea, to bring down +the big boys by any means necessary. Specifically attacking the +Simplicity Movement is not new, either. Usually it’s done with more +analysis of class issues, is all. The Simplicity Movement is seen most +often by radicals as a movement of the white wealthy middle classes. + +Jay Griffiths piece on Transition reminds me of Margaret Wheatley’s +words in Shambhala Sun on “The Place Beyond Fear and Hope,” which I have +shared before but seem so appropriate here. She wrote: + +“Many years ago, I took Merton seriously and abandoned all hope of ever +saving the world. This was extremely heart-wrenching for me, more +difficult than letting go of a love relationship. I felt I was betraying +my causes, condemning the world to a terrible end. Some of my colleagues +were critical, even frightened by my decision. How could I be so +irresponsible? If we give up saving the world, what will happen? Still +today, I have many beloved colleagues who refuse to resign as savior. +They continue to force their failing spirits and tired bodies back into +action one more time, wanting angry vehemence to give them vigor. + +I didn’t give up saving the world to protect my health. I gave it up to +discover right action, what I’m supposed to be doing. Beyond hope and +fear, freed from success or failure, I’m learning what right action +feels like, its clarity and energy. I still get angry, enraged, and +frustrated. But I no longer want my activities to be driven by these +powerful, destructive emotions. I’ve learned to pause, come back to the +present moment, and calm down. I take no actions until I can trust my +interior state — until I become present in the moment and clarity +emerges undimmed by hope and fear. Then I act, rightly, I hope.” + +She ended the piece with the same beauty embodied by the Transition +Movement: + +“My heart holds the image of us journeying in this way through this time +of disintegration and rebirth. Insecure, groundless, patient, beyond +hope and fear. And together.” + +Together. I don’t see Derrick saying that – not really. It’s more like +he’s saying, “the like-minded, together – and the rest of you, get +screwed.” + +David’s Post \#28 embodied the kind of compassion that has always opened +me to radical ideas. David’s words were very moving – and very helpful +in bringing me back to being willing to hear Jensen – but through +David’s caring words. Jensen seems to want to agitate, but is he +really interested in anyone who isn’t already sold on him listening to +him? + +It seemed that David cared about the readers, cared that we “got” it. +There are many authors, like Derrick, who have so much right on stuff to +say, but it’s only through others that I care to hear about it. Noam +Chomsky is one, for instance. Not because he is angry so much as +intellectually overwhelming. I’d rather read David Edwards’ book BURNING +ALL ILLUSIONS about Noam’s “Manufacturing Consent,” than read +“Manufacturing Consent” itself. + +If Derrick wrote more like David \#28, I think he could reach far more +people with his wisdom about the human situation. But he won’t. I’d like +to feel like he’s writing to me to engage me with a sense of mutuality, +rather than what often feels like an attempt to patronize, intimidate, +dominate and rage at me for everything wrong about me. Is there anything +right about anyone other than indigenous peoples? I’ve been an activist +a long time. I’m burned out. I don’t need any more of that crap – and +disrespect. + +I’d love to be able to pass along some of Jensen’s work to some of my +family and friends but they wouldn’t read it, not when it’s so obviously +not written for anyone but his “like-minded” folk, disrespecting those +not like-minded as practically idiots. I’d pass along David \#28’s +words. + +I have been writing and thinking and acting on these things for years, +just like Jensen. Even if I wasn’t, I think respecting a diversity of +readers would go a long way towards people really listening for the +truths in what Derrick is saying. + +And Derrick, hear this: + +If you would ever really attempt to listen to what others are trying to +say, rather than cut them down when it’s not in agreement with you, that +would be a breath of fresh air. But I am afraid you’ll never respond +like David \#28 did to those folks on here. You’d have chastised them +and cut them down with biting remarks and intolerance and righteousness. + +So, thank you David. Thank you indeed. + +One avenue of political change that is very infrequently explored is the +developing and implementing of new languages. Consider a language which +has only one “word”, a signed gesture of the hands to show a circle — +that sign would represent the planet. This would be somewhat like a +language and a religion/statement of belief mixed together. + +The purpose of this language would not be to communicate ideas, rather +to be easily adopted and understood. + +Robert Riversong (\#72) missed the point. People are what people are, +and always have been. We are not where we are because we devolved into +“consumers”, rather that has been our innate nature all along. The +“cooperation” of which he speaks has been limited and intermittent. +And don’t forget that the people on Easter Island apparently cut down +the last tree in their world even though they could clearly see it was +the last tree. And yeah, they were “cooperating”. + +No amount of “right thinking” by a few of us is going to change the +essense of the human condition. And that is exactly why drastic +population reduction will be the only way we will really address the +root cause of all the problems we are experiencing, that there are too +many humans chasing too few resources, given that many (most?) people +will always want all they can get. While the sort of “right thinking” +that Robert seems to think will “save” the world is indeed exactly what +needs to proliferate throughout the human race in order to put us on a +path to population reduction — and reducing the impacts on the ecology +of each person there is — recognize that this “right thinking” is not in +accord with the human condition, and so is not likely to dominate the +human population. + +Sorry if that seems way too negative to bear, but think back over the +entire history of civilization, tell me what you see, and then tell me +why it is that you think masses of people will suddenly rise to a +“higher level of evolution”. + +Because they understand the dire consequences of not doing so? Yeah, +maybe after a hellish journey through the tribulations that are likely +to result in “the Adjustment”, it will be seared into the human +consciousness that the sort of lack of discipline that has led us to +this point is the path to hell. But every religious/philosophical +tradition already tells us that, and look where we are. We’ve got +climate change deny-ers who do so because it will impact negatively on +their short-term bottom line. THAT is the human condition. + +davidscottlevi, + +Perhaps you’re not as irredeemable as you came across. You’re doing most +of what I’ve always advocated, short of active non-cooperation which you +dismiss as a numbers racket. Quantity rather than quality. Remember the +100th monkey phenomenon? Individual intention has as powerful an effect +on the world as that proverbial butterfly whose delicately flapping +wings initiates a typhoon half-way across the globe. + +You chastise “You are refusing to express solidarity with those who use +force against the oppressive system.” But you’re not asking for +solidarity with a cause (which I’ve always voiced) but acceptance of +tactical violence in service to the cause. + +You state “When a woman is being raped, I think her first goal, and the +first goal of anyone who might help her, must be to stop the rapist, and +to do so by all means necessary.” That’s perfectly consistent with my +previous advocacy of legitimate self-defense. Gandhi, who you continue +to misunderstand and quote out of context, specifically used rape as the +prime example of the legitimacy of a coercive response (did you read my +post \#72?). + +Both Gandhi and I have always acknowledged the need for violent +resistance amongst those who don’t have either the vision or the courage +to resist otherwise. The famous American Quaker, John Wolman, said in +response to Royal Governor William Penn’s discomfort with wearing the +ceremonial sword: “Wear it until thou canst.” + +You claim: “One of the core pathologies of civilization is that the +physical world is not primary.” Quite the contrary: perhaps the core +pathology of this modern world is Scientific Materialism combined with +Ayn Rand’s self-centered Objectivism. Nothing that can’t be quantified +matters, and altruism is a dead end. World-denying fundamental religion +is the shadow of that paradigm. + +You bemoan: “How can I trust anyone who won’t commit to something as +basic as defending the innocent?” But what you mean is defending in the +only way you can imagine – with violence. I have stood between a +domestic abuser and his female victim – both strangers to me in the +street – with nothing but my open arms. It disarmed the violence without +harming the violator. + +I have been arrested for blocking the celebration of the first Trident +nuclear submarine, and have voluntarily gone without food or water for +up to 10 days as an act of non-cooperation with the prison/injustice +system. I have stood between women’s clinic patrons and the “pro-life” +demonstrators who tried to assault them. + +The problem is you apparently trust no one who does not defend with +violence. I trust no one who does, for there is no reason to believe +they won’t turn it on me someday. + +You believe that the internalization of our own violence is merely an +abstraction and you use the violent resistance of Native Americans as a +counter-example. I have interacted with the militant American Indian +Movement (AIM) and found them to be anger-filled and violent, having +incorporated the very violence which they fight. It’s not an abstraction +– it’s a law of nature. + +You speak of the “violence” of the mother bear, but they will almost +invariably stop their charge before attacking (I know, I’ve been between +mother and cub more than once). The goal of all natural creatures is +self-defense without violence. + +But perhaps the root of your inability to understand the power of +non-violence is in your belief that “the abusers \[are\] those who hate +life and value nothing but control over others.” If you believe this, +then nothing short of execution would be legitimate. But the sad truth +is that almost all violent criminals are victims of an unloving family +constellation. They do not hate life, they hate themselves because they +believe themselves to be unlovable. When I was last in jail, a wise +Correctional Officer broke up a fight (by simply bear-hugging the bigger +of the two) and then said to me, “you know, what most of these kids +really need is a hug.” He was right. And that’s the foundation of +non-violence. You can either destroy the “other” with violence, or +transform the other with compassion. The latter is far more difficult +and challenging. It is not for the meek. + +The former eliminates the perpetrator but not the problem, since you +have now embodied their violence. The latter transforms the problem. +Consistency of ends and means is so obvious that most people miss it. + +David Venhuizen says: “think back over the entire history of +civilization, tell me what you see, and then tell me why it is that you +think masses of people will suddenly rise to a “higher level of +evolution”. + +That’s the reason that you cannot see the truth about the human +condition: because you consider the history of “civilization” to be the +history of humanity. Read Ishmael. What we think of as civilization is +an aberrant offshoot of human evolution. + +I’m not talking about a “higher level of evolution”, but rather a +“lower” one – the one that served humanity for hundreds of thousands +of years pre-history. + +Broaden your vision and you will understand. Read EarthDance by Elisabet +Sahtouris . + +Robert Riversong, there is no point in “arguing” this, as you have your +position, but I would ask how you see the evolutionary history of +mankind, prior to the development of the technological prowess that +allows us to threaten the planetary ecology, as a “proof” that humankind +has become somehow “aberrated” by those developments, that what you +style as the degrading effects of civilization are not simply more +“evolved” expressions of the innate nature that was there all the +time. That idea that we have “fallen” from a state of grace seems to be +a religious tenet — perhaps saying “Read Ishmael” is a tipoff to this +whole thing being viewed by you through a religious lens. I trust you +understand that religion is also a human invention and that more people +have been killed and tortured in the name of religion than anything +else. Yeah, it’s a “charming” thing to hope that man is innately “good”, +that we have simply “fallen” and we just need “redemption” from the +dehumanizing effects of “civilization”, and then our nature will +radically change. But my advice is, don’t hold your breath waiting for +it to happen. + +David Venhuizen, that’s Ishmael by Daniel Quinn – nothing religious +about it. It was chosen in 1992 from among 2500 entries by the Turner +Tomorrow Fellowship as the most important work of visionary fiction. + +“Ishmael is a half ton silverback gorilla. He is a student of ecology, +life, freedom, and the human condition. He is also a teacher. He teaches +that which all humans need to learn — must learn — if our species, and +the rest of life on Earth as we know it, is to survive.” + + + +He will teach you all you need to know about the evolution of human +culture. + +May I suggest, instead of Ishmael, that one read anything by Thomas +Berry (who recently died), or Brian Swimme. Together they wrote “The +Universe Story”. Their work, together or separately, is a wonderful +blend of spirit and science, and both look at evolution, not as simply +the evolution of the human species, rather the evolution of the Whole – +the Earth, the Universe, Consciousness. Humans being a part (a +magnificent part according to Berry, and admitedly there are days when I +disagree with this) but a part, connected, active participants. As I +read the back and forth I don’t see disagreement as much as different +aspects, different ways of being and doing things, both of which are +relevant and important. And again, perhaps this is because we have had a +wonderful, sunny day here in where I live in Maine, a rare event this +summer and much needed. The garden is growing, though slowly, there are +baby tomatoes forming, and tiny head of broccoli beginning to appear. +The bees are back, and the dragonflies and it’s good to be alive. + +This Derrick Jensen guy is at least realistic about the aims of the +environmental movement. None of the little stuff is really going to make +any significant difference. The writings of Nordhaus and Schellenberg +are also very realistic on all this, but at least they advocate +technological solutions rather than “great leap backwards” stuff and +hints at genocide. + +Note THIS sentence: + +“……we can easily come to believe that we will cause the least +destruction possible if we are dead…..” + +You wait and see what the next hell-on-earth totalitarianism involves, +in a generation or two. Don’t think the Gemans in the 1930’s were +somehow less civilised and intelligent than we are. Unchecked lies have +consequences. + +It is a tragedy in the making, that the underlying assumptions behind +all this, that the earth is running out of resources and that humankind +is in some way “destroying” the environment, is all LIES, and hardly +anybody realises that. Authors of honest commentary on the environment +and resources, like Bjorn Lomborg and Patrick Moore and Julian Simon and +Indur Goklany and George Reisman, get ignored by our media, partly +because sensation sells, and partly because most journos are up to the +eyeballs in the anti-capitalist mentality and do not bother to honestly +investigate environmental issues. diff --git a/_stories/2009/8636624.md b/_stories/2009/8636624.md index c43e382..a569454 100644 --- a/_stories/2009/8636624.md +++ b/_stories/2009/8636624.md @@ -19,7 +19,768 @@ _tags: objectID: '8636624' --- -[Source](https://www.hoover.org/research/food-new-sex "Permalink to ") +Of all the truly seismic shifts transforming daily life today — deeper +than our financial fissures, wider even than our most obvious political +and cultural divides — one of the most important is also among the least +remarked. That is the chasm in attitude that separates almost all of us +living in the West today from almost all of our ancestors, over two +things without which human beings cannot exist: food and sex. +The question before us today is not whether the two appetites are +closely connected. About that much, philosophers and other commentators +have been agreed for a very long time. As far back as Aristotle, +observers have made the same point reiterated in 1749 in Henry +Fielding’s famous scene in Tom Jones: The desires for sex and for food +are joined at the root. The fact that Fielding’s scene would go on to +inspire an equally iconic movie segment over 200 years later, in the Tom +Jones film from 1963, just clinches the point. +What happens when, for the first time in history, adult human beings are +free to have all the sex and food they want? +Philosophers and artists aside, ordinary language itself verifies how +similarly the two appetites are experienced, with many of the same words +crossing over to describe what is desirable and undesirable in each +case. In fact, we sometimes have trouble even talking about food without +metaphorically invoking sex, and vice versa. In a hundred entangled +ways, judging by either language or literature, the human mind juggles +sex and food almost interchangeably at times. And why not? Both desires +can make people do things they otherwise would not; and both are +experienced at different times by most men and women as the most +powerful of all human drives. + +One more critical link between the appetites for sex and food is this: +Both, if pursued without regard to consequence, can prove ruinous not +only to oneself, but also to other people, and even to society itself. +No doubt for that reason, both appetites have historically been subject +in all civilizations to rules both formal and informal. Thus the +potentially destructive forces of sex — disease, disorder, sexual +aggression, sexual jealousy, and what used to be called “home-wrecking” +— have been ameliorated in every recorded society by legal, social, +and religious conventions, primarily stigma and punishment. Similarly, +all societies have developed rules and rituals governing food in part to +avoid the destructiveness of free-for-alls over scarce necessities. And +while food rules may not always have been as stringent as sex rules, +they have nevertheless been stringent as needed. Such is the meaning, +for example, of being hanged for stealing a loaf of bread in the +marketplace, or keel-hauled for plundering rations on a ship. + +These disciplines imposed historically on access to food and sex now +raise a question that has not come up before, probably because it was +not even possible to imagine it until the lifetimes of the people +reading this: What happens when, for the first time in history — at +least in theory, and at least in the advanced nations — adult human +beings are more or less free to have all the sex and food they want? + +This question opens the door to a real paradox. For given how closely +connected the two appetites appear to be, it would be natural to expect +that people would do the same kinds of things with both appetites — that +they would pursue both with equal ardor when finally allowed to do so, +for example, or with equal abandon for consequence; or conversely, with +similar degrees of discipline in the consumption of each. + +In fact, though, evidence from the advanced West suggests that nearly +the opposite seems to be true. The answer appears to be that when many +people are faced with these possibilities for the very first time, they +end up doing very different things — things we might signal by shorthand +as mindful eating, and mindless sex. This essay is both an exploration +of that curious dynamic, and a speculation about what is driving it. + +As much as you want + +The dramatic expansion in access to food on the one hand and to sex on +the other are complicated stories; but in each case, technology has +written most of it. + +Up until just about now, for example, the prime brakes on sex outside of +marriage have been several: fear of pregnancy, fear of social stigma and +punishment, and fear of disease. The Pill and its cousins have +substantially undermined the first two strictures, at least in theory, +while modern medicine has largely erased the third. Even hiv/aids, only +a decade ago a stunning exception to the brand new rule that one could +apparently have any kind of sex at all without serious consequence, is +now regarded as a “manageable” disease in the affluent West, even as it +continues to kill millions of less fortunate patients elsewhere. + +As for food, here too one technological revolution after another +explains the extraordinary change in its availability: pesticides, +mechanized farming, economical transportation, genetic manipulation of +food stocks, and other advances. As a result, almost everyone in the +Western world is now able to buy sustenance of all kinds, for very +little money, and in quantities unimaginable until the lifetimes of the +people reading this. + +One result of this change in food fortune, of course, is the +unprecedented “disease of civilization” known as obesity, with its +corollary ills. Nevertheless, the commonplace fact of obesity in today’s +West itself testifies to the point that access to food has expanded +exponentially for just about everyone. So does the statistical fact that +obesity is most prevalent in the lowest social classes and least +exhibited in the highest. + +And just as technology has made sex and food more accessible for a great +many people, important extra-technological influences on both pursuits — +particularly longstanding religious strictures — have meanwhile +diminished in a way that has made both appetites even easier to indulge. +The opprobrium reserved for gluttony, for example, seems to have little +immediate force now, even among believers. On the rare occasions when +one even sees the word, it is almost always used in a metaphorical, +secular sense. + +Similarly, and far more consequential, the longstanding religious +prohibitions in every major creed against extramarital sex have rather +famously loosed their holds over the contemporary mind. Of particular +significance, perhaps, has been the movement of many Protestant +denominations away from the sexual morality agreed upon by the previous +millennia of Christendom. The Anglican abandonment in 1930 of the +longstanding prohibition against artificial contraception is a special +case in point, undermining as it subsequently did for many believers the +very idea that any church could tell people what to do with their +bodies, ever again. Whether they defended their traditional teachings or +abandoned them, however, all Western Christian churches in the past +century have found themselves increasingly beleaguered over issues of +sex, and commensurately less influential over all but a fraction of the +most traditionally minded parishioners. + +Of course this waning of the traditional restraints on the pursuit of +sex and food is only part of the story; any number of non-religious +forces today also act as contemporary brakes on both. In the case of +food, for example, these would include factors like personal vanity, +say, or health concerns, or preoccupation with the morality of what is +consumed (about which more below). Similarly, to acknowledge that sex is +more accessible than ever before is not to say that it is always and +everywhere available. Many people who do not think they will go to hell +for premarital sex or adultery, for example, find brakes on their +desires for other reasons: fear of disease, fear of hurting children or +other loved ones, fear of disrupting one’s career, fear of financial +setbacks in the form of divorce and child support, and so on. + +Even men and women who do want all the food or sex they can get their +hands on face obstacles of other kinds in their pursuit. Though many +people really can afford to eat more or less around the clock, for +example, home economics will still put the brakes on; it’s not as if +everyone can afford pheasant under glass day and night. The same is true +of sex, which likewise imposes its own unwritten yet practical +constraints. Older and less attractive people simply cannot command the +sexual marketplace as the younger and more attractive can (which is why +the promises of erasing time and age are such a booming business in a +post-liberation age). So do time and age still circumscribe the pursuit +of sex, even as churches and other conventional enforcers increasingly +do not. + +Still and all, the initial point stands: As consumers of both sex and +food, today’s people in the advanced societies are freer to pursue and +consume both than almost all the human beings who came before us; and +our culture has evolved in interesting ways to exhibit both those +trends. + +Broccoli, pornography, and Kant + +To begin to see just how recent and dramatic this change is, let us +imagine some broad features of the world seen through two different sets +of eyes: a hypothetical 30-year-old housewife from 1958 named Betty, and +her hypothetical granddaughter Jennifer, of the same age, today. + +Begin with a tour of Betty’s kitchen. Much of what she makes comes from +jars and cans. Much of it is also heavy on substances that people of our +time are told to minimize — dairy products, red meat, refined sugars and +flours — because of compelling research about nutrition that occurred +after Betty’s time. Betty’s freezer is filled with meat every four +months by a visiting company that specializes in volume, and on most +nights she thaws a piece of this and accompanies it with food from one +or two jars. If there is anything “fresh” on the plate, it is likely a +potato. Interestingly, and rudimentary to our contemporary eyes though +it may be, Betty’s food is served with what for us would appear to be +high ceremony, i.e., at a set table with family members present. + +As it happens, there is little that Betty herself, who is adventurous by +the standards of her day, will not eat; the going slogan she learned as +a child is about cleaning your plate, and not doing so is still +considered bad form. Aside from that notion though, which is a holdover +to scarcer times, Betty is much like any other American home cook in +1958. She likes making some things and not others, even as she prefers +eating some things to others — and there, in personal aesthetics, does +the matter end for her. It’s not that Betty lacks opinions about food. +It’s just that the ones she has are limited to what she does and does +not personally like to make and eat. + +Now imagine one possible counterpart to Betty today, her 30-year-old +granddaughter Jennifer. Jennifer has almost no cans or jars in her +cupboard. She has no children or husband or live-in boyfriend either, +which is why her kitchen table on most nights features a laptop and goes +unset. Yet interestingly enough, despite the lack of ceremony at the +table, Jennifer pays far more attention to food, and feels far more +strongly in her convictions about it, than anyone she knows from Betty’s +time. + +Wavering in and out of vegetarianism, Jennifer is adamantly opposed to +eating red meat or endangered fish. She is also opposed to +industrialized breeding, genetically enhanced fruits and vegetables, and +to pesticides and other artificial agents. She tries to minimize her +dairy intake, and cooks tofu as much as possible. She also buys +“organic” in the belief that it is better both for her and for the +animals raised in that way, even though the products are markedly more +expensive than those from the local grocery store. Her diet is heavy in +all the ways that Betty’s was light: with fresh vegetables and fruits in +particular. Jennifer has nothing but ice in her freezer, soymilk and +various other items her grandmother wouldn’t have recognized in the +refrigerator, and on the counter stands a vegetable juicer she feels she +“ought” to use more. + +Most important of all, however, is the difference in moral attitude +separating Betty and Jennifer on the matter of food. Jennifer feels that +there is a right and wrong about these options that transcends her +exercise of choice as a consumer. She does not exactly condemn those who +believe otherwise, but she doesn’t understand why they do, either. And +she certainly thinks the world would be a better place if more people +evaluated their food choices as she does. She even proselytizes on +occasion when she can. + +In short, with regard to food, Jennifer falls within Immanuel Kant’s +definition of the Categorical Imperative: She acts according to a set of +maxims that she wills at the same time to be universal law. + +Betty, on the other hand, would be baffled by the idea of dragooning +such moral abstractions into the service of food. This is partly +because, as a child of her time, she was impressed — as Jennifer is not +— about what happens when food is scarce (Betty’s parents told her +often about their memories of the Great Depression; and many of the +older men of her time had vivid memories of deprivation in wartime). +Even without such personal links to food scarcity, though, it makes no +sense to Betty that people would feel as strongly as her granddaughter +does about something as simple as deciding just what goes into one’s +mouth. That is because Betty feels, as Jennifer obviously does not, that +opinions about food are simply de gustibus, a matter of individual taste +— and only that. + +This clear difference in opinion leads to an intriguing juxtaposition. +Just as Betty and Jennifer have radically different approaches to food, +so do they to matters of sex. For Betty, the ground rules of her time — +which she both participates in and substantially agrees with — are +clear: Just about every exercise of sex outside marriage is subject to +social (if not always private) opprobrium. Wavering in and out of +established religion herself, Betty nevertheless clearly adheres to a +traditional Judeo-Christian sexual ethic. Thus, for example, Mr. Jones +next door “ran off” with another woman, leaving his wife and children +behind; Susie in the town nearby got pregnant and wasn’t allowed back in +school; Uncle Bill is rumored to have contracted gonorrhea; and so on. +None of these breaches of the going sexual ethic is considered by Betty +to be a good thing, let alone a celebrated thing. They are not even +considered to be neutral things. In fact, they are all considered by her +to be wrong. + +Most important of all, Betty feels that sex, unlike food, is not de +gustibus. She believes to the contrary that there is a right and wrong +about these choices that transcends any individual act. She further +believes that the world would be a better place, and individual people +better off, if others believed as she does. She even proselytizes such +on occasion when given the chance. + +In short, as Jennifer does with food, Betty in the matter of sex +fulfills the requirements for Kant’s Categorical Imperative. + +Jennifer’s approach to sex is just about 180 degrees different. She too +disapproves of the father next door who left his wife and children for a +younger woman; she does not want to be cheated on herself, or to have +those she cares about cheated on either. These ground-zero stipulations, +aside, however, she is otherwise laissez-faire on just about every other +aspect of nonmarital sex. She believes that living together before +marriage is not only morally neutral, but actually better than not +having such a “trial run.” Pregnant unwed Susie in the next town doesn’t +elicit a thought one way or the other from her, and neither does Uncle +Bill’s gonorrhea, which is of course a trivial medical matter between +him and his doctor. + +Jennifer, unlike Betty, thinks that falling in love creates its own +demands and generally trumps other considerations — unless perhaps +children are involved (and sometimes, on a case-by-case basis, then +too). A consistent thinker in this respect, she also accepts the +consequences of her libertarian convictions about sex. She is +pro-abortion, pro-gay marriage, indifferent to ethical questions about +stem cell research and other technological manipulations of nature (as +she is not, ironically, when it comes to food), and agnostic on the +question of whether any particular parental arrangements seem best for +children. She has even been known to watch pornography with her +boyfriend, at his coaxing, in part to show just how very +laissez-faire she is. + +Betty thinks food is a matter of taste, whereas sex is governed by +universal moral law; and Jennifer thinks exactly the reverse. + +Most important, once again, is the difference in moral attitude between +the two women on this subject of sex. Betty feels that there is a right +and wrong about sexual choices that transcends any individual act, and +Jennifer — exceptions noted — does not. It’s not that Jennifer lacks for +opinions about sex, any more than Betty does about food. It’s just that, +for the most part, they are limited to what she personally does and +doesn’t like. + +Thus far, what the imaginary examples of Betty and Jennifer have +established is this: Their personal moral relationships toward food and +toward sex are just about perfectly reversed. Betty does care about +nutrition and food, but it doesn’t occur to her to extend her opinions +to a moral judgment — i.e., to believe that other people ought to do as +she does in the matter of food, and that they are wrong if they don’t. +In fact, she thinks such an extension would be wrong in a different way; +it would be impolite, needlessly judgmental, simply not done. Jennifer, +similarly, does care to some limited degree about what other people do +about sex; but it seldom occurs to her to extend her opinions to a moral +judgment. In fact, she thinks such an extension would be wrong in a +different way — because it would be impolite, needlessly judgmental, +simply not done. + +On the other hand, Jennifer is genuinely certain that her opinions about +food are not only nutritionally correct, but also, in some deep, +meaningful sense, morally correct — i.e., she feels that others ought to +do something like what she does. And Betty, on the other hand, feels +exactly the same way about what she calls sexual morality. + +As noted, this desire to extend their personal opinions in two different +areas to an “ought” that they think should be somehow binding — binding, +that is, to the idea that others should do the same — is the definition +of the Kantian imperative. Once again, note: Betty’s Kantian imperative +concerns sex not food, and Jennifer’s concerns food not sex. In just +over 50 years, in other words — not for everyone, of course, but for a +great many people, and for an especially large portion of sophisticated +people — the moral poles of sex and food have been reversed. Betty +thinks food is a matter of taste, whereas sex is governed by universal +moral law of some kind; and Jennifer thinks exactly the reverse. + +What has happened here? + +Role reversal + +Betty and jennifermay be imaginary, but the decades that separate the +two women have brought related changes to the lives of many millions. In +the 50 years between their two kitchens, a similar polar transformation +has taken root and grown not only throughout America but also throughout +Western society itself. During those years, cultural artifacts and +forces in the form of articles, books, movies, and ideas aimed at +deregulating what is now quaintly called “nonmarital sex” have abounded +and prospered; while the cultural artifacts and forces aimed at +regulating or seeking to re-regulate sex outside of marriage have +largely declined. In the matter of food, on the other hand, exactly the +reverse has happened. Increasing scrutiny over the decades to the +quality of what goes into people’s mouths has been accompanied by +something almost wholly new under the sun: the rise of universalizable +moral codes based on food choices. + +Begin with the more familiar face of diets and fads — the Atkins diet, +the Zone diet, the tea diet, the high-carb diet, Jenny Craig, Weight +Watchers, and all the rest of the food fixes promising us new and +improved versions of ourselves. Abundant though they and all their +relatives are, those short-term fads and diets are nevertheless merely +epiphenomena. + +Digging a little deeper, the obsession with food that they reflect +resonates in many other strata of the commercial marketplace. Book +reading, for example, may indeed be on the way out, but until it goes, +cookbooks and food books remain among the most reliable moneymakers in +the industry. To scan the bestseller lists or page the major reviews in +any given month is to find that books on food and food-thought are at +least reliably represented, and sometimes even predominate — to list a +few from the past few years alone: Michael Pollan’s The Omnivore’s +Dilemma; Eric Schlosser’s Fast Food Nation; Gary Taubes’ Good Calories, +Bad Calories; Bill Buford’s Heat. + +Then there are the voyeur and celebrity genres, which have made some +chefs the equivalent of rock stars and further feed the public curiosity +with books like Kitchen Confidential: Adventures in the Culinary +Underbelly or Service Included: Four-Star Secrets of an Eavesdropping +Waiter or The Devil in the Kitchen: Sex, Pain, Madness, and the Making +of a Great Chef. Anywhere you go, anywhere you look, food in one form or +another is what’s on tap. The proliferation of chains like Whole Foods, +the recent institution by Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger of +state-mandated nutritional breakdowns in restaurants in the state of +California (a move that is sure to be repeated by governors in the other +49): All these and many other developments speak to the paramount place +occupied by food and food choices in the modern consciousness. As the +New York Times Magazine noted recently, in a foreword emphasizing the +intended expansion of its (already sizeable) food coverage, such writing +is “perhaps never a more crucial part of what we do than today — a +moment when what and how we eat has emerged as a Washington issue and a +global-environmental issue as well as a kitchen-table one.” + +Underneath the passing fads and short-term fixes and notices like these, +deep down where the real seismic change lies, is a series of revolutions +in how we now think about food — changes that focus not on today or +tomorrow, but on eating as a way of life. + +One recent influential figure in this tradition was George Ohsawa, a +Japanese philosopher who codified what is known as macrobiotics. +Popularized in the United States by his pupil, Michio Kushi, +macrobiotics has been the object of fierce debate for several decades +now, and Kushi’s book, The Macrobiotic Path to Total Health: A Complete +Guide to Naturally Preventing and Relieving More Than 200 Chronic +Conditions and Disorders, remains one of the modern bibles on food. +Macrobiotics makes historical as well as moral claims, including the +claim that its tradition stretches back to Hippocrates and includes +Jesus and the Han dynasty among other enlightened beneficiaries. These +claims are also reflected in the macrobiotic system, which includes the +expression of gratitude (not exactly prayers) for food, serenity in the +preparation of it, and other extra-nutritional ritual. And even as the +macrobiotic discipline has proved too ascetic for many people (and +certainly for most Americans), one can see its influence at work in +other serious treatments of the food question that have trickled +outward. The current popular call to “mindful eating,” for example, +echoes the macrobiotic injunction to think of nothing but food and +gratitude while consuming, even to the point of chewing any given +mouthful at least 50 times. + +Alongside macrobiotics, the past decades have also seen tremendous +growth in vegetarianism and its related offshoots, another food system +that typically makes moral as well as health claims. As a movement, and +depending on which part of the world one looks at, vegetarianism +predates macrobiotics.[1](#note1) Vegetarian histories claim for +themselves the Brahmins, Buddhists, Jainists, and Zoroastrians, as well +as certain Jewish and Christian practitioners. In the modern West, Percy +Bysshe Shelley was a prominent activist in the early nineteenth century; +and the first Vegetarian Society was founded in England in 1847. + +Around the same time in the United States, a Presbyterian minister named +Sylvester Graham popularized vegetarianism in tandem with a campaign +against excess of all kinds (ironically, under the circumstances, this +health titan is remembered primarily for the Graham cracker). Various +other American religious groups have also gone in for vegetarianism, +including the Seventh Day Adventists, studies on whom make up some of +the most compelling data about the possible health benefits of a diet +devoid of animal flesh. Uniting numerous discrete movements under one +umbrella is the International Vegetarian Union, which started just a +hundred years ago, in 1908. + +Despite this long history, though, it is clear that vegetarianism apart +from its role in religious movements did not really take off as a mass +movement until relatively recently. Even so, its contemporary success +has been remarkable. Pushed perhaps by the synergistic public interest +in macrobiotics and nutritional health, and nudged also by occasional +rallying books including Peter Singer’s Animal Rights and Matthew +Scully’s Dominion, vegetarianism today is one of the most successful +secular moral movements in the West; whereas macrobiotics for its part, +though less successful as a mass movement by name, has witnessed the +vindication of some of its core ideas and stands as a kind of +synergistic brother in arms. + +To be sure, macrobiotics and vegetarianism/veganism have their doctrinal +differences. Macrobiotics limits animal flesh not out of moral +indignation, but for reasons of health and Eastern ideas of proper +“balancing” of the forces of yin and yang. Similarly, macrobiotics +also allows for moderate amounts of certain types of fish — as strict +vegans do not. On the other hand, macrobiotics also bans a number of +plants (among them tomatoes, potatoes, peppers, and tropical fruits), +whereas vegetarianism bans none. Nonetheless, macrobiotics and +vegetarianism have more in common than not, especially from the point of +view of anyone eating outside either of these codes. The doctrinal +differences separating one from another are about equivalent in force +today to those between, say, Presbyterians and Lutherans. + +And that is exactly the point. For many people, schismatic differences +about food have taken the place of schismatic differences about faith. +Again, the curiosity is just how recent this is. Throughout history, +practically no one devoted this much time to matters of food as +ideas (as opposed to, say, time spent gathering the stuff). Still less +does it appear to have occurred to people that dietary schools could be +untethered from a larger metaphysical and moral worldview. Observant +Jews and Muslims, among others, have had strict dietary laws from their +faiths’ inception; but that is just it — their laws told believers what +to do with food when they got it, rather than inviting them to dwell on +food as a thing in itself. Like the Adventists, who speak of their +vegetarianism as being “harmony with the Creator,” or like the Catholics +with their itinerant Lenten and other obligations, these previous +dietary laws were clearly designed to enhance religion — not replace it. + +Do today’s influential dietary ways of life in effect replace religion? +Consider that macrobiotics, vegetarianism, and veganism all make larger +health claims as part of their universality — but unlike yesteryear, to +repeat the point, most of them no longer do so in conjunction with +organized religion. Macrobiotics, for its part, argues (with some +evidence) that processed foods and too much animal flesh are toxic to +the human body, whereas whole grains, vegetables, and fruits are not. +The literature of vegetarianism makes a similar point, recently drawing +particular attention to new research concerning the connection between +the consumption of red meat and certain cancers. In both cases, however, +dietary laws are not intended to be handmaidens to a higher cause, but +moral causes in themselves. + +Just as the food of today often attracts a level of metaphysical +attentiveness suggestive of the sex of yesterday, so does food today +seem attended by a similarly evocative — and proliferating — number of +verboten signs. The opprobrium reserved for perceived “violations” of +what one “ought” to do has migrated, in some cases fully, from one to +the other. Many people who wouldn’t be caught dead with an extra ten +pounds — or eating a hamburger, or wearing real leather — tend to be +laissez-faire in matters of sex. In fact, just observing the world as it +is, one is tempted to say that the more vehement people are about the +morality of their food choices, themore hands-off they believe the rest +of the world should be about sex. What were the circumstances the last +time you heard or used the word “guilt” — in conjunction with sin as +traditionally conceived? Or with having eaten something verboten and not +having gone to the gym? + +Perhaps the most revealing example of the infusion of morality into food +codes can be found in the current European passion for what the French +call terroir — an idea that originally referred to the specific +qualities conferred by geography on certain food products (notably wine) +and that has now assumed a life of its own as a moral guide to buying +and consuming locally. That there is no such widespread, concomitant +attempt to impose a new morality on sexual pursuits in Western Europe +seems something of an understatement. But as a measure of the reach of +terroir as a moral code, consider only a sermon from Durham Cathedral in +2007. In it, the dean explained Lent as an event that “says to us, +cultivate a good terroir, a spiritual ecology that will re-focus our +passion for God, our praying, our pursuit of justice in the world, our +care for our fellow human beings.” + +There stands an emblematic example of the reversal between food and sex +in our time: in which the once-universal moral code of European +Christianity is being explicated for the masses by reference to the now +apparently more-universal European moral code of consumption à la +terroir. + +Moreover, this reversal between sex and food appears firmer the more +passionately one clings to either pole. Thus, for instance, though much +has lately been made of the “greening” of the evangelicals, no +vegetarian Christian group is as nationally known as, say, People for +the Ethical Treatment of Animals or any number of other vegetarian/vegan +organizations, most of which appear to be secular or anti-religious and +none of which, so far as my research shows, extend their universalizable +moral ambitions to the realm of sexuality. When Skinny Bitch — a hip +guide to veganism that recently topped the bestseller lists for months — +exhorts its readers to a life that is “clean, pure, healthy,” for +example, it is emphatically not including sex in this moral vocabulary, +and makes a point of saying so. + +C.S. Lewis once compared the two desires as follows, to make the point +that something about sex had gotten incommensurate in his own time: +“There is nothing to be ashamed of in enjoying your food: there would +be everything to be ashamed of if half the world made food the main +interest of their lives and spent their time looking at pictures of food +and dribbling and smacking their lips.” He was making a point in the +genre of reductio ad absurdum. + +But for the jibe to work as it once did, our shared sense of what is +absurd about it must work too — and that shared sense, in an age as +visually, morally, and aesthetically dominated by food as is our own, is +waning fast. Consider the coining of the term “gastroporn” to describe +the eerily similar styles of high-definition pornography on the one hand +and stylized shots of food on the other. Actually, the term is not even +that new. It dates back at least 30 years, to a 1977 essay by that title +in the New York Review of Books. In it author Andrew Cockburn observed +that “it cannot escape attention that there are curious parallels +between manuals on sexual techniques and manuals on the preparation of +food; the same studious emphasis on leisurely technique, the same +apostrophes to the ultimate, heavenly delights. True gastro-porn +heightens the excitement and also the sense of the unattainable by +proffering colored photographs of various completed recipes.” + +With such a transfer, the polar migrations of food and sex during the +last half century would appear complete. + +Respecting some hazards, ignoring others + +If it is true that food is the new sex, however, where does that leave +sex? This brings us to the paradox already hinted at. As the consumption +of food not only literally but also figuratively has become +progressively more discriminate and thoughtful, at least in theory (if +rather obviously not always in practice), the consumption of sex in +various forms appears to have become the opposite for a great many +people: i.e., progressively more indiscriminate and unthinking. + +Several proofs could be offered for such a claim, beginning with any +number of statistical studies. Both men and women are far less likely to +be sexually inexperienced on their weddings now (if indeed they marry) +than they were just a few decades ago. They are also more likely to be +experienced in all kinds of ways, including in the use of pornography. +Like the example of Jennifer, moreover, their general thoughts about sex +become more laissez-faire the further down the age demographic one goes. + +Consider as further proof of the dumbing-down of sex the coarseness of +popular entertainment, say through a popular advice column on +left-leaning Slate magazine called “Dear Prudence” that concerns +“manners and morals.” Practically every subject line is window onto a +world of cheap, indiscriminate sex, where the only ground rule is +apparently that no sexual urge shall ever be discouraged unless it +manifestly hurts others — meaning literally. “Should I destroy the +erotic video my husband and I have made?” “My boyfriend’s kinky fetish +might doom our relationship.” “My husband wants me to abort, and I +don’t.” “How do I tell my daughter she’s the result of a sexual +assault?” “A friend confessed to a fling with my now-dead husband.” And +so on. The mindful vegetarian slogan, “you are what you eat,” has no +counterpart in the popular culture today when it comes to sex. + +The third and probably most important feature of sex in our time +testifying to the ubiquity of appetites fulfilled and indulged +indiscriminately is the staggering level of consumption of Internet +pornography. As Ross Douthat recently summarized in an essay for the +Atlantic, provocatively titled “Is Pornography Adultery?”: + +> Over the past three decades, the +> +> vcr +> +> , on-demand cable service, and the Internet have completely overhauled +> the ways in which people interact with porn. Innovation has piled on +> innovation, making modern pornography a more immediate, visceral, and +> personalized experience. Nothing in the long history of erotica +> compares with the way millions of Americans experience porn today, and +> our moral intuitions are struggling to catch up. + +Statistics too, or at least preliminary ones, bear out just how +consequential this erotic novelty is becoming. Pornography is the single +most viewed subject online, by men anyway; it is increasingly a +significant factor in divorce cases; and it is resulting in any number +of cottage industries, from the fields of therapy to law to academia, as +society’s leading cultural institutions strive to measure and cope with +its impact.[2](#note2) + +This junk sex shares all the defining features of junk food. It is +produced and consumed by people who do not know one another. It is +disdained by those who believe they have access to more authentic +experience or “healthier” options. Internet pornography is further +widely said — right now, in its relatively early years — to be harmless, +much as few people thought little of the ills to come through convenient +prepared food when it first appeared; and evidence is also beginning to +emerge about compulsive pornography consumption, as it did slowly but +surely in the case of compulsive packaged food consumption, that this +laissez-faire judgment is wrong.[3](#note3) + +This brings us to another similarity between junk sex and junk food: +People are furtive about both, and many feel guilty about their pursuit +and indulgence of each. And those who consume large amounts of both are +also typically self-deceptive, too: i.e., they underestimate just how +much they do it and deny its ill effects on the rest of their lives. In +sum, to compare junk food to junk sex is to realize that they have +become virtually interchangeable vices — even if many people who do not +put “sex” in the category of vice will readily do so with food. + +At this point, the impatient reader will interject that something else — +something understandable and anodyne — is driving the increasing +attention to food in our day: namely, the fact that we have learned much +more than humans used to know about the importance of a proper diet to +health and longevity. And this is surely a point borne out by the facts, +too. One attraction of macrobiotics, for example, is its promise to +reduce the risks of cancer. The fall in cholesterol that attends a true +vegan or vegetarian diet is another example. Manifestly, one reason that +people today are so much more discriminating about food is that decades +of recent research have taught us that diet has more potent effects than +Betty and her friends understood, and can be bad for you or good for you +in ways not enumerated before. + +All that is true, but then the question is this: Why aren’t more people +doing the same with sex? + +For here we come to the most fascinating turn of all. One cannot answer +the question by arguing that there is no such empirical news about +indiscriminately pursued sex and how it can be good or bad for you; to +the contrary, there is, and lots of it. After all, several decades of +empirical research — which also did not exist before — have demonstrated +that the sexual revolution, too, has had consequences, and that many of +them have redounded to the detriment of a sexually liberationist ethic. + +Married, monogamous people are more likely to be happy. They live +longer. These effects are particularly evident for men. Divorced men in +particular and conversely face health risks — including heightened drug +use and alcoholism — that married men do not. Married men also work more +and save more, and married households not surprisingly trump other +households in income. Divorce, by contrast, is often a financial +catastrophe for a family, particularly the women and children in it. So +is illegitimacy typically a financial disaster. + +By any number of measures, moreover, nontraditional sexual morality — +and the fallout from it — is detrimental to the well-being of one +specifically vulnerable subset: children. Children from broken homes are +at risk for all kinds of behavioral, psychological, educational, and +other problems that children from intact homes are not. Children from +fatherless homes are far more likely to end up in prison than are those +who grew up with both biological parents. Girls growing up without a +biological father are far more likely to suffer physical or sexual +abuse. Girls and boys, numerous sources also show, are adversely +affected by family breakup into adulthood, and have higher risks than +children from intact homes of repeating the pattern of breakup +themselves. + +This recital touches only the periphery of the empirical record now +being assembled about the costs of laissez-faire sex to American society +— a record made all the more interesting by the fact that it could not +have been foreseen back when sexual liberationism seemed merely +synonymous with the removal of some seemingly inexplicable old stigmas. +Today, however, two generations of social science replete with studies, +surveys, and regression analyses galore stand between the Moynihan +Report and what we know now, and the overall weight of its findings is +clear. The sexual revolution — meaning the widespread extension of sex +outside of marriage and frequently outside commitment of any kind — has +had negative effects on many people, chiefly the most vulnerable; and it +has also had clear financial costs to society at large. And this is true +not only in the obvious ways, like the spread of aids and other stds, +but also in other ways affecting human well-being, beginning but not +ending with those enumerated above. + +The question raised by this record is not why some people changed their +habits and ideas when faced with compelling new facts about food and +quality of life. It is rather why more people have not done the same +about sex. + +The mindless shift + +When friedrich nietzschewrote longingly of the “transvaluation of all +values,” he meant the hoped-for restoration of sexuality to its proper +place as a celebrated, morally neutral life force. He could not possibly +have foreseen our world: one in which sex would indeed become “morally +neutral” in the eyes of a great many people — even as food would come to +replace it as source of moral authority.[4](#note4) + +Nevertheless, events have proven Nietzsche wrong about his wider hope +that men and women of the future would simply enjoy the benefits of free +sex without any attendant seismic shifts. For there may in fact be no +such thing as a destigmatization of sex simplicitur, as the events +outlined in this essay suggest. The rise of a recognizably Kantian, +morally universalizable code concerning food — beginning with the +international vegetarian movement of the last century and proceeding +with increasing moral fervor into our own times via macrobiotics, +veganism/vegetarianism, and European codes of terroir — has paralleled +exactly the waning of a universally accepted sexual code in the Western +world during these same years. + +Who can doubt that the two trends are related? Unable or unwilling (or +both) to impose rules on sex at a time when it is easier to pursue it +than ever before, yet equally unwilling to dispense altogether with a +universal moral code that he would have bind society against the +problems created by exactly that pursuit, modern man (and woman) has +apparently performed his own act of transubstantiation. He has taken +longstanding morality about sex, and substituted it onto food. The +all-you-can-eat buffet is now stigmatized; the sexual smorgasbord is +not. + +In the end, it is hard to avoid the conclusion that the rules being +drawn around food receive some force from the fact that people are +uncomfortable with how far the sexual revolution has gone — and not +knowing what to do about it, they turn for increasing consolation to +mining morality out of what they eat. + +So what does it finally mean to have a civilization puritanical about +food, and licentious about sex? In this sense, Nietzsche’s fabled madman +came not too late, but too early — too early to have seen the empirical +library that would be amassed from the mid- twenty-first century on, +testifying to the problematic social, emotional, and even financial +nature of exactly the solution he sought. + +It is a curious coda that this transvaluation should not be applauded by +the liberationist heirs of Nietzsche, even as their day in the sun seems +to have come. According to them, after all, consensual sex is simply +what comes naturally, and ought therefore to be judged value-free. But +as the contemporary history outlined in this essay goes to show, the +same can be said of overeating — and overeating is something that +today’s society is manifestly embarked on re-stigmatizing. It may be +doing so for very different reasons than the condemnations of gluttony +outlined by the likes of Gregory the Great and St. Thomas Aquinas. But +if indiscriminate sex can also have a negative impact — and not just in +the obvious sense of disease, but in the other aspects of psyche and +well-being now being written into the empirical record of the sexual +revolution — then indiscriminate sex may be judged to need reining in, +too. + +So if there is a moral to this curious transvaluation, it would seem to +be that the norms society imposes on itself in pursuit of its own +self-protection do not wholly disappear, but rather mutate and move on, +sometimes in curious guises. Far-fetched though it seems at the moment, +where mindless food is today, mindless sex — in light of the growing +empirical record of its own unleashing — may yet again be tomorrow. diff --git a/_stories/2009/8749782.md b/_stories/2009/8749782.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..8ba2353 --- /dev/null +++ b/_stories/2009/8749782.md @@ -0,0 +1,402 @@ +--- +created_at: '2014-12-14T22:22:38.000Z' +title: Advanced programming languages (2009) +url: http://matt.might.net/articles/best-programming-languages/ +author: swah +points: 91 +story_text: '' +comment_text: +num_comments: 42 +story_id: +story_title: +story_url: +parent_id: +created_at_i: 1418595758 +_tags: +- story +- author_swah +- story_8749782 +objectID: '8749782' + +--- +## Some advanced languages + +## Haskell + +[Haskell](http://www.haskell.org/) excels as a language for writing a +compiler, an interpreter or a static analyzer. I don't do a lot of +artificial intelligence, natural-language processing or machine-learning +research, but if I did, Haskell would be my first pick there too. +([Scheme](#scheme) would be a strong second.) Haskell is the only widely +used pure, lazy functional programming language. + +Like Standard ML and OCaml, Haskell uses an extension of +[Hindley-Milner-style](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Type_inference) type +inference, which means that the programmer doesn't have to write down +(most) types, because the compiler can infer them. It has been my +experience that it is difficult to get a bug through the Hindley-Milner +type system. In fact, experienced programmers become adept at encoding +correctness constraints directly into the Haskell type system. A common +remark after programming in Haskell (or ML) for the first time is that +once the program compiles, it's almost certainly correct. + +As a pure language, side effects (mutations of variables or data +structures and I/O) are prohibited in the language proper. This has +forced the language's designers to think seriously about how to provide +such functionality. Their answer, +[monads](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monads_in_functional_programming), +enables one to perform side effects and I/O inside a safely constrained +framework. Naturally, Haskell lets users define their own monads, and +now the programmer has access to monads for continuations, transducers, +exceptions, logic programming and more. + +Aside from being pure, Haskell is also lazy. That is, an expression in +Haskell is not evaluated until (and unless) its result is required to +make forward computational progress. Some have argued that the promised +efficiency gains from laziness haven't materialized, but that's not of +concern for me. I appreciate laziness for the increase in +expressiveness. In Haskell, it is trivial to describe data structures of +infinite extent. Where other languages permit mutually recursive +functions, Haskell permits mutually recursive values. + +More pragmatically, I have found laziness useful in encoding option +types, where utilizing the empty case should always nuke the program. In +Haskell, you can avoid creating an option type and instead use `error` +to produce the empty value. Because of laziness, every type in Haskell +automatically has two additional values: non-termination and error. Used +well, this eliminates much tedious pattern matching. + +My favorite feature of Haskell is type classes. Haskell's type system +allows the compiler to infer the correct code to run based on its type +context, even when that type context is also inferred. The example of +type classes that got me excited was bounded lattices. A [bounded +lattice](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lattice_\(order\)) is a +mathematical structure that has a least element (`bot`), a greatest +element (`top`), a partially ordered less than relation (`<:`), a join +operation (`join`) and a meet operation (`meet`). + +In Haskell, one can define a bounded lattice as a type class: + +``` + class Lattice a where + top :: a + bot :: a + (<:) :: a -> a -> Bool + join :: a -> a -> a + meet :: a -> a -> a + +``` + +This says that if type `a` is a `Lattice`, then `a` supports the +expected operations. + +This says that if typeis a, thensupports the expected operations. + +What I really love about Haskell is that it lets the programmer define +conditional instances of a class; for example: + +``` + instance (Ord k, Lattice a) => Lattice (Map k a) where + bot = Map.empty + top = error $ "Cannot be represented." + f <: g = Map.isSubmapOfBy (<:) f g + f `join` g = Map.unionWith join f g + f `meet` g = Map.intersectionWith meet f g + +``` + +This rule says that if the type `k` is an instance of an order (class +`Ord`) and the type `a` is an instance of a lattice, then a map from `k` +to `a` is also an instance of a lattice. + +This rule says that if the typeis an instance of an order (class) and +the typeis an instance of a lattice, then a map fromtois also an +instance of a lattice. + +As another example, you can easily turn the Cartesian product of two +lattices into a lattice: + +``` + instance (Lattice a, Lattice b) => Lattice (a,b) where + bot = (bot,bot) + top = (top,top) + (a1,b1) <: (a2,b2) = (a1 <: a2) || + (a1 == a2 && b1 <: b2) + (a1,b1) `join` (a2,b2) = (a1 `join` a2, b1 `join` b2) + (a1,b1) `meet` (a2,b2) = (a1 `meet` a2, b1 `meet` b2) + +``` + +It's easy to make the "natural" lifting of the lattice operations, +relations and elements to almost any data structure. The end result is +that if you use the expression `bot` or the relation `<:` anywhere in +your code, Haskell can infer, at compile-time, their "appropriate" +meaning based on the type of the expression (which it can also infer). + +The ML languages have functors to play the role of type classes, but +they lack the ad hoc polymorphism support of Haskell's type classes. +Having spent a considerable amount of time programming in the MLs and in +Haskell, the practical ramifications of inference on expressiveness +cannot be overstated. + +### Favorite features + +### Resources + + - [haskell.org](http://www.haskell.org/). Downloads, documentation, + tutorials and more. + - [The Glasgow Haskell Compiler (GHC)](http://www.haskell.org/ghc/). + GHC provides robust support for Haskell on multiple platforms. + - [Kathleen Fisher's + slides](http://www.cs.tufts.edu/~kfisher/teaching.html) for her + class at Stanford are a good introduction to Haskell. + - [Real World Haskell](http://book.realworldhaskell.org/read/). As the + title implies, this book pays attention to using Haskell for real + applications (e.g., web programming), instead of just for compilers, + interpreters and program analyzers. + [![](images/51xQwhNrj6L._SL160_.jpg)](http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0596514980?ie=UTF8&tag=ucmbread-20&linkCode=as2&camp=1789&creative=390957&creativeASIN=0596514980)![](http://www.assoc-amazon.com/e/ir?t=aboutmatthewm-20&l=as2&o=1&a=0596514980) + +## Scala + +[Scala](http://www.scala-lang.com/) is a rugged, expressive, strictly +superior replacement for Java. Scala is the programming language I use +for tasks like writing web servers or IRC clients. In contrast to +[OCaml](#ml), which was a functional language with an object-oriented +system grafted to it, Scala feels more like a true hybrid. That is, +object-oriented programmers should be able to start using Scala +immediately, picking up the functional parts only as they choose to. + +I learned of Scala from [Martin +Odersky](http://icwww.epfl.ch/~odersky/)'s invited talk at POPL 2006. At +the time, I saw functional programming as strictly superior to +object-oriented programming, so I didn't see a need for a language that +fused functional and object-oriented programming. (That was probably +because all I wrote back then were compilers, interpreters and static +analyzers.) + +The need for Scala didn't become apparent to me until I wrote a +concurrent HTTPD from scratch to support long-polled AJAX for +[yaplet](http://www.yaplet.com/). In order to get multicore support, I +wrote the first version in Java. I don't think Java is all that bad, and +I can enjoy well-done object-oriented programming. As a functional +programmer, however, the lack of terse support for functional +programming features (like higher-order functions) grates on me. So, I +gave Scala a chance. + +Scala runs on the JVM, so I could gradually port my existing project +into Scala. It also means that Scala, in addition to its own rather +[large library](http://www.scala-lang.org/node/216), has access to the +entire Java library as well. This means you can get real work done in +Scala. + +As I started using Scala, I became impressed by how tightly the +functional and object-oriented worlds had been blended. In particular, +Scala has a powerful case class/pattern-matching system that addressed +annoyances lingering from my experiences with Standard ML, OCaml and +Haskell: the programmer can decide which fields of an object should be +matchable (as opposed to being forced to match on all of them), and +variable-arity arguments are permitted. In fact, Scala even allows +programmer-defined patterns. + +I write a lot of functions that operate on abstract syntax nodes, so +it's nice to match on only the syntactic children, while ignoring fields +for annotations or source location. + +The case class system lets one split the definition of an algebraic data +type across multiple files or across multiple parts of the same file. +Scala also supports well-defined multiple inheritance through class-like +constructs called traits. And, Scala allows operator overloading; even +function application and collection update can be overloaded. Used well, +this tends to make my Scala programs more intuitive and concise. + +One feature that turns out to save a lot of code, in the same way that +type classes save code in Haskell, is implicits. You can imagine +implicits as an API for the error-recovery phase of the type-checker. In +short, when the type checker needs an X but got a Y, it will check to +see if there's a function marked implicit in scope that converts Y into +X; if it finds one, it automatically applies the implicit function to +repair the type error. + +Implicits make it possible to look like you're extending the +functionality of a type for a limited scope. For example, suppose you +want to "add" an `escapeHTML()` method to type `String`. You can't +modify the definition of `String`, but with implicits, you can make it +so that when type-checking fails on `myString.escapeHTML()`, it will +look for an implicit function in scope that can convert a `String` +object into a type that supports the `escapeHTML()` method. + +Implicits also allow cleaner domain-specific embedded languages (DSELs) +in Scala, since they allow you to transparently map Scala literals (like +`3` or `"while"`) into literals in the DSEL. + +### Favorite features + + - [JVM](http://java.sun.com/docs/books/jvms/) support. + - Intelligent [operator + overloading](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operator_overloading). + - Extensive library. + - Case classes/pattern matching. + - Extensible pattern matching. + - Multiple inheritance via traits. + - Rich, flexible object constructors. + - Implicit type conversions. + - [Lazy fields and + arguments](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lazy_evaluation). + +### Related blog articles + +### Resources + + - [scala-lang.org](http://www.scala-lang.org/). Downloads, + documentation, tutorials and more. + - [Programming in + Scala](http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0981531601?ie=UTF8&tag=ucmbread-20&linkCode=as2&camp=1789&creative=390957&creativeASIN=0981531601)![](http://www.assoc-amazon.com/e/ir?t=ucmbread-20&l=as2&o=1&a=0981531601) + by Martin Odersky (creator of Scala), Lex Spoon, and Bill Venners is + great as both an introduction and a reference. + +## Standard ML and OCaml + +The ML family is a sweet spot in the language-design space: strict, +side-effectable and Hindley-Milner type-inferred. This makes these +languages practical for real-world projects that need high performance +and stronger guarantees of correctness. The ML family has gained +traction with aerospace engineers (for its support of bug-free code) and +with programmers in the financial industry (for the same reason). +Standard ML was the first functional language I learned well, so I still +remember being shocked by its expressiveness. + +Today, OCaml seems to be the popular ML to learn, but there is at least +one convincing argument in SML's favor: [MLton](http://www.mlton.org/). +MLton really delivers on the thesis that functional languages offer the +best opportunities at optimization. As a whole-program optimizing +compiler, I've yet to see another compiler match its performance. I once +created OpenGL bindings for MLton to toy around with 3D graphics, and +the resulting program ran faster than the C++-based model I had used as +a reference, with just 10% of the code. + +The functor system in SML, while more verbose than Haskell's type class +system, is more flexible. Once you instantiate a type class `T` for a +kind/type `k` in Haskell, you can't instantiate that type class again +for that kind/type. With functors, each instance gets its own name, so +you can have multiple instances of a given functor for the same type. +It's rarely been the case that I needed such expressiveness, but it has +been nice in those cases where I have. + +The other modern branch on the ML family tree, OCaml, is good to know +because there is a large community invested in it, which means that +there are a lot of libraries available. The OCaml tool-chain is also +rich, with interpreters, optimizing compilers and byte-code compilers +available to the developer. + +Because the ML languages are more expressive than all the mainstream +languages, but they still permit side effects, they make a nice stop on +the way to learning Haskell. In Haskell, programmers not yet well versed +in functional program design may find they repeatedly code themselves +into a corner, where they don't have access to the monad that they need. +The MLs keep the side effects "escape hatch" open to patch over +incomplete design, which prevents projects from coming to a sudden, +unexpected "refactor-or-abort" decision point. One useful measure of a +language is how well it tolerates a bad or incomplete design for the +software system, since design is something that inevitably changes as a +program evolves. In this regard, the MLs still have the upper hand over +Haskell. + +### Favorite features + + - Flex records. (SML only) + - Pattern matching. + - [Structures and + functors](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_ML#Module_System). + +### Resources + +## Scheme + +Scheme is a language with a pure core (λ-calculus and the theory of +lists) and a design mandate to maximize freedom of expression. It's +untyped, which makes it ideal for web-based programming and rapid +prototyping. Given its Lisp heritage, Scheme is a natural fit for +artificial intelligence. + +With its support for arbitrary-precision numerics, Scheme is also my +first choice for implementing cryptographic algorithms. \[For examples, +see my short implementations of +[RSA](../implementation-of-rsa-public-key-cryptography-algorithm-in-scheme-dialect-of-lisp/) +and the [Fermat and Solovay-Strassen primality +tests](../implementation-of-fermat-and-solovay-strassen-primality-tests-for-rsa-key-generation-in-scheme-dialect-of-lisp/) +in Scheme.\] + +By far, the most compelling reason to use Scheme is its macro system. +All of the macro systems available for Scheme, including the standard +`syntax-rules` and `syntax-case` systems, are Turing-equivalent. + +Consequently, the programmer can reconfigure Scheme to reduce the +impedance mismatch between the language and the task at hand. Combined +with support for first-class continuations, it is even possible to embed +alternate programming paradigms (like logic programming). + +For example, in the code: + +``` + (let ((x (amb 3 4 5)) + (y (amb 6 7 8 ))) + (assert (= (+ x y) 12)) + (display x) + (display y)) +``` + +it is possible to write an `amb` macro that "chooses" the right argument +to make a subsequent `assert` statement be true. (This program prints 4 +and then 8.) + +it is possible to write anmacro that "chooses" the right argument to +make a subsequentstatement be true. (This program prints 4 and then 8.) + +In Scheme, during any point in the computation, the program can capture +the current continuation as a procedure: invoking this procedure returns +the program to the evaluation context that existed when the continuation +was captured. Programming with continuations feels like traveling back +and forth in time and shifting between parallel universes. + +Ultimately, Scheme is so minimal and extensible that there's not a whole +lot to say about it, except that Scheme allows the programmer to extract +from the language whatever the programmer is willing to put into it. + +### Favorite features + +### Related blog articles + +### Resources + + - [Racket](http://www.racket-lang.org/) (formerly PLT Scheme) is a + "batteries included" Scheme system, including a battle-tested IDE, a + compiler and an interpreter. More importantly, the Racket library is + immense: it has a module that adds a type system to the language; it + has a module that adds pattern-matching; it has a module for OpenGL + programming; and it has a module for continuation-based web servers. + In Racket, there's already a module for just about everything. + - The best book I've seen on Racket -- [Realm of + Racket](http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1593274912/ref=as_li_ss_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=390957&creativeASIN=1593274912&linkCode=as2&tag=aboutmatthewm-20)![](http://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=aboutmatthewm-20&l=as2&o=1&a=1593274912) + -- introduces the features of the language through game programming: + [![](http://ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=1593274912&Format=_SL160_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=ucmbread-20)](http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1593274912/ref=as_li_ss_il?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=390957&creativeASIN=1593274912&linkCode=as2&tag=ucmbread-20)![](http://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=ucmbread-20&l=as2&o=1&a=1593274912) + - [Chicken scheme](http://www.call-with-current-continuation.org/) is + a hacker-friendly implementation of Scheme. + - [Gambit + Scheme](http://dynamo.iro.umontreal.ca/~gambit/wiki/index.php/Main_Page) + is popular for lower-level programming in Scheme, including iPhone + and iPad programming. + - [R6RS](http://www.r6rs.org/). The current Scheme standard. + - I recommend all Scheme programmers keep a copy of [Guy + Steele](http://research.sun.com/people/mybio.php?uid=25706)'s + [Common LISP: The + Language](http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1555580416?ie=UTF8&tag=ucmbread-20&linkCode=as2&camp=1789&creative=390957&creativeASIN=1555580416)![](http://www.assoc-amazon.com/e/ir?t=ucmbread-20&l=as2&o=1&a=1555580416) + around. After Guy Steele developed Scheme, which is a minimalist + expression of the λ-calculus as a programming language, he designed + Common Lisp, which is a maximalist expression of the λ-calculus as a + programming language. + [![](images/41VJS8YPYML._SL160_.jpg)](http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1555580416?ie=UTF8&tag=ucmbread-20&linkCode=as2&camp=1789&creative=390957&creativeASIN=1555580416)![](http://www.assoc-amazon.com/e/ir?t=aboutmatthewm-20&l=as2&o=1&a=1555580416) + - [Structure and Interpretation of Computer + Programs](http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0070004846?ie=UTF8&tag=ucmbread-20&linkCode=as2&camp=1789&creative=390957&creativeASIN=0070004846)![](http://www.assoc-amazon.com/e/ir?t=ucmbread-20&l=as2&o=1&a=0070004846) + is a classic. Until recently, this was the textbook for freshman + computer science at MIT. It teaches computer science by teaching + students how to implement interpreters. diff --git a/_stories/2009/8864555.md b/_stories/2009/8864555.md index e0b81a3..5972462 100644 --- a/_stories/2009/8864555.md +++ b/_stories/2009/8864555.md @@ -19,7 +19,837 @@ _tags: objectID: '8864555' --- -[Source](https://www.nccgroup.trust/us/about-us/newsroom-and-events/blog/2009/july/if-youre-typing-the-letters-a-e-s-into-your-code-youre-doing-it-wrong/ "Permalink to ") +# If You’re Typing the Letters A-E-S Into Your Code You’re Doing It Wrong +## 1\. INT. COFFEE SHOP, MORNING +**DISCUSSING AN INTERVIEW** +A “young, cool-people’s” coffee shop on the first floor of an old office +building in downtown Chicago. “My band is playing” notices line the +wall. A hipster in a tight t-shirt hands a cappucino to MIKE TRACY while +THOMAS PTACEK waits impatiently. The coffee shop is loud; Mike and +Thomas raise their voices to be heard over the noise. + +**MIKE TRACY** + +Did you see that? He worked so hard on my coffee. + +**THOMAS PTACEK** + +What? Right. Whatever. Let’s get… + +**MIKE TRACY** + +He got all those little beans and put them in the thing and tamped them +down and + +**THOMAS PTACEK** + +Whatever. Ok. We’ve gotta get ready for this interview + +**MIKE TRACY (CONT’D)** + +and he clickity-clack clickity-clacked with the machine and + +**THOMAS PTACEK** + +Mike\! I get it\! He made the shit out of your coffee. What are we going +to ask this guy? + +Mike walks to a table at the side of the shop, grabbing a lid and a +sleeve for his coffee. + +**MIKE TRACY** + +Miffed + +I don’t know. It’s your interview. Single signon cookies? + +**THOMAS PTACEK** + +Why SSO? + +Mike is maneuvering around people entering the shop through a door +leading out to the hallway. + +**MIKE TRACY** + +It’s got crypto in it. Everyone always fucks it up. + +### INT. HALLWAY - CONTINUOUS + +Thomas follows Mike, walking towards the elevators. + +**THOMAS PTACEK** + +Yeah, that could work. We’ll have two apps. User logged into one of +them, needs the other app to do something without making them log in. + +**MIKE TRACY** + +Print an invoice. + +**THOMAS PTACEK** + +Yeah, this will work. We’ll see if he comes up with the industry +standard answer; the cookie both apps honor to let you in, encrypted so +users can’t change their account to someone else’s. + +**MIKE TRACY** + +So, a base64 blob AES encrypted with a key both servers share? That’s +pretty easy, isn’t it? Are we sure this isn’t a layup? + +DING. An elevator opens. Thomas and Mike step inside. + +**THOMAS PTACEK** + +You’ll be surprised. + +## 2\. INT. OFFICE - LATER THAT MORNING + +An unadorned off-white office lined with Ikea desks, piled with books, +papers, and in one case a pile of random electronics tools (soldering +iron, multi, etc). An EASEL PAD stands next to a large window looking +out on a brick wall. Thomas and Mike sit office chairs with THE +CANDIDATE. + +**THOMAS PTACEK** + +So you’d have app ‘A’ set a cookie with your account ID in it, right, +but how would you keep the user from switching their account by messing +with the cookie? + +**THE CANDIDATE** + +Uh, I’d encrypt the cookie? + +**THOMAS PTACEK** + +Show us how on the pad? \* Thomas hands THE CANDIDATE a dry erase +marker, as THE CANDIDATE walks to the easel pad.\* + +**THE CANDIDATE** + +Does it matter what language I write it in? + +**MIKE TRACY** + +Whatever you’re comfortable with. + +**THE CANDIDATE** + +Writing awkwardly, addressing the easel + +Ok, so in C\#, I’d use `Response.Cookies`, and + +**THOMAS PTACEK** + +You can just do the part where you encrypt the cookies. + +**THE CANDIDATE** + +Oh, ok. + +THE CANDIDATE writes on the pad, slowly + +``` line-numbers +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7 +8 +9 +10 +11 +12 +13 +14 +15 +16 +17 +18 +``` + + public static string Encrypt(string toEncrypt, string key, bool useHashing) + { + + byte[] keyArray = UTF8Encoding.UTF8.GetBytes(key); + byte[] toEncryptArray = UTF8Encoding.UTF8.GetBytes(toEncrypt); + + if (useHashing) + keyArray = new MD5CryptoServiceProvider().ComputeHash(keyArray); + + var tdes = new TripleDESCryptoServiceProvider() + { Key = keyArray, Mode = CipherMode.ECB, Padding = PaddingMode.PKCS7 }; + + ICryptoTransform cTransform = tdes.CreateEncryptor(); + byte[] resultArray = cTransform.TransformFinalBlock( + toEncryptArray, 0, toEncryptArray.Length); + + return Convert.ToBase64String(resultArray, 0, resultArray.Length); + } + +**THE CANDIDATE** + +Sorry. + +**MIKE TRACY** + +No worries, writing code during interviews sucks. + +**THOMAS PTACEK** + +Can you walk us through what that code is doing? + +**THE CANDIDATE** + +Sure. So I’m Triple-DES encrypting the cookie, which is +the `toEncrypt` function argument. + +**MIKE TRACY** + +Triple DES? Seriously? + +**THE CANDIDATE** + +Ah, yeah, you’re right, in my last job we had to use Triple DES for +campatibility, but I’d use AES now. + +THE CANDIDATE starts correcting the text on the pad. + +**THOMAS PTACEK** + +Don’t worry about it, keep going. But yeah, don’t use Triple DES for +anything. It has a bunch of problems, but also an 8 byte block size, +which is tiny. + +**THE CANDIDATE** + +Ok, so, I take the key and I turn it into an AES key by MD5’ing it. + +**MIKE TRACY** + +You know MD5 is broken, right? + +**THOMAS PTACEK** + +Yeah, that’s not really the problem there though. + +**THE CANDIDATE** + +Oh, I could just use SHA-1. + +**THOMAS PTACEK** + +SHA-1 is really fast. Can you see why that’s a problem here? + +**THE CANDIDATE** + +Haltingly + +Um. Not really? Don’t I want this to be fast? + +**MIKE TRACY** + +What’s in the cookie you’re encrypting again? + +**THE CANDIDATE** + +A string of URL arguments… + +THE CANDIDATE starts writing on the +pad `userId=39493&role=user×tamp=1414919` + +**MIKE TRACY** + +So what’s to stop me from just running a dictionary through MD5, +generating a key, and trying to decrypt the cookie? I’ll know I won when +I get clean ASCII. + +**THE CANDIDATE** + +And how do I keep that from happening? You should use strong passwords +anyways. And I use a salt with the key anyways. + +Mike vomits onto the floor. + +**THOMAS PTACEK** + +Gross. + +**MIKE TRACY** + +Wiping mouth + +A salt doesn’t do anything here\! + +**THOMAS PTACEK** + +Just put a `for` loop around SHA-1 and run it 1000 times to generate the +key; that’ll at least slow down a brute force attack. SHA-1 is lightning +fast. By itself, it’s a crappy way to generate a key. + +To Mike + +Clean that up? + +**THE CANDIDATE** + +Well, I guess. Wait, why should we use a password here at all? I could +just use a random string of bytes… + +THE CANDIDATE writes again on the whiteboard + +``` line-numbers +1 +``` + + new RNGCryptoServiceProvider().GetBytes(keyArray); + +**THOMAS PTACEK** + +That is much better. Sometimes it’s a lot more convenient to use a +readable string. If you do, the loop around SHA-1 is similar to what +PBKDF does, which is I guess a best practice here. But if you can keep +structure out of your crypto keys, that’s much better. + +**THE CANDIDATE** + +Ok. Should I keep going? + +**THOMAS PTACEK** + +Your encryption function. Do you know what the `ECB` thing there means? + +**THE CANDIDATE** + +Oh, fuck\! You’re right, that should be `CBC`. + +Pausing + +Sorry for swearing. + +**MIKE TRACY** + +S’okay. You’ll fit right in. + +**THOMAS PTACEK** + +You know the difference between `ECB` and `CBC`? + +**THE CANDIDATE** + +Yeah, like, each block feeds into the next one? + +THE CANDIDATE draws on the easel + +![](/globalassets/newsroom/us/blog/images/2009/07/cbc1.png) + +**THOMAS PTACEK** + +Why’s that a win? + +**THE CANDIDATE** + +Because if any of the blocks repeat, you can see them repeat? + +Mike has opened his laptop and is typing. + +**MIKE TRACY** + +To the laptop + +We have a picture of that somewhere. Oh, here. + +Mike raises the laptop up to show THE CANDIDATE + +![](/globalassets/newsroom/us/blog/images/2009/07/ecb.jpg) + +**MIKE TRACY (CONT’D)** + +The top part is unencrypted. The bottom part is encrypted ECB. You’re +like Jack from Heat Vision and Jack. + +**THE CANDIDATE** + +I know EVERYTHING\! Right, because one bunch of 16 “black” bytes is the +same as the next, so they show up the same in the picture. Neat. Also, +in ECB mode you can cut and paste the blocks, right? He could take +the `userid`out of your cookie and put it in his own? + +**THOMAS PTACEK** + +Sure. That’s a good answer. Let’s move on. Say you’re implementing a web +server. What do you think, processes or threads? + +## 3\. INT. OFFICE CONFERENCE ROOM - AFTERNOON + +A room in the same office, roughly the same size, with an oversized +brown kitchen table in the middle, littered with paper and McDonalds +wrappers. Thomas and Mike sit at the table, talking to a CONFERENCE +PHONE. + +**CONFERENCE PHONE** + +So how’d he do? + +**THOMAS PTACEK** + +Pretty much aced it. + +**MIKE TRACY** + +What? He bombed the cookie part. He used ECB, MD5, and Triple DES\! + +**THOMAS PTACEK** + +I’m impressed that he could spell ECB, MD5, or Triple DES. And it +wouldn’t have mattered if he had used CBC, SHA-256, and AES-256. His +code still would have been broken. + +**CONFERENCE PHONE** + +How so? + +**THOMAS PTACEK** + +He didn’t authenticate the message. Encryption isn’t — + +**MIKE TRACY** + +Chanting + +Encryption - isn’t - authentication. + +**CONFERENCE PHONE** + +Don’t you mean integrity? + +**THOMAS PTACEK** + +No, Dave, I mean authentication. They’re called message authentication +codes. + +**CONFERENCE PHONE** + +Ok, Tom. But he screwed that up? + +**THOMAS PTACEK** + +Yeah, but who cares? I’m surprised he even knew what CBC was. But we +just asked that to see how he thinks. We’re never going to let him +implement crypto code anyways. + +**CONFERENCE PHONE** + +I guess we don’t even let you write crypto code. + +**THOMAS PTACEK** + +Sure, and when I asked him about processes and threads… + +**MIKE TRACY** + +Can I stop you both here for a second? + +**THOMAS PTACEK** + +Yeah? + +**MIKE TRACY** + +This room is pretty fucking boring. We’re in a screenplay, right? + +**THOMAS PTACEK** + +Oh, yeah, you’re right. Let’s fix that. + +Shouting + +**Wings of silver\!** + +**CONFERENCE PHONE** + +**Nerves of steel\!** + +**MIKE TRACY** + +**Thundercats go\!** + +### EXT. HURTLING THROUGH SPACE - CONTINUOUS + +The office melts away around them, revealing a starfield hurtling past +as if moving at awesome speed. Meanwhile, the CONFERENCE PHONE +transforms into a UNICORN WITH LASER HORN. + +**DAVE THE LASER UNICORN** + +It’s “Silverhawks”, jackass. + +**THOMAS PTACEK** + +Where were we? + +**MIKE TRACY** + +Authentication? + +**THOMAS PTACEK** + +Oh yeah. Even if he had done AES-256-CBC. His code is still busted. I +can make his messages say whatever I want them to. + +**DAVE THE LASER UNICORN** + +How do you do that? Isn’t that the point of CBC mode? Anything you +change in the ciphertext randomizes the output. What can an attacker do +with that? + +**THOMAS PTACEK** + +First of all, sometimes randomizing the output is all you need. If one +of the key-value pairs in the cookie is your role, and the default role +is `admin`, but the server always generates a `role=user` field… + +**MIKE TRACY** + +Yikes. Yeah, that’s bad. Have you ever seen that bug in the wild? + +**THOMAS PTACEK** + +Garbling a block to confuse an app? I found a similar problem recently. +Login generates an encrypted cookie. Inside the cookie, comma-seperated +key-value pairs. If you put a comma in your user name, the server +doesn’t want you to inject your own key-value pairs, like “bob comma +admin equals yes”. So it quotes the commas. You can mess up a block to +eat the quote character. + +**DAVE THE LASER UNICORN** + +How do you know what block to mess up? + +**THOMAS PTACEK** + +It’s a cookie. You get unlimited tries. Each time, you add another ‘A’ +to the login name, or mess with a different block. Eventually you line +things up just right so that you’ve garbled the quote character but not +the comma. Here, let me show you. + +Thomas puts his hand to his forehead, and a beam of light emerges from +his forehead, projecting a picture, because it’s my script dammit. + +![](/globalassets/newsroom/us/blog/images/2009/07/cbc2.png) + +**THOMAS PTACEK** + +Top hexdump. The plaintext of the cookie. Nothing’s been done to it. +Second hexdump. The encrypted cookie. Key doesn’t matter. Third hexdump. +I’ve flipped a bit in the second AES block. + +**DAVE THE LASER UNICORN** + +Convenient how AES blocks and hexdump lines are the same width. + +**THOMAS PTACEK** + +Fourth hexdump. The decrypted output, after flipping that bit in the +ciphertext. Notice that flipping one bit totally garbled the second +block — and ate my quote character. + +**MIKE TRACY** + +Doesn’t the app reject the cookie because of the garbled stuff in the +middle of it? + +**THOMAS PTACEK** + +Probably not. Why would it? C\# and Java and Ruby and Python don’t care +what go in your strings. And hey, if it does reject them, flip a +different bit. Totally different output. You get 2128 tries. + +**MIKE TRACY** + +Good point. What’s with the red “B” in the decrypted hexdump? + +**THOMAS PTACEK** + +Getting to that. Turns out, I can make the cookie say whatever I want. +It’s a property of CBC. + +The property is this: take a ciphertext block and flip bit 0 (or 2, or +N). The resulting plaintext for that block? Garbage. But the next block +is normal… except has that bit flipped. Not good\! + +**MIKE TRACY** + +So you sacrifice one block and flip bits in the second block? + +**THOMAS PTACEK** + +Yeah. Although let’s stop calling it “flipping bits” and call it +“rewriting”, because that’s what you’re doing. + +**DAVE THE LASER UNICORN** + +If you know what bits to flip. + +**THOMAS PTACEK** + +You always know what the bits are. + +**DAVE THE LASER UNICORN** + +How? + +**THOMAS PTACEK** + +Because the bits are always 0x41414141. + +**DAVE THE LASER UNICORN** + +Huh? + +**MIKE TRACY** + +Because that’s what he stuffed them with. He logged in as bob +A-A-A-A-A-A-A-A-A. + +**THOMAS PTACEK** + +Right. An SSO cookie is usually, what, 100 bytes? If I stuff 1000 A’s +after my login name, and the cookie grows to 1100 bytes? Almost all of +those bytes are known to me. Here. + +Again with the forehead beam thing. + +![](/globalassets/newsroom/us/blog/images/2009/07/cbc3.png) + +AES encrypt something that I partially control. Doesn’t matter what the +key is. Now XOR that block into the ciphertext. Decrypt it, and +somewhere in it you get a random block and `&admin=yes&x=AAAAA`. + +**MIKE TRACY** + +Not good. + +**THOMAS PTACEK** + +If you’re encrypting something it’s usually somehow user-controlled. +I’ll find that by plugging 100 A’s into each form field and waiting +for the cookie to grow. + +**DAVE THE LASER UNICORN** + +How will you know if the cookie is AES? + +**THOMAS PTACEK** + +Same way Chris Eng said to. Add A’s one at a time, see what increments +the cookie grows in. 16 bytes at a time? AES. + +**DAVE THE LASER UNICORN** + +And CBC? + +**MIKE TRACY** + +If you’re encrypting all A’s, the ciphertext blocks will repeat. + +**DAVE THE LASER UNICORN** + +And how do you know the format to write into the cookie? + +**MIKE TRACY** + +Who cares? Trial and error. + +**THOMAS PTACEK** + +Yeah. Point is, you thought encryption protected the contents of the +cookie. It doesn’t. Oh look, we’re almost there. + +Thomas, Mike, and Dave hurtle towards a star system, a solar system, a +planet, powers-of-ten-style, towards the Michigan shore, converging +eventually on an office building, and then… + +### INT. OFFICE CONFERENCE ROOM - AFTERNOON + +**CONFERENCE PHONE** + +That was really fucking anticlimactic. + +### EXT. PARKING GARAGE - EARLY EVENING + +Thomas stands next to his car, a black Volvo 850 held together with duct +tape, talking on a cell phone to NATE LAWSON. + +**NATE LAWSON** + +You know this scene is a really bad setup for a movie, right? + +**THOMAS PTACEK** + +Yeah yeah, whatever. Shut up before I turn you into a claymation +character. So yeah, it’s amazing how you can be a top tier vuln +researcher for over a decade and not really get how bad it is not to +have a MAC. + +**NATE LAWSON** + +A MAC doesn’t necessarily save you either. + +**THOMAS PTACEK** + +How so? + +**NATE LAWSON** + +There’s still a bunch of things you can do wrong. Like I was just +saying, Google Keyczar did almost everything right, but compared the MAC +using a timeable comparison function. You could tell how many bytes of +the MAC matched by watching how long the function took. People make that +mistake all the time. An even more common mistake is to generate an +error message when your padding is wrong. If you do that, you can +decrypt messages. + +**THOMAS PTACEK** + +I’ve heard about that. The Bleichenbacher PKCS thing, and the Vaudenay +paper. + +**NATE LAWSON** + +This was a major TLS finding too. + +**THOMAS PTACEK** + +I’ve never really been all that clear on how this works. + +**NATE LAWSON** + +Well you know how PKCS 7 padding works, right? + +**THOMAS PTACEK** + +Yeah, you have 2 bytes, you need to fill 16 bytes for an AES block, so +you fill the remaining 14 bytes with 0xe. + +**NATE LAWSON** + +So if you tack a random block onto a CBC message, what happens when the +receiver decrypts it? + +**THOMAS PTACEK** + +It comes out random. + +**NATE LAWSON** + +And the padding? + +**THOMAS PTACEK** + +Broken. + +**NATE LAWSON** + +Right. And if you send an error when that happens, you know the padding +failed. Now if you keep trying different random blocks, what’s +eventually going to happen? + +**THOMAS PTACEK** + +Uh… + +**NATE LAWSON** + +You’ll get a message with valid padding. Valid padding might be 0x3 0x3 +0x3. Or it might be 0x4 0x4 0x4 0x4. But if you’re basically generating +random blocks, what’s the mostly likely padding you’re going to get that +will pass the check? + +**THOMAS PTACEK** + +0x1. + +**NATE LAWSON** + +Right. And you’re randomizing the output by tacking a random block in +front of real ciphertext, which gets XOR’d during decryption. So you +know the last byte of your random block… + +**THOMAS PTACEK** + +And the 0x1 that you know the padding is, and so that random byte XOR +the last byte of the plaintext is 0x1, and so you know the last byte of +the plaintext. + +Pausing + +And now that you know the last byte of the plaintext, you can make the +padding come out to 0x2 and try randomizing the other 15 bytes to find +out the next byte, and so on? + +**NATE LAWSON** + +Close enough. + +**THOMAS PTACEK** + +That is fucked up. All you did wrong was show me the exception your +library generated when you decrypted the block, and I could decrypt a +block. You got to reason byte by byte instead of block by block. + +**NATE LAWSON** + +You can decrypt whole messages that way. It’s called an error oracle. +You can’t show clients discernable errors. You can’t even take different +amounts of time to do things\! You can watch the system with random +inputs and measure how much time things take. + +**THOMAS PTACEK** + +There’s no way any programmer is ever going to get this stuff right. + +**NATE LAWSON** + +Professional crypto people don’t even get this stuff right. But if you +have to encrypt something, you might as well use something that has +already been tested. + +**THOMAS PTACEK** + +GPG for data at rest. TLS for data in motion. + +**NATE LAWSON** + +You can also use Guttman’s cryptlib, which has a sane API. Or Google +Keyczar. They both have really simple interfaces, and they try to make +it hard to do the wrong thing. What we need are fewer libraries with +higher level interfaces. But we also need more testing for those +libraries. + +**THOMAS PTACEK** + +Like I’ve been saying, if you have to type the letters “A-E-S” into your +source code, you’re doing it wrong. + +**NATE LAWSON** + +Uh. Ok. Whatever you say, Tom. + +## 5\. FADE TO BLACK + +Fade in epilogue + +The next day, Thomas’ planet was destroyed. Have you guessed the name of +his planet? It was EARTH\! DON’T DATE ROBOTS. + +**Published date:**\  22 July 2009 + +**Written by:**\  Thomas Ptacek diff --git a/_stories/2009/9228348.md b/_stories/2009/9228348.md deleted file mode 100644 index 660daca..0000000 --- a/_stories/2009/9228348.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,25 +0,0 @@ ---- -created_at: '2015-03-18T20:12:21.000Z' -title: Erik Naggum, RIP (2009) -url: http://open.salon.com/blog/kent_pitman/2009/06/24/erik_naggum_rip -author: KC8ZKF -points: 57 -story_text: '' -comment_text: -num_comments: 19 -story_id: -story_title: -story_url: -parent_id: -created_at_i: 1426709541 -_tags: -- story -- author_KC8ZKF -- story_9228348 -objectID: '9228348' - ---- -[Source](https://www.salon.com/blog/kent_pitman/2009/06/24/erik_naggum_rip "Permalink to ") - - - diff --git a/_stories/2009/9401090.md b/_stories/2009/9401090.md index aa5e768..70fc94d 100644 --- a/_stories/2009/9401090.md +++ b/_stories/2009/9401090.md @@ -19,7 +19,694 @@ _tags: objectID: '9401090' --- -[Source](https://www.mensjournal.com/magazine/print-view/a-mysterious-death-at-the-south-pole-20131125 "Permalink to ") +During the 24 hours that Rodney Marks's life was slipping away from him, +he had plenty of time to contemplate his predicament. He knew he was +trapped, cut off from adequate medical attention, about as far from +civilization as one can get on this planet. He knew that during the +long, dark winters at the South Pole – where for eight months of the +year it's too cold to land a plane – small problems become big ones very +fast. +**** +[RELATED: A Voyage to the South +Pole](https://www.mensjournal.com/uncategorized/voyage-to-the-south-pole-20131113/) +As the 32-year-old Australian astrophysicist lay on the old navy gurney +in the biomed facility of the [Amundsen-Scott +base](http://www.nsf.gov/geo/plr/support/southp.jsp), Marks may have +been thinking about the Russian doctor who had to give himself an +appendectomy during a South Pole "winterover" in 1961, or of Dr. Jerri +Nielsen, who in 1999 diagnosed and treated her own breast cancer with +supplies dropped in by parachute. But unlike them, neither Marks nor the +base's lone physician had any idea what was wrong with him. He had woken +up at 5:30 that morning vomiting blood, and the burn that had started in +the pit of his stomach was now radiating throughout his body. + +It was already Marks's second visit to the makeshift hospital that day, +and he arrived scared, anxious, and wearing sunglasses to protect his +unbearably sensitive eyes. There was no one medical condition that the +base physician, Dr. Robert Thompson, could think of that would explain +what was happening to Marks. The doctor's only link to the outside world +was an Internet connection and a satellite phone, and both were down at +the time – the base's position at the bottom of the planet meant it lost +its signal for much of each day. The doctor spent hours clutching for a +diagnosis, at one point grabbing hold of alcohol withdrawal and even +anxiety as possibilities. + +Thompson injected Marks with a sedative, which calmed him enough that he +decided to return to his own bed and rest for a while. He lay beside his +girlfriend, Sonja, sleepless and afraid, listening to the shifting ice +groan beneath him. Then he retched again. More blood. His breathing was +now uncontrollably fast. Pain throbbed in his joints, and he began to +panic. He made his way back to Biomed, this time stumbling through the +dimly lit tunnels, disoriented, as if in fast motion. + +By the time he arrived, he was hyperventilating and combative. Thompson +gave him another injection – this time Haldol, a powerful antipsychotic +– just to regain control of him. As it took effect, Marks lay down +again, but this time he began to lose consciousness. He moaned quietly +with each exhale and squeezed Sonja's hand lightly. Then his heart +stopped. + +A stationwide alarm summoned the trauma team, a few trained volunteers +whose real jobs could be anything from scientist to mechanic. Darryn +Schneider, a fellow physicist and the only other Australian at the base, +was the first to arrive. He took over for Sonja, holding the ventilator +mask over his good friend's nose and mouth, desperately pumping air into +Marks's lungs. + +Then, just before six in the evening, as the trauma team scrambled to +save him and the rest of the 50-member crew were sitting down to dinner, +Marks took a deep, sighing breath into his chest – it was his last. It +was May 12, 2000, a full five months before a plane would be able to +retrieve his body. + +Once it was finally flown to Christchurch, New Zealand, that October, a +startling discovery would be made, one that would set off an eight-year +investigation and a bitter tug-of-war between a New Zealand detective +and the [National Science Foundation](http://www.nsf.gov/), which +administers all U.S.-based research at the South Pole. The search for +answers as to what killed Rodney Marks would also open a window into the +highly peculiar, sometimes dysfunctional, community of people that +operates in isolation there for eight months at a time. Ultimately, the +NSF would make sweeping changes in how things are run at the South Pole +and who it sends there. + +At the time of Marks's death, though, there was little reason to +anticipate such far-reaching ramifications. The rest of the crew assumed +he had suffered a heart attack or aneurysm. The NSF itself even issued a +statement within hours, saying he "apparently died of natural causes." +But there was nothing natural about the way Rodney Marks died. + +Antarctica belongs to no one. Seven countries officially have +territorial claims on the continent, but the U.S. has never recognized +any of them. Supported by a 1959 treaty of cooperation, 29 countries +have set up scientific research stations there, and an ever-changing +population of up to 4,500 scientists and support staff from all corners +of the globe call it home for anywhere from four days to 14 months at a +time. + +Nearly all who come to work in Antarctica will first touch down in +[McMurdo](http://www.nsf.gov/geo/plr/support/mcmurdo.jsp), the +continent's only working township. Resembling a small town in arctic +Alaska, it sits at the edge of the ice, where it meets the Southern +Ocean. Getting off the plane in Mac Town for the first time is a +startling experience. The eight-hour flight from New Zealand aboard one +of the cavernous military cargo planes leaves ears ringing and backsides +numb. After landing, sensory overload gives way to the blinding absence +of color and a Hoth-like landscape: a smoldering volcano in one +direction, the [Royal Society +range](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Society_Range) and Mount +Discovery across McMurdo Sound, ice and snow everywhere. + +Nearly a thousand miles from McMurdo, at 90 degrees south, just 100 +yards or so from the always slightly moving geographic pole marker, sits +the Amundsen-Scott research station, the loneliest habitation on Earth. +Named for the first two explorers to reach the South Pole – separately +in 1911 and 1912 – the American base is run by the National Science +Foundation. In the mid-'50s, the intensifying Cold War goaded the United +States into establishing a presence on the continent, so the navy +announced it would build and man a permanent base at the South Pole. It +launched [Operation Deep +Freeze](http://www.history.navy.mil/ac/exploration/deepfreeze/deepfreeze1.html) +in 1955, primarily as a research endeavor. [The +Dome](http://antarcticsun.usap.gov/features/contenthandler.cfm?id=1984), +in which Marks lived, replaced the original station in 1975. It +comprises three separate two-story structures that sit beneath an +18,000-square-foot, 50-foot-high geodesic shell, which acts as a giant +windbreak, sheltering the living quarters from the deadly sting of the +elements. The buildings themselves look like red portable sheds stacked +on top of one another, each with a thick walk-in-freezer-style door. + +Amundsen-Scott is populated year-round by scientists – most working for +American universities and studying the atmosphere, astronomy, or +seismology – and a support staff that includes everyone from cooks to +carpenters. Nearly 250 people are based there in the summer, but the +population shrinks to just a quarter of that for the austral winter: +February through October. + +The first week of February is frenzied as the remaining summer crew +clears out and the winter crew receives its vital resupplies. The real +cold arrives in March, and the base becomes a very different place: Soon +the sun no longer makes it above the horizon, and it becomes so cold +(temperatures regularly hit minus-80) that a plane's hydraulic fluids +would freeze solid within minutes of touching down. After the last plane +leaves, there's no way in or out for eight months, and the continent +goes dark and quiet, just the way a winter Polie likes it. + +Understanding what type of person would volunteer to work at the South +Pole during the winter is something that has intrigued everyone from +social scientists to NASA. The physical screening is rigorous – it's +often said that everyone handed a winter contract has perfect wisdom +teeth, and some bases won't even consider you if you have an appendix – +but psychological screening is far less straightforward. Through a +series of tests and interviews, the NSF tries to hire people with a rare +and delicate balance of good social skills and an antisocial disposition +– basically, loners with very long fuses. + +Some of the first behavioral studies on the South Pole winterover were +launched after the sudden onset of schizophrenia in a construction +worker in 1957. He had to be sedated and quarantined for almost an +entire winter. Lore has it he was put in an improvised mental ward – a +specially built room padded with mattresses. Because incidents like +these can spiral out of control quickly this far from civilization, +putting entire crews at risk, NASA saw a South Pole winter deployment as +an interesting analogue to long stays in space. + +"We're social animals," says Lawrence Palinkas, professor of social +policy and health at the University of Southern California and the +author of several behavioral studies on social dynamics in Antarctica on +behalf of NASA. "The separation from friends and family is stressful. +But the lack of stimulation – of new scenery, new faces – actually +causes people to have difficulty with cognitive thought. Even in +well-adjusted groups, we estimate between 3 percent and 5 percent will +experience some form of psychological problem – sleep disorders, +depression, alcohol addiction." + +It's this ability, even willingness, to live in such extreme conditions +for such an extended period of time that sets winter Polies apart. They +have an odd sense of adventure and actually seem drawn to the isolation +and risk. "These are people who thrive on being the last cog," says +Harry Mahar, health and safety officer for the NSF's polar program from +1992 to 2004. The power plant technicians, for instance, "are the type +of people who, in their off year, would run DEW line sites \[for distant +early warning of missiles\] up in the Arctic or power plants in the +middle of the Pacific, and they're damn good mechanics." That's a good +thing: If the generators at the South Pole go down and can't be fixed, +the crew probably won't survive. + +Rodney Marks was a typical Polie in both his proficiency and his quiet +confidence. "Brilliant" is a word colleagues often use to describe him. +His aptitude for science was obvious at an early age when he landed a +scholarship at a prestigious private school in his hometown of Geelong +on Australia's southern coast. (He spent his free time as a youth +surfing and rooting for his local Aussie rules football team.) He +discovered astronomy at the University of Melbourne, and a Ph.D. in +physics soon followed, as did a number of high-profile fellowships and +research positions with Australian and American universities. Meanwhile, +music had also become a big part of his life, and he eventually formed a +band called the Changelings, with a nod to the guitar-driven prog rock +of the early '90s. He practically lived in his green Sonic Youth +T-shirt. + +In 1993, at age 24, Marks approached one of his professors looking for +an "interesting" Ph.D. project and learned of a South Pole study being +conducted in collaboration with the University of Nice. A few months +later he had become fluent in French, and a year and a half after that +he stepped out onto the ice at the South Pole for the first time, for a +two-week stint. Marks's specialty was radio astronomy, a highly accurate +method of viewing the cosmos that relies on capturing the radio waves +that objects in space transmit. Antarctic winters provide ideal +conditions for the telescopes that are used, which operate best in the +stability of a very cold atmosphere. In 1997, he reported for duty for +his first winterover in Antarctica, an experience he enjoyed so much he +signed up again just two years later. + +Before the start of every winter, the NSF sponsors a staff training. +It's a typical team-building retreat, with a ropes course, trust falls, +and enthusiastic "facilitators," but it also serves as the first step in +weeding out people who might not cope in such close quarters and so far +away from home. It was at the 1999 retreat in the rocky hills above +Boulder, Colorado, that Marks first met the other people with whom he'd +be spending the 2000 winter. He was one of several returning winter +crew, and he preferred dispensing advice to newbies during smoke breaks +to sitting in a classroom talking about his hopes and fears for the +season. + +Six-foot-two with long, sometimes dreadlocked hair, Marks stood out from +the other scientists physically, but also in the way he was able to +mingle effortlessly between competing personalities. He was slightly +self-conscious about his mild case of Tourette's syndrome, though it was +hardly noticeable to others – some twitching, a sharp clearing of the +sinuses from time to time. + +This was the first year that the NSF handed all operational duties at +the base to [Raytheon Polar Services](http://rpsc.raytheon.com/), a +Colorado-based division of the defense contractor. For the training, +Raytheon used a company whose staff was experienced in working with +police and fire departments, specializing in high-stress group dynamics. +They were used to dealing with people who had a healthy respect for +authority; the winter Polies were different. During the two-day session, +they questioned every nuance of every exercise and flat-out refused the +trust falls, claiming they were sure their colleagues would not catch +them. + +On the last day of the retreat, one of the facilitators pulled aside +Darryn Schneider, Marks's fellow Aussie physicist. "You know, you guys +are one of the most screwed-up groups of people I've ever come across," +he told Schneider. "We work with SWAT teams, and you guys just made them +look touchy-feely and friendly. There's no way you'll ever function as a +group." + +"That's exactly why we will function," Schneider shot back. He too +already had one winter on his résumé and knew that social survival at +the South Pole went against all conventional wisdom: Problems are not +swept under the rug; they are placed under it very deliberately. It's +the art of containment, rather than resolution, that gets Polies through +the eight-month-long night. + +But Polies also have quite a bit of help in this department: alcohol. +With not much else to do, social life at Amundsen-Scott, particularly +during winter, revolves around drinking. Everything from beer to tequila +is brought in alongside vital scientific resupplies at the start of the +winter, and it's said that every year at least one belligerent alcoholic +emerges on base. In 1996 a worker was thrown into detox three times +before he was finally forced to live in the medical facility, isolated +from the rest of the population. The next year, there was such a booze +shortage that the staff wound up giving each other beer as Christmas +presents. In 2000 one staffer was rumored to have racked up a $10,000 +bar tab. The Dome even had its own moonshine still that got inherited +from one crew to the next. + +The beating heart of the base was the bar, 90 South. There, the staff +drank and danced until all hours of the night, underneath the colored +Christmas lights and disco ball. Graveyard crews would roll in at eight +in the morning, post up on the bar stools, and do shots to wind down +before going to bed. Over the years the bar had accumulated decades' +worth of oddities – stuffed penguins, neon signs, dozens of cabin-fever +escape paperbacks. It was the one place on the base where Polies could +forget where they were. + +When Marks and Schneider finally arrived at the Dome in November 1999, +the start of what was supposed to be a yearlong stretch, they quickly +claimed their stools at [90 +South](http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B8OMS7vYzuE). Like most of the +others, Marks was a drinker. He was always up for a night at the bar, +and he wasn't afraid to sneak a bit of "toast juice," the high-octane +ethanol-based concoction produced by the still. Sometimes he drank just +to suppress his Tourette's. + +When not in 90 South, Marks could usually be found in the attached +galley, at one of the tables near the "dish pit." Or, during special +occasions, on a small stage in the corner, playing his beat-up Gibson +guitar, belting out a cover with his South Pole band, Fanny Pack and the +Big Nancy Boys. His girlfriend, Sonja Wolter, 33 at the time, played +bass. The two fell in love during the summer-winter transition, just as +she was about to be shipped out at the end of her contract. They wanted +to stay together so badly that she quickly applied for a winter position +and was accepted just a week before the last plane out. For the start of +the winter, he had dyed his hair purple, and she had dyed hers green. A +few months later they were engaged. It was common for Polies to take an +"ice wife" just for the winter, but this was different. By all accounts +Rodney and Sonja were soul mates. + +The base is normally a brutally cliquey place, and crews tend to +segregate into three separate populations – scientists, operations +(those responsible for the day-to-day running of the base), and skilled +laborers. But the winter crew of 2000 was unusually tight-knit; +migrating from one group to another didn't provoke the sort of contempt +it had in years past. Marks, in particular, had a knack for making +others feel at ease. "He had a Ph.D.," remembers Gene Davidson, a Kiwi +responsible for telescope maintenance that winter, "and yet he would +play poker, smoke cigarettes, and drink whiskey with the carpenters and +plumbers." + +South Pole astronomers have the coldest commute on the planet. The +observatory where they work is a full kilometer from the main station, +in an area officially known as the Dark Sector. Like most base +astronomers, Marks would bundle up and make the round-trip on foot every +day. + +He worked for the Smithsonian program called AST/RO ([Antarctic +Submillimeter Telescope and Remote +Observatory](http://www.spaceref.com/news/viewpr.html?pid=18494)) and +spent most of his time collecting data on how to further improve viewing +conditions using an enormous infrared telescope. His work was highly +regarded, and he was making profound breakthroughs in the way we view +the cosmos from Earth. On Tuesdays, he held an astronomy class for his +fellow Polies, sometimes taking everyone outside and introducing them to +a night sky he knew intimately. Colleagues described him as having a +combination of wildness, imagination, and dedicated self-discipline that +makes for great science. + +It was during the walk home from the observatory one Thursday night in +May that Marks first sensed there was something wrong with him. At about +6:30 he and Sonja arrived in the galley, where he ate a light meal and +drank a can of beer. He mentioned to her that he wasn't feeling well and +that he was having trouble seeing clearly. By 9:30 he had retired to the +room they shared and fell asleep. That night in the galley was the last +time most of the winter crew would ever see Marks alive. He would spend +the next 21 hours fighting for his life. + +Schneider's blog entry for friends and family back home, written the +following night, after he had spent nearly an hour trying to save his +closest friend on base, would read: "We did everything we could, but +Rodney did not come back. He had friends around him at the end. We have +no idea what happened." + +While Schneider and others tried to douse the embers of the day's events +at the bar, Marks's remains were placed in a body bag and stored in a +service area known as the fuel arches, connected to the main station +through one of the tunnels. The ambient temperatures there were plenty +cold to preserve the corpse, but his friends felt he deserved a more +dignified resting place. Like the explorers that came before them, they +considered their work heroic, and Marks was one of the best South Pole +scientists they'd ever known. + +The station carpenters found and milled an old stash of heavy oak for a +casket, and the machinist crafted the metal fittings. Schneider and one +of the cooks upholstered the interior with an old tablecloth, and Sonja +made a maple plaque with a brass inlay of Marks's favorite +constellation, Scorpio. Once finished, they placed his body in the +casket, then used a traditional wooden Nansen sled to haul it out to the +geographic South Pole for a quiet ceremony. It was a Sunday afternoon, +and the entire crew gathered under an ink-black sky as someone read a +statement from Marks's mother and friends said a few words. Marks was +then lowered five feet deep into the ice. + +New Zealand is Antarctica's nearest neighbor. It's so close, in fact, +that when icebergs recently calved off the Ross Ice Shelf, Kiwis were +flying out in helicopters and landing on them. Christchurch, on the +South Island, is a small coastal city of about 400,000, but its +population swells slightly every spring as people from all over the +world pass through on their way to Antarctica, and then again in the +fall as they return to catch commercial flights back to their home +countries. Murder rates are low, and veteran detective Grant Wormald, +44, spends most of his time overseeing theft and fraud investigations. +As a young man, Wormald was given an opportunity to work as a station +manager in Antarctica but had to pass it up when career and family +obligations got in the way. "It was something that appealed to me," he +says. "I hear it's surreal – like going to church in a big way." + +In June 2000, four months before flights in and out of Antarctica would +resume, Wormald's office received a curious fax from the local coroner: +an order to begin investigating the death of an Australian citizen +stationed at an American base in Antarctica. Marks's case was fraught +with jurisdictional ambiguity, but New Zealand law states that the +coroner is entitled to hold an inquest on the basis of a body simply +being present in the country, and Christchurch was certain to be the +first place Marks's body would land. Jurisdiction would soon become the +least confusing thing about Marks's death. + +Anywhere else in the world, following the unexplained death of someone +so young and healthy, Marks's office and sleeping quarters would have +been cordoned off and preserved for investigation. And although +Raytheon, the facility management company, is reported to have requested +this, its authority was simply too remote to impress upon the +grief-stricken crew, who felt sure Marks had died of natural causes. A +few items were collected from his office and bedroom and put aside, but +anything that didn't look suspect went straight into the garbage. After +being cleaned up, both areas continued to be used just as they had been +before his death: his office by other scientists, and his room by Sonja, +who lived there for the rest of the winter. + +At around midnight on October 30, the first plane off the ice landed in +Christchurch carrying Marks's casket. Also aboard were Darryn Schneider +and Sonja, who wearily made their way to a hotel where Marks's mother, +Rae, and his two sisters were waiting to meet them. The five eventually +moved across the street to Bailies, a Polie hangout where both +Shackleton and Scott once drank and where more people who had worked +with Marks showed up. The impromptu wake carried on well into the +following morning. + +Along with a few others from the base, Schneider stayed in Christchurch +just long enough to talk to police, but without any autopsy results yet, +it was largely fruitless testimony. Had they known what the autopsy +would reveal, they probably would have stuck around, if not been +required to. + +Six weeks later, on December 19, the forensic pathologist made a +shocking announcement: Rodney Marks had been poisoned. His blood +contained lethal traces of methanol, a highly toxic wood-alcohol-based +chemical Marks used to clean the high-tech telescopes, but in amounts +far beyond what would be expected with normal contact – about a small +wineglass's worth. It was, the pathologist believed, "virtually certain +to have been ingested." + +The news was all the more tragic because of testimony that base +physician Robert Thompson had given a month earlier. He had revealed +that while Marks lay dying, his potential lifeline was sitting dormant +in a corner of the room – an Ektachem blood analyzer. Its single, tiny +lithium-ion battery had died, and therefore, the machine lost its +calibration every time it was turned off. Once turned back on, it took +up to nine hours to recalibrate. Thompson had known about the +malfunction, even reported it to Raytheon, but for some reason never +attempted to fix it and decided against simply leaving it on. It was by +no means a necessary piece of equipment in the physician's day-to-day +duties, but it was there for a reason: emergencies just like this one. + +A working Ektachem machine would have recognized an abnormal anion gap +in Marks's blood, the causes for which make up a fairly short list, +including methanol poisoning. Had his condition been caught in time, +reversing the effects could have been a simple matter of running a +mixture of ethanol and saline through his body. Even if it hadn't saved +his life, it would have immediately raised the question of how methanol +could have possibly gotten into his system. + +"[Murder at the South +Pole](http://english.ohmynews.com/articleview/article_view.asp?at_code=381541)" +is the kind of headline that newspapers can't resist. Shortly after the +pathology report was released, Wormald made a short, simple statement +about what he and the coroner knew so far. Like any good detective, he +wasn't prepared to rule anything out so early in the investigation, +including homicide, and the media pounced. + +"Common sense told us there were only four possibilities as to how +Rodney came to ingest the methanol," Wormald explains. "One, that he +drank it willingly and knowingly with the intention of getting a high; +two, that he took it to end his life; three, that he took it +accidentally; and finally, that someone had spiked his drink, possibly +as a prank or even knowing that it would either make him very ill or +kill him." + +Considering what Marks had going for him when he died – a fiancée, a +sterling reputation among his colleagues, and a bright future – suicide +was ruled out almost immediately. And for those who knew Marks, it was +equally inconceivable that one of his fellow Polies would intentionally +do him any harm. "I never noticed anyone acting differently afterward," +says telescope mechanic Davidson. "And I can't think of anyone who would +have disliked Rodney that much or had anything against him, or even had +anything to gain by it." It was looking more and more likely that +someone had simply made a tragic mistake, but who, and how? + +Wormald would eventually learn that Marks's work space was notoriously +messy; bottles of lab agents like methanol and ethanol were often strewn +about alongside a dozen or so empty bottles of alcohol. The methanol +used at the South Pole is similar to a car's windshield-wiper fluid, +while the less toxic ethanol, a common ingredient in the base's homemade +moonshine, is more like rubbing alcohol. Both are colorless and nearly +as odorless as vodka and almost indistinguishable from one another in +taste. Mistaking the two was certainly a possibility, especially by +someone under the influence of alcohol. + +But it's unlikely that person would have been Marks. He certainly knew +how lethal it was and that ingesting even a small amount could be fatal. + +"I've gone over it many times in my mind," says Davidson. "He was too +smart to drink it knowingly. If anything, maybe someone else didn't know +the difference between methanol and ethanol and put the wrong thing in +his drink, saying, 'Here, drink this. It'll give you a good buzz.' I +always come back to the idea he was slipped it, and maybe the person +didn't even know it." Wormald agrees: "Rodney was lucid for 36 hours +before he died. If he had known what was ailing him, he would have told +somebody." + +Given the contained nature of the incident and the fact that he had a +finite list of witnesses, Wormald was feeling optimistic about his +investigation. But then he hit a brick wall with the NSF. + +In 2002, Wormald made a formal request for the contact information of +the 2000 winter crew along with any other facts the NSF had gathered +during its own investigation. He got no immediate response. (Eventually, +the NSF declined, citing privacy concerns.) He requested the results of +lab tests done on what little evidence was collected in Marks's room and +work area. Nothing. + +He was puzzled by the lack of cooperation but had no authority to compel +the NSF to comply. "Had there been evidence of a criminal act, things +would have been very different," he says. "The FBI would have been flown +in, maybe even the Australian police." But although Wormald hadn't ruled +out manslaughter or even homicide, he simply didn't have enough evidence +of foul play to justify classifying the case as such. Wormald's +investigation came to a near standstill as almost every request he made +was met with silence. + +Even before Marks's death, the NSF was under pressure to update its +outmoded base. It knew it had issues with drinking among its Polies. +Now, with news of an inoperable Ektachem machine and the fact that a +wood-alcohol-based chemical killed Marks, it had a potential PR crisis +on its hands. The organization seemed to be in lockdown. + +Over the next four years, Wormald persisted with his own investigation +as the NSF and Raytheon drip-fed him information, including the fact +that the moonshine tested negative for methanol. But little else shed +new light on the case. The NSF also never announced the results of its +own investigation, effectively absolving itself of any culpability in +the matter. The agency appeared ready to move on. + +But Wormald wasn't. "I'd like to think that if my children went to work +down there and something went wrong, someone would be responsible for +finding out what happened," he says. "I know Rodney's family wants to +know why the machinery that would have diagnosed his illness wasn't +working and whether anyone will actually be held accountable – whether +anyone even gives a shit. Someone should be required to give a damn." + +Finally, in 2005, the NSF agreed to forward questionnaires to the +remaining 49 members of the 2000 winter crew on Wormald's behalf. He got +just 13 back and remains convinced that the pressure of losing future +employment was simply too great for the rest of the crew. But Polies are +also notoriously transient and hard to track down. Also, they were as +eager as the NSF to put the incident behind them, accepting it as a +freak, tragic mistake. Even those closest to Marks, including his +fiancée, Sonja, decided early on that to keep chasing answers was to +degrade the memory of their friend. + +In September of last year the official findings from the coroner, based +largely on Wormald's investigation, were finally released. The 50-page +report is little more than a neatly packaged catalog of theories and +speculation, concluding that "Rodney David Marks died as a result of +acute methanol poisoning, probably occurring one or two days earlier, he +being either unaware of the overdose or not understanding the possible +complications of it." + +But buried in that report is a detail that has gone largely overlooked +throughout the investigation – a detail that points to what may be the +most compelling theory yet as to how Rodney Marks was poisoned. + +The revelation is made in a section of testimony by Harry Mahar, South +Pole health and safety officer at the time. Mahar mentioned to +investigators "an unusual-shaped bottle of liquor" he'd heard that Marks +had brought back to base from an R\&R trip to New Zealand just before +the start of winter. + +Schneider remembers the bottle too, and says it was among several empty +ones found behind Marks's computer after his death. He recalls it had an +exotic-looking black-and-white label with writing in Portuguese or a +similar language and a picture of a shrimp. He believes it was thrown +away with the other bottles. + +One Polie who remembers the bottle but wishes to remain anonymous says +that as soon as he learned Marks had been poisoned, it hit him that this +bottle could have played a role. He had a theory, and he shared it at +the time with a fellow crew member and investigators, but it was roundly +dismissed as wild speculation. The Polie explained it in an e-mail to +'Men's Journal': + +In certain parts of the world, he wrote, "people are aware of the +dangers of tainted alcohol from places like Southeast Asia. There are +regular warnings for travelers." He included a link to a Lonely Planet +travel forum from this June: "Deadly Brew Kills Foreigners in Bali" was +the headline. That, in turn, linked to a report of 23 people dying after +drinking a local palm liquor that had been spiked with methanol to +increase its potency. + +Turns out, every year there are hundreds of similar cases, everywhere +from Southeast Asia to Africa to the Himalayas. Just last May, an almost +identical story made its way out of Everest base camp when a popular +Sherpa died after drinking methanol-tainted whiskey. The World Health +Organization reports as many as 300 deaths per year relating to the +"lack of quality controls, especially in the preparation of illicit +liquor." All of these deaths are the result of acute methanol poisoning. + +Detective Wormald says the bottle was "not ruled out as a possible +source." He even asked about it on the questionnaire he sent out to crew +members – a handful of Polies acknowledged its existence in their +responses – but he says "no identification of source \[of the bottle\] +was made." + +The anonymous Polie is quick to admit that even he feels that his theory +is "out there," but that it was essentially the only wild card he could +think of. He still doesn't understand why it wasn't pursued more +vigorously, even if just to rule it out. He went as far as forwarding to +investigators the names and contact information of some of Marks's +friends back home who he thought might be able to help pinpoint the +bottle's origin. "I felt like I was being accused of making stuff up," +he explains. "I don't think they followed up with any of the individuals +I suggested. I was essentially told to forget about it." + +And so he did. But if he's right about his theory, it points to a great +potential irony: that not one drop of the methanol that killed Marks +came from the gallons of it that surrounded him at Amundsen-Scott. + +Had that one bottle made it off the ice in one piece and been tested, or +even if investigators were able to determine where it had come from, we +might know for sure how Rodney Marks died. + +Last year Darryn Schneider flew to Antarctica for what would be his 10th +deployment. It was a straightforward four-month summer stay, but these +days, trips to the pole are bittersweet for him. The old Dome that he +called home for a cumulative two years of his life has since been +repurposed as vehicle and refuse storage. The South Pole he remembers +has all but disappeared. + +January 2008 was the ceremonial opening of Amundsen-Scott's third and +latest incarnation, a striking outcrop of steel and glass, perched on +stilts 12 feet above the ice. It's three and a half times the size of +the Dome, which is now nearly buried under 34 years' worth of spindrift. +The new 65,000-square-foot facility cost $150 million to build and +required nearly a thousand cargo planes full of materials. It's an +engineering achievement: Its stilts can be jacked up as snow accumulates +below the structure, and the two units of the main building can move +independently as the ice shifts in different directions beneath their +feet. It towers above the old Dome like an enormous gravestone. + +These days Schneider finds himself wandering its cavernous hallways +feeling a bit lost. Even though he has spent four seasons at the new +base, which became partially operational in 2004, he misses the "old +pole" and the old way of doing things. "One of the observatories where +Rodney and I worked was just shut down last month," he said earlier this +year, while still on base. "Rodney's death also had an influence on +getting rid of the old biomed facility, but the real turning point was +when they finally got rid of the bar. The NSF did not like the culture +of 90 South." A new bar was built, but after it became illegal to smoke +in a government building, it was converted into a TV lounge. "This was a +place that was supposed to replace the old 90 South, and now it's a +place where people do Pilates," Schneider says. There's no more +moonshine still either. The NSF hauled it out onto the open ice and made +a show of running it over with a tractor. + +Schneider says things have been slowly changing for a decade now, and +old-school Polies like him are an endangered species. He was puzzled by +the introduction of a follow-up psych test, mostly dealing with +addiction and mostly handed to those who spent time in 90 South. He also +began to notice that fellow veterans were no longer being asked back in +favor of more rule-abiding new blood. + +"The government just underestimates the importance of the culture," +Schneider says. "It's strange; you would think they would keep some of +these old-timers around because of their institutional knowledge. +Tradition used to mean a lot down there." + +Despite the changes, there's one tradition Schneider refuses to let die: +a living memory of his good friend Rodney Marks. After the winter crew +of 2000 buried him in the ice, they planted an Australian flag over his +grave, a temporary marker to help them find the casket again at the end +of the season. When his body was flown back to Christchurch, a flag was +all that remained at the South Pole to mark the tragedy. Schneider +decided it should stay. Since then, each time he returns to +Amundsen-Scott he removes the old, brittle, sun-baked piece of cloth and +replaces it with a new one. For nearly 10 years now, he and three of +Marks's other close friends have acted as unofficial stewards, making +sure there's always a Commonwealth Star waving at Marks's last resting +place in Antarctica. + +"The NSF hates it and continually fights to get rid of it," says +Schneider. "I guess they don't want there to be a reminder of the +incident. But I want that flag there, and Rodney's family likes the fact +that that point in the ice is marked. The fact that the flag moves +farther away from the base each year, as the ice moves, is a very +graphic reminder of the passage of time since this terrible event in our +lives. At some point it might die, but the ephemeral nature of it makes +it a powerful memorial." + +With or without the flag, it's doubtful anyone will ever forget the +curious death of the South Pole scientist in the winter of 2000. One +crew member's blog from 2006 says it's now lore that the fuel arches are +haunted by Marks's ghost; as recently as 2004, Schneider overheard some +Polies who never even knew Marks talking about his "murder." "People +love putting rumors out there, and South Pole stories become mythical," +he says. + +Ultimately, Rodney Marks may have simply slipped through the cracks – +disowned by the NSF for the sake of its reputation; overlooked by his +native Australia; left to rest in peace without resolution by a coroner +and a detective exhausted by an eight-year battle with the NSF; nothing +more than a stark reminder to his fellow Polies that at the South Pole, +shit happens. + +Polies have a saying: "What happens on the ice stays on the ice," and, +to them, to try to help outsiders understand what life is like there is +an antithesis to why one goes there in the first place. Perhaps Rodney +Marks himself would be perfectly happy remaining one of the South Pole's +great enduring mysteries. diff --git a/_stories/2009/9561735.md b/_stories/2009/9561735.md deleted file mode 100644 index dbc17bc..0000000 --- a/_stories/2009/9561735.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,25 +0,0 @@ ---- -created_at: '2015-05-17T21:19:51.000Z' -title: Automatically Mimicking Unique Hand-Drawn Pencil Lines (2009) [pdf] -url: http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download;jsessionid=3B299E902C458A3DDF275337C5AC20A4?doi=10.1.1.151.6486&rep=rep1&type=pdf -author: adamnemecek -points: 42 -story_text: '' -comment_text: -num_comments: 7 -story_id: -story_title: -story_url: -parent_id: -created_at_i: 1431897591 -_tags: -- story -- author_adamnemecek -- story_9561735 -objectID: '9561735' - ---- -[Source](http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download;jsessionid=3B299E902C458A3DDF275337C5AC20A4?doi=10.1.1.151.6486&rep=rep1&type=pdf "Permalink to ") - - - diff --git a/_stories/2009/9569521.md b/_stories/2009/9569521.md index 26d0363..e0b742c 100644 --- a/_stories/2009/9569521.md +++ b/_stories/2009/9569521.md @@ -19,7 +19,507 @@ _tags: objectID: '9569521' --- -[Source](https://www.cs.utexas.edu/users/EWD/transcriptions/EWD06xx/EWD648.html "Permalink to ") +"Why is software so expensive?" An explanation to the hardware designer. +Recently I received an invitation from a sizeable (and growing) hardware +company. For many years its traditional product line has been +high-quality analog equipment; in a more recent past, however, digital +components are beginning to play a more important role. The company's +corporate management was aware of more or less unavoidably entering the +(for the company unfamiliar) field of software, was aware of the +existence of its many pitfalls without having a clear understanding of +them, and I was invited to explain to the company's corporate management +what the design of software is all about, why it is so expensive, etc. +Having many other obligations, I don't know yet whether I shall be able +to accept the invitation, but, independent of that, the challenge +absolutely delights me. Not only have I programmed for more than 25 +years, but right from the beginning up till this very day I have done so +in, over periods even close, cooperation with hardware designers, +machine developers, prototype testers, etc. I think that I know the +average digital hardware designer and his problems well enough to +understand why he does not understand why designing software is so +difficult. To explain the difficulty of software design to him is hard +enough —almost as hard as explaining it to a pure mathematician— , to +explain it to a group of designers with their background and +professional pride in high quality analog equipment adds definitely a +distinctive flavour to the challenge\! Observing myself thinking about +how to meet it and realizing that, even if I accept the invitation, my +host will not have the exclusive rights of my explanation, I decided to +take pen and paper. Hence this text. +\*         \*         \* + +To the economic question "Why is software so expensive?" the equally +economic answer could be "Because it is tried with cheap labour." Why is +it tried that way? Because its intrinsic difficulties are widely and +grossly underestimated. So let us concentrate on "Why is software design +so difficult?". One of the morals of my answer will be that with +inadequately educated personnel it will be impossible, with adequately +educated software designers it might be possible, but certainly remain +difficult. I would like to stress, right at the start, that current +problems in software design can only partly be explained by identified +lack of competence of the programmers involved. I would like to do so +right at the start, because that explanation, although not uncommon, is +too facile. + +It is understandable: it must be very frustrating for a hardware manager +to produce what he rightly considers as a reliable machine with a +splendid cost/performance ratio, and to observe thereafter that, by the +time the customer receives the total system, that system is bug-ridden +and its performance has dropped below the designer's worst dream. And +besides having to swallow that the software guys have ruined his +product, he is expected to accept that while he works more and more +efficiently every year, the software group is honoured for its +incompetence by yearly increasing budgets. Without further explanations +from our side we programmers should forgive him his occasional +bitterness, for by accusing us of incompetence, he sins in ignorance.... +And as long as we haven't been able to explain the nature of our +problems clearly, we cannot blame him for that ignorance\! + +\*         \*         \* + +A comparison between the hardware world and the software world seems a +good introduction for the hardware designer to the problems of his +software colleague. + +The hardware designer has to simulate a discrete machine by essentially +analog means. As a result the hardware designer has to think about +delays, slopes of signals, fan-in and fan-out, skew clocks, heat +dissipation, cooling and power supply, and all the other problems of +technology and manufacturing. Building essentially from analog +components implies that "tolerances" are a very essential aspect of his +component specifications; his quality control is essentially of a +statistical nature, and, when all is said and done, quality assurance is +essentially a probabilistic statement. The fact that with current +quality standards the probability of correct operation is very, very +high should not seduce us to forget its probabilistic nature: very high +probability should not be confused with certainty (in the mathematical +sense) and it is therefore entirely appropriate that no piece of +equipment is delivered without being exercised by test programs. As +technology is more and more pushed to its limits —and it is so all the +time— and tolerances become narrower and narrower, the control of these +tolerances becomes a major concern for the hardware builders. Compared +to the hardware designer who constantly struggles with an unruly nature, +the software designer lives in heaven, for he builds his artefacts from +zeros and ones alone. A zero is a zero and a one is a one: there is no +fuzziness about his building blocks and the whole engineering notion of +something being "within tolerance" is just not applicable there. In this +sense the programmer works indeed in a heavenly environment. The +hypothetical one hundred percent circuit designer who equates the +problems of design and building with the problems of keeping the +tolerance under control must be blind for the programming problems: once +he has simulated the discrete machine correctly, all the really hard +problems have been solved, haven't they? + +To explain to the hardware world why programming yet presents problems, +we must draw attention to a few other differences. In very general terms +we can view "design" as bridging a gap, as composing an artefact of +given components; as long as "the target artefact" and "the source +components" don't change, we can reuse the old design. The fact that we +need to design continuously is because they do change. Here, however, +hardware and software designers have been faced with very different, +almost opposite types of variation, change and diversity. + +For the hardware designer the greatest variation has been in "the source +components": as long as machines have been designed he has had to catch +up with new technologies, he has never had the time to become fully +familiar with his source material because before he had reached that +stage, new components, new technologies had appeared on the scene. +Compared to the drastic variation in his "source components", his +"target artefact" has almost remained constant: all the time he has +redesigned and redesigned the same few machines. + +For the programmer the variation and diversity is just at the other end: +the hardware designer's target is the programmer's starting point. The +programmer's "source components" have been remarkably stable —in the +eyes of some: even depressingly so\!— : FORTRAN and COBOL, still very +much en vogue, are more than a quarter of a century old\! The +programmers find the diversity at the other side of the gap to be +bridged: he is faced with a collection of "target artefacts" of great +diversity. Of very great diversity even; of an essentially very great +diversity even, because here we find reflected that today's equipment, +indeed, deserves the name "general purpose". + +During the last decade software designers have carried on an almost +religious debate on "bottom-up" versus "top-down" design. It used to be +"bottom-up": I think that now the "top-down" religion has the majority +as its adherents. If we accept the sound principle that, when faced with +a many-sided problem, we should explore the area of our greatest +uncertainty first (because the solution of familiar problems can be +postponed with less risk), we can interpret the conversion of the +programming community from "bottom-up" to "top-down" as a slow +recognition of the circumstance that the programmer's greatest diversity +is at the other side of the gap. + +Besides being at the other side of the gap to be bridged, the variation +and diversity the programmer is faced with is more open-ended. For the +understanding of his source components the hardware designer has as a +last resort always physics and electronics to fall back upon: for the +understanding of his target problem and the design of algorithms solving +it the software designer finds the appropriate theory more often lacking +than not. How crippling the absence of an adequate theory can be has, +however, only been discovered slowly. + +With the first machine applications, which were scientific/technical, +there were no such difficulties: the problem to be solved was +scientifically perfectly understood and the numerical mathematics was +available to provide the algorithms and their justification. The +additional coding to be done, such as for the conversion between decimal +and binary number systems and for program loaders, was so trivial that +common sense sufficed. + +Since then we have seen, again and again, that for lack of appropriate +theory, problems were tackled with common sense, while common sense +turned out to be insufficient. The first compilers were made in the +fifties without any decent theory for language definition, for parsing, +etc., and they were full of bugs. Parsing theory and the like came +later. The first operating systems were made without proper +understanding of synchronization, of deadlock, danger of starvation, +etc., and they suffered from the defects that in hindsight were +predictable. The indispensable theory, again, came later. + +That people have to discover by trying that for some problems common +sense alone is not a sufficient mental tool, is understandable. The +problem is that by the time the necessary theory has been developed, the +pre-scientific, intuitive approach has already established itself and, +in spite of its patent insufficiency, is harder to eradicate than one +would like to think. Here I must place a critical comment on a +management practice that is not uncommon among computer manufacturers, +viz. to choose as project manager someone with practical experience from +an earlier, similar project: if the earlier project had been tackled by +pre-scientific techniques, this is then likely to happen to the new +project as well, even if the relevant theory is in the meantime +available. + +A second consequence of this state of affairs is that one of the most +vital abilities of a software designer faced with a new task is the +ability to judge whether existing theory and common sense will suffice, +or whether a new intellectual discipline of some sort needs to be +developed first. In the latter case it is essential not to embark upon +coding before that necessary piece of theory is there. Think first\! I +shall return to this topic later, in view of its management +consequences. + +\*         \*         \* + +Let me now try to give you, by analogy and example, some feeling for the +kind of thinking required. + +Since IBM stole the term "structured programming" I don't use it anymore +myself, but I lectured on the subject in the late sixties at MIT. A key +point of my message was that (large) programs were objects without any +precedent in our cultural history, and that the most closely analogous +object I could think of was a mathematical theory. And I have +illustrated this with the analogy between a lemma and a subroutine: the +lemma is proved independently of how it is going to be used and is used +independently of how it has been proved; similarly a subroutine is +implemented independently of how it is going to be used and is used +independently of how it has been implemented. Both were examples of +"Divide and Rule": the mathematical argument is parcelled out in +theorems and lemmata, the program is similarly divided up in processes, +subroutines, clusters etc. + +In the meantime I know that the analogy extends to the ways in which +mathematical theories and programs are developed. By word of mouth I +heard recently that Dana S. Scott described the design of a mathematical +theory as an experimental science, experimental in the sense that +adequacy and utility of new notations and concepts were determined +experimentally, to wit: by trying to use them. This, now, is very +similar to the way a design team tries to cope with the conceptual +challenges it faces. + +When the design is complete one must be able to talk meaningfully about +it, but the final design may very well be something of a structure never +talked about before. So the design team must invent its own language to +talk about it, it must discover the illuminating concepts and invent +good names for them. But it cannot wait to do so until the design is +complete, for it needs the language in the act of designing\! It is the +old problem of the hen and the egg. I know of only one way of escaping +from that infinite regress: invent the language that you seem to need, +somewhat loosely wherever you aren't quite sure, and test its adequacy +by trying to use it, for from their usage the new words will get their +meaning. + +Let me give you one example. in the first half of the sixties I designed +as a part of a multiprogramming system a subsystem whose function it was +to abstract from the difference between primary and secondary store: the +unit in which information was to be shuffled between storage level was +called "a page". When we studied our first design, it turned out that we +could regard that only as a first approximation, because efficiency +considerations forced us to give a subset of the pages in primary store +a special status. We called them "holy pages", the idea being that, the +presence of a holy page in primary store being guaranteed, access to +them could be speeded up. Was this a good idea? We had to define "holy +pages" in such a way that we could prove that their number would be +bounded. Eventually we came up with a very precise definition which +pages would be holy that satisfied all our logic and efficiency +requirements, but all during these discussions the notion "holy" only +slowly developed into something precise and useful. Originally, for +instance, I remember that "holiness" was a boolean attribute: a page was +holy or not. Eventually pages turned out to have a "holiness counter", +and the original boolean attribute became the question whether the +holiness counter was positive or not. + +If during these discussions a stranger would have entered our room and +would have listened to us for fifteen minutes, he would have made the +remark "I don't believe that you know what you are talking about." Our +answer would have been "Yes, you are right, and that is exactly why we +are talking: we are trying to discover about precisely what we should be +talking." + +I have described this scene at some length because I remember it so well +and because I believe it to be quite typical. Eventually you come up +with a very formal and well-defined product, but this eventual birth is +preceded by a period of gestation during which new ideas are tried and +discarded or developed. That is the only way I know of in which the mind +can cope with such conceptual problems. From experience I have learned +that in that period of gestation, when a new jargon has to be created, +an excellent mastery of their native tongue is an absolute requirement +for all participants. A programmer that talks sloppily is just a +disaster. Excellent mastery of his native tongue is my first selection +criterion for a prospective programmer; good taste in mathematics is the +second important criterion. (As luck will have it, they often go hand in +hand.) + +I had a third reason for describing the birth of the notion "holy" at +some length. A few years ago I learned that it is not just a +romantization, not just a sweet memory from a project we all liked: our +experience was at the heart of the matter. I learned so when I wished to +give, by way of exercise for myself, the complete formal development of +a recursive parser for a simple programming language, defined in terms +of some five or six syntactic categories. The only way in which I could +get the formal treatment right was by the introduction of new syntactic +categories\! Those new syntactic categories characterized character +sequences which were meaningless in the original programming language to +be parsed, but indispensable for the understanding and justification of +the parsing algorithm under design. My formal exercise was very +illuminating, not because it had resulted in a nice parser, but because +in a nice, formal nutshell it illustrated the need for the kind of +invention software development requires: the new syntactic categories +were exemplary for the concepts that have to be invented all the way +long, concepts that are meaningless with respect to the original problem +statement, but indispensable for the understanding of the solution. + +\*         \*         \* + +I hope that the above gives you some feeling for the programmer's task. +When dealing with the problems of software design, I must also devote a +word or two to the phenomenon of bad software manager. It is +regrettable, but bad software managers do exist and, although bad, they +have enough power to ruin a project. I have lectured all over the world +to programmers working in all sorts of organizations, and the +overwhelming impression I got from the discussions is that the bad +software manager is an almost ubiquitous phenomenon: one of the most +common reactions from the audience in the discussion after a lecture is +"What a pity that our manager isn't here\! We cannot explain it to him, +but from you he would perhaps have accepted it. We would love to work in +the way you have described, but our manager, who doesn't understand, +won't let us." I have encountered this reaction so often that I can only +conclude that, on the average, the situation is really bad. (I had my +worst experience in a bank, with some government organizations as good +seconds.) + +In connection with bad managers I have often described my experience as +a lecturer at IBM, because it was so illuminating. Just before I came, +the interior decorator had redone the auditorium, and in doing so he had +replaced the old-fashioned blackboard by screen and overhead projector. +As a result I had to perform in a dimly lighted room with my sunglasses +on in order not to get completely blinded. I could just see the people +in the front rows. + +That lecture was one of the most terrible experiences in my life. With a +few well-chosen examples I illustrated the problem solving techniques I +could formulate at that time, showed the designer's freedom on the one +hand, and the formal discipline needed to control it on the other. But +the visible audience was absolutely unresponsive: I felt as if I were +addressing an audience of puppets made from chewing gum. It was for me +sheer torture, but I knew that it was a good lecture and with a dogged +determination I carried my performance through until the bitter end. + +When I had finished and the lights were turned up I was surprised by a +shattering applause... from the back rows that had been invisible\! It +then turned out that I had had a very mixed audience, delighted +programmers in the back rows and in front rows their managers who were +extremely annoyed at my performance: by openly displaying the amount of +"invention" involved, I had presented the programming task as even more +"unmanageable" than they already feared. From their point of view I had +done a very poor job. It was at that occasion that I formulated for +myself the conclusion that poor software managers see programming +primarily as a management problem because they don't know how to manage +it. + +These problems are less prevalent in those organizations —I know a few +software houses— where the management consists of competent, experienced +programmers (rather than a banker with colonial experience, but still +too young to retire). One of the problems caused by the +non-understanding software manager is that he thinks that his +subordinates have to produce code: they have to solve problems, and in +order to do so, they have to use code. To this very day we have +organizations that measure "programmer productivity" by the "number of +lines of code produced per month"; this number can, indeed, be counted, +but they are booking it on the wrong side of the ledger, for we should +talk about "the number of lines of code spent". + +The actual coding requires a great care and a non-failing talent for +accuracy; it is labour-intensive and should therefore be postponed until +you are as sure as sure can be that the program you are about to code +is, indeed, the program you are aiming for. I know of one —very +successful— software firm in which it is a rule of the house that for a +one-year project coding is not allowed to start before the ninth month\! +In this organization they know that the eventual code is no more than +the deposit of your understanding. When I told its director that my main +concern in teaching students computing science was to train to think +first and not to rush into coding, he just said "If you succeed in doing +so, you are worth your weight in gold." (I am not very heavy). + +But apparently, many managers create havoc by discouraging thinking and +urging their subordinates to "produce" code. Later they complain that 80 +percent of their labour force is tied up with "program maintenance", and +blame software technology for that sorry state of affairs, instead of +themselves. So much for the poor software manager. (All this is +well-known, but occasionally needs to be said again.) + +\*         \*         \* + +Another profound difference between the hardware and the software worlds +is presented by the different roles of testing. + +When, 25 years ago, a logic designer had cooked up a circuit, his next +acts were to build and to try it, and if it did not work he would probe +a few signals with his scope and adjust a capacitor. And when it worked +he would subject the voltages from the power supply to 10 percent +variations, adjust, etc., until he had a circuit that worked correctly +over the whole range of conditions he was aiming at. He made a product +of which he could "see that it worked over the whole range". Of course +he did not try it for "all" points of the range, but that wasn't +necessary, for very general continuity considerations made it evident +that it was sufficient to test the circuit under a very limited number +of conditions, together "covering" the whole range. + +This iterative design process of trial and error has been taken so much +for granted that it has also been adopted under circumstances in which +the continuity assumption that justifies the whole procedure, is not +valid. In the case of an artefact with a discrete "performance space" +such a program, the assumption of continuity is not valid, and as a +result the iterative design process of trial and error is therefore +fundamentally inadequate. The good software designer knows this; he +knows that from the observation that in the cases tried his program +produced the correct result he is not allowed to extrapolate that his +program is OK; therefore he tries to prove mathematically that his +program meets the requirements. + +The mere suggestion of an existence of an environment in which the +traditional design process of trial and error is inadequate and where, +therefore, mathematical proof is required, is unpalatable for those for +whom mathematical proofs are beyond their mental grasp. As a result, the +suggestion has encountered a considerable resistance, even among +programmers who should know better. It is not to be wondered at that in +the hardware world the recognition of the potential inadequacy of the +testing procedure is still very rare. + +Some hardware designers are beginning to worry, but usually not because +they consider the fundamental inadequacy of the testing approach, but +only because the "adjustment" has become so expensive since the advent +of LSI-technology. But even without that financial aspect they should +already worry, because in the meantime a sizeable fraction of their +design activity does take place in a discrete environment. + +Recently I heard a story about a machine —not a machine design by +Burroughs, I am happy to add— . It was a microprogrammed multiprocessor +installation that had been speeded up by the addition of a slave store, +but its designers had done this addition badly: when the two processors +operated simultaneously on the same word, the machine with the slave +store reacted differently from the version without it. After a few +months of operation a system breakdown was traced back to this very +design error. By testing you just cannot hope to catch such an error +that becomes apparent by coincidence. Clearly that machine had been +designed by people who hadn't the foggiest notion about programming. A +single competent programmer on that design crew would have prevented +that blunder: as soon as you complicate the design of a multiprocessor +installation by the introduction of a slave store, the obligation to +prove —instead of just believing without convincing evidence— that after +the introduction of the slave store the machine still meets its original +functional specification is obvious to a competent programmer. (Such a +proof doesn't seem to present any fundamental or practical difficulties +either.) To convince hardware designers of the fact that they have moved +into an environment in which their conventional experimental techniques +for design and quality control are no longer adequate is one of the +major educational challenges in the field. + +I called it "major" because, as long as it isn't met, hardware designers +won't understand what a software designer is responsible for. In the +traditional engineering tradition, the completed design is the +designer's complete product: you build an artefact and, lo and behold, +it works\! If you don't believe it, just try it and you will see that +"it works". In the case of an artefact with a discrete performance +space, the only appropriate reaction to the observation that it has +"worked" in the case tried, is: "So what?". The only convincing evidence +that such a device with a discrete performance space meets its +requirements includes a mathematical proof. It is a severe mistake to +think that the programmer's products are the programs he writes; the +programmer has to produce trustworthy solutions, and he has to produce +and present them in the form of convincing arguments. Those arguments +constitute the hard core of his product and the written program text is +only the accompanying material to which his arguments are applicable. + +\*         \*         \* + +Many software projects carried out in the past have been overly complex +and, consequently, full of bugs and patches. Mainly the following two +circumstances have been responsible for this: + +1. dramatical increase of processor speeds and memory sizes, which made + it seem as if the sky were the limit; only after the creation of a + number of disastrously complicated systems it dawned upon us, that + our limited thinking ability was the bottleneck; +   +2. a world that in its desire to apply those wonderful new machines + became over-ambitious; many programmers have yielded to the pressure + to stretch their available programming technology beyond its limits; + this was not a very scientific behaviour, but perhaps stepping + beyond the limit was necessary for discovering that limit's + position. + +In retrospect we can add two other reasons: for lack of experience +programmers did not know how harmful complexity is, and secondly they +did not know either, how much complexity can usually be avoided if you +give your mind to it. Perhaps it would have helped if the analogy +between a software design and a mathematical theory had been widely +recognized earlier, because everyone knows that even for a single +theorem the first proof discovered is seldom the best one: later proofs +are often orders of magnitude simpler. + +When C. A. R. Hoare writes —as he did early this year— "...the threshold +for my tolerance of complexity is much lower than it used to be" he +reflects a dual development: a greater awareness of the dangers of +complexity, but also a raised standard of elegance. The awareness of the +dangers of complexity made greater simplicity a laudable goal, but at +first it was entirely an open question whether that goal could be +reached. Some problems may defy elegant solutions, but there seems +overwhelming evidence that much of what has been done in programming +(and in computing science in general) can be simplified drastically. +Numerous are the stories of the 30-line solutions concocted by a +so-called professional programmer —or even a teacher of programming\!— +that could be reduced to a program of 4 or 5 lines.) + +To educate a generation of programmers with a much lower threshold for +their tolerance of complexity and to teach them how to search for the +truly simple solution is the second major intellectual challenge in our +field. This is technically hard, for you have to instill some of the +manipulative ability and a lot of the good taste of the mathematician. +It is psychologically hard in an environment that confuses between love +of perfection and claim of perfection and, by blaming you for the first, +accuses you of the latter. + +How do we convince people that in programming simplicity and clarity —in +short: what mathematicians call "elegance"— are not a dispensable +luxury, but a crucial matter that decides between success and failure? I +expect help from economic considerations. Contrary to the situation with +hardware, where an increase in reliability has usually to be paid for by +a higher price, in the case of software the unreliability is the +greatest cost factor. It may sound paradoxical, but a reliable (and +therefore simple) program is much cheaper to develop and use than a +(complicated and therefore) unreliable one. This "paradox" should make +us very hesitant to attach too much weight to a possible analogy between +software design and more traditional engineering disciplines. diff --git a/_stories/2009/9871014.md b/_stories/2009/9871014.md index f9f70e3..6e42b66 100644 --- a/_stories/2009/9871014.md +++ b/_stories/2009/9871014.md @@ -19,7 +19,75 @@ _tags: objectID: '9871014' --- -[Source](https://bitquabit.com/post/zombie-operating-systems-and-aspnet-mvc/ "Permalink to ") +In 1973, an operating system called CP/M was born. CP/M had no +directories, and filenames were limited to 8.3 format. To support input +and output from user programs, the pseudofiles `COM1`, `COM2`, `COM3`, +`COM4`, `LPT1`, `LPT2`, `CON`, `AUX`, `PRN`, and `NUL` were provided. +In 1980, Seattle Computer Products decided to make a cheap, approximate +clone of CP/M, called 86-DOS. 86-DOS therefore had no directories, +supported 8.3 file names, and included the pseudofiles `COM1`, `COM2`, +`COM3`, `COM4`, `LPT1`, `LPT2`, `CON`, `AUX`, `PRN`, and `NUL`. Further, +because many programs always saved their files with a specific +extension, [any file with these names and an extension was treated as +identical to the filename without the +extension](http://blogs.msdn.com/oldnewthing/archive/2003/10/22/55388.aspx). +In 1981, Microsoft Corporation purchased the rights to use 86-DOS, +renamed it MS-DOS, and shipped it to customers. +In 1983, Microsoft Corporation released MS-DOS 2.0. MS-DOS 2.0 supported +hierarchical directories. To maintain backwards compatibility with +applications designed for MS-DOS 1.0, which had no concept of +directories, Microsoft placed the pseudofiles `COM1`, `COM2`, `COM3`, +`COM4`, `LPT1`, `LPT2`, `CON`, `AUX`, `PRN`, and `NUL`, with all +possible extensions, in all directories. + +In 1988, Microsoft began the development of a modern, preemptively +multitasked, memory-protected, multiuser system loosely based on VMS, +called Windows NT. Windows NT supported a completely new file system +design, called NTFS, modeled on OS/2’s HPFS, which allowed for arbitrary +file names in Unicode UCS-2. To maintain backwards compatibility with +DOS applications running under the new operating system, some of which +were written before DOS had hierarchical directories, Windows NT placed +the pseudofiles `COM1-9`, `LPT1-9`, `CON`, `AUX`, `PRN`, and `NUL`, with +all possible extensions, in all directories. Windows NT shipped to +customers in 1993. + +In 1998, Microsoft released the Option Pack to the two-year-old Windows +NT 4.0, containing a new technology called Active Server Pages, or ASP. +ASP allowed the creation of dynamic websites via COM scripting. Because +ASP was file-based, URLs by definition could not include `/com1-9.asp`, +`/lpt1-9.asp`, `/con.asp`, `/aux.asp`, `/prn.asp`, or `/nul.asp`. + +In 2002, Microsoft announced the imminent release of the .NET framework. +One component of .NET was ASP.NET, a vast improvement over ASP. Although +ASP.NET provided vastly superior ways to write web pages than those +provided by ASP, the mechanism was still completely based on per-file +web pages—and although this mechanism could be overridden by various +means, for backwards compatibility reasons, ASP.NET always checked for +the existence of a file first before attempting to execute a custom +handler. Thus, web pages could not contain `/com[1-9](\..*)?`, +`/lpt[1-9](\..*)?`, `/con(\..*)?`, `/aux(\..*)?`, `/prn(\..*)?`, or +`/nul(\..*)?`. + +In 2009, Microsoft released ASP.NET MVC, a thoroughly modern, orthogonal +web framework supporting the most up-to-date understanding of how to +architect well-factored, scalable web applications. ASP.NET MVC broke +free of the per-file emphasis of previous frameworks, instead +emphasizing regex-based URL dispatching, similar to popular scripting +frameworks such as Django, Rails, and Catalyst. These URLs did not map +to files; they instead mapped to objects that were designed to handle +the request. Thus, URLs could be built entirely on what made logical +sense, rather than on the confines of what the file system dictated. + +But ASP.NET MVC was based on ASP.NET. Which checks for the existence of +a file before running any scripts. Which means it will check directories +that have `COM1-9`, `LPT1-9`, `CON`, `AUX`, `PRN`, and `NUL` in them, +with any extension. + +And that is why, in 2009, when developing in Microsoft .NET 3.5 for +ASP.NET MVC 1.0 on a Windows 7 system, [you cannot include +`/com\d(\..*)?`, `/lpt\d(\..*)?`, `/con(\..*)?`, `/aux(\..*)?`, +`/prn(\..*)?`, or `/nul(\..*)?` in any of your +routes](http://stackoverflow.com/questions/987105/asp-net-mvc-routing-vs-reserved-filenames-in-windows). diff --git a/_stories/2010/10214012.md b/_stories/2010/10214012.md index 93d78cf..f38f4e9 100644 --- a/_stories/2010/10214012.md +++ b/_stories/2010/10214012.md @@ -19,7 +19,94 @@ _tags: objectID: '10214012' --- -[Source](http://community.schemewiki.org/?call-with-current-continuation-for-C-programmers "Permalink to ") +If you're a C programmer then you've probably read the various +introductions and tutorials on +[call-with-current-continuation](/?call-with-current-continuation) +(`call/cc`) and come out not much wiser about what it all really means. +Here's the secret: it's `setjmp`/`longjmp`. +But on no account say that to any Scheme programmers you know, it'll +send them into paroxysms of rage as they tell you you don't know what +you're talking about. Oh, and if you're a Scheme programmer who's +accidentally stumbled on this page then please, please, stop reading +now, for the sake of your blood pressure. (Or in any case remember this +page is for refugee C programmers, not for you.) +## C versus Scheme +Basically `call/cc` is like `setjmp`. It records a dynamic point in the +program execution, one which you can return to, ie. jump to, later if +you want. `setjmp` does its thing by filling in a `jmp_buf` you supply, +but `call/cc` creates a continuation object and calls your nominated bit +of code with it. + +The way `call/cc` calls a function to give you the continuation can be +confusing. Essentially it's just a clean way to get the continuation to +you and keep out of the way of subsequent jumps back to the saved point. +It's typical to do no more that save away the continuation object + +In the name "`call-with-current-continuation`", "`call`" refers to the +way a function is called to hand over the continuation. Don't be +confused by the fact the continuation object is later invoked by calling +it, that's entirely separate. + +Once you've got a continuation object, calling it as say `(cont 123)` is +like a C code `longjmp(jbuf, 123)`. It's a jump back to the original +`call/cc` point, and the return value from the `call/cc` is the 123 in +the invoking call, just like `setjmp` returns the value passed to +`longjmp`. In Scheme of course any object can be "returned" in this way +(and even values[?](/?p=values&c=e) for more than one object), not just +a single int. + +This "multiple returning" by the `call/cc` shouldn't be any more +confusing that the multiple returning of a `setjmp`. However because +Scheme is more flexible it's easy to be creative with what's returned +and when and why, to create confusion where it shouldn't exist. The key +idea though remains a dynamic goto with a value passed. + +In C it's only possible to jump up the stack, to a point in the current +function or a higher calling function. But in Scheme you can jump back +down as well, or even "sideways". To do this `call/cc` effectively saves +the whole stack. In fact in some Scheme implementations (for example +[Guile](/?Guile)) a block copy of the stack is exactly how it's done. + +This downwards/sideways jumping is a powerful feature. Genuine +co-routines can be implemented. Or a long-running "job" can be suspended +and resumed periodically, even becoming a cooperative (and portable) +multi-tasking system. Such things are not really possible (or only with +some difficulty) in C with `setjmp`/`longjmp`. + +An important note should be added about the way variables are saved in a +continuation. In C if you were to copy the stack then you copy the +values in local variables (automatics), and restoring would put back the +values copied. But effectively in Scheme it's just "what variables are +visible" which is saved and restored, the actual locations holding the +values are separate. So if you have a continuation, jump into it and +change some values, and jump in again later then the changes you made +are still there. This is much the same as in the notion of a +[closure](/?closure): the variables visible to it keep their values +between invocations. + +## Not a goto + +When Scheme folks get hot and bothered about continuations not being +gotos what they normally mean is that the idea of a continuation is much +more fundamental. + +A continuation represents the "what thing(s) to do next" for a program +and execution proceeds by manipulating that. A function call expands the +continuation with the body of the function (with its parameters bound to +the called values). A return reduces it back to the receiver of the +result in question, etc. + +This is an abstract idea about what program execution means, but in fact +various Scheme implementations do it exactly this way, using the heap to +record the current continuation. At its simplest the current +continuation in such systems is like a list grown by [cons](/?cons)ing +onto the front, and reduced by [cdr](/?cdr)ing down. In such a system +capturing a continuation is merely saving a reference to the list, and +jumping to it just plugs that back in as the current "what to do". (And +it can be seen that method is fast, where a stack copy is slow, though +both have advantages.) + +[category-learning-scheme](/?category-learning-scheme) diff --git a/_stories/2010/10863626.md b/_stories/2010/10863626.md deleted file mode 100644 index ee022df..0000000 --- a/_stories/2010/10863626.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,26 +0,0 @@ ---- -created_at: '2016-01-08T08:19:33.000Z' -title: 'Achieving Hunter-Gatherer Fitness in the 21st Century: Back to the Future - (2010)' -url: http://www.amjmed.com/article/S0002-9343(10)00463-8/pdf -author: tomaskazemekas -points: 67 -story_text: -comment_text: -num_comments: 66 -story_id: -story_title: -story_url: -parent_id: -created_at_i: 1452241173 -_tags: -- story -- author_tomaskazemekas -- story_10863626 -objectID: '10863626' - ---- -[Source](https://secure.jbs.elsevierhealth.com/action/getSharedSiteSession?redirect=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.amjmed.com%2Farticle%2FS0002-9343%2810%2900463-8%2Fpdf&rc=0&code=ajm-site "Permalink to ") - - - diff --git a/_stories/2010/11056704.md b/_stories/2010/11056704.md index 16eb995..4363b7d 100644 --- a/_stories/2010/11056704.md +++ b/_stories/2010/11056704.md @@ -19,1089 +19,19 @@ _tags: objectID: '11056704' --- -[Source](https://cstheory.stackexchange.com/questions/1539/whats-new-in-purely-functional-data-structures-since-okasaki "Permalink to reference request - What's new in purely functional data structures since Okasaki? - Theoretical Computer Science Stack Exchange") +Since Chris Okasaki's 1998 book "Purely functional data structures", I +haven't seen too many new exciting purely functional data structures +appear; I can name just a + few: -# reference request - What's new in purely functional data structures since Okasaki? - Theoretical Computer Science Stack Exchange + - [IntMap](http://hackage.haskell.org/packages/archive/containers/0.1.0.1/doc/html/Data-IntMap.html) + (also invented by Okasaki in 1998, but not present in that book) + - [Finger + trees](http://apfelmus.nfshost.com/articles/monoid-fingertree.html) + (and their generalization over monoids) -[ ][1] - -#### Stack Exchange Network - -Stack Exchange network consists of 172 Q&A communities including [Stack Overflow][2], the largest, most trusted online community for developers to learn, share their knowledge, and build their careers. - -[Visit Stack Exchange][3] - -### [current community][4] - -* [help][5] [chat][6] - -[ - -Theoretical Computer Science ][4] -* [ - -Theoretical Computer Science Meta ][7] - -### your communities - -[Sign up][8] or [log in][9] to customize your list. - -### [more stack exchange communities][10] - -[company blog][11] - -* [ Tour Start here for a quick overview of the site ][12] -* [ Help Center Detailed answers to any questions you might have ][5] -* [ Meta Discuss the workings and policies of this site ][7] -* [ About Us Learn more about Stack Overflow the company ][13] -* [ Business Learn more about hiring developers or posting ads with us ][14] - -1. 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The best answers are voted up and rise to the top - -# [What's new in purely functional data structures since Okasaki?][28] - -| ----- | -| - -up vote 528 down vote [favorite][1] - -**689** - - | - -Since Chris Okasaki's 1998 book "Purely functional data structures", I haven't seen too many new exciting purely functional data structures appear; I can name just a few: - -* [IntMap][29] (also invented by Okasaki in 1998, but not present in that book) -* [Finger trees][30] (and their generalization over monoids) - -There are also some interesting ways of implementing already known datastructures, such as using "nested types" or "generalized algebraic datatypes" to ensure tree invariants. +There are also some interesting ways of implementing already known +datastructures, such as using "nested types" or "generalized algebraic +datatypes" to ensure tree invariants. Which other new ideas have appeared since 1998 in this area? - -[reference-request][31] [big-list][32] [ds.data-structures][33] [functional-programming][34] - -| - -[share][35]|cite|[improve this question][36] - - | - -asked Sep 21 '10 at 8:04 - -![][37] - -[jkff][38] - -4,19431631 - - | - - | -| | - -* 18 - -Nice question. I just had a student asking me about this, and didn't know the answer. – [Suresh Venkat♦][39] Sep 21 '10 at 8:07 - -* This is OK for here, but you might get better answers on Stack Overflow. If you ask there, be sure and link to the discussion here. – [Charles Stewart][40] Sep 21 '10 at 13:01 -* 3 - -Well the Haskell Reddit has seen this so there will be some good answers coming in from there too but excellent question. Just being halfway through Okasaki's book I was wondering the same think myself. +1 – [Robert Massaioli][41] Sep 21 '10 at 22:52 - -* 8 - -[This inspired me to ask a related question][42]. – [jbapple][43] Sep 22 '10 at 18:44 - -* 3 - -[Okasaki's blog post from 2008 for the 10th anniversary of the book][44] – [Kaveh][45] Jan 4 '16 at 12:33 - - |  show **1** more comment - - | - -## 6 Answers 6 - -[ active][46] [ oldest][47] [ votes][48] - -| ----- | -| - -up vote 528 down vote accepted - - | - -### New purely functional data structures published since 1998: - -* 2001: [**Ideal Hash Trees][49], and its 2000 predecessor, [Fast And Space Efficient Trie Searches][50], by Phil Bagwell**: Apparently used as a fundamental building block in Clojure's standard library. -* 2001: [**A Simple Implementation Technique for Priority Search Queues][51], by Ralf Hinze**: a really simple and beautiful technique for implementing this important datastructure (useful, say, in the Dijkstra algorithm). The implementation is particularly beautiful and readable due to heavy use of "view patterns". -* 2002: [**Bootstrapping one-sided flexible arrays][52], by Ralf Hinze**: Similar to Okasaki's random-access lists, but they can be tuned to alter the time tradeoff between `cons` and indexing. -* 2003: [**New catenable and non-catenable deques][53], by Radu Mihaescu and Robert Tarjan**: A new take on some older work (by Kaplan and Tarjan) that Okasaki cites (The [most recent version of Kaplan & Tarjan's work was published in 2000][54]). This version is simpler in some ways. -* 2005: **Maxiphobic heaps ([paper][55] and [code][56]), by Chris Okasaki**: Presented not as a new, more efficient structure, but as a way to teach priority queues. -* 2006: [**Purely Functional Worst Case Constant Time Catenable Sorted Lists][57], by Gerth Stølting Brodal, Christos Makris, and Kostas Tsichlas**: Answers an outstanding question of Kaplan and Tarjan by demonstrating a structure with O(lg n) insert, search, and delete and O(1) concat. -* 2008: [**Confluently Persistent Tries for Efficient Version Control][58], by Erik D. Demaine, Stefan Langerman, and Eric Price**: Presents several data structures for tries that have efficient navigation and modification near the leaves. Some are purely functional. Others actually improve a long-standing data structure by Dietz et al. for fully persistent (but not confluently persistent or purely functional) arrays. This paper also presente **purely functional link-cut trees**, sometimes called "dynamic trees". -* 2010: [**A new purely functional delete algorithm for red-black trees][59], by Matt Might**: Like Okasaki's red-black tree insertion algorithm, this is not a new data structure or a new operation on a data structure, but a new, simpler way to write a known operation. -* 2012: [**RRB-Trees: Efficient Immutable Vectors][60], by Phil Bagwell and Tiark Rompf**: An extension to Hash Array Mapped Tries, supporting immutable vector concatenation, insert-at, and split in O(lg n) time, while maintaining the index, update, and insertion speeds of the original immutable vector. - -### Known in 1997, but not discussed in Okasaki's book: - -* **Many other styles of balanced search tree**. AVL, brother, rank-balanced, bounded-balance, and many other balanced search trees can be (and have been) implemented purely functionally by path copying. Perhaps deserving special mention are: - - * [**Biased Search Trees][61], by Samuel W. Bent, Daniel D. Sleator, and Robert E. Tarjan**: A key element in Brodal et al.'s 2006 paper and Demaine et al.'s 2008 paper. -* [**Infinite sets that admit fast exhaustive search][62], by Martín Escardó**: Perhaps not a data structure _per se_. -* [**Three algorithms on Braun Trees][63], by Chris Okasaki**: Braun trees offer many stack operations in worst-case O(lg n). This bound is surpassed by many other data structures, but Braun trees have a `cons` operation lazy in its second argument, and so can be used as infinite stacks in some ways that other structures cannot. -* [**The relaxed min-max heap: A mergeable double-ended priority queue][64] and [The KD heap: An efficient multi-dimensional priority queue][65], by Yuzheng Ding and Mark Allen Weiss**: These happen to be purely functional, though this is not discussed in the papers. I do not think the time bounds achieved are any better than those that can be achieved by using finger trees (of Hinze & Paterson or Kaplan & Tarjan) as k-dimensional priority queues, but I think the structures of Ding & Weiss uses less space. -* [**The Zipper][66], by Gérard Huet**: Used in many other data structures (such as Hinze & Paterson's finger trees), this is a way of turning a data structure inside-out. -* **Difference lists** are O(1) catenable lists with an O(n) transformation to usual `cons` lists. They have apparently been known since antiquity in the Prolog community, where they have an O(1) transformation to usual `cons` lists. The O(1) transformation seems to be impossible in traditional functional programming, but Minamide's [hole abstraction][67], from POPL '98, discusses a way of allowing O(1) append and O(1) transformation within pure functional programming. Unlike the usual functional programming implementations of difference lists, which are based on function closures, hole abstractions are essentially the same (in both their use and their implementation) as Prolog difference lists. However, it seems that for years the only person that noticed this was [one of Minamide's reviewers][68]. -* **Uniquely represented dictionaries** support insert, update, and lookup with the restriction that no two structures holding the same elements can have distinct shapes. To give an example, sorted singly-linked lists are uniquely represented, but traditional AVL trees are not. Tries are also uniquely represented. [Tarjan and Sundar, in "Unique binary search tree representations and equality-testing of sets and sequences"][69], showed a purely functional uniquely represented dictionary that supports searches in logarithmic time and updates in $O(sqrt{n})$ time. However, it uses $Theta(n lg n)$ space. There is a [simple representation][70] using [Braun trees][71] that uses only linear space but has update time of $Theta(sqrt{n lg n})$ and search time of $Theta(lg^2 n)$ - -### Mostly functional data structures, before, during, and after Okasaki's book: - -* **Many procedures for making data structures persistent, fully persistent, or confluently persistent**: Haim Kaplan wrote [an excellent survey on the topic][72]. See also above the work of Demaine et al., who demonstrate a fully persistent array in $O(m)$ space (where $m$ is the number of operations ever performed on the array) and $O(lg lg n)$ expected access time. -* 1989: [**Randomized Search Trees][73] by Cecilia R. Aragon and Raimund Seidel**: These were discussed in a purely functional setting by Guy E. Blelloch and Margaret Reid-Miller in [Fast Set Operations Using Treaps][74] and by Dan Blandford and Guy Blelloch in [Functional Set Operations with Treaps][75] ([code][76]). They provide all of the operations of purely functional fingertrees and biased search trees, but require a source of randomness, making them not purely functional. This may also invalidate the time complexity of the operations on treaps, assuming an adversary who can time operations and repeat the long ones. (This is the same reason why imperative amortization arguments aren't valid in a persistent setting, but it requires an adversary with a stopwatch) -* 1997: [**Skip-trees, an alternative data structure to Skip-lists in a concurrent approach][77], by Xavier Messeguer and [Exploring the Duality Between Skip Lists and Binary Search Trees][78], by Brian C. Dean and Zachary H. Jones**: Skip lists are not purely functional, but they can be implemented functionally as trees. Like treaps, they require a source of random bits. (It is possible to make skip lists deterministic, but, after translating them to a tree, I think they are just another way of looking at 2-3 trees.) -* 1998: **All of the amortized structures in Okasaki's book!** Okasaki invented this new method for mixing amortization and functional data structures, which were previously thought to be incompatible. It depends upon memoization, which, as Kaplan and Tarjan have sometimes mentioned, is actually a side effect. In some cases ([such as PFDS on SSDs for performance reasons][79]), this may be inappropriate. -* 1998: [**Simple Confluently Persistent Catenable Lists][80], by Haim Kaplan, Chris Okasaki, and Robert E. Tarjan**: Uses modification under the hood to give amortized O(1) catenable deques, presenting the same interface as an earlier (purely functional, but with memoization) version appearing in Okasaki's book. Kaplan and Tarjan had earlier created a purely functional O(1) worst-case structure, but it is substantially more complicated. -* 2007: As mentioned in another answer on this page, [semi-persistent data structures][81] and [persistent union-find][82] by Sylvain Conchon and Jean-Christophe Filliâtre - -### Techniques for verifying functional data structures, before, during, and after Okasaki's book: - -* **Phantom types** are an old method for creating an API that does not allow certain ill-formed operations. A sophisticated use of them can be found in Oleg Kiselyov and Chung-chieh Shan's [Lightweight Static Capabilities][83]. -* **Nested types** are not actually more recent than 1998 - Okasaki even uses them in his book. There are many other examples that are not in Okasaki's book; some are new, and some are old. They include: - - * Stefan Kahrs's [Red-black trees with types][84] ([code][85]) - * Ross Paterson's [AVL trees][86] ([mirror][87]) - * Chris Okasaki's [From fast exponentiation to square matrices: an adventure in types][88] - * Richard S. Bird and Ross Peterson's [de Bruijn notation as a nested datatype][89] - * Ralf Hinze's [Numerical Representations as Higher-Order Nested Datatypes][90]. -* **GADTs** are not all that new, either. They are a recent addition to Haskell and some MLs, but they have been present, I think, in [various typed lambda calculi since the 1970s][91]. -* 2004-2010: **Coq and Isabelle for correctness**. Several people have used theorem provers to verify the correctness of purely functional data structures. Coq can extract these verifications to working code in Haskell, OCaml, and Scheme; Isabelle can extract to Haskell, ML, and OCaml. - - * Coq: - * Pierre Letouzey and Jean-Christophe Filliâtre [formalized red-black and AVL(ish) trees, finding a bug in the OCaml standard library in the process][92]. - * I [formalized Brodal and Okasaki's asymptotically optimal priority queues][93]. - * Arthur Charguéraud [formalized 825 of the 1,700 lines of ML in Okasaki's book][94]. - * Isabelle: - * Tobias Nipkow and Cornelia Pusch [formalized AVL trees][95]. - * Viktor Kuncak formalized [unbalanced binary search trees][96]. - * Peter Lammich published [The Isabelle Collections framework][97], which includes formalizations of efficient purely functional data structures like red-black trees and tries, as well as data structures that are less efficient when used persistently, such as two-stack-queues (without Okasaki's laziness trick) and hash tables. - * Peter Lammich also published formalizations of [tree automata][98], [Hinze & Patterson's finger trees][99] (with Benedikt Nordhoff and Stefan Körner), and [Brodal and Okasaki's purely functional priority queues][100] (with Rene Meis and Finn Nielsen). - * René Neumann formalized [binomial priority queues][101]. -* 2007: **[Refined Typechecking with Stardust][102], by Joshua Dunfield**: This paper uses refinement types for ML to find errors in SMLNJ's red-black tree delete function. -* 2008: **[Lightweight Semiformal Time Complexity Analysis for Purely Functional Data Structures][103] by Nils Anders Danielsson**: Uses Agda with manual annotation to prove time bounds for some PFDS. - -### Imperative data structures or analyses not discussed in Okasaki's book, but related to purely functional data structures: - -* **[The Soft Heap: An Approximate Priority Queue with Optimal Error Rate][104], by Bernard Chazelle**: This data structure does not use arrays, and so has tempted [first the #haskell IRC channel][105] and [later Stack Overflow users][106], but it includes `delete` in o(lg n), which is usually not possible in a functional setting, and imperative amortized analysis, which is not valid in a purely functional setting. -* **Balanced binary search trees with O(1) finger updates**. In [Making Data Structures Persistent][107], James R Driscoll, Neil Sarnak, Daniel D. Sleator, and Robert E. Tarjan present a method for grouping the nodes in a red-black tree so that persistent updates require only O(1) space. The purely functional deques and finger trees designed by Tarjan, Kaplan, and Mihaescu all use a very similar grouping technique to allow O(1) updates at both ends. [AVL-trees for localized search][108] by Athanasios K. Tsakalidis works similarly. -* **Faster pairing heaps or better bounds for pairing heaps**: Since Okasaki's book was published, several new analyses of imperative pairing heaps have appeared, including [Pairing heaps with O(log log n) decrease Cost][109] by Amr Elmasry and [Towards a Final Analysis of Pairing Heaps][110] by Seth Pettie. It may be possible to apply some of this work to Okasaki's lazy pairing heaps. -* **Deterministic biased finger trees**: In [Biased Skip Lists][111], by Amitabha Bagchi, Adam L. Buchsbaum, and Michael T. Goodrich, a design is presented for deterministic biased skip lists. Through the skip list/tree transformation mentioned above, it may be possible to make deterministic biased search trees. The finger biased skip lists described by John Iacono and Özgür Özkan in [Mergeable Dictionaries][112] might then be possible on biased skip trees. A biased finger tree is suggested by Demaine et al. in their paper on purely functional tries (see above) as a way to reduce the time-and space bounds on finger update in tries. -* **[The String B-Tree: A New Data Structure for String Search in External Memory and its Applications][113] by Paolo Ferragina and Roberto Grossi** is a well studied data structure combining the benefits of tries and B-trees. - -| - -[share][114]|cite|[improve this answer][115] - - | - -[edited May 23 '17 at 11:33][116] - - | - -community wiki - - - -[ 41 revs, 5 users 94% -[jbapple][117] ][118] - - | - - | -| | - -* 4 - -I don't remember checking the "community wiki" box on this answer. Is there any way to undo that? – [jbapple][43] Sep 22 '10 at 20:10 - -* 7 - -@jbapple: after a certain number of edits, all posts become community wiki. That's an impressively thorough review there. Thank you. – [Novelocrat][119] Sep 23 '10 at 3:07 - -* 28 - -Great list! Which makes me wish Okasaki would publish a second edition. – [Radu GRIGore][120] Sep 30 '10 at 10:33 - -* 4 - -Note that Isabelle/HOL can generate code for SML, OCaml, Haskell, Scala. The Haskabelle tool can also import Haskell into Isabelle/HOL. – [Makarius][121] Mar 4 '13 at 11:31 - -* 2 - -The terminology of "programm extraction" is one of Coq: you take a constructive proof and make an executable program from it, stripping away some things. In Isabelle this is called "code generation" and works differently, using the HOL _specifications_ as pseudo-code, not the proofs. Proof extraction in Isabelle/HOL according to Berghofer does work like Coq, but is rarely used these days. – [Makarius][121] Mar 4 '13 at 11:34 - - |  show **6** more comments - - | - -| ----- | -| - -up vote 59 down vote - - | - -To the excellent notes already made, I'll add **Zippers**. - -Huet, Gerard. "Functional Pearl: The Zipper" Journal of Functional Programming 7 (5): 549-554, September 1997. - -[Wikipedia: Zipper (data structure)][122] - -| - -[share][123]|cite|[improve this answer][124] - - | - -[edited Nov 13 '13 at 3:11][125] - -![][126] - -[Rory O'Kane][127] - -1033 - - | - -answered Sep 21 '10 at 18:06 - -![][128] - -[Matt Might][129] - -81956 - - | - - | -| | - -* 4 - -Zippers are AWESOME. For many use cases, they allow tree based representations to become the "right" choice for many kinds of data where otherwise it'd be a bit more complicated – [Carter Tazio Schonwald][130] Dec 1 '10 at 22:52 - -* 1 - -An example of their use for XML manipulation: [anti-xml.org/zippers.html][131] – [Mechanical snail][132] Aug 22 '12 at 20:29 - -add a comment |  - - | - -| ----- | -| - -up vote 36 down vote - - | - -Conchon, Filliatre, [A Persistent UNION-FIND Data Structure][133] and [Semi-persistent Data Structures][134]. - -| - -[share][135]|cite|[improve this answer][136] - - | - -[edited Apr 26 '14 at 17:07][137] - -![][138] - -[Huge][139] - -1033 - - | - -answered Sep 21 '10 at 8:13 - -![][140] - -[Radu GRIGore][141] - -3,9012265 - - | - - | -| | - -* Wow, a persistent UNION-FIND! Thanks! – [jkff][142] Sep 21 '10 at 8:17 -* 3 - -Well, kind of... See the article. – [Radu GRIGore][120] Sep 21 '10 at 8:18 - -* 1 - -... or, if you prefer, see some code (by Matt Parkinson) [github.com/septract/jstar/blob/master/src/utils/…][143] – [Radu GRIGore][120] Sep 21 '10 at 8:50 - -* 5 - -Now I see why the "kind of.." comment had an upvote. They have good performance only when one almost exclusively either does not use persistence, or backtracks all the time: if you often use both "new" and "old" versions, you're screwed. Cool rerooting idea though. – [jkff][142] Sep 22 '10 at 11:13 - -* Radu's link can now be found at [github.com/septract/jstar-old/blob/…][144] – [jbapple][43] Jun 17 '12 at 2:36 - -add a comment |  - - | - -| ----- | -| - -up vote 18 down vote - - | - -I'd add McBride's version of zippers as derivatives of data types. - -| - -[share][145]|cite|[improve this answer][146] - - | - -answered Sep 22 '10 at 2:05 - -![][147] - -[none][148] - -1812 - - | - - | -| | - -* I love that stuff. It's just so cool that the derivative has an application so wildly different from finding rates of change! – [SamB][149] Sep 22 '10 at 22:00 -* 3 - -SamB, you might also be interested in derivatives of regular expressions (if you didn't already know about them). – [jbapple][43] Sep 22 '10 at 23:33 - -* 3 - -Here's [the original paper on derivatives of regular expressions][150]. – [jameshfisher][151] Jun 16 '13 at 10:37 - -add a comment |  - - | - -| ----- | -| - -up vote 12 down vote - - | - -[Rangemaps][152] - -It is a specialized data structure, but it can be used as a substitute for Martin Erwig's DIET, with slightly different properties, so at least there is one existing data structure to compare it to. The DIET itself was described in an article in JFP in 1998, so perhaps it is not included in Purely Functional Data Structures. - -| - -[share][153]|cite|[improve this answer][154] - - | - -answered Jan 28 '11 at 9:07 - -![][155] - -[Complicated see bio][156] - -22124 - - | - - | -| | - -add a comment |  - - | - -| ----- | -| - -up vote 5 down vote - - | - -Following up on the 2012 paper linked above, the work on RRB vectors has since been extended and published in ICFP'15. - -RRB vector: a practical general purpose immutable sequence - -| - -[share][157]|cite|[improve this answer][158] - - | - -answered Jun 28 '16 at 16:57 - -![][159] - -[Mike Rainey][160] - -5111 - - | - - | -| | - -add a comment |  - - | - -## Your Answer - -  - -draft saved - -draft discarded - -### Sign up or [log in][161] - -Sign up using Google - -Sign up using Facebook - -Sign up using Email and Password - -### Post as a guest - -| ----- | -| - -Name - -Email - - | - -### Post as a guest - -| ----- | -| - -Name - -Email - - | - -[discard][1] - -By posting your answer, you agree to the [privacy policy][162] and [terms of service][163]. - -## Not the answer you're looking for? 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a/_stories/2010/11748528.md +++ b/_stories/2010/11748528.md @@ -19,7 +19,272 @@ _tags: objectID: '11748528' --- -[Source](https://www.popularmechanics.com/adventure/outdoors/a5045/4344036/ "Permalink to ") +Advertisement - Continue Reading Below +### 6:59:00 AM +### 35,000 Feet +**You have a late night** and an early flight. Not long after takeoff, +you drift to sleep. Suddenly, you're wide awake. There's cold air +rushing everywhere, and sound. Intense, horrible sound. Where am I?, you +think. Where's the plane? + +You're 6 miles up. You're alone. You're falling. + +Things are bad. But now's the time to focus on the good news. (Yes, it +goes beyond surviving the destruction of your aircraft.) Although +gravity is against you, another force is working in your favor: time. +Believe it or not, you're better off up here than if you'd slipped from +the balcony of your high-rise hotel room after one too many drinks last +night. + +Or at least you will be. Oxygen is scarce at these heights. By now, +hypoxia is starting to set in. You'll be unconscious soon, and you'll +cannonball at least a mile before waking up again. When that happens, +remember what you are about to read. The ground, after all, is your next +destination. + +Granted, the odds of surviving a 6-mile plummet are extra­ordinarily +slim, but at this point you've got nothing to lose by understanding your +situation. There are two ways to fall out of a plane. The first is to +free-fall, or drop from the sky with absolutely no protection or means +of slowing your descent. The second is to become a wreckage rider, a +term coined by Massachusetts-based amateur historian Jim Hamilton, who +developed the Free Fall Research Page—an online database of nearly every +imaginable human plummet. That classification means you have the +advantage of being attached to a chunk of the plane. In 1972, Serbian +flight attendant Vesna Vulovic was traveling in a DC-9 over +Czechoslovakia when it blew up. She fell 33,000 feet, wedged between her +seat, a catering trolley, a section of aircraft and the body of another +crew member, landing on—then sliding down—a snowy incline before coming +to a stop, severely injured but alive. + +Advertisement - Continue Reading Below + +> Oxygen is scarce at these heights. By now, hypoxia is starting to set +> in. + +Surviving a plunge surrounded by a semiprotective cocoon of debris is +more common than surviving a pure free-fall, according to Hamilton's +statistics; 31 such confirmed or "plausible" incidents have occurred +since the 1940s. Free-fallers constitute a much more exclusive club, +with just 13 confirmed or plausible incidents, including perennial +Ripley's Believe It or Not superstar Alan Magee—blown from his B-17 on a +1943 mission over France. The New Jersey airman, more recently the +subject of a MythBusters episode, fell 20,000 feet and crashed into a +train station; he was subsequently captured by German troops, who were +astonished at his survival. + +Advertisement - Continue Reading Below + +Advertisement - Continue Reading Below + +Whether you're attached to crumpled fuselage or just plain falling, the +concept you'll be most interested in is terminal velocity. As gravity +pulls you toward earth, you go faster. But like any moving object, you +create drag—more as your speed increases. When downward force equals +upward resistance, acceleration stops. You max out. + +Depending on your size and weight, and factors such as air density, your +speed at that moment will be about 120 mph—and you'll get there after a +surprisingly brief bit of falling: just 1500 feet, about the same height +as Chicago's Sears (now Willis) Tower. Equal speed means you hit the +ground with equal force. The difference is the clock. Body meets Windy +City sidewalk in 12 seconds. From an airplane's cruising altitude, +you'll have almost enough time to read this entire article. + +### 7:00:20 AM + +### 22,000 Feet + +**By now, you've descended** into breathable air. You sputter into +consciousness. At this altitude, you've got roughly 2 minutes until +impact. Your plan is simple. You will enter a Zen state and decide to +live. You will understand, as Hamilton notes, "that it isn't the fall +that kills you—it's the landing." + +Advertisement - Continue Reading Below + +Advertisement - Continue Reading Below + +Advertisement - Continue Reading Below + +Keeping your wits about you, you take aim. + +But at what? Magee's landing on the stone floor of that French train +station was softened by the skylight he crashed through a moment +earlier. Glass hurts, but it gives. So does grass. Haystacks and bushes +have cushioned surprised-to-be-alive free-fallers. Trees aren't bad, +though they tend to skewer. Snow? Absolutely. Swamps? With their mucky, +plant-covered surface, even more awesome. Hamilton documents one case of +a sky diver who, upon total parachute failure, was saved by bouncing off +high-tension wires. Contrary to popular belief, water is an awful +choice. Like concrete, liquid doesn't compress. Hitting the ocean is +essentially the same as colliding with a sidewalk, Hamilton explains, +except that pavement (perhaps unfortunately) won't "open up and swallow +your shattered body." + +> Hitting the ocean is essentially the same as colliding with a sidewalk + +Advertisement - Continue Reading Below + +With a target in mind, the next consideration is body position. To slow +your descent, emulate a sky diver. Spread your arms and legs, present +your chest to the ground, and arch your back and head upward. This adds +friction and helps you maneuver. But don't relax. This is not your +landing pose. + +The question of how to achieve ground contact remains, regrettably, +given your predicament, a subject of debate. A 1942 study in the journal +War Medicine noted "distribution and compensation of pressure play large +parts in the defeat of injury." Recommendation: wide-body impact. But a +1963 report by the Federal Aviation Agency argued that shifting into the +classic sky diver's landing stance—feet together, heels up, flexed knees +and hips—best increases survivability. The same study noted that +training in wrestling and acrobatics would help people survive falls. +Martial arts were deemed especially useful for hard-surface impacts: "A +'black belt' expert can reportedly crack solid wood with a single blow," +the authors wrote, speculating that such skills might be transferable. + +The ultimate learn-by-doing experience might be a lesson from Japanese +parachutist Yasuhiro Kubo, who holds the world record in the activity's +banzai category. The sky diver tosses his chute from the plane and then +jumps out after it, waiting as long as possible to retrieve it, put it +on and pull the ripcord. In 2000, Kubo—starting from 9842 feet—fell for +50 seconds before recovering his gear. A safer way to practice your +technique would be at one of the wind-tunnel simulators found at about a +dozen U.S. theme parks and malls. But neither will help with the +toughest part: sticking the landing. For that you might consider—though +it's not exactly advisable—a leap off the world's highest bridge, +France's Millau Viaduct; its platform towers 891 feet over mostly spongy +farmland. + +Advertisement - Continue Reading Below + +Advertisement - Continue Reading Below + +Water landings—if you must—require quick decision-making. Studies of +bridge-jump survivors indicate that a feet-first, knife-like entry (aka +"the pencil") best optimizes your odds of resurfacing. The famed cliff +divers of Acapulco, however, tend to assume a head-down position, with +the fingers of each hand locked together, arms outstretched, protecting +the head. Whichever you choose, first assume the free-fall position for +as long as you can. Then, if a feet-first entry is inevitable, the most +important piece of advice, for reasons both unmentionable and easily +understood, is to clench your butt. + +No matter the surface, definitely don't land on your head. In a 1977 +"Study of Impact Tolerance Through Free-Fall Investigations," +researchers at the Highway Safety Research Institute found that the +major cause of death in falls—they examined drops from buildings, +bridges and the occasional elevator shaft (oops\!)—was cranial contact. +If you have to arrive top-down, sacrifice your good looks and land on +your face, rather than the back or top of your head. You might also +consider flying with a pair of goggles in your pocket, Hamilton says, +since you're likely to get watery eyes—impairing accuracy—on the way +down. + +### 7:02:19 AM + +### 1000 Feet + +**Given your starting altitude**, you'll be just about ready to hit the +ground as you reach this section of instruction (based on the average +adult reading speed of 250 words per minute). The basics have been +covered, so feel free to concentrate on the task at hand. But if you're +so inclined, here's some supplemental information—though be warned that +none of it will help you much at this point. + +Advertisement - Continue Reading Below + +Advertisement - Continue Reading Below + +Advertisement - Continue Reading Below + +> There have been at least a dozen commercial airline crashes with just +> one survivor + +Statistically speaking, it's best to be a flight crew member, a child, +or traveling in a military aircraft. Over the past four decades, there +have been at least a dozen commercial airline crashes with just one +survivor. Of those documented, four of the survivors were crew, like the +flight attendant Vulovic, and seven were passengers under the age of 18. +That includes Mohammed el-Fateh Osman, a 2-year-old wreckage rider who +lived through the crash of a Boeing jet in Sudan in 2003, and, more +recently, 14-year-old Bahia Bakari, the sole survivor of last June's +Yemenia Airways plunge off the Comoros Islands. + +Crew survival may be related to better restraint systems, but there's no +consensus on why children seem to pull through falls more often. The +Federal Aviation Agency study notes that kids, especially those under +the age of 4, have more flexible skeletons, more relaxed muscle tonus, +and a higher proportion of subcutaneous fat, which helps protect +internal organs. Smaller people—whose heads are lower than the seat +backs in front of them—are better shielded from debris in a plane that's +coming apart. Lower body weight reduces terminal velocity, plus reduced +surface area decreases the chance of impalement upon landing. + +Advertisement - Continue Reading Below + +### 7:02:25 am + +### 0 Feet + +**The ground. Like a Shaolin master**, you are at peace and prepared. +Impact. You're alive. What next? If you're lucky, you might find that +your injuries are minor, stand up and smoke a celebratory cigarette, as +British tail gunner Nicholas Alkemade did in 1944 after landing in snowy +bushes following an 18,000-foot plummet. (If you're a smoker, you're +super extra lucky, since you've technically gotten to indulge during the +course of an airliner trip.) More likely, you'll have tough work ahead. + +Advertisement - Continue Reading Below + +Advertisement - Continue Reading Below + +Follow the example of Juliane Koepcke. On Christmas Eve 1971, the +Lockheed Electra she was traveling in exploded over the Amazon. The next +morning, the 17-year-old German awoke on the jungle floor, strapped into +her seat, surrounded by fallen holiday gifts. Injured and alone, she +pushed the death of her mother, who'd been seated next to her on the +plane, out of her mind. Instead, she remembered advice from her father, +a biologist: To find civilization when lost in the jungle, follow water. +Koepcke waded from tiny streams to larger ones. She passed crocodiles +and poked the mud in front of her with a stick to scare away stingrays. +She had lost one shoe in the fall and was wearing a ripped miniskirt. +Her only food was a bag of candy, and she had nothing but dark, dirty +water to drink. She ignored her broken collarbone and her wounds, +infested with maggots. + +On the tenth day, she rested on the bank of the Shebonya River. When she +stood up again, she saw a canoe tethered to the shoreline. It took her +hours to climb the embankment to a hut, where, the next day, a group of +lumberjacks found her. The incident was seen as a miracle in Peru, and +free-fall statistics seem to support those arguing for divine +intervention: According to the Geneva-based Aircraft Crashes Record +Office, 118,934 people have died in 15,463 plane crashes between 1940 +and 2008. Even when you add failed-chute sky divers, Hamilton's tally of +confirmed or plausible lived-to-tell-about-it incidents is only 157, +with 42 occurring at heights over 10,000 feet. + +> "I had been able to make the correct decision—to leave the scene of +> the crash." + +Advertisement - Continue Reading Below + +But Koepcke never saw survival as a matter of fate. She can still recall +the first moments of her fall from the plane, as she spun through the +air in her seat. That wasn't under her control, but what happened when +she regained consciousness was. "I had been able to make the correct +decision—to leave the scene of the crash," she says now. And because of +experience at her parents' biological research station, she says, "I did +not feel fear. I knew how to move in the forest and the river, in which +I had to swim with dangerous animals like caimans and piranhas." + +Or, by now, you're wide awake, and the aircraft's wheels have touched +safely down on the tarmac. You understand the odds of any kind of +accident on a commercial flight are slimmer than slim and that you will +likely never have to use this information. But as a courtesy to the next +passenger, consider leaving your copy of this guide in the seat-back +pocket. diff --git a/_stories/2010/11803431.md b/_stories/2010/11803431.md index 27b7616..24da76f 100644 --- a/_stories/2010/11803431.md +++ b/_stories/2010/11803431.md @@ -19,7 +19,114 @@ _tags: objectID: '11803431' --- -[Source](https://rcrowley.org/2010/01/06/things-unix-can-do-atomically.html "Permalink to ") +This is a catalog of things UNIX-like/POSIX-compliant operating systems +can do atomically, making them useful as building blocks for thread-safe +and multi-process-safe programs without mutexes or read/write locks.  +The list is by no means exhaustive and I expect it to be updated +frequently for the foreseeable future. +The philosophy here is to let the kernel do as much work as possible.  +At my most pessimistic, I trust the kernel developers more than a trust +myself.  More practically, it’s stupid to spend CPU time locking around +an operation that’s already atomic.  Added 2010-01-07. +## Operating on a pathname +The operations below are best left to local filesystems.  More than a +few people have written in crying foul if any of these techniques are +used on an NFS mount.  True.  When there are multiple kernels involved, +the kernel can’t very well take care of all the locking for us.  Added +2010-01-06. + + - `mv -T ` atomically changes the target of + `` to the directory pointed to by `` and is + indispensable when deploying new code.  Updated 2010-01-06: both + operands are symlinks.  (So this isn’t a system call, it’s still + useful.)  A reader pointed out that `ln -Tfs ` + accomplishes the same thing without the second symlink.  Added + 2010-01-06.  Deleted 2010-01-06: `strace(1)` shows that `ln -Tfs + ` actually calls `symlink(2)`, `unlink(2)`, and + `symlink(2)` once more, disqualifying it from this page.  `mv -T + ` ends up calling `rename(2)` which can + atomically replace ``.  Caveat 2013-01-07: this does not + apply to Mac OS X, whose + [`mv(1)`](https://developer.apple.com/library/mac/#documentation/Darwin/Reference/Manpages/man1/mv.1.html) + doesn’t call `rename(2)`.  [`mv(1)`](http://linux.die.net/man/1/mv). + - `link(oldpath, newpath)` creates a new hard link called `newpath` + pointing to the same inode as `oldpath` and increases the link count + by one.  This will fail with the error code `EEXIST` if `newpath` + already exists, making this a useful mechanism for locking a file + amongst threads or processes that can all agree upon the name + `newpath`.  I prefer this technique for whole-file locking because + the lock is visible to `ls(1)`.  + [`link(2)`](http://linux.die.net/man/2/link). + - `symlink(oldpath, newpath)` operates very much like `link(2)` but + creates a symbolic link at a new inode rather than a hard link to + the same inode.  Symbolic links can point to directories, which hard + links cannot, making them a perfect analogy to `link(2)` when + locking entire directories.  This will fail with the error code + `EEXIST` if `newpath` already exists, making this a perfect analogy + to `link(2)` that works for directories, too.  Be careful of + symbolic links whose target inode has been removed ("dangling" + symbolic links) — `open(2)` will fail with the error code `ENOENT`.  + It should be mentioned that inodes are a finite resource (this + particular machine has 1,245,184 inodes).  + [`symlink(2)`](http://linux.die.net/man/2/symlink).  Added + 2010-01-07 + - `rename(oldpath, newpath)` can change a pathname atomically, + provided `oldpath` and `newpath` are on the same filesystem.  This + will fail with the error code `ENOENT` if `oldpath` does not exist, + enabling interprocess locking much like `link(oldpath, newpath)` + above.  I find this technique more natural when the files in + question will be `unlink`ed later.  + [`rename(2)`](http://linux.die.net/man/2/rename). + - `open(pathname, O_CREAT | O_EXCL, 0644)` creates and opens a new + file.  (Don’t forget to set the mode in the third argument\!)  + `O_EXCL` instructs this to fail with the error code `EEXIST` if + `pathname` exists.  This is a useful way to decide which process + should handle a task: whoever successfully creates the file.  + [`open(2)`](http://linux.die.net/man/2/open). + - `mkdir(dirname, 0755)` creates a new directory but fails with the + error code `EEXIST` if `dirname` exists.  This provides for + directories the same mechanism `link(2)` `open(2)` with `O_EXCL` + provides for files.  + [`mkdir(2)`](http://linux.die.net/man/2/mkdir).  Added 2010-01-06; + edited 2013-01-07. + +## Operating on a file descriptor + + - `fcntl(fd, F_GETLK, &lock)`, `fcntl(fd, F_SETLK, &lock)`, and + `fcntl(fd, F_SETLKW, &lock)` allow cooperating processes to lock + regions of a file to serialize their access.  `lock` is of type + `struct flock` and describes the type of lock and the region being + locked.  `F_SETLKW` is particularly useful as it blocks the calling + process until the lock is acquired.  There is a “mandatory locking” + mode but Linux’s implementation is unreliable as it’s subject to a + race condition.  [`fcntl(2)`](http://linux.die.net/man/2/fcntl). + - `fcntl(fd, F_GETLEASE)` and `fcntl(fd, F_SETLEASE, lease)` ask the + kernel to notify the calling process with `SIGIO` when another + process `open`s or `truncate`s the file referred to by `fd`.  When + that signals arrives, the lease needs to be removed by `fcntl(fd, + F_SETLEASE, F_UNLCK)`.  `fcntl(fd, F_NOTIFY, arg)` is similar but + doesn’t block other processes, so it isn’t useful for + synchronization.  [`fcntl(2)`](http://linux.die.net/man/2/fcntl). + - `mmap(0, length, PROT_READ | PROT_WRITE, MAP_SHARED, fd, 0)` returns + a pointer from which a file’s contents can be read and written by + normal memory operations.  By making frequent use of `msync(addr, + length, MS_INVALIDATE)`, data written in this manner can be shared + between processes that both map the same file.  + [`mmap(2)`](http://linux.die.net/man/2/mmap), + [`msync(2)`](http://linux.die.net/man/2/msync). + +## Operating on virtual memory + + - `__sync_fetch_and_add`, `__sync_add_and_fetch`, + `__sync_val_compare_and_swap`, and friends provide a full barrier so + “no memory operand will be moved across the operation, either + forward or backward.” These operations are the basis for most (all?) + lock-free algorithms.  [GCC Atomic + Builtins](http://gcc.gnu.org/onlinedocs/gcc-4.1.2/gcc/Atomic-Builtins.html). + +Something I should add to my repertoire?  Race condition?  Let me know +at or [@rcrowley](http://twitter.com/rcrowley) and I’ll +fix it. diff --git a/_stories/2010/11909801.md b/_stories/2010/11909801.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..cdaf885 --- /dev/null +++ b/_stories/2010/11909801.md @@ -0,0 +1,98 @@ +--- +created_at: '2016-06-15T15:15:28.000Z' +title: Roald Dahl – the storyteller as benevolent sadist (2010) +url: http://nymag.com/arts/books/features/67962/ +author: samclemens +points: 118 +story_text: +comment_text: +num_comments: 46 +story_id: +story_title: +story_url: +parent_id: +created_at_i: 1466003728 +_tags: +- story +- author_samclemens +- story_11909801 +objectID: '11909801' + +--- +![](http://images.nymag.com/arts/books/features/dahl100913_1_250.jpg) + +Many of Roald Dahl’s book covers today come stamped with an +official-looking logo proclaiming him “The World’s No. 1 Storyteller.” +The declaration is, like Dahl’s fiction itself, simultaneously thrilling +and absurd and puzzling and oddly disturbing. How, one has to wonder, +was the ranking determined? Was there some kind of single-elimination +global storytelling showdown, in which the creator of Willy Wonka, +presumably as an eighth-seeded underdog, managed to out-yarn a bracket +of, say, Jack London, Salman Rushdie, Isak Dinesen, Victor Hugo, Lewis +Carroll, Mark Twain, and—in what must have been a squeaker of a +final—the mighty Dickens? And even if we do accept that result, isn’t +the title somehow slightly patronizing? After all, we don’t celebrate +Faulkner or Conrad or Shakespeare primarily as “storytellers.” It would +be like calling a master chef “The World’s No. 1 Pan-Fryer”—a great +compliment, but also one that immediately raises questions about his +ability to bake, braise, roast, grill, stew, poach, and flambé. + +Dahl was, indeed, a great storyteller: Anyone who doubts that can pull +aside a random child on the street and start reading her James and the +Giant Peach or Fantastic Mr. Fox. If an adult comes up to object, you +can start reading him one of the short stories: maybe “Taste” (in which +a dinner-party bet among wine connoisseurs spirals out of control) or +“The Sound Machine” (in which a man can hear plants screaming). If a +policeman intervenes, read him “Lamb to the Slaughter,” in which a woman +kills her husband with a frozen lamb chop, then cooks and feeds it to +the detectives who come to investigate. You could probably go on like +that forever. + +Dahl’s own favorite of his yarns was The BFG, a children’s book in which +the eponymous hero, the Big Friendly Giant, walks around city streets at +night blowing dreams through a long tube into kids’ bedroom windows. The +giant keeps thousands of dreams stored in neatly labeled glass jars in +his cave—with the good ones (what he calls “phizzwizards”) carefully +segregated from the bad (“trogglehumpers”). “I IS ONLY AN EIGHT YEAR OLD +LITTLE BOY,” runs one of the good dreams, “BUT I IS GROWING A SPLENDID +BUSHY BEARD AND ALL THE OTHER BOYS IS JALOUS.” (The BFG is a self-taught +writer: He learned to read from a borrowed copy of Nicholas Nickleby, +whose author he identifies as “Dahl’s Chickens.”) One of the giant’s +best dreams reads like a mission statement for Dahl’s career: + +I HAS RITTEN A BOOK AND IT IS SO EXCITING NOBODY CAN PUT IT DOWN. AS +SOON AS YOU HAS RED THE FIRST LINE YOU IS SO HOOKED ON IT YOU CANNOT +STOP UNTIL THE LAST PAGE. IN ALL THE CITIES PEEPLE IS WALKING IN THE +STREETS BUMPING INTO EACH OTHER BECAUSE THEIR FACES IS BURIED IN MY BOOK +AND DENTISTS IS READING IT AND TRYING TO FILL TEETHS AT THE SAME TIME +BUT NOBODY MINDS BECAUSE THEY IS ALL READING IT TOO IN THE DENTIST’S +CHAIR. + +The dream goes on like this: Drivers crash, pilots fly off course, and +brain surgeons get distracted during surgery. It’s a paean to the primal +magic of storytelling, but also an admission that that same magic—when +it’s really strong—can start to feel sinister, like semi-benevolent mind +control. Dahl inhabited this paradox more insistently than anyone. He +wanted to seduce the entire world with narrative, regardless of the +cost—to himself, to his family, to his publishers, to his reputation +among children’s librarians (they hated him), and even to his own +literary art. + +It’s been twenty years since Roald Dahl died, and in honor of that +morbid anniversary (and maybe, just possibly, in an effort to boost book +sales) September has been named “Roald Dahl Month”—a holiday publishers +are celebrating by issuing, among other books, the first-ever authorized +Dahl biography, Donald Sturrock’s Storyteller. The book is, like Dahl, +both lovable and annoying: The writing is often repetitious, the tone +occasionally hagiographic, and it leaps around in chronology. But no +matter. Dahl’s life story, it turns out, is less a normal human +biography than a series of grisly and fabulous yarns that stretch back +30 or so generations. He was a direct descendant of the Scottish hero +William Wallace, whose family got hunted out of Britain in 1305, after +Wallace was hanged and beheaded. They ended up in Norway, where, +centuries later, Dahl’s great-great-grandfather, a Norwegian pastor, +escaped a church fire by stacking Bibles against a wall, climbing them, +and throwing himself out a stained-glass window. Dahl’s father, as a +child, had to have his arm amputated after a mishap with a drunk doctor. +His uncle introduced himself to his aunt by rescuing her from a fire +that killed 100 people. diff --git a/_stories/2010/12297668.md b/_stories/2010/12297668.md index 583aa7c..307f943 100644 --- a/_stories/2010/12297668.md +++ b/_stories/2010/12297668.md @@ -19,7 +19,57 @@ _tags: objectID: '12297668' --- -[Source](https://www.theguardian.com/books/2010/feb/21/the-age-of-absurdity-foley "Permalink to ") +Michael Foley won't give a hoot for what I or anyone else thinks about +his book. It will have been reward enough to have toiled over its bright +wisdoms, its pleasing metaphors, its range of reference (from Gilgamesh +to The Wizard of Oz), its laugh-out-loud funny bits. As he sees it, +happiness – or at least the avoidance of misery, envy, resentment and +humiliation – is to put one's shoulder to the boulder, Sisyphus-style, +and get what fun you can out of the push. +There is some pushing to be done here. Foley is not one for the "fatuous +breeziness" of bullet-pointed self-help manuals or the nostrums of the +new science of wellbeing ("watch less TV, smile more at strangers") – or +indeed any other sort of easy way out. Here are Christ and Buddha, Marx +and Freud, Spinoza and Nietzsche, Joyce and Proust, mixing it with brain +experts Pinker and Rose. It's not so much a trawl of great minds as +proof that they think alike when it comes to human frailty – notably the +way our base desires hoodwink our higher-reasoning selves and drive us +mad with one unmet expectation after the other. +Modern life, Foley argues, has made things worse, deepening our cravings +and at the same time heightening our delusions of importance as +individuals. Not only are we rabid in our unsustainable demands for +gourmet living, eternal youth, fame and a hundred varieties of sex, but +we have been encouraged – by a post-1970s "rights" culture that has +created a zero-tolerance sensitivity to any perceived inequality, slight +or grievance – into believing that to want something is to deserve it. +As Foley puts it: "Is it possible that a starving African farmer has +less sense of injustice than a middle-aged western male who has never +been fellated?" +It's not even as if we want what we have once we've got it. Foley calls +this "the glamour of potential", a relentless churning of desire by +which the things we have are devalued by the things we want next. The +only way out of the churn is "detachment", an idea as compelling to the +Greek and Roman stoics as to Sartre and Camus: if you can't change the +world, don't let it change you. The problem is that detachment – +solitude, quietly taking responsibility for your own actions – is +inimical to modern life, which is characterised by "communities", the +herd instinct, team-building (Foley's take on corporate cheerfulness is +worth the £10.99 on its own) and "the new religion of commotionism". The +difficulty of change is aggravated in a society in which difficulty +itself is avoided. Hence the study of science dwindles in universities +("Why submit to mathematical rigour when you can do a degree in surfing +and beach management?") and sales of oranges plummet because people will +no longer take the trouble to peel them. + +Detachment and difficulty – key stages in notions of quest and ritual +and understanding – are disappearing. Foley points out that whereas in +primitive cultures an adolescent would be separated from the tribe and +taken to the desert for a spot of bodily mutilation, spiritual +enlightenment and transformation, today's hero "remains at home with his +parents and ventures out into danger by playing EverQuest online in the +basement". + +Absurdly readable. diff --git a/_stories/2010/13252608.md b/_stories/2010/13252608.md index c0cde13..cc2cd17 100644 --- a/_stories/2010/13252608.md +++ b/_stories/2010/13252608.md @@ -19,7 +19,213 @@ _tags: objectID: '13252608' --- -[Source](https://www.zerobanana.com/essays/reclaiming-software-engineering "Permalink to ") +> When I use a word, it means just what I choose it to mean—neither more +> nor less. +[](#p1 "Paragraph 1") It is the fate of every vocation to be +misunderstood by outsiders, and engineering is by no means an exception: +‘Most people think engineers do things in a very mechanistic way. … They +don’t seem to have any idea of the creativity and ingenuity in +engineering.’[2](#fn2 "Footnote 2") To the public at large the +engineering method is just following an impenetrable set of +scientifically predetermined instructions, the engineer a ‘soulless +apparatchik’[3](#fn3 "Footnote 3") —the sort of person who might regard +the employee-feeding machine from Chaplin’s Modern Times as a splendid +labour-saving device. It is as if engineers had created such machines in +their own image. +[](#p2 "Paragraph 2") Software engineering has an even bigger perception +problem, though: it is widely misunderstood even by insiders. Civil +engineers who fail to recognise their work in the typical engineering +mythology may be certain that, by definition, it is the public +perception at fault. What is engineering if not what civil engineers do? +By contrast, without some traditional engineering experience for +guidance a software developer in the same predicament cannot rule out +the thought that software development is somehow unlike engineering—or, +worse, that we are doing it improperly. +[](#p3 "Paragraph 3") Certainly there are those even within the +engineering profession who do subscribe to the outsider view. Software +developers are engaged in the exact same debate about the nature of our +work as engineers in the more traditional fields are about theirs. The +difference is that while software developers disagree about how software +development ought to work, most accept without question the mechanistic +theory of how engineering works—the engineering method as ‘adherence to +a specified morphology’[4](#fn4 "Footnote 4") . The morphology with +which we are all familiar is known as the Waterfall +Model,[5](#fn5 "Footnote 5") and the idea that all ‘real’ engineers +follow it is practically an article of faith.[6](#fn6 "Footnote 6") It +would come as a shock to most in the software community to discover that +this is not really the way engineering works. Proponents of a +mechanistic kind of ‘software engineering’ have been allowed to define +the term in agreement with their own prejudices. + +[](#p4 "Paragraph 4") At the root of the unwillingness of the software +community to accept software development as a form of engineering lies a +single misconception, inexplicably shared across ideological boundaries. +To see what it is, we must first define a little terminology. + +[](#p5 "Paragraph 5") The technical term for the output of an +engineering process is an ‘artefact’. The artefact is only nominally +what customers pay for. The actual product is some experience that +occurs between the artefact and the user.[7](#fn7 "Footnote 7") This is +what Pirsig was referring to when he wrote that ‘Quality is not a thing. +It is an event.’[8](#fn8 "Footnote 8") A bridge is an artefact but it is +not the product. The product is not getting wet. + +[](#p6 "Paragraph 6") A design document—for example, a set of +engineering drawings—describes how to construct one or more artefacts, +but is not itself an artefact. A building is an artefact; the product it +provides, or one of them, is (again) not getting +wet.[9](#fn9 "Footnote 9") You can get some of the effect by holding a +set of working drawings above your head, but beyond a certain +point—probably a stiff breeze, anything more than a light drizzle or +when your arm gets tired, whichever comes first—you are bound to want +the actual building. + +[](#p7 "Paragraph 7") Our problem arises when people mistake software +source code for an artefact. Source code is **not** an artefact because +the user does not interact with it; there is no product experience +created in this way. Source code is a design document because it +describes how to construct the true artefact, which is the +machine-executable code.[10](#fn10 "Footnote 10") Source code is the +map, not the territory. + +[](#p8 "Paragraph 8") This point is critical to the understanding of +software development because, as [Jack Reeves +explained](http://www.developerdotstar.com/mag/articles/reeves_design.html "What is Software Design?") +in 1992, it identifies our work as designing rather than constructing +(or, for that matter, manufacturing) software.[11](#fn11 "Footnote 11") +Construction is an activity performed by compilers and the associated +infrastructure around them—not for nothing do we call this the ‘build +system’. We are software engineers, not software construction workers. + +[](#p9 "Paragraph 9") We should not see engineering as a metaphor for +software development. Each branch of engineering has its own set of +heuristics, moulded in part by the nature of the materials with which it +works, and software engineering is naturally no exception. Chief among +its unique features is that software construction is both fast and +cheap—often taking on the order of seconds to minutes, generally with +zero marginal cost. Most engineers do not have the luxury of such a +short feedback loop between their designs and the finished artefacts. It +would be inappropriate for software engineering to simply adopt a +morphology from another branch of engineering, even if such a thing +existed. The common thread uniting those branches is not some shared +morphology but the fact that none is capable of being reduced to such a +morphology. + +[](#p10 "Paragraph 10") Those who see software development as +mechanistic in nature invariably also mistake it for a construction +activity. Usually these people will say ‘Software engineering is not yet +a true engineering discipline’,[12](#fn12 "Footnote 12") but that they +hope it will eventually become +one.[13](#fn13 "Footnote 13"), [14](#fn14 "Footnote 14") The obstacle +is always a lack of ‘rigour’, the solution more +‘discipline’.[15](#fn15 "Footnote 15") Apparently the best way to +instil this discipline may to threaten the practitioner with +imprisonment.[16](#fn16 "Footnote 16") + +[](#p11 "Paragraph 11") The most prominent example of this school of +thought is the unfortunately-named Software Engineering Institute at +Carnegie Mellon University. It is funded by the United States Department +of Defence, whose bizarre procurement policies treat designs and +artefacts identically. Unsurprisingly, the SEI tends to label ideas that +fit its patron’s worldview as ‘software engineering’, even when they may +be the opposite of established engineering practice. + +[](#p12 "Paragraph 12") One form this takes is the fetishisation of +[reliability](../is-it-safe "Is it Safe?") over all other properties of +a system. To the mechanist, the fact that software sometimes crashes is +damning evidence that software is not yet an engineering discipline. In +part this is coloured by an unjustifiably narrow view of the range of +work in which engineers are engaged. Pencils and paperclips break all +the time.[17](#fn17 "Footnote 17") Even in areas where safety of life is +an issue—popularly assumed to be the sole province of engineers—failures +still occur absent any negligence on the part of +engineers.[18](#fn18 "Footnote 18") To assume that software is unique +among humanity’s creations in its tendency to fail is to ignore both the +evidence and the more prosaic explanation: that the cost to society of +ensuring it never can usually outweighs the cost of taking the risk. + +[](#p13 "Paragraph 13") The temptation is strong to declare that this +reliability-obsessed process is not engineering at all, but it must be +resisted. I do not claim that all software is engineered, at least in +the modern sense. Yet so long as we are developing software within a +social context, where the finished artefact has users other than its +designers, we can scarcely escape the conclusion that what we are doing +is engineering. Still, I would certainly argue that methodologies that +disregard the expenditure of resources are the antithesis of good +engineering. + +[](#p14 "Paragraph 14") If I wished to be kind to the SEI, I would note +only that the context in which they operate is not shared by most—or +even many—software engineers, and that they could do us all a favour by +choosing a name that does not imply that they represent the only way of +doing software engineering. If I were feeling less charitable, I might +add that even in their chosen context their methods have proven +[conspicuously +unsuccessful](http://www.baselinemag.com/networking/The-Ugly-History-of-Tool-Development-at-the-FAA/ "The Ugly History of Tool Development at the FAA"). + +[](#p15 "Paragraph 15") On the other side of the fence, many of those +who reject the mechanistic theory of software development nevertheless +mistake the source code for an artefact just the same. At the nexus of +these two ideas lies the concept of software development as ‘craft’. +Recognition that all software development is unpredictable design work +and belief that software is constructed by humans can be reconciled only +in a medieval model[19](#fn19 "Footnote 19") of software development, in +which the design and construction of artefacts are not separate +activities: + +> The technology of the middle ages was the technology of the artisan. … +> \[In the Renaissance\] the artisan has been split up into his +> components, the engineer and the worker.[20](#fn20 "Footnote 20") + +[](#p16 "Paragraph 16") Seen in this light, the epitome of the software +craftsman is to be found in [the story of +Mel](http://catb.org/~esr/jargon/html/story-of-mel.html "Hacker’s Dictionary – The Story of Mel"), +the ‘Real Programmer’, who famously programs directly in machine code. +Mel’s legendary technical skills have made him a hero to many, yet he +seems completely isolated from the economic consequences of his +work.[21](#fn21 "Footnote 21") It exists in a vacuum, outside of any +social context. + +[](#p17 "Paragraph 17") Something is always lost when the engineer is +separated from the worker, but such transitions occur because these +losses are outweighed by the gains. The combined efforts of all the +master craftsmen in Florence might never have been sufficient to +complete the cathedral dome had Filippo Brunelleschi—or some other +engineer—not devised a way to build it.[22](#fn22 "Footnote 22") In +software such a split was already in evidence by the 1960s, simply +because the methodology Mel used to craft his blackjack program imposed +a very low upper bound on software’s transformative power. In the +intervening decades the workers—‘programmers’, in the contemporary sense +of the term—have been automated out of existence. The revolution will +not be televised; it already happened and you missed it. + +[](#p18 "Paragraph 18") To regress to a guild of medieval [Real +Programmers](http://catb.org/~esr/jargon/html/R/Real-Programmer.html "Hacker’s Dictionary – Real Programmer") +does not strike me as a goal to which we should aspire. We need not do +so if we recognise that source code is not an artefact and accept our +role as software designers and not software builders. Engineers, freed +from the need to personally construct their artefacts, take no less care +in and derive no less pleasure from their work than did the craftsmen +who preceded them. + +[](#p19 "Paragraph 19") In all our discourse about software engineering, +we have failed to challenge the assumption that it could only be brought +about through the application of ‘rigour’, ‘discipline’ and +government-mandated participation in a monoculture that treats every +line of code as if lives depended on it, on pain of imprisonment, +regardless of context. This vision may be to some a shining beacon of +hope, to others a nightmare that makes +[Kafka](http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0057427/ "IMDB – The Trial (1962)") +look like Disney. But the essence of engineering is not to be found in +these things. To be an engineer is to strive for change in a world where +resources are limited. + +[](#p20 "Paragraph 20") We are the heirs of an engineering tradition as +old as civilisation, but Eden is burning. The name of our profession +itself—the very core of our identity—has been co-opted by some of the +most dysfunctional organisations in society and redefined in ways that +conflict with our values. In order to claim our birthright we must first +recapture what it means to be a software engineer. diff --git a/_stories/2010/13255433.md b/_stories/2010/13255433.md index d95bce4..da30ab1 100644 --- a/_stories/2010/13255433.md +++ b/_stories/2010/13255433.md @@ -19,7 +19,82 @@ _tags: objectID: '13255433' --- -[Source](https://beta.theglobeandmail.com/opinion/all-i-wanted-to-do-is-build-a-house/article4346687/ "Permalink to ") +It was the fifth house that Craig Morrison built with his own hands, and +the last. He had built things with his own hands for 70 years, often +using lumber he produced at his own small sawmill. Now he would build a +modest, single-storey house where he could look after his wife, Irene, +suffering from Alzheimer's. He would do the work himself, of course. +Didn't everyone in New Brunswick? "I'm not flush with money," he +explains now. "I didn't want to go into debt." +Thus it was that Mr. Morrison broke ground three years ago - at 88 - for +a bungalow on land overlooking the Bay of Fundy near St. Martins, a +seaside village east of Saint John. And thus it was that Mr. Morrison +got into trouble with the law for the first time in his life. +In the past two years, building inspectors have hauled Mr. Morrison into +court six times, each appearance more harrowing than the last. A couple +of weeks ago, the provincial agency that employs building inspectors +demanded that the court forcibly remove Craig and Irene Morrison from +their home, that the house be bulldozed, and that Mr. Morrison be found +in contempt of court - meaning, almost certainly, imprisonment. +Story continues below advertisement + +Mr. Morrison worked long hours into his 92nd year, fixing the +inspectors' long lists of defects. But for the court, he made his +position clear: He would not vacate the house. If the court found him in +contempt, he would go to jail. + +In a memorable account of these proceedings, New Brunswick +Telegraph-Journal writer Marty Klinkenberg reported Mr. Morrison's +lament: "I thought this was a free country, that we had liberties and +freedoms like we used to have, but I was sadly mistaken. … All I wanted +to do is build a house, and I was treated as if I was some kind of +outlaw." + +Building inspector Wayne Mercer found many things wrong with Mr. +Morrison's house - although it wasn't obvious that the building-code +infractions he cited made it particularly unsafe. He noticed that Mr. +Morrison's lumber - custom-sawn - did not carry the requisite stickers. +The windows did not carry the requisite stickers, either. The roof +trusses and floor joists, he thought, were questionable. He wanted the +ceilings torn out, drywall removed and wall studs replaced. + +"\[The inspectors\]seemed to find fault with everything I did," Mr. +Morrison said. "They were out to get me because I was doing it with my +own land and my own lumber and my own trusses and floor joists in my own +time." + +At one point, a professional home builder, Raymond Debly, volunteered to +do an independent inspection. He determined that the house exceeded the +requirements of the National Building Code. It was "built like a fort." +The lumber, old-growth spruce, was superior to any lumber on the market. +("Some stamped lumber," he said, "shouldn't be used to build a +doghouse.") The floors were double strength. ("You could walk an +elephant across them.") And the trusses were fine. ("They were built the +old-fashioned way," said Mr. Debly, himself 80, "the way we did it in +the '60s.") + +Mr. Morrison's long struggle with an implacable bureaucracy came to a +merciful end in a Saint John courtroom on Nov. 1 when Mr. Justice Hugh +McLellan ordered the planning commission to negotiate a settlement with +Mr. Morrison, saying, "I'm not going to order a 91-year-old man to jail +and have his wife placed in a nursing home." The planning commission +subsequently agreed to allow the Morrisons to live in their home, +without further molestation, until they die. + +Son of a lumberman and cattle rancher, Craig Morrison comes from +self-sufficient stock, the sturdy people who built this country with +their own hands. He raised seven children (and has 14 grandchildren and +eight great-grandchildren). Yet, government inspectors almost took him +down. + +Story continues below advertisement + +Story continues below advertisement + +This is a true Canadian story, a cautionary tale of the tremendous power +of the state over the individual in an age of pervasive bureaucracy. It +is, indeed, a profound parable of irretrievably lost independence and +casually forgotten freedoms. diff --git a/_stories/2010/13286657.md b/_stories/2010/13286657.md index 893d50e..fc9294a 100644 --- a/_stories/2010/13286657.md +++ b/_stories/2010/13286657.md @@ -19,7 +19,26 @@ _tags: objectID: '13286657' --- -[Source](https://members.bib-arch.org/publication.asp?PubID=BSBA&Volume=36&Issue=2&ArticleID=6 "Permalink to ") +036 +038 +To the Asiatics, as they were called, the lush Nile Delta, with its open +marshlands rich with fish and fowl, was a veritable Garden of Eden. From +earliest times, Canaanites and other Asiatics would come and settle +here. Indeed, this is the background of the Biblical story of the famine +in Canaan that led to Jacob’s descent into Egypt (Genesis 46:1–7). +By the beginning of the Egyptian Middle Kingdom (a few years after 2000 +B.C.E.), the pressure of immigrants on the eastern Delta was so strong +that the Egyptian authorities built a series of forts at strategic +points to “repel the Asiatics,” as the story of Sinuhe tells +us.[1](/biblical-archaeology-review/36/2/6/en/1?width=600) + +More than a century later, however, Egyptian policy toward the Asiatics +changed. Instead of trying to prevent them from coming in, the Egyptians +cultivated close relations with strong Canaanite city-states on the +Mediterranean coast and allowed select Asiatic populations to settle in +the eastern Delta. The last of the great pharaohs of the XIIth Dynasty, +Amenemhet III (c. 1853–1808 B.C.E.) and Amenemhet IV (c. 1808–1799 +B.C.E.), even established a new town for them. diff --git a/_stories/2010/13660391.md b/_stories/2010/13660391.md index 1e3c640..c460933 100644 --- a/_stories/2010/13660391.md +++ b/_stories/2010/13660391.md @@ -19,829 +19,5 @@ _tags: objectID: '13660391' --- -[Source](https://www.sciencenews.org/article/when-intuition-and-math-probably-look-wrong "Permalink to When intuition and math probably look wrong | Science News") - -# When intuition and math probably look wrong | Science News - -[Skip to main content][2] - -[Menu][3] [Search][3] [Science News][4] - -## Donate - -* [Donate][5] - -## Account - -[Log In][6] - -## The Society - -* [The Society][7] -* [Science News][8] -* [Science News for Students][9] -* [Student Science][10] - -![Science News][11] - -## [Science News][12] - -MISSION CRITICAL - -Support credible science journalism. - -Subscribe to _Science News _today. - -[SUBSCRIBE][13] - -* [ Menu ][14] -* [ Topics ][15] - - * [ Atom & Cosmos ][16] - * [ Body & Brain ][17] - * [ Earth & Environment ][18] - * [ Genes & Cells ][19] - * [ Life & Evolution ][20] - * [ Humans & Society ][21] - * [ Math & Technology ][22] - * [ Matter & Energy ][23] -* [ Blogs ][24] - - * [ Context | Tom Siegfried ][25] - * [ Growth Curve | Laura Sanders ][26] - * [ Scicurious | Bethany Brookshire ][27] - * [ Science Ticker | Science News Staff ][28] - * [ Science & the Public | Science News Staff ][29] - * [ Wild Things | Sarah Zielinski ][30] -* [ Editor's Picks ][31] - - * [ Top stories of 2017 ][32] - * [ Favorite books of 2017 ][33] - * [ Gravitational waves ][34] - * [ Eclipse 2017 ][35] - * [ Cassini mission to Saturn ][36] - * [ See More ][31] -* [ Magazine ][37] - -![3/03 cover][38]][39] - -In the March 3 _SN_: Redefining dinosaurs, minibrain recipes, how flu spreads, lions vs. zebras, Venus prospects, a whale speaks and more.  - -[Current Issue][39] - -## Explore - -* ### Topics - - * [Atom & Cosmos][16] - - * [Biology][40] - - * [Chemistry][41] - - * [Doing Research][42] - - * [Earth Sciences][43] - - * [Environmental Science][44] - - * [Other Disciplines][45] - - * [Physics][46] -* ### Blogs - - * [Context][25] - - * [Growth Curve][47] - - * [Scicurious][27] - - * [Science Ticker][28] - - * [Science & the Public][29] - - * [Wild Things][30] - - * [Culture Beaker][48] - - * [Gory Details][49] -* ### Editor's Picks - - * [2017 Top 10][32] - - * [Favorite books of 2017][33] - - * [Gravitational waves][50] - - * [AGU 2017][51] - - * [Scientists to Watch][52] - - * [Nobels 2017][53] - - * [Cassini mission to Saturn][36] - - * [Eclipse 2017][35] -* ### SN Magazine - - * [March 3, 2018][54] - * [February 17, 2018][55] - * [February 3, 2018][56] - * [January 20, 2018][57] - * [December 23, 2017][58] - * [December 9, 2017][59] - * [November 25, 2017][60] - * [November 11, 2017][61] - -[Latest][62] [Most Viewed][62] - -### All News - -Sort by Published atMost Viewed - -* News - -[Two-way communication is possible with a single quantum particle][63] - -February 23, 2018 - -by Emily Conover - -* Science Visualized - -[New mapping shows just how much fishing impacts the world's seas][64] - -February 22, 2018 - -by Carolyn Gramling - -* Science Stats - -[Global Virome Project is hunting for more than 1 million unknown viruses ][65] - -February 22, 2018 - -by Laurel Hamers - -* News - -[Cave art suggests Neandertals were ancient humans' mental equals ][66] - -February 22, 2018 - -by Bruce Bower - -* News in Brief - -[The last wild horses aren't truly wild][67] - -February 22, 2018 - -by Erika Engelhaupt - -* Society Update - -[Congratulations to the 40 Regeneron Science Talent Search finalists!][68] - -* Editor's Note - -[Building a bright future for science journalism][69] - -February 22, 2018 - -by Nancy Shute - -* Letters to the Editor - -[Readers weigh in on human gene editing and more][70] - -February 22, 2018 - -by Science News Staff - -* 50 Years Ago - -[50 years ago, early organ transplants brought triumph and tragedy][71] - -February 22, 2018 - -by Bethany Brookshire - -* Feature - -[New fossils are redefining what makes a dinosaur][72] - -February 21, 2018 - -by Carolyn Gramling - -* News in Brief - -[An amateur astronomer caught a supernova explosion on camera][73] - -February 21, 2018 - -by Lisa Grossman - -* Society Update - -[Changing toothpastes? 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Taft][116] | September 22, 2010 - -In an exclusive interview with eWEEK, Java creator James Gosling discusses a series of issues he earlier declined to take public, including why he left Oracle. - -SAN FRANCISCO - When James Gosling led the team that created the Java language and platform, Sun Microsystems was riding high and Java stood as a landscape-changing revolutionary technology, but financial realities eventually brought Sun to its knees and Oracle entered in as a potential savior--saying all the right things, but behind the scenes, as far as Gosling was concerned, doing all the wrong ones. - -Gosling created Java, a feat that many would assume would demand some modicum of respect, but instead, from Oracle, Gosling says all he got was the opposite. In an exclusive interview with eWEEK, Gosling came clean about why he left Oracle and what he thinks of the company's stewardship of his creation going forward. - -In his [April blog post][117] announcing his resignation, Gosling would only say, "As to why I left, it's difficult to answer: Just about anything I could say that would be accurate and honest would do more harm than good." However, over dinner with eWEEK in San Francisco during the week of [Oracle's first JavaOne][118] conference - held concurrently with Oracle OpenWorld here - Gosling went a bit deeper, telling a tale of low-balling key employees and cutting off at the knees projects and strategies Sun had put into play. - -"There is actually a long list of things that played into my leaving Oracle," Gosling said. "There were things like my salary offer. After getting my offer from them I tried to figure out what my compensation would be like on my W-2 form and it was a major hit. They copied my base salary [from Sun]," he said. However, at Sun, any executive that was a vice president or above was given what amounted to a bump or bonus based on the performance of the company. "In a mediocre year you did OK, but in a good year you did great" in terms of this compensation, he said. - -#### Further reading - -* [ Visual Studio Code Added to Anaconda Python Distro ][119] -* [ Why Digital Transformation Projects Are So Slow ][120] - -An Oracle spokeswoman said the company had no comment on Gosling's claims. - -Thus, "For the privilege of working for Oracle, they wanted me to take a big pay cut," Gosling said. - -That in itself was not a showstopper. Indeed, given that constraint, Gosling moved on with his employment with the database giant. However, another annoyance arose when, according to Gosling, Oracle did not have a notion of a senior engineer or at least one equivalent to Gosling's grade at Sun, where he was a fellow. "In my job offer, they had me at a fairly significant grade level down," he said. - -But, even that was not the final factor in leading to his decision to leave the company. Perhaps the final straw was what Gosling said was Oracle's move to rein him in. indeed they owned Sun and thus Java, so they also owned its creator and his intellectual property, so it was up to Oracle to decide what Gosling or anybody else had to say about Java. - -"My ability to decide anything at Oracle was minimized," Gosling said. "Oracle is an extremely micromanaged company. So myself and my peers in the Java area were not allowed to decide anything. All of our authority to decide anything evaporated." - -That bent Gosling's resolve like a wishbone in the hands of two eager siblings in mid-pull after Thanksgiving dinner, but even that didn't break it. What ultimately snapped the wishbone and made Gosling want to holler and throw up his hands Marvin-Gaye style was that "My job seemed to be to get up on stage and be a public presence for Java for Oracle. I'm from the wrong Myers-Briggs quadrant for that," he said. - -Add to that sentiment that Gosling already had the sense that Oracle was "ethically challenged" and he said he had simply had enough, and decided not to work there anymore. - -Asked if the onstage part of the deal made him feel like baseball Hall of Famer Willie Mays signing autographs at San Francisco Giants events and other venues, Gosling said: "Well, Willie liked that stuff. I didn't." - -Also, asked whether in hindsight he would have preferred Sun having been acquired by IBM (which pursued a deal to acquire Sun and then backed out late in the game) rather than Oracle, Gosling said he and at least Sun Chairman Scott McNealy debated the prospect. And the consensus, led by McNealy, was that although they said they believed "Oracle would be more savage, IBM would make more layoffs." - -* 1 (current) -* [2][121] -* [ Continue ][121] -* [ Previous Story ][122] -* Previous [ Google Gmail for Android Gets Priority Inbox Support ][122] -* * Next [ Reporter's Notebook: Oracle and Java It's Business,... ][123] -* [ Next Story ][123] - -Subscribe to - -eWEEK Editor's Pick - -Or Log in - -Click for more newsletters - -* eWEEK Editor's Pick -* News & Views -* Cloud Computing -* Mobile and Wireless Update -* Best of eWEEK -* eWEEK Sunday Brunch -* eCareers Smart Moves -* Enterprise Applications Topic Center Update -* Enterprise IT Advantage -* eWEEK Whitepaper Spotlight -* eWEEK Labs -* eWEEK Enterprise Update -* eWEEK Storage Report -* Industry Center Update : Finance -* Industry Center Update : Government -* Industry Center Update : Health Care -* Infrastructure Topic Center Update -* Linux & Open Source Topic Center Update -* Mid-Market Solutions -* Securing the Enterprise -* VoIP Topic Center Update -* What's Hot Now -* eWEEKend - -We ran into a problem - -We already have your email address on file. 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In an exclusive interview with eWEEK, Gosling came +clean about why he left Oracle and what he thinks of the company's +stewardship of his creation going forward. + +In his [April blog +post](http://nighthacks.com/roller/jag/entry/time_to_move_on) announcing +his resignation, Gosling would only say, "As to why I left, it's +difficult to answer: Just about anything I could say that would be +accurate and honest would do more harm than good." However, over dinner +with eWEEK in San Francisco during the week of [Oracle's first +JavaOne](http://www.oracle.com/us/javaonedevelop/index.html) conference +- held concurrently with Oracle OpenWorld here - Gosling went a bit +deeper, telling a tale of low-balling key employees and cutting off at +the knees projects and strategies Sun had put into play. + +"There is actually a long list of things that played into my leaving +Oracle," Gosling said. "There were things like my salary offer. After +getting my offer from them I tried to figure out what my compensation +would be like on my W-2 form and it was a major hit. They copied my base +salary \[from Sun\]," he said. However, at Sun, any executive that was a +vice president or above was given what amounted to a bump or bonus based +on the performance of the company. "In a mediocre year you did OK, but +in a good year you did great" in terms of this compensation, he said. + +An Oracle spokeswoman said the company had no comment on Gosling's +claims. + +Thus, "For the privilege of working for Oracle, they wanted me to take a +big pay cut," Gosling said. + +That in itself was not a showstopper. Indeed, given that constraint, +Gosling moved on with his employment with the database giant. However, +another annoyance arose when, according to Gosling, Oracle did not have +a notion of a senior engineer or at least one equivalent to Gosling's +grade at Sun, where he was a fellow. "In my job offer, they had me at a +fairly significant grade level down," he said. + +But, even that was not the final factor in leading to his decision to +leave the company. Perhaps the final straw was what Gosling said was +Oracle's move to rein him in. indeed they owned Sun and thus Java, so +they also owned its creator and his intellectual property, so it was up +to Oracle to decide what Gosling or anybody else had to say about Java. + +"My ability to decide anything at Oracle was minimized," Gosling said. +"Oracle is an extremely micromanaged company. So myself and my peers in +the Java area were not allowed to decide anything. All of our authority +to decide anything evaporated." + +That bent Gosling's resolve like a wishbone in the hands of two eager +siblings in mid-pull after Thanksgiving dinner, but even that didn't +break it. What ultimately snapped the wishbone and made Gosling want to +holler and throw up his hands Marvin-Gaye style was that "My job seemed +to be to get up on stage and be a public presence for Java for Oracle. +I'm from the wrong Myers-Briggs quadrant for that," he said. + +Add to that sentiment that Gosling already had the sense that Oracle was +"ethically challenged" and he said he had simply had enough, and decided +not to work there anymore. + +Asked if the onstage part of the deal made him feel like baseball Hall +of Famer Willie Mays signing autographs at San Francisco Giants events +and other venues, Gosling said: "Well, Willie liked that stuff. I +didn't." + +Also, asked whether in hindsight he would have preferred Sun having been +acquired by IBM (which pursued a deal to acquire Sun and then backed out +late in the game) rather than Oracle, Gosling said he and at least Sun +Chairman Scott McNealy debated the prospect. And the consensus, led by +McNealy, was that although they said they believed "Oracle would be more +savage, IBM would make more layoffs." diff --git a/_stories/2010/15499160.md b/_stories/2010/15499160.md deleted file mode 100644 index f84768d..0000000 --- a/_stories/2010/15499160.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,26 +0,0 @@ ---- -created_at: '2017-10-18T13:58:44.000Z' -title: C0, an Imperative Programming Language for Novice Computer Scientists (2010) - [pdf] -url: http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.480.8484&rep=rep1&type=pdf -author: philonoist -points: 106 -story_text: -comment_text: -num_comments: 111 -story_id: -story_title: -story_url: -parent_id: -created_at_i: 1508335124 -_tags: -- story -- author_philonoist -- story_15499160 -objectID: '15499160' - ---- -[Source](http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.480.8484&rep=rep1&type=pdf "Permalink to ") - - - diff --git a/_stories/2010/1803351.md b/_stories/2010/1803351.md deleted file mode 100644 index 79865c0..0000000 --- a/_stories/2010/1803351.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,23 +0,0 @@ ---- -created_at: '2010-10-18T13:19:30.000Z' -title: 'Ask PG: Lisp vs Python (2010)' -url: '' -author: kung-fu-master -points: 232 -story_text: 'It seems that a lot of old school Lispers switching to Python (for example: - Peter Norvig). What do you think on Lisp vs Python today?' -comment_text: -num_comments: 192 -story_id: -story_title: -story_url: -parent_id: -created_at_i: 1287407970 -_tags: -- story -- author_kung-fu-master -- story_1803351 -objectID: '1803351' - ---- -

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\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/_stories/2010/3144351.md b/_stories/2010/3144351.md deleted file mode 100644 index 6acd156..0000000 --- a/_stories/2010/3144351.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,25 +0,0 @@ ---- -created_at: '2011-10-22T21:16:33.000Z' -title: 'Facebook: Are You Interfacing with the Russian Mafia & KGB? (2010)' -url: http://thenewamerican.com/usnews/politics/4346-facebook-are-you-interfacing-with-the-russian-mafia-a-kgb -author: '0x12' -points: 104 -story_text: '' -comment_text: -num_comments: 32 -story_id: -story_title: -story_url: -parent_id: -created_at_i: 1319318193 -_tags: -- story -- author_0x12 -- story_3144351 -objectID: '3144351' - ---- -[Source](https://www.thenewamerican.com/usnews/politics/4346-facebook-are-you-interfacing-with-the-russian-mafia-a-kgb "Permalink to ") - - - diff --git a/_stories/2010/3227980.md b/_stories/2010/3227980.md index a45d9fc..99070a0 100644 --- a/_stories/2010/3227980.md +++ b/_stories/2010/3227980.md @@ -19,7 +19,67 @@ _tags: objectID: '3227980' --- -[Source](https://hbr.org/2010/04/the-myth-of-shareholder-capitalism/ar/1 "Permalink to ") +When Kraft took over Cadbury in January, the deal was viewed as a +victory of shareholder capitalism. The acquired company’s deeply English +roots were no match for the wealth shareholders could gain by selling +out to what one Cadbury family member called “a company that makes +cheese to go on hamburgers.” Cadbury chairman Roger Carr said, “The +reality is we are part of a global business.” +Did Carr have a choice? Was he truly beholden to his shareholders’ +desire to take the deal? If not, how can directors act against the +wishes of shareholders to preserve value for other stakeholders—value +that is often less easily measured than a buyout price? In the wake of +the scandals that caused the recession, the management world has been +immersed in trying to answer such questions. +Oddly, no previous management research has looked at what the legal +literature says about the topic, so we conducted a systematic analysis +of a century’s worth of legal theory and precedent. It turns out that +the law provides a surprisingly clear answer: Shareholders do not own +the corporation, which is an autonomous legal person. What’s more, when +directors go against shareholder wishes—even when a loss in value is +documented—courts side with directors the vast majority of the time. +Shareholders seem to get this. They’ve tried to unseat directors through +lawsuits just 24 times in large corporations over the past 20 years; +they’ve succeeded only eight times. In short, directors are to a great +extent autonomous. +There is no legal basis for the idea of shareholder supremacy. + +And yet, in an important 2007 article in the [Journal of Business +Ethics](http://www.springerlink.com/content/100281/), 31 of 34 directors +surveyed (each of whom served on an average of six Fortune 200 boards) +said they’d cut down a mature forest or release a dangerous, unregulated +toxin into the environment in order to increase profits. Whatever they +could legally do to maximize shareholder wealth, they believed it was +their duty to do. + +Why are directors so convinced of their obligation that they’d make +decisions with such damaging results? If the law clearly doesn’t call +for all the kowtowing, couldn’t Cadbury’s Carr have assumed a more +defiant stance against a takeover? + +The problem, we believe, is that managers and lawyers have failed to +meaningfully collaborate on defining directors’ role. That lack of +communication has led to the election of directors who, frankly, don’t +know what their legal duties are. Indeed, they’re being taught the wrong +things. The case still most often used in law schools to illustrate a +director’s obligation is [Dodge v. Ford +Motor](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dodge_v._Ford_Motor_Company) +(1919)—even though an important 2008 paper by Lynn A. Stout explains +that it’s bad law, now largely ignored by the courts. It has been cited +in only one decision by Delaware courts in the past 30 years. + +Collaboration between legal and management entities should start at the +MBA and executive-education level, to change the way directors are +trained and developed. But it should also shape director selection, a +process where trustworthiness and independence from all stakeholders, +not just from managers, is critical. + +The impact on directors’ decision making could be significant. The +Cadburys of the future may not end up selling out just because it looks +like a good deal for the shareholders. + +A version of this article appeared in the [April +2010](/archive-toc/BR1004) issue of Harvard Business Review. diff --git a/_stories/2010/4831615.md b/_stories/2010/4831615.md index 6706c46..b8a00cb 100644 --- a/_stories/2010/4831615.md +++ b/_stories/2010/4831615.md @@ -19,7 +19,115 @@ _tags: objectID: '4831615' --- -[Source](https://www.seattletimes.com/html/businesstechnology/2011111010_birthdaygift18.html "Permalink to ") +Originally published February 17, 2010 at 6:43 PM | Page modified +November 26, 2012 at 6:04 PM +Scores of employees gathered to help Bob Moore celebrate his 81st +birthday this week at the company that bears his name, Bob's Red Mill... +MILWAUKIE, Ore. — Scores of employees gathered to help Bob Moore +celebrate his 81st birthday this week at the company that bears his +name, Bob's Red Mill Natural Foods. +Moore, whose mutual love of healthful eating and old-world technologies +spawned an internationally distributed line of products, responded with +a gift of his own — the whole company. The Employee Stock Ownership Plan +that Moore unveiled means that his 209 employees now own the place and +its 400 offerings of stone-ground flours, cereals and bread mixes. + +"This is Bob taking care of us," said Lori Sobelson, who helps run the +business' retail operation. "He expects a lot out of us, but really +gives us the world in return." + +Moore declined to say how much he thinks the company is worth. In 2004, +however, one business publication estimated that year's revenue at more +than $24 million. A company news release issued this week stated that +Bob's Red Mill has chalked up an annual growth rate of between 20 +percent and 30 percent every year since. + +"In some ways I had a choice," Moore said of what he could have done +with the company he founded with his wife, Charlee, in 1978. "But in my +heart, I didn't. These people are far too good at their jobs for me to +just sell it." + +It's not that the offers aren't there. Hardly a day goes by that Nancy +Garner, Moore's executive assistant, doesn't field a call or letter from +someone wanting to buy the privately held company or take it public. + +"I had four messages waiting when I returned from a recent vacation," +she said. "Three of them were buyout offers." Garner said she and other +employees are floored by Moore's plan, under which any worker with at +least three years tenure is now fully vested. + +"We're still learning all of the details," Garner said, "but it's very +humbling to be part of a company that cares this much about its +employees." + +An employee stock-ownership plan, or ESOP, is a retirement plan in which +the company contributes its stock to the plan to be held in trust for +the benefit of its employees. The stock is never bought or held +directly. + +Vested employees are sent annual reports detailing their respective +stakes in the company. When those employees quit or retire, they receive +in cash whatever amount they — and the company, through increased +revenues, new sales and controlled costs — are due. + +"Eventual payouts could be substantial," said John Wagner, the company's +chief financial officer and, along with Moore, one of four partners. + +Moore said he began thinking about succession about nine years ago. He'd +heard about employee-stock-option programs and got much more serious +about the idea three years ago. + +That Moore has now pulled off what few other company owners would even +dream about comes as no surprise to longtime acquaintances, such as +Glenn Dahl, owner of NatureBake bakery in Milwaukie. + +"Bob's a force of nature," said Dahl, whose family's Gresham-area bakery +was Moore's first wholesale customer in the 1970s. "He's always been +that way. He gets an idea and just makes sure it happens, one way or the +other." + +Moore's own background is in electrical and mechanical engineering, but +he fell in love with the mechanics of stone grinding in the 1960s after +reading about old stone-grinding flour mills. + +At about the same time, Charlee began sharing with him her delvings into +the nutritional benefits of eating whole-grain foods. The couple put +their passions to work by starting, with their three sons, their first +milling operation in Redding, Calif. + +In 1978, the couple moved to Portland to retire. Moore's idea at the +time, reflecting his long-held sense of spirituality, was to learn the +Bible in its original languages. A chance walk past a closed mill site +near Oregon City changed everything. + +"I call it my emotional epiphany," Moore said. "Whatever excuse I care +to give, I was just sucked into it like a vortex." + +A 1988 arson destroyed the mill, when Moore was 60. Undeterred, he +rebuilt the operation, moved once because of space needs and now +occupies a 15-acre production facility and a two-acre headquarters and +retail outlet along Oregon 224 in Milwaukie. + +Three production shifts, running six days a week, turn out a line of +goods distributed throughout North America, Asia and the Middle East. + +The company earned an extra splash of international recognition when a +team traveled to Scotland and, apparently feeling its oats, won the +world's porridge-making championship. + +Employees are just now grasping the meaning of Moore's birthday gift. + +"It just shows how much faith and trust Bob has in us," said Bo Thomas, +the company's maintenance superintendent, who has put his four children +through college during his two decades there. "For all of us, it's more +than just a job. Obviously, it's the same way for Bob, too." + +For Moore, meanwhile, nothing about the new arrangement will change a +thing. He plans to do for the foreseeable future what he has done every +day for decades. + +"I may have given them the company," he said, chuckling, "but the boss +part is still mine." diff --git a/_stories/2010/5093397.md b/_stories/2010/5093397.md index 206b47c..e953fcf 100644 --- a/_stories/2010/5093397.md +++ b/_stories/2010/5093397.md @@ -19,7 +19,166 @@ _tags: objectID: '5093397' --- -[Source](http://www.jtnimoy.net/?q=178 "Permalink to ") +I spent a half year writing software art to generate special effects for +Tron Legacy, working at Digital Domain with Bradley "GMUNK" Munkowitz, +Jake Sargeant, and David "dlew" Lewandowski. This page has taken a long +time to be published because I've had to await clearance. A lot of my +team's work was done using Adobe software and Cinema 4D. The rest of it +got written in C++ using OpenFrameworks and wxWidgets, the way I've +always done it with this team ;) Uniquely however, Digital Domain's CG +artists were able to port my apps over to Houdini for further evolution +and better rendering than OpenGL could ever provide. Special thanks to +Andy King for showing me that what seasoned CG artists do at DD is +actually not so far off from what's going on in the Processing +community. +[Interview with GMUNK about the team's +process](http://www.inventinginteractive.com/2011/03/02/interview-gmunk/) +![](http://cdn.jtn.im/178/TRON_GFX_BR_08.JPG) +In addition to visual effects, I was asked to record myself using a unix +terminal doing technologically feasible things. I took extra care in +babysitting the elements through to final composite to ensure that the +content would not be artistically altered beyond that feasibility. I +take representing digital culture in film very seriously in lieu of +having grown up in a world of very badly researched user interface +greeble. I cringed during the part in Hackers (1995) when a screen saver +with extruded "equations" is used to signify that the hacker has reached +some sort of neural flow or ambiguous destination. I cringed for +Swordfish and Jurassic Park as well. I cheered when Trinity in The +Matrix used nmap and ssh (and so did you). Then I cringed again when I +saw that inevitably, Hollywood had decided that nmap was the thing to +use for all its hacker scenes (see Bourne Ultimatum, Die Hard 4, Girl +with Dragon Tattoo, The Listening, 13: Game of Death, Battle Royale, +Broken Saints, and on and on). In Tron, the hacker was not supposed to +be snooping around on a network; he was supposed to kill a process. So +we went with posix kill and also had him pipe ps into grep. I also ended +up using emacs eshell to make the terminal more l33t. The team was +delighted to see my emacs performance -- splitting the editor into +nested panes and running different modes. I was tickled that I got emacs +into a block buster movie. I actually do use emacs irl, and although I +do not subscribe to alt.religion.emacs, I think that's all incredibly +relevant to the world of Tron. + +![](http://cdn.jtn.im/178/TRON_GFX_BR_07.JPG) + +![](http://cdn.jtn.im/178/TRON_GFX_BR_04.JPG) + +HexVirus is a spherical map of the globe that features vector outlines +of the continents. These continent vectors are slowly eaten away by a +more hexagonal representation. Algorithmically, this is a path stepping +function which looks ahead for the closest matching 60-degree turns. The +HexVirus globe was used in the executive board meeting scene, and also +inside the grid as a visual aid in CLU's maniacal plan presentation. In +the board room interface, the globe element is surrounded by the lovely +work of my team. + +![](http://cdn.jtn.im/178/TRON_GFX_BR_01.JPG) + +![](http://cdn.jtn.im/178/TRON_GFX_BR_02.JPG) + +![](http://cdn.jtn.im/178/TRON_GFX_BR_03.JPG) + +The scoreboard was the first element I worked on. I created a +line-generator that produced bursts of lines which turned at adjustable +angles. The line generator had "radial mode" which arranged the geometry +in concentric circle form. This line generator was used to generate +generic elements and layers of style in different things, and is a GMUNK +favorite. At this point, I found myself moving to multisampled FBOs +because the non-antialiased polygons were just too ugly to work with, +and we needed to make film-resolution renders. In fact, this is the +highst res I've ever seen my apps render. + +![](http://cdn.jtn.im/178/TRON_GFX_DG_03.JPG) + +![](http://cdn.jtn.im/178/TRON_GFX_DG_04.JPG) + +![](http://cdn.jtn.im/178/TRON_GFX_DG_16.JPG) + +Fireworks, mmmm. I started with a regular physics simulation where a +particle has an upward force applied at birth, sending it upward while +gravity pulls it back down resulting in a parabola. I then added +particle-children, followed by various artistic styles, including what +our team has called "egyptian" across several jobs -- which is a +side-stepping behavior. We were trying to create fireworks that looked +enough like real fireworks but had interesting techno-aesthetic. As a +homage to the original Tron character Bit, we used icosahedrons, +dodecahedrons, and similar. I was disappointed that Bit isn't in this +one. After doing this simulation, I've grown more aware of how often +fireworks are used in movies. + +![](http://cdn.jtn.im/178/TRON_GFX_FW_01.JPG) + +![](http://cdn.jtn.im/178/TRON_GFX_FW_03.JPG) + +![](http://cdn.jtn.im/178/TRON_GFX_FW_04.JPG) + +![](http://cdn.jtn.im/178/TRON_GFX_FW_05.JPG) + +![](http://cdn.jtn.im/178/TRON_GFX_FW_06.JPG) + +![](http://cdn.jtn.im/178/TRON_GFX_FW_poster.JPG) + +For the portal climax, the TronLines app was used, but also apps like +"Twist" from our team's previous jobs. Once the look was mocked up by +gmunk, a houdini artist recreated the rig for deeper control. + +![](http://cdn.jtn.im/178/TRON_GFX_PC_03.JPG) + +![](http://cdn.jtn.im/178/TRON_GFX_PC_04.JPG) + +![](http://cdn.jtn.im/178/TRON_GFX_PC_05.JPG) + +![](http://cdn.jtn.im/178/TRON_GFX_PC_06.JPG) + +![](http://cdn.jtn.im/178/TRON_GFX_PC_07.JPG) + +![](http://cdn.jtn.im/178/TRON_GFX_PC_09.JPG) + +![](http://cdn.jtn.im/178/TRON_GFX_PC_11.JPG) + +I wrote a particle renderer that could make the head holograms slurp in +and out of the data discs. Special thanks to Keith Pasko for CLUing me +in about using exponential functions to create a sliding-gooey sort of +delay. + +![](http://cdn.jtn.im/178/TRON_GFX_PC_12.JPG) + +![](http://cdn.jtn.im/178/TRON_GFX_RI_01.JPG) + +![](http://cdn.jtn.im/178/TRON_GFX_RI_03.JPG) + +![](http://cdn.jtn.im/178/TRON_GFX_RI_08.JPG) + +![](http://cdn.jtn.im/178/TRON_GFX_RI_poster.JPG) + +When fixing Quorra, there was an element in the DNA interface called the +Quorra Heart which looked like a lava lamp. I generated an isosurface +from a perlin-noise volume, using the marching cubes function found in +the Geometric Tools WildMagic API, a truly wonderful lib for coding +biodigital jazz, among other jazzes. The isosurface was then drawn along +different axes, including concentric spheres. The app was mesmerizing to +stare at. + +![](http://cdn.jtn.im/178/TRON_GFX_SS_04.JPG) + +![](http://cdn.jtn.im/178/TRON_GFX_SS_24.JPG) + +![](http://cdn.jtn.im/178/TRON_GFX_SS_25.JPG) + +![](http://cdn.jtn.im/178/TRON_GFX_SS_26.JPG) + +![](http://cdn.jtn.im/178/TRON_GFX_SS_27.JPG) + +After this project, I was fed up enough with wxWidgets and Carbon that I +was ready to author my own OpenGL based UI. The most important thing I +could use is a floating-point slider. I also got irritated with the way +the Carbon sliders would not slide all the way to the minimum and +maximum values. It totally messed with my zen thing. Also, after a job +like this, it's clear that a member of the Processing community working +within a CG community is greatly restricted by the differences of +realtime graphics rendering engines, and that probably messes with an +art director's zen thing. + +"TRON: Legacy" © Disney Enterprises, Inc. All Rights Reserved. diff --git a/_stories/2010/5587645.md b/_stories/2010/5587645.md index 0698989..558603b 100644 --- a/_stories/2010/5587645.md +++ b/_stories/2010/5587645.md @@ -19,149 +19,242 @@ _tags: objectID: '5587645' --- -[Source](http://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/20/magazine/20pacemaker-t.html?partner=rss&emc=rss&pagewanted=all&_r=1& "Permalink to A Pacemaker Wrecks a Family's Life - The New York Times") +Now I would look at him and think of Anton Chekhov, who died of +tuberculosis in 1904. “Whenever there is someone in a family who has +long been ill, and hopelessly ill,” he wrote, “there come painful +moments when all timidly, secretly, at the bottom of their hearts long +for his death.” A century later, my mother and I had come to long for +the machine in my father’s chest to fail. -# A Pacemaker Wrecks a Family's Life - The New York Times +Until 2001, my two brothers and I — all living in California — assumed +that our parents would enjoy long, robust old ages capped by some brief, +undefined final illness. Thanks to their own healthful habits and a +panoply of medical advances — vaccines, antibiotics, airport +defibrillators, 911 networks and the like — they weren’t likely to die +prematurely of the pneumonias, influenzas and heart attacks that +decimated previous generations. They walked every day. My mother +practiced yoga. My father was writing a history of his birthplace, a +small South African town. -__NYTimes.com no longer supports Internet Explorer 9 or earlier. Please upgrade your browser. [LEARN MORE »][1] +In short, they were seemingly among the lucky ones for whom the American +medical system, despite its fragmentation, inequity and waste, works +quite well. Medicare and supplemental insurance paid for their +specialists and their trusted Middletown internist, the lean, +bespectacled Robert Fales, who, like them, was skeptical of medical +overdoing. “I bonded with your parents, and you don’t bond with +everybody,” he once told me. “It’s easier to understand someone if they +just tell it like it is from their heart and their soul.” -__Sections __ Home __Search [Skip to content][2] [Skip to navigation][3] [View mobile version][4] +They were also stoics and religious agnostics. They signed living wills +and durable power-of-attorney documents for health care. My mother, who +watched friends die slowly of cancer, had an underlined copy of the +Hemlock Society’s “Final Exit” in her bookcase. Even so, I watched them +lose control of their lives to a set of perverse financial incentives — +for cardiologists, hospitals and especially the manufacturers of +advanced medical devices — skewed to promote maximum treatment. At a +point hard to precisely define, they stopped being beneficiaries of the +war on sudden death and became its victims. -## [ The New York Times ][5] +**Things took their first** unexpected turn on Nov. 13, 2001, when my +father — then 79, pacemakerless and seemingly healthy — collapsed on my +parents’ kitchen floor in Middletown, making burbling sounds. He had +suffered a stroke. -###### [Magazine][5]|What Broke My Father's Heart +He came home six weeks later permanently incapable of completing a +sentence. But as I’ve said, he didn’t give up easily, and he doggedly +learned again how to fasten his belt; to peck out sentences on his +computer; to walk alone, one foot dragging, to the university pool for +water aerobics. He never again put on a shirt without help or looked at +the book he had been writing. One day he haltingly told my mother, “I +don’t know who I am anymore.” -__Search - -Subscribe Now Log In __0 __Settings - -__Close search - -## Site Search Navigation - -Search NYTimes.com - -__Clear this text input - -Go - -## Site Navigation - -## Site Mobile Navigation +His stroke devastated two lives. The day before, my mother was an +upper-middle-class housewife who practiced calligraphy in her spare +time. Afterward, she was one of tens of millions of people in America, +most of them women, who help care for an older family member. Advertisement -Supported by +[Continue reading the main story](#story-continues-4) -### [Magazine][5] +Their numbers grow each day. Thanks to advanced medical technologies, +elderly people now survive repeated health crises that once killed them, +and so the “oldest old” have become the nation’s most rapidly growing +age group. Nearly a third of Americans over 85 have dementia (a +condition whose prevalence rises in direct relationship to longevity). +Half need help with at least one practical, life-sustaining activity, +like getting dressed or making breakfast. Even though a capable woman +was hired to give my dad showers, my 77-year-old mother found herself on +duty more than 80 hours a week. Her blood pressure rose and her weight +fell. On a routine visit to Dr. Fales, she burst into tears. She was put +on sleeping pills and antidepressants. -# What Broke My Father's Heart +My father said he came to believe that she would have been better off if +he had died. “She’d have weeped the weep of a widow,” he told me in his +garbled, poststroke speech, on a walk we took together in the fall of +2002. “And then she would have been all right.” It was hard to tell +which of them was suffering more. -By KATY BUTLERJUNE 18, 2010 +As we shuffled through the fallen leaves that day, I thought of my +father’s father, Ernest Butler. He was 79 when he died in 1965, before +pacemakers, implanted cardiac defibrillators, stents and replacement +heart valves routinely staved off death among the very old. After +completing some long-unfinished chairs, he cleaned his woodshop, had a +heart attack and died two days later in a plain hospital bed. As I held +my dad’s soft, mottled hand, I vainly wished him a similar merciful +death. -[Continue reading the main story][6] Share This Page +A few days before Christmas that year, after a vigorous session of water +exercises, my father developed a painful inguinal (intestinal) hernia. +My mother took him to Fales, who sent them to a local surgeon, who sent +them to a cardiologist for a preoperative clearance. After an +electrocardiogram recorded my father’s slow heartbeat — a longstanding +and symptomless condition not uncommon in the very old — the +cardiologist, John Rogan, refused to clear my dad for surgery unless he +received a pacemaker. -[Continue reading the main story][6] +Without the device, Dr. Rogan told me later, my father could have died +from cardiac arrest during surgery or perhaps within a few months. It +was the second time Rogan had seen my father. The first time, about a +year before, he recommended the device for the same slow heartbeat. That +time, my then-competent and prestroke father expressed extreme +reluctance, on the advice of Fales, who considered it overtreatment. + +My father’s [medical +conservatism](http://www.dartmouthatlas.org/downloads/reports/preference_sensitive.pdf), +I have since learned, is not unusual. According to an analysis by the +Dartmouth Atlas medical-research group, patients are far more likely +than their doctors to reject aggressive treatments when fully informed +of pros, cons and alternatives — information, one study suggests, that +nearly half of patients say they don’t get. And although many doctors +assume that people want to extend their lives, many do not. In a [1997 +study](http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9215332) in The Journal of the +American Geriatrics Society, 30 percent of seriously ill people surveyed +in a hospital said they would “rather die” than live permanently in a +nursing home. In a [2008 +study](http://content.onlinejacc.org/cgi/content/short/52/21/1702) in +The Journal of the American College of Cardiology, 28 percent of +patients with advanced heart failure said they would trade one day of +excellent health for another two years in their current state. + +When Rogan suggested the pacemaker for the second time, my father was +too stroke-damaged to discuss, and perhaps even to weigh, his +trade­offs. The decision fell to my mother — anxious to relieve my +father’s pain, exhausted with caregiving, deferential to doctors and no +expert on high-tech medicine. She said yes. One of the most important +medical decisions of my father’s life was over in minutes. Dr. Fales was +notified by fax. + +**Fales loved my** parents, knew their suffering close at hand, +continued to oppose a pacemaker and wasn’t alarmed by death. If he had +had the chance to sit down with my parents, he could have explained that +the pacemaker’s battery would last 10 years and asked whether my father +wanted to live to be 89 in his nearly mute and dependent state. He could +have discussed the option of using a temporary external pacemaker that, +I later learned, could have seen my dad safely through surgery. But my +mother never consulted Fales. And the system would have effectively +penalized him if she had. Medicare would have paid him a standard +office-visit rate of $54 for what would undoubtedly have been a long +meeting — and nothing for phone calls to work out a plan with Rogan and +the surgeon. + +Advertisement + +[Continue reading the main story](#story-continues-5) + +Medicare has made minor improvements since then, and in the House +version of the health care reform bill debated last year, much better +payments for such conversations were included. But after the provision +was distorted as reimbursement for “death panels,” it was dropped. In my +father’s case, there was only a brief informed-consent process, covering +the boilerplate risks of minor surgery, handled by the general surgeon. + +I believe that my father’s doctors did their best within a +compartmentalized and time-pressured medical system. But in the absence +of any other guiding hand, there is no doubt that economics helped shape +the wider context in which doctors made decisions. Had we been at the +Mayo Clinic — where doctors are salaried, medical records are +electronically organized and care is coordinated by a single doctor — +things might have turned out differently. But Middletown is part of the +fee-for-service medical economy. Doctors peddle their wares on a +piecework basis; communication among them is haphazard; thinking is +often short term; nobody makes money when medical interventions are +declined; and nobody is in charge except the marketplace. + +And so on Jan. 2, 2003, at Middlesex Hospital, the surgeon implanted my +father’s pacemaker using local anesthetic. Medicare paid him $461 and +the hospital a flat fee of about $12,000, of which an estimated $7,500 +went to St. Jude Medical, the maker of the device. The hernia was fixed +a few days later. + +It was a case study in what primary-care doctors have long bemoaned: +that Medicare rewards doctors far better for doing procedures than for +assessing whether they should be done at all. The incentives for +overtreatment continue, said Dr. Ted Epperly, the board chairman of the +American Academy of Family Physicians, because those who profit from +them — specialists, hospitals, drug companies and the medical-device +manufacturers — spend money lobbying Congress and the public to keep it +that way. + +Last year, doctors, hospitals, drug companies, medical-equipment +manufacturers and other medical professionals spent $545 million [on +lobbying](http://Opensecrets.org), according to the Center for +Responsive Politics. This may help explain why researchers estimate that +20 to 30 percent of Medicare’s $510 billion budget goes for unnecessary +tests and treatment. Why cost-containment received short shrift in +health care reform. Why physicians like Fales net an average of $173,000 +a year, while noninvasive cardiologists like Rogan net about $419,000. + +The system rewarded nobody for saying “no” or even “wait” — not even my +frugal, intelligent, Consumer-Reports-reading mother. Medicare and +supplemental insurance covered almost every penny of my father’s +pacemaker. My mother was given more government-mandated consumer +information when she bought a new Camry a year later. + +And so my father’s electronically managed heart — now requiring frequent +monitoring, paid by Medicare — became part of the $24 billion worldwide +cardiac-device industry and an indirect subsidizer of the fiscal health +of American hospitals. The profit margins that manufacturers earn on +cardiac devices is close to 30 percent. Cardiac procedures and +diagnostics generate about 20 percent of hospital revenues and 30 +percent of profits. + +**Shortly after New** Year’s 2003, my mother belatedly called and told +me about the operations, which went off without a hitch. She didn’t call +earlier, she said, because she didn’t want to worry me. My heart sank, +but I said nothing. It is one thing to silently hope that your beloved +father’s heart might fail. It is another to actively abet his death. Photo -![][7] - -The Connecticut home of the author's parents. The photo on the wall is of her parents as a young couple. Credit Eugene Richards for The New York Times - -****One October afternoon three years ago while I was visiting my parents, my mother made a request I dreaded and longed to fulfill. She had just poured me a cup of Earl Grey from her Japanese iron teapot, shaped like a little pumpkin; outside, two cardinals splashed in the birdbath in the weak Connecticut sunlight. Her white hair was gathered at the nape of her neck, and her voice was low. "Please help me get Jeff's pacemaker turned off," she said, using my father's first name. I nodded, and my heart knocked. - -Upstairs, my 85-year-old father, Jeffrey, a retired Wesleyan University professor who suffered from dementia, lay napping in what was once their shared bedroom. Sewn into a hump of skin and muscle below his right clavicle was the pacemaker that helped his heart outlive his brain. The size of a pocket watch, it had kept his heart beating rhythmically for nearly five years. Its battery was expected to last five more. - -After tea, I knew, my mother would help him from his narrow bed with its mattress encased in waterproof plastic. She would take him to the toilet, change his diaper and lead him tottering to the couch, where he would sit mutely for hours, pretending to read Joyce Carol Oates, the book falling in his lap as he stared out the window. - -I don't like describing what dementia did to my father — and indirectly to my mother — without telling you first that my parents loved each other, and I loved them. That my mother, Valerie, could stain a deck and sew an evening dress from a photo in Vogue and thought of my father as her best friend. That my father had never given up easily on anything. +The pacemaker bought my parents two years of limbo, two of purgatory and +two of hell. At first they soldiered on, with my father no better and no +worse. My mother reread Jon Kabat-Zinn’s “Full Catastrophe Living,” +bought a self-help book on patience and rose each morning to meditate. Advertisement -[Continue reading the main story][6] +[Continue reading the main story](#story-continues-6) -Born in South Africa, he lost his left arm in World War II, but built floor-to-ceiling bookcases for our living room; earned a Ph.D. from Oxford; coached rugby; and with my two brothers as crew, sailed his beloved Rhodes 19 on Long Island Sound. When I was a child, he woke me, chortling, with his gloss on a verse from "The Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam": "Awake, my little one! Before life's liquor in its cup be dry!" At bedtime he tucked me in, quoting "Hamlet" : "May flights of angels sing thee to thy rest!" +In 2005, the age-related degeneration that had slowed my father’s heart +attacked his eyes, lungs, bladder and bowels. Clots as narrow as a +single human hair lodged in tiny blood vessels in his brain, killing +clusters of neurons by depriving them of oxygen. Long partly deaf, he +began losing his sight to wet macular degeneration, requiring ocular +injections that cost nearly $2,000 each. A few months later, he forgot +his way home from the university pool. He grew incontinent. He was +collapsing physically, like an ancient, shored-up house. -[Continue reading the main story][8] - -Advertisement - -[Continue reading the main story][9] - -Now I would look at him and think of Anton Chekhov, who died of tuberculosis in 1904. "Whenever there is someone in a family who has long been ill, and hopelessly ill," he wrote, "there come painful moments when all timidly, secretly, at the bottom of their hearts long for his death." A century later, my mother and I had come to long for the machine in my father's chest to fail. - -Until 2001, my two brothers and I — all living in California — assumed that our parents would enjoy long, robust old ages capped by some brief, undefined final illness. Thanks to their own healthful habits and a panoply of medical advances — vaccines, antibiotics, airport defibrillators, 911 networks and the like — they weren't likely to die prematurely of the pneumonias, influenzas and heart attacks that decimated previous generations. They walked every day. My mother practiced yoga. My father was writing a history of his birthplace, a small South African town. - -In short, they were seemingly among the lucky ones for whom the American medical system, despite its fragmentation, inequity and waste, works quite well. Medicare and supplemental insurance paid for their specialists and their trusted Middletown internist, the lean, bespectacled Robert Fales, who, like them, was skeptical of medical overdoing. "I bonded with your parents, and you don't bond with everybody," he once told me. "It's easier to understand someone if they just tell it like it is from their heart and their soul." - -They were also stoics and religious agnostics. They signed living wills and durable power-of-attorney documents for health care. My mother, who watched friends die slowly of cancer, had an underlined copy of the Hemlock Society's "Final Exit" in her bookcase. Even so, I watched them lose control of their lives to a set of perverse financial incentives — for cardiologists, hospitals and especially the manufacturers of advanced medical devices — skewed to promote maximum treatment. At a point hard to precisely define, they stopped being beneficiaries of the war on sudden death and became its victims. - -**Things took their first** unexpected turn on Nov. 13, 2001, when my father — then 79, pacemakerless and seemingly healthy — collapsed on my parents' kitchen floor in Middletown, making burbling sounds. He had suffered a stroke. - -He came home six weeks later permanently incapable of completing a sentence. But as I've said, he didn't give up easily, and he doggedly learned again how to fasten his belt; to peck out sentences on his computer; to walk alone, one foot dragging, to the university pool for water aerobics. He never again put on a shirt without help or looked at the book he had been writing. One day he haltingly told my mother, "I don't know who I am anymore." - -His stroke devastated two lives. The day before, my mother was an upper-middle-class housewife who practiced calligraphy in her spare time. Afterward, she was one of tens of millions of people in America, most of them women, who help care for an older family member. - -Advertisement - -[Continue reading the main story][10] - -Their numbers grow each day. Thanks to advanced medical technologies, elderly people now survive repeated health crises that once killed them, and so the "oldest old" have become the nation's most rapidly growing age group. Nearly a third of Americans over 85 have dementia (a condition whose prevalence rises in direct relationship to longevity). Half need help with at least one practical, life-sustaining activity, like getting dressed or making breakfast. Even though a capable woman was hired to give my dad showers, my 77-year-old mother found herself on duty more than 80 hours a week. Her blood pressure rose and her weight fell. On a routine visit to Dr. Fales, she burst into tears. She was put on sleeping pills and antidepressants. - -My father said he came to believe that she would have been better off if he had died. "She'd have weeped the weep of a widow," he told me in his garbled, poststroke speech, on a walk we took together in the fall of 2002. "And then she would have been all right." It was hard to tell which of them was suffering more. - -As we shuffled through the fallen leaves that day, I thought of my father's father, Ernest Butler. He was 79 when he died in 1965, before pacemakers, implanted cardiac defibrillators, stents and replacement heart valves routinely staved off death among the very old. After completing some long-unfinished chairs, he cleaned his woodshop, had a heart attack and died two days later in a plain hospital bed. As I held my dad's soft, mottled hand, I vainly wished him a similar merciful death. - -A few days before Christmas that year, after a vigorous session of water exercises, my father developed a painful inguinal (intestinal) hernia. My mother took him to Fales, who sent them to a local surgeon, who sent them to a cardiologist for a preoperative clearance. After an electrocardiogram recorded my father's slow heartbeat — a longstanding and symptomless condition not uncommon in the very old — the cardiologist, John Rogan, refused to clear my dad for surgery unless he received a pacemaker. - -Without the device, Dr. Rogan told me later, my father could have died from cardiac arrest during surgery or perhaps within a few months. It was the second time Rogan had seen my father. The first time, about a year before, he recommended the device for the same slow heartbeat. That time, my then-competent and prestroke father expressed extreme reluctance, on the advice of Fales, who considered it overtreatment. - -My father's [medical conservatism][11], I have since learned, is not unusual. According to an analysis by the Dartmouth Atlas medical-research group, patients are far more likely than their doctors to reject aggressive treatments when fully informed of pros, cons and alternatives — information, one study suggests, that nearly half of patients say they don't get. And although many doctors assume that people want to extend their lives, many do not. In a [1997 study][12] in The Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 30 percent of seriously ill people surveyed in a hospital said they would "rather die" than live permanently in a nursing home. In a [2008 study][13] in The Journal of the American College of Cardiology, 28 percent of patients with advanced heart failure said they would trade one day of excellent health for another two years in their current state. - -When Rogan suggested the pacemaker for the second time, my father was too stroke-damaged to discuss, and perhaps even to weigh, his trade­offs. The decision fell to my mother — anxious to relieve my father's pain, exhausted with caregiving, deferential to doctors and no expert on high-tech medicine. She said yes. One of the most important medical decisions of my father's life was over in minutes. Dr. Fales was notified by fax. - -**Fales loved my **parents, knew their suffering close at hand, continued to oppose a pacemaker and wasn't alarmed by death. If he had had the chance to sit down with my parents, he could have explained that the pacemaker's battery would last 10 years and asked whether my father wanted to live to be 89 in his nearly mute and dependent state. He could have discussed the option of using a temporary external pacemaker that, I later learned, could have seen my dad safely through surgery. But my mother never consulted Fales. And the system would have effectively penalized him if she had. Medicare would have paid him a standard office-visit rate of $54 for what would undoubtedly have been a long meeting — and nothing for phone calls to work out a plan with Rogan and the surgeon. - -Advertisement - -[Continue reading the main story][14] - -Medicare has made minor improvements since then, and in the House version of the health care reform bill debated last year, much better payments for such conversations were included. But after the provision was distorted as reimbursement for "death panels," it was dropped. In my father's case, there was only a brief informed-consent process, covering the boilerplate risks of minor surgery, handled by the general surgeon. - -I believe that my father's doctors did their best within a compartmentalized and time-pressured medical system. But in the absence of any other guiding hand, there is no doubt that economics helped shape the wider context in which doctors made decisions. Had we been at the Mayo Clinic — where doctors are salaried, medical records are electronically organized and care is coordinated by a single doctor — things might have turned out differently. But Middletown is part of the fee-for-service medical economy. Doctors peddle their wares on a piecework basis; communication among them is haphazard; thinking is often short term; nobody makes money when medical interventions are declined; and nobody is in charge except the marketplace. - -And so on Jan. 2, 2003, at Middlesex Hospital, the surgeon implanted my father's pacemaker using local anesthetic. Medicare paid him $461 and the hospital a flat fee of about $12,000, of which an estimated $7,500 went to St. Jude Medical, the maker of the device. The hernia was fixed a few days later. - -It was a case study in what primary-care doctors have long bemoaned: that Medicare rewards doctors far better for doing procedures than for assessing whether they should be done at all. The incentives for overtreatment continue, said Dr. Ted Epperly, the board chairman of the American Academy of Family Physicians, because those who profit from them — specialists, hospitals, drug companies and the medical-device manufacturers — spend money lobbying Congress and the public to keep it that way. - -Last year, doctors, hospitals, drug companies, medical-equipment manufacturers and other medical professionals spent $545 million [on lobbying][15], according to the Center for Responsive Politics. This may help explain why researchers estimate that 20 to 30 percent of Medicare's $510 billion budget goes for unnecessary tests and treatment. Why cost-containment received short shrift in health care reform. Why physicians like Fales net an average of $173,000 a year, while noninvasive cardiologists like Rogan net about $419,000. - -The system rewarded nobody for saying "no" or even "wait" — not even my frugal, intelligent, Consumer-Reports-reading mother. Medicare and supplemental insurance covered almost every penny of my father's pacemaker. My mother was given more government-mandated consumer information when she bought a new Camry a year later. - -And so my father's electronically managed heart — now requiring frequent monitoring, paid by Medicare — became part of the $24 billion worldwide cardiac-device industry and an indirect subsidizer of the fiscal health of American hospitals. The profit margins that manufacturers earn on cardiac devices is close to 30 percent. Cardiac procedures and diagnostics generate about 20 percent of hospital revenues and 30 percent of profits. - -**Shortly after New **Year's 2003, my mother belatedly called and told me about the operations, which went off without a hitch. She didn't call earlier, she said, because she didn't want to worry me. My heart sank, but I said nothing. It is one thing to silently hope that your beloved father's heart might fail. It is another to actively abet his death. - -Photo - -![][16] - -Katy Butler sorting through her parents' belongings after their deaths. Credit Eugene Richards for The New York Times - -The pacemaker bought my parents two years of limbo, two of purgatory and two of hell. At first they soldiered on, with my father no better and no worse. My mother reread Jon Kabat-Zinn's "Full Catastrophe Living," bought a self-help book on patience and rose each morning to meditate. - -Advertisement - -[Continue reading the main story][17] - -In 2005, the age-related degeneration that had slowed my father's heart attacked his eyes, lungs, bladder and bowels. Clots as narrow as a single human hair lodged in tiny blood vessels in his brain, killing clusters of neurons by depriving them of oxygen. Long partly deaf, he began losing his sight to wet macular degeneration, requiring ocular injections that cost nearly $2,000 each. A few months later, he forgot his way home from the university pool. He grew incontinent. He was collapsing physically, like an ancient, shored-up house. - -In the summer of 2006, he fell in the driveway and suffered a brain hemorrhage. Not long afterward, he spent a full weekend compulsively brushing and rebrushing his teeth. "The Jeff I married . . . is no longer the same person," my mother wrote in the journal a social worker had suggested she keep. "My life is in ruins. This is horrible, and I have lasted for five years." His pacemaker kept on ticking. +In the summer of 2006, he fell in the driveway and suffered a brain +hemorrhage. Not long afterward, he spent a full weekend compulsively +brushing and rebrushing his teeth. “The Jeff I married . . . is no +longer the same person,” my mother wrote in the journal a social worker +had suggested she keep. “My life is in ruins. This is horrible, and I +have lasted for five years.” His pacemaker kept on ticking. ## Newsletter Sign Up -[Continue reading the main story][18] +[Continue reading the main story](#continues-post-newsletter) ### @@ -171,343 +264,277 @@ Invalid email address. Please re-enter. You must select a newsletter to subscribe to. -Sign Up - -You agree to receive occasional updates and special offers for The New York Times's products and services. +You agree to receive occasional updates and special offers for The New +York Times's products and services. ### Thank you for subscribing. ### An error has occurred. Please try again later. -### You are already subscribed to this email. +[View all New York Times newsletters.](/newsletters) -[View all New York Times newsletters.][19] +When bioethicists debate life-extending technologies, the effects on +people like my mother rarely enter the calculus. But a 2007 Ohio State +University study of the DNA of family caregivers of people with +Alzheimer’s disease showed that the ends of their chromosomes, called +telomeres, had degraded enough to reflect a four-to-eight-year +[shortening of +lifespan](http://www.jimmunol.org/cgi/content/full/179/6/4249). By that +reckoning, every year that the pacemaker gave my irreparably damaged +father took from my then-vigorous mother an equal year. -* [See Sample][20] -* [Manage Email Preferences][21] -* [Not you?][22] -* [Privacy Policy][23] -* Opt out or [contact us][24] anytime +When my mother was upset, she meditated or cleaned house. When I was +upset, I Googled. In 2006, I discovered that pacemakers could be +deactivated without surgery. Nurses, doctors and even device salesmen +had done so, usually at deathbeds. A white ceramic device, like a TV +remote and shaped like the wands that children use to blow bubbles, +could be placed around the hump on my father’s chest. Press a few +buttons and the electrical pulses that ran down the leads to his heart +would slow until they were no longer effective. My father’s heart, I +learned, would probably not stop. It would just return to its old, slow +rhythm. If he was lucky, he might suffer cardiac arrest and die within +weeks, perhaps in his sleep. If he was unlucky, he might linger +painfully for months while his lagging heart failed to suffuse his vital +organs with sufficient oxygenated blood. -When bioethicists debate life-extending technologies, the effects on people like my mother rarely enter the calculus. But a 2007 Ohio State University study of the DNA of family caregivers of people with Alzheimer's disease showed that the ends of their chromosomes, called telomeres, had degraded enough to reflect a four-to-eight-year [shortening of lifespan][25]. By that reckoning, every year that the pacemaker gave my irreparably damaged father took from my then-vigorous mother an equal year. +If we did nothing, his pacemaker would not stop for years. Like the +tireless charmed brooms in Disney’s “Fantasia,” it would prompt my +father’s heart to beat after he became too demented to speak, sit up or +eat. It would keep his heart pulsing after he drew his last breath. If +he was buried, it would send signals to his dead heart in the coffin. If +he was cremated, it would have to be cut from his chest first, to +prevent it from exploding and damaging the walls or hurting an +attendant. -When my mother was upset, she meditated or cleaned house. When I was upset, I Googled. In 2006, I discovered that pacemakers could be deactivated without surgery. Nurses, doctors and even device salesmen had done so, usually at deathbeds. A white ceramic device, like a TV remote and shaped like the wands that children use to blow bubbles, could be placed around the hump on my father's chest. Press a few buttons and the electrical pulses that ran down the leads to his heart would slow until they were no longer effective. My father's heart, I learned, would probably not stop. It would just return to its old, slow rhythm. If he was lucky, he might suffer cardiac arrest and die within weeks, perhaps in his sleep. If he was unlucky, he might linger painfully for months while his lagging heart failed to suffuse his vital organs with sufficient oxygenated blood. +**On the Internet,** I discovered that the pacemaker — somewhat like the +ventilator, defibrillator and feeding tube — was first an exotic, +stopgap device, used to carry a handful of patients through a brief +medical crisis. Then it morphed into a battery-powered, implantable and +routine treatment. When Medicare approved the pacemaker for +reimbursement in 1966, the market exploded. Today pacemakers are +implanted annually in more than 400,000 Americans, about 80 percent of +whom are over 65. According to calculations by the Dartmouth Atlas +research group using Medicare data, nearly a fifth of new recipients who +receive pacemakers annually — 76,000 — are over 80. The typical patient +with a cardiac device today is an elderly person suffering from at least +one other severe chronic illness. -If we did nothing, his pacemaker would not stop for years. Like the tireless charmed brooms in Disney's "Fantasia," it would prompt my father's heart to beat after he became too demented to speak, sit up or eat. It would keep his heart pulsing after he drew his last breath. If he was buried, it would send signals to his dead heart in the coffin. If he was cremated, it would have to be cut from his chest first, to prevent it from exploding and damaging the walls or hurting an attendant. +Over the years, as technology has improved, the battery life of these +devices lengthened. The list of heart conditions for which they are +recommended has grown. In 1984, the treatment guidelines from the +American College of Cardiology declared that pacemakers were strongly +recommended as “indicated” or mildly approved as “reasonable” for 56 +heart conditions and “not indicated” for 31 more. By 2008, the list for +which they were strongly or mildly recommended expanded to 88, with most +of the increase in the lukewarm “reasonable” category. -**On the Internet, **I discovered that the pacemaker — somewhat like the ventilator, defibrillator and feeding tube — was first an exotic, stopgap device, used to carry a handful of patients through a brief medical crisis. Then it morphed into a battery-powered, implantable and routine treatment. When Medicare approved the pacemaker for reimbursement in 1966, the market exploded. Today pacemakers are implanted annually in more than 400,000 Americans, about 80 percent of whom are over 65. According to calculations by the Dartmouth Atlas research group using Medicare data, nearly a fifth of new recipients who receive pacemakers annually — 76,000 — are over 80. The typical patient with a cardiac device today is an elderly person suffering from at least one other severe chronic illness. - -Over the years, as technology has improved, the battery life of these devices lengthened. The list of heart conditions for which they are recommended has grown. In 1984, the treatment guidelines from the American College of Cardiology declared that pacemakers were strongly recommended as "indicated" or mildly approved as "reasonable" for 56 heart conditions and "not indicated" for 31 more. By 2008, the list for which they were strongly or mildly recommended expanded to 88, with most of the increase in the lukewarm "reasonable" category. - -The [research backing][26] the expansion of diagnoses was weak. Over all, only 5 percent of the positive recommendations were supported by research from multiple double-blind randomized studies, the gold standard of evidence-based medicine. And 58 percent were based on no studies at all, only a "consensus of expert opinion." Of the 17 cardiologists who wrote the 2008 guidelines, 11 received financing from cardiac-device makers or worked at institutions receiving it. Seven, due to the extent of their financial connections, were recused from voting on the guidelines they helped write. +The [research +backing](http://jama.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/301/8/831) the +expansion of diagnoses was weak. Over all, only 5 percent of the +positive recommendations were supported by research from multiple +double-blind randomized studies, the gold standard of evidence-based +medicine. And 58 percent were based on no studies at all, only a +“consensus of expert opinion.” Of the 17 cardiologists who wrote the +2008 guidelines, 11 received financing from cardiac-device makers or +worked at institutions receiving it. Seven, due to the extent of their +financial connections, were recused from voting on the guidelines they +helped write. Advertisement -[Continue reading the main story][27] +[Continue reading the main story](#story-continues-7) -This pattern — a paucity of scientific support and a plethora of industry connections — holds across almost all cardiac treatments, according to the cardiologist Pierluigi Tricoci of Duke University's Clinical Research Institute. Last year in The Journal of the American Medical Association, Tricoci and his co-authors wrote that only 11 percent of 2,700 widely used cardiac-treatment guidelines were based on that gold standard. Most were based only on expert opinion. +This pattern — a paucity of scientific support and a plethora of +industry connections — holds across almost all cardiac treatments, +according to the cardiologist Pierluigi Tricoci of Duke University’s +Clinical Research Institute. Last year in The Journal of the American +Medical Association, Tricoci and his co-authors wrote that only 11 +percent of 2,700 widely used cardiac-treatment guidelines were based on +that gold standard. Most were based only on expert opinion. -Experts are as vulnerable to conflicts of interest as researchers are, the authors warned, because "expert clinicians are also those who are likely to receive honoraria, speakers bureau [fees], consulting fees or research support from industry." They called the current cardiac-research agenda "strongly influenced by industry's natural desire to introduce new products." +Experts are as vulnerable to conflicts of interest as researchers are, +the authors warned, because “expert clinicians are also those who are +likely to receive honoraria, speakers bureau \[fees\], consulting fees +or research support from industry.” They called the current +cardiac-research agenda “strongly influenced by industry’s natural +desire to introduce new products.” -Perhaps it's no surprise that I also discovered others puzzling over cardiologists who recommended pacemakers for relatives with advanced dementia. "78-year-old mother-in-law has dementia; severe short-term memory issues," read an Internet post by "soninlaw" on Elderhope.com, a caregivers' site, in 2007. "On a routine trip to her cardiologist, doctor decides she needs a pacemaker. . . . Anyone have a similar encounter?" +Perhaps it’s no surprise that I also discovered others puzzling over +cardiologists who recommended pacemakers for relatives with advanced +dementia. “78-year-old mother-in-law has dementia; severe short-term +memory issues,” read an Internet post by “soninlaw” on Elderhope.com, a +caregivers’ site, in 2007. “On a routine trip to her cardiologist, +doctor decides she needs a pacemaker. . . . Anyone have a similar +encounter?” -By the summer of 2007, my dad had forgotten the purpose of a dinner napkin and had to be coached to remove his slippers before he tried to put on his shoes. After a lifetime of promoting my father's health, my mother reversed course. On a routine visit, she asked Rogan to deactivate the pacemaker. "It was hard," she later told me. "I was doing for Jeff what I would have wanted Jeff to do for me." Rogan soon made it clear he was morally opposed. "It would have been like putting a pillow over your father's head," he later told me. +By the summer of 2007, my dad had forgotten the purpose of a dinner +napkin and had to be coached to remove his slippers before he tried to +put on his shoes. After a lifetime of promoting my father’s health, my +mother reversed course. On a routine visit, she asked Rogan to +deactivate the pacemaker. “It was hard,” she later told me. “I was doing +for Jeff what I would have wanted Jeff to do for me.” Rogan soon made it +clear he was morally opposed. “It would have been like putting a pillow +over your father’s head,” he later told me. -Not long afterward, my mother declined additional medical tests and refused to put my father on a new anti-dementia drug and a blood thinner with troublesome side effects. "I take responsibility for whatever," she wrote in her journal that summer. "Enough of all this overkill! It's killing me! Talk about quality of life — what about mine?" +Not long afterward, my mother declined additional medical tests and +refused to put my father on a new anti-dementia drug and a blood thinner +with troublesome side effects. “I take responsibility for whatever,” she +wrote in her journal that summer. “Enough of all this overkill\! It’s +killing me\! Talk about quality of life — what about mine?” -**Then came the **autumn day when she asked for my help, and I said yes. I told myself that we were simply trying to undo a terrible medical mistake. I reminded myself that my dad had rejected a pacemaker when his faculties were intact. I imagined, as a bioethicist had suggested, having a 15-minute conversation with my independent, predementia father in which I saw him shaking his head in horror over any further extension of what was not a "life," but a prolonged and attenuated dying. None of it helped. I knew that once he died, I would dream of him and miss his mute, loving smiles. I wanted to melt into the arms of the father I once had and ask him to handle this. Instead, I felt as if I were signing on as his executioner and that I had no choice. +**Then came the** autumn day when she asked for my help, and I said yes. +I told myself that we were simply trying to undo a terrible medical +mistake. I reminded myself that my dad had rejected a pacemaker when his +faculties were intact. I imagined, as a bioethicist had suggested, +having a 15-minute conversation with my independent, predementia father +in which I saw him shaking his head in horror over any further extension +of what was not a “life,” but a prolonged and attenuated dying. None of +it helped. I knew that once he died, I would dream of him and miss his +mute, loving smiles. I wanted to melt into the arms of the father I once +had and ask him to handle this. Instead, I felt as if I were signing on +as his executioner and that I had no choice. -Over the next five months, my mother and I learned many things. We were told, by the Hemlock Society's successor, Compassion and Choices, that as my father's medical proxy, my mother had the legal right to ask for the withdrawal of any treatment and that the pacemaker was, in theory at least, a form of medical treatment. We learned that although my father's living will requested no life support if he were comatose or dying, it said nothing about dementia and did not define a pacemaker as life support. We learned that if we called 911, emergency medical technicians would not honor my father's do-not-resuscitate order unless he wore a state-issued orange hospital bracelet. We also learned that no cardiology association had given its members clear guidance on when, or whether, deactivating pacemakers was ethical. +Over the next five months, my mother and I learned many things. We were +told, by the Hemlock Society’s successor, Compassion and Choices, that +as my father’s medical proxy, my mother had the legal right to ask for +the withdrawal of any treatment and that the pacemaker was, in theory at +least, a form of medical treatment. We learned that although my father’s +living will requested no life support if he were comatose or dying, it +said nothing about dementia and did not define a pacemaker as life +support. We learned that if we called 911, emergency medical technicians +would not honor my father’s do-not-resuscitate order unless he wore a +state-issued orange hospital bracelet. We also learned that no +cardiology association had given its members clear guidance on when, or +whether, deactivating pacemakers was ethical. -(Last month that changed. The Heart Rhythm Society and the American Heart Association issued guidelines declaring that patients or their legal surrogates have the moral and legal right to request the withdrawal of any medical treatment, including an implanted cardiac device. It said that deactivating a pacemaker was neither euthanasia nor assisted suicide, and that a doctor could not be compelled to do so in violation of his moral values. In such cases, it continued, doctors "cannot abandon the patient but should involve a colleague who is willing to carry out the procedure." This came, of course, too late for us.) +(Last month that changed. The Heart Rhythm Society and the American +Heart Association issued guidelines declaring that patients or their +legal surrogates have the moral and legal right to request the +withdrawal of any medical treatment, including an implanted cardiac +device. It said that deactivating a pacemaker was neither euthanasia nor +assisted suicide, and that a doctor could not be compelled to do so in +violation of his moral values. In such cases, it continued, doctors +“cannot abandon the patient but should involve a colleague who is +willing to carry out the procedure.” This came, of course, too late for +us.) Advertisement -[Continue reading the main story][28] +[Continue reading the main story](#story-continues-8) -In the spring of 2008, things got even worse. My father took to roaring like a lion at his caregivers. At home in California, I searched the Internet for a sympathetic cardiologist and a caregiver to put my Dad to bed at night. My frayed mother began to shout at him, and their nighttime scenes were heartbreaking and frightening. An Alzheimer's Association support-group leader suggested that my brothers and I fly out together and institutionalize my father. This leader did not know my mother's formidable will and had never heard her speak about her wedding vows or her love. +In the spring of 2008, things got even worse. My father took to roaring +like a lion at his caregivers. At home in California, I searched the +Internet for a sympathetic cardiologist and a caregiver to put my Dad to +bed at night. My frayed mother began to shout at him, and their +nighttime scenes were heartbreaking and frightening. An Alzheimer’s +Association support-group leader suggested that my brothers and I fly +out together and institutionalize my father. This leader did not know my +mother’s formidable will and had never heard her speak about her wedding +vows or her love. -Meanwhile my father drifted into what nurses call "the dwindles": not sick enough to qualify for hospice care, but sick enough to never get better. He fell repeatedly at night and my mother could not pick him up. Finally, he was weak enough to qualify for palliative care, and a team of nurses and social workers visited the house. His chest grew wheezy. My mother did not request antibiotics. In mid-April 2008, he was taken by ambulance to Middlesex Hospital's hospice wing, suffering from pneumonia. +Meanwhile my father drifted into what nurses call “the dwindles”: not +sick enough to qualify for hospice care, but sick enough to never get +better. He fell repeatedly at night and my mother could not pick him up. +Finally, he was weak enough to qualify for palliative care, and a team +of nurses and social workers visited the house. His chest grew wheezy. +My mother did not request antibiotics. In mid-April 2008, he was taken +by ambulance to Middlesex Hospital’s hospice wing, suffering from +pneumonia. -Pneumonia was once called "the old man's friend" for its promise of an easy death. That's not what I saw when I flew in. On morphine, unreachable, his eyes shut, my beloved father was breathing as hard and regularly as a machine. +Pneumonia was once called “the old man’s friend” for its promise of an +easy death. That’s not what I saw when I flew in. On morphine, +unreachable, his eyes shut, my beloved father was breathing as hard and +regularly as a machine. -My mother sat holding his hand, weeping and begging for forgiveness for her impatience. She sat by him in agony. She beseeched his doctors and nurses to increase his morphine dose and to turn off the pacemaker. It was a weekend, and the doctor on call at Rogan's cardiology practice refused authorization, saying that my father "might die immediately." And so came five days of hard labor. My mother and I stayed by him in shifts, while his breathing became increasingly ragged and his feet slowly started to turn blue. I began drafting an appeal to the hospital ethics committee. My brothers flew in. +My mother sat holding his hand, weeping and begging for forgiveness for +her impatience. She sat by him in agony. She beseeched his doctors and +nurses to increase his morphine dose and to turn off the pacemaker. It +was a weekend, and the doctor on call at Rogan’s cardiology practice +refused authorization, saying that my father “might die immediately.” +And so came five days of hard labor. My mother and I stayed by him in +shifts, while his breathing became increasingly ragged and his feet +slowly started to turn blue. I began drafting an appeal to the hospital +ethics committee. My brothers flew in. -On a Tuesday afternoon, with my mother at his side, my father stopped breathing. A hospice nurse hung a blue light on the outside of his hospital door. Inside his chest, his pacemaker was still quietly pulsing. +On a Tuesday afternoon, with my mother at his side, my father stopped +breathing. A hospice nurse hung a blue light on the outside of his +hospital door. Inside his chest, his pacemaker was still quietly +pulsing. -After his memorial service in the Wesleyan University chapel, I carried a box from the crematory into the woods of an old convent where he and I often walked. It was late April, overcast and cold. By the side of a stream, I opened the box, scooped out a handful of ashes and threw them into the swirling water. There were some curious spiraled metal wires, perhaps the leads of his pacemaker, mixed with the white dust and pieces of bone. +After his memorial service in the Wesleyan University chapel, I carried +a box from the crematory into the woods of an old convent where he and I +often walked. It was late April, overcast and cold. By the side of a +stream, I opened the box, scooped out a handful of ashes and threw them +into the swirling water. There were some curious spiraled metal wires, +perhaps the leads of his pacemaker, mixed with the white dust and pieces +of bone. -**A year later,** I took my mother to meet a heart surgeon in a windowless treatment room at Brigham and Women's Hospital in Boston. She was 84, with two leaking heart valves. Her cardiologist had recommended open-heart surgery, and I was hoping to find a less invasive approach. When the surgeon asked us why we were there, my mother said, "To ask questions." She was no longer a trusting and deferential patient. Like me, she no longer saw doctors — perhaps with the exception of Fales — as healers or her fiduciaries. They were now skilled technicians with their own agendas. But I couldn't help feeling that something precious — our old faith in a doctor's calling, perhaps, or in a healing that is more than a financial transaction or a reflexive fixing of broken parts — had been lost. +**A year later,** I took my mother to meet a heart surgeon in a +windowless treatment room at Brigham and Women’s Hospital in Boston. She +was 84, with two leaking heart valves. Her cardiologist had recommended +open-heart surgery, and I was hoping to find a less invasive approach. +When the surgeon asked us why we were there, my mother said, “To ask +questions.” She was no longer a trusting and deferential patient. Like +me, she no longer saw doctors — perhaps with the exception of Fales — as +healers or her fiduciaries. They were now skilled technicians with their +own agendas. But I couldn’t help feeling that something precious — our +old faith in a doctor’s calling, perhaps, or in a healing that is more +than a financial transaction or a reflexive fixing of broken parts — had +been lost. -The surgeon was forthright: without open-heart surgery, there was a 50-50 chance my mother would die within two years. If she survived the operation, she would probably live to be 90. And the risks? He shrugged. Months of recovery. A 5 percent chance of stroke. Some possibility, he acknowledged at my prompting, of postoperative cognitive decline. (More than half of heart-bypass patients suffer at least a 20 percent reduction in mental function.) My mother lifted her trouser leg to reveal an anklet of orange plastic: her do-not-resuscitate bracelet. The doctor recoiled. No, he would not operate with that bracelet in place. It would not be fair to his team. She would be revived if she collapsed. "If I have a stroke," my mother said, nearly in tears, "I want you to let me go." What about a minor stroke, he said — a little weakness on one side? +The surgeon was forthright: without open-heart surgery, there was a +50-50 chance my mother would die within two years. If she survived the +operation, she would probably live to be 90. And the risks? He shrugged. +Months of recovery. A 5 percent chance of stroke. Some possibility, he +acknowledged at my prompting, of postoperative cognitive decline. (More +than half of heart-bypass patients suffer at least a 20 percent +reduction in mental function.) My mother lifted her trouser leg to +reveal an anklet of orange plastic: her do-not-resuscitate bracelet. The +doctor recoiled. No, he would not operate with that bracelet in place. +It would not be fair to his team. She would be revived if she collapsed. +“If I have a stroke,” my mother said, nearly in tears, “I want you to +let me go.” What about a minor stroke, he said — a little weakness on +one side? Advertisement -[Continue reading the main story][29] +[Continue reading the main story](#story-continues-9) -I kept my mouth shut. I was there to get her the information she needed and to support whatever decision she made. If she emerged from surgery intellectually damaged, I would bring her to a nursing home in California and try to care for her the way she had cared for my father at such cost to her own health. The thought terrified me. +I kept my mouth shut. I was there to get her the information she needed +and to support whatever decision she made. If she emerged from surgery +intellectually damaged, I would bring her to a nursing home in +California and try to care for her the way she had cared for my father +at such cost to her own health. The thought terrified me. -The doctor sent her up a floor for an echocardiogram. A half-hour later, my mother came back to the waiting room and put on her black coat. "No," she said brightly, with the clarity of purpose she had shown when she asked me to have the pacemaker deactivated. "I will not do it." +The doctor sent her up a floor for an echocardiogram. A half-hour later, +my mother came back to the waiting room and put on her black coat. “No,” +she said brightly, with the clarity of purpose she had shown when she +asked me to have the pacemaker deactivated. “I will not do it.” -She spent the spring and summer arranging house repairs, thinning out my father's bookcases and throwing out the files he collected so lovingly for the book he never finished writing. She told someone that she didn't want to leave a mess for her kids. Her chest pain worsened, and her breathlessness grew severe. "I'm aching to garden," she wrote in her journal. "But so it goes. ACCEPT ACCEPT ACCEPT." +She spent the spring and summer arranging house repairs, thinning out my +father’s bookcases and throwing out the files he collected so lovingly +for the book he never finished writing. She told someone that she didn’t +want to leave a mess for her kids. Her chest pain worsened, and her +breathlessness grew severe. “I’m aching to garden,” she wrote in her +journal. “But so it goes. ACCEPT ACCEPT ACCEPT.” -Last August, she had a heart attack and returned home under hospice care. One evening a month later, another heart attack. One of my brothers followed her ambulance to the hospice wing where we had sat for days by my father's bed. The next morning, she took off her silver earrings and told the nurses she wanted to stop eating and drinking, that she wanted to die and never go home. Death came to her an hour later, while my brother was on the phone to me in California — almost as mercifully as it had come to my paternal grandfather. She was continent and lucid to her end. +Last August, she had a heart attack and returned home under hospice +care. One evening a month later, another heart attack. One of my +brothers followed her ambulance to the hospice wing where we had sat for +days by my father’s bed. The next morning, she took off her silver +earrings and told the nurses she wanted to stop eating and drinking, +that she wanted to die and never go home. Death came to her an hour +later, while my brother was on the phone to me in California — almost as +mercifully as it had come to my paternal grandfather. She was continent +and lucid to her end. -A week later, at the same crematory near Long Island Sound, my brothers and I watched through a plate-glass window as a cardboard box containing her body, dressed in a scarlet silk _ao dai_ she had sewn herself, slid into the flames. The next day, the undertaker delivered a plastic box to the house where, for 45 of their 61 years together, my parents had loved and looked after each other, humanly and imperfectly. There were no bits of metal mixed with the fine white powder and the small pieces of her bones.__ - -Katy Butler lives in Mill Valley, Calif., and teaches memoir writing at the Esalen Institute in Big Sur. - -A version of this article appears in print on June 20, 2010, on Page MM38 of the Sunday Magazine with the headline: My Father's Broken Heart. [Today's Paper][30]|[Subscribe][31] - -[Continue reading the main story][32] - -[ - -We’re interested in your feedback on this page. **Tell us what you think.** - -][33] - -## Related Coverage - -* [ - -### LETTERS - -## [ Letters: My Father's Broken Heart JULY 16, 2010][34] - -## - -* * * * ## Related Coverage - -1. 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The next day, the undertaker delivered a plastic box to +the house where, for 45 of their 61 years together, my parents had loved +and looked after each other, humanly and imperfectly. There were no bits +of metal mixed with the fine white powder and the small pieces of her +bones.** +[Continue reading the main story](#whats-next) diff --git a/_stories/2010/5628936.md b/_stories/2010/5628936.md index 745ead9..4851500 100644 --- a/_stories/2010/5628936.md +++ b/_stories/2010/5628936.md @@ -19,418 +19,135 @@ _tags: objectID: '5628936' --- -[Source](http://abcnews.go.com/International/Technology/stray-dogs-master-complex-moscow-subway-system/story?id=10145833 "Permalink to Russia: Stray Dogs Master Complex Moscow Subway System - ABC News") +Every so often, if you ride Moscow's crowded subways, you notice that +the commuters around you include a dog - [a stray +dog,](/Travel/BusinessTravel/story?id=4305319&page=1) on its own, just +[using the handy underground +Metro](/Technology/video/moscows-stray-dogs-master-subways-10106879) to +beat the traffic and get from A to B. -# Russia: Stray Dogs Master Complex Moscow Subway System - ABC News +Yes, some of Moscow's stray dogs have figured out how to use the city's +[immense and complex subway +system,](/International/wireStory?id=8928776)getting on and off at their +regular stops. The human commuters around them are so accustomed to it +that they rarely seem to notice. -* [ Sections ][1] - * # Sections +![VIDEO: Russian scientists describe the strays commuting skills and +panhandling +tactics](https://s.abcnews.com/images/Technology/abc_ann_ne_block1_100315_ms.jpg) - * [ Top Stories ][2] - * [ Watch ][3] - * [ U.S. ][4] - * [ International ][5] - * [ Politics ][6] - * [ ABC News Features ][7] - * [ Lifestyle ][8] - * [ Entertainment ][9] - * [ Virtual Reality ][10] - * [ Health ][11] - * [ Technology ][12] - * [ Investigative ][13] - * [ Sports ][14] - * [ Weather ][15] -* [ Shows ][1] - * # Shows +Play - * [ Good Morning America ][16] - * [ World News Tonight ][17] - * [ Nightline ][18] - * [ 20/20 ][19] - * [ This Week ][20] - * [ The View ][21] - * [ What Would You Do? ][22] - * [ ABC News Features ][7] -* [ Live ][1] - * # Live +"In Moscow there are all sorts of stray dogs, but... there are no stupid +dogs," Dr. Andrey Poyarkov, a biologist who has studied Moscow's strays +for 30 years, told ABC News. - * [ Pres. Trump delivers remarks at CPAC conference ][23] - * [ Fla. Gov. Scott announces plans on student safety ][24] - * [ Broward County School Board, community leaders hold news conference ][25] - * [ Dow Jones Industrial Average ][26] - * [ Heavy rain and ice in the Central US: Radar ][27] - * [ Bald eagle tends to her chicks in Big Bear Lake, California ][28] -* [ More ][1] - * [ Privacy Policy ][29] - * [ Your CA Privacy Rights ][30] - * [ Children's Online Privacy Policy ][31] - * [ Interest-Based Ads ][32] - * [ Terms of Use ][33] - * [ Contact Us ][34] - * # Yahoo!-ABC News Network | © 2018 ABC News Internet Ventures. All rights reserved. -* [ Search ][1] - * [Menu][1] +"In Moscow there are all sorts of stray dogs, but... there are no stupid +dogs," Dr. Andrey Poyarkov, a biologist who has studied Moscow's strays +for 30 years, told ABC News. -# [ ][35] +As many as 35,000 [stray dogs](/Health/story?id=8150218&page=1) live in +Russia's capital city. They can be found everywhere, from markets to +construction sites to underground passageways, scrounging for food and +trying to survive. -Interest Successfully Added We'll notify you here with news about AlertTag Turn on desktop notifications for breaking stories about interest? Off On +Taking the subway is just one of many tactics the strays have come up +with for surviving in the manmade wilderness around them. -* [ ][36] +"The street is tough and it's survival of the fittest," says Poyarkov. +"These clever dogs know people much better than people know them." -Notifications +Poyarkov says that only a small fraction of strays have figured out how +to navigate the maze that is Moscow's subway system. - * Notifications For Interests: +[What's most +impressive](/Technology/AmazingAnimals/story?id=7580705&page=1) about +the subway dogs, says Poyarkov's graduate student, Alexei Vereshchagin, +is their ability to deal with the Metro's loud noises and packed crowds, +distractions that domesticated dogs often cannot handle. - * Breaking +**[To keep up with news about Russia follow ABC News' Alex Marquardt on +Twitter](http://twitter.com/MarquardtA)** - * Interests [See All][37] +"It's stressful even for people standing in a crowd," he says, "and the +dogs are lying down so no one is seeing them, so anyone can put feet on +them. But they get used to this." -To save your interests across all devices [Log In][1] or [Sign Up][1] +ABC News found a female stray in the Kievskaya station, and barely +managed to follow her as she zipped between the legs of the bustling +travelers around her to catch a ride on the Koltsevaya Line. -Turn on desktop notifications for breaking news? Off On +Once on board, she settled down on the floor among the feet and legs, +even dozed a bit, and occasionally got up for a brief conversation with +a friendly human. -* [Log In][1] [ ][1] -* [ Video ][3] -* [Live][38] -* [Shows][1] - - * [ Good Morning America Good Morning America ][16] - * [ World News Tonight World News Tonight ][17] - * [ Nightline Nightline ][18] - * [ 20/20 20/20 ][19] - * [ This Week This Week ][20] - * [ The View The View ][21] - * [ What Would You Do? 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All rights reserved. - -[ ][1] - -# Stray Dogs Master Complex Moscow Subway System - -* By ALEX MARQUARDT -* Bill Blakemore - -[ Close ][1] - -[ More from Bill ][39] - -* Ross Eichenholz - -[ Close ][1] - -[ Follow on Twitter ][40] - -[ More from Ross ][41] - -MOSCOW, March 19, 2010 - -* 0 Shares -* [ ][42] -* [ ][43] -* [ ][44] -* [Email ][45] -* Star - -![STRAY DOGS MASTER COMPLEX MOSCOW SUBWAY SYSTEM][46]PlayCourtesy Maxim Marmur - -WATCH Moscow's Stray Dogs Master Using the Subways - -* 0 Shares -* [ ][42] -* [ ][43] -* [ ][44] -* [ Email ][45] - -Every so often, if you ride Moscow's crowded subways, you notice that the commuters around you include a dog - [a stray dog,][47] on its own, just [using the handy underground Metro][48] to beat the traffic and get from A to B. - -Yes, some of Moscow's stray dogs have figured out how to use the city's [immense and complex subway system, ][49]getting on and off at their regular stops. The human commuters around them are so accustomed to it that they rarely seem to notice. - -![VIDEO: Russian scientists describe the strays commuting skills and panhandling tactics][50]Play - -null - -"In Moscow there are all sorts of stray dogs, but... there are no stupid dogs," Dr. Andrey Poyarkov, a biologist who has studied Moscow's strays for 30 years, told ABC News. - -As many as 35,000 [stray dogs][51] live in Russia's capital city. They can be found everywhere, from markets to construction sites to underground passageways, scrounging for food and trying to survive. - -Taking the subway is just one of many tactics the strays have come up with for surviving in the manmade wilderness around them. - -"The street is tough and it's survival of the fittest," says Poyarkov. "These clever dogs know people much better than people know them." - -Poyarkov says that only a small fraction of strays have figured out how to navigate the maze that is Moscow's subway system. - -[What's most impressive][52] about the subway dogs, says Poyarkov's graduate student, Alexei Vereshchagin, is their ability to deal with the Metro's loud noises and packed crowds, distractions that domesticated dogs often cannot handle. - -[**To keep up with news about Russia follow ABC News' Alex Marquardt on Twitter][53] ** - -"It's stressful even for people standing in a crowd," he says, "and the dogs are lying down so no one is seeing them, so anyone can put feet on them. But they get used to this." - -ABC News found a female stray in the Kievskaya station, and barely managed to follow her as she zipped between the legs of the bustling travelers around her to catch a ride on the Koltsevaya Line. - -Once on board, she settled down on the floor among the feet and legs, even dozed a bit, and occasionally got up for a brief conversation with a friendly human. - -She seemed to sense that such close quarters were no place to appear threatening. +She seemed to sense that such close quarters were no place to appear +threatening. ## Animal Intelligence -Author Eugene Linden, who has been writing about [animal intelligence][54] for 40 years, told ABC News that Moscow's resourceful stray dogs are just one of what are now thousands of recorded examples of wild, feral and[ domesticated animals][55] demonstrating what appears, at least, to be what humans might call flexible open-ended reasoning and conscious thought. - -Linden cites a wide variety of creatures ranging from captive orangutans and otters who frequently and slyly "trade" with their keepers, to a [British cat famous for regularly taking the bus][56] to a squirrel in Oklahoma who became a local hero when people began to notice that it regularly obeyed traffic signals when crossing a busy street. - -"The take-away is that animals are not just passive in this," Linden told ABC News. "They are figuring out what we're about and how they can game the system, and work it to their advantage as well." - -Moscow's strays have also been observed obeying traffic lights, says Vereshchagin. He and Poyarkov report the strays have developed a variety of techniques for hunting food in the wild metropolis. - -Sometimes a pack will send out a smaller, cuter member apparently realizing it will be more successful at begging than its bigger, less attractive counterparts. - -Another trick the researchers report seeing is the bark-and-grab: a dog will suddenly jump up behind a person in the street who is holding some snack, enough of a surprise that the food gets dropped for the grabbing. - -The female we followed on the Kievskaya Line seemed at ease as she traveled among all the people packed in around her, and with reason: Moscow's subway strays even have their own statue in the Mendeleyevskaya station. - -It commemorates Malchik, a stray who lived there until he was stabbed by a fashion model in 2002 who didn't like how Malchik barked at her terrier. - -## Learn How to Live With Them - -Outraged Muscovites erected the statue. Passersby now rub the Malchik's shiny bronze nose for good luck. - -Despite this public admiration for the strays and their survival skills, many Muscovites still see the tens of thousands of homeless dogs as a big problem. - -"We have to solve it," Anastasia Markina of the Alliance for Animal Rights of Moscow said. "They're not guilty that they became homeless. We should solve this problem in a humane way." - -There have been sterilization campaigns, and city dogcatchers manage to get some strays into pounds, but it's all had little effect on the overall stray population. - -Vereshchagin thinks that Moscow's residents need to accept the dogs as a part of life in the city. - -"It's not really easy to completely move the dogs out of the streets," he says. "I guess we just have to... learn how to live with them." - -The stray dogs of Moscow - including those who use the subway - have themselves already done a lot to work for peaceful coexistence. -* 0 Shares -* [ ][42] -* [ ][43] -* [ ][44] -* [ Email ][45] -* Star - -Comments - -## Add Interests - -Customize your news feed by choosing the topics that interest you. - -To save your interests across all devices [Log In][1] or [Sign Up »][1] - -# [Stray Dogs Master Moscow Subway System][57] - -# [Former Trump aide tells loved ones of plans to plead guilty, cooperate with Mueller][58] - -# [New major storm will bring flooding, severe weather to central US][59] - -# [At least 3 killed as small plane crashes into field][60] - -# [Gov. 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http://abcnews.go.com/GMA/Family/happened-small-town-transgender-daughter-transitioned/story?id=53245389 -[96]: http://abcnews.go.com/GMA/Culture/oprah-winfrey-responds-donald-trumps-tweet-calling-biased/story?id=53274397 -[97]: http://abcnews.go.com/GMA/Culture/quincy-jones-apologizes-word-vomit-silly-statements-made/story?id=53280450 -[98]: http://abcnews.go.com/Entertainment/late-night-host-comedian-graham-norton-releases-inspired/story?id=49608437 -[99]: http://abcnews.go.com/Lifestyle/female-high-school-quarterback-throws-td-1st-pass/story?id=49564020 -[100]: //secure-us.imrworldwide.com/cgi-bin/m?ci=us-704476h&cg=0&cc=1&ts=noscript -[101]: http://www.googleadservices.com/pagead/conversion/1005826543/?value=0&label=1GPKCOHYjwMQ7-PO3wM&guid=ON&script=0 - +Author Eugene Linden, who has been writing about [animal +intelligence](/video/playerIndex?id=6306597) for 40 years, told ABC News +that Moscow's resourceful stray dogs are just one of what are now +thousands of recorded examples of wild, feral and[domesticated +animals](/International/teaching-dog-behavior-techniques-worthless/story?id=7653272) +demonstrating what appears, at least, to be what humans might call +flexible open-ended reasoning and conscious thought. + +Linden cites a wide variety of creatures ranging from captive orangutans +and otters who frequently and slyly "trade" with their keepers, to a +[British cat famous for regularly taking the +bus](/Travel/wireStory?id=9602042) to a squirrel in Oklahoma who became +a local hero when people began to notice that it regularly obeyed +traffic signals when crossing a busy street. + +"The take-away is that animals are not just passive in this," Linden +told ABC News. "They are figuring out what we're about and how they can +game the system, and work it to their advantage as well." + +Moscow's strays have also been observed obeying traffic lights, says +Vereshchagin. He and Poyarkov report the strays have developed a variety +of techniques for hunting food in the wild metropolis. + +Sometimes a pack will send out a smaller, cuter member apparently +realizing it will be more successful at begging than its bigger, less +attractive counterparts. + +Another trick the researchers report seeing is the bark-and-grab: a dog +will suddenly jump up behind a person in the street who is holding some +snack, enough of a surprise that the food gets dropped for the grabbing. + +The female we followed on the Kievskaya Line seemed at ease as she +traveled among all the people packed in around her, and with reason: +Moscow's subway strays even have their own statue in the Mendeleyevskaya +station. + +It commemorates Malchik, a stray who lived there until he was stabbed by +a fashion model in 2002 who didn't like how Malchik barked at her +terrier. + +## Learn How to Live With Them + +Outraged Muscovites erected the statue. Passersby now rub the Malchik's +shiny bronze nose for good luck. + +Despite this public admiration for the strays and their survival skills, +many Muscovites still see the tens of thousands of homeless dogs as a +big problem. + +"We have to solve it," Anastasia Markina of the Alliance for Animal +Rights of Moscow said. "They're not guilty that they became homeless. We +should solve this problem in a humane way." + +There have been sterilization campaigns, and city dogcatchers manage to +get some strays into pounds, but it's all had little effect on the +overall stray population. + +Vereshchagin thinks that Moscow's residents need to accept the dogs as a +part of life in the city. + +"It's not really easy to completely move the dogs out of the streets," +he says. "I guess we just have to... learn how to live with them." + +The stray dogs of Moscow - including those who use the subway - have +themselves already done a lot to work for peaceful coexistence. diff --git a/_stories/2010/5879322.md b/_stories/2010/5879322.md index eea3014..cb2cfcb 100644 --- a/_stories/2010/5879322.md +++ b/_stories/2010/5879322.md @@ -19,7 +19,193 @@ _tags: objectID: '5879322' --- -[Source](https://sivers.org/itunes "Permalink to ") +[Anything You Want](/a) ”: +# The day Steve Jobs dissed me in a keynote +2010-11-11 +In May 2003, Apple invited me to their headquarters to discuss getting +CD Baby’s catalog into the iTunes Music Store. + +iTunes had just launched two weeks before, with only some music from the +major labels. Many of us in the music biz were not sure this idea was +going to work. Especially those who had seen companies like +[eMusic](http://www.emusic.com/) do this exact same model for years +without big success. + +I flew to Cupertino thinking I’d be meeting with one of their marketing +or tech people. When I arrived, I found out that about a hundred people +from small record labels and distributors had also been invited. + +We all went into a little presentation room, not knowing what to expect. + +Then out comes Steve Jobs. Whoa\! Rock star. + +He was in full persuasive presentation mode. Trying to convince all of +us to give Apple our entire catalog of music. Talking about iTunes +success so far, and all the reasons we should work with Apple. + +He made a point of saying, “**We want the iTunes Music Store to have +every piece of music ever recorded.** Even if it’s discontinued or not +selling much, we want it all.” + +This was **huge**, because until 2003, independent musicians were always +denied access to the big outlets. For Apple to sell all music, not just +music from artists who had signed their rights away to a corporation, +this was amazing\! + +Then they showed us the software we’d all have to use to send them each +album. The software required us to put the audio CD into a Mac CD-Rom +drive, type in all of the album info, song titles and bio, then click +\[encode\] for it to rip, and \[upload\] when done. + +I raised my hand and asked if it was required that we use their +software. They said yes. + +I asked again, saying we had over 100,000 albums, already ripped as +lossless WAV files, with all of the info carefully entered by the artist +themselves, ready to send to their servers with their exact +specifications. + +The Apple guys said, “Sorry, you need to use this software; there is no +other way.” + +Ugh. That means we have to pull each one of those CDs off of the shelf +again, stick it in a Mac, then cut-and-paste every song title into that +Mac software. But so be it. If that’s what Apple needs, OK. + +**They said they’d be ready for us to start uploading in the next couple +weeks.** + +I flew home that night, posted my meeting notes on my website, emailed +all of my clients to announce the news, and went to sleep. + +When I woke, I had furious emails and voicemails from my contact at +Apple. + +“What the hell are you doing? That meeting was confidential\! Take those +notes off your site immediately\! Our legal department is furious\!” + +There was no mention of confidentiality at the meeting and no agreement +to sign. But I removed my notes from my site immediately, to be nice. +(You can still see a copy someone posted +[here](http://apple.slashdot.org/comments.pl?sid=66729&cid=6133882).) + +All was well, or so I thought. + +**Apple emailed us the iTunes Music Store contract. We immediately +signed it and returned it the same day.** + +I started building the system to deliver everyone’s music to iTunes. + +I decided we’d have to charge $40 for this service, to cover our +bandwidth and payroll costs of pulling each CD out of the warehouse, +entering all the info, digitizing, uploading, and putting it back in the +warehouse. + +**5000 musicians signed up in advance, each paying $40.** That $200,000 +helped pay for the extra equipment and people needed to make this +happen. + +Within two weeks, we got contacted by Rhapsody, Yahoo Music, Napster, +eMusic, and more — each saying they wanted our entire catalog. + +Yes\! Awesome\! + +Maybe you can’t appreciate this now, but the summer of 2003 was the +biggest turning point that independent music has ever had. Until that +point, almost no big business would sell independent music. + +By iTunes saying they wanted everything, then their competitors needing +to keep up, we were in\! Since the summer of 2003, all musicians +everywhere can sell all their music in almost every outlet online. Do +you realize how amazing that is? + +But there was one problem. + +iTunes wasn’t getting back to us. + +Yahoo, Rhapsody, Napster and the rest were all up and running. **But +iTunes wasn’t returning our signed contract.** + +Was it because I posted my meeting notes? + +Had I pissed-off Steve Jobs? + +Nobody at Apple would say anything. **It had been months.** My musicians +were getting impatient and angry. + +I gave optimistic apologies, but I was starting to get worried, too. + +A month later, Steve Jobs did a special worldwide simulcast keynote +speech about iTunes. + +People had been criticizing iTunes for having less music than the +competition. They had 400,000 songs while Rhapsody and Napster had over +2 million songs. (Over 500,000 of those were from CD Baby.) + +**Four minutes in, he said something that made my pounding heart sink to +my burning stomach:** + +“This number could have easily been much higher, if we wanted to let in +every song. But we realize that record companies do a great service. +They edit\! Did you know that if you and I record a song, for $40 we can +pay a few of the services to get it on their site, through some +intermediaries? We can be on Rhapsody and all these other guys for $40? +Well **we don’t want to let that stuff on our site\!** So we’ve had to +edit it. And these are 400,000 quality songs.” + +([Watch the video, +here](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BJ3SbxTu7Zs#t=3m45s).) + +Whoa\! Wow. **Steve Jobs just dissed me hard\!** + +I’m the only one charging $40. That was me he’s referring to\! + +Shit. OK. That’s that. Steve changed his mind. No independents on +iTunes. You heard the man. + +I hated the position this put me in. + +Ever since I started my company in 1998, I had been offering an +excellent service. I could make promises and keep them, because I was in +full control. + +Now, for the first time, **I had promised something that was out of my +control.** + +So it was time to do the right thing, no matter how much it hurt. + +I decided to **refund everybody’s $40**, with my deepest apologies. With +5000 musicians signed up, that meant I was refunding **$200,000.** + +Since we couldn’t promise anything, I couldn’t charge money in good +conscience. + + - I removed all mention of iTunes from my site. + - I removed the $40 cost. + - I changed the language to say we can’t promise anything. + - I emailed everyone to let them know what had happened. + +I decided to make it a free service from that point on. + +**The very next day, we got our signed contract back from Apple, along +with upload instructions.** + +Unbelievable. + +We asked, “Why now?”, but got no answer. + +Whatever. Fucking Apple. + +We started encoding and uploading immediately. + +I quietly added iTunes back to the list of companies on our site. + +But I never again promised a customer that I could do something beyond +my full control. + +[![Anything You Want — book +cover](/images/DerekSivers-AnythingYouWant-318x450.jpg +"Anything You Want — by Derek Sivers")](/a "Anything You Want — by Derek Sivers") diff --git a/_stories/2010/6131786.md b/_stories/2010/6131786.md index e9d9303..8c70f08 100644 --- a/_stories/2010/6131786.md +++ b/_stories/2010/6131786.md @@ -19,7 +19,118 @@ _tags: objectID: '6131786' --- -[Source](https://blogs.msdn.microsoft.com/b/oldnewthing/archive/2010/08/09/10047586.aspx "Permalink to ") +Welcome to CLR Week 2010. This year, CLR Week is going to be more +philosophical than usual. +When you ask somebody what garbage collection is, the answer you get is +probably going to be something along the lines of "Garbage collection is +when the operating environment automatically reclaims memory that is no +longer being used by the program. It does this by tracing memory +starting from roots to identify which objects are accessible." +This description confuses the mechanism with the goal. It's like saying +the job of a firefighter is "driving a red truck and spraying water." +That's a description of what a firefighter does, but it misses the point +of the job (namely, putting out fires and, more generally, fire safety). +Garbage collection is *simulating a computer with an infinite amount of +memory*. The rest is mechanism. And naturally, the mechanism is +"reclaiming memory that the program wouldn't notice went missing." It's +one giant application of the *as-if* rule.¹ + +Now, with this view of the true definition of garbage collection, one +result immediately follows: + +> If the amount of RAM available to the runtime is greater than the +> amount of memory required by a program, then a memory manager which +> employs the null garbage collector (which never collects anything) is +> a valid memory manager. + +This is true because the memory manager can just allocate more RAM +whenever the program needs it, and by assumption, this allocation will +always succeed. A computer with more RAM than the memory requirements of +a program has effectively infinite RAM, and therefore no simulation is +needed. + +Sure, the statement may be obvious, but it's also useful, because the +null garbage collector is both very easy to analyze yet very different +from garbage collectors you're more accustomed to seeing. You can +therefore use it to produce results like this: + +> A correctly-written program cannot assume that finalizers will ever +> run at any point prior to program termination. + +The proof of this is simple: Run the program on a machine with more RAM +than the amount of memory required by program. Under these +circumstances, the null garbage collector is a valid garbage collector, +and the null garbage collector never runs finalizers since it never +collects anything. + +Garbage collection simulates infinite memory, but there are things you +can do even if you have infinite memory that have visible effects on +other programs (and possibly even on your program). If you open a file +in exclusive mode, then the file will not be accessible to other +programs (or even to other parts of your own program) until you close +it. A connection that you open to a SQL server consumes resources in the +server until you close it. Have too many of these connections +outstanding, and you may run into a connection limit which blocks +further connections. If you don't explicitly close these resources, then +when your program is run on a machine with "infinite" memory, those +resources will accumulate and never be released. + +**What this means for you**: Your programs cannot rely on finalizers +keeping things tidy. Finalizers are a safety net, not a primary means +for resource reclamation. When you are finished with a resource, you +need to release it by calling `Close` or `Disconnect` or whatever +cleanup method is available on the object. (The `IDisposable` interface +codifies this convention.) + +Furthermore, it turns out that not only can a correctly-written program +not assume that finalizers will run during the execution of a program, +it cannot even assume that finalizers will run when the program +terminates: Although the .NET Framework will try to run them all, [a bad +finalizer will cause the .NET Framework to give up and abandon running +finalizers](http://nitoprograms.blogspot.com/2009/08/finalizers-at-process-exit.html). +This can happen through no fault of your own: There might be a handle to +a network resource that the finalizer is trying to release, but network +connectivity problems result in the operation taking longer than two +seconds, at which point the .NET Framework will just terminate the +process. Therefore, the above result can be strengthened in the specific +case of the .NET Framework: + +> A correctly-written program cannot assume that finalizers will ever +> run. + +Armed with this knowledge, you can solve this customer's problem. +(Confusing terminology is preserved from the original.) + +> I have a class that uses `Xml­Document`. After the class is out of +> scope, I want to delete the file, but I get the exception +> `System.IO.Exception: The process cannot access the file +> 'C:\path\to\file.xml' because it is being used by another process.` +> Once the progam exits, then the lock goes away. Is there any way to +> avoid locking the file? + +This follow-up might or might not help: + +> A colleague suggested setting the `Xml­Document` variables to null +> when we're done with them, but shouldn't leaving the class scope have +> the same behavior? + +**Bonus chatter**: Finalizers are weird, since they operate "behind the +GC." There are also lots of classes which operate "at the GC level", +such as `Weak­Reference` `GC­Handle` and of course `System.GC` itself. +Using these classes properly requires understanding how they interact +with the GC. We'll see more on this later. + +**Related reading** + +**Unrelated reading**: [Precedence vs. Associativity Vs. +Order](http://blogs.msdn.com/b/ericlippert/archive/2008/05/23/precedence-vs-associativity-vs-order.aspx). + +**Footnote** + +¹ Note that by definition, the simulation extends only to +garbage-collected resources. If your program allocates external +resources those external resources continue to remain subject to +whatever rules apply to them. diff --git a/_stories/2010/6191512.md b/_stories/2010/6191512.md index 159e4cb..bf06db1 100644 --- a/_stories/2010/6191512.md +++ b/_stories/2010/6191512.md @@ -19,7 +19,50 @@ _tags: objectID: '6191512' --- -[Source](https://www.rand.org/pubs/working_papers/WR637-1.html "Permalink to ") +The focus on employer-provided health insurance in the United States may +restrict business creation. The authors address the limited research on +the topic of "entrepreneurship lock" by using recent panel data from +matched Current Population Surveys. They use difference-indifference +models to estimate the interaction between having a spouse with +employer-based health insurance and potential demand for health care. +They find evidence of a larger negative effect of health insurance +demand on business creation for those without spousal coverage than for +those with spousal coverage. They also take a new approach in the +literature to examine the question of whether employer-based health +insurance discourages business creation by exploiting the discontinuity +created at age 65 through the qualification for Medicare. Using a novel +procedure of identifying age in months from matched monthly CPS data, +they compare the probability of business ownership among male workers in +the months just before turning age 65 and in the months just after +turning age 65. They find that business ownership rates increase from +just under age 65 to just over age 65, whereas they find no change in +business ownership rates from just before to just after for other ages +55-75. They also do not find evidence from the previous literature and +additional estimates that other confounding factors such as retirement, +partial retirement, social security and pension eligibility are +responsible for the increase in business ownership in the month +individuals turn 65. Their estimates provide some evidence that +"entrepreneurship lock" exists, which raises concerns that the bundling +of health insurance and employment may create an inefficient level of +business creation. +The research in this report was conducted by the Kauffman-RAND Institute +for Entrepreneurship Public Policy within the RAND Institute for Civil +Justice. +This report is part of the RAND Corporation working paper series. RAND +working papers are intended to share researchers' latest findings and to +solicit informal peer review. They have been approved for circulation by +RAND but may not have been formally edited or peer reviewed. +Permission is given to duplicate this electronic document for personal +use only, as long as it is unaltered and complete. Copies may not be +duplicated for commercial purposes. Unauthorized posting of RAND PDFs to +a non-RAND Web site is prohibited. RAND PDFs are protected under +copyright law. For information on reprint and linking permissions, +please visit the [RAND Permissions](/pubs/permissions.html) page. + +The RAND Corporation is a nonprofit institution that helps improve +policy and decisionmaking through research and analysis. RAND's +publications do not necessarily reflect the opinions of its research +clients and sponsors. diff --git a/_stories/2010/6248383.md b/_stories/2010/6248383.md index 210556b..7dee378 100644 --- a/_stories/2010/6248383.md +++ b/_stories/2010/6248383.md @@ -19,7 +19,81 @@ _tags: objectID: '6248383' --- -[Source](http://pubs.acs.org/404.html "Permalink to ") +![TRANS-PACIFIC PLUME In March 2008, a typical +](/cen/_img/88/i46/8846envsc1.jpg) +NASA/Jeff Schmaltz, MODIS Rapid Response team. +TRANS-PACIFIC PLUME +In March 2008, a typical "yellow dust" plume from the Gobi Desert blew +eastward over the Beijing region. + +#### Text Size [A]()[A]() + +The Clean Air Act sets air quality standards that municipalities in the +United States must meet. But some pollution travels from thousands of +miles away. Now researchers have developed a method to more precisely +identify the origins of small particulate pollutants ([Environ. Sci. +Technol., DOI: +10.1021/es101450t](http://pubs.acs.org/cgi-bin/cen/trustedproxy.cgi?redirect=http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/es101450t "Pb Isotopes as an Indicator of the Asian Contribution to Particulate Air Pollution in Urban California")). +With it, they determined that 29% of the San Francisco area's +particulate pollution comes from eastern Asia. + +Fine airborne particulate pollution—called PM2.5, because the particles +measure less than 2.5 µm in diameter—can cause health problems such as +asthma and lung damage, and exacerbate heart disease, according to the +Environmental Protection Agency. Combustion as well as smelting and +processing metals produces the particles. Major combustion sources +include emissions from coal-fired power plants and automobile exhaust. +These sources can leave a chemical signature of their origins in the +particles that they emit. + +One such signature is the abundance of various lead isotopes. The coal +and metal ores mined in China and eastern Asia have a significantly +higher proportion of  208Pb, which forms from radioactive decay of +thorium, than do coal and ores used in America . + +China generates about 70% of its electricity with coal-fired power +plants, creating large amounts of particulate pollution. Dust storms +crossing China pick up these particles and carry them across the Pacific +to the U.S. + +[Stephanie +Ewing](http://landresources.montana.edu/Department/Ewing.html), then a +postdoctoral scholar in isotope geochemistry at the [University of +California, Berkeley](http://berkeley.edu/), and her colleagues wondered +whether the ratios of lead isotopes in PM2.5 could quantify how much of +the local pollution originated from Asia. + +From December 2007 through May 2008, the researchers collected +particulate pollution samples from two sites in the San Francisco Bay +Area: an urban location, Chabot Observatory, as well as a coastal +location, Mt. Tamalpais, where city pollution would be limited. They +filtered out the PM2.5 from the samples and measured its lead isotope +abundances with multiple-collector inductively coupled plasma mass +spectrometry (MC-ICPMS). + +At both sites, levels of 208Pb jumped at the same time between March and +May. This isotope spike coincided with the spring, when Asian dust +storms are most intense, so the researchers concluded that 208Pb +isotopes are a marker for PM2.5 from eastern Asia. When they analyzed +data from the entire six-month survey, Ewing and her team found that the +median proportion of Asian lead in the PM2.5 was 29%. + +Ewing, now an assistant professor of land resources and environmental +science at [Montana State University](http://www.montana.edu/), thinks +that the isotopic identification method also may help scientists +understand the movements of pollutants throughout the atmosphere. + +[Julian Marshall](http://personal.ce.umn.edu/~marshall/), an assistant +professor of environmental engineering at the [University of +Minnesota](http://www1.umn.edu/twincities/index.php), Minneapolis, says +that Ewing and her team have presented an "interesting new method and +new results." He suggests that in addition to further dissecting the +origins of PM2.5, high-resolution isotopic identification also could +help test the accuracy of global atmospheric circulation models. + + - Chemical & Engineering News + ISSN 0009-2347 + Copyright © 2011 American Chemical Society diff --git a/_stories/2010/6711866.md b/_stories/2010/6711866.md index dfcd2ae..ac6c77c 100644 --- a/_stories/2010/6711866.md +++ b/_stories/2010/6711866.md @@ -19,7 +19,35 @@ _tags: objectID: '6711866' --- -[Source](http://stackoverflow.com/q/2332741/1257977 "Permalink to ") +A single listening port can accept more than one connection +simultaneously. +There is a '64K' limit that is often cited, but that is per client per +server port, and needs clarifying. +Each TCP/IP packet has basically four fields for addressing; these are: + source_ip source_port destination_ip destination_port + < client > < server > + +Inside the TCP stack, these four fields are used as a compound key to +match up packets to connections (e.g. file descriptors). + +If a client has many connections to the same port on the same +destination, then three of those fields will be the same - only +`source_port` varies to differentiate the different connections. Ports +are 16-bit numbers, therefore the maximum number of connections any +given client can have to any given host port is 64K. + +However, multiple clients can each have up to 64K connections to some +server's port, and if the server has multiple ports or either is +multi-homed then you can multiply that further. + +So the real limit is file descriptors. Each individual socket connection +is given a file descriptor, so the limit is really the number of file +descriptors that the system has been configured to allow and resources +to handle. The maximum limit is typically up over 300K, but is +configurable e.g. with [sysctl](http://linux.die.net/man/8/sysctl). + +The realistic limits being boasted about for normal boxes are around 80K +for example single threaded Jabber messaging servers. diff --git a/_stories/2010/6719600.md b/_stories/2010/6719600.md index 5288b4d..6ed5838 100644 --- a/_stories/2010/6719600.md +++ b/_stories/2010/6719600.md @@ -19,7 +19,341 @@ _tags: objectID: '6719600' --- -[Source](https://gist.github.com/paulmillr/1208618 "Permalink to ") +\---------- Forwarded message ---------- + From: Mark S. Miller + Date: Tue, Nov 16, 2010 at 3:44 PM + Subject: "Future of Javascript" doc from our internal "JavaScript Summit" + last week + To: javascript-standard@google.com +On November 10th and 11th, a number of Google teams representing a +variety of viewpoints on client-side languages met to agree on a common +vision for the future of Javascript. +This document + +is the result. It was first announced on Buzz at + + +Please forward this message to people and groups that should know about +this. This internal list, , is the place +we should have the Google-wide discussion of this document and these +issues. If you'd like to join this discussion, please subscribe at + + +Executive Summary + +Javascript has fundamental flaws that cannot be fixed merely by evolving +the language. We'll adopt a two-pronged strategy for the future of +Javascript: + + - Harmony (low risk/low reward): continue working in conjunction with + TC39 (the EcmaScript standards body) to evolve Javascript + - Dash (high risk/high reward): Develop a new language (called Dash) + that aims to maintain the dynamic nature of Javascript but have a + better performance profile and be amenable to tooling for large + projects. Push for Dash to become an open standard and be adopted by + other browsers. Developers using Dash tooling will be able to use a + cross-compiler to target Javascript for browsers that do not support + Dash +natively. + +## That’s the 10,000 foot overview. For more detail (including an FAQ), read on... + +Future of Javascript State of affairs Building delightful applications +on the web today is far too difficult. The cyclone of innovation is +increasingly moving off the web onto iOS and other closed platforms. +Javascript has been a part of the web platform since its infancy, but +the web has begun to outgrown it. The web development community has been +backed into using large amounts of JS largely to work around the +deficiencies in the platform. Complex web apps--the kind that Google +specializes in--are struggling against the platform and working with a +language that cannot be tooled and has inherent performance problems. +Even smaller-scale apps written by hobbyist developers have to navigate +a confusing labyrinth of frameworks and incompatible design patterns. + +The web has succeeded historically to some extent in spite of the web +platform, based primarily on the strength of its reach. The emergence of +compelling alternative platforms like iOS has meant that the web +platform must compete on its merits, not just its reach. Javascript as +it exists today will likely not be a viable solution long-term. +Something must change. Overview of two-pronged solution There are two +ways to approach the problem: either we can try to evolve Javascript, or +we can push for a new language that addresses core problems in +Javascript that can’t be repaired easily or quickly. + +The “evolve Javascript” option is relatively low risk, but even in the +best case it will take years and will be limited by fundamental problems +in the language (like the existence of a single Number primitive). +Javascript has historical baggage that cannot be solved without a clean +break. Thus, although it’s low risk, it’s also relatively low reward. + +The “clean break” option is extremely high risk--it will be a huge +challenge to convince other browser vendors to rally around a new +language--but is the only way to escape the historic problems with +Javascript. Thus, its high risk is matched by the potential for a very +high reward--a classic leapfrog strategy. + +Pursuing either strategy in isolation is likely to fail. The evolve +Javascript strategy, if executed in isolation, leaves the web in a +hobbled state and unable to compete against the encroachment of other, +less open platforms. The clean break strategy, in isolation, would leave +us in an undesirable situation if it were to fail--Javascript evolution +would have slowed down or evolved in undesirable ways without our +support, we would still have the fundamental flaws, and--worst of +all--Google’s leadership position on the web would be seriously damaged. + +The only solution is to execute the two strategies in parallel. When the +leapfrog attempt succeeds (that is, it is an open standard and browsers +covering a majority of market share implement it), web programmers will +have a viable and superior alternative to JavaScript. Harmony: Evolving +Javascript It is paramount that Google continue to maintain a leadership +position on important open web standards such as Harmony. Harmony is the +name of the agreed trajectory of EcmaScript in TC39. Our JS++ project +(part of the larger Parkour project) will join with our Caja project’s +efforts to advance Harmony. Together, we will focus on improving the +public Harmony spec and helping drive it forward at a faster pace in +external standard committees and by leading by example in Chrome +wherever possible. + +In order to help speed up what can be a long and drawn out +standardization process, the internal Harmony effort will experiment +using a preprocessor on top of V8 to prototype features in a way that +allows real code to be written against the proposal. Details of this +approach are yet to be determined. The effort will also work with other +browser vendors (e.g. Mozilla) to get experimental support included, +providing further pressure to get Harmony standardized and widely +implemented quickly. Harmony will be implemented in V8 and JSC (Safari) +simultaneously to avoid a WebKit compatibility gap. + +Developers who can focus solely on Chrome can expect to be able to see +some Harmony features in Chrome (behind a flag) by the middle of 2011. +Developers focusing on all browsers will have to wait multiple years for +direct Harmony support, due to the relatively slow pace of the +standardization process. To enable Harmony developers to target all +earlier browsers, we will enhance our source-to-source translators (such +as Caja’s ES5-to-ES3 translator) to translate from a large subset of +Harmony to earlier versions of JavaScript. + +Harmony will continue to be evangelized by Google externally as the +evolution of Javascript. The audience for Harmony is developers +currently building on the web platform who wish to write +standards-compliant JavaScript. GWT, JSCompiler, and Caja continue to +offer tooling support for Harmony for those that need it. Dash: The +Clean Break Dash is the leapfrog effort that is designed to be a clean +break from Javascript. It will seek to keep the parts that have made the +Internet so successful, but fill in holes everyone agrees it has. + +Dash is designed with three perspectives in mind: + + - Performance -- Dash is designed with performance characteristics in + mind, so that it is possible to create VMs that do not have the + performance problems that all EcmaScript VMs must have. + - Developer Usability -- Dash is designed to keep the dynamic, + easy-to-get-started, no-compile nature of Javascript that has made + the web platform the clear winner for hobbyist developers. + - Ability to be Tooled -- Dash is designed to be more easily tooled + (e.g. with optional types) for large-scale projects that require + code-comprehension features such as refactoring and finding + callsites. Dash, however, does not require tooling to be + effective--small-scale developers may still be satisfied with a text + editor. + +Dash is also designed to be securable, where that ability does not +seriously conflict with the three main goals. + +Dash will be designed to be consumed in a number of locations: + + - Browser VM -- Our aspiration is that Dash will ultimately be a + viable substitute for Javascript as the native client-side language + of choice across all browsers. + - Front-end Server -- Dash will be designed as a language that can be + used server-side for things up to the size of Google-scale Front + Ends. This will allow large scale applications to unify on a single + language for client and front end code. + - Dash Cross Compiler -- Dash will be designed so that a large subset + of it can be compiled to target legacy Javascript platforms so teams + that commit to using Dash do not have to seriously limit their + reach. Platforms that have a Dash VM can operate on the original + Dash code without translation and take advantage of the increased + performance. One of the ways we will evolve Harmony is to be a + better target for such compiled Dash code. + +The goal of the Dash effort is ultimately to replace JavaScript as the +lingua franca of web development on the open web platform. We will +proactively evangelize Dash with web developers and all other browser +vendors and actively push for its standardization and adoption across +the board. This will be a difficult effort requiring finesse and +determination, but we are committed to doing everything possible to help +it succeed. + +While Dash is catching on with other browsers, we will promote it as the +language for serious web development on the web platform; the compiler +allows such developers to target other browsers before those browsers +implement Dash. + +The Dash language effort will be driven by Lars Bak and his team in the +Aarhus office. Bruce Johnson’s team in Atlanta will handle the tooling, +and Pavel Feldman in STP will provide Web Inspector level support for +Dash and Harmony. + +Dash will be spec complete and have working bits for the browser in Q1 +2011. Developers who can focus solely on Chrome can expect to be able to +rely on some Dash features built into Chrome within a year. Developers +focusing on all browsers will have to make use of the Dash cross +compiler to target other browsers, and, depending on the success of the +evangelizing effort, might have to wait years for other browsers to +implement native support for Dash. + +Although Dash is in the early stages of development, work is progressing +rapidly. You can learn more about the current proposal in this +presentation +. + +FAQ Who authored this document? Brad Abrams, Erik Arvidsson, Lars Bak, +Darin Fisher, Dimitri Glazkov, Dan Grove, Peter Hallam, Bruce Johnson, +Alex Komoroske, John Lenz, Kasper Lund, Mark Miller , Ivan Posva, Alex +Russell, and Joel Webber, who collectively represent TC39 (the +EcmaScript standards body), WebKit, Parkour, Brightly, JSPrime, JS++, +Closure, JSCompiler, V8, Dash, Joy, and GWT, among others. + +What happened to JSPrime? The JSPrime effort was begun to unify and be a +(single\!) successor to GWT and Closure/JSCompiler, suitable for +large-scale development inside and outside Google, including being +amenable to IDE-like tools and static compiler optimizations. The +JSPrime team is happily folding its efforts into Dash now that everyone +agrees Dash will explicitly include the same goals. + +What happened to JS++? The collection of features under the JS++ +umbrella have been folded into Google efforts around the Harmony +Javascript effort. We continue to seek to improve the Javascript +language to allow developers to better take advantage of our DOM +improvements. This is a better plan because it gives us fewer +independent Javascript evolution vectors. + +What happened to Joy? The Joy templating and MVC systems are +higher-level frameworks that will be built on top of Dash. + +Where can I learn more about Dash? Dash is still in the early stages of +development, but work is progressing rapidly. For an early look at the +current proposal, see this +presentation +. + +How will Dash interoperate with the huge body of existing JavaScript +(JQuery, Analytics, etc) Moving to a new language will be a very large +undertaking. The specifics of how inter-operation with current +Javascript would work is still an open question. + +What about the existing code bases for large Google Apps? Won’t they +have to rebuild everything to take advantage of Dash? The Dash Cross +Compiler should be capable of taking typed Closure code (with some +restrictions) and converting to Dash. Although the migration process +won’t be fully automatic, it should make moving over to a Dash +codebase somewhat easier. + +How does this affect Web Inspector? Web inspector will continue to +support Javascript including any new features of Harmony that we add to +chrome. + +How does this affect our cloud IDE (Brightly)? Brightly will enable +building any web application in V1 using today’s Javascript plus the +additions in Harmony. As soon as it is ready, Brightly will support Dash +as well. We expect that the more prescriptive development aspects of +Brightly that will come on line in the future will be more Dash focused. + +We expect Brightly itself to be the first application written in Dash. + +How will we get Harmony related changes into Chrome? Very carefully ;-). +V8 is carefully tuned for speed with the current Javascript standard +rather than flexibility--this makes it very difficult to make +experimental changes. We are considering pre-processors and a number of +other options, but ultimately the precise solution is still an open +question. + +What about Go? Go is a very promising systems-programming language in +the vein of C++. We fully hope and expect that Go becomes the standard +back-end language at Google over the next few years. Dash is focused on +client (and eventually Front-end server development). The needs there +are different (flexibility vs. stability) and therefore a different +programming language is warranted. + +Will Dash run on the Server? Android? Yes, but short term we are focused +on the client. + +Does Dash replace Java? For many projects that will be a viable option +but it requires significant engineering effort on Dash tooling and an +extensive set of libraries. + +Is Dash statically typed and toolable? Dash is optionally-typed and with +judicious use of types is as toolable as Java. This enables “grown up” +developer tools such as code-refactoring, while still allowing +small-scale or experimental projects the flexibility that dynamism +provides. + +What is the future of the JSCompiler and GWT? JSCompiler and GWT were +already on a merger path. This effort gives us a direction for that +unification around the Dash language. We will actively support teams for +a long time on the current generation of JSCompiler and GWT and provide +fantastic co-existence and migration tools to Dash. + +Why are you killing Javascript? We are not\! Google has a huge interest +in keeping the evolution of Javascript on track. In fact, our investment +in TC39 (the Javascript standards body) will likely increase somewhat, +and we will continue to honestly and whole-heartedly improve the +language within the constraints. + +What are the time frames? The Dash VM and Dash Cross Compiler will be +developed in parallel with the language specification, and so should be +available not long after the spec is settled (likely in early 2011). +However, the initial versions will not be heavily optimized (and thus +not necessarily ready for production apps) until later (likely later +2011). + +Experimental Harmony features will begin showing up in Chrome (behind a +flag) by midway through 2011, and will later be implemented +simultaneously in V8 and JSC (Safari’s Javascript engine) to avoid a +WebKit compatibility gap. + +Why do you have two projects? Why not just one? See the section above +about why we’re pursuing a two-pronged strategy. + +What will Google developers be using? We will strongly encourage Google +developers start off targeting Chrome-only whenever possible as this +gives us the best end user experience. However, for some apps this will +not make sense, so we are building a compiler for Dash that targets +Javascript (ES3). We intend for existing Google teams using GWT and +JSCompiler to eventually migrate to the Dash compiler. + +What if other browsers don’t follow us with Dash? Lars has promised to +“sweet talk” the other browser vendors and, while we are all eager to +see this, we recognize this is a very difficult road. Our approach is to +make an absolutely fantastic VM/Language and development environment and +build great apps that fully leverage it in order to help other browsers +see the wisdom in following. Once Dash has had a chance to prove its +stability and feasibility, we are committed to making Dash an open +standard with involvement from the broader web community. + +However, in the event that other browsers don’t follow, Dash can still +be a success. Developers that target only Chrome can rely on the Dash +VM, and developers that target other browsers as well can still make use +of the Dash compiler. In this event, the wider web will be stuck with +Javascript as the standard language--and that’s precisely why we must +continue investing in evolving Javascript. + +Why are you circumventing the standards process? We fully intend to +cooperate fully with standards processes--the problem is that the +current standard processes are limited to Javascript, which is not +viable in the long term. Any effort with the historic baggage that +Javascript has will be extremely limited. We need to make a clean break, +make progress, and then engage the community. + +What will we say at Google IO about Dash/Harmony? Google deeply cares +about the web. We care about making the web incrementally better today +(Harmony) as well as making it substantially better in the future +(Dash). Large scale applications should probably build on Dash; +smaller-scale developers might want to stick with Harmony until the Dash +standard gains ubiquity. Given that Dash is such a big bet we are likely +to spend much more time at IO on Dash, though of course we will spend +some time on the leadership position Google is taking in Harmony. diff --git a/_stories/2010/6734607.md b/_stories/2010/6734607.md index bb1a688..a880ef6 100644 --- a/_stories/2010/6734607.md +++ b/_stories/2010/6734607.md @@ -19,7 +19,32 @@ _tags: objectID: '6734607' --- -[Source](https://www.salon.com/2010/11/30/life_as_an_amateur_con/ "Permalink to ") - - +I discovered just how susceptible people were to the right persona when, +for over a year, I attended my local gym in California without becoming +a member. I never knew what I was going to say to the worker at the +front desk. This is because when you're conning someone, you must always +give the illusion that your mind is on something else. Affable +indifference works well. For the gym, I used athletic focus. Never once +did I approach the front desk walking. I was always running, always in +the zone, always pumped. I'd have my earphones in, music blaring, and +say that I'd just taken a run around the block (interval training); I'd +have my basketball shoes in hand and feign anxiety as I approached: Did +the game start already? I'd shake my head impatiently and say that I had +to feed the parking meter, briefly criticizing the city's parking +regulations, and every time, the worker would sympathize, hand me a +towel and tell me to have a good workout. +Yes, it was all about persona, and every encounter enabled me to tweak +my persona -- a regimen of creation and re-creation, a perpetual +self-sharpening: Hi, I bought this book the other day and I got it home +and found that there was writing inside\! (Of course, beforehand, I'd go +hide the remaining copies of said book so the cashier would be forced to +give me a store credit); hi, I bought this shirt the other day and the +cashier said that it wouldn't shrink if I washed it, but it shrunk; hi, +you know, I'm not really sure, I'm just making this return for my wife … +my mother … my sister … my sick grandmother; hi, I got this as a +graduation gift … a christening gift … a shower gift ... a birthday +gift; hi, I forgot my key card upstairs in my room, is it possible to +get another one to get into the fitness center?; hi, no, I'm sorry, but +I don't have my receipt; hi, well I would like to speak to the manager, +please. diff --git a/_stories/2010/6738743.md b/_stories/2010/6738743.md index d4e1e7f..a46a1bf 100644 --- a/_stories/2010/6738743.md +++ b/_stories/2010/6738743.md @@ -19,7 +19,61 @@ _tags: objectID: '6738743' --- -[Source](http://stackoverflow.com/questions/4456438/how-can-i-pass-the-string-null-through-wsdl-soap-from-actionscript-3-to-a-co "Permalink to ") +# Tracking it down +At first I thought this was a coercion bug where `null` was getting +coerced to `"null"` and a test of `"null" == null` was passing. It's +not. **I was close, but so very, very wrong. Sorry about that\!** +I've since done lots of [fiddling on +wonderfl.net](http://wonderfl.net/c/dd23/read) and tracing through the +code in `mx.rpc.xml.*`. At line 1795 of `XMLEncoder` (in the 3.5 +source), in `setValue`, all of the XMLEncoding boils down to + currentChild.appendChild(xmlSpecialCharsFilter(Object(value))); + +which is essentially the same as: + + currentChild.appendChild("null"); + +This code, according to my original fiddle, returns an empty XML +element. But why? + +# Cause + +According to commenter Justin Mclean on bug report +[FLEX-33664](https://issues.apache.org/jira/browse/FLEX-33644), the +following is the culprit (see last two tests in my +[fiddle](http://wonderfl.net/c/dd23/read) which verify this): + + var thisIsNotNull:XML = null; + if(thisIsNotNull == null){ + // always branches here, as (thisIsNotNull == null) strangely returns true + // despite the fact that thisIsNotNull is a valid instance of type XML + } + +When `currentChild.appendChild` is passed the string `"null"`, it first +converts it to a root XML element with text `null`, and then tests that +element against the null literal. This is a weak equality test, so +either the XML containing null is coerced to the null type, or the null +type is coerced to a root xml element containing the string "null", and +the test passes where it arguably should fail. One fix might be to +always use [strict +equality](http://help.adobe.com/en_US/FlashPlatform/reference/actionscript/3/operators.html#strict_equality) +tests when checking XML (or anything, really) for "nullness." + +# Solution + +The only reasonable workaround I can think of, short of fixing this bug +in every damn version of ActionScript, is to test fields for "null" and +**escape them as [CDATA +values](https://stackoverflow.com/q/1239466/203705).** + +The only reasonable workaround I can think of, short of fixing this bug +in every damn version of ActionScript, is to test fields for "null" and + +**CDATA values are the most appropriate way to mutate an entire text +value that would otherwise cause encoding/decoding problems.** Hex +encoding, for instance, is meant for individual characters. CDATA values +are preferred when you're escaping the entire text of an element. The +biggest reason for this is that it maintains human readability. diff --git a/_stories/2010/6968941.md b/_stories/2010/6968941.md index f46c5fc..290c04e 100644 --- a/_stories/2010/6968941.md +++ b/_stories/2010/6968941.md @@ -19,614 +19,140 @@ _tags: objectID: '6968941' --- -[Source](https://www.cbsnews.com/news/the-decline-and-fall-of-the-american-empire/ "Permalink to The Decline and Fall of the American Empire - CBS News") - -# The Decline and Fall of the American Empire - CBS News - -[ ][1] - -# [ CBS News Logo][2] - -* [ News ][2] - * [ Latest ][2] - - * [ Video ][3] - * [ US ][4] - - * [ World ][5] - - * [ Politics ][6] - - * [ Entertainment ][7] - - * [ Health ][8] - - * [ MoneyWatch ][9] - - * [ SciTech ][10] - - * [ Crime ][11] - - * [ Sports ][12] -* [ Shows ][13] - * [ CBS Evening News ][14] - * [ CBS This Morning ][15] - * [ 48 Hours ][16] - * [ 60 Minutes ][17] - * [ Sunday Morning ][18] - * [ Face The Nation ][19] -* [ Video ][3] -* [ CBSN ][20] - * [ Watch Live ][20] - * [ CBSN Originals ][21] - * [ CBSN On Assignment ][22] -* [ LIVE ][20] -* [ More ][13] - * [ In Depth ][23] - * [ Photos ][24] - * [ Mobile ][25] - * [ Radio ][26] - * [ Local ][27] - * [ Shop ][28] - * [ Alerts ][29] - * [ Log In ][30] -* [ ][31] [ ][32] -[CBSN][33] [ ][34] × - -CBS December 5, 2010, 10:19 PM - -# The Decline and Fall of the American Empire - -![ ][35] - -generic american US flag poll vote down arrow america economy - -CBS/iStockphoto - -* [ Share ][13] -* [ Tweet ][13] -* [ Reddit ][13] -* [ Flipboard ][13] -* [ Email ][36] - -Alfred W. McCoy is professor of history at the University of Wisconsin-Madison.  A [TomDispatch regular][37], he is the author, most recently, of [Policing America's Empire: The United States, the Philippines, and the Rise of the Surveillance State][38] (2009). He is also the convener of the ["Empires in Transition"][39] project, a global working group of 140 historians from universities on four continents. This piece originally appeared on TomDispatch. - -* * * - -A soft landing for America 40 years from now?  Don't bet on it.  The demise of the United States as the global superpower could come far more quickly than anyone imagines.  If Washington is dreaming of 2040 or 2050 as the end of the American Century, a more realistic assessment of domestic and global trends suggests that in 2025, just 15 years from now, it could all be over except for the shouting. - -Despite the aura of omnipotence most empires project, a look at their history should remind us that they are fragile organisms. So delicate is their ecology of power that, when things start to go truly bad, empires regularly unravel with unholy speed: just a year for Portugal, two years for the Soviet Union, eight years for France, 11 years for the Ottomans, 17 years for Great Britain, and, in all likelihood, 22 years for the United States, counting from the crucial year 2003. - -Future historians are likely to identify the Bush administration's rash invasion of Iraq in that year as the start of America's downfall. However, instead of the bloodshed that marked the end of so many past empires, with cities burning and civilians slaughtered, this twenty-first century imperial collapse could come relatively quietly through the invisible tendrils of economic collapse or cyberwarfare. - -But have no doubt: when Washington's global dominion finally ends, there will be painful daily reminders of what such a loss of power means for Americans in every walk of life. As a half-dozen European nations have discovered, imperial decline tends to have a remarkably demoralizing impact on a society, regularly bringing at least a generation of economic privation. As the economy cools, political temperatures rise, often sparking serious domestic unrest. - -Available economic, educational, and military data indicate that, when it comes to U.S. global power, negative trends will aggregate rapidly by 2020 and are likely to reach a critical mass no later than 2030. The American Century, proclaimed so triumphantly at the start of World War II, will be tattered and fading by 2025, its eighth decade, and could be history by 2030. - -Significantly, in 2008, the U.S. National Intelligence Council admitted for the first time that America's global power was indeed on a declining trajectory. In one of its [periodic futuristic reports][40], _Global Trends 2025_, the Council [cited][41] "the transfer of global wealth and economic power** **now under way, roughly from West to East" and "without precedent in modern history," as the primary factor in the decline of the "United States' relative strength -- even in the military realm." Like many in Washington, however, the Council's analysts anticipated a very long, very soft landing for American global preeminence, and harbored the hope that somehow the U.S. would long "retain unique military capabilities… to project military power globally" for decades to come. - -No such luck.  Under current projections, the United States will find itself in second place behind China (already the world's second largest economy) in economic output around 2026, and behind India by 2050. Similarly, Chinese innovation is on a trajectory toward world leadership in applied science and military technology sometime between 2020 and 2030, just as America's current supply of brilliant scientists and engineers retires, without adequate replacement by an ill-educated younger generation. - -By 2020, according to current plans, the Pentagon will throw a military Hail Mary pass for a dying empire.  It will launch a lethal triple canopy of advanced aerospace robotics that represents Washington's last best hope of retaining global power despite its waning economic influence. By that year, however, China's global network of communications satellites, backed by the world's most powerful supercomputers, will also be fully operational, providing Beijing with an independent platform for the weaponization of space and a powerful communications system for missile- or cyber-strikes into every quadrant of the globe. - -Wrapped in imperial hubris, like Whitehall or Quai d'Orsay before it, the White House still seems to imagine that American decline will be gradual, gentle, and partial. In his State of the Union address last January, President Obama [offered][42] the reassurance that "I do not accept second place for the United States of America." A few days later, Vice President Biden [ridiculed][43] the very idea that "we are destined to fulfill [historian Paul] Kennedy's prophecy that we are going to be a great nation that has failed because we lost control of our economy and overextended." Similarly, writing in the November issue of the establishment journal _Foreign Affairs_, neo-liberal foreign policy guru Joseph Nye [waved away][44] talk of China's economic and military rise, dismissing "misleading metaphors of organic decline" and denying that any deterioration in U.S. global power was underway. - -Ordinary Americans, watching their jobs head overseas, have a more realistic view than their cosseted leaders. An opinion poll in August 2010 [found][45] that 65% of Americans believed the country was now "in a state of decline."  Already, [Australia][46] and [Turkey][47], traditional U.S. military allies, are using their American-manufactured weapons for joint air and naval maneuvers with China. Already, America's closest economic partners are backing away from Washington's opposition to China's rigged currency rates. As the president flew back from his Asian tour last month, a gloomy _New York Times_ headline ** [**summed the moment up][48] this way: "Obama's Economic View Is Rejected on World Stage, China, Britain and Germany Challenge U.S., Trade Talks With Seoul Fail, Too." - -Viewed historically, the question is not whether the United States will lose its unchallenged global power, but just how precipitous and wrenching the decline will be. In place of Washington's wishful thinking, let's use the National Intelligence Council's own futuristic methodology to suggest four realistic scenarios for how, whether with a bang or a whimper, U.S. global power could reach its end in the 2020s (along with four accompanying assessments of just where we are today).  The future scenarios include: economic decline, oil shock, military misadventure, and World War III.  While these are hardly the only possibilities when it comes to American decline or even collapse, they offer a window into an onrushing future. - -prev - -[ - -Next - -][49] - -1 / 3 - -© 2010 CBS. 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McCoy is professor of history at the University of +Wisconsin-Madison. A [TomDispatch +regular](http://www.tomdispatch.com/blog/175225/alfred_mccoy_afghanista_as_a_drug_war) +, he is the author, most recently, of [Policing America's Empire: The +United States, the Philippines, and the Rise of the Surveillance +State](http://www.amazon.com/dp/0299234142/ref=nosim/?tag=tomdispatch-20) +(2009). He is also the convener of the ["Empires in +Transition"](http://history.wisc.edu/goldberg/us_empire_project.htm) +project, a global working group of 140 historians from universities on +four continents. This piece originally appeared on TomDispatch.A soft +landing for America 40 years from now? Don't bet on it. The demise of +the United States as the global superpower could come far more quickly +than anyone imagines. If Washington is dreaming of 2040 or 2050 as the +end of the American Century, a more realistic assessment of domestic and +global trends suggests that in 2025, just 15 years from now, it could +all be over except for the shouting. + +Despite the aura of omnipotence most empires project, a look at their +history should remind us that they are fragile organisms. So delicate is +their ecology of power that, when things start to go truly bad, empires +regularly unravel with unholy speed: just a year for Portugal, two years +for the Soviet Union, eight years for France, 11 years for the Ottomans, +17 years for Great Britain, and, in all likelihood, 22 years for the +United States, counting from the crucial year 2003. + +Future historians are likely to identify the Bush administration's rash +invasion of Iraq in that year as the start of America's downfall. +However, instead of the bloodshed that marked the end of so many past +empires, with cities burning and civilians slaughtered, this +twenty-first century imperial collapse could come relatively quietly +through the invisible tendrils of economic collapse or cyberwarfare. + +But have no doubt: when Washington's global dominion finally ends, there +will be painful daily reminders of what such a loss of power means for +Americans in every walk of life. As a half-dozen European nations have +discovered, imperial decline tends to have a remarkably demoralizing +impact on a society, regularly bringing at least a generation of +economic privation. As the economy cools, political temperatures rise, +often sparking serious domestic unrest. + +Available economic, educational, and military data indicate that, when +it comes to U.S. global power, negative trends will aggregate rapidly by +2020 and are likely to reach a critical mass no later than 2030. The +American Century, proclaimed so triumphantly at the start of World War +II, will be tattered and fading by 2025, its eighth decade, and could be +history by 2030. + +Significantly, in 2008, the U.S. National Intelligence Council admitted +for the first time that America's global power was indeed on a declining +trajectory. In one of its [periodic futuristic +reports](http://www.tomdispatch.com/post/175113/Michael_Klare_the_great_superpower_meltdown), +Global Trends 2025, the Council +[cited](http://www.dni.gov/nic/NIC_2025_project.html) "the transfer of +global wealth and economic power **** now under way, roughly from West +to East" and "without precedent in modern history," as the primary +factor in the decline of the "United States' relative strength -- even +in the military realm." Like many in Washington, however, the Council's +analysts anticipated a very long, very soft landing for American global +preeminence, and harbored the hope that somehow the U.S. would long +"retain unique military capabilities… to project military power +globally" for decades to come. + +No such luck.  Under current projections, the United States will find +itself in second place behind China (already the world's second largest +economy) in economic output around 2026, and behind India by 2050. +Similarly, Chinese innovation is on a trajectory toward world leadership +in applied science and military technology sometime between 2020 and +2030, just as America's current supply of brilliant scientists and +engineers retires, without adequate replacement by an ill-educated +younger generation. + +By 2020, according to current plans, the Pentagon will throw a military +Hail Mary pass for a dying empire.  It will launch a lethal triple +canopy of advanced aerospace robotics that represents Washington's last +best hope of retaining global power despite its waning economic +influence. By that year, however, China's global network of +communications satellites, backed by the world's most powerful +supercomputers, will also be fully operational, providing Beijing with +an independent platform for the weaponization of space and a powerful +communications system for missile- or cyber-strikes into every quadrant +of the globe. + +Wrapped in imperial hubris, like Whitehall or Quai d'Orsay before it, +the White House still seems to imagine that American decline will be +gradual, gentle, and partial. In his State of the Union address last +January, President Obama +[offered](http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/remarks-president-state-union-address) +the reassurance that "I do not accept second place for the United States +of America." A few days later, Vice President Biden +[ridiculed](http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/02/03/AR2010020302913.html) +the very idea that "we are destined to fulfill \[historian Paul\] +Kennedy's prophecy that we are going to be a great nation that has +failed because we lost control of our economy and overextended." +Similarly, writing in the November issue of the establishment journal +Foreign Affairs, neo-liberal foreign policy guru Joseph Nye [waved +away](http://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/66796/joseph-s-nye-jr/the-future-of-american-power) +talk of China's economic and military rise, dismissing "misleading +metaphors of organic decline" and denying that any deterioration in U.S. +global power was underway. + +Ordinary Americans, watching their jobs head overseas, have a more +realistic view than their cosseted leaders. An opinion poll in August +2010 [found](http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/38996574/ns/politics/) that 65% +of Americans believed the country was now "in a state of decline."  +Already, +[Australia](http://www.voanews.com/english/news/Australia-China-Conduct-Live-Fire-Naval-Exercise-in-Yellow-Sea-103780194.html) +and +[Turkey](http://www.acus.org/natosource/new-questions-about-turkeys-secret-military-exercise-china), +traditional U.S. military allies, are using their American-manufactured +weapons for joint air and naval maneuvers with China. Already, America's +closest economic partners are backing away from Washington's opposition +to China's rigged currency rates. As the president flew back from his +Asian tour last month, a gloomy New York Times headline ** **[summed the +moment +up](http://edition.cnn.com/2010/OPINION/11/12/gergen.america.economy/?hpt=Sbin) +this way: "Obama's Economic View Is Rejected on World Stage, China, +Britain and Germany Challenge U.S., Trade Talks With Seoul Fail, Too." + +Viewed historically, the question is not whether the United States will +lose its unchallenged global power, but just how precipitous and +wrenching the decline will be. In place of Washington's wishful +thinking, let's use the National Intelligence Council's own futuristic +methodology to suggest four realistic scenarios for how, whether with a +bang or a whimper, U.S. global power could reach its end in the 2020s +(along with four accompanying assessments of just where we are today).  +The future scenarios include: economic decline, oil shock, military +misadventure, and World War III.  While these are hardly the only +possibilities when it comes to American decline or even collapse, they +offer a window into an onrushing future. diff --git a/_stories/2010/6974025.md b/_stories/2010/6974025.md index 2366b0f..60a02b5 100644 --- a/_stories/2010/6974025.md +++ b/_stories/2010/6974025.md @@ -19,7 +19,427 @@ _tags: objectID: '6974025' --- -[Source](https://aht.seriouseats.com/archives/2010/05/the-burger-lab-how-to-make-perfect-mcdonalds-style-french-fries.html?daysago=1300 "Permalink to ") +![20100526-mcdonalds-fries-04-perfect-mcs.jpg](https://static.seriouseats.com/1/braestar/live/img/placeholder-entry-image.png) +### +** +Get the Recipe + + - [Perfect Thin and Crispy French + Fries](https://www.seriouseats.com/recipes/2010/05/perfect-french-fries-recipe.html) + +N.B. I apologize in advance for the length of this post. French fries +are a pretty epic subject for me... + +I'm gonna come right out and say something that I'm sure you won't all +openly agree with: **McDonald's french fries are great.** At their best, +they are everything a french fry should be: salty, crisp, light, and not +greasy. Granted, you get the occasional odd franchise that lets'em sit +under the heat lamp for a couple hours too long, but on the whole, I +find it remarkable that the bigwigs have discovered a way to create a +frozen fry that even a one armed eyeless chimp has trouble screwing up. +And I know, because they've got one working the fry station at the +franchise on my corner. + +To be absolutely honest, I've never been able to make fries as good as +theirs (shhhhh\!). Sure, my thick-cut pub-style fries are super-potatoey +and fantastic, and when I'm in the mood for them, my seasoned steak +fries can't be beat, but for thin, super-crisp fries (I'm talking the +kind that only appear in fast food restaurants and French bistros under +the name frites)? I'm always better off running down to the take-out +window than bothering to fry them myself at home. + +**Until now.** + +I've been literally giddy with the quality of the fries that have been +coming out of my kitchen for the last two days. My wife won't hear the +end of it. Even my puppy is wondering why his owner keeps exclaiming +"Holy s\*\*t that's good\!" every half hour from the kitchen. I've +cooked over 43 batches of fries in the last three days, and I'm happy to +report that I've finally found a way to consistently reach crisp, golden +Nirvana. + +#### The Anatomy of a Perfect Fry + +There are a few factors that go into making a perfect fry: + +**Perfect Fry Factor \#1: The exterior must be very crisp, but not +tough.** + +![20100526-mcdonalds-fries-24-bubble-structure-closeup.jpg](https://static.seriouseats.com/1/braestar/live/img/placeholder-entry-image.png) + +In order to achieve this crispness, the surface structure of a fry must +be riddled with micro-bubbles. It's these tiny crisp bubbles that +increase the surface area of the fry, making it extra crunchy. Ideally, +this layer should only be as thick as it needs to be to add crispness. +Any thicker, and you start running into leathery territory. + +**Perfect Fry Factor \#2: The interior must be intact, fluffy, and have +a strong potato +flavor.** + +![20100526-mcdonalds-fries-25-anatomy-perfect.jpg](https://static.seriouseats.com/1/braestar/live/img/placeholder-entry-image.png) + +Fries with a pasty, mealy, or gummy interior or even worse, the dreaded +state known as "hollow-fry" (when the interior is missing entirely) are +an automatic fail in my fry book. + +**Perfect Fry Factor \#3: The fry must be an even, light golden +blond** + +![20100526-mcdonalds-fries-04-perfect-mcs.jpg](https://static.seriouseats.com/1/braestar/live/img/placeholder-entry-image.png) + +Fries that are too dark or are spotty have an offputting burnt flavor +that distracts from the potato. Light golden but perfectly crisp is how +I want my fries to be. + +**Perfect Fry Factor \#4: The fry must stay crisp and tasty for at least +as long as it takes to eat a full +serving.** + +![20100526-mcdonalds-fries-19-limp.jpg](https://static.seriouseats.com/1/braestar/live/img/placeholder-entry-image.png) + +Fries that comes straight out of the fryer are almost always perfectly +crisp. The true test of a great fry is **whether or not it remains crisp +and edible a few minutes later after its been sitting on your plate.** +The bendy fry pictured above fails that test. + +So how does one going about achieving these goals? The traditional +[double fry +method](https://aht.seriouseats.com/archives/2010/01/the-burger-lab-why-double-fry-french-fries.html) +(once at low temp, then again at high temp) works, but it's far from +foolproof, and fails to meet all of the requirements I've set for a +perfect fry. For one thing, the fries inevitably come out too brown—some +times massively so. For another, they lose their crunch within a few +minutes after coming out of the fryer. Clearly the method needs an +overhaul. I suppose I could do what the McDonald's Corporation did and +spend millions of dollars researching exactly how to accomplish fry +perfection time after time anywhere around the world, but unfortunately +Serious Eats doesn't pay me well enough to do that. I'm also +understaffed, to say the least. So I decided to go with the next best +alternative: **steal their recipe**. + +That's much easier said than done. + +#### Hamburgling + +Anyone with a buck can get a batch of fully cooked McDonald's fries, but +I was after something more. I wanted to get fries from the store **in +their fully frozen state** so that I could examine their surface for +clues on how they were parcooked, as well as attempt to fry them myself +at home to discover if there is any secret in the fry oil in the shops. + +I figured I'd be just be able to walk into the store and order them +straight from the cashier. + +"Welcome to McDonald's, may I take your order?" + +"Yes Ma'am. I'd like a large fries please, hold the cooking." + +"Excuse me?" + +I know she's already said no in her head, but I press on just the same: +"Um... I'd just like the frozen fries please." + +"I'm sorry sir, we just don't do that." + +Time for some intimidation tactics: "Ok. Could I speak to the manager +please?" + +"I am the manager." + +Sh\*t. I bring out the really big guns: "Listen, the thing is, my wife +is pregnant—like really pregnant—and she sent me on a quest for +McDonald's french fries. But she only likes them really fresh, like +straight out of the fryer fresh, so I figured I'd just get some frozen, +and fry them for her at home. You know how it is. Women—no accounting +for'em, right?" + +She remains unimpressed, and needless to say, I go home fry-less, +contemplating whether attempting to leverage an unborn, un-conceived son +in exchange for a couple dozen frozen potato sticks is grounds for +eternal damnation. Thank God I'm an atheist. + +In a last ditch effort, I appeal to my [Facebook +fans](http://www.facebook.com/pages/The-Food-Lab/256324452909) for some +assistance, promising cold hard cash and full credit in this story to +anyone who could get me a stash of frozen McDonald's fries. Within 24 +hours, I had received this email from a Grant Held: + +> Kenji, you put forth an excellent challenge; I enjoy both challenges +> and your food writing immensely, so I came up with an excellent plan +> that worked the first try. +> +> Getting your frozen fries was simply a matter of finding the right +> fraternity man; One who had the ability to make up extemporaneous +> bullsh\*t and the all important "charm factor." Some would say +> possessing these attributes can help you get laid in college, but I +> plead The Fifth.... +> +> The plan involved me printing out a fake list of items needed for a +> Scavenger Hunt sponsored by "The Simplot Foundation." A "Mr. Simplot" +> had endowed an annual prize for the winning team of the scavenger +> hunt, which would be used to fund the "research projects of the +> members of the winning team each year." (Members also had to belong to +> the Harold McGee Society and Order of Brillat-Savarin). +> +> I walked into the McD's on xxxxxxx. (The exact location has been +> removed because we don't want to get the manager fired) +> +> I had pre-printed a list of items for said made up "Scavenger Hunt" (I +> basically Googled "Scavenger Hunt Lists" and added "Frozen McDonald's +> french fries".) +> +> I walked in, asked for the manager and explained the scavenger hunt. I +> said I needed 25 fries, which I was willing to pay for, but they had +> to be frozen. Her English was not ideal, so I spoke Spanish, and a +> young associate took kindly upon me and explained what I needed. The +> manager agreed, but thought I was asking for 25 FREE packages of +> cooked fries\!\!\! And she was willing to give them to me\!\!\! (She +> said my accent was great but my grammar was terrible... oh well...) +> +> I said I needed FROZEN fries, which really perplexed her, but my young +> McD's associate friend explained the concept of a scavenger hunt and +> soon enough I was invited into the kitchen and she grabbed a handful +> of fries and placed them in the zip lock bag I brought with me. + +Grant, you are a genius amongst men, and I am forever in your debt. + +The handoff was made the next day, and I finally had a batch of frozen +McDonald's fries on which to +operate. + +![20100526-mcdonalds-fries-01-frozen-mcs.jpg](https://static.seriouseats.com/1/braestar/live/img/placeholder-entry-image.png) + +#### Deconstructing the Arches + +The first thing I noticed was the surface texture of the fries. They +seemed smooth, but on closer inspection, I noticed that **they were +dotted with tiny tiny bubbles,** indicating that they had definitely +been fried at least once prior to arriving at the store. I measured them +with calipers and found that they were precisely 1/4 of an inch thick. A +good size for optimizing crust to interior +ratio. + +![20100526-mcdonalds-fries-02-caliper.jpg](https://static.seriouseats.com/1/braestar/live/img/placeholder-entry-image.png) + +McDonald's used to fry their potatoes in beef tallow, giving them extra +flavor and making them extra crisp, but they stopped doing that years +ago. But perhaps there's still something magic about their oil? To test +this, I fried up a batch of the frozen fries in 375°F peanut oil, +letting them cook for about 3 minutes before draining, seasoning, and +tasting. + +![20100526-mcdonalds-fries-03-frying.jpg](https://static.seriouseats.com/1/braestar/live/img/placeholder-entry-image.png) + +They were just as perfect as the fries at the store. That answers the +first question: **there is no magic in the oil**. Something must be done +to those potatoes during the pre-processing that makes them unique. + +For the next phase, I started doing some research and caught a lucky +break by finding [this +article](http://www.associatedcontent.com/article/1386768/how_mcdonalds_fries_are_made.html?cat=22) +online, which essentially runs through the whole process of what goes on +in a McDonald's potato processing plant as told by LeAron Plackett, a +thirteen-year-long employee. The parts that interested me most were on +the second page: + +> The fries are then flumed out of the A.D.R. room to the "blancher." +> The blancher is a large vessel filled with one hundred and seventy +> degree water. The trip through the blancher takes about fifteen +> minutes... After the fries leave the blancher, they are dried and then +> it's off to the "fryer," which is filled with one hundred percent +> vegetable oil. The oil is heated to three hundred and sixty five +> degrees and the fries take a fifty second dip before being conveyed to +> the "de-oiler shaker," where excess oil is "shook off." + +Bingo. + +So McDonald's does indeed use a double fry method, but it's far from the +traditional one. Rather than a slow low temperature fry for the first +round, the fries get dunked into very hot oil for only 50 seconds (the +second fry is then carried out at the actual location). In addition to +this, **the potatoes get a pre-fry blanching step in hot water.** What +could the purpose of this be? + +To answer that question, it's important to understand exactly what +happens when a french fry is cooked. + +#### The Balance of Pectin, Starch, and Simple Sugars + +Like all plants and animals, potatoes are composed of cells. These cells +are held together by pectin, a form of sugar that acts as a type of +glue. These cells also contain starch granules—tiny sacs that resemble +water balloons, as well as simple sugars. When these starch granules are +exposed to water and heat, they begin to swell, eventually bursting, and +releasing a shower of swollen starch molecules. Now the problem is, in +order to get the ideal crust, all three of these elements must be in the +proper balance, and the proper state. Too many simple sugars, and your +potato will brown long before it crisps. If pectin has broken down too +much before the starch granules have had a chance to burst and release +their sticky innards, your potatoes will either fail to form a crust, +will fall apart before it gets a chance to, or in the worst case will +cook up completely hollow, like +this: + +![20100526-mcdonalds-fries-16-hollow-fry.jpg](https://static.seriouseats.com/1/braestar/live/img/placeholder-entry-image.png) + +That's not a good thing. + +Pre-cooking the fries in a water bath the way McDonald's does +accomplishes two goals. First, it rinses off excess simple sugars, +helping the fries attain a light gold color, instead of a deep dark +brown. Secondly, it activates an enzyme called pectin methylesterase +(PME). According to [an article in the Journal of Agricultural and Food +Chemistry](http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/jf60184a031), PME induces +calcium and magnesium to act as a sort of buttress for pectin. They +strengthen the pectin's hold on the potato cell's walls, which helps the +potatoes stay firmer and more intact when cooked to a higher +temperature. That's why the surface of a McDonald's fry looks the way it +does: rather than blistering into large bubbles like a traditional +double-fried french fry does, **the reinforced walls form the super-tiny +bubbles that give them their extra crunch.** + +Now, like most enzymes, PME is only active within a certain temperature +range, acting faster and faster as the temperature gets higher until, +like a switch, it shuts off completely once it reaches a certain level. +170°F is just under that cutoff point. + +My objective just became much clearer: in order to get my fries ultra +crisp, I'd need to find a way to strengthen their pectin before allowing +their starch granules to burst. + +#### Bringing Home the Gold + +The most obvious way to do this is just to copy McDonald's exactly: cook +the potatoes in a precisely maintained 170°F water bath for 15 minutes. +I tried it using my [Sous-Vide +Supreme](http://www.sous-vide-supreme.com), followed by a fry at 360°F +for 50 seconds, and a second fry at 375°F for 3 1/2 minutes. It worked +like a charm. The fries tasted nearly identical to those that come from +McDonald's. Of course, now two new questions entered my head: What about +for those poor souls who don't have a temperature-controlled water bath? +And more importantly, now that I've got the fries down, could I make +them even better? I mean, they taste fantastic now, but we all know that +McDonald's fries get soggy pretty darn fast. If these fries were really +going to be perfect, I'd have to address that issue. + +To solve the first problem, my initial though was to start the potatoes +in cold water, and slowly bring it up to a simmer. My hope was that by +doing this, they'd spend enough time under the 170°F cutoff point to +improve their structure adequately. No dice. The potatoes were certainly +better than ones dunked straight into the fryer, but they didn't come +close to the originals. Next I tried adding a measured amount of boiling +water to a pot containing the cut potatoes. I calculated exactly how +much water I'd need in order for it to equilibrate to 170°F. It worked a +little better, but the water temperature dropped off too quickly for it +to be effective. Was I gonna have to break out the [beer +cooler](https://www.seriouseats.com/2010/04/cook-your-meat-in-a-beer-cooler-the-worlds-best-sous-vide-hack.html) +for this one? There had to be another way. + +That's when I thought—perhaps there is another way to strengthen pectin +without having to rely on some fickle enzyme (I've never liked enzymes +anyway), and it struck me: **apple pie**. + +What's this got to do with french fries? Well everyone who's ever baked +an apple pie knows that different apples cook differently. Some retain +their shape, while others turn to mush. The difference largely has to do +with their acidity. Thus super tart apples like Granny Smith will stay +fully intact, while sweeter apples like a Macoun will almost completely +dissolve. Just like a potato, apple cells are held together by pectin. +Moral of the story: **acid slows the breakdown of pectin**. + +What if rather than trying to fiddle with temperature, I just relied on +the use of acid to help the potatoes keep their structure? + +I tried bringing two pots of cut potatoes to a boil side by side, the +first with plain water, and the second with **water spiked with vinegar +at a ratio of one tablespoon per quart.** Here's what I +saw: + +![20100526-mcdonalds-fries-vinegar.jpg](https://static.seriouseats.com/1/braestar/live/img/placeholder-entry-image.png) + +The fries boiled in plain water disintegrated, making them nearly +impossible to pick up. When I added them to the hot oil, they broke +apart even further. On the other hand, **those boiled in the vinegared +water remained perfectly intact,** even after boiling for a full ten +minutes. When fried, they had fabulously crisp crusts with tiny, bubbly, +blistered surfaces that stayed crisp even when they were completely +cool. As for the flavor, if I tasted really hard, I could pick up a +faint vinegary undertone, though I wouldn't have if I didn't know it was +there. Even knowing it was there, it wasn't unpleasant at all. After +all, I'm used to putting my fries in ketchup or mayo, both of which +contain plenty of acid. + +This is a picture of one of the fries which I bent a full ten minutes +after it had come out of the oil. See how crisp is +stays? + +![20100526-mcdonalds-fries-20-bend-and-break.jpg](https://static.seriouseats.com/1/braestar/live/img/placeholder-entry-image.png) + +#### Getting Inside the Fluffy Interior + +Now that I'd perfected the crust, the final issue to deal with was that +of the interior. One last question remained: how to maximize the flavor +of the interior. **In order to stay fluffy and not gummy, a lot of the +interior moisture needs to be expelled in the cooking process,** so my +goal should be to make this evaporation as easy as possible. I figure +that so far, by cooking it all the way to boiling point, I'm doing +pretty much the right thing—the more cooked the potatoes are, the more +the cell structure breaks down, and the easier it is for water to be +expelled. To confirm this, I cooked three batches of potatoes, starting +each in a pot of cold, vinegared water, and bringing them up to various +final temperature (170°F, 185°F, and 212°F) before draining and +double-frying them. Not surprisingly, the boiled potatoes had the best +internal structure. Luckily, they were the easiest to make as well. + +But was there anything more I could do? I thought back to those +McDonald's fries and realized a vital step that I had neglected to test: +**freezing**. Every batch of McDonald's fries is frozen before being +shipped out to the stores. I always figured this step was for purely +economic reasons, but perhaps there was more to it? + +I tried freezing half a batch of fries before frying them and tasted +them side-by-side against the other +half. + +![20100526-mcdonalds-fries-18-spectrum.jpg](https://static.seriouseats.com/1/braestar/live/img/placeholder-entry-image.png) + +The improvement was undeniable. **The frozen fries had a distinctly +fluffier interior, while the unfrozen ones were still ever-so-slightly +gummy.** It makes perfect sense. Freezing the potatoes causes their +moisture to convert to ice, forming sharp, jagged crystals. These +crystals damage the cell structure of the potato, making it easier for +them to be released once they are heated and convert to steam. The best +part? Because freezing actually improves them, I can do the initial +blanching and frying steps in large batches, freeze them, and have a +constant supply of ready-to-fry potatoes right in my freezer just like +Ronald himself\! + +I know it's bad form to toot your own horn, but I'm simply amazed that +these fries have been coming out of my own kitchen. I've been eating +fries in various shades of good or bad constantly for the past few days, +and I'm absolutely sick of them, yet I am still eating them even as I +sit here and type. I really hope my wife doesn't mind greasy keyboards. +You never know what's gonna set her off. + +For instance—she gets mad when I say things like that about her on +completely public forums. Go +figure. + +![20100526-mcdonalds-fries-26.jpg](https://static.seriouseats.com/1/braestar/live/img/placeholder-entry-image.png) + +### + +** + +Get the + Recipe + + - [](https://www.seriouseats.com/recipes/2010/05/perfect-french-fries-recipe.html) + + #### Perfect Thin and Crispy French Fries + + View Recipe » diff --git a/_stories/2010/6975183.md b/_stories/2010/6975183.md index 4728b8c..0b55877 100644 --- a/_stories/2010/6975183.md +++ b/_stories/2010/6975183.md @@ -19,7 +19,184 @@ _tags: objectID: '6975183' --- -[Source](https://arstechnica.com/gaming/2011/08/accuracy-takes-power-one-mans-3ghz-quest-to-build-a-perfect-snes-emulator?daysago=580 "Permalink to ") +![](https://cdn.arstechnica.net/wp-content/uploads/2011/08/snes-emu-acc-intro.jpg) +Emulators for playing older games are immensely popular online, with +regular arguments breaking out over which emulator is best for which +game. Today we present another point of view from a gentleman who has +created the Super Nintendo emulator bsnes. He wants to share his +thoughts on the most important part of the emulation experience: +accuracy. +It doesn't take much raw power to play Nintendo or SNES games on a +modern PC; emulators could do it in the 1990s with a mere 25MHz of +processing power. But emulating those old consoles accurately—well, +that's another challenge entirely; accurate emulators may need up to +3GHz of power to faithfully recreate aging tech. In this piece we'll +take a look at why accuracy is so important for emulators and why it's +so hard to achieve. +Put simply, accuracy is the measure of how well emulation software +mimics the original hardware. Apparent compatibility is the most obvious +measure of accuracy—will an old game run on my new emulator?—but such a +narrow view can paper over many small problems. In truth, most software +runs with great tolerance to timing issues and appears to be functioning +normally even if timing is off by as much as 20 percent. + +So the question becomes: if we can achieve basic compatibility, why care +about improving accuracy further when such improvement comes at a great +cost in speed? Two reasons: performance and preservation. + +First, performance. Let's take the case of Speedy Gonzales. This is an +SNES platformer with no save functionality, and it's roughly 2-3 hours +long. At first glance, it appears to run fine in any emulator. Yet once +you reach stage 6-1, you can quickly spot the difference between an +accurate emulator and a fast one: there is a switch, required to +complete the level, where the game will deadlock if a rare hardware edge +case is not emulated. One can imagine the frustration of instantly +losing three hours of progress and being met with an unbeatable game. +Unless the software does everything in the exact same way the hardware +used to, the game remains broken. + +Or consider Air Strike Patrol, where a shadow is drawn under your +aircraft. This is done using mid-scanline raster effects, which are +extraordinarily resource intensive to emulate. But without the raster +effects, your aircraft's shadow will not show up, as you see in the +screenshot below. It's easy to overlook, especially if you do not know +that it is supposed to be there. But once you actually see it, you +realize that it's quite helpful. Your aircraft has the ability to drop +bombs, and this shadow acts as a sort of targeting system to determine +where they will land.—something that's slightly more difficult without +this seemingly minor +effect. + +![](https://cdn.arstechnica.net/2011/08/01/screen_shot_2011-08-01_at_4-4e37115-intro.png) + +The second issue is preservation. Take a look at Nintendo's Game & Watch +hardware. These devices debuted in 1980, and by now most of the 43 +million produced have failed due to age or have been destroyed. Although +they are still relatively obtainable, their scarcity will only increase, +as no additional units will ever be produced. This same problem extends +to any hardware: once it's gone, it's gone for good. At that point, +emulators are the only way to experience those old games, so they should +be capable of doing so accurately. + +But this accuracy comes at a serious cost. Making an emulator twice as +accurate will make it roughly twice as slow; double that accuracy again +and you're now four times slower. At the same time, the rewards for this +accuracy diminish quickly, as most games look and feel "playable" at +modest levels of emulator accuracy. (Most emulators target a "sweet +spot" of around 95 percent compatibility with optimal performance.) + +There's nothing wrong with less accurate but speedy emulators, and such +code can run on lower-powered hardware like cell phones and handheld +gaming devices. These emulators are also more suited for use on laptops +where battery life is a concern. But there's something to be said for +chasing accuracy, too, and it's what I've attempted to do in my own +work. Here's why it matters to me. + +### Doing it in software + +Back in the late '90s, Nesticle was easily the NES emulator of choice, +with system requirements of roughly 25MHz. This performance came at a +significant cost: game images were hacked to run on this emulator +specifically. Fan-made translations and hacks relied on emulation quirks +that rendered games unplayable on both real hardware and on other +emulators, creating a sort of lock-in effect that took a long while to +break. At the time, people didn't care about how the games originally +looked and played in general, they just cared about how they looked and +played in this arbitrary and artificial environment. + +These days, the most dominant emulators are Nestopia and Nintendulator, +requiring 800MHz and 1.6GHz, respectively, to attain full speed. The +need for speed isn't because the emulators aren't well optimized: it's +because they are a far more faithful recreation of the original NES +hardware in software. + +Now compare these to the older N64 emulator, UltraHLE, whose system +requirements were a meager 350MHz Pentium II system. To the casual +observer, it can be quite perplexing to see Mario 64 requiring less +processing power than the original Mario Bros. + +My experience in emulation is in the SNES field, working on the bsnes +emulator. I adored the ideal behind Nestopia, and wanted to recreate +this level of accuracy for the Super Nintendo. As it turns out, the same +level of dedication to accuracy pushed requirements up into the 2-3GHz +range, depending on the title. + +Nestopia caught on because its system requirements were paltry for its +time, but I have no doubt that releasing it in 1997 would have been +disastrous. Since my emulator ultimately required a computing system +with more power than half the market, I've seen first-hand the effect of +high system specs and the backlash it causes. It's easier to blame the +program than to admit your computer isn't powerful enough, but the +reality is that faking an entire gaming console in software is an +intensive process. + +### Why accuracy matters + +So if an emulator appears to run all games correctly, why should we then +improve upon it? The simple answer is because it improves the things we +don't yet know about. This is particularly prominent in less popular +software. + +As an example, compare the spinning triforce animation from the opening +to Legend of Zelda on the ZSNES and bsnes emulators. On the former, the +triforces will complete their rotations far too soon as a result of the +CPU running well over 40 percent faster than a real SNES. These are +little details, but if you have an eye for accuracy, they can be +maddening. + +I've encountered dozens of titles with obscure quirks. Sometimes the +correct, more accurate emulation actually produces a "wrong" result. +Super Bonk's attract mode demo actually desynchronizes, causing Bonk to +get stuck near a wall on most real systems. And Starfox suffers from +significant slowdown issues throughout the game. These are certainly not +desirable attributes, but they are correct nonetheless. We wouldn't +round pi down to 3 simply because irrational numbers are inconvenient, +right? + +I don't deny the advantages of treating classic games as something that +can be improved upon: N64 emulators employ stunning high-resolution +texture packs and 1080p upscaling, while SNES emulators often provide 2x +anti-aliasing for Mode7 graphics and cubic-spline interpolation for +audio samples. Such emulated games look and sound better. While there is +nothing wrong with this, it is contrary to the goal of writing a +hardware-accurate emulator. These improvement techniques typically make +it more difficult even to allow for the option of accurate emulation, in +fact. + +Another major area where accuracy is a benefit is in fan-created works +from translators, ROM hackers, and homebrew developers. Few of them have +access to run code on real hardware, so they will often develop their +software using emulators. Unfortunately, speed-oriented emulators will +often ignore hardware limitations. This is never a problem for a +commercially developed game: upon required testing on real hardware, the +bug would quickly be discovered and fixed. But if you can only test on a +specific emulator, such bugs tend to persist. + +I can name a few examples. The fan translations for Dragon Quest 1&2, +Dual Orb 2, Sailor Moon: Another Story and Ys 4 all suffered invisible +text issues as a result of writing to video RAM while the video +processor had it locked out for rendering the screen. Only half of these +titles have subsequently been fixed. + +We've known about this hardware limitation since 1997, which consists of +a one-line code fix, but the most popular emulator still does not +support this behavior. As a result, translations made solely for this +emulator continue to cause problems and lock-in. Who would want to use a +more accurate emulator that couldn't run a large number of their +favorite fan translations? + +It doesn't stop there, though. The original hardware had a delay upon +asking the math unit for multiplication and division results. Again, any +commercial game ever released would respect those delays, but fan hacks +led to a Zelda translation's music cutting out and to the Super Mario +World chain-chomp patch going haywire. + +Or an emulator might ignore the fact that the sound processor writes +echo samples into shared RAM. Not a problem until you wind up with hacks +that use wildly unrealistic echo buffer sizes, which in turn end up +overwriting the entire audio program in memory, crashing and burning in +spectacular fashion. This one issue single-handedly renders dozens of +Super Mario World fan-made levels unplayable. diff --git a/_stories/2010/7081191.md b/_stories/2010/7081191.md index d8e37ba..a8d4935 100644 --- a/_stories/2010/7081191.md +++ b/_stories/2010/7081191.md @@ -19,1089 +19,19 @@ _tags: objectID: '7081191' --- -[Source](https://cstheory.stackexchange.com/questions/1539/whats-new-in-purely-functional-data-structures-since-okasaki "Permalink to reference request - What's new in purely functional data structures since Okasaki? - Theoretical Computer Science Stack Exchange") +Since Chris Okasaki's 1998 book "Purely functional data structures", I +haven't seen too many new exciting purely functional data structures +appear; I can name just a + few: -# reference request - What's new in purely functional data structures since Okasaki? - Theoretical Computer Science Stack Exchange + - [IntMap](http://hackage.haskell.org/packages/archive/containers/0.1.0.1/doc/html/Data-IntMap.html) + (also invented by Okasaki in 1998, but not present in that book) + - [Finger + trees](http://apfelmus.nfshost.com/articles/monoid-fingertree.html) + (and their generalization over monoids) -[ ][1] - -#### Stack Exchange Network - -Stack Exchange network consists of 172 Q&A communities including [Stack Overflow][2], the largest, most trusted online community for developers to learn, share their knowledge, and build their careers. - -[Visit Stack Exchange][3] - -### [current community][4] - -* [help][5] [chat][6] - -[ - -Theoretical Computer Science ][4] -* [ - -Theoretical Computer Science Meta ][7] - -### your communities - -[Sign up][8] or [log in][9] to customize your list. - -### [more stack exchange communities][10] - -[company blog][11] - -* [ Tour Start here for a quick overview of the site ][12] -* [ Help Center Detailed answers to any questions you might have ][5] -* [ Meta Discuss the workings and policies of this site ][7] -* [ About Us Learn more about Stack Overflow the company ][13] -* [ Business Learn more about hiring developers or posting ads with us ][14] - -1. 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The best answers are voted up and rise to the top - -# [What's new in purely functional data structures since Okasaki?][28] - -| ----- | -| - -up vote 528 down vote [favorite][1] - -**689** - - | - -Since Chris Okasaki's 1998 book "Purely functional data structures", I haven't seen too many new exciting purely functional data structures appear; I can name just a few: - -* [IntMap][29] (also invented by Okasaki in 1998, but not present in that book) -* [Finger trees][30] (and their generalization over monoids) - -There are also some interesting ways of implementing already known datastructures, such as using "nested types" or "generalized algebraic datatypes" to ensure tree invariants. +There are also some interesting ways of implementing already known +datastructures, such as using "nested types" or "generalized algebraic +datatypes" to ensure tree invariants. Which other new ideas have appeared since 1998 in this area? - -[reference-request][31] [big-list][32] [ds.data-structures][33] [functional-programming][34] - -| - -[share][35]|cite|[improve this question][36] - - | - -asked Sep 21 '10 at 8:04 - -![][37] - -[jkff][38] - -4,19431631 - - | - - | -| | - -* 18 - -Nice question. I just had a student asking me about this, and didn't know the answer. – [Suresh Venkat♦][39] Sep 21 '10 at 8:07 - -* This is OK for here, but you might get better answers on Stack Overflow. If you ask there, be sure and link to the discussion here. – [Charles Stewart][40] Sep 21 '10 at 13:01 -* 3 - -Well the Haskell Reddit has seen this so there will be some good answers coming in from there too but excellent question. Just being halfway through Okasaki's book I was wondering the same think myself. +1 – [Robert Massaioli][41] Sep 21 '10 at 22:52 - -* 8 - -[This inspired me to ask a related question][42]. – [jbapple][43] Sep 22 '10 at 18:44 - -* 3 - -[Okasaki's blog post from 2008 for the 10th anniversary of the book][44] – [Kaveh][45] Jan 4 '16 at 12:33 - - |  show **1** more comment - - | - -## 6 Answers 6 - -[ active][46] [ oldest][47] [ votes][48] - -| ----- | -| - -up vote 528 down vote accepted - - | - -### New purely functional data structures published since 1998: - -* 2001: [**Ideal Hash Trees][49], and its 2000 predecessor, [Fast And Space Efficient Trie Searches][50], by Phil Bagwell**: Apparently used as a fundamental building block in Clojure's standard library. -* 2001: [**A Simple Implementation Technique for Priority Search Queues][51], by Ralf Hinze**: a really simple and beautiful technique for implementing this important datastructure (useful, say, in the Dijkstra algorithm). The implementation is particularly beautiful and readable due to heavy use of "view patterns". -* 2002: [**Bootstrapping one-sided flexible arrays][52], by Ralf Hinze**: Similar to Okasaki's random-access lists, but they can be tuned to alter the time tradeoff between `cons` and indexing. -* 2003: [**New catenable and non-catenable deques][53], by Radu Mihaescu and Robert Tarjan**: A new take on some older work (by Kaplan and Tarjan) that Okasaki cites (The [most recent version of Kaplan & Tarjan's work was published in 2000][54]). This version is simpler in some ways. -* 2005: **Maxiphobic heaps ([paper][55] and [code][56]), by Chris Okasaki**: Presented not as a new, more efficient structure, but as a way to teach priority queues. -* 2006: [**Purely Functional Worst Case Constant Time Catenable Sorted Lists][57], by Gerth Stølting Brodal, Christos Makris, and Kostas Tsichlas**: Answers an outstanding question of Kaplan and Tarjan by demonstrating a structure with O(lg n) insert, search, and delete and O(1) concat. -* 2008: [**Confluently Persistent Tries for Efficient Version Control][58], by Erik D. Demaine, Stefan Langerman, and Eric Price**: Presents several data structures for tries that have efficient navigation and modification near the leaves. Some are purely functional. Others actually improve a long-standing data structure by Dietz et al. for fully persistent (but not confluently persistent or purely functional) arrays. This paper also presente **purely functional link-cut trees**, sometimes called "dynamic trees". -* 2010: [**A new purely functional delete algorithm for red-black trees][59], by Matt Might**: Like Okasaki's red-black tree insertion algorithm, this is not a new data structure or a new operation on a data structure, but a new, simpler way to write a known operation. -* 2012: [**RRB-Trees: Efficient Immutable Vectors][60], by Phil Bagwell and Tiark Rompf**: An extension to Hash Array Mapped Tries, supporting immutable vector concatenation, insert-at, and split in O(lg n) time, while maintaining the index, update, and insertion speeds of the original immutable vector. - -### Known in 1997, but not discussed in Okasaki's book: - -* **Many other styles of balanced search tree**. AVL, brother, rank-balanced, bounded-balance, and many other balanced search trees can be (and have been) implemented purely functionally by path copying. Perhaps deserving special mention are: - - * [**Biased Search Trees][61], by Samuel W. Bent, Daniel D. Sleator, and Robert E. Tarjan**: A key element in Brodal et al.'s 2006 paper and Demaine et al.'s 2008 paper. -* [**Infinite sets that admit fast exhaustive search][62], by Martín Escardó**: Perhaps not a data structure _per se_. -* [**Three algorithms on Braun Trees][63], by Chris Okasaki**: Braun trees offer many stack operations in worst-case O(lg n). This bound is surpassed by many other data structures, but Braun trees have a `cons` operation lazy in its second argument, and so can be used as infinite stacks in some ways that other structures cannot. -* [**The relaxed min-max heap: A mergeable double-ended priority queue][64] and [The KD heap: An efficient multi-dimensional priority queue][65], by Yuzheng Ding and Mark Allen Weiss**: These happen to be purely functional, though this is not discussed in the papers. I do not think the time bounds achieved are any better than those that can be achieved by using finger trees (of Hinze & Paterson or Kaplan & Tarjan) as k-dimensional priority queues, but I think the structures of Ding & Weiss uses less space. -* [**The Zipper][66], by Gérard Huet**: Used in many other data structures (such as Hinze & Paterson's finger trees), this is a way of turning a data structure inside-out. -* **Difference lists** are O(1) catenable lists with an O(n) transformation to usual `cons` lists. They have apparently been known since antiquity in the Prolog community, where they have an O(1) transformation to usual `cons` lists. The O(1) transformation seems to be impossible in traditional functional programming, but Minamide's [hole abstraction][67], from POPL '98, discusses a way of allowing O(1) append and O(1) transformation within pure functional programming. Unlike the usual functional programming implementations of difference lists, which are based on function closures, hole abstractions are essentially the same (in both their use and their implementation) as Prolog difference lists. However, it seems that for years the only person that noticed this was [one of Minamide's reviewers][68]. -* **Uniquely represented dictionaries** support insert, update, and lookup with the restriction that no two structures holding the same elements can have distinct shapes. To give an example, sorted singly-linked lists are uniquely represented, but traditional AVL trees are not. Tries are also uniquely represented. [Tarjan and Sundar, in "Unique binary search tree representations and equality-testing of sets and sequences"][69], showed a purely functional uniquely represented dictionary that supports searches in logarithmic time and updates in $O(sqrt{n})$ time. However, it uses $Theta(n lg n)$ space. There is a [simple representation][70] using [Braun trees][71] that uses only linear space but has update time of $Theta(sqrt{n lg n})$ and search time of $Theta(lg^2 n)$ - -### Mostly functional data structures, before, during, and after Okasaki's book: - -* **Many procedures for making data structures persistent, fully persistent, or confluently persistent**: Haim Kaplan wrote [an excellent survey on the topic][72]. See also above the work of Demaine et al., who demonstrate a fully persistent array in $O(m)$ space (where $m$ is the number of operations ever performed on the array) and $O(lg lg n)$ expected access time. -* 1989: [**Randomized Search Trees][73] by Cecilia R. Aragon and Raimund Seidel**: These were discussed in a purely functional setting by Guy E. Blelloch and Margaret Reid-Miller in [Fast Set Operations Using Treaps][74] and by Dan Blandford and Guy Blelloch in [Functional Set Operations with Treaps][75] ([code][76]). They provide all of the operations of purely functional fingertrees and biased search trees, but require a source of randomness, making them not purely functional. This may also invalidate the time complexity of the operations on treaps, assuming an adversary who can time operations and repeat the long ones. (This is the same reason why imperative amortization arguments aren't valid in a persistent setting, but it requires an adversary with a stopwatch) -* 1997: [**Skip-trees, an alternative data structure to Skip-lists in a concurrent approach][77], by Xavier Messeguer and [Exploring the Duality Between Skip Lists and Binary Search Trees][78], by Brian C. Dean and Zachary H. Jones**: Skip lists are not purely functional, but they can be implemented functionally as trees. Like treaps, they require a source of random bits. (It is possible to make skip lists deterministic, but, after translating them to a tree, I think they are just another way of looking at 2-3 trees.) -* 1998: **All of the amortized structures in Okasaki's book!** Okasaki invented this new method for mixing amortization and functional data structures, which were previously thought to be incompatible. It depends upon memoization, which, as Kaplan and Tarjan have sometimes mentioned, is actually a side effect. In some cases ([such as PFDS on SSDs for performance reasons][79]), this may be inappropriate. -* 1998: [**Simple Confluently Persistent Catenable Lists][80], by Haim Kaplan, Chris Okasaki, and Robert E. Tarjan**: Uses modification under the hood to give amortized O(1) catenable deques, presenting the same interface as an earlier (purely functional, but with memoization) version appearing in Okasaki's book. Kaplan and Tarjan had earlier created a purely functional O(1) worst-case structure, but it is substantially more complicated. -* 2007: As mentioned in another answer on this page, [semi-persistent data structures][81] and [persistent union-find][82] by Sylvain Conchon and Jean-Christophe Filliâtre - -### Techniques for verifying functional data structures, before, during, and after Okasaki's book: - -* **Phantom types** are an old method for creating an API that does not allow certain ill-formed operations. A sophisticated use of them can be found in Oleg Kiselyov and Chung-chieh Shan's [Lightweight Static Capabilities][83]. -* **Nested types** are not actually more recent than 1998 - Okasaki even uses them in his book. There are many other examples that are not in Okasaki's book; some are new, and some are old. They include: - - * Stefan Kahrs's [Red-black trees with types][84] ([code][85]) - * Ross Paterson's [AVL trees][86] ([mirror][87]) - * Chris Okasaki's [From fast exponentiation to square matrices: an adventure in types][88] - * Richard S. Bird and Ross Peterson's [de Bruijn notation as a nested datatype][89] - * Ralf Hinze's [Numerical Representations as Higher-Order Nested Datatypes][90]. -* **GADTs** are not all that new, either. They are a recent addition to Haskell and some MLs, but they have been present, I think, in [various typed lambda calculi since the 1970s][91]. -* 2004-2010: **Coq and Isabelle for correctness**. Several people have used theorem provers to verify the correctness of purely functional data structures. Coq can extract these verifications to working code in Haskell, OCaml, and Scheme; Isabelle can extract to Haskell, ML, and OCaml. - - * Coq: - * Pierre Letouzey and Jean-Christophe Filliâtre [formalized red-black and AVL(ish) trees, finding a bug in the OCaml standard library in the process][92]. - * I [formalized Brodal and Okasaki's asymptotically optimal priority queues][93]. - * Arthur Charguéraud [formalized 825 of the 1,700 lines of ML in Okasaki's book][94]. - * Isabelle: - * Tobias Nipkow and Cornelia Pusch [formalized AVL trees][95]. - * Viktor Kuncak formalized [unbalanced binary search trees][96]. - * Peter Lammich published [The Isabelle Collections framework][97], which includes formalizations of efficient purely functional data structures like red-black trees and tries, as well as data structures that are less efficient when used persistently, such as two-stack-queues (without Okasaki's laziness trick) and hash tables. - * Peter Lammich also published formalizations of [tree automata][98], [Hinze & Patterson's finger trees][99] (with Benedikt Nordhoff and Stefan Körner), and [Brodal and Okasaki's purely functional priority queues][100] (with Rene Meis and Finn Nielsen). - * René Neumann formalized [binomial priority queues][101]. -* 2007: **[Refined Typechecking with Stardust][102], by Joshua Dunfield**: This paper uses refinement types for ML to find errors in SMLNJ's red-black tree delete function. -* 2008: **[Lightweight Semiformal Time Complexity Analysis for Purely Functional Data Structures][103] by Nils Anders Danielsson**: Uses Agda with manual annotation to prove time bounds for some PFDS. - -### Imperative data structures or analyses not discussed in Okasaki's book, but related to purely functional data structures: - -* **[The Soft Heap: An Approximate Priority Queue with Optimal Error Rate][104], by Bernard Chazelle**: This data structure does not use arrays, and so has tempted [first the #haskell IRC channel][105] and [later Stack Overflow users][106], but it includes `delete` in o(lg n), which is usually not possible in a functional setting, and imperative amortized analysis, which is not valid in a purely functional setting. -* **Balanced binary search trees with O(1) finger updates**. In [Making Data Structures Persistent][107], James R Driscoll, Neil Sarnak, Daniel D. Sleator, and Robert E. Tarjan present a method for grouping the nodes in a red-black tree so that persistent updates require only O(1) space. The purely functional deques and finger trees designed by Tarjan, Kaplan, and Mihaescu all use a very similar grouping technique to allow O(1) updates at both ends. [AVL-trees for localized search][108] by Athanasios K. Tsakalidis works similarly. -* **Faster pairing heaps or better bounds for pairing heaps**: Since Okasaki's book was published, several new analyses of imperative pairing heaps have appeared, including [Pairing heaps with O(log log n) decrease Cost][109] by Amr Elmasry and [Towards a Final Analysis of Pairing Heaps][110] by Seth Pettie. It may be possible to apply some of this work to Okasaki's lazy pairing heaps. -* **Deterministic biased finger trees**: In [Biased Skip Lists][111], by Amitabha Bagchi, Adam L. Buchsbaum, and Michael T. Goodrich, a design is presented for deterministic biased skip lists. Through the skip list/tree transformation mentioned above, it may be possible to make deterministic biased search trees. The finger biased skip lists described by John Iacono and Özgür Özkan in [Mergeable Dictionaries][112] might then be possible on biased skip trees. A biased finger tree is suggested by Demaine et al. in their paper on purely functional tries (see above) as a way to reduce the time-and space bounds on finger update in tries. -* **[The String B-Tree: A New Data Structure for String Search in External Memory and its Applications][113] by Paolo Ferragina and Roberto Grossi** is a well studied data structure combining the benefits of tries and B-trees. - -| - -[share][114]|cite|[improve this answer][115] - - | - -[edited May 23 '17 at 11:33][116] - - | - -community wiki - - - -[ 41 revs, 5 users 94% -[jbapple][117] ][118] - - | - - | -| | - -* 4 - -I don't remember checking the "community wiki" box on this answer. Is there any way to undo that? – [jbapple][43] Sep 22 '10 at 20:10 - -* 7 - -@jbapple: after a certain number of edits, all posts become community wiki. That's an impressively thorough review there. Thank you. – [Novelocrat][119] Sep 23 '10 at 3:07 - -* 28 - -Great list! Which makes me wish Okasaki would publish a second edition. – [Radu GRIGore][120] Sep 30 '10 at 10:33 - -* 4 - -Note that Isabelle/HOL can generate code for SML, OCaml, Haskell, Scala. The Haskabelle tool can also import Haskell into Isabelle/HOL. – [Makarius][121] Mar 4 '13 at 11:31 - -* 2 - -The terminology of "programm extraction" is one of Coq: you take a constructive proof and make an executable program from it, stripping away some things. In Isabelle this is called "code generation" and works differently, using the HOL _specifications_ as pseudo-code, not the proofs. Proof extraction in Isabelle/HOL according to Berghofer does work like Coq, but is rarely used these days. – [Makarius][121] Mar 4 '13 at 11:34 - - |  show **6** more comments - - | - -| ----- | -| - -up vote 59 down vote - - | - -To the excellent notes already made, I'll add **Zippers**. - -Huet, Gerard. "Functional Pearl: The Zipper" Journal of Functional Programming 7 (5): 549-554, September 1997. - -[Wikipedia: Zipper (data structure)][122] - -| - -[share][123]|cite|[improve this answer][124] - - | - -[edited Nov 13 '13 at 3:11][125] - -![][126] - -[Rory O'Kane][127] - -1033 - - | - -answered Sep 21 '10 at 18:06 - -![][128] - -[Matt Might][129] - -81956 - - | - - | -| | - -* 4 - -Zippers are AWESOME. For many use cases, they allow tree based representations to become the "right" choice for many kinds of data where otherwise it'd be a bit more complicated – [Carter Tazio Schonwald][130] Dec 1 '10 at 22:52 - -* 1 - -An example of their use for XML manipulation: [anti-xml.org/zippers.html][131] – [Mechanical snail][132] Aug 22 '12 at 20:29 - -add a comment |  - - | - -| ----- | -| - -up vote 36 down vote - - | - -Conchon, Filliatre, [A Persistent UNION-FIND Data Structure][133] and [Semi-persistent Data Structures][134]. - -| - -[share][135]|cite|[improve this answer][136] - - | - -[edited Apr 26 '14 at 17:07][137] - -![][138] - -[Huge][139] - -1033 - - | - -answered Sep 21 '10 at 8:13 - -![][140] - -[Radu GRIGore][141] - -3,9012265 - - | - - | -| | - -* Wow, a persistent UNION-FIND! Thanks! – [jkff][142] Sep 21 '10 at 8:17 -* 3 - -Well, kind of... See the article. – [Radu GRIGore][120] Sep 21 '10 at 8:18 - -* 1 - -... or, if you prefer, see some code (by Matt Parkinson) [github.com/septract/jstar/blob/master/src/utils/…][143] – [Radu GRIGore][120] Sep 21 '10 at 8:50 - -* 5 - -Now I see why the "kind of.." comment had an upvote. They have good performance only when one almost exclusively either does not use persistence, or backtracks all the time: if you often use both "new" and "old" versions, you're screwed. Cool rerooting idea though. – [jkff][142] Sep 22 '10 at 11:13 - -* Radu's link can now be found at [github.com/septract/jstar-old/blob/…][144] – [jbapple][43] Jun 17 '12 at 2:36 - -add a comment |  - - | - -| ----- | -| - -up vote 18 down vote - - | - -I'd add McBride's version of zippers as derivatives of data types. - -| - -[share][145]|cite|[improve this answer][146] - - | - -answered Sep 22 '10 at 2:05 - -![][147] - -[none][148] - -1812 - - | - - | -| | - -* I love that stuff. It's just so cool that the derivative has an application so wildly different from finding rates of change! – [SamB][149] Sep 22 '10 at 22:00 -* 3 - -SamB, you might also be interested in derivatives of regular expressions (if you didn't already know about them). – [jbapple][43] Sep 22 '10 at 23:33 - -* 3 - -Here's [the original paper on derivatives of regular expressions][150]. – [jameshfisher][151] Jun 16 '13 at 10:37 - -add a comment |  - - | - -| ----- | -| - -up vote 12 down vote - - | - -[Rangemaps][152] - -It is a specialized data structure, but it can be used as a substitute for Martin Erwig's DIET, with slightly different properties, so at least there is one existing data structure to compare it to. The DIET itself was described in an article in JFP in 1998, so perhaps it is not included in Purely Functional Data Structures. - -| - -[share][153]|cite|[improve this answer][154] - - | - -answered Jan 28 '11 at 9:07 - -![][155] - -[Complicated see bio][156] - -22124 - - | - - | -| | - -add a comment |  - - | - -| ----- | -| - -up vote 5 down vote - - | - -Following up on the 2012 paper linked above, the work on RRB vectors has since been extended and published in ICFP'15. - -RRB vector: a practical general purpose immutable sequence - -| - -[share][157]|cite|[improve this answer][158] - - | - -answered Jun 28 '16 at 16:57 - -![][159] - -[Mike Rainey][160] - -5111 - - | - - | -| | - -add a comment |  - - | - -## Your Answer - -  - -draft saved - -draft discarded - -### Sign up or [log in][161] - -Sign up using Google - -Sign up using Facebook - -Sign up using Email and Password - -### Post as a guest - -| ----- | -| - -Name - -Email - - | - -### Post as a guest - -| ----- | -| - -Name - -Email - - | - -[discard][1] - -By posting your answer, you agree to the [privacy policy][162] and [terms of service][163]. - -## Not the answer you're looking for? 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-[Source](https://www.mensjournal.com/magazine/everything-you-know-about-fitness-is-a-lie-20120504 "Permalink to ") - - - diff --git a/_stories/2010/7408725.md b/_stories/2010/7408725.md index 7510512..517fd38 100644 --- a/_stories/2010/7408725.md +++ b/_stories/2010/7408725.md @@ -19,7 +19,252 @@ _tags: objectID: '7408725' --- -[Source](https://a16z.com/author/ben-horowitz//how_to_minimize_politics_in_your_company "Permalink to ") +“Who the f@\#k you think you f$\&kin’ with +I’m the f%\*kin’ boss.” +—Rick Ross, [Hustlin’](http://genius.com/Rick-ross-hustlin-lyrics) +In all my years in business, I have yet to hear someone say: “I love +corporate politics.” On the other hand, I meet plenty of people who +complain bitterly about corporate politics—sometimes even in the +companies they run. So, if nobody loves politics, why all the politics? +Political behavior almost always starts with the CEO. Now you may be +thinking: “I hate politics, I’m not political, but my organization is +very political. I clearly didn’t cause this.” Sadly, you needn’t be +political to create extreme political behavior in your organization. In +fact, it’s often the least political CEOs who run the most ferociously +political organizations. Apolitical CEOs frequently accidentally +encourage intense political behavior. +What do I mean by politics? I mean people advancing their careers or +agendas by means other than merit and contribution. There may be other +types of politics, but politics of this form seem to be the ones that +really bother people. + +## + +How it happens + +A CEO creates politics by encouraging and sometimes incenting political +behavior—often accidentally. For a very simple example, let’s consider +executive compensation. As CEO, senior employees will come to you from +time to time and ask for an increase in compensation. They may suggest +that you are paying them far less than their current market value. They +may even have a competitive offer in hand. Faced with this +confrontation, if the request is reasonable, you might investigate the +situation. You might even give the employee a raise. This may sound +innocent, but you have just created a strong incentive for political +behavior. + +Specifically, you will be rewarding behavior that has nothing to do with +advancing your business. The employee will earn a raise by asking for +one rather than you automatically rewarding them for outstanding +performance. Why is this bad? Let me count the ways: + +1\. The other ambitious members of your staff will immediately agitate +for raises as well. Note that neither this campaign nor the prior one +need be correlated with actual performance. You will now spend time +dealing with the political issues rather than actual performance issues. +Importantly, if you have a competent board, you will not be able to give +them all out-of-cycle raises, so your company executive raises will +occur on a first-come, first-serve basis. + +2\. The less aggressive (but perhaps more competent) members of your +team will be denied off-cycle raises simply by being apolitical. + +3\. The object lesson for your staff and the company will be the squeaky +wheel gets the grease and the political employee gets the raise. Get +ready for a whole lot of squeaky wheels. + +Now let’s move on to a more complicated example. Your CFO comes to you +and says that he wants to continue developing as a manager. He says that +he would like to eventually become a COO and would like to know what +skills he must demonstrate in order to earn that position in your +company. Being a positive leader, you would like to encourage him to +pursue his dream. You tell him that you think that he’d be a fine COO +some day and that he should work to develop a few more skills. In +addition, you tell him that he’ll need to be a strong enough leader, +such that other executives in the company will want to work for him. A +week later, one of your other executives comes to you in a panic. She +says that the CFO just asked her if she’d work for him. She says that he +said that you are grooming him to be the COO and that’s his final step. +Did that just happen? Welcome to the big time. + +## + +How to minimize politics + +### + +Professionals vs. Amateurs + +Minimizing politics often feels totally unnatural. It’s counter to +excellent management practices such as being open minded and encouraging +employee development. + +The difference between managing executives and managing more junior +employees can be thought of as the difference between being in a fight +with someone with no training and being in a ring with a professional +boxer. If you are in a fight with a regular person, then you can do +natural things and they won’t get you into much trouble. For example, if +you want to take a step backwards, you can pick your front foot up +first. If you do this against a professional boxer, you will get your +block knocked off. Professional boxers train for years to take advantage +of small errors in technique. Lifting your front foot first to take a +step backwards will take you slightly off balance for a split second and +that’s all your opponent will need. + +Similarly, if you manage a junior employee and they ask you about their +career development, you can say what comes naturally and generally get +away with it. As we saw above, things change when you deal with highly +ambitious, seasoned professionals. In order to keep from getting knocked +out by corporate politics, you need to refine your technique. + +### + +The Technique + +As I developed as a CEO, I found three key techniques to be extremely +useful in minimizing politics. + +**1. Hire people with the right kind of ambition**—The cases that I +described above might involve people who are ambitious, but not +necessarily inherently political. All cases are not like this. The +surest way to turn your company into the political equivalent of the US +Senate is to hire people with the wrong kind of ambition. As defined by +Andy Grove, the right kind of ambition is ambition for the company’s +success with the executive’s own success only coming as a by-product of +the company’s victory. The wrong kind of ambition is ambition for the +executive’s personal success regardless of the company’s outcome. + +**2. Build strict processes for potentially political issues and do not +deviate**—Certain activities attract political behavior. These +activities include: + +–Performance evaluation and compensation + +–Organizational design and territory +  +–Promotions + +Let’s examine each case and how you might build and execute a process +that insulates the company from bad behavior and politically motivated +outcomes. + +Performance and compensation—Often companies defer putting performance +management and compensation processes in place. This doesn’t mean that +they don’t evaluate employees or give pay raises; it just means they do +so in an ad hoc manner that’s highly vulnerable to political +machinations. By conducting well-structured, regular performance and +compensation reviews, you will ensure that pay and stock increases are +as fair as possible. This is especially important for executive +compensation as doing so will also serve to minimize politics. In the +example above, the CEO should have had an airtight performance and +compensation policy and simply told the executive that his compensation +would be evaluated with everyone else’s. Ideally, the executive +compensation process should involve the board of directors. This will a) +help ensure good governance and b) make exceptions even more difficult. + +Organizational design and territory—If you manage ambitious people, from +time to time, they will want to expand their scope of responsibility. In +the example above, the CFO wanted to become the COO. In other +situations, the head of marketing might want to run sales and marketing +or the head of engineering may want to run engineering and product +management. When someone raises an issue like this with you, you must be +very careful about what you say, because everything that you say can be +turned into political cannon fodder. Generally, it’s best to say nothing +at all. At most, you might ask “why?”, but if you do so be sure not to +react to the reasons. If you indicate what you are thinking, that +information will leak, rumors will spread and you plant the seeds for +all kinds of unproductive discussions. You should evaluate your +organizational design on a regular basis and gather the information that +you need to decide without tipping people to what you plan to do. Once +you decide, you should immediately execute the re-org: don’t leave time +for leaks and lobbying. + +Promotions—Every time your company gives someone a promotion, everyone +else at that person’s level evaluates the promotion and judges whether +merit or political favors yielded the promotion. If the latter, then the +other employees generally react in one of three ways: + +1.They sulk and feel undervalued. + +2\. They outwardly disagree, campaign against the person, and undermine +them in their new position. + +3\. They attempt to copy the political behavior that generated the +unwarranted promotion. + +Clearly, you don’t want any of these behaviors in your company. +Therefore, you must have a formal, visible, defensible promotion process +that governs every employee promotion. Often this process must be +different for people on your own staff (the general process may involve +various managers who are familiar with the employee’s work, the +executive process should include the board of directors). The purpose of +the process is twofold. First, it will give the organization confidence +that the company at least attempted to base the promotion on merit and +second, the result of the process will be the information necessary for +your team to explain the promotion decisions that you made. + +**3. Be careful with “he said, she said”**—Once your organization grows +to a significant size, members of your team will, from time to time, +complain about each other. Sometimes this criticism will be extremely +aggressive. Be very careful about how you listen and the message that it +sends. Simply by hearing them out without defending the employee in +question, you will send the message that you agree. If people in the +company think that you agree that one of your executives is less than +stellar, that information will spread quickly and without qualification. +As a result, people will stop listening to the executive in question and +they will soon become ineffective. + +There are two distinct types of complaints that you will receive: + +1\. Complaints about an executive’s behavior + +2\. Complaints about an executive’s competency or performance + +Generally, the best way to handle complaints of type 1 is to get the +complaining executive and the targeted executive in the room together +and have them explain themselves. Usually, simply having this meeting +will resolve the conflict and correct the behavior (if it was actually +broken). Do not attempt to address behavioral issues without both +executives in the room. Doing so will invite manipulation and politics. + +Complaints of type 2 are both more rare and more complex. If one of your +executives summons the courage to complain about the competency of one +of their peers, then there is a good chance that either the complainer +or the targeted executive has a major problem. If you receive a type 2 +complaint, you will generally have one of two reactions: a) they will be +telling you something that you already know or b) they’ll be telling you +shocking news. + +If they are telling you something that you already know, then the big +news is that you have let the situation go too far. Whatever your +reasons for attempting to rehabilitate the wayward executive, you have +taken too long and now your organization has turned on the executive in +question. You must resolve the situation quickly. Almost always, this +means firing the executive. While I’ve seen executives improve their +performance and skill sets, I’ve never seen one lose the support of the +organization then regain it. + +On the other hand, if the complaint is new news, then you must +immediately stop the conversation and make clear to the complaining +executive that you in no way agree with their assessment. You do not +want to cripple the other executive before you re-evaluate their +performance. You do not want the complaint to become a self-fulfilling +prophecy. Once you’ve shut down the conversation, you must quickly +re-assess the employee in question. If you find that they are doing an +excellent job, then you must figure out the complaining executive’s +motivations and resolve them. Do not let an accusation of this magnitude +fester. If you find that the employee is doing a poor job, there will be +time to go back and get the complaining employee’s input, but you should +be on a track to remove the poor performer at that point. + +## + +Closing Thought + +As CEO, you must consider the systemic incentives that result from your +words and actions. While it may feel good in the moment to be open, +responsive and action oriented, be careful not to encourage all the +wrong things. diff --git a/_stories/2010/7639238.md b/_stories/2010/7639238.md index 782073b..a40290c 100644 --- a/_stories/2010/7639238.md +++ b/_stories/2010/7639238.md @@ -19,7 +19,7 @@ _tags: objectID: '7639238' --- -[Source](http://pastebin.com/a45dp3Q1 "Permalink to ") - - +This page has been removed\! +This page is no longer available. It has either expired, been removed by +its creator, or removed by one of the Pastebin staff. diff --git a/_stories/2010/7727710.md b/_stories/2010/7727710.md index 16e63c7..312dffa 100644 --- a/_stories/2010/7727710.md +++ b/_stories/2010/7727710.md @@ -19,621 +19,217 @@ _tags: objectID: '7727710' --- -[Source](https://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2010/04/04/take-it-to-the-limit "Permalink to Take It to the Limit - The New York Times") +![Steven +Strogatz](https://static01.nyt.com/images/blogs/opinionator/contributors/strogatz45.jpg) -# Take It to the Limit - The New York Times +[Steven +Strogatz](//opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/category/steven-strogatz) on +math, from basic to baffling. -__Sections __ Home __Search [Skip to content][1] +In middle school my friends and I enjoyed chewing on the classic +conundrums.   What happens when an irresistible force meets an immovable +object?  Easy — they both explode.  Philosophy’s trivial when you’re 13. -## [ The New York Times ][2] +But one puzzle bothered us: if you keep moving halfway to the wall, will +you ever get there?  Something about this one was deeply frustrating, +the thought of getting closer and closer and yet never quite making it.  +(There’s probably a metaphor for teenage angst in there somewhere.)  +Another concern was the thinly veiled presence of infinity.  To reach +the wall you’d need to take an infinite number of steps, and by the end +they’d become infinitesimally small.  Whoa. -###### [ Opinionator ][3] | Take It to the Limit +Questions like this have always caused headaches.  Around 500 B.C., Zeno +of Elea posed a set of paradoxes about infinity that puzzled generations +of philosophers, and that may have been partly to blame for its +banishment from mathematics for centuries to come.  In Euclidean +geometry, for example, the only constructions allowed were those that +involved a finite number of steps.  The infinite was considered too +ineffable, too unfathomable, and too hard to make logically rigorous. -__Search +But Archimedes, the greatest mathematician of antiquity, realized the +power of the infinite.  He harnessed it to solve problems that were +otherwise intractable, and in the process came close to inventing +calculus — nearly 2,000 years before Newton and Leibniz. -Subscribe Now Log In __0 __Settings - -__Close search - -## Site Search Navigation - -Search NYTimes.com - -__Clear this text input - -Go - -1. Loading... - -See next articles - -See previous articles - -## Site Navigation - -## Site Mobile Navigation - -Supported by - -[ ![][4] ][5] - -![Opinionator][6] - -[Opinionator - -A Gathering of Opinion From Around the Web - -][7] - -Search - -[Steven Strogatz][8] - -# Take It to the Limit - -By Steven Strogatz April 4, 2010 5:00 pm April 4, 2010 5:00 pm - -![Steven Strogatz][9] - -[Steven Strogatz][10] on math, from basic to baffling. - -In middle school my friends and I enjoyed chewing on the classic conundrums.   What happens when an irresistible force meets an immovable object?  Easy — they both explode.  Philosophy's trivial when you're 13. - -But one puzzle bothered us: if you keep moving halfway to the wall, will you ever get there?  Something about this one was deeply frustrating, the thought of getting closer and closer and yet never quite making it.  (There's probably a metaphor for teenage angst in there somewhere.)  Another concern was the thinly veiled presence of infinity.  To reach the wall you'd need to take an infinite number of steps, and by the end they'd become infinitesimally small.  Whoa. - -Questions like this have always caused headaches.  Around 500 B.C., Zeno of Elea posed a set of paradoxes about infinity that puzzled generations of philosophers, and that may have been partly to blame for its banishment from mathematics for centuries to come.  In Euclidean geometry, for example, the only constructions allowed were those that involved a finite number of steps.  The infinite was considered too ineffable, too unfathomable, and too hard to make logically rigorous. - -But Archimedes, the greatest mathematician of antiquity, realized the power of the infinite.  He harnessed it to solve problems that were otherwise intractable, and in the process came close to inventing calculus — nearly 2,000 years before Newton and Leibniz. - -In the coming weeks we'll delve into the great ideas at the heart of calculus.  But for now I'd like to begin with the first beautiful hints of them, visible in ancient calculations about circles and pi. +In the coming weeks we’ll delve into the great ideas at the heart of +calculus.  But for now I’d like to begin with the first beautiful hints +of them, visible in ancient calculations about circles and pi. -Let's recall what we mean by pi.  It's a ratio of two distances.  One of them is the diameter, the distance _across_ the circle through its center.  The other is the circumference, the distance _around_ the circle.   Pi is defined as their ratio, the circumference divided by the diameter. +Let’s recall what we mean by pi.  It’s a ratio of two distances.  One of +them is the diameter, the distance across the circle through its +center.  The other is the circumference, the distance around the +circle.   Pi is defined as their ratio, the circumference divided by the +diameter. -![circle with diameter and circumference indicated][11] +![circle with diameter and circumference +indicated](https://static01.nyt.com/images/2010/04/04/opinion/04strogatz1/04strogatz1-custom3.jpg) -If you're a careful thinker, you might be worried about something already.  How do we know that pi is the same number for all circles?  Could it be different for big circles and little circles?  The answer is no, but the proof isn't trivial.  Here's an intuitive argument. +If you’re a careful thinker, you might be worried about something +already.  How do we know that pi is the same number for all circles?  +Could it be different for big circles and little circles?  The answer is +no, but the proof isn’t trivial.  Here’s an intuitive argument. -Imagine using a photocopier to reduce an image of a circle by, say, 50 percent.  Then _all_ distances in the picture — including the circumference and the diameter — would shrink in proportion by 50 percent.  So when you divide the new circumference by the new diameter, that 50 percent change would cancel out, leaving the ratio between them unaltered.  That ratio is pi. +Imagine using a photocopier to reduce an image of a circle by, say, 50 +percent.  Then all distances in the picture — including the +circumference and the diameter — would shrink in proportion by 50 +percent.  So when you divide the new circumference by the new diameter, +that 50 percent change would cancel out, leaving the ratio between them +unaltered.  That ratio is pi. -Of course, this doesn't tell us how big pi is.  Simple experiments with strings and dishes are good enough to yield a value near 3, or if you're more meticulous, 3 and 1/7th.  But suppose we want to find pi exactly or at least approximate it to any desired accuracy.  What then?  This was the problem that confounded the ancients. +Of course, this doesn’t tell us how big pi is.  Simple experiments with +strings and dishes are good enough to yield a value near 3, or if you’re +more meticulous, 3 and 1/7th.  But suppose we want to find pi exactly or +at least approximate it to any desired accuracy.  What then?  This was +the problem that confounded the ancients. -Before turning to Archimedes's brilliant solution, we should mention one other place where pi appears in connection with circles.  The area of a circle (the amount of space inside it) is given by the formula +Before turning to Archimedes’s brilliant solution, we should mention one +other place where pi appears in connection with circles.  The area of a +circle (the amount of space inside it) is given by the formula -![formula for area of a circle][12] +![formula for area of a +circle](https://static01.nyt.com/images/2010/04/04/opinion/04strogatzfig1/04strogatzfig1-custom3.jpg) -Here _A_ is the area, _π_ is the Greek letter pi, and _r_ is the radius of the circle, defined as half the diameter. +Here A is the area, π is the Greek letter pi, and r is the radius of the +circle, defined as half the diameter. -![Circle, with area filled in, and radius marked with letter r ][13] +![Circle, with area filled in, and radius marked with letter r +](https://static01.nyt.com/images/2010/04/04/opinion/04strogatz2/04strogatz2-custom2.jpg) -All of us memorized this formula in high school, but where does it come from?  It's not usually proven in geometry class.  If you went on to take calculus, you probably saw a proof of it there, but is it really necessary to use calculus to obtain something so basic? +All of us memorized this formula in high school, but where does it come +from?  It’s not usually proven in geometry class.  If you went on to +take calculus, you probably saw a proof of it there, but is it really +necessary to use calculus to obtain something so basic? Yes, it is. -What makes the problem difficult is that circles are round.  If they were made of straight lines, there'd be no issue.  Finding the areas of triangles, squares and pentagons is easy.  But curved shapes like circles are hard. - -The key to thinking mathematically about curved shapes is to pretend they're made up of lots of little straight pieces. That's not really true, but it works … as long as you take it to the limit and imagine _infinitely_ many pieces, each infinitesimally small.  That's the crucial idea behind all of calculus. - -Here's one way to use it to find the area of a circle.  Begin by chopping the area into four equal quarters, and rearrange them like so. - -![Four quarters of a circle on left, then rearranged on right][14] - -The strange scalloped shape on the bottom has the same area as the circle, though that might seem pretty uninformative since we don't know its area either.  But at least we know two important facts about it.  First, the two arcs along its bottom have a combined length of _πr_, exactly half the circumference of the original circle (because the other half of the circumference is accounted for by the two arcs on top).  Second, the straight sides of the slices have a length of _r_, since each of them was originally a radius of the circle. - -Next, repeat the process, but this time with eight slices, stacked alternately as before. - -![Circle showing eight slices ][15] - -The scalloped shape looks a bit less bizarre now.  The arcs on the top and the bottom are still there, but they're not as pronounced.  Another improvement is the left and right sides of the scalloped shape don't tilt as much as they used to.  Despite these changes, the two facts above continue to hold: the arcs on the bottom still have a net length of _πr_, and each side still has a length of _r_.  And of course the scalloped shape still has the same area as before — the area of the circle we're seeking — since it's just a rearrangement of the circle's eight slices. - -As we take more and more slices, something marvelous happens: the scalloped shape approaches a rectangle.  The arcs become flatter and the sides become almost vertical. - -![Circle with many slices][16] - -In the limit of _infinitely_ many slices, the shape _is_ a rectangle.  Just as before, the two facts still hold, which means this rectangle has a bottom of width _πr_ and a side of height _r_. - -![rectangle][17] - -But now the problem is easy.  The area of a rectangle equals its width times its height, so multiplying _πr_ times _r_ yields an area of _πr_2 for the rectangle.  And since the rearranged shape always has the same area as the circle, that's the answer for the circle too! - -What's so charming about this calculation is the way infinity comes to the rescue.  At every finite stage, the scalloped shape looks weird and unpromising.  But when you take it to the limit — when you finally "get to the wall" — it becomes simple and beautiful, and everything becomes clear.  That's how calculus works at its best. - -Archimedes used a similar strategy to approximate pi.  He replaced a circle by a polygon with many straight sides, and then kept doubling the number of sides to get closer to perfect roundness.  But rather than settling for an approximation of uncertain accuracy, he methodically bounded pi by sandwiching the circle between "inscribed" and "circumscribed" polygons, as shown below for 6-, 12- and 24-sided figures. - -![Circles inscribed in polygons][18] - -Then he used the Pythagorean theorem to work out the perimeters of these inner and outer polygons, starting with the hexagon and bootstrapping his way up to 12, 24, 48 and ultimately 96 sides.  The results for the 96-gons enabled him to prove that - -![formula for 96-gons][19] - -In decimal notation (which Archimedes didn't have), this means pi is between 3.1408 and 3.1429. - -This approach is known as the "method of exhaustion" because of the way it traps the unknown number pi between two known numbers that squeeze it from either side.  The bounds tighten with each doubling, thus exhausting the wiggle room for pi. - -In the limit of infinitely many sides, both the upper and lower bounds would converge to pi.  Unfortunately, this limit isn't as simple as the earlier one, where the scalloped shape morphed into a rectangle.  So pi remains as elusive as ever.  We can discover more and more of its digits — the current record is over 2.7 trillion decimal places — but we'll never know it completely. - -###### More in This Series - -* [From Fish to Infinity][20] (Jan. 31, 2010) -* [Rock Groups][21] (Feb. 7, 2010) -* [The Enemy of My Enemy][22] (Feb. 14, 2010) -* [Division and Its Discontents][23] (Feb. 21, 2010) -* [The Joy of X][24] (Feb. 28, 2010) -* [Finding Your Roots][25] (March 7, 2010) -* [Square Dancing][26] (March 14, 2010) -* [Think Globally][27] (March 21, 2010) -* [Power Tools][28] (March 28, 2010) -* [See the Entire Series »][29] - -Aside from laying the groundwork for calculus, Archimedes taught us the power of approximation and iteration.  He bootstrapped a good estimate into a better one, using more and more straight pieces to approximate a curved object with increasing accuracy. - -More than two millennia later, this strategy matured into the modern field of "numerical analysis."  When engineers use computers to design cars to be optimally streamlined, or when biophysicists simulate how a new chemotherapy drug latches onto a cancer cell, they are using numerical analysis.  The mathematicians and computer scientists who pioneered this field have created highly efficient, repetitive algorithms, running billions of times per second, that enable computers to solve problems in every aspect of modern life, from biotech to Wall Street to the Internet.  In each case, the strategy is to find a series of approximations that converge to the correct answer as a limit. - -And there's no limit to where that'll take us. - -* * * - -_NOTES: _ - -1. _The history and intellectual legacy of Zeno's paradoxes are discussed in: J. Mazur, **Zeno's Paradox** (Plume, 2008)._ -2. _For a delightfully opinionated and witty history of pi, see: P. Beckmann, **A History of Pi** (St. Martin's Press, 1976)._ -3. _Bill Willis at Worsley School OnLine has given a very clear [explanation of how to find the area of the circle][30], using the same argument as above but fleshed out in more detail. The school website contains many other excellent [math and science resources][31] for students, teachers and parents._ -4. _The PBS television series "Nova" ran a wonderful episode about Archimedes, infinity and limits called "[Infinite Secrets][32]." It originally aired on Sept. 30, 2003. The program website includes many online resources, including the program [transcript][33] and [interactive demonstrations][34]._ -5. _For readers wishing to see the [mathematical details of Archimedes's method of exhaustion][35], Neal Carothers has used trigonometry (equivalent to the Pythagorean gymnastics that Archimedes relied on) to derive the perimeters of the inscribed and circumscribed polygons between which the circle is trapped. Peter Alfeld's website features an [interactive Java applet that lets you change the number of sides in the polygons][36]._ -6. _The individual steps in [Archimedes's original argument][37] are of historical interest but you might find them disappointingly obscure._ -7. _Anyone curious about the heroic computations of pi to enormous numbers of digits should enjoy Richard Preston's profile of the Chudnovsky brothers. Entitled "[The Mountains of Pi][38]," this affectionate and surprisingly comical piece appeared in the Mar. 2, 1992, issue of The New Yorker, and more recently as a chapter in: R. Preston, **Panic in Level Four** (Random House, 2008)._ -8. _For a textbook introduction to the basics of numerical analysis, see: W.H. Press, S.A. Teukolsky, W.T. Vetterling, and B.P. Flannery, **Numerical Recipes**, 3rd ed. (Cambridge University Press, 2007)._ - -_Thanks to Tim Novikoff and Carole Schiffman for their comments and suggestions, and to Margaret Nelson for preparing the illustrations._ - -_Editor’s Note: A correction was made to an earlier version of this column, to fix a misspelling of the name of the publisher of Zeno's Paradox._ - -Need to print this post? Here is [a print-friendly PDF version of this piece][39], with images. - -## What's Next - -Loading... - -* Previous Post - -[ More Than Enough Hours in Every Day ][40] -* Next Post - -[ Does Money Talk in the Marketplace of Ideas? ][41] - -_Steven Strogatz is the Schurman Professor of applied mathematics at Cornell University. Among his honors are MIT's highest teaching prize, membership in the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and a lifetime achievement award for communication of math to the general public, awarded by the four major American mathematical societies. A frequent guest on National Public Radio's "Radiolab," he is the author, most recently, of "The Joy of x," which grew out of his previous Opinionator series "The Elements of Math." He lives with his wife and two daughters in Ithaca, N.Y. 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[Read more…][111] - -[More From Disunion »][53] - -January 3, 2015 - -##### [When Prisoners Are Patients][112] - -Should convicted felons receive free health care?[Read more…][113] - -September 6, 2014 - -##### [When It’s the Doctor Who Can’t Let Go][114] - -Too many physicians think palliative care means giving up.[Read more…][115] - -[More From Bedside »][51] - -November 5, 2014 - -##### [The Republican Party In Triumph][116] - -Brooks and Collins on the full extent of the Election Day devastation of Democrats, including some who weren’t on the ballot.[Read more…][117] - -October 28, 2014 - -##### [Political Infections][118] - -Brooks and Collins on conflicting responses to Ebola, the meaning of the midterms and the pleasure of voting for effective crooks.[Read more…][119] - -[More From The Conversation »][61] - -June 27, 2014 - -##### [Inequality Is Not Inevitable][120] - -Inexorable laws of economics aren't tearing us apart. Our policies are.[Read more…][121] - -June 21, 2014 - -##### [Gaming the Poor][122] - -Modern slot machine parlors have sophisticated methods of milking less affluent gamblers.[Read more…][123] - -[More From The Great Divide »][65] - -March 28, 2014 - -##### [The Certainty of Donald Rumsfeld (Part 4)][124] - -The absence of evidence, the evidence of absence, and the Iraq War.[Read more…][125] - -March 27, 2014 - -##### [The Certainty of Donald Rumsfeld (Part 3)][126] - -Could Pearl Harbor be called a “failure of imagination,” and in that sense was it similar to the attacks of 9/11?[Read more…][127] - -[More From Errol Morris »][57] - -#### Archive - -Select Month April 2016 March 2016 February 2016 January 2016 December 2015 November 2015 October 2015 September 2015 August 2015 July 2015 June 2015 May 2015 April 2015 March 2015 February 2015 - -#### Recent Posts - -![][128] - -###### [Fixes][71] - -##### [Guiding a First Generation to College][129] __ - -Students who are new to America or lack college-educated parents often don’t know their options.[Read more…][68] - -![][130] - -###### [Private Lives][76] - -##### [Fractured: A First Date][131] __ - -It wasn’t my heart that he broke.[Read more…][73] - -![][132] - -###### [Fixes][71] - -##### [How Dwindling Fish Stocks Got a Reprieve][133] __ - -Giving fishermen a business incentive to fish sustainably can “unleash their creative capacity” to help solve the problem, says one expert. 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-[76]: https://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/category/private-lives/ -[77]: https://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2016/04/19/should-therapists-write-about-patients/ "Should Therapists Write About Patients?" -[78]: https://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2016/04/19/should-therapists-write-about-patients/ -[79]: https://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2016/04/12/grieving-my-patients-friend/ "Grieving My Patient’s Friend" -[80]: https://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2016/04/12/grieving-my-patients-friend/ -[81]: https://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/category/couch/ -[82]: https://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2016/04/18/the-perils-of-being-a-black-philosopher/ "The Perils of Being a Black Philosopher" -[83]: https://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2016/04/18/the-perils-of-being-a-black-philosopher/ -[84]: https://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2016/04/16/is-that-even-a-thing/ "Is That Even a Thing?" -[85]: https://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2016/04/16/is-that-even-a-thing/ -[86]: https://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/category/the-stone/ -[87]: https://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2016/02/26/bruni-and-douthat-agree-oscarssopolitical/ "Bruni and Douthat Agree: #OscarsSoPolitical" -[88]: https://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2016/02/26/bruni-and-douthat-agree-oscarssopolitical/ -[89]: https://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2015/12/28/escaping-to-a-galaxy-far-far-away/ "Escaping to a Galaxy Far, Far, Far Away" -[90]: https://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2015/12/28/escaping-to-a-galaxy-far-far-away/ -[91]: https://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/category/moviegoers/ -[92]: https://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2016/02/06/system-failure/ "Not Just a Death, a System Failure" -[93]: https://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2016/02/06/system-failure/ -[94]: https://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2016/01/27/when-the-hospital-cant-help/ "When the Hospital Is Not a Haven" -[95]: https://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2016/01/27/when-the-hospital-cant-help/ -[96]: https://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2015/08/15/puzzling-through-my-fiction/ "Puzzling Through My Fiction" -[97]: https://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2015/08/15/puzzling-through-my-fiction/ -[98]: https://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2015/07/11/writing-books-very-few-will-read/ "Writing Books Very Few Will Read" -[99]: https://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2015/07/11/writing-books-very-few-will-read/ -[100]: https://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2015/07/27/10-things-id-tell-my-former-medicated-self/ "10 Things I’d Tell My Former (Medicated) Self" -[101]: https://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2015/07/27/10-things-id-tell-my-former-medicated-self/ -[102]: https://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2015/06/26/singleminded/ "Singleminded" -[103]: https://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2015/06/26/singleminded/ -[104]: https://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2015/06/22/every-creeping-thing-that-creepeth/ "Every Creeping Thing That Creepeth" -[105]: https://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2015/06/22/every-creeping-thing-that-creepeth/ -[106]: https://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2015/06/13/birds-of-new-york-a-soundscape/ "Birds of New York: A Soundscape" -[107]: https://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2015/06/13/birds-of-new-york-a-soundscape/ -[108]: https://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2015/06/10/disunion-the-final-q-a/ "Disunion: The Final Q & A" -[109]: https://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2015/06/10/disunion-the-final-q-a/ -[110]: https://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2015/06/04/what-do-you-know-a-civil-war-pop-quiz/ "What Do You Know? A Civil War Pop Quiz." -[111]: https://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2015/06/04/what-do-you-know-a-civil-war-pop-quiz/ -[112]: https://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2015/01/03/when-prisoners-are-patients/ "When Prisoners Are Patients" -[113]: https://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2015/01/03/when-prisoners-are-patients/ -[114]: https://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2014/09/06/when-its-the-doctor-who-cant-let-go/ "When It’s the Doctor Who Can’t Let Go" -[115]: https://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2014/09/06/when-its-the-doctor-who-cant-let-go/ -[116]: https://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2014/11/05/the-republican-party-in-triumph/ "The Republican Party In Triumph" -[117]: https://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2014/11/05/the-republican-party-in-triumph/ -[118]: https://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2014/10/28/political-infections/ "Political Infections" -[119]: https://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2014/10/28/political-infections/ -[120]: https://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2014/06/27/inequality-is-not-inevitable/ "Inequality Is Not Inevitable" -[121]: https://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2014/06/27/inequality-is-not-inevitable/ -[122]: https://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2014/06/21/gaming-the-poor/ "Gaming the Poor" -[123]: https://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2014/06/21/gaming-the-poor/ -[124]: https://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2014/03/28/the-certainty-of-donald-rumsfeld-part-4/ "The Certainty of Donald Rumsfeld (Part 4)" -[125]: https://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2014/03/28/the-certainty-of-donald-rumsfeld-part-4/ -[126]: https://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2014/03/27/the-certainty-of-donald-rumsfeld-part-3/ "The Certainty of Donald Rumsfeld (Part 3)" -[127]: https://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2014/03/27/the-certainty-of-donald-rumsfeld-part-3/ -[128]: https://static01.nyt.com/images/2016/04/26/opinion/26fixesWeb/26fixesWeb-thumbStandard.jpg -[129]: https://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2016/04/26/guiding-a-first-generation-to-college/ "Read: Guiding a First Generation to College" -[130]: https://static01.nyt.com/images/2016/04/20/opinion/20PRIVATE/20PRIVATE-thumbStandard.jpg -[131]: https://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2016/04/21/fractured-a-first-date/ "Read: Fractured: A First Date" -[132]: https://static01.nyt.com/images/2016/04/19/opinion/19fixesWeb/19fixesWeb-thumbStandard.jpg -[133]: https://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2016/04/19/how-dwindling-fish-stocks-got-a-reprieve/ "Read: How Dwindling Fish Stocks Got a Reprieve" -[134]: https://static01.nyt.com/images/2016/04/19/opinion/19couchWeb/19couchWeb-thumbStandard.jpg -[135]: https://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2016/04/19/should-therapists-write-about-patients/ "Read: Should Therapists Write About Patients?" -[136]: https://static01.nyt.com/images/2016/04/18/opinion/18stoneWeb/18stoneWeb-thumbStandard.jpg -[137]: https://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2016/04/18/the-perils-of-being-a-black-philosopher/ "Read: The Perils of Being a Black Philosopher" -[138]: https://twitter.com/nytopinionator "Follow @nytopinionator on twitter" -[139]: https://twitter.com/nytopinionator "Follow nytopinionator on Twitter" -[140]: https://www.nytco.com -[141]: https://www.nytimes.com/ref/membercenter/help/infoservdirectory.html -[142]: https://www.nytco.com/careers/ -[143]: https://nytmediakit.com/ -[144]: https://www.nytimes.com/content/help/rights/privacy/policy/privacy-policy.html#pp -[145]: https://www.nytimes.com/privacy -[146]: https://www.nytimes.com/ref/membercenter/help/agree.html -[147]: https://www.nytimes.com/content/help/rights/sale/terms-of-sale.html -[148]: https://spiderbites.nytimes.com -[149]: https://www.nytimes.com/membercenter/sitehelp.html -[150]: https://myaccount.nytimes.com/membercenter/feedback.html -[151]: https://www.nytimes.com/subscriptions/Multiproduct/lp5558.html?campaignId=37WXW - +What makes the problem difficult is that circles are round.  If they +were made of straight lines, there’d be no issue.  Finding the areas of +triangles, squares and pentagons is easy.  But curved shapes like +circles are hard. + +The key to thinking mathematically about curved shapes is to pretend +they’re made up of lots of little straight pieces. That’s not really +true, but it works … as long as you take it to the limit and imagine +infinitely many pieces, each infinitesimally small.  That’s the crucial +idea behind all of calculus. + +Here’s one way to use it to find the area of a circle.  Begin by +chopping the area into four equal quarters, and rearrange them like so. + +![Four quarters of a circle on left, then rearranged on +right](https://static01.nyt.com/images/2010/04/04/opinion/04strogatz3/04strogatz3-custom2.jpg) + +The strange scalloped shape on the bottom has the same area as the +circle, though that might seem pretty uninformative since we don’t know +its area either.  But at least we know two important facts about it.  +First, the two arcs along its bottom have a combined length of πr, +exactly half the circumference of the original circle (because the other +half of the circumference is accounted for by the two arcs on top).  +Second, the straight sides of the slices have a length of r, since each +of them was originally a radius of the circle. + +Next, repeat the process, but this time with eight slices, stacked +alternately as before. + +![Circle showing eight slices +](https://static01.nyt.com/images/2010/04/04/opinion/04strogatz4/04strogatz4-custom2.jpg) + +The scalloped shape looks a bit less bizarre now.  The arcs on the top +and the bottom are still there, but they’re not as pronounced.  Another +improvement is the left and right sides of the scalloped shape don’t +tilt as much as they used to.  Despite these changes, the two facts +above continue to hold: the arcs on the bottom still have a net length +of πr, and each side still has a length of r.  And of course the +scalloped shape still has the same area as before — the area of the +circle we’re seeking — since it’s just a rearrangement of the circle’s +eight slices. + +As we take more and more slices, something marvelous happens: the +scalloped shape approaches a rectangle.  The arcs become flatter and the +sides become almost vertical. + +![Circle with many +slices](https://static01.nyt.com/images/2010/04/04/opinion/04strogatz5/04strogatz5-custom1.jpg) + +In the limit of infinitely many slices, the shape is a rectangle.  Just +as before, the two facts still hold, which means this rectangle has a +bottom of width πr and a side of height +r. + +![rectangle](https://static01.nyt.com/images/2010/04/04/opinion/04strogatz6/04strogatz6-custom1.jpg) + +But now the problem is easy.  The area of a rectangle equals its width +times its height, so multiplying πr times r yields an area of πr2 for +the rectangle.  And since the rearranged shape always has the same area +as the circle, that’s the answer for the circle too\! + +What’s so charming about this calculation is the way infinity comes to +the rescue.  At every finite stage, the scalloped shape looks weird and +unpromising.  But when you take it to the limit — when you finally “get +to the wall” — it becomes simple and beautiful, and everything becomes +clear.  That’s how calculus works at its best. + +Archimedes used a similar strategy to approximate pi.  He replaced a +circle by a polygon with many straight sides, and then kept doubling the +number of sides to get closer to perfect roundness.  But rather than +settling for an approximation of uncertain accuracy, he methodically +bounded pi by sandwiching the circle between “inscribed” and +“circumscribed” polygons, as shown below for 6-, 12- and 24-sided +figures. + +![Circles inscribed in +polygons](https://static01.nyt.com/images/2010/04/04/opinion/04strogatz7/04strogatz7-custom1.jpg) + +Then he used the Pythagorean theorem to work out the perimeters of these +inner and outer polygons, starting with the hexagon and bootstrapping +his way up to 12, 24, 48 and ultimately 96 sides.  The results for the +96-gons enabled him to prove that + +![formula for +96-gons](https://static01.nyt.com/images/2010/04/04/opinion/04strogatzFig2/04strogatzFig2-custom3.jpg) + +In decimal notation (which Archimedes didn’t have), this means pi is +between 3.1408 and 3.1429. + +This approach is known as the “method of exhaustion” because of the way +it traps the unknown number pi between two known numbers that squeeze it +from either side.  The bounds tighten with each doubling, thus +exhausting the wiggle room for pi. + +In the limit of infinitely many sides, both the upper and lower bounds +would converge to pi.  Unfortunately, this limit isn’t as simple as the +earlier one, where the scalloped shape morphed into a rectangle.  So pi +remains as elusive as ever.  We can discover more and more of its digits +— the current record is over 2.7 trillion decimal places — but we’ll +never know it completely. + +Aside from laying the groundwork for calculus, Archimedes taught us the +power of approximation and iteration.  He bootstrapped a good estimate +into a better one, using more and more straight pieces to approximate a +curved object with increasing accuracy. + +More than two millennia later, this strategy matured into the modern +field of “numerical analysis.”  When engineers use computers to design +cars to be optimally streamlined, or when biophysicists simulate how a +new chemotherapy drug latches onto a cancer cell, they are using +numerical analysis.  The mathematicians and computer scientists who +pioneered this field have created highly efficient, repetitive +algorithms, running billions of times per second, that enable computers +to solve problems in every aspect of modern life, from biotech to Wall +Street to the Internet.  In each case, the strategy is to find a series +of approximations that converge to the correct answer as a limit. + +And there’s no limit to where that’ll take us. + +NOTES: + +Thanks to Tim Novikoff and Carole Schiffman for their comments and +suggestions, and to Margaret Nelson for preparing the illustrations. + +Editor’s Note: A correction was made to an earlier version of this +column, to fix a misspelling of the name of the publisher of Zeno’s +Paradox. + +Need to print this post? Here is [a print-friendly PDF version of this +piece](https://static01.nyt.com/packages/pdf/opinion/opinionator/TakeItToTheLimit.pdf), +with images. diff --git a/_stories/2010/7990711.md b/_stories/2010/7990711.md deleted file mode 100644 index 02561ad..0000000 --- a/_stories/2010/7990711.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,52 +0,0 @@ ---- -created_at: '2014-07-05T01:00:37.000Z' -title: Your high IQ might kill your startup (2010) -url: http://www.jamiebegin.com/high-iq-will-kill-startup -author: SworDsy -points: 212 -story_text: '' -comment_text: -num_comments: 133 -story_id: -story_title: -story_url: -parent_id: -created_at_i: 1404522037 -_tags: -- story -- author_SworDsy -- story_7990711 -objectID: '7990711' - ---- -[Source](http://www.jamiebegin.com/high-iq-will-kill-startup "Permalink to 404 - Jamie Begin") - -# 404 - Jamie Begin - -![Photo Sharing & Video Hosting by SmugMug :D][1] - -* [ Photo Sharing ][2] -* [ Log In ][3] -* * * [ Support ][4] -* [Photo Sharing][5] -* [About SmugMug][6] -* [Browse Photos][7] -* [Prints & Gifts][8] -* [Terms][9] -* [Privacy][10] -* [Contact][4] -* [Log In][3] - -© 2018 SmugMug, Inc. - -[1]: https://cdn.smugmug.com/img/spacer.gif -[2]: https://www.smugmug.com -[3]: https://secure.smugmug.com/login?goTo=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jamiebegin.com%2Fhigh-iq-will-kill-startup&goToToken=eyJzdHJpbmciOiJodHRwOi8vd3d3LmphbWllYmVnaW4uY29tL2hpZ2gtaXEtd2lsbC1raWxsLXN0YXJ0dXAiLCJ0aW1lIjoxNTE5NDAyMzQ3LCJzaWduYXR1cmUiOiJaakppTlRNek5ERXdOMlZrT0dJeU0yVXdaV1UwWlRVMFpHRmlOemt4TVdVMk9EazNOelV6TUE9PSIsInZlcnNpb24iOjEsImFsZ29yaXRobSI6InNoYTEifQ%3D%3D -[4]: http://help.smugmug.com/ -[5]: https://www.smugmug.com/ -[6]: https://www.smugmug.com/about -[7]: https://www.smugmug.com/browse/ -[8]: https://www.smugmug.com/prints/catalog -[9]: https://www.smugmug.com/about/terms -[10]: https://www.smugmug.com/about/privacy - diff --git a/_stories/2010/8189070.md b/_stories/2010/8189070.md index 3f92b5b..05102d9 100644 --- a/_stories/2010/8189070.md +++ b/_stories/2010/8189070.md @@ -19,7 +19,493 @@ _tags: objectID: '8189070' --- -[Source](https://www.theguardian.com/business/2010/nov/23/food-book-extract-felicity-lawrence "Permalink to ") +Britain is one of the world's largest consumers of puffed, flaked and +sugared breakfast cereals. How did that happen when many were said to +contain less nutrition than the boxes they come in? Felicity Lawrence +investigates +**How did it all begin?** +It was one of those things that crept up on us and we still can't quite +believe it happened. Looking back, we'd been in denial for some time. +Then a friend who hadn't seen the family for a while came round and +blurted out the bald truth. 'God, Dodi's got rather fat. In fact, you +know, I think that might count as obese.' +Once said, it had to be admitted. If you looked at Dodi from behind when +he was sitting down, you could see a substantial spare tyre around his +thirteen-year-old middle. It bulged out from his hips and flopped down +like a muffin rising up and out over its baking case. He had become +quite lazy too, preferring to lounge in front of the fire rather than +play in the garden as he used to. His excess weight was slowing him +down. + +He had been hooked on a particular brand of instant meal for ages. + +Guaranteed real tuna, the packaging said. Enriched with omega-3 and -6 +fats\! The small print told another story. What was inside was largely +byproducts from other industrial processing: rendered poultry meal mixed +with fillers of corn gluten meal, ground rice, soya oil and dried beet +pulp. + +Dodi is our cat, and we know cats do not normally eat carbohydrates such +as ground rice or sugar nor corn nor vegetables oils. Nevertheless +that's what we had been feeding him. It said on the packets that it was +'scientifically formulated' after all. + +The absurdity of feeding an animal types of waste it never evolved to +eat that actually makes it fat and sick ought to be easy enough to see. +But we have not apparently been alone in our blindness – feline diabetes +has risen dramatically in the last few years in the UK. + +Where the human diet is concerned a similar myopia seems to have +descended upon the British. Instead of relying on a food culture +developed over centuries, we have come to defer top the +pseudo-scientific instructions of professionals and marketeers. + +**Where did it all go wrong?** + +The rise of breakfast cereal makes a revealing case study in the +evolutionary process behind the modern diet. One of the earliest +convenience foods, processed cereals represents a triumph of marketing, +packaging and US economic and foreign policy. They are the epitome of +cheap commodity converted by manufacturing to higher value goods; of +agricultural surplus turned into profitable export. Their ingredients +have a disconcerting overlap with my cat food. Somehow they have wormed +into our confused consciousness as intrinsically healthy when by and +large they are degraded foods that have to have any goodness +artificially restored. I have long been intrigued by how the British +breakfast was conquered and what it tells us about the rest of our food. +For this is the elephant in the room of course: it is the industrial +processing of food that is the real problem. To understand where not we, +but rather it, all went wrong, you have to understand the economic and +political structures behind today's food system. + +The transformation of the British breakfast in the last 100 years has +been complete. Unlike our European partners we have succumbed almost +entirely to the American invention. A century ago simple cereal grains, +cooked either as porridge or bread, were the staples of breakfast around +the world and in this country too, just as they had been in previous +centuries. + +When the first National Food Survey was conducted on behalf of the +medical officer of the Privy Council, Sir John Simon, in 1863 it +questioned 370 families of the 'labouring poor' and found that breakfast +consisted variously of tea kettle broth (bread soaked in hot milk and +salt), bread and butter, bread and cheese, milk gruel, bread and water +and oatmeal and milk porridge. Today, instead, the British and the Irish +are the largest eaters of puffed, flaked, flavoured, shaped, sugared, +salted and extruded cereals in the world. We munch an average of 6.7kg +of the dehydrated stuff per person in the UK and 8.4kg each in Ireland. + +The Mediterraneans, generally credited with a healthy diet, have so far +kept this form of instant breakfast down to an average one kilo per +person per year. The French, those cheese-eating surrender monkeys of +American opprobrium, have proved culturally resistant to transatlantic +pressure in this as in other fields. While the Eastern Europeans, +deprived of marketing until the fall of the communism and the break up +of the Soviet Union, have barely heard of processed cereals yet, being +capable of getting through the first meal of the day with no apparent +anxiety and only a few grams a year between them. + +How can such a radical overhaul of a food culture come about and was +there something peculiarly susceptible about the British and the +Americans that led to it? + +To find out, I went to the US, to the Mid-West states that are the +heartland of industrial corn production and to the home of the first +cornflakes, to try to understand something of the history and economics +of the cereal business. + +Prepackaged and ready-to-eat breakfast cereals began with the American +temperance movement in the nineteenth century. In the 1830s, the +Reverend Sylvester Graham preached the virtues of a vegetarian diet to +his congregation and in particular the importance of wholemeal flour. +Meat-eating, he said, excited the carnal passions. Granula considered +the first ready-to-eat breakfast cereal, was developed from his 'Graham +flour' by one of his followers, James Caleb Jackson, for patients at the +latter's water cure resort. It was a baked lump of slow-cooked wheat and +water that was said to be hard as rock and had to be broken up and +soaked overnight to be edible. It was sold at ten times the cost of its +ingredients. The business motive for proselytizing by breakfast cereal +was established. + +Following on from Jackson, the Seventh Day Adventists took up the +mission begun by Graham. A colony of them had set up in a small town +called Battle Creek near the American Great Lakes in Michigan. There +they established the Western Health Reform Institute in 1866 to cure hog +guzzling and to their mind degenerate Americans of their dyspepsia and +vices. John Harvey Kellogg turned it into the famous Battle Creek +Sanatarium, a curious but money-spinning mix of health spa, holiday camp +and experimental hospital. Kellogg, a sort of early cross between Billy +Graham and Gillian McKeith, set about devising cures for what he +believed were the common ills of the day, in particular constipation and +masturbation. In Kellogg's mind the two were closely linked, the common +cause being a lack of fibre, both dietary and moral. + +As well as prescribing daily cold water baths, exercise drills, and +unorthodox medical interventions, creating health-giving foods for +patients was a major preoccupation. Kellogg, his wife and his younger +brother William Keith experimented in the Sanatarium kitchen to produce +an easily digested form of cereal. They came up with their own highly +profitable Granula, but were promptly sued by Jackson, the original +maker of Granula, and had to change the name to Granola. Victorian +prudery and religion may have been at the root of processed cereal +development, but parables about camels and eyes of needles did not +discourage any of these evangelicals from seeing the commercial +advantage and using the law to protect their business interests. + +Around this time an entrepreneur called Henry Perky had also invented a +way of passing steamed wheat through rollers, one grooved and one +smooth, to form strands that could be pressed into biscuits to make the +first shredded wheat. JH Kellogg experimented further with his team and +eventually they found a way of rolling cooked wheat to make flakes which +could then be baked. Cornflakes followed when the Kelloggs worked out +how to use cheap American corn instead of wheat, although initially they +had problems keeping them crisp and preventing them from going rancid. +This great leap forward is of a piece with other major developments in +the industrialization of our diets: it is usually the combination of +technological advances and the right economic conditions that lead to +radical changes in what we eat. + +It was a chronically dyspeptic businessman and former patient of +Kellogg's at the Sanatarium who unleashed the power of marketing on +breakfast. Charles Post set up the rival La Vita Inn in Battle Creek and +developed his own versions of precooked cereals. He distributed them +with such encouraging tracts as The Road to Wellville. 'The sunshine +that makes a business plant grow is advertizing,' he declared. He placed +ads for his cereals in papers with paid-for testimonials from apparently +genuine happy eaters. He also cheerfully invented diseases which his +products could cure. His Grape Nuts were miraculously not only 'brain +food' but could also cure consumption and malaria, and were even, +despite their enamel-cracking hardness, said to be an antidote to loose +teeth. + +By 1903 Battle Creek had turned into a cereal Klondike. At one point +there were over 100 cereal factories operating in the town to satisfy +the new craze, many making fabulously exaggerated claims about the +health benefits of their products. This symbiotic relationship between +sales, health claims and the promotion of packaged breakfast cereals has +continued ever since. Nor was it a coincidence that this particular +Klondike sprang up in the American Mid-West, whose vast tracts of virgin +land had been recently opened up by settlers and turned over to the +agricultural production that powered US development. + +The Kelloggs had tried unsuccessfully to protect their flaking process +with patents. When WK saw how much others were making from the new +foods, he launched his own advertizing campaign, giving away free +samples and putting ads in newspapers. + +The road to nutritional corruption opened up early. The Kellogg brothers +argued over whether to make the cereals more palatable by adding sugar – +the addition was anathema to John who saw sugar as an adulterant and a +scourge, but William reckoned it was needed to stop the products tasting +like 'horse-food'. WK won. + +Global expansion followed quickly. Britain saw its first cornflakes in +1924 when the company set up offices in London and used unemployed men +and boy scouts to act as a sales force for the imported cereal which was +shipped in from Canada. By 1936 UK sales topped £1 million, and +Kellogg's was ready to open its first British manufacturing plant in +Manchester in 1938. + +The technology used to make industrial quantities of breakfast cereal +today is essentially the same as that developed from the kitchen +experiments of those fundamentalist healers, although new ways have been +found to add the sugar, salt and flavourings. + +Cornflakes are generally made by breaking corn kernels into smaller +grits which are then steam cooked in batches of up to a tonne under +pressure of about 20lbs per square inch. The nutritious germ with its +essential fats is first removed because, as the Kellogg brothers +discovered all that time ago, it goes rancid over time and gets in the +way of long shelf life. Flavourings, vitamins to replace those lost in +processing and sugar may be added at this stage. It then takes four +hours and vast amounts of energy to drive the steam out of the cooked +grits before they can be rolled by giant rollers into flakes. + +Steamed wheat biscuits such as shredded wheats are made with whole wheat +grains which are pressure cooked with water. They are then passed +between rollers which squeeze them into strands and build them up into +layers. These processes begin the breakdown of the raw starches in the +cereals so even though they are whole grains they are absorbed more +quickly in the body – and they typically have glycemic index scores of +around 75, close to the GIs in the high 70s or low 80s of cornflakes, +Bran Flakes, Special K and Rice Krispies, compared with 45/46 for +minimally-processed grains such as porridge or mueslis without sugar. +(Glucose has a GI of 100 and is what these indexes measure other foods +against. They indicate how fast different foods are converted to glucose +and absorbed into the bloodstream.) + +Worries about the nutritional value of such highly processed grains +surfaced early. Post's company was one of the first to begin the heavy +duty pre-sweetening of cereals with sugar coating in the late 1940s. The +sales were enviable. The Kellogg company however held back, according to +interviews with former employees in Cerealizing America, the highly +entertaining account of cereal history by Scott Bruce and Bill Crawford. +The charitable Kellogg Foundation which had been set up by then to +promote children's health and education was a major shareholder and was +concerned that flogging sugar-coatings to the young might not be +compatible with its purpose. + +Many of the health benefits claimed for breakfast cereals depended on +fortification rather than micronutrients from the raw ingredients, most +of which were either destroyed by the process or stripped away before +it. The earliest fortification was with vitamin D, the so-called +sunshine vitamin, and acted as a marketing tool. Today a new wave of +fortification is coming, and once again its principal purpose is +marketing. Inulin, a form of fibre from plants, known to the food +industry until recently as a cheap bulking agent thanks to its ability +to retain water and mimic the mouthfeel of fats, is now added as a +'prebiotic'. They have coined this word for it because it resists +digestion in the upper gastrointestinal tract and reaches the large +intestine almost intact where it is fermented by bacteria, encouraging +the production of friendly microflora, which the industry markets too, +as probiotics. The inulin, in other words, does what the fibre naturally +occurring in whole grains would do if it hadn't been stripped out by +over processing. + +Companies are also looking at adding omega-3 fatty acids such as DHA. +(Where my cat food goes, breakfast cereals follow.) There are technical +difficulties with this. Since the DHA tends to come from fish, it makes +things taste fishy, and its flavour has to be masked with other +additives. + +That processed cereals had become little more than sugary junk with milk +and vitamin pills added, was an accusation made as long ago as the +1970s. A US congressional hearing in 1970 was told by an adviser to +President Nixon on nutrition, Robert Choate, that the majority of +breakfast cereals 'fatten but do little to prevent malnutrition'. Choate +was outraged at the aggressive targeting of children in breakfast cereal +advertizing. He analysed sixty well-known cereal brands for nutritional +quality and concluded that two thirds of them offered 'empty calories, a +term thus far applied to alcohol and sugar'. Rats fed a diet of +ground-up cereal boxes with sugar, milk and raisins were healthier than +rats fed the cereals themselves, he testified to senators. + +Battle Creek today is a small backwater in Michigan three hours drive +from Chicago. There is not much sign now of the cereal gold rush that +changed the British palate, and the flake factories working day and +night have mostly gone. But the legacy lives on. In their place +alongside Kellogg airport and the Kellogg Foundation is Kellogg's Cereal +City. Built in the shape of an old American grain store, it is a museum +testament to the power of marketing that so maddened Choate. Walking +through the collection I too was struck by how much our breakfast today +is the child of advertizing. Trading on our insecurity about health, +manipulating our emotions and selling to us through health professionals +has always been part of the great puff. + +The antique cardboard boxes on show underline how from the first +breakfast cereals sold not just a meal but a way of life: Power, Vim, +Vigor, Korn Kinks and Climax cereal are among the early brand names. One +of my favourite sections of the museum was the cabinet of boxes and +pamphlets recording the original health claims that anticipate today's +persuasive messages. 'Keeps the blood cool\!' 'Makes red blood redder\!' +There were the cereals that echoed today's claims for prebiotics, 'Will +correct stomach troubles\!' or indeed the claims on my cat food, 'The +most scientific food in the world\!' + +Getting children hooked, making them associate breakfast cereal with fun +and entertainment, blurring the lines between advertizing and +programmes, exploiting new media – today it is the internet and viral +marketing – was one of the main aims of competing manufacturers from the +early days, as the museum displays show, and a crucial part in +conquering the British breakfast. Kellogg's sponsored a children's +programme called 'The Singing Lady'. In 1931 the artist Vernon Grant +heard the programme and was inspired to draw the Kellogg's Rice Krispie +ad characters Snap, Crackle and Pop. His cartoon characters were used in +ad campaigns that catapulted Rice Krispie sales up into the league of +the more established cornflakes brands. Walt Disney was powerfully +influenced by Grant's work. And when the Great Depression hit America in +the 1930s following the crash of the stock market, WK Kellogg doubled +his ad spend. + +In 1939 Charles Post meanwhile introduced his own characters, a trio of +bears, to sell his new Sugar Crisps. (The original three bears were of +course happy with plain porridge.) Kellogg's responded with Tony the +Tiger and Katy the Kangaroo, although Katy retired after a year. Post +also bought a licence from Disney to use his Mickey Mouse character on +his cereal boxes. + +The museum records how giveaway toys were being used by then too, to +attract children's loyalty and to encourage early pester power and +repeat purchases. + +Cereal advertizing likewise helped shape early television. A chance +meeting on a train in 1949 between the then chairman of Kellogg's and an +advertizing man called Leo Burnett led to a working relationship that +both transformed the cereal market and made the mould for TV ads. +Burnett used 'motivational research' to work out how to appeal to women +and children with different kinds of packaging. Subliminal marketing was +born. With his help Kellogg's broadcast the first colour TV programmes +and commercials for children. The result was that by the mid 1950s the +company had captured nearly half the rapidly expanding US processed +cereal market and was in a prime position to build its empire in Europe +using the same methods. + +The UK market for those cereal boxes was worth over £1.27 billion in +2005. It too has been created and maintained by advertizing. It is +characterized by health claims, now as then. Along with other highly +processed foods such as fizzy drinks, and fast food brands, breakfast +cereals are among the most highly marketed products. + +Kellogg's has consistently been the largest advertizer of its cereals in +this country, spending roughly £50 million a year in recent years, about +twice what its rival Cereal Partners spends. Cereal Partners is a joint +venture with Nestlé which markets that company's breakfast cereals in +Britain and manufactures cereals for leading supermarkets' own label +brands. The respective investments are duly reflected in the companies' +market shares. We buy what we have been persuaded to buy. + +Without advertizing we might never know we needed processed cereal and +revert to porridge or bread instead. Or as Kellogg's European president +Tim Mobsby put it to MPs conducting an inquiry into obesity in 2004, 'if +we were not to have that capability \[of TV advertizing\] there is a +probability that the consumption of cereals would actually drop…that is +not necessarily a positive step forward.' + +The following spring I was one of a handful of reporters flown in a +private jet by Kellogg's to its Old Trafford cornflakes factory, as part +of its campaign to protect its portfolio and its ability to market it, +particularly to children. The ostensible reason for the trip was that +Kellogg's was launching a new acquisition in the UK, Kashi, a brand of +mixed-grain puffed cereal free of all additives. But criticism of the +food industry for selling obeso-genic products high in fat, salt and +sugar had reached a crescendo in the UK and the breakfast cereal +manufacturers were the subject of unwelcome attention. Before touring +the factory, we were ushered past the giant Tony the Tiger cut-out in +the entrance lobby and up into the strategic planning department for a +presentation on nutrition policy and labelling. + +Here the company nutritionist explained how Kellogg's had decided to +take a lead in promoting a new kind of labelling to help 'mum' make +'healthier choices'. Rather than the traffic light labelling the +government's food standards agency was researching, Kellogg's and other +leading food manufacturers had decided to go live with a system of +labels based on guideline daily amounts. These would avoid identifying +foods as good or bad with red, amber and green and instead give figures +for how much fat, salt and sugar a portion of the product contained as a +proportion of a guideline amount, calculated by the industry, which you +should eat a day of those nutrients. Needless to say the industry's +guideline daily amounts were more generous than official targets, +particularly on sugars. The FSA had already rejected this scheme as too +complicated to be helpful but Kellogg's told us that it had 'lent them +one of our researchers so we've been in on the consultation process and +we've been able to get the GDAs into the final FSA testing'. + +In response to pressure from the FSA, the Association of Cereal Food +Manufacturers had already reduced salt by a quarter in five years, she +went on. Cornflakes were even tastier than before because you could +taste the corn more now. So why was there so much salt in the first +place, we asked. The managing director of Kellogg's Europe Tony Palmer +confessed that 'if we'd known you could take out 25 per cent of the salt +and make cornflakes taste even better, we would have done it earlier. +But it's also about the interaction with the sugar – as you take the +salt out, you've got to reduce the sugar because it starts to taste +sweeter.' But isn't the target to reduce sugar consumption too? Why not +just cut down on salt and sugar, we wondered. Well, sugar helps keep the +crispness and is part of the bulk, so that would be difficult, we were +told. Mr Palmer's eyebrows started working furiously as he answered: +'And the risk is, if you take the salt out you might be better off +eating the cardboard carton for taste,' he said. + +The public relations team moved us rapidly on from this unfortunate echo +of Senator Choate's 1970s' accusation of nutritional bankruptcy to a +presentation on the Kashi Way. 'We hold the spirit of health in all we +do,' one of them explained, echoing this time the quasi-religious +marketing babble of the founding cereal makers. + +Although I was aware that breakfast cereal manufacturers were among the +top marketers of processed foods in the UK, it was only when the +broadcasting regulator Ofcom tried to draw up new rules to restrict TV +advertizing to children of junk foods, that I saw quite how dependent +consumption was on us being manipulated by the manufacturers' messages. +Kellogg's led a ferocious campaign of lobbying to stop the restrictions. +As well as educating journalists with trips such as mine to the +cornflakes factory, it lobbied MPs, ministers and regulators. One of its +public relations agencies Hill and Knowlton boasted on its website how +it had managed to change government and Whitehall thinking on Kellogg's +behalf. 'A series of meetings with Number 10, the Department of Health, +the Food Standards Agency, the Health Select committee, one-to-one +briefings with key individuals and an event for parliamentarians' had +enabled them to disseminate Kellogg's messages, with the result that +'the campaign resulted in a significant shift in attitudes among core +government stakeholders,' they claimed. + +The industry is adamant that its products are a healthy way to start the +day, and has recruited Professor Tom Sanders, head of the nutrition +department at King's College London, to defend 'breakfast cereals served +with semi-skimmed milk' as 'low energy meals that provide about one +fifth of the micronutrients of children'. However, a survey published by +the independent consumer watchdog Which? called 'Cereal Reoffenders' +took a rather different view. When it analysed 275 big-name breakfast +cereals from leading manufacturers on sale in UK supermarkets in 2006 it +found that 75 per cent of them had high levels of sugar, while almost a +fifth had high levels of salt, according to criteria drawn up by the +food standards agency for its traffic light nutritional labels. Nearly +90 per cent of those targeted at children were high in sugar, 13 per +cent were high in salt, and 10 per cent were high in saturated fat. +Several cereals making claims to be good for you got a red light too. +All Bran was high in salt; Special K got a red for sugar and salt. Some +high fibre bran cereals were giving you more salt per serving than a bag +of crisps. (Some of these may have since been reformulated.) + +It was when I saw details of the proposals from Ofcom on restricting +marketing of junk foods to children that I understood why the lobbying +had been so determined. What became clear was that breakfast cereals, +although heavily marketed as healthy, would be the category to take the +largest hit by a long way. About £70 million of TV ads a year from +cereal manufacturers would be banned because they were promoting what +the experts defined as unhealthy. The sector spent a total of £84 +million on ads that year. In other words, the vast majority of its +marketing effort would be wiped out. It had everything to lose. Because, +as the House of Commons had been told, without marketing to manipulate +our desires, we might not eat processed cereals at all. + +Back at the Battle Creek Museum you can see how Kellogg's would view +that. Before exiting the exhibition into the shop, I passed a section on +'global expansion'. 'The company has rededicated itself to reaching 1.5 +billion new cereal customers around the world in the next decade…and +bringing about a fundamental change in eating habits.' As well as +advertizing in new markets, it has been sponsoring school nutrition +programmes and health symposia for professionals. This activity is part +of a 'massive program of nutrition education directed at improving the +world's eating habits with accelerated expansion into countries where +ready-to-eat cereal is unknown', it proclaimed. + +Improving the world's eating habits has the attraction, as the +nineteenth-century American entrepreneurs discovered, of being what +economic analysts call a 'high margin to cost business'. The raw +materials of breakfast cereals, commodity grains, are cheap (or at least +were cheap until biofuels recently entered the equation). US +agricultural subsidies totalled $165 billion in the eleven years 1995 to +2005. Just five crops accounted for 90 per cent of the money – corn, +rice, wheat, soya beans and cotton. That handful of ingredients I keep +finding in everything. If you want to understand why all these +commodities, cotton aside, make it not only in to the cat food but in to +most other processed foods you eat, this is where you have to start. + +One of the biggest costs is not the value of the ingredients, nor the +cost of production, but the marketing, which as you might expect from +all the activity described above, is typically 20 to 25 per cent of the +sales value, according to analysts JP Morgan. About a quarter of your +money is going not on the food but on the manufacturer's cost of +persuading you to buy it. That still leaves room for gross margins on +processed cereals that are 40 to 45 per cent, with profit margins around +the very healthy 17 per cent mark. + +Start selling this kind of processed diet to new consumers in the +booming economies of China and India and your profits, and those of the +country that has dominated grain exports and trading, the US, will soar. +This is what the food industry calls adding value. The added value is +not nutritional value of course; quite the opposite. The added value is +shareholder value, and as a very rough rule of thumb I reckon on +nutritional value being stripped away in inverse proportion to the +shareholder value added. + +• Extracted from Eat Your Heart Out: Why the food business is bad for +the planet and your health by Felicity Lawrence, published by Penguin. +Buy both Felicity Lawrence's books, Eat Your Heart Out (RRP £8.99) and +Not on the Label (£9.99) for only £13 (save £5.98) or buy them +individually for £7 each. Visit guardianbookshop.co.uk or call 0330 333 +6846 diff --git a/_stories/2010/8227437.md b/_stories/2010/8227437.md index 74e7550..9a52657 100644 --- a/_stories/2010/8227437.md +++ b/_stories/2010/8227437.md @@ -19,7 +19,277 @@ _tags: objectID: '8227437' --- -[Source](https://www.theparisreview.org/interviews/6017/the-art-of-comics-no-1-r-crumb "Permalink to ") +  +![undefined](/il/fdb8a09feb/large/Hunter-S-Thompson.jpg "undefined") +  +In an October 1957 letter to a friend who had recommended he read Ayn +Rand’s The Fountainhead, Hunter S. Thompson wrote, “Although I don’t +feel that it’s at all necessary to tell you how I feel about the +principle of individuality, I know that I’m going to have to spend the +rest of my life expressing it one way or another, and I think that I’ll +accomplish more by expressing it on the keys of a typewriter than by +letting it express itself in sudden outbursts of frustrated violence. . +. .” + +Thompson carved out his niche early. He was born in 1937, in Louisville, +Kentucky, where his fiction and poetry earned him induction into the +local Athenaeum Literary Association while he was still in high school. +Thompson continued his literary pursuits in the United States Air Force, +writing a weekly sports column for the base newspaper. After two years +of service, Thompson endured a series of newspaper jobs—all of which +ended badly—before he took to freelancing from Puerto Rico and South +America for a variety of publications. The vocation quickly developed +into a compulsion. + +Thompson completed The Rum Diary, his only novel to date, before he +turned twenty-five; bought by Ballantine Books, it finally was +published—to glowing reviews—in 1998. In 1967, Thompson published his +first nonfiction book, Hell’s Angels, a harsh and incisive firsthand +investigation into the infamous motorcycle gang then making the +heartland of America nervous. + +Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas, which first appeared in Rolling Stone in +November 1971, sealed Thompson’s reputation as an outlandish stylist +successfully straddling the line between journalism and fiction writing. +As the subtitle warns, the book tells of “a savage journey to the heart +of the American Dream” in full-tilt gonzo style—Thompson’s hilarious +first-person approach—and is accented by British illustrator Ralph +Steadman’s appropriate drawings. + +His next book, Fear and Loathing: On the Campaign Trail ’72, was a +brutally perceptive take on the 1972 Nixon-McGovern presidential +campaign. A self-confessed political junkie, Thompson chronicled the +1992 presidential campaign in Better than Sex (1994). Thompson’s other +books include The Curse of Lono (1983), a bizarre South Seas tale, and +three collections of Gonzo Papers: The Great Shark +Hunt (1979), Generation of Swine (1988) and Songs of the +Doomed (1990). + +In 1997, The Proud Highway: Saga of a Desperate Southern Gentleman, +1955-1967, the first volume of Thompson’s correspondence with everyone +from his mother to Lyndon Johnson, was published. The second volume of +letters, Fear and Loathing in America: The Brutal Odyssey of an Outlaw +Journalist, 1968-1976, has just been released. + +• + +Located in the mostly posh neighborhood of western Colorado’s Woody +Creek Canyon, ten miles or so down-valley from Aspen, Owl Farm is a +rustic ranch with an old-fashioned Wild West charm. Although Thompson’s +beloved peacocks roam his property freely, it’s the flowers blooming +around the ranch house that provide an unexpected high-country +tranquility. Jimmy Carter, George McGovern and Keith Richards, among +dozens of others, have shot clay pigeons and stationary targets on the +property, which is a designated Rod and Gun Club and shares a border +with the White River National Forest. Almost daily, Thompson leaves Owl +Farm in either his Great Red Shark Convertible or Jeep Grand Cherokee to +mingle at the nearby Woody Creek Tavern. + +Visitors to Thompson’s house are greeted by a variety of sculptures, +weapons, boxes of books and a bicycle before entering the nerve center +of Owl Farm, Thompson’s obvious command post on the kitchen side of a +peninsula counter that separates him from a lounge area dominated by an +always-on Panasonic TV, always tuned to news or sports. An antique +upright piano is piled high and deep enough with books to engulf any +reader for a decade. Above the piano hangs a large Ralph Steadman +portrait of “Belinda”—the Slut Goddess of Polo. On another wall covered +with political buttons hangs a Che Guevara banner acquired on Thompson’s +last tour of Cuba. On the counter sits an IBM Selectric typewriter—a +Macintosh computer is set up in an office in the back wing of the house. + +The most striking thing about Thompson’s house is that it isn’t the +weirdness one notices first: it’s the words. They’re +everywhere—handwritten in his elegant lettering, mostly in fading red +Sharpie on the blizzard of bits of paper festooning every wall and +surface: stuck to the sleek black leather refrigerator, taped to the +giant TV, tacked up on the lampshades; inscribed by others on framed +photos with lines like, “For Hunter, who saw not only fear and loathing, +but hope and joy in ’72—George McGovern”; typed in IBM Selectric on +reams of originals and copies in fat manila folders that slide in piles +off every counter and table top; and noted in many hands and inks across +the endless flurry of pages. + +Thompson extricates his large frame from his ergonomically correct +office chair facing the TV and lumbers over graciously to administer a +hearty handshake or kiss to each caller according to gender, all with an +easy effortlessness and unexpectedly old-world way that somehow +underscores just who is in charge. + +• + +We talked with Thompson for twelve hours straight. This was nothing out +of the ordinary for the host: Owl Farm operates like an +eighteenth-century salon, where people from all walks of life congregate +in the wee hours for free exchanges about everything from theoretical +physics to local water rights, depending on who’s there. Walter +Isaacson, managing editor of Time, was present during parts of this +interview, as were a steady stream of friends. Given the very late hours +Thompson keeps, it is fitting that the most prominently posted quote in +the room, in Thompson’s hand, twists the last line of Dylan Thomas’s +poem “Do Not Go Gentle into That Good Night”: “Rage, rage against the +coming of the light.” + +For most of the half-day that we talked, Thompson sat at his command +post, chain-smoking red Dunhills through a German-made gold-tipped +cigarette filter and rocking back and forth in his swivel chair. Behind +Thompson’s sui generis personality lurks a trenchant humorist with a +sharp moral sensibility. His exaggerated style may defy easy +categorization, but his career-long autopsy on the death of the American +dream places him among the twentieth century’s most exciting writers. +The comic savagery of his best work will continue to electrify readers +for generations to come. + +• + +. . . I have stolen more quotes and thoughts and purely elegant little +starbursts of writing from the Book of Revelation than from anything +else in the English Language—and it is not because I am a biblical +scholar, or because of any religious faith, but because I love the wild +power of the language and the purity of the madness that governs it and +makes it music. + +  + +HUNTER S. THOMPSON + +Well, wanting to and having to are two different things. Originally I +hadn’t thought about writing as a solution to my problems. But I had a +good grounding in literature in high school. We’d cut school and go down +to a café on Bardstown Road where we would drink beer and read and +discuss Plato’s parable of the cave. We had a literary society in town, +the Athenaeum; we met in coat and tie on Saturday nights. I hadn’t +adjusted too well to society—I was in jail for the night of my high +school graduation—but I learned at the age of fifteen that to get by you +had to find the one thing you can do better than anybody else . . . at +least this was so in my case. I figured that out early. It was writing. +It was the rock in my sock. Easier than algebra. It was always work, but +it was always worthwhile work. I was fascinated early by seeing my +byline in print. It was a rush. Still is. + +When I got to the Air Force, writing got me out of trouble. I was +assigned to pilot training at Eglin Air Force Base near Pensacola in +northwest Florida, but I was shifted to electronics . . . advanced, very +intense, eight-month school with bright guys . . . I enjoyed it but I +wanted to get back to pilot training. Besides, I’m afraid of +electricity. So I went up there to the base education office one day and +signed up for some classes at Florida State. I got along well with a guy +named Ed and I asked him about literary possibilities. He asked me if I +knew anything about sports, and I said that I had been the editor of my +high-school paper. He said, “Well, we might be in luck.” It turned out +that the sports editor of the base newspaper, a staff sergeant, had been +arrested in Pensacola and put in jail for public drunkenness, pissing +against the side of a building; it was the third time and they wouldn’t +let him out. + +So I went to the base library and found three books on journalism. I +stayed there reading them until it closed. Basic journalism. I learned +about headlines, leads: who, when, what, where, that sort of thing. I +barely slept that night. This was my ticket to ride, my ticket to get +out of that damn place. So I started as an editor. Boy, what a joy. I +wrote long Grantland Rice-type stories. The sports editor of my +hometown Louisville Courier Journal always had a column, left-hand side +of the page. So I started a column. + +By the second week I had the whole thing down. I could work at night. I +wore civilian clothes, worked off base, had no hours, but I worked +constantly. I wrote not only for the base paper, The Command Courier, +but also the local paper, The Playground News. I’d put things in the +local paper that I couldn’t put in the base paper. Really inflammatory +shit. I wrote for a professional wrestling newsletter. The Air Force got +very angry about it. I was constantly doing things that violated +regulations. I wrote a critical column about how Arthur Godfrey, who’d +been invited to the base to be the master of ceremonies at a firepower +demonstration, had been busted for shooting animals from the air in +Alaska. The base commander told me: “Goddamn it, son, why did you have +to write about Arthur Godfrey that way?” + +When I left the Air Force I knew I could get by as a journalist. So I +went to apply for a job at Sports Illustrated. I had my clippings, my +bylines, and I thought that was magic . . . my passport. The personnel +director just laughed at me. I said, “Wait a minute. I’ve been sports +editor for two papers.” He told me that their writers were judged not by +the work they’d done, but where they’d done it. He said, “Our writers +are all Pulitzer Prize winners from The New York Times. This is a +helluva place for you to start. Go out into the boondocks and improve +yourself.” + +I was shocked. After all, I’d broken the Bart Starr story. + +INTERVIEWER + +What was that? + +THOMPSON + +At Eglin Air Force Base we always had these great football teams. The +Eagles. Championship teams. We could beat up on the University of +Virginia. Our bird-colonel Sparks wasn’t just any yo-yo coach. We +recruited. We had these great players serving their military time in +ROTC. We had Zeke Bratkowski, the Green Bay quarterback. We had Max +McGee of the Packers. Violent, wild, wonderful drunk. At the start of +the season McGee went AWOL, appeared at the Green Bay camp and he never +came back. I was somehow blamed for his leaving. The sun fell out of the +firmament. Then the word came that we were getting Bart Starr, the +All-American from Alabama. The Eagles were going to roll\! But then the +staff sergeant across the street came in and said, “I’ve got a terrible +story for you. Bart Starr’s not coming.” I managed to break into an +office and get out his files. I printed the order that showed he was +being discharged medically. Very serious leak. + +INTERVIEWER + +The Bart Starr story was not enough to impress Sports Illustrated? + +THOMPSON + +The personnel guy there said, “Well, we do have this trainee program.” +So I became a kind of copy boy. + +INTERVIEWER + +You eventually ended up in San Francisco. With the publication in 1967 +of Hell’s Angels, your life must have taken an upward spin. + +THOMPSON + +All of a sudden I had a book out. At the time I was twenty-nine years +old and I couldn’t even get a job driving a cab in San Francisco, much +less writing. Sure, I had written important articles for The +Nation and The Observer, but only a few good journalists really knew +my byline. The book enabled me to buy a brand new BSA 650 Lightning, the +fastest motorcycle ever tested by Hot Rod magazine. It validated +everything I had been working toward. If Hell’s Angels hadn’t happened I +never would have been able to write Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas or +anything else. To be able to earn a living as a freelance writer in this +country is damned hard; there are very few people who can do +that. Hell’s Angels all of a sudden proved to me that, Holy Jesus, +maybe I can do this. I knew I was a good journalist. I knew I was a good +writer, but I felt like I got through a door just as it was closing. + +INTERVIEWER + +With the swell of creative energy flowing throughout the San Francisco +scene at the time, did you interact with or were you influenced by any +other writers? + +THOMPSON + +Ken Kesey for one. His novels One Flew Over the Cuckoo’s +Nest and Sometimes a Great Notion had quite an impact on me. I looked +up to him hugely. One day I went down to the television station to do a +roundtable show with other writers, like Kay Boyle, and Kesey was there. +Afterwards we went across the street to a local tavern and had several +beers together. I told him about the Angels, who I planned to meet later +that day, and I said, “Well, why don’t you come along?” He said, “Whoa, +I’d like to meet these guys.” Then I got second thoughts, because it’s +never a good idea to take strangers along to meet the Angels. But I +figured that this was Ken Kesey, so I’d try. By the end of the night +Kesey had invited them all down to La Honda, his woodsy retreat outside +of San Francisco. It was a time of extreme turbulence—riots in Berkeley. +He was always under assault by the police—day in and day out, so La +Honda was like a war zone. But he had a lot of the literary, +intellectual crowd down there, Stanford people also, visiting editors, +and Hell’s Angels. Kesey’s place was a real cultural vortex. diff --git a/_stories/2010/8277343.md b/_stories/2010/8277343.md index ab4f353..b512f10 100644 --- a/_stories/2010/8277343.md +++ b/_stories/2010/8277343.md @@ -19,7 +19,855 @@ _tags: objectID: '8277343' --- -[Source](https://www.pprune.org/tech-log/423988-concorde-question.html "Permalink to ") +[![Reply](/images/buttons/reply.gif)](https://www.pprune.org/newreply.php?do=newreply&noquote=1&p=5866333) +Page 1 of +103 +**1** +[2](https://www.pprune.org/tech-log/423988-concorde-question-2.html "Show results 21 to 40 of 2,041")[3](https://www.pprune.org/tech-log/423988-concorde-question-3.html "Show results 41 to 60 of 2,041")[4](https://www.pprune.org/tech-log/423988-concorde-question-4.html "Show results 61 to 80 of 2,041")[5](https://www.pprune.org/tech-log/423988-concorde-question-5.html "Show results 81 to 100 of 2,041")[11](https://www.pprune.org/tech-log/423988-concorde-question-11.html "Show results 201 to 220 of 2,041")[51](https://www.pprune.org/tech-log/423988-concorde-question-51.html "Show results 1,001 to 1,020 of 2,041")[101](https://www.pprune.org/tech-log/423988-concorde-question-101.html "Show results 2,001 to 2,020 of 2,041") +[\>](https://www.pprune.org/tech-log/423988-concorde-question-2.html "Next Page - Results 21 to 40 of 2,041") +[Last +**»**](https://www.pprune.org/tech-log/423988-concorde-question-103.html "Last Page - Results 2,041 to 2,041 of 2,041") +  + +[Search this +Thread](https://www.pprune.org/tech-log/423988-concorde-question.html#goto_threadsearch) +![Old](/images/statusicon/post_old.gif) 13th Aug 2010, 04:32   +\#[**1**](https://www.pprune.org/5866333-post1.html) +(**[permalink](https://www.pprune.org/tech-log/423988-concorde-question.html#post5866333 "Link to this Post")**) +[stilton](https://www.pprune.org/members/87315-stilton) + +Thread Starter + + + +Join Date: Apr 2004 + +Location: Planet Earth + +Posts: 1,634 + +**Concorde question** + +Considering the era in which the Concorde was produced I am curious as +to why there was no APU fitted. It would seem to have been quite an +inconvenience at times. + + +Was there ever any consideration given to fitting one and was the +decision against the installation solely a weight issue ? + +![stilton is offline](/images/statusicon/user_offline.gif)   [![Reply +With +Quote](/images/buttons/quote.gif)](https://www.pprune.org/newreply.php?do=newreply&p=5866333) +![Old](/images/statusicon/post_old.gif) 13th Aug 2010, 09:45   +\#[**2**](https://www.pprune.org/5866720-post2.html) +(**[permalink](https://www.pprune.org/tech-log/423988-concorde-question.html#post5866720 "Link to this Post")**) +[M2dude](https://www.pprune.org/members/218153-m2dude) + +Join Date: Jan 2008 + +Location: FL 600. West of Mongolia + +Posts: 456 + + +One problem with 'Conc' was always one of weight, (for every extra pound +you carried, another pound of fuel was required) so any APU installation +would have to have been light, and worth the extra weight. But the +**main** problem was one of 'where to put the darned thing. The only +suitable space available for an APU was in the tailcone, aft of the tail +wheel. Now a ready supply of fuel would have been available either from +the aft trim tank, \#11, or from one of the two trim galleries. (For +stability reasons, tank 11 was invariably left empty during ground +transits). The real crunch however, was how to arrange pneumatic +services from an APU: Tank 11 was directly forward of the tailcone, so +this would have meant either ducting the pneumatics THROUGH the fuel +tank (not a particularly good idea +![](https://www.pprune.org/images/smilies/smile.gif "Smilie")) or +externally around the fuselage, which would have been 'draggy' to say +the least. +You could still have had an APU powering hydraulics, and in essence +electrics too (the emergency generator was powered from the Green +System), but without pneumatics for engine starting and air +conditioning, it would really have been a waste of weight. Still, it +really is a shame that there was no APU. +Historically, there were 'sort of' aux power units fitted to development +aircraft: The prototypes had two GTS's (Gas Turbine Starters), one in +each nacelle pair, that could start the engines without an air start +truck, but these never saw the light of day in later aircraft. The most +unusual unit of all was the MEPU (Monogol Emergency Power Unit), located +in the tail cone. This was manufactured by Sundstrand, and was fitted to +all of the development aircraft. (A derivation of a unit fitted to the +X-15\!\!). The idea was that if you had a four-engined flameout at Mach +2, this thing would fire up, power Green and Yellow hydraulics (plus the +emergency generator, again from the Green system), and give you power +and control down to a safe relight altitude. The MEPU was powered by +Hydrazine rocket fuel (unbelievably unstable) and I seem to remember +that the thing would run for about 8 minutes. There was no way that this +monstrosity would ever be acceptable on a commercial aircraft, and so a +conventional RAT was developed by Dowty for the production aircraft. +(Also, the windmilling engines would give you full electrics down to +Mach 1.1, and Hydraulics down to about Mach 0.7, so the thing had little +practical use when supersonic anyway). +I hope this extended blurb helps answer your query Stilton. +![](https://www.pprune.org/images/smilies/smile.gif "Smilie") + +Hi Stilton, that is a question that we all used to ask ourselves; not +having an APU was a major pain in the butt for the fleet, particularly +at charter destinations, where air start trucks, GPU's and air +conditioning trucks would all have to be pre-arranged.One problem with +'Conc' was always one of weight, (for every extra pound you carried, +another pound of fuel was required) so any APU installation would have +to have been light, and worth the extra weight. But theproblem was one +of 'where to put the darned thing. The only suitable space available for +an APU was in the tailcone, aft of the tail wheel. Now a ready supply of +fuel would have been available either from the aft trim tank, \#11, or +from one of the two trim galleries. (For stability reasons, tank 11 was +invariably left empty during ground transits). The real crunch however, +was how to arrange pneumatic services from an APU: Tank 11 was directly +forward of the tailcone, so this would have meant either ducting the +pneumatics THROUGH the fuel tank (not a particularly good idea) or +externally around the fuselage, which would have been 'draggy' to say +the least.You could still have had an APU powering hydraulics, and in +essence electrics too (the emergency generator was powered from the +Green System), but without pneumatics for engine starting and air +conditioning, it would really have been a waste of weight. Still, it +really is a shame that there was no APU.Historically, there were 'sort +of' aux power units fitted to development aircraft: The prototypes had +two GTS's (Gas Turbine Starters), one in each nacelle pair, that could +start the engines without an air start truck, but these never saw the +light of day in later aircraft. The most unusual unit of all was the +MEPU (Monogol Emergency Power Unit), located in the tail cone. This was +manufactured by Sundstrand, and was fitted to all of the development +aircraft. (A derivation of a unit fitted to the X-15\!\!). The idea was +that if you had a four-engined flameout at Mach 2, this thing would fire +up, power Green and Yellow hydraulics (plus the emergency generator, +again from the Green system), and give you power and control down to a +safe relight altitude. The MEPU was powered by Hydrazine rocket fuel +(unbelievably unstable) and I seem to remember that the thing would run +for about 8 minutes. There was no way that this monstrosity would ever +be acceptable on a commercial aircraft, and so a conventional RAT was +developed by Dowty for the production aircraft. (Also, the windmilling +engines would give you full electrics down to Mach 1.1, and Hydraulics +down to about Mach 0.7, so the thing had little practical use when +supersonic anyway).I hope this extended blurb helps answer your query +Stilton. + +![M2dude is offline](/images/statusicon/user_offline.gif)   [![Reply +With +Quote](/images/buttons/quote.gif)](https://www.pprune.org/newreply.php?do=newreply&p=5866720) +![Old](/images/statusicon/post_old.gif) 13th Aug 2010, 16:07   +\#[**3**](https://www.pprune.org/5867539-post3.html) +(**[permalink](https://www.pprune.org/tech-log/423988-concorde-question.html#post5867539 "Link to this Post")**) +[galaxy flyer](https://www.pprune.org/members/62324-galaxy-flyer) + +Join Date: Dec 2002 + +Location: Where the Quaboag River flows, USA + +Age: 65 + +Posts: 3,302 + +Yes, **M2dude**, but how long could you remain above M1.1 with a +four-engine flameout while drifting down? I presume you would driftdown +above M0.7. BTW, the RAT on the F-16 is hydrazine powered as was the ME +162 rocket interceptor. + +![galaxy flyer is offline](/images/statusicon/user_offline.gif)   +[![Reply With +Quote](/images/buttons/quote.gif)](https://www.pprune.org/newreply.php?do=newreply&p=5867539) +![Old](/images/statusicon/post_old.gif) 13th Aug 2010, 18:53   +\#[**4**](https://www.pprune.org/5867846-post4.html) +(**[permalink](https://www.pprune.org/tech-log/423988-concorde-question.html#post5867846 "Link to this Post")**) +[M2dude](https://www.pprune.org/members/218153-m2dude) + +Join Date: Jan 2008 + +Location: FL 600. West of Mongolia + +Posts: 456 + + +Not quite sure about your reference to the RAT on an F16 being Hydrazine +powered; a Ram Air Turbine is just that, using the freely rotatting +propellor to power hydraulics, electrics or both. Or do you mean the the +F16 has an emergency power unit? Either way, it's fascinating stuff. +Yes, I do remember that the Germans used Hydrazine as a fuel during WW2: +The father of one of our Concorde pilots was on an air raid to destroy +one o the production plants there, this aviation business is such a +small world.![](https://www.pprune.org/images/smilies/smile.gif +"Smilie") + +Point taken GF, but it was discovered during development flying that +that the Olympus 593 could be relit, given sufficient IAS, at almost any +altitude within the normal flight envelope. The variable inlet would +even be automatically scheduled, as a funcion of N1, in order to improve +relight performance at lower Mach numbers. I certainly agree that you +would decelerate and lose altitude fairly quickly under these +conditions, however a multiple flame out was never experienced during +the entire 34 years of Concorde flight testing and airline operation. +There was, as a matter of interest an un-commanded deployment of a +Concorde RAT AT MACH 2\!\! (The first indications of the event were when +the cabin crew complained about 'a loud propeller sound under the rear +cabin floor'. A quick scan of the F/E's panel revealed the truth of the +matter). The aircraft landed at JFK without incident, and the RAT +itself, apart from a very small leak on one of the hydraulic pumps, was +more or less un-phased by the event. Although it sounds horrific, a prop +rotating in a Mach 2 airstream, the IAS it 'felt' would be no more than +530 KTS at any time. The RAT was of course replaced before the aircraft +flew back to LHR.Not quite sure about your reference to the RAT on an +F16 being Hydrazine powered; a Ram Air Turbine is just that, using the +freely rotatting propellor to power hydraulics, electrics or both. Or do +you mean the the F16 has an emergency power unit? Either way, it's +fascinating stuff.Yes, I do remember that the Germans used Hydrazine as +a fuel during WW2: The father of one of our Concorde pilots was on an +air raid to destroy one o the production plants there, this aviation +business is such a small world. + +![M2dude is offline](/images/statusicon/user_offline.gif)   [![Reply +With +Quote](/images/buttons/quote.gif)](https://www.pprune.org/newreply.php?do=newreply&p=5867846) +![Old](/images/statusicon/post_old.gif) 13th Aug 2010, 22:14   +\#[**5**](https://www.pprune.org/5868196-post5.html) +(**[permalink](https://www.pprune.org/tech-log/423988-concorde-question.html#post5868196 "Link to this Post")**) +[galaxy flyer](https://www.pprune.org/members/62324-galaxy-flyer) + +Join Date: Dec 2002 + +Location: Where the Quaboag River flows, USA + +Age: 65 + +Posts: 3,302 + +**M2dude** + +Thanks for the reply, Concorde expertise is always interesting. I should +not have called the F-16 Emergency Power Unit a RAT, it is indeed not. +The Concorde RAT was located aft between the engine pods, correct? + +What I found interesting is that the AC generators would remain on-line +at all; they drop instantaneously at subsonic speeds and the associated +N2 rpm. I believe the hydraulics on the 747 will power flight controls +down to a pretty low IAS. + +Four engine flameout is a very unlikely event, unless one runs into a +volcanic cloud. + +![galaxy flyer is offline](/images/statusicon/user_offline.gif)   +[![Reply With +Quote](/images/buttons/quote.gif)](https://www.pprune.org/newreply.php?do=newreply&p=5868196) +![Old](/images/statusicon/post_old.gif) 13th Aug 2010, 23:36   +\#[**6**](https://www.pprune.org/5868330-post6.html) +(**[permalink](https://www.pprune.org/tech-log/423988-concorde-question.html#post5868330 "Link to this Post")**) +[stilton](https://www.pprune.org/members/87315-stilton) + +Thread Starter + + + +Join Date: Apr 2004 + +Location: Planet Earth + +Posts: 1,634 + +Thanks M2Dude for your interesting and informative reply. + +![stilton is offline](/images/statusicon/user_offline.gif)   [![Reply +With +Quote](/images/buttons/quote.gif)](https://www.pprune.org/newreply.php?do=newreply&p=5868330) +![Old](/images/statusicon/post_old.gif) 14th Aug 2010, 21:17   +\#[**7**](https://www.pprune.org/5870039-post7.html) +(**[permalink](https://www.pprune.org/tech-log/423988-concorde-question.html#post5870039 "Link to this Post")**) +[TURIN](https://www.pprune.org/members/46562-turin) + +Join Date: Feb 2002 + +Location: UK + +Age: 52 + +Posts: 2,445 + +For what it's worth, I read a book years ago. "By the Rivers of Babylon" +I think it was. +It involved a couple of El-Al (Yes I know hard to believe) Concordes +that had APUs fitted in the area normally used as the forward baggage +hold. Small it would have to be to fit methinks. + +No idea if the author had researched it or just made it up to fit the +story. + +![TURIN is offline](/images/statusicon/user_offline.gif)   [![Reply With +Quote](/images/buttons/quote.gif)](https://www.pprune.org/newreply.php?do=newreply&p=5870039) +![Old](/images/statusicon/post_old.gif) 14th Aug 2010, 23:15   +\#[**8**](https://www.pprune.org/5870216-post8.html) +(**[permalink](https://www.pprune.org/tech-log/423988-concorde-question.html#post5870216 "Link to this Post")**) +[M2dude](https://www.pprune.org/members/218153-m2dude) + +Join Date: Jan 2008 + +Location: FL 600. West of Mongolia + +Posts: 456 + + +Thanks very much for your comments. It's true, that while supersonic, a +windmilling Olympus engine would have sufficient N2 to keep all servics +on line. (The hydraulic systems on Concorde also operated at 4000 PSI). +The RAT itself was 'said' to be good down to approach speeds, +fortunately we never had to find out if that was true. (Although the +thing was tested routinely using a hydraulic rig to drive it and check +the variable pitch speed control). Thr RAT was in fact located and +stowed in the fwd part of the R/H inboard elevon Powered Flying Control +Unit Fairing. It was an absolute work of art by Dowty, to make the +device fit into such a small space. +Yep, an ash cloud would be particularly bad news, particularly at FL600 +![](https://www.pprune.org/images/smilies/thumbs.gif "Thumb") +Stlton +You are most welcome, thank you for posting this topic also. These +forums are a wonderful way for all of us out there in the aviation world +to share and learn interesting information from each +other.![](https://www.pprune.org/images/smilies/smile.gif "Smilie") +TURIN +I remember reading By the Rivers of Babylon many MANY years ago. The +terrorists, I seem to remember, had a bomb fitted inside Tank 11 (the +rear trim tank) during construction 'before it was welded shut'. Not +sure if the author had researched how aircraft were built, but still I +guess it sold a copy or two. (Well at least you and I read +it).![](https://www.pprune.org/images/smilies/smile.gif "Smilie") + +Galaxy FlyerThanks very much for your comments. It's true, that while +supersonic, a windmilling Olympus engine would have sufficient N2 to +keep all servics on line. (The hydraulic systems on Concorde also +operated at 4000 PSI). The RAT itself was 'said' to be good down to +approach speeds, fortunately we never had to find out if that was true. +(Although the thing was tested routinely using a hydraulic rig to drive +it and check the variable pitch speed control). Thr RAT was in fact +located and stowed in the fwd part of the R/H inboard elevon Powered +Flying Control Unit Fairing. It was an absolute work of art by Dowty, to +make the device fit into such a small space.Yep, an ash cloud would be +particularly bad news, particularly at FL600StltonYou are most welcome, +thank you for posting this topic also. These forums are a wonderful way +for all of us out there in the aviation world to share and learn +interesting information from each other.TURINI remember reading By the +Rivers of Babylon many MANY years ago. The terrorists, I seem to +remember, had a bomb fitted inside Tank 11 (the rear trim tank) during +construction 'before it was welded shut'. Not sure if the author had +researched how aircraft were built, but still I guess it sold a copy or +two. (Well at least you and I read it). + +![M2dude is offline](/images/statusicon/user_offline.gif)   [![Reply +With +Quote](/images/buttons/quote.gif)](https://www.pprune.org/newreply.php?do=newreply&p=5870216) +![Old](/images/statusicon/post_old.gif) 15th Aug 2010, 15:22   +\#[**9**](https://www.pprune.org/5871287-post9.html) +(**[permalink](https://www.pprune.org/tech-log/423988-concorde-question.html#post5871287 "Link to this Post")**) +[Christo](https://www.pprune.org/members/91749-christo) + +Join Date: Jun 2004 + +Location: Garsfontein, Pretoria + +Posts: 76 + +Quote: + +Not quite sure about your reference to the RAT on an F16 being Hydrazine +powered; a Ram Air Turbine is just that, using the freely rotatting +propellor to power hydraulics, electrics or both. +![](https://www.pprune.org/images/smilies/smile.gif "Smilie") + +I think he got confused with the F16 JFS which does use hydrazine but +like you mentioned, is most certainly not a RAT + +![Christo is offline](/images/statusicon/user_offline.gif)   [![Reply +With +Quote](/images/buttons/quote.gif)](https://www.pprune.org/newreply.php?do=newreply&p=5871287) +![Old](/images/statusicon/post_old.gif) 15th Aug 2010, 15:54   +\#[**10**](https://www.pprune.org/5871342-post10.html) +(**[permalink](https://www.pprune.org/tech-log/423988-concorde-question.html#post5871342 "Link to this Post")**) +[ChristiaanJ](https://www.pprune.org/members/105267-christiaanj) + +Join Date: Jan 2005 + +Location: France + +Posts: 2,319 + +**TURIN**, +I've read "By the Rivers of Babylon" too..... and there is some fact +behind the fiction. + +History does not relate if and where the El Al Concordes would have had +APUs. + +However, history DOES relate, that the two Concordes ordered by Iran Air +WOULD have had APUs (which would have made sense in the Middle East). +Now, Iran Air was the very last company to cancel its orders, and by the +time they did, Concorde 214 (now G-BOAG) and 216 (now G-BOAF) were +already well underway (they ended up flying initially as white tails). + +As a result, both 214 and 216 still have the mounting holes and fittings +for an APU. Don't ask me where, but experts know where to find them to +this day.... + +![ChristiaanJ is offline](/images/statusicon/user_offline.gif)   +[![Reply With +Quote](/images/buttons/quote.gif)](https://www.pprune.org/newreply.php?do=newreply&p=5871342) +![Old](/images/statusicon/post_old.gif) 16th Aug 2010, 12:09   +\#[**11**](https://www.pprune.org/5872914-post11.html) +(**[permalink](https://www.pprune.org/tech-log/423988-concorde-question.html#post5872914 "Link to this Post")**) +[M2dude](https://www.pprune.org/members/218153-m2dude) + +Join Date: Jan 2008 + +Location: FL 600. West of Mongolia + +Posts: 456 + + +Both A/C 214 (OAG) and 216 (OAF) were Variant 192 A/C (British Unsold +A/C). 216 was later converted to a 102 (British Airways) Variant, where +214 more or less stayed as a Variant 192. I'm not disputing what you say +about possible APU mountings (I guess it would HAVE to be at the front +section of the lower cargo hold somewhere) but I for one have certainly +never seen any evidence of them. I'm still trying to imagine where the +air inlet and exhausts would have to be arranged, not to mention +pneumatic services ducting/hydraulics. Wouldn't it be interesting to +find out? ![](https://www.pprune.org/images/smilies/smile.gif "Smilie") + +ChristiaanJBoth A/C 214 (OAG) and 216 (OAF) were Variant 192 A/C +(British Unsold A/C). 216 was later converted to a 102 (British Airways) +Variant, where 214 more or less stayed as a Variant 192. I'm not +disputing what you say about possible APU mountings (I guess it would +HAVE to be at the front section of the lower cargo hold somewhere) but I +for one have certainly never seen any evidence of them. I'm still trying +to imagine where the air inlet and exhausts would have to be arranged, +not to mention pneumatic services ducting/hydraulics. Wouldn't it be +interesting to find out? + +![M2dude is offline](/images/statusicon/user_offline.gif)   [![Reply +With +Quote](/images/buttons/quote.gif)](https://www.pprune.org/newreply.php?do=newreply&p=5872914) +![Old](/images/statusicon/post_old.gif) 16th Aug 2010, 15:17   +\#[**12**](https://www.pprune.org/5873326-post12.html) +(**[permalink](https://www.pprune.org/tech-log/423988-concorde-question.html#post5873326 "Link to this Post")**) +[Dan Winterland](https://www.pprune.org/members/2724-dan-winterland) + +Join Date: Jun 2001 + +Location: Fragrant Harbour + +Posts: 4,484 + +The original BOAC/BA VC10s didn't have APUs either. The ones converted +to K4s for the RAF had to have them fitted. + +![Dan Winterland is online now](/images/statusicon/user_online.gif)   +[![Reply With +Quote](/images/buttons/quote.gif)](https://www.pprune.org/newreply.php?do=newreply&p=5873326) +![Old](/images/statusicon/post_old.gif) 16th Aug 2010, 15:18   +\#[**13**](https://www.pprune.org/5873329-post13.html) +(**[permalink](https://www.pprune.org/tech-log/423988-concorde-question.html#post5873329 "Link to this Post")**) +[ChristiaanJ](https://www.pprune.org/members/105267-christiaanj) + +Join Date: Jan 2005 + +Location: France + +Posts: 2,319 + +Quote: + +**M2dude** [![View +Post](/images/buttons/viewpost.gif)](https://www.pprune.org/tech-log/423988-concorde-question.html#post5872914) + +Originally Posted by + +![](https://www.pprune.org/images/smilies/smile.gif "Smilie") + +Wouldn't it be interesting to find out? + + +I can try asking around, but can't remember my original source - it +probably came up during a discussion of the MEPU on Delta Golf or on 01 +several years ago. I very much doubt it would be mentioned explicitly in +the SRM (Structural Repair Manual). +IIRC the MEPU lived in the tail (I'll look it up), so it's not +impossible the APU was planned in the same location. + +It would be, yes\!I can try asking around, but can't remember my +original source - it probably came up during a discussion of the MEPU on +Delta Golf or on 01 several years ago. I very much doubt it would be +mentioned explicitly in the SRM (Structural Repair Manual).IIRC the MEPU +lived in the tail (I'll look it up), so it's not impossible the APU was +planned in the same location. + +![ChristiaanJ is offline](/images/statusicon/user_offline.gif)   +[![Reply With +Quote](/images/buttons/quote.gif)](https://www.pprune.org/newreply.php?do=newreply&p=5873329) +![Old](/images/statusicon/post_old.gif) 16th Aug 2010, 16:37   +\#[**14**](https://www.pprune.org/5873511-post14.html) +(**[permalink](https://www.pprune.org/tech-log/423988-concorde-question.html#post5873511 "Link to this Post")**) +[ChristiaanJ](https://www.pprune.org/members/105267-christiaanj) + +Join Date: Jan 2005 + +Location: France + +Posts: 2,319 + + +In the meantime, here's the MEPU exhaust in the tailcone of Delta Golf, +courtesy of Neil Walker. + +![](http://www.concordeproject.com/photos/2006/060306_8.jpg) + +CJ + +Just looked up the MEPU in the 01 AFM, and indeed it's located in the +tail cone. I'll scan the page this evening.In the meantime, here's the +MEPU exhaust in the tailcone of Delta Golf, courtesy of Neil Walker.CJ + +![ChristiaanJ is offline](/images/statusicon/user_offline.gif)   +[![Reply With +Quote](/images/buttons/quote.gif)](https://www.pprune.org/newreply.php?do=newreply&p=5873511) +![Old](/images/statusicon/post_old.gif) 16th Aug 2010, 19:53   +\#[**15**](https://www.pprune.org/5873899-post15.html) +(**[permalink](https://www.pprune.org/tech-log/423988-concorde-question.html#post5873899 "Link to this Post")**) +[ChristiaanJ](https://www.pprune.org/members/105267-christiaanj) + +Join Date: Jan 2005 + +Location: France + +Posts: 2,319 + + + +![](http://img.photobucket.com/albums/v324/ChristiaanJ/MEPU011.gif) + +![](http://img.photobucket.com/albums/v324/ChristiaanJ/MEPU012.gif) + +Just scanned this off the Concorde 01 (G-AXDN) Flight Manual, and +cropped as much as possible. + +![ChristiaanJ is offline](/images/statusicon/user_offline.gif)   +[![Reply With +Quote](/images/buttons/quote.gif)](https://www.pprune.org/newreply.php?do=newreply&p=5873899) +![Old](/images/statusicon/post_old.gif) 17th Aug 2010, 10:50   +\#[**16**](https://www.pprune.org/5874791-post16.html) +(**[permalink](https://www.pprune.org/tech-log/423988-concorde-question.html#post5874791 "Link to this Post")**) +[M2dude](https://www.pprune.org/members/218153-m2dude) + +Join Date: Jan 2008 + +Location: FL 600. West of Mongolia + +Posts: 456 + +**through a fuel tank**, (Remember that tank 11 occupied the entire rear +fuselage between the rear cargo aft wall and the front of the tail +cone). then I don't think that this was really on. (It's quite possible +of course that I'm missing something here, it comes with age +![](https://www.pprune.org/images/smilies/badteeth.gif "Bad teeth")). +As far as the MEPU goes, all it really did was drive 2 hydraulic pumps; +the Green System then powering the 40 KVA emergency generator; unless +you are going to use the APU for engine starting and ground air +conditioning, then I honestly don't think that there would be much +point. It's interesting also to note that the MPU, being a rocket motor, +needed no air intake, and as it was not driving any huge loads, the +exhaust duct dould be quite narrow. +![](https://www.pprune.org/images/smilies/smile.gif "Smilie") + +Hi Christiaan, yes THAT was the MEPU (Good photo of G-BBDG by the way). +As far as fitting an APU in the tail cone, I still personally think that +UNLESS you are prepared to pass a sizable pneumatic duct, (Remember that +tank 11 occupied the entire rear fuselage between the rear cargo aft +wall and the front of the tail cone). then I don't think that this was +really on. (It's quite possible of course that I'm missing something +here, it comes with age).As far as the MEPU goes, all it really did was +drive 2 hydraulic pumps; the Green System then powering the 40 KVA +emergency generator; unless you are going to use the APU for engine +starting and ground air conditioning, then I honestly don't think that +there would be much point. It's interesting also to note that the MPU, +being a rocket motor, needed no air intake, and as it was not driving +any huge loads, the exhaust duct dould be quite narrow. + +![M2dude is offline](/images/statusicon/user_offline.gif)   [![Reply +With +Quote](/images/buttons/quote.gif)](https://www.pprune.org/newreply.php?do=newreply&p=5874791) +![Old](/images/statusicon/post_old.gif) 17th Aug 2010, 14:33   +\#[**17**](https://www.pprune.org/5875273-post17.html) +(**[permalink](https://www.pprune.org/tech-log/423988-concorde-question.html#post5875273 "Link to this Post")**) +[ChristiaanJ](https://www.pprune.org/members/105267-christiaanj) + +Join Date: Jan 2005 + +Location: France + +Posts: 2,319 + + + +Nice set of photos of "The Thing" here : +[MEPU at MAE at le +Bourget](http://f-wtss.over-blog.com/article-15380845.html). +This one is at the Air and Space Museum at Le Bourget, near Paris. My +guess is that is was a spare, since the manufacturing date is 1973. 'SA +flew in January '73 and 'SB in December '73. +IIRC, Delta Golf arrived at Brooklands with the MEPU still in place; I +might have a photo. + +As to the installation, we're obviously thinking along the same +lines.... + +However, there were already several conduits through tank 11, such as +hydraulics for the tail wheel, various electrics, and the 'backbone' +fuel manifolds, that ended at the fuel jettison port in the tailcone. +A couple of fairly substantial air ducts would only have displaced a few +hundred kgs of fuel at the most, out of the more than 10,000 kgs in tank +11. + +And yes, of course, the whole point of the APU would be to have +independent ground start and ground airco available, so clearly an APU +would have been bigger and heavier than the MEPU (which was only just +over 80 lbs), plus the problem of the air intake and bigger exhaust. +I'd have to get the drawings out to see how easy or difficult it would +have been to fit one in the available space. + +Since the tailcone was BAC, and both 214 and 216 were built at Filton, I +wonder if anybody there still remembers? + +M2dude,Nice set of photos of "The Thing" here :This one is at the Air +and Space Museum at Le Bourget, near Paris. My guess is that is was a +spare, since the manufacturing date is 1973. 'SA flew in January '73 and +'SB in December '73.IIRC, Delta Golf arrived at Brooklands with the MEPU +still in place; I might have a photo.As to the installation, we're +obviously thinking along the same lines....However, there were already +several conduits through tank 11, such as hydraulics for the tail wheel, +various electrics, and the 'backbone' fuel manifolds, that ended at the +fuel jettison port in the tailcone.A couple of fairly substantial air +ducts would only have displaced a few hundred kgs of fuel at the most, +out of the more than 10,000 kgs in tank 11.And yes, of course, the whole +point of the APU would be to have independent ground start and ground +airco available, so clearly an APU would have been bigger and heavier +than the MEPU (which was only just over 80 lbs), plus the problem of the +air intake and bigger exhaust.I'd have to get the drawings out to see +how easy or difficult it would have been to fit one in the available +space.Since the tailcone was BAC, and both 214 and 216 were built at +Filton, I wonder if anybody there still remembers? + +![ChristiaanJ is offline](/images/statusicon/user_offline.gif)   +[![Reply With +Quote](/images/buttons/quote.gif)](https://www.pprune.org/newreply.php?do=newreply&p=5875273) +![Old](/images/statusicon/post_old.gif) 18th Aug 2010, 12:27   +\#[**18**](https://www.pprune.org/5877465-post18.html) +(**[permalink](https://www.pprune.org/tech-log/423988-concorde-question.html#post5877465 "Link to this Post")**) +[M2dude](https://www.pprune.org/members/218153-m2dude) + +Join Date: Jan 2008 + +Location: FL 600. West of Mongolia + +Posts: 456 + + +Thanks for the MEPU link, that really brings back memories (or was that +nightmares ![](https://www.pprune.org/images/smilies2/icon_rolleyes.gif +"Roll Eyes (Sarcastic)")). I remember at Fairford, a small drop of +Hydrazine leaked onto the hangar floor; the next thing you heard was a +really loud crack, and a after the smoke cleared, there was a sizable +hole in the floor. +I'd still really like to know what the 'thoughts' on this APU issue +actually were. Although as you rightly point out tank 11 already had a +fair amount of 'plumbing' running through it, we are talking here about +a duct with sufficient size that can provide enough mass flow to turn +over an Olympus engine to at least between 10 and 20% N2. You are +looking at an least 10" diameter duct, not including the copious amounts +of thermal insulation surrounding it, as well as an extremely sensitive +overtemperature protection system. (This tank is going to be near empty, +filled with fuel vapour). I'm not really convinced that this idea would +even be considered by the CAA/DGAC/FAA etc. for safety reasons alone. +Still, it's food for thought though +![](https://www.pprune.org/images/smilies/smile.gif "Smilie") + +ChristiaanJThanks for the MEPU link, that really brings back memories +(or was that nightmares). I remember at Fairford, a small drop of +Hydrazine leaked onto the hangar floor; the next thing you heard was a +really loud crack, and a after the smoke cleared, there was a sizable +hole in the floor.I'd still really like to know what the 'thoughts' on +this APU issue actually were. Although as you rightly point out tank 11 +already had a fair amount of 'plumbing' running through it, we are +talking here about a duct with sufficient size that can provide enough +mass flow to turn over an Olympus engine to at least between 10 and 20% +N2. You are looking at an least 10" diameter duct, not including the +copious amounts of thermal insulation surrounding it, as well as an +extremely sensitive overtemperature protection system. (This tank is +going to be near empty, filled with fuel vapour). I'm not really +convinced that this idea would even be considered by the CAA/DGAC/FAA +etc. for safety reasons alone.Still, it's food for thought though + +![M2dude is offline](/images/statusicon/user_offline.gif)   [![Reply +With +Quote](/images/buttons/quote.gif)](https://www.pprune.org/newreply.php?do=newreply&p=5877465) +![Old](/images/statusicon/post_old.gif) 18th Aug 2010, 16:19   +\#[**19**](https://www.pprune.org/5878005-post19.html) +(**[permalink](https://www.pprune.org/tech-log/423988-concorde-question.html#post5878005 "Link to this Post")**) +[Biggles78](https://www.pprune.org/members/297800-biggles78) + +Join Date: Apr 2009 + +Location: \` + +Posts: 301 + +![](https://www.pprune.org/images/smilies/eek.gif "EEK!") No, I am +really not that stupid to think it was all used for trim but I am +beginning to realise just how little I knew about this technological +wonder of the skies. Also wish someone had recorded her being rolled +(like the B707 when being displayed). Now that would be something that +would stand along side the noise abatement takeoff or maybe not. The T/O +is impressive\!\! + +M2dude and ChristiaanJ, please keep posting any anecdotes that you +remember about this incredible aeroplane. It really is fascinating +learning about the technical side from those who actually knew her. + +10,000kg in a trim tank?No, I am really not that stupid to think it was +all used for trim but I am beginning to realise just how little I knew +about this technological wonder of the skies. Also wish someone had +recorded her being rolled (like the B707 when being displayed). Now that +would be something that would stand along side the noise abatement +takeoff or maybe not. The T/O is impressive\!\!M2dude and ChristiaanJ, +please keep posting any anecdotes that you remember about this +incredible aeroplane. It really is fascinating learning about the +technical side from those who actually knew her. + +![Biggles78 is offline](/images/statusicon/user_offline.gif)   [![Reply +With +Quote](/images/buttons/quote.gif)](https://www.pprune.org/newreply.php?do=newreply&p=5878005) +![Old](/images/statusicon/post_old.gif) 18th Aug 2010, 21:24   +\#[**20**](https://www.pprune.org/5878555-post20.html) +(**[permalink](https://www.pprune.org/tech-log/423988-concorde-question.html#post5878555 "Link to this Post")**) +[ChristiaanJ](https://www.pprune.org/members/105267-christiaanj) + +Join Date: Jan 2005 + +Location: France + +Posts: 2,319 + + + +Re the MEPU at the Le Bourget museum... +The story I just got was that it was taken off F-WTSA or F-WTSB at +Roissy for a fault and replaced (both 'SA and 'SB operated out of Roissy +around '74 / '75 for things like route proving, etc.). +It got left on a shelf in a store, and was only discovered again in 2003 +during the "big clean-out" and was saved 'in extremis' by somebody who +recognised it for what it was, stopped it from being 'binned' and took +it over to the museum. + + +Quote: + +Originally Posted by **Biggles78** + +10,000kg in a trim tank? No, I am really not that stupid to think it was +all used for trim + + +So yes, you're right, essentially all of it was "useable" fuel, it did +not serve only for the trim. + + +Quote: + +Also wish someone had recorded her being rolled (like the B707 when +being displayed). +Jock Lowe seems to have stated there is a photo.... and we all still +wonder if there is some footage taken from the Lear Jet during the +filming of "Airport 79". But none is publicly known to exist ... we just +know it's been done\! + +M2dude,Re the MEPU at the Le Bourget museum...The story I just got was +that it was taken off F-WTSA or F-WTSB at Roissy for a fault and +replaced (both 'SA and 'SB operated out of Roissy around '74 / '75 for +things like route proving, etc.).It got left on a shelf in a store, and +was only discovered again in 2003 during the "big clean-out" and was +saved 'in extremis' by somebody who recognised it for what it was, +stopped it from being 'binned' and took it over to the museum.Initially +of couse it was. It was not until the return to subsonic, towards the +end of the flight, that the contents of the n° 11 trim tank were moved +forward again to the other tanks.So yes, you're right, essentially all +of it was "useable" fuel, it did not serve only for the trim.Don't we +all....Jock Lowe seems to have stated there is a photo.... and we all +still wonder if there is some footage taken from the Lear Jet during the +filming of "Airport 79". But none is publicly known to exist ... we just +know it's been done\! + +![ChristiaanJ is offline](/images/statusicon/user_offline.gif)   +[![Reply With +Quote](/images/buttons/quote.gif)](https://www.pprune.org/newreply.php?do=newreply&p=5878555) + +[![Reply](/images/buttons/reply.gif)](https://www.pprune.org/newreply.php?do=newreply&noquote=1&p=5878555) +Page 1 of +103 + +**1** + +[2](https://www.pprune.org/tech-log/423988-concorde-question-2.html "Show results 21 to 40 of 2,041")[3](https://www.pprune.org/tech-log/423988-concorde-question-3.html "Show results 41 to 60 of 2,041")[4](https://www.pprune.org/tech-log/423988-concorde-question-4.html "Show results 61 to 80 of 2,041")[5](https://www.pprune.org/tech-log/423988-concorde-question-5.html "Show results 81 to 100 of 2,041")[11](https://www.pprune.org/tech-log/423988-concorde-question-11.html "Show results 201 to 220 of 2,041")[51](https://www.pprune.org/tech-log/423988-concorde-question-51.html "Show results 1,001 to 1,020 of 2,041")[101](https://www.pprune.org/tech-log/423988-concorde-question-101.html "Show results 2,001 to 2,020 of 2,041") +[\>](https://www.pprune.org/tech-log/423988-concorde-question-2.html "Next Page - Results 21 to 40 of 2,041") +[Last +**»**](https://www.pprune.org/tech-log/423988-concorde-question-103.html "Last Page - Results 2,041 to 2,041 of 2,041") + +**«** [Previous +Thread](https://www.pprune.org/tech-log/423988-concorde-question-prev-thread.html) +| [Next +Thread](https://www.pprune.org/tech-log/423988-concorde-question-next-thread.html) +**»** Thread Tools Search this Thread ![Show Printable +Version](/images/buttons/printer.gif) [Show Printable +Version](https://www.pprune.org/tech-log/print-423988-concorde-question.html)![Email +this Page](/images/buttons/sendtofriend.gif) [Email this +Page](https://www.pprune.org/sendmessage.php?do=sendtofriend&t=423988) +**Search this Thread**: + +[Advanced +Search](https://www.pprune.org/search.php?searchthreadid=423988) +[![](/images/buttons/collapse_thead.gif)](https://www.pprune.org/tech-log/423988-concorde-question.html#top) +Posting Rules + +You **may not** post new threads + +You **may not** post replies + +You **may not** post attachments + +You **may not** edit your posts + +**On**[BB code](https://www.pprune.org/misc.php?do=bbcode) +is**On**[Smilies](https://www.pprune.org/misc.php?do=showsmilies) +are**On**[\[IMG\]](https://www.pprune.org/misc.php?do=bbcode#imgcode) +code is + +HTML code is +**Off** + +**Off**[Trackbacks](https://www.pprune.org/misc.php?do=linkbacks#trackbacks) +are**Off**[Pingbacks](https://www.pprune.org/misc.php?do=linkbacks#pingbacks) +are**Off**[Refbacks](https://www.pprune.org/misc.php?do=linkbacks#refbacks) +are [Forum Rules](https://www.pprune.org/misc.php?do=showrules) + + +All times are GMT. The time now is + +08:49 + +. diff --git a/_stories/2010/8384709.md b/_stories/2010/8384709.md index f6c7630..5ad967e 100644 --- a/_stories/2010/8384709.md +++ b/_stories/2010/8384709.md @@ -19,7 +19,318 @@ _tags: objectID: '8384709' --- -[Source](https://idp.nature.com/authorize?response_type=cookie&client_id=grover&redirect_uri=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nature.com%2Fnews%2F2010%2F100721%2Ffull%2F466432a.html "Permalink to ") +Published online 21 July 2010 | Nature 466, 432-434 (2010) | +doi:10.1038/466432a +News Feature +Eradicating any organism would have serious consequences for ecosystems +— wouldn't it? Not when it comes to mosquitoes, finds Janet Fang. +Every day, Jittawadee Murphy unlocks a hot, padlocked room at the Walter +Reed Army Institute of Research in Silver Spring, Maryland, to a swarm +of malaria-carrying mosquitoes (Anopheles stephensi). She gives millions +of larvae a diet of ground-up fish food, and offers the gravid females +blood to suck from the bellies of unconscious mice — they drain 24 of +the rodents a month. Murphy has been studying mosquitoes for 20 years, +working on ways to limit the spread of the parasites they carry. Still, +she says, she would rather they were wiped off the Earth. + +That sentiment is widely shared. Malaria infects some 247 million people +worldwide each year, and kills nearly one million. Mosquitoes cause a +huge further medical and financial burden by spreading yellow fever, +dengue fever, Japanese encephalitis, Rift Valley fever, Chikungunya +virus and West Nile virus. Then there's the pest factor: they form +swarms thick enough to asphyxiate caribou in Alaska and now, as their +numbers reach a seasonal peak, their proboscises are plunged into human +flesh across the Northern Hemisphere. + +So what would happen if there were none? Would anyone or anything miss +them? Nature put this question to scientists who explore aspects of +mosquito biology and ecology, and unearthed some surprising answers. + +There are 3,500 named species of mosquito, of which only a couple of +hundred bite or bother humans. They live on almost every continent and +habitat, and serve important functions in numerous ecosystems. +"Mosquitoes have been on Earth for more than 100 million years," says +Murphy, "and they have co-evolved with so many species along the way." +Wiping out a species of mosquito could leave a predator without prey, or +a plant without a pollinator. And exploring a world without mosquitoes +is more than an exercise in imagination: [intense efforts are under +way](http://www.nature.com/news/malaria-control-the-great-mosquito-hunt-1.15524) +to develop methods that might rid the world of the most pernicious, +disease-carrying species (see ['War against the +winged'](/news/2010/100721/full/466432a/box/1.html)). + +Yet in many cases, scientists acknowledge that the ecological scar left +by a missing mosquito would heal quickly as the niche was filled by +other organisms. Life would continue as before — or even better. When it +comes to the major disease vectors, "it's difficult to see what the +downside would be to removal, except for collateral damage", says insect +ecologist Steven Juliano, of Illinois State University in Normal. A +world without mosquitoes would be "more secure for us", says medical +entomologist Carlos Brisola Marcondes from the Federal University of +Santa Catarina in Brazil. "The elimination of Anopheles would be very +significant for mankind." + +## Arctic pests + +Elimination of mosquitoes might make the biggest ecological difference +in the Arctic tundra, home to mosquito species including Aedes impiger +and Aedes nigripes. Eggs laid by the insects hatch the next year after +the snow melts, and development to adults takes only 3–4 weeks. From +northern Canada to Russia, there is a brief period in which they are +extraordinarily abundant, in some areas forming thick clouds. "That's an +exceptionally rare situation worldwide," says entomologist Daniel +Strickman, programme leader for medical and urban entomology at the US +Department of Agriculture in Beltsville, Maryland. "There is no other +place in the world where they are that much biomass." + +> “If there was a benefit to having them around, we would have found a +> way to exploit them. We haven't wanted anything from mosquitoes except +> for them to go away.” + + + +Views differ on what would happen if that biomass vanished. Bruce +Harrison, an entomologist at the North Carolina Department of +Environment and Natural Resources in Winston-Salem estimates that the +number of migratory birds that nest in the tundra could drop by more +than 50% without mosquitoes to eat. Other researchers disagree. Cathy +Curby, a wildlife biologist at the US Fish and Wildlife Service in +Fairbanks, Alaska, says that Arctic mosquitoes don't show up in bird +stomach samples in high numbers, and that midges are a more important +source of food. "We (as humans) may overestimate the number of +mosquitoes in the Arctic because they are selectively attracted to us," +she says. + +Mosquitoes consume up to 300 millilitres of blood a day from each animal +in a caribou herd, which are thought to select paths facing into the +wind to escape the swarm. A small change in path can have major +consequences in an Arctic valley through which thousands of caribou +migrate, trampling the ground, eating lichens, transporting nutrients, +feeding wolves, and generally altering the ecology. Taken all together, +then, mosquitoes would be missed in the Arctic — but is the same true +elsewhere? + +## Food on the wing + +"Mosquitoes are delectable things to eat and they're easy to catch," +says aquatic entomologist Richard Merritt, at Michigan State University +in East Lansing. In the absence of their larvae, hundreds of species of +fish would have to change their diet to survive. "This may sound simple, +but traits such as feeding behaviour are deeply imprinted, genetically, +in those fish," says Harrison. The mosquitofish (Gambusia affinis), for +example, is a specialized predator — so effective at killing mosquitoes +that it is stocked in rice fields and swimming pools as pest control — +that could go extinct. And the loss of these or other fish could have +major effects up and down the food chain. + +Many species of insect, spider, salamander, lizard and frog would also +lose a primary food source. In one study published last month, +researchers tracked insect-eating house martins at a park in Camargue, +France, after the area was sprayed with a microbial mosquito-control +agent[1](#B1). They found that the birds produced on average two chicks +per nest after spraying, compared with three for birds at control sites. + +Most mosquito-eating birds would probably switch to other insects that, +post-mosquitoes, might emerge in large numbers to take their place. +Other insectivores might not miss them at all: bats feed mostly on +moths, and less than 2% of their gut content is mosquitoes. "If you're +expending energy," says medical entomologist Janet McAllister of the +Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in Fort Collins, Colorado, +"are you going to eat the 22-ounce filet-mignon moth or the 6-ounce +hamburger mosquito?" + +With many options on the menu, it seems that most insect-eaters would +not go hungry in a mosquito-free world. There is not enough evidence of +ecosystem disruption here to give the eradicators pause for thought. + +## At your service + +As larvae, mosquitoes make up substantial biomass in aquatic ecosystems +globally. They abound in bodies of water ranging from ephemeral ponds to +tree holes[2](#B2) to old tyres, and the density of larvae on flooded +plains can be so high that their writhing sends out ripples across the +surface. They feed on decaying leaves, organic detritus and +microorganisms. The question is whether, without mosquitoes, other +filter feeders would step in. "Lots of organisms process detritus. +Mosquitoes aren't the only ones involved or the most important," says +Juliano. "If you pop one rivet out of an airplane's wing, it's unlikely +that the plane will cease to fly." + +![Mosquito larvae form a substantial part of the biomass in water pools +worldwide.](/news/2010/100721/images/_tmp_articling-import-20100721084308398938_466432a-i3.0.jpg) + +Mosquito larvae form a substantial part of the biomass in water pools +worldwide. + +M. & P. FOGDEN/MINDEN PICTURES/FLPA + +The effects might depend on the body of water in question. Mosquito +larvae are important members of the tight-knit communities in the +25–100-millilitre pools inside pitcher plants[3](#B3),[4](#B4) +(Sarracenia purpurea) on the east coast of North America. Species of +mosquito (Wyeomyia smithii) and midge (Metriocnemus knabi) are the only +insects that live there, along with microorganisms such as rotifers, +bacteria and protozoa. When other insects drown in the water, the midges +chew up their carcasses and the mosquito larvae feed on the waste +products, making nutrients such as nitrogen available for the plant. In +this case, eliminating mosquitoes might affect plant growth. + +In 1974, ecologist John Addicott, now at the University of Calgary in +Alberta, Canada, published findings on the predator and prey structure +within pitcher plants, noting more protozoan diversity in the presence +of mosquito larvae[5](#B5). He proposed that as the larvae feed, they +keep down the numbers of the dominant species of protozoa, letting +others persist. The broader consequences for the plant are not known. + +A stronger argument for keeping mosquitoes might be found if they +provide 'ecosystem services' — the benefits that humans derive from +nature. Evolutionary ecologist Dina Fonseca at Rutgers University in New +Brunswick, New Jersey, points as a comparison to the biting midges of +the family Ceratopogonidae, sometimes known as no-see-ums. "People being +bitten by no-see-ums or being infected through them with viruses, +protozoa and filarial worms would love to eradicate them," she says. But +because some ceratopogonids are pollinators of tropical crops such as +cacao, "that would result in a world without chocolate". + +Without mosquitoes, thousands of plant species would lose a group of +pollinators. Adults depend on nectar for energy (only females of some +species need a meal of blood to get the proteins necessary to lay eggs). +Yet McAllister says that their pollination isn't crucial for crops on +which humans depend. "If there was a benefit to having them around, we +would have found a way to exploit them," she says. "We haven't wanted +anything from mosquitoes except for them to go away." + +Ultimately, there seem to be few things that mosquitoes do that other +organisms can't do just as well — except perhaps for one. They are +lethally efficient at sucking blood from one individual and mainlining +it into another, providing an ideal route for the spread of pathogenic +microbes. + +"The ecological effect of eliminating harmful mosquitoes is that you +have more people. That's the consequence," says Strickman. Many lives +would be saved; many more would no longer be sapped by disease. +Countries freed of their high malaria burden, for example in sub-Saharan +Africa, might recover the 1.3% of growth in gross domestic product that +the World Health Organization estimates they are cost by the disease +each year, potentially accelerating their development. There would be +"less burden on the health system and hospitals, redirection of +public-health expenditure for vector-borne diseases control to other +priority health issues, less absenteeism from schools", says Jeffrey +Hii, malaria scientist for the World Health Organization in Manila. + +Phil Lounibos, an ecologist at the Florida Medical Entomology Laboratory +in Vero Beach says that "eliminating mosquitoes would temporarily +relieve human suffering". His work suggests that efforts to eradicate +one vector species would be futile, as its niche would quickly be filled +by another. His team collected female yellow-fever mosquitoes (Aedes +aegypti) from scrap yards in Florida, and found that some had been +inseminated by Asian tiger mosquitoes (Aedes albopictus), which carry +multiple human diseases. The insemination sterilizes the female +yellow-fever mosquitoes — showing how one insect can overtake +another. + +ADVERTISEMENT + +[![Advertisement](http://ad.doubleclick.net/ad/news@nature.com/;abr=!NN2;tile=1;ord=123456789?)](http://ad.doubleclick.net/jump/news@nature.com/;abr=!NN2;artid=article-one;pos=left;sz=300x250;ptile=2;ord=123456789?) + +Given the huge humanitarian and economic consequences of mosquito-spread +disease, few scientists would suggest that the costs of an increased +human population would outweigh the benefits of a healthier one. And the +'collateral damage' felt elsewhere in ecosystems doesn't buy much +sympathy either. The romantic notion of every creature having a vital +place in nature may not be enough to plead the mosquito's case. It is +the limitations of mosquito-killing methods, not the limitations of +intent, that make a world without mosquitoes unlikely. + +And so, while humans inadvertently drive beneficial species, from tuna +to corals, to the edge of extinction, their best efforts can't seriously +threaten an insect with few redeeming features. "They don't occupy an +unassailable niche in the environment," says entomologist Joe Conlon, of +the American Mosquito Control Association in Jacksonville, Florida. "If +we eradicated them tomorrow, the ecosystems where they are active will +hiccup and then get on with life. Something better or worse would take +over."  + +Janet Fang is an intern in Nature's Washington DC office. + + - ## References + + 1. Poulin, B., Lefebvre, G. & Paz, L. + + J. Appl. Ecol. + + 47 + + , 884-889 + ( + + 2010 + + ). | [Article](http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2010.01821.x) + + 2. Daugherty, M. P. & Juliano, S. A. + + Am. Midl. Nat. + + 150 + + , 181-184 + ( + + 2003 + + ). | [Article](http://dx.doi.org/10.1674/0003-0031\(2003\)150%5B0181:LSBFAA%5D2.0.CO;2) + + 3. Daugherty, M. P., Alto, B. W. & Juliano, S. A. + + J. Med. Entomol. + + 37 + + , 364-372 + ( + + 2000 + + ). | [Article](http://dx.doi.org/10.1603/0022-2585\(2000\)037%5B0364:ICAARF%5D2.0.CO;2) | [PubMed](http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?holding=npg&cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=15535579&dopt=Abstract "Article on PubMed - ") | [ChemPort](http://chemport.cas.org/cgi-bin/sdcgi?APP=ftslink&action=reflink&origin=npg&version=1.0&coi=1:STN:280:DC%2BD2crmtlOnsQ%3D%3D&pissn=1744-7933&pyear=2010&md5=dbe5fa4a45e3ce853ad1e67d500d4dd4 "Article on ChemPort - ") | + + 4. Heard, S. B. + + Ecology + + 75 + + , 1647-1660 ( + + 1994 + + ). | [Article](http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1939625) + + 5. Addicott, J. F. + + Ecology + + 55 + + , 475-492 ( + + 1974 + + ). | [Article](http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1935141) + + 6. Pridgeon, J. W., Zhao, L., Becnel, J. J., Strickman, D. A., + Clark, G. G. & Linthicum, K. J. + + J. Med. Entomol. + + 45 + + , 414-420 + ( + + 2008 + + ). | [Article](http://dx.doi.org/10.1603/0022-2585\(2008\)45%5B414:TAADRK%5D2.0.CO;2) | [PubMed](http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?holding=npg&cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=18533434&dopt=Abstract "Article on PubMed - ") | [ChemPort](http://chemport.cas.org/cgi-bin/sdcgi?APP=ftslink&action=reflink&origin=npg&version=1.0&coi=1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1cXntFCktb4%3D&pissn=1744-7933&pyear=2010&md5=0cdaa8819995716cf7055ee64919ded7 "Article on ChemPort - ") | diff --git a/_stories/2010/8501684.md b/_stories/2010/8501684.md deleted file mode 100644 index 07f45e7..0000000 --- a/_stories/2010/8501684.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,25 +0,0 @@ ---- -created_at: '2014-10-24T01:24:18.000Z' -title: X86 boot sector written in C (2010) -url: http://crimsonglow.ca/~kjiwa/x86-dos-boot-sector-in-c.html -author: doubcoid -points: 111 -story_text: '' -comment_text: -num_comments: 23 -story_id: -story_title: -story_url: -parent_id: -created_at_i: 1414113858 -_tags: -- story -- author_doubcoid -- story_8501684 -objectID: '8501684' - ---- -[Source](https://crimsonglow.ca/~kjiwa/x86-dos-boot-sector-in-c.html "Permalink to ") - - - diff --git a/_stories/2010/8511219.md b/_stories/2010/8511219.md index 45bbd4d..5bbddea 100644 --- a/_stories/2010/8511219.md +++ b/_stories/2010/8511219.md @@ -19,7 +19,54 @@ _tags: objectID: '8511219' --- -[Source](https://www.backblaze.com/blog/petabytes-on-a-budget-how-to-build-cheap-cloud-storage-2/ "Permalink to ") +![Backblaze 67 Terabyte +Server](https://www.backblaze.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/2009/08/backblaze-cheap-cloud-server-storage2.jpg) + +on ALL of the Storage Pod versions. +To get the latest updates and informationon ALL of the Storage Pod +versions. [Click Here](https://www.backblaze.com/b2/storage-pod.html) +At Backblaze, we provide unlimited storage to our customers for only $5 +per month, so we had to figure out how to store hundreds of petabytes of +customer data in a reliable, scalable way—and keep our costs low. After +looking at several overpriced commercial solutions, we decided to build +our own custom Backblaze Storage Pods: 67 terabyte 4U servers for +$7,867. + +What we actually provide for our customers is [online +backup](https://www.backblaze.com) for home and [business online +backup](https://secure.backblaze.com/business.htm) for work. However, in +this post, we’ll share how to make one of these storage pods, and you’re +welcome to use this design. Our hope is that by sharing, others can +benefit and, ultimately, refine this concept and send improvements back +to us. Evolving and lowering costs is critical to our continuing success +at Backblaze. + +Below is a video that shows a 3-D model of the Backblaze Storage Pod. +Continue reading to learn the exact details of the design. + +[You can download the full 3-D model of the Backblaze Storage Pod +here.](https://www.backblaze.com/files/backblaze-storage-pod-3d-design.zip) + + +#### Backblaze Needs Plenty of Reliable, Cheap Storage + +To say that Backblaze needs lots of storage is an understatement. We’re +a backup service, so our datacenter contains a complete copy of all of +our customers’ data, plus multiple versions of files that change. In +rough terms, every time one of our customers buys a hard drive, +Backblaze needs another hard drive. A long time ago we stopped measuring +storage in our datacenter in gigabytes or terabytes and started +measuring in petabytes. + +To get a sense of what this looks like, here is a shot of me deploying +new pods in our datacenter. The small stack of six pods in the rack I’m +working on contains just under half a petabyte of storage. +[ +![Tim in +Datacenter](https://www.backblaze.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/2009/08/tim-backblaze-datacenter-servers.jpg)](https://www.backblaze.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/2009/08/tim-datacenter-servers.jpg) + +To offer our service at a reasonable price, we need affordable storage +at a multi-petabyte scale. diff --git a/_stories/2010/8878267.md b/_stories/2010/8878267.md index 6be20b9..ab0cbd9 100644 --- a/_stories/2010/8878267.md +++ b/_stories/2010/8878267.md @@ -19,7 +19,138 @@ _tags: objectID: '8878267' --- -[Source](https://blogs.msdn.microsoft.com/b/larryosterman/archive/2010/01/04/what-s-up-with-the-beep-driver-in-windows-7.aspx "Permalink to ") +Earlier today, someone asked me why 64bit versions of windows don’t +support the internal PC speaker beeps.  The answer is somewhat +complicated and ends up being an interesting intersection between a host +of conflicting tensions in the PC ecosystem. +  +Let’s start by talking about how the Beep hardware worked way back in +the day\[1\].  The original IBM PC contained an Intel 8254 programmable +interval timer chip to manage the system clock.  Because the IBM +engineers felt that the PC needed to be able to play sound (but not +particularly high quality sound), they decided that they could use the +8254 as a very primitive square wave generator.  To do this, they +programmed the 3rd timer on the chip to operate in Square Wave mode and +to count down with the desired output frequency.  This caused the Out2 +line on the chip to toggle from high to low every time the clock went to +0.  The hardware designers tied the Out2 line on the chip to the PC +speaker and voila – they were able to use the clock chip to program the +PC speaker to make a noise (not a very high quality noise but a noise +nonetheless). +The Beep() Win32 API is basically a thin wrapper around the 8254 PIC +functionality.  So when you call the Beep() API, you program the 8254 to +play sounds on the PC speaker. + +  + +Fast forward about 25 years…  The PC industry has largely changed and +the PC architecture has changed with it.  At this point they don’t +actually use the 8254 as the programmable interrupt controller, but it’s +still in modern PCs.  And that’s because the 8254 is still used to drive +the PC speaker.  + +One of the other things that happened in the intervening 25 years was +that machines got a whole lot more capable.  Now machines come with +capabilities like newfangled hard disk drives (some of which can even +hold more than 30 megabytes of storage (but I don’t know why on earth +anyone would ever want a hard disk that can hold that much stuff)).  And +every non server machine sold today has a PC sound card.  So every +single machine sold today has two ways of generating sounds – the PC +sound card and the old 8254 which is tied to the internal PC speaker (or +to a dedicated input on the sound card – more on this later). + +  + +There’s something else that happened in the past 25 years.  PCs became +commodity systems.  And that started exerting a huge amount of pressure +on PC manufacturers to cut costs.  They looked at the 8254 and asked +“why can’t we remove this?” + +It turns out that they couldn’t.  And the answer to why they couldn’t +came from a totally unexpected place.  The [American’s with Disabilities +Act](http://www.ada.gov/). + +  + +The ADA?  What on earth could the ADA have to do with a PC making a +beep?   Well it turns out that at some point in the intervening 25 +years, the Win32 Beep() was used for assistive technologies – in +particular the sounds made when you enable the assistive technologies +like [StickyKeys](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sticky_keys) were +generated using the Beep() API.   There are about 6 different assistive +technology (AT) sounds built into windows, their implementation is +plumbed fairly deep inside the win32k.sys driver.  + +But why does that matter?  Well it turns out that many enterprises (both +governments and corporations) have requirements that prevent them from +purchasing equipment that lacks accessible technologies and that meant +that you couldn’t sell computers that didn’t have beep hardware to those +enterprises. + +  + +This issue was first noticed when Microsoft was developing the first +64bit version of WIndows.  Because the original 64bit windows was +intended for servers, the hardware requirements for 64bit machines +didn’t include support for an 8254 (apparently the AT requirements are +relaxed on servers).  But when we started building a client 64bit OS, we +had a problem – client OS’s had to support AT so we needed to bring the +beep back even on machines that didn’t have beep hardware. + +For Windows XP this was solved with some custom code in winlogon which +worked but had some unexpected complications (none of which are relevant +to this discussion).  For Windows Vista, I redesigned the mechanism to +move the accessibility beep logic to a new “user mode system sounds +agent”.  + +Because the only machines with this problem were 64bit machines, this +functionality was restricted to 64bit versions of Windows.  + +That in turn meant that PC manufacturers still had to include support +for the 8254 hardware – after all if the user chose to buy the machine +with a 32bit operating system on it they might want to use the AT +functionality. + +For Windows 7, we resolved the issue completely – we moved all the +functionality that used to be contained in Beep.Sys into the user mode +system sounds agent – now when you call the Beep() API instead of +manipulating the 8254 chip the call is re-routed into a user mode agent +which actually plays the sounds. + +  + +There was another benefit associated with this plan: Remember above when +I mentioned that the 8254 output line was tied to a dedicated input on +the sound card?  Because of this input to the sound card, the sound +hardware needed to stay powered on at full power all the time because +the system couldn’t know when an application might call Beep and thus +activate the 8254 (there’s no connection between the 8254 and the power +management infrastructure so the system can’t power on the sound +hardware when someone programs the 3rd timer on the 8254).  By +redirecting the Beep calls through the system audio hardware the system +was able to put the sound hardware to sleep until it was needed. + +  + +This redirection also had had a couple of unexpected benefits.  For +instance when you accidentally type (or grep) through a file containing +0x07 characters in it (like a .obj file) you can finally turn off the +annoying noise – since the beeps are played through the PC speakers, the +PC mute key works to shut them up.  It also means that you can now +control the volume of the beeps.  + +There were also some unexpected consequences.  The biggest was that +people started noticing when applications called Beep().  They had +placed their PCs far enough away (or there was enough ambient noise) +that they had never noticed when their PC was beeping at them until the +sounds started coming out their speakers. + +  + +  + +\[1\] Thus providing me with an justification to keep my old Intel +component data catalogs from back in the 1980s. diff --git a/_stories/2010/8891009.md b/_stories/2010/8891009.md index 788865b..e7b4123 100644 --- a/_stories/2010/8891009.md +++ b/_stories/2010/8891009.md @@ -19,7 +19,364 @@ _tags: objectID: '8891009' --- -[Source](https://a16z.com/author/ben-horowitz//why_we_prefer_founding_ceos "Permalink to ") +> “You’re just a rent-a-rapper, your rhymes are minute-maid +> I’ll be here when it fade to watch you flip like a renegade” +> —Rakim, [Follow the +> Leader](http://genius.com/Rakim-follow-the-leader-lyrics) +When my partner Marc wrote his [post describing our +firm](http://blog.pmarca.com/2009/07/introducing-our-new-venture-capital-firm-andreessen-horowitz.html), +the most controversial component of our investment strategy was our +preference for founding CEOs. The conventional wisdom says a startup CEO +should make way for a professional CEO once the company has achieved +product-market fit. In this post, I describe why we prefer to fund +companies whose founder will run the company as its +CEO. +## The macro reason: that’s the way most of the great technology companies have been built +At Andreessen Horowitz, our primary goal is to invest in the great +technology franchises. As we looked at the history of great technology +companies, we discovered that founders ran an overwhelming majority of +them for a very long time, including: + + - Acer—Stan Shih + - Adobe—John Warnock + - Amazon – Jeff Bezos + - AMD—Jerry Sanders III + - Apple – Steve Jobs + - DEC—Ken Olsen + - Dell—Michael Dell + - EA—Trip Hawkins + - EDS —Ross Perot + - Hewlett-Packard—Dave Packard + - IBM—Thomas Watson, Sr. (\*) + - Intel—Andy Grove (\*) + - Intuit—Scott Cook + - Microsoft —Bill Gates + - Motorola—Paul Galvin + - nVidia—Jen-Hsun Huang + - Oracle—Larry Ellison + - Peoplesoft—Dave Duffield + - Salesforce.com—Marc Benioff + - Seagate—Al Shugart + - Siebel—Tom Siebel + - Sony—Akio Morita + - Sun—Scott McNeely + - VMware—Diane Greene + +(\*) While not technically cofounders, Andy Grove and Thomas Watson, Sr. +were the driving force behind Intel and IBM, respectively.  Andy Grove +was Intel’s third employee (after the two cofounders Robert Noyce and +Gordon E. Moore).  Thomas Watson, Sr. joined as a General Manager of the +Computing Tabulating Recording Company, but renamed the company +International Business Machines and turned it into the IBM we recognize +today. + +In addition, founders run today’s most promising new companies such as +Zynga (Mark Pincus), Facebook (Mark Zuckerberg), Twitter (Ev Williams), +Workday (Dave Duffield and Aneel Bhusri) and Fusion-io (David Flynn). + +Two more quick data points before I move on to explain why this happens. + +First, the University of Pennsylvania’s Wharton School of Business just +published an [analysis of recent exits for high technology +companies](http://opim.wharton.upenn.edu/enabletech/2010/04/28/ugc-founding-vs-professional-ceo-performance-analysis/) +such as BlackBoard, BladeLogic, Concur, Danger, Liveperson, LogMeIn, and +Netsuite. Looking across these nearly 50 companies, the study finds that +founding CEOs consistently beat the professional CEOs on a broad range +of metrics ranging from capital efficiency (amount of funding raised), +time to exit, exit valuations, and return on investment. + +Second, for folks keeping score at home, this phenomenon appears to +extend beyond high-technology companies. Felix Salmon, for +instance,[points out that Fortune’s editorial staff considered twelve +other +candidates](http://blogs.reuters.com/felix-salmon/2009/11/05/ceos-founders-beat-out-managers/) +including Warren Buffett, Carlos Slim, and Martha Stewart before naming +Steve Jobs [the best CEO of the +decade](http://www.tuaw.com/2009/11/05/forbes-names-jobs-ceo-of-the-decade/) +in November 2009. Salmon points out that “not a single one of the 12 +\[candidates\] is a CEO who was hired to run a company by its board of +directors.” + +There are certainly exceptions to this rule, most notably Google and +Cisco (I will address both exceptions later in this post), but the +evidence is one-sided and overwhelming. + +## The underlying reasons + +From a pattern matching perspective, it makes sense that we’d prefer +founding CEOs, but as I said in an earlier post, pattern matching is not +knowledge. So, why are great technology companies so often run by their +founders? And why do professional CEOs sometimes succeed? + +### The innovation business + +The technology business is fundamentally the innovation business. +Etymologically, the word technology means “a better way of doing +things.” As a result, innovation is the core competency for technology +companies. Technology companies are born because they create a better +way of doing things. Eventually, someone else will come up with a better +way. Therefore, if a technology company ceases to innovate, it will die. + +These innovations are product cycles. Professional CEOs are effective at +**maximizing, but not finding,** **product cycles**. Conversely, +founding CEOs are excellent at **finding, but not maximizing,** +**product cycles**. Our experience shows—and the data supports—that +teaching a founding CEO how to maximize the product cycle is easier than +teaching the professional CEO how to find the new product cycle. + +The reason is that innovation is the most difficult core competency to +build in any business. Innovation is almost insane by definition: most +people view any truly innovative idea as stupid, because if it was a +good idea, somebody would have already done it. So, the innovator is +guaranteed to have more natural initial detractors than followers. + +Steve Jobs’ return to Apple provides an excellent example. At the time +Jobs regained control of Apple, the conventional wisdom said that Apple +was getting killed by “PC Economics” and had to separate the operating +system from the hardware. Specifically, Apple couldn’t compete with +Microsoft unless it became more horizontal and let commodity hardware +manufactures compete while Apple focused exclusively on the OS. The +professional CEO who preceded Jobs (Gil Amelio) took the conventional +wisdom to heart. He set out to create an ecosystem of Mac cloners who +would provide the commodity hardware complement to Apple’s famous OS. + +When Jobs came in and reversed those decisions, most industry analysts +thought Jobs was insane. Jobs not only killed all the commodity hardware +and the horizontal strategy; he went radically vertical. In addition to +the basic hardware and operating system, he added applications (iLife, +iWork) and peripherals (like the iPod). He even added retail stores. + +Today, people would let Steve Jobs make such a radical turn at nearly +any company because of the outcome he’s achieved at Apple. But remember +that when Jobs returned to Apple in 1996, he was doing so as the +co-founder and CEO of NeXT computer, a marginal computer workstation +company which Apple purchased for less than $500M. Let’s just say he +didn’t have the benefit of the doubt. What he **did** have: the +founder’s courage to innovate despite the +doubters. + +### Innovator’s requirements – what does it take to find the product cycle? + +So where did Jobs get this “founders courage” and what is it? In +addition to general brilliance, we see three key ingredients to being a +great innovator: + +1\. Comprehensive knowledge + +2\. Moral authority + +3\. Total commitment to the long-term + +Great founding CEOs tend to have all three and professional CEOs often +lack them. Here’s why. + +### Comprehensive knowledge + +To create the original innovation to start a company, founders must +exhaustively understand the technology required, the likely competitors +(past, present, and future), and the market in all its variations and +segmentations.  This knowledge becomes the foundation on top of which a +gigantic knowledge pyramid gets built which includes: + +Knowledge of every employee who gets hired and why + +Knowledge of every product and technology decision that gets made + +Knowledge of all customer data and feedback generated from day one + +Knowledge of exactly what’s strong and weak about the code base + +Knowledge of exactly what’s strong and weak about the organization + +This pyramid of knowledge enables new, unique innovative thinking. This +knowledge is nearly impossible to replicate. Without it, thoughtful +people lack the courage to bet the company on entirely new directions. + +In retrospect, it seems totally natural that Larry Ellison transformed +Software Development Labs from a consulting business into a software +company called Oracle. But would a professional CEO have understood +enough about the team, the market and the competition to make such a +radical change? + +### Moral authority + +Often, true innovation requires throwing out many of the foundational +assumptions of the company. If the company is significant, doing so may +be extremely difficult for the professional CEO. The company’s core +belief system is often entangled in those assumptions. Since the +founding CEO made the assumptions in the first place, it is much easier +for her. An excellent example of existing, invalid assumptions +paralyzing a whole set of companies recently played out in the music +industry. + +The music business has been continuously disrupted and revolutionized by +the underlying technology since the outset. In fact, it’s still widely +referred to as the “record industry,” because the entire business was +created by the invention of the vinyl record. For the first few decades +of the industry, songs were never longer than 3 minutes due to a +technological limitation (the record would skip if the grooves were too +thin). The album itself is a construct that originated with the total +number of songs one could fit on a 33 1/3 Revolutions Per Minute (RPM) +vinyl record. In the 80s, the invention of the CD completely revitalized +the industry and led to (literally) record-breaking sales. + +Despite this dynamic history, modern record company executives badly +missed the most sweeping technical innovation—the Internet.  How was +that possible? By the time the Internet arrived, all of the original +founders of the record companies had been bought out, retired, or died. +The new, professional CEOs were unwilling to let go of the most basic +assumptions driving the cost structure of their businesses. +Specifically, they wouldn’t give up their stranglehold on distribution +and the value they placed on owning the recording. + +They were proficient at running the current business, but lacked both +the courage and the moral authority to jeopardize the old business model +by embracing the new technology. The transition would have been far +easier if these executives running the companies had invented the old +models. The founders of the music industry likely would have ditched old +assumptions, because they would have been nuts to do continue believing +an assumption that no longer makes sense. + +Conversely, Netflix, run by cofounder Reed Hastings, provides an +excellent counter-example. Faced with a similar transition (from +distribution of the physical recording to electronic distribution of the +bits), Netflix let go of its old assumption that customers wanted DVDs +mailed to them, invested in innovation and produced a series of +brilliant new offerings (streaming video to Xbox 360, Sony Playstation +3, Tivo, Wii, connected DVD players, and a host of  devices) that are +enabling them to transition smoothly. Hastings wasn’t married to the old +distribution model precisely because he invented it. + +### Total commitment to the long term + +Founding CEOs naturally take a long view of their companies. The company +is their life’s work. Their emotional commitment exceeds their equity +stake. Their goal from the start is to build something significant. They +instinctively know that big product cycles come from investment and that +even the biggest product cycles will eventually fade. Professional CEOs, +on the other hand, tend to be driven by relatively shorter-term goals. +They are paid in terms of stock options that vest over 4 years and cash +bonuses for quarterly and yearly performance. + +Investments in innovation do not pay out in the current quarter. +Typically, they don’t even pay out in the current year. If you care +about your bonus this year, you are directly incented not to make +investments in new inventions as you will incur the expense, but reap no +profits. + +Any serious innovation requires a heavy investment. Beyond the up-front +cash, costs may include lower growth, bad publicity, and internal +grumbling as existing features atrophy. Recently, we’ve seen Facebook’s +founding CEO Mark Zuckerberg make a series long-term bets. He’s +radically revamped critical features such as the feed used by hundreds +of millions of people. He’s made bold changes to key policies such as +privacy and platform. For years, he’s avoided taking any revenue +inconsistent with optimizing the user experience. + +By committing to the long-term, he put himself under tremendous pressure +in the short-term. The press broadly questioned his business acumen and +Facebook’s ability to generate any meaningful revenue. Bottom feeding +publications such as Valley Wag even went so far as to call for his +resignation. Employees leaked to the press that they thought he should +sell the company, and some quit due to temporary declines in page views +and user growth. We now know these critics were wrong and Zuckerberg was +right, but would a professional CEO have taken these risks and endured +such vicious attacks for unseen, long-term benefits? + +In theory, any professional CEO can rise to the challenge of being a +great long-term CEO, but they have to commit to innovation and adopt the +three characteristics above. We’ll now take a look at two professional +CEOs who have done just that. + +## Understanding the exceptions – why do professional CEOs succeed? + +Two spectacular exceptions to the founding CEO rule are John Morgridge +at Cisco and Eric Schmidt at Google. Let’s look at how these two +overcame the issues illustrated above and massively +triumphed. + +### Eric Schmidt–Getting the goodness of the founders and combining it with the know-how of the professional + +Eric Schmidt has been a spectacular success at Google. He hasn’t just +maximized the original product cycle (which was built around +search—although he’s done a brilliant job of accomplishing that feat), +but he has also overseen the creation of important new product cycles +such as Android and Google Apps. Interestingly, he did so by teaming +with the founders and gaining the benefits of their knowledge, moral +authority, and long-term vision. This may seem like an obvious strategy, +but shared leadership and control are incredibly difficult to achieve. +Doing so involves intense communication, deep humility, and some hard +compromises. Almost nobody ever pulls it off. And that’s why Eric +Schmidt is such an important exception. + +### John Morgridge—All by himself + +John Morgidge is another spectacular counter-example of the non-founding +CEO building a tech powerhouse. John took over as the company’s second +CEO in 1988, a role he held until he became chairman in 1995. With John +as CEO, Cisco grew from $5m to $1b in revenue and from 34 to 2,250 +employees. He also took the company public in 1990. + +How did he do it? In speaking to many Cisco employees over many years +and observing the dynamic, innovative product and M\&A strategy that +enabled them to defeat fierce competitors such as Wellfleet and +Synoptics, I believe John Morgridge may have been the greatest +professional CEO in the history of the high tech industry. He worked +tirelessly to develop the characteristics outlined above as well or +better than any founder. He was smart, knowledgeable, tough, innovative, +courageous, and, unlike most professionals, legendarily cheap. He once +said that if you can’t see your car from your hotel room, then you are +paying too much.  As a result of this magical combination of qualities, +he achieved complete moral authority. He is proof positive that a +professional CEO can build a great technology company. At the same time, +he is the ultimate exception. + +In the best case, you may find the next John Morgidge. If you do, hire +him\! Otherwise, here is our general rule of investing. If you hire a +professional CEO into a company that has found a large product cycle, +the professional will be able to maximize that product cycle, but likely +won’t find the next one. If you hire a professional to find the product +cycle, get the jelly, because your company will soon be toast. + +## Are all founders CEO material? + +The simple answer is “no.” Being CEO requires a tremendous amount of +skill. The larger the company becomes, the more skill that’s required. +Steve Blank does an excellent job of illustrating many of these required +skills in his [outstanding Scalable Start-up +series](http://steveblank.com/). We almost never meet a founder who has +these skills at the time they found the company. + +Therefore, the founder must learn the skills required to run the company +on-the-job. Doing so is often a miserable, debilitating experience. I +can attest first hand to the frustration and exhaustion associated with +being responsible for hundreds of employees while learning how to do the +job. I constantly made mistakes a more experienced CEO wouldn’t make. +These mistakes can be costly in terms of money and jobs. + +So, why would any founder want to learn to be CEO on-the-job? Because +doing so is the most sure fire way to build a great company. + +How does one know if they have what it takes to be the long-term CEO of +the company? In our experience, there are two required characteristics: + +1\. Leadership as described in my early post [Notes on +Leadership](http://bhorowitz.com/2010/03/14/notes-on-leadership-be-like-steve-jobs-and-bill-campbell-and-andy-grove/). + +2\. Desire—not necessarily the desire to be CEO, but the burning, +irrepressible desire to build something great and the willingness to do +whatever it takes to get there. + +If the founder has these characteristics, then we would encourage them +to give it a try. If they fail, we will help them look for the next Eric +Schmidt or John Morgridge. + +## Footnote + +Special thanks to Yujin Chung +([LinkedIn](http://www.linkedin.com/in/yujinchung), +[Twitter](http://www.twitter.com/enderdoon)), MBA ’10 at the Wharton +School, for his analytical and research support. diff --git a/_stories/2010/9131732.md b/_stories/2010/9131732.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..03441e5 --- /dev/null +++ b/_stories/2010/9131732.md @@ -0,0 +1,40 @@ +--- +created_at: '2015-03-02T13:33:50.000Z' +title: Structure-based ASCII Art (2010) +url: http://www.cse.cuhk.edu.hk/~ttwong/papers/asciiart/asciiart.html +author: noelwelsh +points: 45 +story_text: '' +comment_text: +num_comments: 10 +story_id: +story_title: +story_url: +parent_id: +created_at_i: 1425303230 +_tags: +- story +- author_noelwelsh +- story_9131732 +objectID: '9131732' + +--- +The wide availability and popularity of text-based communication +channels encourage the usage of ASCII art in representing images. +Existing tone-based ASCII art generation methods lead to halftone-like +results and require high text resolution for display, as higher text +resolution offers more tone variety. This paper presents a novel method +to generate *structure-based* ASCII art that is currently mostly created +by hand. It approximates the major line structure of the reference image +content with the shape of characters. Representing the unlimited image +content with the extremely limited shapes and restrictive placement of +characters makes this problem challenging. Most existing shape +similarity metrics either fail to address the misalignment in real-world +scenarios, or are unable to account for the differences in position, +orientation and scaling. Our key contribution is a novel +*alignment-insensitive shape similarity (AISS) metric* that tolerates +misalignment of shapes while accounting for the differences in position, +orientation and scaling. Together with the constrained deformation +approach, we formulate the ASCII art generation as an optimization that +minimizes *shape dissimilarity* and *deformation*. Convincing results +and user study are shown to demonstrate its effectiveness. diff --git a/_stories/2010/9185196.md b/_stories/2010/9185196.md index db17dda..eebc579 100644 --- a/_stories/2010/9185196.md +++ b/_stories/2010/9185196.md @@ -19,7 +19,477 @@ _tags: objectID: '9185196' --- -[Source](https://hbr.org/2010/07/how-will-you-measure-your-life "Permalink to ") +And just as a focus on marginal costs can cause bad corporate decisions, +it can lead people astray. The marginal cost of doing something wrong +“just this once” always seems alluringly low. You don’t see the end +result to which that path leads. The key is to define what you stand for +and draw the line in a safe place. +The principles of resource allocation can help people attain happiness +at home. If not managed masterfully, what emerges from a firm’s resource +allocation process can be very different from the strategy management +intended to follow. That’s true in life too: If you’re not guided by a +clear sense of purpose, you’re likely to fritter away your time and +energy on obtaining the most tangible, short-term signs of achievement, +not what’s really important to you. +The answer to the first question comes from Frederick Herzberg’s +assertion that the most powerful motivator isn’t money; it’s the +opportunity to learn, grow in responsibilities, contribute, and be +recognized. That’s why management, if practiced well, can be the noblest +of occupations; no others offer as many ways to help people find those +opportunities. It isn’t about buying, selling, and investing in +companies, as many think. +Harvard Business School’s Christensen teaches aspiring MBAs how to apply +management and innovation theories to build stronger companies. But he +also believes that these models can help people lead better lives. In +this article, he explains how, exploring questions everyone needs to +ask: How can I be happy in my career? How can I be sure that my +relationship with my family is an enduring source of happiness? And how +can I live my life with integrity? + +Editor’s Note: When the members of the class of 2010 entered business +school, the economy was strong and their post-graduation ambitions could +be limitless. Just a few weeks later, the economy went into a tailspin. +They’ve spent the past two years recalibrating their worldview and their +definition of success. + +The students seem highly aware of how the world has changed (as the +sampling of views in this article shows). In the spring, Harvard +Business School’s graduating class asked HBS professor Clay Christensen +to address them—but not on how to apply his principles and thinking to +their post-HBS careers. The students wanted to know how to apply them to +their personal lives. He shared with them a set of guidelines that have +helped him find meaning in his own life. Though Christensen’s thinking +comes from his deep religious faith, we believe that these are +strategies anyone can use. And so we asked him to share them with the +readers of HBR. + +Before I published [The Innovator’s +Dilemma](/product/innovator-s-dilemma-when-new-technologies-cause-gr/an/5851-HBK-ENG), +I got a call from Andrew Grove, then the chairman of Intel. He had read +one of my early papers about disruptive technology, and he asked if I +could talk to his direct reports and explain my research and what it +implied for Intel. Excited, I flew to Silicon Valley and showed up at +the appointed time, only to have Grove say, “Look, stuff has happened. +We have only 10 minutes for you. Tell us what your model of disruption +means for Intel.” I said that I couldn’t—that I needed a full 30 minutes +to explain the model, because only with it as context would any comments +about Intel make sense. Ten minutes into my explanation, Grove +interrupted: “Look, I’ve got your model. Just tell us what it means for +Intel.” + +I insisted that I needed 10 more minutes to describe how the process of +disruption had worked its way through a very different industry, steel, +so that he and his team could understand how disruption worked. I told +the story of how Nucor and other steel minimills had begun by attacking +the lowest end of the market—steel reinforcing bars, or rebar—and later +moved up toward the high end, undercutting the traditional steel mills. + +When I finished the minimill story, Grove said, “OK, I get it. What it +means for Intel is…,” and then went on to articulate what would become +the company’s strategy for going to the bottom of the market to launch +the Celeron processor. + +I’ve thought about that a million times since. If I had been suckered +into telling Andy Grove what he should think about the microprocessor +business, I’d have been killed. But instead of telling him what to +think, I taught him how to think—and then he reached what I felt was the +correct decision on his own. + +That experience had a profound influence on me. When people ask what I +think they should do, I rarely answer their question directly. Instead, +I run the question aloud through one of my models. I’ll describe how the +process in the model worked its way through an industry quite different +from their own. And then, more often than not, they’ll say, “OK, I get +it.” And they’ll answer their own question more insightfully than I +could have. + +My class at HBS is structured to help my students understand what good +management theory is and how it is built. To that backbone I attach +different models or theories that help students think about the various +dimensions of a general manager’s job in stimulating innovation and +growth. In each session we look at one company through the lenses of +those theories—using them to explain how the company got into its +situation and to examine what managerial actions will yield the needed +results. + +On the last day of class, I ask my students to turn those theoretical +lenses on themselves, to find cogent answers to three questions: First, +how can I be sure that I’ll be happy in my career? Second, how can I be +sure that my relationships with my spouse and my family become an +enduring source of happiness? Third, how can I be sure I’ll stay out of +jail? Though the last question sounds lighthearted, it’s not. Two of the +32 people in my Rhodes scholar class spent time in jail. Jeff Skilling +of Enron fame was a classmate of mine at HBS. These were good guys—but +something in their lives sent them off in the wrong direction. + +#### The Class of 2010 + +“I came to business school knowing exactly what I wanted to do—and I’m +leaving choosing the exact opposite. I’ve worked in the private sector +all my life, because everyone always told me that’s where smart people +are. But I’ve decided to try government and see if I can find more +meaning there. + +“I used to think that industry was very safe. The recession has shown us +that nothing is safe.” + +**Ruhana Hafiz,**Harvard Business School, Class of 2010 + +**Her Plans:**To join the FBI as a special adviser (a management track +position) + +“You could see a shift happening at HBS. Money used to be number one in +the job search. When you make a ton of money, you want more of it. +Ironic thing. You start to forget what the drivers of happiness are and +what things are really important. A lot of people on campus see money +differently now. They think, ‘What’s the minimum I need to have, and +what else drives my life?’ instead of ‘What’s the place where I can get +the maximum of both?’” + +**Patrick Chun,**Harvard Business School, Class of 2010 + +**His Plans:**To join Bain Capital + +“The financial crisis helped me realize that you have to do what you +really love in life. My current vision of success is based on the impact +I can have, the experiences I can gain, and the happiness I can find +personally, much more so than the pursuit of money or prestige. My main +motivations are (1) to be with my family and people I care about; (2) to +do something fun, exciting, and impactful; and (3) to pursue a long-term +career in entrepreneurship, where I can build companies that change the +way the world works.” + +**Matt Salzberg,**Harvard Business School, Class of 2010 + +**His Plans:**To work for Bessemer Venture Partners + +“Because I’m returning to McKinsey, it probably seems like not all that +much has changed for me. But while I was at HBS, I decided to do the +dual degree at the Kennedy School. With the elections in 2008 and the +economy looking shaky, it seemed more compelling for me to get a better +understanding of the public and nonprofit sectors. In a way, that drove +my return to McKinsey, where I’ll have the ability to explore private, +public, and nonprofit sectors. + +“The recession has made us step back and take stock of how lucky we are. +The crisis to us is ‘Are we going to have a job by April?’ Crisis to a +lot of people is ‘Are we going to stay in our home?’” + +**John Coleman,**Harvard Business School, Class of 2010 + +**His Plans:**To return to McKinsey & Company + +As the students discuss the answers to these questions, I open my own +life to them as a case study of sorts, to illustrate how they can use +the theories from our course to guide their life decisions. + +One of the theories that gives great insight on the first question—how +to be sure we find happiness in our careers—is from Frederick Herzberg, +who asserts that the powerful motivator in our lives isn’t money; it’s +the opportunity to learn, grow in responsibilities, contribute to +others, and be recognized for achievements. I tell the students about a +vision of sorts I had while I was running the company I founded before +becoming an academic. In my mind’s eye I saw one of my managers leave +for work one morning with a relatively strong level of self-esteem. Then +I pictured her driving home to her family 10 hours later, feeling +unappreciated, frustrated, underutilized, and demeaned. I imagined how +profoundly her lowered self-esteem affected the way she interacted with +her children. The vision in my mind then fast-forwarded to another day, +when she drove home with greater self-esteem—feeling that she had +learned a lot, been recognized for achieving valuable things, and played +a significant role in the success of some important initiatives. I then +imagined how positively that affected her as a spouse and a parent. My +conclusion: Management is the most noble of professions if it’s +practiced well. No other occupation offers as many ways to help others +learn and grow, take responsibility and be recognized for achievement, +and contribute to the success of a team. More and more MBA students come +to school thinking that a career in business means buying, selling, and +investing in companies. That’s unfortunate. Doing deals doesn’t yield +the deep rewards that come from building up people. + +I want students to leave my classroom knowing that. + +## Create a Strategy for Your Life + +A theory that is helpful in answering the second question—How can I +ensure that my relationship with my family proves to be an enduring +source of happiness?—concerns how strategy is defined and implemented. +Its primary insight is that a company’s strategy is determined by the +types of initiatives that management invests in. If a company’s resource +allocation process is not managed masterfully, what emerges from it can +be very different from what management intended. Because companies’ +decision-making systems are designed to steer investments to initiatives +that offer the most tangible and immediate returns, companies +shortchange investments in initiatives that are crucial to their +long-term strategies. + +Over the years I’ve watched the fates of my HBS classmates from 1979 +unfold; I’ve seen more and more of them come to reunions unhappy, +divorced, and alienated from their children. I can guarantee you that +not a single one of them graduated with the deliberate strategy of +getting divorced and raising children who would become estranged from +them. And yet a shocking number of them implemented that strategy. The +reason? They didn’t keep the purpose of their lives front and center as +they decided how to spend their time, talents, and energy. + +It’s quite startling that a significant fraction of the 900 students +that HBS draws each year from the world’s best have given little thought +to the purpose of their lives. I tell the students that HBS might be one +of their last chances to reflect deeply on that question. If they think +that they’ll have more time and energy to reflect later, they’re nuts, +because life only gets more demanding: You take on a mortgage; you’re +working 70 hours a week; you have a spouse and children. + +For me, having a clear purpose in my life has been essential. But it was +something I had to think long and hard about before I understood it. +When I was a Rhodes scholar, I was in a very demanding academic program, +trying to cram an extra year’s worth of work into my time at Oxford. I +decided to spend an hour every night reading, thinking, and praying +about why God put me on this earth. That was a very challenging +commitment to keep, because every hour I spent doing that, I wasn’t +studying applied econometrics. I was conflicted about whether I could +really afford to take that time away from my studies, but I stuck with +it—and ultimately figured out the purpose of my life. + +Doing deals doesn’t yield the deep rewards that come from building up +people. + +Had I instead spent that hour each day learning the latest techniques +for mastering the problems of autocorrelation in regression analysis, I +would have badly misspent my life. I apply the tools of econometrics a +few times a year, but I apply my knowledge of the purpose of my life +every day. It’s the single most useful thing I’ve ever learned. I +promise my students that if they take the time to figure out their life +purpose, they’ll look back on it as the most important thing they +discovered at HBS. If they don’t figure it out, they will just sail off +without a rudder and get buffeted in the very rough seas of life. +Clarity about their purpose will trump knowledge of activity-based +costing, balanced scorecards, core competence, disruptive innovation, +the four Ps, and the five forces. + +My purpose grew out of my religious faith, but faith isn’t the only +thing that gives people direction. For example, one of my former +students decided that his purpose was to bring honesty and economic +prosperity to his country and to raise children who were as capably +committed to this cause, and to each other, as he was. His purpose is +focused on family and others—as mine is. + +The choice and successful pursuit of a profession is but one tool for +achieving your purpose. But without a purpose, life can become hollow. + +## Allocate Your Resources + +Your decisions about allocating your personal time, energy, and talent +ultimately shape your life’s strategy. + +I have a bunch of “businesses” that compete for these resources: I’m +trying to have a rewarding relationship with my wife, raise great kids, +contribute to my community, succeed in my career, contribute to my +church, and so on. And I have exactly the same problem that a +corporation does. I have a limited amount of time and energy and talent. +How much do I devote to each of these pursuits? + +Allocation choices can make your life turn out to be very different from +what you intended. Sometimes that’s good: Opportunities that you never +planned for emerge. But if you misinvest your resources, the outcome can +be bad. As I think about my former classmates who inadvertently invested +for lives of hollow unhappiness, I can’t help believing that their +troubles relate right back to a short-term +perspective. + +#### Further Reading + +###### [Meeting the Challenge of Corporate Entrepreneurship](/2006/10/meeting-the-challenge-of-corporate-entrepreneurship/ar/1) + +Entrepreneurship + +Feature + +Three balancing acts to keep in mind while growing a new business. + + - [** Save](#) + - [** Share](#) + +When people who have a high need for achievement—and that includes all +Harvard Business School graduates—have an extra half hour of time or an +extra ounce of energy, they’ll unconsciously allocate it to activities +that yield the most tangible accomplishments. And our careers provide +the most concrete evidence that we’re moving forward. You ship a +product, finish a design, complete a presentation, close a sale, teach a +class, publish a paper, get paid, get promoted. In contrast, investing +time and energy in your relationship with your spouse and children +typically doesn’t offer that same immediate sense of achievement. Kids +misbehave every day. It’s really not until 20 years down the road that +you can put your hands on your hips and say, “I raised a good son or a +good daughter.” You can neglect your relationship with your spouse, and +on a day-to-day basis, it doesn’t seem as if things are deteriorating. +People who are driven to excel have this unconscious propensity to +underinvest in their families and overinvest in their careers—even +though intimate and loving relationships with their families are the +most powerful and enduring source of happiness. + +If you study the root causes of business disasters, over and over you’ll +find this predisposition toward endeavors that offer immediate +gratification. If you look at personal lives through that lens, you’ll +see the same stunning and sobering pattern: people allocating fewer and +fewer resources to the things they would have once said mattered most. + +## Create a Culture + +There’s an important model in our class called the Tools of Cooperation, +which basically says that being a visionary manager isn’t all it’s +cracked up to be. It’s one thing to see into the foggy future with +acuity and chart the course corrections that the company must make. But +it’s quite another to persuade employees who might not see the changes +ahead to line up and work cooperatively to take the company in that new +direction. Knowing what tools to wield to elicit the needed cooperation +is a critical managerial skill. + +The theory arrays these tools along two dimensions—the extent to which +members of the organization agree on what they want from their +participation in the enterprise, and the extent to which they agree on +what actions will produce the desired results. When there is little +agreement on both axes, you have to use “power tools”—coercion, threats, +punishment, and so on—to secure cooperation. Many companies start in +this quadrant, which is why the founding executive team must play such +an assertive role in defining what must be done and how. If employees’ +ways of working together to address those tasks succeed over and over, +consensus begins to form. MIT’s Edgar Schein has described this process +as the mechanism by which a culture is built. Ultimately, people don’t +even think about whether their way of doing things yields success. They +embrace priorities and follow procedures by instinct and assumption +rather than by explicit decision—which means that they’ve created a +culture. Culture, in compelling but unspoken ways, dictates the proven, +acceptable methods by which members of the group address recurrent +problems. And culture defines the priority given to different types of +problems. It can be a powerful management tool. + +In using this model to address the question, How can I be sure that my +family becomes an enduring source of happiness?, my students quickly see +that the simplest tools that parents can wield to elicit cooperation +from children are power tools. But there comes a point during the teen +years when power tools no longer work. At that point parents start +wishing that they had begun working with their children at a very young +age to build a culture at home in which children instinctively behave +respectfully toward one another, obey their parents, and choose the +right thing to do. Families have cultures, just as companies do. Those +cultures can be built consciously or evolve inadvertently. + +If you want your kids to have strong self-esteem and confidence that +they can solve hard problems, those qualities won’t magically +materialize in high school. You have to design them into your family’s +culture—and you have to think about this very early on. Like employees, +children build self-esteem by doing things that are hard and learning +what works. + +## Avoid the “Marginal Costs” Mistake + +We’re taught in finance and economics that in evaluating alternative +investments, we should ignore sunk and fixed costs, and instead base +decisions on the marginal costs and marginal revenues that each +alternative entails. We learn in our course that this doctrine biases +companies to leverage what they have put in place to succeed in the +past, instead of guiding them to create the capabilities they’ll need in +the future. If we knew the future would be exactly the same as the past, +that approach would be fine. But if the future’s different—and it almost +always is—then it’s the wrong thing to do. + +This theory addresses the third question I discuss with my students—how +to live a life of integrity (stay out of jail). Unconsciously, we often +employ the marginal cost doctrine in our personal lives when we choose +between right and wrong. A voice in our head says, “Look, I know that as +a general rule, most people shouldn’t do this. But in this particular +extenuating circumstance, just this once, it’s OK.” The marginal cost of +doing something wrong “just this once” always seems alluringly low. It +suckers you in, and you don’t ever look at where that path ultimately is +headed and at the full costs that the choice entails. Justification for +infidelity and dishonesty in all their manifestations lies in the +marginal cost economics of “just this once.” + +I’d like to share a story about how I came to understand the potential +damage of “just this once” in my own life. I played on the Oxford +University varsity basketball team. We worked our tails off and finished +the season undefeated. The guys on the team were the best friends I’ve +ever had in my life. We got to the British equivalent of the NCAA +tournament—and made it to the final four. It turned out the championship +game was scheduled to be played on a Sunday. I had made a personal +commitment to God at age 16 that I would never play ball on Sunday. So I +went to the coach and explained my problem. He was incredulous. My +teammates were, too, because I was the starting center. Every one of the +guys on the team came to me and said, “You’ve got to play. Can’t you +break the rule just this one time?” + +I’m a deeply religious man, so I went away and prayed about what I +should do. I got a very clear feeling that I shouldn’t break my +commitment—so I didn’t play in the championship game. + +In many ways that was a small decision—involving one of several thousand +Sundays in my life. In theory, surely I could have crossed over the line +just that one time and then not done it again. But looking back on it, +resisting the temptation whose logic was “In this extenuating +circumstance, just this once, it’s OK” has proven to be one of the most +important decisions of my life. Why? My life has been one unending +stream of extenuating circumstances. Had I crossed the line that one +time, I would have done it over and over in the years that followed. + +The lesson I learned from this is that it’s easier to hold to your +principles 100% of the time than it is to hold to them 98% of the time. +If you give in to “just this once,” based on a marginal cost analysis, +as some of my former classmates have done, you’ll regret where you end +up. You’ve got to define for yourself what you stand for and draw the +line in a safe place. + +## Remember the Importance of Humility + +I got this insight when I was asked to teach a class on humility at +Harvard College. I asked all the students to describe the most humble +person they knew. One characteristic of these humble people stood out: +They had a high level of self-esteem. They knew who they were, and they +felt good about who they were. We also decided that humility was defined +not by self-deprecating behavior or attitudes but by the esteem with +which you regard others. Good behavior flows naturally from that kind of +humility. For example, you would never steal from someone, because you +respect that person too much. You’d never lie to someone, either. + +It’s crucial to take a sense of humility into the world. By the time you +make it to a top graduate school, almost all your learning has come from +people who are smarter and more experienced than you: parents, teachers, +bosses. But once you’ve finished at Harvard Business School or any other +top academic institution, the vast majority of people you’ll interact +with on a day-to-day basis may not be smarter than you. And if your +attitude is that only smarter people have something to teach you, your +learning opportunities will be very limited. But if you have a humble +eagerness to learn something from everybody, your learning opportunities +will be unlimited. Generally, you can be humble only if you feel really +good about yourself—and you want to help those around you feel really +good about themselves, too. When we see people acting in an abusive, +arrogant, or demeaning manner toward others, their behavior almost +always is a symptom of their lack of self-esteem. They need to put +someone else down to feel good about themselves. + +## Choose the Right Yardstick + +This past year I was diagnosed with cancer and faced the possibility +that my life would end sooner than I’d planned. Thankfully, it now looks +as if I’ll be spared. But the experience has given me important insight +into my life. + +I have a pretty clear idea of how my ideas have generated enormous +revenue for companies that have used my research; I know I’ve had a +substantial impact. But as I’ve confronted this disease, it’s been +interesting to see how unimportant that impact is to me now. I’ve +concluded that the metric by which God will assess my life isn’t dollars +but the individual people whose lives I’ve touched. + +I think that’s the way it will work for us all. Don’t worry about the +level of individual prominence you have achieved; worry about the +individuals you have helped become better people. This is my final +recommendation: Think about the metric by which your life will be +judged, and make a resolution to live every day so that in the end, your +life will be judged a success. + +A version of this article appeared in the [July–August +2010](/archive-toc/BR1007) issue of Harvard Business Review. diff --git a/_stories/2010/9328327.md b/_stories/2010/9328327.md deleted file mode 100644 index 220258a..0000000 --- a/_stories/2010/9328327.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,25 +0,0 @@ ---- -created_at: '2015-04-06T14:51:07.000Z' -title: The Fastest VM Bytecode Interpreter (2010) -url: http://byteworm.com/2010/11/21/the-fastest-vm-bytecode-interpreter/ -author: wtbob -points: 70 -story_text: '' -comment_text: -num_comments: 15 -story_id: -story_title: -story_url: -parent_id: -created_at_i: 1428331867 -_tags: -- story -- author_wtbob -- story_9328327 -objectID: '9328327' - ---- -[Source](http://byteworm.com/2010/11/21/the-fastest-vm-bytecode-interpreter/ "Permalink to ") - - - diff --git a/_stories/2010/9352475.md b/_stories/2010/9352475.md index 6cd57bf..013559f 100644 --- a/_stories/2010/9352475.md +++ b/_stories/2010/9352475.md @@ -19,7 +19,187 @@ _tags: objectID: '9352475' --- -[Source](https://www.universetoday.com/62339/13-things-that-saved-apollo-13/ "Permalink to ") +On the night of April 13th, 1970, when the oxygen tank in +[Apollo](https://www.universetoday.com/101793/can-you-solve-this-apollo-1-spacesuit-mystery/) +13’s command module exploded, a 27-year-old engineer named Jerry +Woodfill sat at his console in the Mission Evaluation Room at Johnson +Space Center, monitoring the caution and warning system he helped create +for the Apollo spacecraft. +“It was 9:08 pm, and I looked at the console because it flickered a few +times and then I saw a master alarm come on,” Woodfill said, talking +from his office at JSC where he has worked for almost 45 years. +“Initially I thought something was wrong with the alarm system or the +instrumentation, but then I heard Jack Swigert in my headset: “Houston, +we’ve had a problem,” and then a few moments later, Jim Lovell said the +same thing.” +And so began the most perilous but eventually triumphant situation ever +encountered in human spaceflight. + +2010 is the 40th anniversary of Apollo 13, and Universe Today had the +chance to talk with Woodfill about his role in Apollo 13, a mission +which many believe should have ended fatally for astronauts Jim Lovell, +Fred Haise, and Jack Swigert. But it didn’t, and the mission has come to +be called a “successful failure.” +What things were responsible for that success – the overcoming of odds – +to rescue of the crew? + +Since Woodfill was there in the thick of the action, he has some ideas +on how to answer that question. But also, for the past 40 years he has +studied the Apollo13 mission in intricate detail, examining all the +various facets of the rescue by going through flight transcripts, +debriefs, and other documents, plus he’s talked to many other people who +worked during the mission. Fascinated by the turn of events and +individuals involved who turned failure into success, Woodfill has come +up with what he calls “13 Things That Saved Apollo 13.” + +Over the next few weeks, we’ll share Woodfill’s insights and discuss +each of those 13 turning points. What better way to celebrate the 40th +anniversary of Apollo 13\! + +But for today, besides giving our readers a preview of what is to come +the next 13 days, we’ll take this opportunity introduce you to Jerry +Woodfill. + +While attending Rice University on a basketball scholarship, Woodfill +was inspired by President John F. Kennedy’s famous “We Choose to go to +the Moon” speech delivered at Rice. Woodfill turned in his basketball +shoes and focused on his studies of electrical engineering, hoping to +become part of the space program. + +He came on board at NASA just in time to work on helping to build the +Apollo spacecraft. + +“I spent years working with contractors, engineers, flight controllers +and astronauts on the caution and warning system, or the alarm systems +for both the lunar lander as well as the command ship,” Woodfill said. + +He compared the alarm system to the lights that come on in an automobile +when the battery is low or the generator isn’t working. “We had to come +up with the best means of telling the astronauts they had a problem. We +had to make sure the alarm system worked right. ” + +Woodfill said that like most of the NASA team, he knew the workings of +the command ship and lander more intimately than any of his college +courses would have required, but that prepared him for any problems that +might arise. + +During the Apollo missions Woodfill worked in the Mission Evaluation +Room, which is NOT the Mission Operations Control Room (MOCR) or +“Mission Control” as it is known. MER was in a building adjacent to +the Mission Control building. Woodfill has written a [webpage detailing +the difference between the MER and +MOCR.](http://www.spaceacts.com/The_MER_Was_Not_the_MOCR.htm) + +“We were an unsung group,” Woodfill said. “We were there for mission +support. We weren’t flight controllers, but we were experts. For other +missions that were routine we didn’t play that big of a role, but for +the Apollo 13 mission, we did play a role.” + +Woodfill tends to downplay both his role and the importance of the MER. +“Comparing the 1970s era MER to the Mission Operations Control Room +would be akin to comparing the Queen Mary to a weekend boater’s cabin +cruiser,” he said. “Likewise, comparing my role in the rescue to Gene +Kranz and Glen Lunney’s would be more incomparable.” + +For a truly unbiased opinion, however, Chapter 11 of Jim Lovell’s book +[“Lost +Moon”](https://www.amazon.com/Apollo-13-Lost-Jim-Lovell/dp/0671534645)(renamed +Apollo 13 after the movie of the same name came out in 1995) details how +important the people in the Mission Evaluation Room were. Yes, the +“MER-men” were important\! + +While many may say the way Apollo 13 turned out was luck or a fortuitous +turn of events, Woodfill said he tends to lean towards providence. + +Over the next 13 days, perhaps we’ll find out\! + +And if Woodfill’s name is familiar to Universe Today readers, you may +recall how [he found the “lost” lesson plans of the teacher in space, +Christa +McAuliffe,](https://www.universetoday.com/18578/teacher-astronauts-legacy-uncovered-22-yearss-after-challenger-disaster/) +and brought them “back to life” so to speak, as they are now being used +by many teachers and Challenger Learning Centers. + +[Listen to an interview of Jerry Woodfill that I did for the 365 Days of +Astronomy +podcast.](http://365daysofastronomy.org/2010/04/13/april-13th-the-rescue-of-apollo-13/) + +**Additional Articles in the “13 Things That Saved Apollo 13” that have +now been posted:** + +Part 1: +[Timing](https://www.universetoday.com/62362/13-things-that-saved-apollo-13-part-1-timing/) + +[Part 2: The Hatch That Wouldn’t +Close](https://www.universetoday.com/62516/13-things-that-saved-apollo-13-part-2-the-hatch-that-wouldnt-close/) + +**[Part 3: Charlie Duke’s +Measles](https://www.universetoday.com/62576/13-things-that-saved-apollo-13-part-3-charlie-dukes-measles/)** + +**[Part 4: Using the LM for +Propulsion](https://www.universetoday.com/62663/13-things-that-saved-apollo-13-part-4-using-the-lm-for-propulsion/) +** + +**[Part 5: Unexplained Shutdown of the Saturn V Center +Engine +](https://www.universetoday.com/62672/13-things-that-saved-apollo-13-part-5-unexplained-shutdown-of-the-saturn-v-center-engine/)** + +[Part 6: Navigating by Earth’s +Terminator](https://www.universetoday.com/62763/13-things-that-saved-apollo-13-part-6-navigating-by-earths-terminator/) + +**[Part 7: The Apollo 1 +Fire](https://www.universetoday.com/63064/13-things-that-saved-apollo-13-part-7-the-apollo-1-fire/)** + +[Part 8: The Command Module Wasn’t +Severed](https://www.universetoday.com/63251/13-things-that-saved-apollo-13-part-8-the-command-module-wasnt-severed/) + +[Part 9: Position of the +Tanks](https://www.universetoday.com/63342/13-things-that-saved-apollo-13-part-9-position-of-the-tanks/) + +[Part 10: Duct +Tape](https://www.universetoday.com/63673/13-things-that-saved-apollo-13-part-10-duct-tape/) + +[Part 11: A Hollywood +Movie](https://www.universetoday.com/63721/13-things-that-saved-apollo-13-part-11-a-hollywood-movie/) + +[Part 12: Lunar Orbit +Rendezvous](https://www.universetoday.com/63758/13-things-that-saved-apollo-13-part-12-lunar-orbit-rendezvous/) + +[Part 13: The Mission Operations +Team](https://www.universetoday.com/63951/13-things-that-saved-apollo-13-part-13-the-mission-operations-team/) + +Also: + +[Your Questions about Apollo 13 Answered by Jerry Woodfill +(Part 1)](https://www.universetoday.com/63986/your-questions-about-apollo-13-answered-by-jerry-woodfill/) + +[More Reader Questions about Apollo 13 Answered by Jerry Woodfill +(part 2) +](https://www.universetoday.com/64020/more-of-your-apollo-13-questions-answered-by-jerry-woodfill/) +[Final Round of Apollo 13 Questions Answered by Jerry Woodfill +(part 3)](https://www.universetoday.com/64062/final-round-of-apollo-13-questions-answered-by-jerry-woodfill/) + +[Never Before Published Images of Apollo 13’s +Recovery](https://www.universetoday.com/62966/never-before-published-images-of-apollo-13-recovery/) + +![](https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/9b75419847df48aeb646b920a8a65c78?s=70&d=mm&r=g) +**By [Nancy +Atkinson](https://www.universetoday.com/author/nancy/ "Posts by Nancy Atkinson")** + -   [**](https://twitter.com/nancy_a)   +[**](https://www.facebook.com/nancy.atkinson4)   +[**](https://plus.google.com/102563035692347750787/)   +[**](https://www.linkedin.com/profile/view?id=18001127&trk=tab_pro) +[Nancy Atkinson](https://plus.google.com/102563035692347750787/) is +currently Universe Today's Contributing Editor. Previously she served as +UT's Senior Editor and lead writer, and has worked with [Astronomy +Cast](http://www.astronomycast.com/) and 365 Days of Astronomy. Nancy is +the author of the new book "[Incredible Stories from Space: A +Behind-the-Scenes Look at the Missions Changing Our View of the +Cosmos](https://www.amazon.com/Incredible-Stories-Space-Behind-Scenes/dp/1624143172)." +She is also a NASA/JPL Solar System Ambassador. + +** [Apollo 13](https://www.universetoday.com/tag/apollo-13/), [Jerry +Woodfill](https://www.universetoday.com/tag/jerry-woodfill/) diff --git a/_stories/2010/9720903.md b/_stories/2010/9720903.md index 2fad81a..e924c9b 100644 --- a/_stories/2010/9720903.md +++ b/_stories/2010/9720903.md @@ -19,113 +19,205 @@ _tags: objectID: '9720903' --- -[Source](http://www.nytimes.com/2010/02/28/magazine/28depression-t.html "Permalink to Depression’s Upside - The New York Times") +The persistence of this affliction — and the fact that it seemed to be +heritable — posed a serious challenge to Darwin’s new evolutionary +theory. If depression was a disorder, then evolution had made a tragic +mistake, allowing an illness that impedes reproduction — it leads people +to stop having sex and consider suicide — to spread throughout the +population. For some unknown reason, the modern human mind is tilted +toward sadness and, as we’ve now come to think, needs drugs to rescue +itself. -# Depression’s Upside - The New York Times +The alternative, of course, is that depression has a secret purpose and +our medical interventions are making a bad situation even worse. Like a +fever that helps the immune system fight off infection — increased body +temperature sends white blood cells into overdrive — depression might be +an unpleasant yet adaptive response to affliction. Maybe Darwin was +right. We suffer — we suffer terribly — but we don’t suffer in vain. -__NYTimes.com no longer supports Internet Explorer 9 or earlier. Please upgrade your browser. [LEARN MORE »][1] +**ANDY THOMSON IS** a psychiatrist at the University of Virginia. He has +a scruffy gray beard and steep cheekbones. When Thomson talks, he tends +to close his eyes, as if he needs to concentrate on what he’s saying. +But mostly what he does is listen: For the last 32 years, Thomson has +been tending to his private practice in Charlottesville. “I tend to get +the real hard cases,” Thomson told me recently. “A lot of the people I +see have already tried multiple treatments. They arrive without much +hope.” On one of the days I spent with Thomson earlier this winter, he +checked his phone constantly for e-mail updates. A patient of his on +“welfare watch” who was required to check in with him regularly had +not done so, and Thomson was worried. “I’ve never gotten used to +treating patients in mental pain,” he said. “Maybe it’s because every +story is unique. You see one case of iron-deficiency anemia, you’ve seen +them all. But the people who walk into my office are all hurting for a +different reason.” -__Sections __ Home __Search [Skip to content][2] [Skip to navigation][3] [View mobile version][4] +In the late 1990s, Thomson became interested in evolutionary psychology, +which tries to explain the features of the human mind in terms of +natural selection. The starting premise of the field is that the brain +has a vast evolutionary history, and that this history shapes human +nature. We are not a blank slate but a byproduct of imperfect +adaptations, stuck with a mind that was designed to meet the needs of +Pleistocene hunter-gatherers on the African savanna. While the specifics +of evolutionary psychology remain controversial — it’s never easy +proving theories about the distant past — its underlying assumption is +largely accepted by mainstream scientists. There is no longer much +debate over whether evolution sculptured the fleshy machine inside our +head. Instead, researchers have moved on to new questions like when and +how this sculpturing happened and which of our mental traits are +adaptations and which are accidents. -## [ The New York Times ][5] +In 2004, Thomson met Paul Andrews, an evolutionary psychologist at +Virginia Commonwealth University, who had long been interested in the +depression paradox — why a disorder that’s so costly is also so common. +Andrews has long dark brown hair and an aquiline nose. Before he begins +to talk, he often writes down an outline of his answer on scratch paper. +“This is a very delicate subject,” he says. “I don’t want to say +something reckless.” -###### [Magazine][6]|Depression's Upside +Andrews and Thomson struck up an extended conversation on the +evolutionary roots of depression. They began by focusing on the thought +process that defines the disorder, which is known as rumination. (The +verb is derived from the Latin word for “chewed over,” which describes +the act of digestion in cattle, in which they swallow, regurgitate and +then rechew their food.) In recent decades, psychiatry has come to see +rumination as a dangerous mental habit, because it leads people to +fixate on their flaws and problems, thus extending their negative moods. +Consider “The Depressed Person,” a short story by David Foster Wallace, +which chronicles a consciousness in the grip of the ruminative cycle. +(Wallace struggled with severe depression for years before committing +suicide in 2008.) The story is a long lament, a portrait of a mind +hating itself, filled with sentences like this: “What terms might be +used to describe such a solipsistic, self-consumed, bottomless emotional +vacuum and sponge as she now appeared to herself to be?” The dark +thoughts of “The Depressed Person” soon grow tedious and trying, but +that’s precisely Wallace’s point. There is nothing profound about +depressive rumination. There is just a recursive loop of woe. -__Search - -Subscribe Now Log In __0 __Settings - -__Close search - -## Site Search Navigation - -Search NYTimes.com - -__Clear this text input - -Go - -## Site Navigation - -## Site Mobile Navigation +The bleakness of this thought process helps explain why, according to +the Yale psychologist Susan Nolen-Hoeksema, people with “ruminative +tendencies” are more likely to become depressed. They’re also more +likely to become unnerved by stressful events: for instance, +Nolen-Hoeksema found that residents of San Francisco who self-identified +as ruminators showed significantly more depressive symptoms after the +1989 Loma Prieta earthquake. And then there are the cognitive deficits. +Because rumination hijacks the stream of consciousness — we become +exquisitely attentive to our pain — numerous studies have found that +depressed subjects struggle to think about anything else, just like +Wallace’s character. The end result is poor performance on tests for +memory and executive function, especially when the task involves lots of +information. (These deficits disappear when test subjects are first +distracted from their depression and thus better able to focus on the +exercise.) Such research has reinforced the view that rumination is a +useless kind of pessimism, a perfect waste of mental energy. Advertisement -Supported by +[Continue reading the main story](#story-continues-4) -### [Magazine][6] +That, at least, was the scientific consensus when Andrews and Thomson +began exploring the depression paradox. Their evolutionary perspective, +however — they see the mind as a fine-tuned machine that is not prone to +pointless programming bugs — led them to wonder if rumination had a +purpose. They started with the observation that rumination was often a +response to a specific psychological blow, like the death of a loved one +or the loss of a job. (Darwin was plunged into a debilitating grief +after his 10-year-old daughter, Annie, died following a bout of scarlet +fever.) Although the D.S.M. manual, the diagnostic bible for +psychiatrists, does not take such stressors into account when diagnosing +depressive disorder — the exception is grief caused by bereavement, as +long as the grief doesn’t last longer than two months — it’s clear that +the problems of everyday life play a huge role in causing mental +illness. “Of course, rumination is unpleasant,” Andrews says. “But it’s +usually a response to something real, a real setback. It didn’t seem +right that the brain would go haywire just when we need it most.” -# Depression's Upside +Imagine, for instance, a depression triggered by a bitter divorce. The +ruminations might take the form of regret (“I should have been a better +spouse”), recurring counterfactuals (“What if I hadn’t had my affair?”) +and anxiety about the future (“How will the kids deal with it? Can I +afford my alimony payments?”). While such thoughts reinforce the +depression — that’s why therapists try to stop the ruminative cycle — +Andrews and Thomson wondered if they might also help people prepare for +bachelorhood or allow people to learn from their mistakes. “I started +thinking about how, even if you are depressed for a few months, the +depression might be worth it if it helps you better understand social +relationships,” Andrews says. “Maybe you realize you need to be less +rigid or more loving. Those are insights that can come out of +depression, and they can be very valuable.” -By JONAH LEHRERFEB. 25, 2010 +This radical idea — the scientists were suggesting that depressive +disorder came with a net mental benefit — has a long intellectual +history. Aristotle was there first, stating in the fourth century B.C. +“that all men who have attained excellence in philosophy, in poetry, +in art and in politics, even Socrates and Plato, had a melancholic +habitus; indeed some suffered even from melancholic disease.” This +belief was revived during the Renaissance, leading Milton to exclaim, in +his poem “Il Penseroso”: “Hail divinest Melancholy/Whose saintly visage +is too bright/To hit the sense of human sight.” The Romantic poets took +the veneration of sadness to its logical extreme and described suffering +as a prerequisite for the literary life. As Keats wrote, “Do you not see +how necessary a World of Pains and troubles is to school an intelligence +and make it a soul?” -[Continue reading the main story][7] Share This Page +But Andrews and Thomson weren’t interested in ancient aphorisms or +poetic apologias. Their daunting challenge was to show how rumination +might lead to improved outcomes, especially when it comes to solving +life’s most difficult dilemmas. Their first speculations focused on the +core features of depression, like the inability of depressed subjects to +experience pleasure or their lack of interest in food, sex and social +interactions. According to Andrews and Thomson, these awful symptoms +came with a productive side effect, because they reduced the possibility +of becoming distracted from the pressing problem. -[Continue reading the main story][7] +The capacity for intense focus, they note, relies in large part on a +brain area called the left ventrolateral prefrontal cortex (VLPFC), +which is located a few inches behind the forehead. While this area has +been associated with a wide variety of mental talents, like conceptual +knowledge and verb conjugation, it seems to be especially important for +maintaining attention. Experiments show that neurons in the VLPFC must +fire continuously to keep us on task so that we don’t become sidetracked +by irrelevant information. Furthermore, deficits in the VLPFC have been +associated with attention-deficit disorder. -Photo +Several studies found an increase in brain activity (as measured +indirectly by blood flow) in the VLPFC of depressed patients. Most +recently, a paper to be published next month by neuroscientists in China +found a spike in “functional connectivity” between the lateral +prefrontal cortex and other parts of the brain in depressed patients, +with more severe depressions leading to more prefrontal activity. One +explanation for this finding is that the hyperactive VLPFC underlies +rumination, allowing people to stay focused on their problem. (Andrews +and Thomson argue that this relentless fixation also explains the +cognitive deficits of depressed subjects, as they are too busy thinking +about their real-life problems to bother with an artificial lab +exercise; their VLPFC can’t be bothered to care.) Human attention is a +scarce resource — the neural effects of depression make sure the +resource is efficiently allocated. -![][8] +But the reliance on the VLPFC doesn’t just lead us to fixate on our +depressing situation; it also leads to an extremely analytical style of +thinking. That’s because rumination is largely rooted in working memory, +a kind of mental scratchpad that allows us to “work” with all the +information stuck in consciousness. When people rely on working memory — +and it doesn’t matter if they’re doing long division or contemplating a +relationship gone wrong — they tend to think in a more deliberate +fashion, breaking down their complex problems into their simpler parts. -Credit Ben Weeks - -**The Victorians had many names for depression, **and [Charles Darwin][9] used them all. There were his "fits" brought on by "excitements," "flurries" leading to an "uncomfortable palpitation of the heart" and "air fatigues" that triggered his "head symptoms." In one particularly pitiful letter, written to a specialist in "psychological medicine," he confessed to "extreme spasmodic daily and nightly flatulence" and "hysterical crying" whenever Emma, his devoted wife, left him alone. - -While there has been endless speculation about Darwin's mysterious ailment — his symptoms have been attributed to everything from lactose intolerance to Chagas disease — Darwin himself was most troubled by his recurring mental problems. His depression left him "not able to do anything one day out of three," choking on his "bitter mortification." He despaired of the weakness of mind that ran in his family. "The 'race is for the strong,' " Darwin wrote. "I shall probably do little more but be content to admire the strides others made in Science." - -Darwin, of course, was wrong; his recurring fits didn't prevent him from succeeding in science. Instead, the pain may actually have accelerated the pace of his research, allowing him to withdraw from the world and concentrate entirely on his work. His letters are filled with references to the salvation of study, which allowed him to temporarily escape his gloomy moods. "Work is the only thing which makes life endurable to me," Darwin wrote and later remarked that it was his "sole enjoyment in life." - -For Darwin, depression was a clarifying force, focusing the mind on its most essential problems. In his autobiography, he speculated on the purpose of such misery; his evolutionary theory was shadowed by his own life story. "Pain or suffering of any kind," he wrote, "if long continued, causes depression and lessens the power of action, yet it is well adapted to make a creature guard itself against any great or sudden evil." And so sorrow was explained away, because pleasure was not enough. Sometimes, Darwin wrote, it is the sadness that informs as it "leads an animal to pursue that course of action which is most beneficial." The darkness was a kind of light. - -Advertisement - -[Continue reading the main story][7] - -The mystery of depression is not that it exists — the mind, like the flesh, is prone to malfunction. Instead, the paradox of depression has long been its prevalence. While most mental illnesses are extremely rare — schizophrenia, for example, is seen in less than 1 percent of the population — depression is everywhere, as inescapable as the common cold. Every year, approximately 7 percent of us will be afflicted to some degree by the awful mental state that William Styron described as a "gray drizzle of horror . . . a storm of murk." Obsessed with our pain, we will retreat from everything. We will stop eating, unless we start eating too much. Sex will lose its appeal; sleep will become a frustrating pursuit. We will always be tired, even though we will do less and less. We will think a lot about death. - -[Continue reading the main story][10] - -Advertisement - -[Continue reading the main story][11] - -The persistence of this affliction — and the fact that it seemed to be heritable — posed a serious challenge to Darwin's new evolutionary theory. If depression was a disorder, then evolution had made a tragic mistake, allowing an illness that impedes reproduction — it leads people to stop having sex and consider suicide — to spread throughout the population. For some unknown reason, the modern human mind is tilted toward sadness and, as we've now come to think, needs drugs to rescue itself. - -The alternative, of course, is that depression has a secret purpose and our medical interventions are making a bad situation even worse. Like a fever that helps the immune system fight off infection — increased body temperature sends white blood cells into overdrive — depression might be an unpleasant yet adaptive response to affliction. Maybe Darwin was right. We suffer — we suffer terribly — but we don't suffer in vain. - -**ANDY THOMSON IS** a psychiatrist at the University of Virginia. He has a scruffy gray beard and steep cheekbones. When Thomson talks, he tends to close his eyes, as if he needs to concentrate on what he's saying. But mostly what he does is listen: For the last 32 years, Thomson has been tending to his private practice in Charlottesville. "I tend to get the real hard cases," Thomson told me recently. "A lot of the people I see have already tried multiple treatments. They arrive without much hope." On one of the days I spent with Thomson earlier this winter, he checked his phone constantly for e-mail updates. A patient of his on "welfare watch" who was required to check in with him regularly had not done so, and Thomson was worried. "I've never gotten used to treating patients in mental pain," he said. "Maybe it's because every story is unique. You see one case of iron-deficiency anemia, you've seen them all. But the people who walk into my office are all hurting for a different reason." - -In the late 1990s, Thomson became interested in evolutionary psychology, which tries to explain the features of the human mind in terms of natural selection. The starting premise of the field is that the brain has a vast evolutionary history, and that this history shapes human nature. We are not a blank slate but a byproduct of imperfect adaptations, stuck with a mind that was designed to meet the needs of Pleistocene hunter-gatherers on the African savanna. While the specifics of evolutionary psychology remain controversial — it's never easy proving theories about the distant past — its underlying assumption is largely accepted by mainstream scientists. There is no longer much debate over whether evolution sculptured the fleshy machine inside our head. Instead, researchers have moved on to new questions like when and how this sculpturing happened and which of our mental traits are adaptations and which are accidents. - -In 2004, Thomson met Paul Andrews, an evolutionary psychologist at Virginia Commonwealth University, who had long been interested in the depression paradox — why a disorder that's so costly is also so common. Andrews has long dark brown hair and an aquiline nose. Before he begins to talk, he often writes down an outline of his answer on scratch paper. "This is a very delicate subject," he says. "I don't want to say something reckless." - -Andrews and Thomson struck up an extended conversation on the evolutionary roots of depression. They began by focusing on the thought process that defines the disorder, which is known as rumination. (The verb is derived from the Latin word for "chewed over," which describes the act of digestion in cattle, in which they swallow, regurgitate and then rechew their food.) In recent decades, psychiatry has come to see rumination as a dangerous mental habit, because it leads people to fixate on their flaws and problems, thus extending their negative moods. Consider "The Depressed Person," a short story by David Foster Wallace, which chronicles a consciousness in the grip of the ruminative cycle. (Wallace struggled with severe depression for years before committing suicide in 2008.) The story is a long lament, a portrait of a mind hating itself, filled with sentences like this: "What terms might be used to describe such a solipsistic, self-consumed, bottomless emotional vacuum and sponge as she now appeared to herself to be?" The dark thoughts of "The Depressed Person" soon grow tedious and trying, but that's precisely Wallace's point. There is nothing profound about depressive rumination. There is just a recursive loop of woe. - -The bleakness of this thought process helps explain why, according to the Yale psychologist Susan Nolen-Hoeksema, people with "ruminative tendencies" are more likely to become depressed. They're also more likely to become unnerved by stressful events: for instance, Nolen-Hoeksema found that residents of San Francisco who self-identified as ruminators showed significantly more depressive symptoms after the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake. And then there are the cognitive deficits. Because rumination hijacks the stream of consciousness — we become exquisitely attentive to our pain — numerous studies have found that depressed subjects struggle to think about anything else, just like Wallace's character. The end result is poor performance on tests for memory and executive function, especially when the task involves lots of information. (These deficits disappear when test subjects are first distracted from their depression and thus better able to focus on the exercise.) Such research has reinforced the view that rumination is a useless kind of pessimism, a perfect waste of mental energy. - -Advertisement - -[Continue reading the main story][12] - -That, at least, was the scientific consensus when Andrews and Thomson began exploring the depression paradox. Their evolutionary perspective, however — they see the mind as a fine-tuned machine that is not prone to pointless programming bugs — led them to wonder if rumination had a purpose. They started with the observation that rumination was often a response to a specific psychological blow, like the death of a loved one or the loss of a job. (Darwin was plunged into a debilitating grief after his 10-year-old daughter, Annie, died following a bout of scarlet fever.) Although the D.S.M. manual, the diagnostic bible for psychiatrists, does not take such stressors into account when diagnosing depressive disorder — the exception is grief caused by bereavement, as long as the grief doesn't last longer than two months — it's clear that the problems of everyday life play a huge role in causing mental illness. "Of course, rumination is unpleasant," Andrews says. "But it's usually a response to something real, a real setback. It didn't seem right that the brain would go haywire just when we need it most." - -Imagine, for instance, a depression triggered by a bitter divorce. The ruminations might take the form of regret ("I should have been a better spouse"), recurring counterfactuals ("What if I hadn't had my affair?") and anxiety about the future ("How will the kids deal with it? Can I afford my alimony payments?"). While such thoughts reinforce the depression — that's why therapists try to stop the ruminative cycle — Andrews and Thomson wondered if they might also help people prepare for bachelorhood or allow people to learn from their mistakes. "I started thinking about how, even if you are depressed for a few months, the depression might be worth it if it helps you better understand social relationships," Andrews says. "Maybe you realize you need to be less rigid or more loving. Those are insights that can come out of depression, and they can be very valuable." - -This radical idea — the scientists were suggesting that depressive disorder came with a net mental benefit — has a long intellectual history. Aristotle was there first, stating in the fourth century B.C. "that all men who have attained excellence in philosophy, in poetry, in art and in politics, even Socrates and Plato, had a melancholic habitus; indeed some suffered even from melancholic disease." This belief was revived during the Renaissance, leading Milton to exclaim, in his poem "Il Penseroso": "Hail divinest Melancholy/Whose saintly visage is too bright/To hit the sense of human sight." The Romantic poets took the veneration of sadness to its logical extreme and described suffering as a prerequisite for the literary life. As Keats wrote, "Do you not see how necessary a World of Pains and troubles is to school an intelligence and make it a soul?" - -But Andrews and Thomson weren't interested in ancient aphorisms or poetic apologias. Their daunting challenge was to show how rumination might lead to improved outcomes, especially when it comes to solving life's most difficult dilemmas. Their first speculations focused on the core features of depression, like the inability of depressed subjects to experience pleasure or their lack of interest in food, sex and social interactions. According to Andrews and Thomson, these awful symptoms came with a productive side effect, because they reduced the possibility of becoming distracted from the pressing problem. - -The capacity for intense focus, they note, relies in large part on a brain area called the left ventrolateral prefrontal cortex (VLPFC), which is located a few inches behind the forehead. While this area has been associated with a wide variety of mental talents, like conceptual knowledge and verb conjugation, it seems to be especially important for maintaining attention. Experiments show that neurons in the VLPFC must fire continuously to keep us on task so that we don't become sidetracked by irrelevant information. Furthermore, deficits in the VLPFC have been associated with attention-deficit disorder. - -Several studies found an increase in brain activity (as measured indirectly by blood flow) in the VLPFC of depressed patients. Most recently, a paper to be published next month by neuroscientists in China found a spike in "functional connectivity" between the lateral prefrontal cortex and other parts of the brain in depressed patients, with more severe depressions leading to more prefrontal activity. One explanation for this finding is that the hyperactive VLPFC underlies rumination, allowing people to stay focused on their problem. (Andrews and Thomson argue that this relentless fixation also explains the cognitive deficits of depressed subjects, as they are too busy thinking about their real-life problems to bother with an artificial lab exercise; their VLPFC can't be bothered to care.) Human attention is a scarce resource — the neural effects of depression make sure the resource is efficiently allocated. - -But the reliance on the VLPFC doesn't just lead us to fixate on our depressing situation; it also leads to an extremely analytical style of thinking. That's because rumination is largely rooted in working memory, a kind of mental scratchpad that allows us to "work" with all the information stuck in consciousness. When people rely on working memory — and it doesn't matter if they're doing long division or contemplating a relationship gone wrong — they tend to think in a more deliberate fashion, breaking down their complex problems into their simpler parts. - -The bad news is that this deliberate thought process is slow, tiresome and prone to distraction; the prefrontal cortex soon grows exhausted and gives out. Andrews and Thomson see depression as a way of bolstering our feeble analytical skills, making it easier to pay continuous attention to a difficult dilemma. The downcast mood and activation of the VLPFC are part of a "coordinated system" that, Andrews and Thomson say, exists "for the specific purpose of effectively analyzing the complex life problem that triggered the depression." If depression didn't exist — if we didn't react to stress and trauma with endless ruminations — then we would be less likely to solve our predicaments. Wisdom isn't cheap, and we pay for it with pain. +The bad news is that this deliberate thought process is slow, tiresome +and prone to distraction; the prefrontal cortex soon grows exhausted and +gives out. Andrews and Thomson see depression as a way of bolstering our +feeble analytical skills, making it easier to pay continuous attention +to a difficult dilemma. The downcast mood and activation of the VLPFC +are part of a “coordinated system” that, Andrews and Thomson say, exists +“for the specific purpose of effectively analyzing the complex life +problem that triggered the depression.” If depression didn’t exist — if +we didn’t react to stress and trauma with endless ruminations — then we +would be less likely to solve our predicaments. Wisdom isn’t cheap, and +we pay for it with pain. ## Newsletter Sign Up -[Continue reading the main story][13] +[Continue reading the main story](#continues-post-newsletter) ### @@ -135,300 +227,276 @@ Invalid email address. Please re-enter. You must select a newsletter to subscribe to. -Sign Up - -You agree to receive occasional updates and special offers for The New York Times's products and services. +You agree to receive occasional updates and special offers for The New +York Times's products and services. ### Thank you for subscribing. ### An error has occurred. Please try again later. -### You are already subscribed to this email. +[View all New York Times newsletters.](/newsletters) -[View all New York Times newsletters.][14] - -* [See Sample][15] -* [Manage Email Preferences][16] -* [Not you?][17] -* [Privacy Policy][18] -* Opt out or [contact us][19] anytime - -Consider a young professor on tenure track who was treated by Thomson. The patient was having difficulties with his academic department. "This guy was used to success coming easy, but now it wasn't," Thomson says. "I made it clear that I thought he'd need some time to figure out his next step. His problem was like a splinter, and the pain wouldn't go away until the splinter was removed." Should the patient leave the department? Should he leave academia? Or should he try to resolve the disagreement? Over the next several weeks, Thomson helped the patient analyze his situation and carefully think through the alternatives. "We took it one variable at a time," Thomson says. "And it eventually became clear to him that the departmental issues couldn't be fixed. He needed to leave. Once he came to that conclusion, he started feeling better." +Consider a young professor on tenure track who was treated by Thomson. +The patient was having difficulties with his academic department. “This +guy was used to success coming easy, but now it wasn’t,” Thomson says. +“I made it clear that I thought he’d need some time to figure out his +next step. His problem was like a splinter, and the pain wouldn’t go +away until the splinter was removed.” Should the patient leave the +department? Should he leave academia? Or should he try to resolve the +disagreement? Over the next several weeks, Thomson helped the patient +analyze his situation and carefully think through the alternatives. “We +took it one variable at a time,” Thomson says. “And it eventually became +clear to him that the departmental issues couldn’t be fixed. He needed +to leave. Once he came to that conclusion, he started feeling better.” Advertisement -[Continue reading the main story][20] +[Continue reading the main story](#story-continues-5) -**The publication of **Andrews and Thomson's 36,000-word paper in the July 2009 issue of Psychological Review had a polarizing effect on the field. While some researchers, like Jerome Wakefield, a professor at New York University who specializes in the conceptual foundations of clinical theory, greeted the paper as "an extremely important first step toward the re-evaluation of depression," other psychiatrists regarded it as little more than irresponsible speculation, a justification for human suffering. Peter Kramer, a professor of psychiatry and human behavior at Brown University, describes the paper as "a ladder with a series of weak rungs." Kramer has long defended the use of antidepressants — his landmark work, "Listening to Prozac," chronicled the profound improvements of patients taking the drugs — and criticized those who romanticized depression, which he compares to the glamorization of tuberculosis in the late 19th century. In a series of e-mail messages to me, Kramer suggested that Andrews and Thomson neglect the variants of depression that don't fit their evolutionary theory. "This study says nothing about chronic depression and the sort of self-hating, paralyzing, hopeless, circular rumination it inspires," Kramer wrote. And what about post-stroke depression? Late-life depression? Extreme depressive condition? Kramer argues that there's a clear category difference between a healthy response to social stressors and the response of people with depressive disorder. "Depression is not really like sadness," Kramer has written. "It's more an oppressive flattening of feeling." +**The publication of** Andrews and Thomson’s 36,000-word paper in the +July 2009 issue of Psychological Review had a polarizing effect on the +field. While some researchers, like Jerome Wakefield, a professor at New +York University who specializes in the conceptual foundations of +clinical theory, greeted the paper as “an extremely important first step +toward the re-evaluation of depression,” other psychiatrists regarded it +as little more than irresponsible speculation, a justification for human +suffering. Peter Kramer, a professor of psychiatry and human behavior at +Brown University, describes the paper as “a ladder with a series of weak +rungs.” Kramer has long defended the use of antidepressants — his +landmark work, “Listening to Prozac,” chronicled the profound +improvements of patients taking the drugs — and criticized those who +romanticized depression, which he compares to the glamorization of +tuberculosis in the late 19th century. In a series of e-mail messages to +me, Kramer suggested that Andrews and Thomson neglect the variants of +depression that don’t fit their evolutionary theory. “This study says +nothing about chronic depression and the sort of self-hating, +paralyzing, hopeless, circular rumination it inspires,” Kramer wrote. +And what about post-stroke depression? Late-life depression? Extreme +depressive condition? Kramer argues that there’s a clear category +difference between a healthy response to social stressors and the +response of people with depressive disorder. “Depression is not really +like sadness,” Kramer has written. “It’s more an oppressive flattening +of feeling.” -Even scientists who are sympathetic to what Andrews and Thomson call the "analytic-rumination hypothesis" remain critical of its details. Ed Hagen, an anthropologist at Washington State University who is working on a book with Andrews, says that while the analytic-rumination hypothesis has persuaded him that some depressive symptoms might improve problem-solving skills, he remains unconvinced that it is a sufficient explanation for depression. "Individuals with major depression often don't groom, bathe and sometimes don't even use the toilet," Hagen says. They also significantly "reduce investment in child care," which could have detrimental effects on the survival of offspring. The steep fitness costs of these behaviors, Hagen says, would not be offset by "more uninterrupted time to think." +Even scientists who are sympathetic to what Andrews and Thomson call the +“analytic-rumination hypothesis” remain critical of its details. Ed +Hagen, an anthropologist at Washington State University who is working +on a book with Andrews, says that while the analytic-rumination +hypothesis has persuaded him that some depressive symptoms might improve +problem-solving skills, he remains unconvinced that it is a sufficient +explanation for depression. “Individuals with major depression often +don’t groom, bathe and sometimes don’t even use the toilet,” Hagen +says. They also significantly “reduce investment in child care,” which +could have detrimental effects on the survival of offspring. The steep +fitness costs of these behaviors, Hagen says, would not be offset by +“more uninterrupted time to think.” -Other scientists, including Randolph Nesse at the University of Michigan, say that complex psychiatric disorders like depression rarely have simple evolutionary explanations. In fact, the analytic-rumination hypothesis is merely the latest attempt to explain the prevalence of depression. There is, for example, the "plea for help" theory, which suggests that depression is a way of eliciting assistance from loved ones. There's also the "signal of defeat" hypothesis, which argues that feelings of despair after a loss in social status help prevent unnecessary attacks; we're too busy sulking to fight back. And then there's "depressive realism": several studies have found that people with depression have a more accurate view of reality and are better at predicting future outcomes. While each of these speculations has scientific support, none are sufficient to explain an illness that afflicts so many people. The moral, Nesse says, is that sadness, like happiness, has many functions. +Other scientists, including Randolph Nesse at the University of +Michigan, say that complex psychiatric disorders like depression rarely +have simple evolutionary explanations. In fact, the analytic-rumination +hypothesis is merely the latest attempt to explain the prevalence of +depression. There is, for example, the “plea for help” theory, which +suggests that depression is a way of eliciting assistance from loved +ones. There’s also the “signal of defeat” hypothesis, which argues that +feelings of despair after a loss in social status help prevent +unnecessary attacks; we’re too busy sulking to fight back. And then +there’s “depressive realism”: several studies have found that people +with depression have a more accurate view of reality and are better at +predicting future outcomes. While each of these speculations has +scientific support, none are sufficient to explain an illness that +afflicts so many people. The moral, Nesse says, is that sadness, like +happiness, has many functions. -Although Nesse says he admires the analytic-rumination hypothesis, he adds that it fails to capture the heterogeneity of depressive disorder. Andrews and Thomson compare depression to a fever helping to fight off infection, but Nesse says a more accurate metaphor is chronic pain, which can arise for innumerable reasons. "Sometimes, the pain is going to have an organic source," he says. "Maybe you've slipped a disc or pinched a nerve, in which case you've got to solve that underlying problem. But much of the time there is no origin for the pain. The pain itself is the dysfunction." +Although Nesse says he admires the analytic-rumination hypothesis, he +adds that it fails to capture the heterogeneity of depressive disorder. +Andrews and Thomson compare depression to a fever helping to fight off +infection, but Nesse says a more accurate metaphor is chronic pain, +which can arise for innumerable reasons. “Sometimes, the pain is going +to have an organic source,” he says. “Maybe you’ve slipped a disc or +pinched a nerve, in which case you’ve got to solve that underlying +problem. But much of the time there is no origin for the pain. The pain +itself is the dysfunction.” -Andrews and Thomson respond to such criticisms by acknowledging that depression is a vast continuum, a catch-all term for a spectrum of symptoms. While the analytic-rumination hypothesis might explain those patients reacting to an "acute stressor," it can't account for those whose suffering has no discernible cause or whose sadness refuses to lift for years at a time. "To say that depression can be useful doesn't mean it's always going to be useful," Thomson says. "Sometimes, the symptoms can spiral out of control. The problem, though, is that as a society, we've come to see depression as something that must always be avoided or medicated away. We've been so eager to remove the stigma from depression that we've ended up stigmatizing sadness." +Andrews and Thomson respond to such criticisms by acknowledging that +depression is a vast continuum, a catch-all term for a spectrum of +symptoms. While the analytic-rumination hypothesis might explain those +patients reacting to an “acute stressor,” it can’t account for those +whose suffering has no discernible cause or whose sadness refuses to +lift for years at a time. “To say that depression can be useful doesn’t +mean it’s always going to be useful,” Thomson says. “Sometimes, the +symptoms can spiral out of control. The problem, though, is that as a +society, we’ve come to see depression as something that must always be +avoided or medicated away. We’ve been so eager to remove the stigma from +depression that we’ve ended up stigmatizing sadness.” -For Thomson, this new theory of depression has directly affected his medical practice. "That's the litmus test for me," he says. "Do these ideas help me treat my patients better?" In recent years, Thomson has cut back on antidepressant prescriptions, because, he says, he now believes that the drugs can sometimes interfere with genuine recovery, making it harder for people to resolve their social dilemmas. "I remember one patient who came in and said she needed to reduce her dosage," he says. "I asked her if the antidepressants were working, and she said something I'll never forget. 'Yes, they're working great,' she told me. 'I feel so much better. But I'm still married to the same alcoholic son of a bitch. It's just now he's tolerable.' " +For Thomson, this new theory of depression has directly affected his +medical practice. “That’s the litmus test for me,” he says. “Do these +ideas help me treat my patients better?” In recent years, Thomson has +cut back on antidepressant prescriptions, because, he says, he now +believes that the drugs can sometimes interfere with genuine recovery, +making it harder for people to resolve their social dilemmas. “I +remember one patient who came in and said she needed to reduce her +dosage,” he says. “I asked her if the antidepressants were working, and +she said something I’ll never forget. ‘Yes, they’re working great,’ she +told me. ‘I feel so much better. But I’m still married to the same +alcoholic son of a bitch. It’s just now he’s tolerable.’ ” -The point is the woman was depressed for a reason; her pain was about something. While the drugs made her feel better, no real progress was ever made. Thomson's skepticism about antidepressants is bolstered by recent studies questioning their benefits, at least for patients with moderate depression. Consider a 2005 paper led by Steven Hollon, a psychologist at Vanderbilt University: he found that people on antidepressants had a 76 percent chance of relapse within a year when the drugs were discontinued. In contrast, patients given a form of cognitive talk therapy had a relapse rate of 31 percent. And Hollon's data aren't unusual: several studies found that patients treated with medication were approximately twice as likely to relapse as patients treated with cognitive behavior therapy. "The high relapse rate suggests that the drugs aren't really solving anything," Thomson says. "In fact, they seem to be interfering with the solution, so that patients are discouraged from dealing with their problems. We end up having to keep people on the drugs forever. It was as if these people have a bodily infection, and modern psychiatry is just treating their fever." +The point is the woman was depressed for a reason; her pain was about +something. While the drugs made her feel better, no real progress was +ever made. Thomson’s skepticism about antidepressants is bolstered by +recent studies questioning their benefits, at least for patients with +moderate depression. Consider a 2005 paper led by Steven Hollon, a +psychologist at Vanderbilt University: he found that people on +antidepressants had a 76 percent chance of relapse within a year when +the drugs were discontinued. In contrast, patients given a form of +cognitive talk therapy had a relapse rate of 31 percent. And Hollon’s +data aren’t unusual: several studies found that patients treated with +medication were approximately twice as likely to relapse as patients +treated with cognitive behavior therapy. “The high relapse rate suggests +that the drugs aren’t really solving anything,” Thomson says. “In fact, +they seem to be interfering with the solution, so that patients are +discouraged from dealing with their problems. We end up having to keep +people on the drugs forever. It was as if these people have a bodily +infection, and modern psychiatry is just treating their fever.” -Thomson describes a college student who was referred to his practice. "It was clear that this patient was in a lot of pain," Thomson says. "He couldn't sleep, couldn't study. He had some family issues" — his parents were recently divorced — "and his father was exerting a tremendous amount of pressure on him to go to graduate school. Because he's got a family history of depression, the standard of care would be to put him on drugs right away. And a few years ago, that's what I would have done." +Thomson describes a college student who was referred to his practice. +“It was clear that this patient was in a lot of pain,” Thomson says. +“He couldn’t sleep, couldn’t study. He had some family issues” — his +parents were recently divorced — “and his father was exerting a +tremendous amount of pressure on him to go to graduate school. Because +he’s got a family history of depression, the standard of care would be +to put him on drugs right away. And a few years ago, that’s what I would +have done.” Advertisement -[Continue reading the main story][21] +[Continue reading the main story](#story-continues-6) -Instead, Thomson was determined to help the student solve his problem. "What you're trying to do is speed along the rumination process," Thomson says. "Once you show people the dilemma they need to solve, they almost always start feeling better." He cites as evidence a recent study that found "expressive writing" — asking depressed subjects to write essays about their feelings — led to significantly shorter depressive episodes. The reason, Thomson suggests, is that writing is a form of thinking, which enhances our natural problem-solving abilities. "This doesn't mean there's some miracle cure," he says. "In most cases, the recovery period is going to be long and difficult. And that's what I told this young student. I said: 'I know you're hurting. I know these problems seem impossible. But they're not. And I can help you solve them.' " +Instead, Thomson was determined to help the student solve his problem. +“What you’re trying to do is speed along the rumination process,” +Thomson says. “Once you show people the dilemma they need to solve, they +almost always start feeling better.” He cites as evidence a recent study +that found “expressive writing” — asking depressed subjects to write +essays about their feelings — led to significantly shorter depressive +episodes. The reason, Thomson suggests, is that writing is a form of +thinking, which enhances our natural problem-solving abilities. “This +doesn’t mean there’s some miracle cure,” he says. “In most cases, the +recovery period is going to be long and difficult. And that’s what I +told this young student. I said: ‘I know you’re hurting. I know these +problems seem impossible. But they’re not. And I can help you solve +them.’ ” -**IT'S TOO SOON** to judge the analytic-rumination hypothesis. Nobody knows if depression is an adaptation or if Andrews and Thomson have merely spun another "Just So" story, a clever evolutionary tale that lacks direct evidence. Nevertheless, their speculation is part of a larger scientific re-evaluation of negative moods, which have long been seen as emotional states to avoid. The dismissal of sadness and its synonyms is perhaps best exemplified by the rise of positive psychology, a scientific field devoted to the pursuit of happiness. In recent years, a number of positive psychologists have written popular self-help books, like "The How of Happiness" and "Authentic Happiness," that try to outline the scientific principles behind "lasting fulfillment" and "getting the life we want." +**IT’S TOO SOON** to judge the analytic-rumination hypothesis. Nobody +knows if depression is an adaptation or if Andrews and Thomson have +merely spun another “Just So” story, a clever evolutionary tale that +lacks direct evidence. Nevertheless, their speculation is part of a +larger scientific re-evaluation of negative moods, which have long been +seen as emotional states to avoid. The dismissal of sadness and its +synonyms is perhaps best exemplified by the rise of positive psychology, +a scientific field devoted to the pursuit of happiness. In recent years, +a number of positive psychologists have written popular self-help books, +like “The How of Happiness” and “Authentic Happiness,” that try to +outline the scientific principles behind “lasting fulfillment” and +“getting the life we want.” -The new research on negative moods, however, suggests that sadness comes with its own set of benefits and that even our most unpleasant feelings serve an important purpose. Joe Forgas, a social psychologist at the University of New South Wales in Australia, has repeatedly demonstrated in experiments that negative moods lead to better decisions in complex situations. The reason, Forgas suggests, is rooted in the intertwined nature of mood and cognition: sadness promotes "information-processing strategies best suited to dealing with more-demanding situations." This helps explain why test subjects who are melancholy — Forgas induces the mood with a short film about death and cancer — are better at judging the accuracy of rumors and recalling past events; they're also much less likely to stereotype strangers. +The new research on negative moods, however, suggests that sadness comes +with its own set of benefits and that even our most unpleasant feelings +serve an important purpose. Joe Forgas, a social psychologist at the +University of New South Wales in Australia, has repeatedly demonstrated +in experiments that negative moods lead to better decisions in complex +situations. The reason, Forgas suggests, is rooted in the intertwined +nature of mood and cognition: sadness promotes “information-processing +strategies best suited to dealing with more-demanding situations.” This +helps explain why test subjects who are melancholy — Forgas induces the +mood with a short film about death and cancer — are better at judging +the accuracy of rumors and recalling past events; they’re also much less +likely to stereotype strangers. -Last year Forgas ventured beyond the lab and began conducting studies in a small stationery store in suburban Sydney, Australia. The experiment itself was simple: Forgas placed a variety of trinkets, like toy soldiers, plastic animals and miniature cars, near the checkout counter. As shoppers exited, Forgas tested their memory, asking them to list as many of the items as possible. To control for the effect of mood, Forgas conducted the survey on gray, rainy days — he accentuated the weather by playing Verdi's "Requiem" — and on sunny days, using a soundtrack of Gilbert and Sullivan. The results were clear: shoppers in the "low mood" condition remembered nearly four times as many of the trinkets. The wet weather made them sad, and their sadness made them more aware and attentive. +Last year Forgas ventured beyond the lab and began conducting studies in +a small stationery store in suburban Sydney, Australia. The experiment +itself was simple: Forgas placed a variety of trinkets, like toy +soldiers, plastic animals and miniature cars, near the checkout counter. +As shoppers exited, Forgas tested their memory, asking them to list as +many of the items as possible. To control for the effect of mood, Forgas +conducted the survey on gray, rainy days — he accentuated the weather by +playing Verdi’s “Requiem” — and on sunny days, using a soundtrack of +Gilbert and Sullivan. The results were clear: shoppers in the “low mood” +condition remembered nearly four times as many of the trinkets. The wet +weather made them sad, and their sadness made them more aware and +attentive. -The enhancement of these mental skills might also explain the striking correlation between creative production and depressive disorders. In a survey led by the neuroscientist Nancy Andreasen, 30 writers from the Iowa Writers' Workshop were interviewed about their mental history. Eighty percent of the writers met the formal diagnostic criteria for some form of depression. A similar theme emerged from biographical studies of British writers and artists by Kay Redfield Jamison, a professor of psychiatry at Johns Hopkins, who found that successful individuals were eight times as likely as people in the general population to suffer from major depressive illness. +The enhancement of these mental skills might also explain the striking +correlation between creative production and depressive disorders. In a +survey led by the neuroscientist Nancy Andreasen, 30 writers from the +Iowa Writers’ Workshop were interviewed about their mental history. +Eighty percent of the writers met the formal diagnostic criteria for +some form of depression. A similar theme emerged from biographical +studies of British writers and artists by Kay Redfield Jamison, a +professor of psychiatry at Johns Hopkins, who found that successful +individuals were eight times as likely as people in the general +population to suffer from major depressive illness. -Why is mental illness so closely associated with creativity? Andreasen argues that depression is intertwined with a "cognitive style" that makes people more likely to produce successful works of art. In the creative process, Andreasen says, "one of the most important qualities is persistence." Based on the Iowa sample, Andreasen found that "successful writers are like prizefighters who keep on getting hit but won't go down. They'll stick with it until it's right." While Andreasen acknowledges the burden of mental illness — she quotes Robert Lowell on depression not being a "gift of the Muse" and describes his reliance on lithium to escape the pain — she argues that many forms of creativity benefit from the relentless focus it makes possible. "Unfortunately, this type of thinking is often inseparable from the suffering," she says. "If you're at the cutting edge, then you're going to bleed." +Why is mental illness so closely associated with creativity? Andreasen +argues that depression is intertwined with a “cognitive style” that +makes people more likely to produce successful works of art. In the +creative process, Andreasen says, “one of the most important qualities +is persistence.” Based on the Iowa sample, Andreasen found that +“successful writers are like prizefighters who keep on getting hit but +won’t go down. They’ll stick with it until it’s right.” While Andreasen +acknowledges the burden of mental illness — she quotes Robert Lowell on +depression not being a “gift of the Muse” and describes his reliance on +lithium to escape the pain — she argues that many forms of creativity +benefit from the relentless focus it makes possible. “Unfortunately, +this type of thinking is often inseparable from the suffering,” she +says. “If you’re at the cutting edge, then you’re going to bleed.” -And then there's the virtue of self-loathing, which is one of the symptoms of depression. When people are stuck in the ruminative spiral, their achievements become invisible; the mind is only interested in what has gone wrong. While this condition is typically linked to withdrawal and silence — people become unwilling to communicate — there's some suggestive evidence that states of unhappiness can actually improve our expressive abilities. Forgas said he has found that sadness correlates with clearer and more compelling sentences, and that negative moods "promote a more concrete, accommodative and ultimately more successful communication style." Because we're more critical of what we're writing, we produce more refined prose, the sentences polished by our angst. As Roland Barthes observed, "A creative writer is one for whom writing is a problem." +And then there’s the virtue of self-loathing, which is one of the +symptoms of depression. When people are stuck in the ruminative spiral, +their achievements become invisible; the mind is only interested in what +has gone wrong. While this condition is typically linked to withdrawal +and silence — people become unwilling to communicate — there’s some +suggestive evidence that states of unhappiness can actually improve our +expressive abilities. Forgas said he has found that sadness correlates +with clearer and more compelling sentences, and that negative moods +“promote a more concrete, accommodative and ultimately more successful +communication style.” Because we’re more critical of what we’re writing, +we produce more refined prose, the sentences polished by our angst. As +Roland Barthes observed, “A creative writer is one for whom writing is a +problem.” -This line of research led Andrews to conduct his own experiment, as he sought to better understand the link between negative mood and improved analytical abilities. He gave 115 undergraduates an abstract-reasoning test known as Raven's Progressive Matrices, which requires subjects to identify a missing segment in a larger pattern. (Performance on the task strongly predicts general intelligence.) The first thing Andrews found was that nondepressed students showed an increase in "depressed affect" after taking the test. In other words, the mere presence of a challenging problem — even an abstract puzzle — induced a kind of attentive trance, which led to feelings of sadness. It doesn't matter if we're working on a mathematical equation or working through a broken heart: the anatomy of focus is inseparable from the anatomy of melancholy. This suggests that depressive disorder is an extreme form of an ordinary thought process, part of the dismal machinery that draws us toward our problems, like a magnet to metal. +This line of research led Andrews to conduct his own experiment, as he +sought to better understand the link between negative mood and improved +analytical abilities. He gave 115 undergraduates an abstract-reasoning +test known as Raven’s Progressive Matrices, which requires subjects to +identify a missing segment in a larger pattern. (Performance on the task +strongly predicts general intelligence.) The first thing Andrews found +was that nondepressed students showed an increase in “depressed affect” +after taking the test. In other words, the mere presence of a +challenging problem — even an abstract puzzle — induced a kind of +attentive trance, which led to feelings of sadness. It doesn’t matter if +we’re working on a mathematical equation or working through a broken +heart: the anatomy of focus is inseparable from the anatomy of +melancholy. This suggests that depressive disorder is an extreme form of +an ordinary thought process, part of the dismal machinery that draws us +toward our problems, like a magnet to metal. -But is that closeness effective? Does the despondency help us solve anything? Andrews found a significant correlation between depressed affect and individual performance on the intelligence test, at least once the subjects were distracted from their pain: lower moods were associated with higher scores. "The results were clear," Andrews says. "Depressed affect made people think better." The challenge, of course, is persuading people to accept their misery, to embrace the tonic of despair. To say that depression has a purpose or that sadness makes us smarter says nothing about its awfulness. A fever, after all, might have benefits, but we still take pills to make it go away. This is the paradox of evolution: even if our pain is useful, the urge to escape from the pain remains the most powerful instinct of all.__ +But is that closeness effective? Does the despondency help us solve +anything? Andrews found a significant correlation between depressed +affect and individual performance on the intelligence test, at least +once the subjects were distracted from their pain: lower moods were +associated with higher scores. “The results were clear,” Andrews says. +“Depressed affect made people think better.” The challenge, of course, +is persuading people to accept their misery, to embrace the tonic of +despair. To say that depression has a purpose or that sadness makes us +smarter says nothing about its awfulness. A fever, after all, might have +benefits, but we still take pills to make it go away. This is the +paradox of evolution: even if our pain is useful, the urge to escape +from the pain remains the most powerful instinct of all.** -** Correction: March 14, 2010 ** +**Correction: March 14, 2010** -An article on Feb. 28 about the benefits of depression misstated the name of a university in Australia where studies have been done on the subject. It is the University of New South Wales, not South Wales. - -Jonah Lehrer is the author of "How We Decide" and of the blog The Frontal Cortex. This is his first article for the magazine. - -A version of this article appears in print on February 28, 2010, on Page MM38 of the Sunday Magazine with the headline: Depression's Upside. 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https://www.nytimes.com/subscriptions/Multiproduct/lp5558.html?campaignId=37WXW +An article on Feb. 28 about the benefits of depression misstated the +name of a university in Australia where studies have been done on the +subject. It is the University of New South Wales, not South Wales. +[Continue reading the main story](#whats-next) diff --git a/add-metadata.rb b/add-metadata.rb index c2f7608..ce66173 100644 --- a/add-metadata.rb +++ b/add-metadata.rb @@ -6,62 +6,64 @@ require 'front_matter_parser' stories = JSON.parse File.read 'stories.json' def is_hard_url(url) - # We don't want PDFs for now - if url.split(//).last(4).join === '.pdf' - return true - # Or fermatlibrary links - elsif /fermatslibrary/.match(url) - return true - end + # We don't want PDFs for now + if url.split(//).last(4).join === '.pdf' + return true + # Or fermatlibrary links + elsif /fermatslibrary/.match(url) + return true + end - return false + return false +end + + +def process(url, story, fn) + puts "[DL] #{url}" + + # Convert to GFM + markdown = `python parse.py "#{url}" | pandoc --from=html --to=gfm-raw_html-native_divs-native_spans-fenced_divs` + + if markdown.size > 100 + content = "#{story.to_yaml}\n---\n#{markdown}" + File.open(fn, "w") { |file| file.write content } + puts "[info] Saved" + end end stories.each do |year, storiesByYear| - storiesByYear.each do |story| - story.delete '_highlightResult' - id = story['objectID'] - url = story['url'] - - fn = "_stories/#{year}/#{id}.md" + storiesByYear.each do |story| + story.delete '_highlightResult' + id = story['objectID'] + url = story['url'] - next if url.nil? + fn = "_stories/#{year}/#{id}.md" - if is_hard_url(url) - File.delete fn if File.exist? fn - next - end + next if url.nil? + if is_hard_url(url) + File.delete fn if File.exist? fn + next + end - if File.exists? fn - parsed = FrontMatterParser::Parser.parse_file(fn) - if parsed.front_matter.nil? - content = "#{story.to_yaml}\n---\n#{parsed.content}" - File.open(fn, "w") { |file| file.write content } - end + if File.exists? fn + parsed = FrontMatterParser::Parser.parse_file(fn) + if parsed.front_matter.nil? + content = "#{story.to_yaml}\n---\n#{parsed.content}" + File.open(fn, "w") { |file| file.write content } + end - # File is empty - if parsed.content.strip.empty? - File.delete fn - end - else - puts "[DL] #{url}" - - - - begin - http = Curl.get("http://heckyesmarkdown.com/go/", {read: '1', u: url}) do |http| - http.timeout = 3 - end - - if http.body_str.size > 100 - content = "#{story.to_yaml}\n---\n#{http.body_str}" - File.open(fn, "w") { |file| file.write content } - puts "[info] Saved" - end - rescue StandardError => e - next - end - end - end -end \ No newline at end of file + # File is empty + if parsed.content.strip.empty? or parsed.content.strip.split("\n").size == 1 + File.delete fn + process url, story, fn + end + else + begin + process url, story, fn + rescue StandardError => e + next + end + end + end +end diff --git a/parse.py b/parse.py new file mode 100644 index 0000000..787d8b3 --- /dev/null +++ b/parse.py @@ -0,0 +1,10 @@ +import sys +from newspaper import Article + +url = sys.argv[1].strip() + +a = Article(url, language='en', keep_article_html=True, http_success_only=False) + +a.download() +a.parse() +print(a.article_html)