2018-03-03 09:35:28 +00:00
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---
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created_at: '2016-12-04T02:16:14.000Z'
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title: Science the Endless Frontier – Vannevar Bush (1945)
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url: https://www.nsf.gov/od/lpa/nsf50/vbush1945.htm
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author: maverick_iceman
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points: 45
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num_comments: 1
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created_at_i: 1480817774
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_tags:
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- story
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- author_maverick_iceman
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- story_13098468
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objectID: '13098468'
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2018-06-08 12:05:27 +00:00
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year: 1945
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2018-03-03 09:35:28 +00:00
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---
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# Science The Endless Frontier
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## A Report to the President by Vannevar Bush, Director of the Office of Scientific Research and Development, July 1945
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#### (United States Government Printing Office, Washington: 1945)
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## TABLE OF CONTENTS
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- Appendices
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- 1\. Committees Consulted
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- 2\. Report of the Medical Advisory Committee, Dr. W. W. Palmer,
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Chairman
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- 3\. Report of the Committee on Science and the Public Welfare,
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Dr. Isaiah Bowman, Chairman
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- 4\. Report of the Committee on Discovery and Development of
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Scientific Talent, Mr. Henry Allen Moe, Chairman
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- 5\. Report of the Committee on Publication of Scientific
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Information, Dr. Irvin Stewart, Chairman
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\_\_\_
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OFFICE OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
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1530 P Street, NW.
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Washington 25, D.C.
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JULY 25, 1945
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DEAR MR. PRESIDENT:
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In a letter dated November 17, 1944, President Roosevelt requested my
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recommendations on the following points:
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(1) What can be done, consistent with military security, and with the
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prior approval of the military authorities, to make known to the world
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as soon as possible the contributions which have been made during our
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war effort to scientific knowledge?
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(2) With particular reference to the war of science against disease,
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what can be done now to organize a program for continuing in the future
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the work which has been done in medicine and related sciences?
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(3) What can the Government do now and in the future to aid research
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activities by public and private organizations?
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(4) Can an effective program be proposed for discovering and developing
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scientific talent in American youth so that the continuing future of
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scientific research in this country may be assured on a level comparable
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to what has been done during the war?
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It is clear from President Roosevelt's letter that in speaking of
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science that he had in mind the natural sciences, including biology and
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medicine, and I have so interpreted his questions. Progress in other
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fields, such as the social sciences and the humanities, is likewise
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important; but the program for science presented in my report warrants
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immediate attention.
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In seeking answers to President Roosevelt's questions I have had the
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assistance of distinguished committees specially qualified to advise in
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respect to these subjects. The committees have given these matters the
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serious attention they deserve; indeed, they have regarded this as an
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opportunity to participate in shaping the policy of the country with
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reference to scientific research. They have had many meetings and have
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submitted formal reports. I have been in close touch with the work of
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the committees and with their members throughout. I have examined all of
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the data they assembled and the suggestions they submitted on the points
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raised in President Roosevelt's letter.
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Although the report which I submit herewith is my own, the facts,
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conclusions, and recommendations are based on the findings of the
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committees which have studied these questions. Since my report is
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necessarily brief, I am including as appendices the full reports of the
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committees.
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A single mechanism for implementing the recommendations of the several
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committees is essential. In proposing such a mechanism I have departed
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somewhat from the specific recommendations of the committees, but I have
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since been assured that the plan I am proposing is fully acceptable to
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the committee members.
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The pioneer spirit is still vigorous within this nation. Science offers
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a largely unexplored hinterland for the pioneer who has the tools for
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his task. The rewards of such exploration both for the Nation and the
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individual are great. Scientific progress is one essential key to our
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security as a nation, to our better health, to more jobs, to a higher
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standard of living, and to our cultural progress.
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```
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Respectfully yours,
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(s) V. Bush, Director
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```
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THE PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES,
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The White House,
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Washington, D. C.
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\_\_\_
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```
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THE WHITE HOUSE
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Washington, D. C.
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November 17, 1944
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```
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DEAR DR. BUSH: The Office of Scientific Research and Development, of
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which you are the Director, represents a unique experiment of team-work
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and cooperation in coordinating scientific research and in applying
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existing scientific knowledge to the solution of the technical problems
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paramount in war. Its work has been conducted in the utmost secrecy and
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carried on without public recognition of any kind; but its tangible
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results can be found in the communiques coming in from the battlefronts
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all over the world. Some day the full story of its achievements can be
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told.
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There is, however, no reason why the lessons to be found in this
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experiment cannot be profitably employed in times of peace. The
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information, the techniques, and the research experience developed by
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the Office of Scientific Research and Development and by the thousands
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of scientists in the universities and in private industry, should be
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used in the days of peace ahead for the improvement of the national
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health, the creation of new enterprises bringing new jobs, and the
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betterment of the national standard of living.
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It is with that objective in mind that I would like to have your
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recommendations on the following four major points:
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First: What can be done, consistent with military security, and with the
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prior approval of the military authorities, to make known to the world
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as soon as possible the contributions which have been made during our
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war effort to scientific knowledge?
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The diffusion of such knowledge should help us stimulate new
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enterprises, provide jobs four our returning servicemen and other
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workers, and make possible great strides for the improvement of the
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national well-being.
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Second: With particular reference to the war of science against disease,
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what can be done now to organize a program for continuing in the future
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the work which has been done in medicine and related sciences?
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The fact that the annual deaths in this country from one or two diseases
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alone are far in excess of the total number of lives lost by us in
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battle during this war should make us conscious of the duty we owe
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future generations.
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Third: What can the Government do now and in the future to aid research
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activities by public and private organizations? The proper roles of
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public and of private research, and their interrelation, should be
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carefully considered.
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Fourth: Can an effective program be proposed for discovering and
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developing scientific talent in American youth so that the continuing
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future of scientific research in this country may be assured on a level
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comparable to what has been done during the war?
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New frontiers of the mind are before us, and if they are pioneered with
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the same vision, boldness, and drive with which we have waged this war
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we can create a fuller and more fruitful employment and a fuller and
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more fruitful life.
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I hope that, after such consultation as you may deem advisable with your
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associates and others, you can let me have your considered judgment on
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these matters as soon as convenient - reporting on each when you are
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ready, rather than waiting for completion of your studies in all.
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Very sincerely yours,
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(s) FRANKLIN D. ROOSEVELT
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Dr. VANNEVAR BUSH,
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Office of Scientific Research and Development,
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Washington, D. C.
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\_\_
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# SCIENCE - THE ENDLESS FRONTIER
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"New frontiers of the mind are before us, and if they are pioneered with
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the same vision, boldness, and drive with which we have waged this war
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we can create a fuller and more fruitful employment and a fuller and
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more fruitful life."--
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```
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FRANKLIN D. ROOSEVELT
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November 17, 1944.
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```
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\_\_\_ ---
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## SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS IS ESSENTIAL
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Progress in the war against disease depends upon a flow of new
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scientific knowledge. New products, new industries, and more jobs
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require continuous additions to knowledge of the laws of nature, and the
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application of that knowledge to practical purposes. Similarly, our
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defense against aggression demands new knowledge so that we can develop
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new and improved weapons. This essential, new knowledge can be obtained
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only through basic scientific research.
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Science can be effective in the national welfare only as a member of a
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team, whether the conditions be peace or war. But without scientific
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progress no amount of achievement in other directions can insure our
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health, prosperity, and security as a nation in the modern world.
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#### For the War Against Disease
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We have taken great strides in the war against disease. The death rate
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for all diseases in the Army, including overseas forces, has been
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reduced from 14.1 per thousand in the last war to 0.6 per thousand in
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this war. In the last 40 years life expectancy has increased from 49 to
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65 years, largely as a consequence of the reduction in the death rates
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of infants and children. But we are far from the goal. The annual deaths
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from one or two diseases far exceed the total number of American lives
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lost in battle during this war. A large fraction of these deaths in our
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civilian population cut short the useful lives of our citizens.
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Approximately 7,000,000 persons in the United States are mentally ill
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and their care costs the public over $175,000,000 a year. Clearly much
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illness remains for which adequate means of prevention and cure are not
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yet known.
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The responsibility for basic research in medicine and the underlying
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sciences, so essential to progress in the war against disease, falls
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primarily upon the medical schools and universities. Yet we find that
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the traditional sources of support for medical research in the medical
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schools and universities, largely endowment income, foundation grants,
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and private donations, are diminishing and there is no immediate
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prospect of a change in this trend. Meanwhile, the cost of medical
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research has been rising. If we are to maintain the progress in medicine
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which has marked the last 25 years, the Government should extend
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financial support to basic medical research in the medical schools and
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in universities.
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#### For Our National Security
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The bitter and dangerous battle against the U-boat was a battle of
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scientific techniques - and our margin of success was dangerously small.
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The new eyes which radar has supplied can sometimes be blinded by new
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scientific developments. V-2 was countered only by capture of the
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launching sites.
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We cannot again rely on our allies to hold off the enemy while we
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struggle to catch up. There must be more - and more adequate - military
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research in peacetime. It is essential that the civilian scientists
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continue in peacetime some portion of those contributions to national
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security which they have made so effectively during the war. This can
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best be done through a civilian-controlled organization with close
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liaison with the Army and Navy, but with funds direct from Congress, and
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the clear power to initiate military research which will supplement and
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strengthen that carried on directly under the control of the Army and
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Navy.
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#### And for the Public Welfare
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One of our hopes is that after the war there will be full employment. To
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reach that goal the full creative and productive energies of the
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American people must be released. To create more jobs we must make new
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and better and cheaper products. We want plenty of new, vigorous
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enterprises. But new products and processes are not born full-grown.
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They are founded on new principles and new conceptions which in turn
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result from basic scientific research. Basic scientific research is
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scientific capital. Moreover, we cannot any longer depend upon Europe as
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a major source of this scientific capital. Clearly, more and better
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scientific research is one essential to the achievement of our goal of
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full employment.
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How do we increase this scientific capital? First, we must have plenty
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of men and women trained in science, for upon them depends both the
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creation of new knowledge and its application to practical purposes.
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Second, we must strengthen the centers of basic research which are
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principally the colleges, universities, and research institutes. These
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institutions provide the environment which is most conducive to the
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creation of new scientific knowledge and least under pressure for
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immediate, tangible results. With some notable exceptions, most research
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in industry and Government involves application of existing scientific
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knowledge to practical problems. It is only the colleges, universities,
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and a few research institutes that devote most of their research efforts
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to expanding the frontiers of knowledge.
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Expenditures for scientific research by industry and Government
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increased from $140,000,000 in 1930 to $309,000,000 in 1940. Those for
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the colleges and universities increased from $20,000,000 to $31,000,000,
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while those for the research institutes declined from $5,200,000 to
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$4,500,000 during the same period. If the colleges, universities, and
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research institutes are to meet the rapidly increasing demands of
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industry and Government for new scientific knowledge, their basic
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research should be strengthened by use of public funds.
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For science to serve as a powerful factor in our national welfare,
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applied research both in Government and in industry must be vigorous. To
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improve the quality of scientific research within the Government, steps
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should be taken to modify the procedures for recruiting, classifying,
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and compensating scientific personnel in order to reduce the present
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handicap of governmental scientific bureaus in competing with industry
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and the universities for top-grade scientific talent. To provide
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coordination of the common scientific activities of these governmental
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agencies as to policies and budgets, a permanent Science Advisory Board
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should be created to advise the executive and legislative branches of
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Government on these matters.
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The most important ways in which the Government can promote industrial
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research are to increase the flow of new scientific knowledge through
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support of basic research, and to aid in the development of scientific
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talent. In addition, the Government should provide suitable incentives
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to industry to conduct research, (a) by clarification of present
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uncertainties in the Internal Revenue Code in regard to the
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deductibility of research and development expenditures as current
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charges against net income, and (b) by strengthening the patent system
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so as to eliminate uncertainties which now bear heavily on small
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industries and so as to prevent abuses which reflect discredit upon a
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basically sound system. In addition, ways should be found to cause the
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benefits of basic research to reach industries which do not now utilize
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new scientific knowledge.
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### WE MUST RENEW OUR SCIENTIFIC TALENT
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The responsibility for the creation of new scientific knowledge - and
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for most of its application - rests on that small body of men and women
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who understand the fundamental laws of nature and are skilled in the
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techniques of scientific research. We shall have rapid or slow advance
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on any scientific frontier depending on the number of highly qualified
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and trained scientists exploring it.
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The deficit of science and technology students who, but for the war,
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would have received bachelor's degrees is about 150,000. It is estimated
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that the deficit of those obtaining advanced degrees in these fields
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will amount in 1955 to about 17,000 - for it takes at least 6 years from
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college entry to achieve a doctor's degree or its equivalent in science
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or engineering. The real ceiling on our productivity of new scientific
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knowledge and its application in the war against disease, and the
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development of new products and new industries, is the number of trained
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scientists available.
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The training of a scientist is a long and expensive process. Studies
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clearly show that there are talented individuals in every part of the
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population, but with few exceptions, those without the means of buying
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higher education go without it. If ability, and not the circumstance of
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family fortune, determines who shall receive higher education in
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science, then we shall be assured of constantly improving quality at
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every level of scientific activity. The Government should provide a
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reasonable number of undergraduate scholarships and graduate fellowships
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in order to develop scientific talent in American youth. The plans
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should be designed to attract into science only that proportion of
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youthful talent appropriate to the needs of science in relation to the
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other needs of the nation for high abilities.
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#### Including Those in Uniform
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The most immediate prospect of making up the deficit in scientific
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personnel is to develop the scientific talent in the generation now in
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uniform. Even if we should start now to train the current crop of
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high-school graduates none would complete graduate studies before 1951.
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The Armed Services should comb their records for men who, prior to or
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during the war, have given evidence of talent for science, and make
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prompt arrangements, consistent with current discharge plans, for
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ordering those who remain in uniform, as soon as militarily possible, to
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duty at institutions here and overseas where they can continue their
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scientific education. Moreover, the Services should see that those who
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study overseas have the benefit of the latest scientific information
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resulting from research during the war.
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### THE LID MUST BE LIFTED
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While most of the war research has involved the application of existing
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scientific knowledge to the problems of war, rather than basic research,
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there has been accumulated a vast amount of information relating to the
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|
application of science to particular problems. Much of this can be used
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by industry. It is also needed for teaching in the colleges and
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universities here and in the Armed Forces Institutes overseas. Some of
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this information must remain secret, but most of it should be made
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public as soon as there is ground for belief that the enemy will not be
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able to turn it against us in this war. To select that portion which
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should be made public, to coordinate its release, and definitely to
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encourage its publication, a Board composed of Army, Navy, and civilian
|
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scientific members should be promptly established.
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### A PROGRAM FOR ACTION
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The Government should accept new responsibilities for promoting the flow
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of new scientific knowledge and the development of scientific talent in
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our youth. These responsibilities are the proper concern of the
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Government, for they vitally affect our health, our jobs, and our
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|
national security. It is in keeping also with basic United States policy
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|
that the Government should foster the opening of new frontiers and this
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is the modern way to do it. For many years the Government has wisely
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|
supported research in the agricultural colleges and the benefits have
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been great. The time has come when such support should be extended to
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other fields.
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The effective discharge of these new responsibilities will require the
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|
full attention of some over-all agency devoted to that purpose. There is
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not now in the permanent Governmental structure receiving its funds from
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|
Congress an agency adapted to supplementing the support of basic
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|
research in the colleges, universities, and research institutes, both in
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medicine and the natural sciences, adapted to supporting research on new
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|
weapons for both Services, or adapted to administering a program of
|
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science scholarships and fellowships.
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Therefore I recommend that a new agency for these purposes be
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|
established. Such an agency should be composed of persons of broad
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|
interest and experience, having an understanding of the peculiarities of
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|
scientific research and scientific education. It should have stability
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|
of funds so that long-range programs may be undertaken. It should
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|
recognize that freedom of inquiry must be preserved and should leave
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|
internal control of policy, personnel, and the method and scope of
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|
research to the institutions in which it is carried on. It should be
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|
fully responsible to the President and through him to the Congress for
|
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|
its program.
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|
Early action on these recommendations is imperative if this nation is to
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|
|
meet the challenge of science in the crucial years ahead. On the wisdom
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|
|
with which we bring science to bear in the war against disease, in the
|
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|
|
|
creation of new industries, and in the strengthening of our Armed Forces
|
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|
|
depends in large measure our future as a nation.
|
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|
We all know how much the new drug, penicillin, has meant to our
|
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|
|
grievously wounded men on the grim battlefronts of this war - the
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|
|
countless lives it has saved - the incalculable suffering which its use
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|
|
has prevented. Science and the great practical genius of this nation
|
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|
|
made this achievement possible.
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|
Some of us know the vital role which radar has played in bringing the
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|
|
United Nations to victory over Nazi Germany and in driving the Japanese
|
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|
|
steadily back from their island bastions. Again it was painstaking
|
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|
|
scientific research over many years that made radar possible.
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|
What we often forget are the millions of pay envelopes on a peacetime
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|
|
Saturday night which are filled because new products and new industries
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|
|
have provided jobs for countless Americans. Science made that possible,
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|
|
too.
|
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|
In 1939 millions of people were employed in industries which did not
|
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|
|
even exist at the close of the last war - radio, air conditioning, rayon
|
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|
|
|
and other synthetic fibers, and plastics are examples of the products of
|
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|
|
|
these industries. But these things do not mark the end of progress -
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|
|
they are but the beginning if we make full use of our scientific
|
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|
|
|
resources. New manufacturing industries can be started and many older
|
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|
|
|
industries greatly strengthened and expanded if we continue to study
|
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|
|
nature's laws and apply new knowledge to practical purposes.
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|
|
Great advances in agriculture are also based upon scientific research.
|
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|
|
Plants which are more resistant to disease and are adapted to short
|
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|
|
growing season, the prevention and cure of livestock diseases, the
|
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|
|
control of our insect enemies, better fertilizers, and improved
|
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|
|
agricultural practices, all stem from painstaking scientific research.
|
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|
Advances in science when put to practical use mean more jobs, higher
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|
|
wages, shorter hours, more abundant crops, more leisure for recreation,
|
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|
|
for study, for learning how to live without the deadening drudgery which
|
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|
|
has been the burden of the common man for ages past. Advances in science
|
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|
|
will also bring higher standards of living, will lead to the prevention
|
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|
|
or cure of diseases, will promote conservation of our limited national
|
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|
|
|
resources, and will assure means of defense against aggression. But to
|
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|
|
achieve these objectives - to secure a high level of employment, to
|
|
|
|
|
maintain a position of world leadership - the flow of new scientific
|
|
|
|
|
knowledge must be both continuous and substantial.
|
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|
|
|
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|
|
Our population increased from 75 million to 130 million between 1900 and
|
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|
|
1940. In some countries comparable increases have been accompanied by
|
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|
|
|
famine. In this country the increase has been accompanied by more
|
|
|
|
|
abundant food supply, better living, more leisure, longer life, and
|
|
|
|
|
better health. This is, largely, the product of three factors - the free
|
|
|
|
|
play of initiative of a vigorous people under democracy, the heritage of
|
|
|
|
|
great national wealth, and the advance of science and its application.
|
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|
|
Science, by itself, provides no panacea for individual, social, and
|
|
|
|
|
economic ills. It can be effective in the national welfare only as a
|
|
|
|
|
member of a team, whether the conditions be peace or war. But without
|
|
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|
|
scientific progress no amount of achievement in other directions can
|
|
|
|
|
insure our health, prosperity, and security as a nation in the modern
|
|
|
|
|
world.
|
|
|
|
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|
|
It has been basic United States policy that Government should foster the
|
|
|
|
|
opening of new frontiers. It opened the seas to clipper ships and
|
|
|
|
|
furnished land for pioneers. Although these frontiers have more or less
|
|
|
|
|
disappeared, the frontier of science remains. It is in keeping with the
|
|
|
|
|
American tradition - one which has made the United States great - that
|
|
|
|
|
new frontiers shall be made accessible for development by all American
|
|
|
|
|
citizens.
|
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|
|
|
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|
|
Moreover, since health, well-being, and security are proper concerns of
|
|
|
|
|
Government, scientific progress is, and must be, of vital interest to
|
|
|
|
|
Government. Without scientific progress the national health would
|
|
|
|
|
deteriorate; without scientific progress we could not hope for
|
|
|
|
|
improvement in our standard of living or for an increased number of jobs
|
|
|
|
|
for our citizens; and without scientific progress we could not have
|
|
|
|
|
maintained our liberties against tyranny.
|
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|
|
From early days the Government has taken an active interest in
|
|
|
|
|
scientific matters. During the nineteenth century the Coast and Geodetic
|
|
|
|
|
Survey, the Naval Observatory, the Department of Agriculture, and the
|
|
|
|
|
Geological Survey were established. Through the Land Grant College acts
|
|
|
|
|
the Government has supported research in state institutions for more
|
|
|
|
|
than 80 years on a gradually increasing scale. Since 1900 a large number
|
|
|
|
|
of scientific agencies have been established within the Federal
|
|
|
|
|
Government, until in 1939 they numbered more than 40.
|
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|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Much of the scientific research done by Government agencies is
|
|
|
|
|
intermediate in character between the two types of work commonly
|
|
|
|
|
referred to as basic and applied research. Almost all Government
|
|
|
|
|
scientific work has ultimate practical objectives but, in many fields of
|
|
|
|
|
broad national concern, it commonly involves long-term investigation of
|
|
|
|
|
a fundamental nature. Generally speaking, the scientific agencies of
|
|
|
|
|
Government are not so concerned with immediate practical objectives as
|
|
|
|
|
are the laboratories of industry nor, on the other hand, are they as
|
|
|
|
|
free to explore any natural phenomena without regard to possible
|
|
|
|
|
economic applications as are the educational and private research
|
|
|
|
|
institutions. Government scientific agencies have splendid records of
|
|
|
|
|
achievement, but they are limited in function.
|
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|
|
|
|
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|
|
We have no national policy for science. The Government has only begun to
|
|
|
|
|
utilize science in the nation's welfare. There is no body within the
|
|
|
|
|
Government charged with formulating or executing a national science
|
|
|
|
|
policy. There are no standing committees of the Congress devoted to this
|
|
|
|
|
important subject. Science has been in the wings. It should be brought
|
|
|
|
|
to the center of the stage - for in it lies much of our hope for the
|
|
|
|
|
future.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
There are areas of science in which the public interest is acute but
|
|
|
|
|
which are likely to be cultivated inadequately if left without more
|
|
|
|
|
support than will come from private sources. These areas - such as
|
|
|
|
|
research on military problems, agriculture, housing, public health,
|
|
|
|
|
certain medical research, and research involving expensive capital
|
|
|
|
|
facilities beyond the capacity of private institutions - should be
|
|
|
|
|
advanced by active Government support. To date, with the exception of
|
|
|
|
|
the intensive war research conducted by the Office of Scientific
|
|
|
|
|
Research and Development, such support has been meager and intermittent.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
For reasons presented in this report we are entering a period when
|
|
|
|
|
science needs and deserves increased support from public funds.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
The publicly and privately supported colleges, universities, and
|
|
|
|
|
research institutes are the centers of basic research. They are the
|
|
|
|
|
wellsprings of knowledge and understanding. As long as they are vigorous
|
|
|
|
|
and healthy and their scientists are free to pursue the truth wherever
|
|
|
|
|
it may lead, there will be a flow of new scientific knowledge to those
|
|
|
|
|
who can apply it to practical problems in Government, in industry, or
|
|
|
|
|
elsewhere.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Many of the lessons learned in the war-time application of science under
|
|
|
|
|
Government can be profitably applied in peace. The Government is
|
|
|
|
|
peculiarly fitted to perform certain functions, such as the coordination
|
|
|
|
|
and support of broad programs on problems of great national importance.
|
|
|
|
|
But we must proceed with caution in carrying over the methods which work
|
|
|
|
|
in wartime to the very different conditions of peace. We must remove the
|
|
|
|
|
rigid controls which we have had to impose, and recover freedom of
|
|
|
|
|
inquiry and that healthy competitive scientific spirit so necessary for
|
|
|
|
|
expansion of the frontiers of scientific knowledge.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Scientific progress on a broad front results from the free play of free
|
|
|
|
|
intellects, working on subjects of their own choice, in the manner
|
|
|
|
|
dictated by their curiosity for exploration of the unknown. Freedom of
|
|
|
|
|
inquiry must be preserved under any plan for Government support of
|
|
|
|
|
science in accordance with the Five Fundamentals listed on [page
|
|
|
|
|
26](#ch6.3).
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
The study of the momentous questions presented in President Roosevelt's
|
|
|
|
|
letter has been made by able committees working diligently. This report
|
|
|
|
|
presents conclusions and recommendations based upon the studies of these
|
|
|
|
|
committees which appear in full as the appendices. Only in the creation
|
|
|
|
|
of one over-all mechanism rather than several does this report depart
|
|
|
|
|
from the specific recommendations of the committees. The members of the
|
|
|
|
|
committees have reviewed the recommendations in regard to the single
|
|
|
|
|
mechanism and have found this plan thoroughly acceptable.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
The death rate for all diseases in the Army, including the overseas
|
|
|
|
|
forces, has been reduced from 14.1 per thousand in the last war to 0.6
|
|
|
|
|
per thousand in this war.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Such ravaging diseases as yellow fever, dysentery, typhus, tetanus,
|
|
|
|
|
pneumonia, and meningitis have been all but conquered by penicillin and
|
|
|
|
|
the sulfa drugs, the insecticide DDT, better vaccines, and improved
|
|
|
|
|
hygenic measures. Malaria has been controlled. There has been dramatic
|
|
|
|
|
progress in surgery.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
The striking advances in medicine during the war have been possible only
|
|
|
|
|
because we had a large backlog of scientific data accumulated through
|
|
|
|
|
basic research in many scientific fields in the years before the war.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
In the last 40 years life expectancy in the United States has increased
|
|
|
|
|
from 49 to 65 years largely as a consequence of the reduction in the
|
|
|
|
|
death rates of infants and children; in the last 20 years the death rate
|
|
|
|
|
from the diseases of childhood has been reduced 87 percent.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Diabetes has been brought under control by insulin, pernicious anemia by
|
|
|
|
|
liver extracts; and the once widespread deficiency diseases have been
|
|
|
|
|
much reduced, even in the lowest income groups, by accessory food
|
|
|
|
|
factors and improvement of diet. Notable advances have been made in the
|
|
|
|
|
early diagnosis of cancer, and in the surgical and radiation treatment
|
|
|
|
|
of the disease.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
These results have been achieved through a great amount of basic
|
|
|
|
|
research in medicine and the preclinical sciences, and by the
|
|
|
|
|
dissemination of this new scientific knowledge through the physicians
|
|
|
|
|
and medical services and public health agencies of the country. In this
|
|
|
|
|
cooperative endeavour the pharmaceutical industry has played an
|
|
|
|
|
important role, especially during the war. All of the medical and public
|
|
|
|
|
health groups share credit for these achievements; they form
|
|
|
|
|
interdependent members of a team.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
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|
|
Progress in combating disease depends upon an expanding body of new
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scientific knowledge.
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As President Roosevelt observed, the annual deaths from one or two
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|
diseases are far in excess of the total number of American lives lost in
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battle during this war. A large fraction of these deaths in our civilian
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population cut short the useful lives of our citizens. This is our
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present position despite the fact that in the last three decades notable
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progress has been made in civilian medicine. The reduction in death rate
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from diseases of childhood has shifted the emphasis to the middle and
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old age groups, particularly to the malignant diseases and the
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degenerative processes prominent in later life. Cardiovascular disease,
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including chronic disease of the kidneys, arteriosclerosis, and cerebral
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hemorrhage, now account for 45 percent of the deaths in the United
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States. Second are the infectious diseases, and third is cancer. Added
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to these are many maladies (for example, the common cold, arthritis,
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asthma and hay fever, peptic ulcer) which, through infrequently fatal,
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cause incalculable disability.
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Another aspect of the changing emphasis is the increase of mental
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diseases. Approximately 7 million persons in the United States are
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mentally ill; more than one-third of the hospital beds are occupied by
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such persons, at a cost of $175 million a year. Each year 125,000 new
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mental cases are hospitalized.
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Notwithstanding great progress in prolonging the span of life and relief
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of suffering, much illness remains for which adequate means of
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prevention and cure are not yet known. While additional physicians,
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hospitals, and health programs are needed, their full usefulness cannot
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be attained unless we enlarge our knowledge of the human organism and
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the nature of disease. Any extension of medical facilities must be
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accompanied by an expanded program of medical training and research.
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Discoveries pertinent to medical progress have often come from remote
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and unexpected sources, and it is certain that this will be true in the
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future. It is wholly probable that progress in the treatment of
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cardiovascular disease, renal disease, cancer, and similar refractory
|
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|
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diseases will be made as the result of fundamental discoveries in
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subjects unrelated to those diseases, and perhaps entirely unexpected by
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the investigator. Further progress requires that the entire front of
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medicine and the underlying sciences of chemistry, physics, anatomy,
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biochemistry, physiology, pharmacology, bacteriology, pathology,
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parasitology, etc., be broadly developed.
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Progress in the war against disease results from discoveries in remote
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and unexpected fields of medicine and the underlying sciences.
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Penicillin reached our troops in time to save countless lives because
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the Government coordinated and supported the program of research and
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development on the drug. The development moved from the early laboratory
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stage to large scale production and use in a fraction of the time it
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would have taken without such leadership. The search for better
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anti-malarials, which proceeded at a moderate tempo for many years, has
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|
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been accelerated enormously by Government support during the war. Other
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examples can be cited in which medical progress has been similarly
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advanced. In achieving these results, the Government has provided
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over-all coordination and support; it has not dictated how the work
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should be done within any cooperating institution.
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|
|
Discovery of new therapeutic agents and methods usually results from
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basic studies in medicine and the underlying sciences. The development
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of such materials and methods to the point at which they become
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available to medical practitioners requires teamwork involving the
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medical schools, the science departments of universities, Government and
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the pharmaceutical industry. Government initiative, support, and
|
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coordination can be very effective in this development phase.
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Government initiative and support for the development of newly
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discovered therapeutic materials and methods can reduce the time
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required to bring the benefits to the public.
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The primary place for medical research is in the medical schools and
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universities. In some cases coordinated direct attack on special
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problems may be made by teams of investigators, supplementing similar
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attacks carried on by the Army, Navy, Public Health Service, and other
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organizations. Apart from teaching, however, the primary obligation of
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the medical schools and universities is to continue the traditional
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function of such institutions, namely, to provide the individual worker
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|
with an opportunity for free, untrammeled study of nature, in the
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|
directions and by the methods suggested by his interests, curiosity, and
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|
|
imagination. The history of medical science teaches clearly the supreme
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|
|
importance of affording the prepared mind complete freedom for the
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exercise of initiative. It is the special province of the medical
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|
|
schools and universities to foster medical research in this way - a duty
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|
which cannot be shifted to government agencies, industrial
|
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|
organizations, or to any other institutions.
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Where clinical investigations of the human body are required, the
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medical schools are in a unique position, because of their close
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|
relationship to teaching hospitals, to integrate such investigations
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|
with the work of the departments of preclinical science, and to impart
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|
|
new knowledge to physicians in training. At the same time, the teaching
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hospitals are especially well qualified to carry on medical research
|
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|
|
because of their close connection with the medical schools, on which
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|
|
they depend for staff and supervision.
|
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|
Between World War I and World War II the United States overtook all
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other nations in medical research and assumed a position of world
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|
|
leadership. To a considerable extent this progress reflected the liberal
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|
|
financial support from university endowment income, gifts from
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|
|
individuals, and foundation grants in the 20's. The growth of research
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|
|
departments in medical schools ahs been very uneven, however, and in
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|
|
consequence most of the important work has been done in a few large
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|
|
schools. This should be corrected by building up the weaker
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|
|
institutions, especially in regions which now have no strong medical
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|
|
research activities.
|
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|
|
The traditional sources of support for medical research, largely
|
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|
|
endowment income, foundation grants, and private donations, are
|
|
|
|
|
diminishing, and there is no immediate prospect of a change in this
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|
|
trend. Meanwhile, research costs have steadily risen. More elaborate and
|
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|
|
|
expensive equipment is required, supplies are more costly, and the wages
|
|
|
|
|
of assistants are higher. Industry is only to a limited extent a source
|
|
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|
|
of funds for basic medical research.
|
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|
|
It is clear that if we are to maintain the progress in medicine which
|
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|
|
|
has marked the last 25 years, the Government should extend financial
|
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|
|
|
support to basic medical research in the medical schools and in the
|
|
|
|
|
universities, through grants both for research and for fellowships. The
|
|
|
|
|
amount which can be effectively spent in the first year should not
|
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|
|
exceed 5 million dollars. After a program is under way perhaps 20
|
|
|
|
|
million dollars a year can be spent effectively.
|
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|
|
In this war it has become clear beyond all doubt that scientific
|
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|
|
research is absolutely essential to national security. The bitter and
|
|
|
|
|
dangerous battle against the U-boat was a battle of scientific
|
|
|
|
|
techniques - and our margin of success was dangerously small. The new
|
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|
|
eyes which radar supplied to our fighting forces quickly evoked the
|
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|
|
|
development of scientific countermeasures which could often blind them.
|
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|
|
This again represents the ever continuing battle of techniques. The V-1
|
|
|
|
|
attack on London was finally defeated by three devices developed during
|
|
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|
|
this war and used superbly in the field. V-2 was countered only by the
|
|
|
|
|
capture of the launching sites.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
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|
|
The Secretaries of War and Navy recently stated in a joint letter to the
|
|
|
|
|
National Academy of Sciences:
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
This war emphasizes three facts of supreme importance to national
|
|
|
|
|
security: (1) Powerful new tactics of defense and offense are developed
|
|
|
|
|
around new weapons created by scientific and engineering research; (2)
|
|
|
|
|
the competitive time element in developing those weapons and tactics may
|
|
|
|
|
be decisive; (3) war is increasingly total war, in which the armed
|
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|
|
services must be supplemented by active participation of every element
|
|
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|
|
of civilian population.
|
|
|
|
|
|
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|
|
To insure continued preparedness along farsighted technical lines, the
|
|
|
|
|
research scientists of the country must be called upon to continue in
|
|
|
|
|
peacetime some substantial portion of those types of contribution to
|
|
|
|
|
national security which they have made so effectively during the stress
|
|
|
|
|
of the present war \* \* \*.
|
|
|
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|
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|
|
There must be more - and more adequate - military research during
|
|
|
|
|
peacetime. We cannot again rely on our allies to hold off the enemy
|
|
|
|
|
while we struggle to catch up. Further, it is clear that only the
|
|
|
|
|
Government can undertake military research; for it must be carried on in
|
|
|
|
|
secret, much of it has no commercial value, and it is expensive. The
|
|
|
|
|
obligation of Government to support research on military problems is
|
|
|
|
|
inescapable.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Modern war requires the use of the most advanced scientific techniques.
|
|
|
|
|
Many of the leaders in the development of radar are scientists who
|
|
|
|
|
before the war had been exploring the nucleus of the atom. While there
|
|
|
|
|
must be increased emphasis on science in the future training of officers
|
|
|
|
|
for both the Army and Navy, such men cannot be expected to be
|
|
|
|
|
specialists in scientific research. Therefore a professional partnership
|
|
|
|
|
between the officers in the Services and civilian scientists is needed.
|
|
|
|
|
|
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|
|
The Army and Navy should continue to carry on research and development
|
|
|
|
|
on the improvement of current weapons. For many years the National
|
|
|
|
|
Advisory Committee for Aeronautics has supplemented the work of the Army
|
|
|
|
|
and Navy by conducting basic research on the problems of flight. There
|
|
|
|
|
should now be permanent civilian activity to supplement the research
|
|
|
|
|
work of the Services in other scientific fields so as to carry on in
|
|
|
|
|
time of peace some part of the activities of the emergency war-time
|
|
|
|
|
Office of Scientific Research and Development.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Military preparedness requires a permanent independent,
|
|
|
|
|
civilian-controlled organization, having close liaison with the Army and
|
|
|
|
|
Navy, but with funds directly from Congress and with the clear power to
|
|
|
|
|
initiate military research which will supplement and strengthen that
|
|
|
|
|
carried on directly under the control of the Army and Navy.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Military preparedness requires a permanent independent,
|
|
|
|
|
civilian-controlled organization, having close liaison with the Army and
|
|
|
|
|
Navy, but with funds directly from Congress and with the clear power to
|
|
|
|
|
initiate military research which will supplement and strengthen that
|
|
|
|
|
carried on directly under the control of the Army and Navy.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
One of our hopes is that after the war there will be full employment,
|
|
|
|
|
and that the production of goods and services will serve to raise our
|
|
|
|
|
standard of living. We do not know yet how we shall reach that goal, but
|
|
|
|
|
it is certain that it can be achieved only by releasing the full
|
|
|
|
|
creative and productive energies of the American people.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Surely we will not get there by standing still, merely by making the
|
|
|
|
|
same things we made before and selling them at the same or higher
|
|
|
|
|
prices. We will not get ahead in international trade unless we offer new
|
|
|
|
|
and more attractive and cheaper products.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Where will these new products come from? How will we find ways to make
|
|
|
|
|
better products at lower cost? The answer is clear. There must be a
|
|
|
|
|
stream of new scientific knowledge to turn the wheels of private and
|
|
|
|
|
public enterprise. There must be plenty of men and women trained in
|
|
|
|
|
science and technology for upon them depend both the creation of new
|
|
|
|
|
knowledge and its application to practical purposes.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
More and better scientific research is essential to the achievement of
|
|
|
|
|
our goal of full employment.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Basic research is performed without thought of practical ends. It
|
|
|
|
|
results in general knowledge and an understanding of nature and its
|
|
|
|
|
laws. This general knowledge provides the means of answering a large
|
|
|
|
|
number of important practical problems, though it may not give a
|
|
|
|
|
complete specific answer to any one of them. The function of applied
|
|
|
|
|
research is to provide such complete answers. The scientist doing basic
|
|
|
|
|
research may not be at all interested in the practical applications of
|
|
|
|
|
his work, yet the further progress of industrial development would
|
|
|
|
|
eventually stagnate if basic scientific research were long neglected.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
One of the peculiarities of basic science is the variety of paths which
|
|
|
|
|
lead to productive advance. Many of the most important discoveries have
|
|
|
|
|
come as a result of experiments undertaken with very different purposes
|
|
|
|
|
in mind. Statistically it is certain that important and highly useful
|
|
|
|
|
discoveries will result from some fraction of the undertakings in basic
|
|
|
|
|
science; but the results of any one particular investigation cannot be
|
|
|
|
|
predicted with accuracy.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Basic research leads to new knowledge. It provides scientific capital.
|
|
|
|
|
It creates the fund from which the practical applications of knowledge
|
|
|
|
|
must be drawn. New products and new processes do not appear full-grown.
|
|
|
|
|
They are founded on new principles and new conceptions, which in turn
|
|
|
|
|
are painstakingly developed by research in the purest realms of science.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Today, it is truer than ever that basic research is the pacemaker of
|
|
|
|
|
technological progress. In the nineteenth century, Yankee mechanical
|
|
|
|
|
ingenuity, building largely upon the basic discoveries of European
|
|
|
|
|
scientists, could greatly advance the technical arts. Now the situation
|
|
|
|
|
is different.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
A nation which depends upon others for its new basic scientific
|
|
|
|
|
knowledge will be slow in its industrial progress and weak in its
|
|
|
|
|
competitive position in world trade, regardless of its mechanical skill.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Publicly and privately supported colleges and universities and the
|
|
|
|
|
endowed research institutes must furnish both the new scientific
|
|
|
|
|
knowledge and the trained research workers. These institutions are
|
|
|
|
|
uniquely qualified by tradition and by their special characteristics to
|
|
|
|
|
carry on basic research. They are charged with the responsibility of
|
|
|
|
|
conserving the knowledge accumulated by the past, imparting that
|
|
|
|
|
knowledge to students, and contributing new knowledge of all kinds. It
|
|
|
|
|
is chiefly in these institutions that scientists may work in an
|
|
|
|
|
atmosphere which is relatively free from the adverse pressure of
|
|
|
|
|
convention, prejudice, or commercial necessity. At their best they
|
|
|
|
|
provide the scientific worker with a strong sense of solidarity and
|
|
|
|
|
security, as well as a substantial degree of personal intellectual
|
|
|
|
|
freedom. All of these factors are of great importance in the development
|
|
|
|
|
of new knowledge, since much of new knowledge is certain to arouse
|
|
|
|
|
opposition because of its tendency to challenge current beliefs or
|
|
|
|
|
practice.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Industry is generally inhibited by preconceived goals, by its own
|
|
|
|
|
clearly defined standards, and by the constant pressure of commercial
|
|
|
|
|
necessity. Satisfactory progress in basic science seldom occurs under
|
|
|
|
|
conditions prevailing in the normal industrial laboratory. There are
|
|
|
|
|
some notable exceptions, it is true, but even in such cases it is rarely
|
|
|
|
|
possible to match the universities in respect to the freedom which is so
|
|
|
|
|
important to scientific discovery.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
To serve effectively as the centers of basic research these institutions
|
|
|
|
|
must be strong and healthy. They must attract our best scientists as
|
|
|
|
|
teachers and investigators. They must offer research opportunities and
|
|
|
|
|
sufficient compensation to enable them to compete with industry and
|
|
|
|
|
government for the cream of scientific talent.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
During the past 25 years there has been a great increase in industrial
|
|
|
|
|
research involving the application of scientific knowledge to a
|
|
|
|
|
multitude of practical purposes - thus providing new products, new
|
|
|
|
|
industries, new investment opportunities, and millions of jobs. During
|
|
|
|
|
the same period research within Government - again largely applied
|
|
|
|
|
research - has also been greatly expanded. In the decade from 1930 to
|
|
|
|
|
1940 expenditures for industrial research increased from $116,000,000 to
|
|
|
|
|
$240,000,000 and those for scientific research in Government rose from
|
|
|
|
|
$24,000,000 to $69,000,000. During the same period expenditures for
|
|
|
|
|
scientific research in the colleges and universities increased from
|
|
|
|
|
$20,000,000 to $31,000,000, while those in the endowed research
|
|
|
|
|
institutes declined from $5,200,000 to $4,500,000. These are the best
|
|
|
|
|
estimates available. The figures have been taken from a variety of
|
|
|
|
|
sources and arbitrary definitions have necessarily been applied, but it
|
|
|
|
|
is believed that they may be accepted as indicating the following
|
|
|
|
|
trends:
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
- (a) Expenditures for scientific research by industry and Government
|
|
|
|
|
- almost entirely applied research - have more than doubled between
|
|
|
|
|
1930 and 1940. Whereas in 1930 they were six times as large as the
|
|
|
|
|
research expenditures of the colleges, universities, and research
|
|
|
|
|
institutes, by 1940 they were nearly ten times as large.
|
|
|
|
|
- (b) While expenditures for scientific research in the colleges and
|
|
|
|
|
universities increased by one-half during this period, those for the
|
|
|
|
|
endowed research institutes have slowly declined.
|
|
|
|
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If the colleges, universities, and research institutes are to meet the
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rapidly increasing demands of industry and Government for new scientific
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knowledge, their basic research should be strengthened by use of public
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funds.
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Although there are some notable exceptions, most research conducted
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within governmental laboratories is of an applied nature. This has
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always been true and is likely to remain so. Hence Government, like
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industry, is dependent on the colleges, universities, and research
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institutes to expand the basic scientific frontiers and to furnish
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trained scientific investigators.
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Research within the Government represents an important part of our total
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research activity and needs to be strengthened and expanded after the
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war. Such expansion should be directed to fields of inquiry and service
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which are of public importance and are not adequately carried on by
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private organizations.
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The most important single factor in scientific and technical work is the
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quality of the personnel employed. The procedures currently followed
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within the Government for recruiting, classifying and compensating such
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personnel place the Government under a severe handicap in competing with
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industry and the universities for first-class scientific talent. Steps
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should be taken to reduce that handicap.
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In the Government the arrangement whereby the numerous scientific
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agencies form parts of larger departments has both advantages and
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disadvantages. but the present pattern is firmly established and there
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is much to be said for it. There is, however, a very real need for some
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measure of coordination of the common scientific activities of these
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agencies, both as to policies and budgets, and at present no such means
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exist.
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A permanent Science Advisory Board should be created to consult with
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these scientific bureaus and to advise the executive and legislative
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branches of Government as to the policies and budgets of Government
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agencies engaged in scientific research.
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This board should be composed of disinterested scientists who have no
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connection with the affairs of any Government agency.
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The simplest and most effective way in which the Government can
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strengthen industrial research is to support basic research and to
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develop scientific talent.
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The benefits of basic research do not reach all industries equally or at
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the same speed. Some small enterprises never receive any of the
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benefits. It has been suggested that the benefits might be better
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utilized if "research clinics" for such enterprises were to be
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established. Businessmen would thus be able to make more use of research
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than they now do. This proposal is certainly worthy of further study.
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One of the most important factors affecting the amount of industrial
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research is the income-tax law. Government action in respect to this
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subject will affect the rate of technical progress in industry.
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Uncertainties as to the attitude of the Bureau of Internal Revenue
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regarding the deduction of research and development expenses are a
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deterrent to research expenditure. These uncertainties arise from lack
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of clarity of the tax law as to the proper treatment of such costs.
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The Internal Revenue Code should be amended to remove present
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uncertainties in regard to the deductibility of research and development
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expenditures as current charges against net income.
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Research is also affected by the patent laws. They stimulate new
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invention and they make it possible for new industries to be built
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around new devices or new processes. These industries generate new jobs
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and new products, all of which contribute to the welfare and the
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strength of the country.
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Yet, uncertainties in the operation of the patent laws have impaired the
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ability of small industries to translate new ideas into processes and
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products of value to the nation. These uncertainties are, in part,
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attributable to the difficulties and expense incident to the operation
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of the patent system as it presently exists. These uncertainties are
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also attributable to the existence of certain abuses, which have
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appeared in the use of patents. The abuses should be corrected. They
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have led to extravagantly critical attacks which tend to discredit a
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basically sound system.
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It is important that the patent system continue to serve the country in
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the manner intended by the Constitution, for it has been a vital element
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in the industrial vigor which has distinguished this nation.
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The National Patent Planning Commission has reported on this subject. In
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addition, a detailed study, with recommendations concerning the extent
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to which modifications should be made in our patent laws is currently
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being made under the leadership of the Secretary of Commerce. It is
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|
recommended, therefore, that specific action with regard to the patent
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laws be withheld pending the submission of the report devoted
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exclusively to that subject.
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International exchange of scientific information is of growing
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|
importance. Increasing specialization of science will make it more
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important than ever that scientists in this country keep continually
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|
ahead of developments abroad. In addition a flow of scientific
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|
information constitutes one facet of general international accord which
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should be cultivated.
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The Government can accomplish significant results in several ways: by
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aiding in the arrangement of international science congresses, in the
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official accrediting of American scientists to such gatherings, in the
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official reception of foreign scientists of standing in this country, in
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making possible a rapid flow of technical information, including
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|
translation service, and possibly in the provision of international
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|
fellowships. Private foundations and other groups partially fulfill some
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of these functions at present, but their scope is incomplete and
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|
inadequate.
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The Government should take an active role in promoting the international
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flow of scientific information.
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We can no longer count on ravaged Europe as a source of fundamental
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|
knowledge. In the past we have devoted much of our best efforts to the
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|
application of such knowledge which has been discovered abroad. In the
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|
future we must pay increased attention to discovering this knowledge for
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ourselves particularly since the scientific applications of the future
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|
will be more than ever dependent upon such basic knowledge.
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New impetus must be given to research in our country. Such impetus can
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|
come promptly only from the Government. Expenditures for research in the
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|
colleges, universities, and research institutes will otherwise not be
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|
able to meet the additional demands of increased public need for
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|
research.
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Further, we cannot expect industry adequately to fill the gap. Industry
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|
will fully rise to the challenge of applying new knowledge to new
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|
products. The commercial incentive can be relied upon for that. But
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basic research is essentially noncommercial in nature. It will not
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|
receive the attention it requires if left to industry.
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For many years the Government has wisely supported research in the
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agricultural colleges and the benefits have been great. The time has
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come when such support should be extended to other fields.
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In providing government support, however, we must endeavor to preserve
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as far as possible the private support of research both in industry and
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|
in the colleges, universities, and research institutes. These private
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|
sources should continue to carry their share of the financial burden.
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It is estimated that an adequate program for Federal support of basic
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|
research in the colleges, universities, and research institutes and for
|
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|
financing important applied research in the public interest, will cost
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|
about 10 million dollars at the outset and may rise to about 50 million
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|
dollars annually when fully underway at the end of perhaps 5 years.
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The responsibility for the creation of new scientific knowledge rests on
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|
that small body of men and women who understand the fundamental laws of
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|
nature and are skilled in the techniques of scientific research. While
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|
there will always be the rare individual who will rise to the top
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|
without benefit of formal education and training, he is the exception
|
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|
and even he might make a more notable contribution if he had the benefit
|
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|
of the best education we have to offer. I cannot improve on President
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|
Conant's statement that:
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"\* \* \* in every section of the entire area where the word science may
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|
properly be applied, the limiting factor is a human one. We shall have
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|
rapid or slow advance in this direction or in that depending on the
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|
number of really first-class men who are engaged in the work in
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|
question. \* \* \* So in the last analysis, the future of science in
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|
this country will be determined by our basic educational policy."
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|
It would be folly to set up a program under which research in the
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|
|
natural sciences and medicine was expanded at the cost of the social
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|
|
sciences, humanities, and other studies so essential to national
|
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|
|
well-being. This point has been well stated by the Moe Committee as
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|
follows:
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" As citizens, as good citizens, we therefore think that we must have in
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|
mind while examining the question before us - the discovery and
|
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|
|
development of scientific talent - the needs of the whole national
|
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|
|
welfare. We could not suggest to you a program which would syphon into
|
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|
|
science and technology a disproportionately large share of the nation's
|
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|
|
highest abilities, without doing harm to the nation, nor, indeed,
|
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|
|
without crippling science. \* \* \* Science cannot live by and unto
|
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|
|
itself
|
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|
alone."
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|
```
|
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|
* * * * * * * * * * * * * *
|
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|
```
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"The uses to which high ability in youth can be put are various and, to
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|
|
a large extent, are determined by social pressures and rewards. When
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|
|
aided by selective devices for picking out scientifically talented
|
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|
|
youth, it is clear that large sums of money for scholarships and
|
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|
|
fellowships and monetary and other rewards in disproportionate amounts
|
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|
|
might draw into science too large a percentage of the nation's high
|
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|
|
ability, with a result highly detrimental to the nation and to science.
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|
Plans for the discovery and development of scientific talent must be
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|
|
related to the other needs of society for high ability. \* \* \* There
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|
is never enough ability at high levels to satisfy all the needs of the
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|
nation; we would not seek to draw into science any more of it than
|
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|
|
science's proportionate share."
|
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|
Among the young men and women qualified to take up scientific work,
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|
|
since 1940 there have been few students over 18, except some in medicine
|
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|
|
and engineering in Army and Navy programs and a few 4-F's, who have
|
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|
|
followed an integrated scientific course of studies. Neither our allies
|
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|
|
nor, so far as we know, our enemies have done anything so radical as
|
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|
|
thus to suspend almost completely their educational activities in
|
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|
|
scientific pursuits during the war period.
|
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|
Two great principles have guided us in this country as we have turned
|
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|
|
our full efforts to war. First, the sound democratic principle that
|
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|
|
there should be no favored classes or special privilege in a time of
|
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|
|
peril, that all should be ready to sacrifice equally; second, the tenet
|
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|
|
that every man should serve in the capacity in which his talents and
|
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|
|
|
experience can best be applied for the prosecution of the war effort. In
|
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|
|
general we have held these principles well in balance.
|
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|
In my opinion, however, we have drawn too heavily for nonscientific
|
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|
|
|
purposes upon the great natural resource which resides in our trained
|
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|
|
|
young scientists and engineers. For the general good of the country too
|
|
|
|
|
many such men have gone into uniform, and their talents have not always
|
|
|
|
|
been fully utilized. With the exception of those men engaged in war
|
|
|
|
|
research, all physically fit students at graduate level have been taken
|
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|
|
|
into the armed forces. Those ready for college training in the sciences
|
|
|
|
|
have not been permitted to enter upon that training.
|
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|
|
|
|
|
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|
|
There is thus an accumulating deficit of trained research personnel
|
|
|
|
|
which will continue for many years. The deficit of science and
|
|
|
|
|
technology students who, but for the war, would have received bachelor's
|
|
|
|
|
degrees is about 150,000. The deficit of those holding advanced degrees
|
|
|
|
|
- that is, young scholars trained to the point where they are capable of
|
|
|
|
|
carrying on original work - has been estimated as amounting to about
|
|
|
|
|
17,000 by 1955 in chemistry, engineering, geology, mathematics, physics,
|
|
|
|
|
psychology, and the biological sciences.
|
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|
|
|
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|
|
With mounting demands for scientists both for teaching and for research,
|
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|
|
|
we will enter the post-war period with a serious deficit in our trained
|
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|
|
|
scientific personnel.
|
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|
|
|
|
|
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|
|
Confronted with these deficits, we are compelled to look to the use of
|
|
|
|
|
our basic human resources and formulate a program which will assure
|
|
|
|
|
their conservation and effective development. The committee advising me
|
|
|
|
|
on scientific personnel has stated the following principle which should
|
|
|
|
|
guide our planning:
|
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|
|
|
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|
|
"If we were all-knowing and all-wise we might, but we think probably
|
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|
|
|
not, write you a plan whereby there might be selected for training,
|
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|
|
|
which they otherwise would not get, those who, 20 years hence, would be
|
|
|
|
|
scientific leaders, and we might not bother about any lesser
|
|
|
|
|
manifestations of scientific ability. But in the present state of
|
|
|
|
|
knowledge a plan cannot be made which will select, and assist, only
|
|
|
|
|
those young men and women who will give the top future leadership to
|
|
|
|
|
science. To get top leadership there must be a relatively large base of
|
|
|
|
|
high ability selected for development and then successive skimmings of
|
|
|
|
|
the cream of ability at successive times and at higher levels. No one
|
|
|
|
|
can select from the bottom those who will be the leaders at the top
|
|
|
|
|
because unmeasured and unknown factors enter into scientific, or any,
|
|
|
|
|
leadership. There are brains and character, strength and health,
|
|
|
|
|
happiness and spiritual vitality, interest and motivation, and no one
|
|
|
|
|
knows what else, that must needs enter into this supra-mathematical
|
|
|
|
|
calculus.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
"We think we probably would not, even if we were all-wise and
|
|
|
|
|
all-knowing, write you a plan whereby you would be assured of scientific
|
|
|
|
|
leadership at one stroke. We think as we think because we are not
|
|
|
|
|
interested in setting up an elect. We think it much the best plan, in
|
|
|
|
|
this constitutional Republic, that opportunity be held out to all kinds
|
|
|
|
|
and conditions of men whereby they can better themselves. This is the
|
|
|
|
|
American way; this is the way the United States has become what it is.
|
|
|
|
|
We think it very important that circumstances be such that there be no
|
|
|
|
|
ceilings, other than ability itself, to intellectual ambition. We think
|
|
|
|
|
it very important that every boy and girl shall know that, if he shows
|
|
|
|
|
that he has what it takes, the sky is the limit. Even if it be shown
|
|
|
|
|
subsequently that he has not what it takes to go to the top, he will go
|
|
|
|
|
further than he would otherwise go if there had been a ceiling beyond
|
|
|
|
|
which he always knew he could not aspire.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
"By proceeding from point to point and taking stock on the way, by
|
|
|
|
|
giving further opportunity to those who show themselves worthy of
|
|
|
|
|
further opportunity, by giving the most opportunity to those who show
|
|
|
|
|
themselves continually developing - this is the way we propose. This is
|
|
|
|
|
the American way: a man work for what he gets."
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
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|
|
Higher education in this country is largely for those who have the
|
|
|
|
|
means. If those who have the means coincided entirely with those persons
|
|
|
|
|
who have the talent we should not be squandering a part of our higher
|
|
|
|
|
education on those undeserving of it, nor neglecting great talent among
|
|
|
|
|
those who fail to attend college for economic reasons. There are
|
|
|
|
|
talented individuals in every segment of the population, but with few
|
|
|
|
|
exceptions those without the means of buying higher education go without
|
|
|
|
|
it. Here is a tremendous waste of the greatest resource of a nation -
|
|
|
|
|
the intelligence of its citizens.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
If ability, and not the circumstance of family fortune, is made to
|
|
|
|
|
determine who shall receive higher education in science, then we shall
|
|
|
|
|
be assured of constantly improving quality at every level of scientific
|
|
|
|
|
activity.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
We have a serious deficit in scientific personnel partly because the men
|
|
|
|
|
who would have studied science in the colleges and universities have
|
|
|
|
|
been serving in the Armed Forces. Many had begun their studies before
|
|
|
|
|
they went to war. Others with capacity for scientific education went to
|
|
|
|
|
war after finishing high school. The most immediate prospect of making
|
|
|
|
|
up some of the deficit in scientific personnel is by salvaging
|
|
|
|
|
scientific talent from the generation in uniform. For even if we should
|
|
|
|
|
start now to train the current crop of high school graduates, it would
|
|
|
|
|
be 1951 before they would complete graduate studies and be prepared for
|
|
|
|
|
effective scientific research. This fact underlines the necessity of
|
|
|
|
|
salvaging potential scientists in uniform.
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The Armed Services should comb their records for men who, prior to or
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during the war, have given evidence of talent for science, and make
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prompt arrangements, consistent with current discharge plans, for
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ordering those who remain in uniform as soon as militarily possible to
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duty at institutions here and overseas where they can continue their
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scientific education. Moreover, they should see that those who study
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overseas have the benefit of the latest scientific developments.
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The country may be proud of the fact that 95 percent of boys and girls
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of the fifth grade age are enrolled in school, but the drop in
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enrollment after the fifth grade is less satisfying. For every 1,000
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students in the fifth grade, 600 are lost to education before the end of
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high school, and all but 72 have ceased formal education before
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completion of college. While we are concerned primarily with methods of
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selecting and educating high school graduates at the college and higher
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levels, we cannot be complacent about the loss of potential talent which
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is inherent in the present situation.
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Students drop out of school, college, and graduate school, or do not get
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that far, for a variety of reasons: they cannot afford to go on; schools
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and colleges providing courses equal to their capacity are not available
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locally; business and industry recruit many of the most promising before
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they have finished the training of which they are capable. These reasons
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|
apply with particular force to science: the road is long and expensive;
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it extends at least 6 years beyond high school; the percentage of
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science students who can obtain first-rate training in institutions near
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home is small.
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Improvement in the teaching of science is imperative; for students of
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latent scientific ability are particularly vulnerable to high school
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teaching which fails to awaken interest or to provide adequate
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instruction. To enlarge the group of specially qualified men and women
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it is necessary to increase the number who go to college. This involves
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improved high school instruction, provision for helping individual
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talented students to finish high school (primarily the responsibility of
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the local communities), and opportunities for more capable, promising
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high school students to go to college. Anything short of this means
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serious waste of higher education and neglect of human resources.
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To encourage and enable a larger number of young men and women of
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ability to take up science as a career, and in order gradually to reduce
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the deficit of trained scientific personnel, it is recommended that
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provision be made for a reasonable number of (a) undergraduate
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scholarships and graduate fellowships and (b) fellowships for advanced
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training and fundamental research. The details should be worked out with
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reference to the interests of the several States and of the universities
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and colleges; and care should be taken not to impair the freedom of the
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institutions and individuals concerned.
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The program proposed by the Moe Committee in Appendix 4 would provide
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24,000 undergraduate scholarships and 900 graduate fellowships and would
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cost about $30,000,000 annually when in full operation. Each year under
|
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this program 6,000 undergraduate scholarships would be made available to
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high school graduates, and 300 graduate fellowships would be offered to
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college graduates. Approximately the scale of allowances provided for
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under the educational program for returning veterans has been used in
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estimating the cost of this program.
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The plan is, further, that all those who receive such scholarships or
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fellowships in science should be enrolled in a National Science Reserve
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and be liable to call into the service of the Government, in connection
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with scientific or technical work in time of war or other national
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emergency declared by Congress or proclaimed by the President. Thus, in
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addition to the general benefits to the nation by reason of the addition
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to its trained ranks of such a corps of scientific workers, there would
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be a definite benefit to the nation in having these scientific workers
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on call in national emergencies. The Government would be well advised to
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invest the money involved in this plan even if the benefits to the
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nation were thought of solely - which they are not - in terms of
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national preparedness.
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We have been living on our fat. For more than 5 years many of our
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scientists have been fighting the war in the laboratories, in the
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factories and shops, and at the front. We have been directing the
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energies of our scientists to the development of weapons and materials
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and methods, on a large number of relatively narrow projects initiated
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and controlled by the Office of Scientific Research and Development and
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other Government agencies. Like troops, the scientists have been
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|
mobilized, and thrown into action to serve their country in time of
|
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|
emergency. But they have been diverted to a greater extent than is
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|
generally appreciated from the search for answers to the fundamental
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|
problems - from the search on which human welfare and progress depends.
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|
This is not a complaint - it is a fact. The mobilization of science
|
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|
|
behind the lines is aiding the fighting men at the front to win the war
|
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|
and to shorten it; and it has resulted incidentally in the accumulation
|
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|
|
of a vast amount of experience and knowledge of the application of
|
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|
|
science to particular problems, much of which can be put to use when the
|
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|
war is over. Fortunately, this country had the scientists - and the time
|
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|
- to make this contribution and thus to advance the date of victory.
|
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Much of the information and experience acquired during the war is
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|
|
confined to the agencies that gathered it. Except to the extent that
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|
military security dictates otherwise, such knowledge should be spread
|
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|
|
upon the record for the benefit of the general public.
|
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|
Thanks to the wise provision of the Secretary of War and the Secretary
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|
|
of the Navy, most of the results of war-time medical research have been
|
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|
|
published. Several hundred articles have appeared in the professional
|
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|
|
journals; many are in process of publication. The material still subject
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|
|
to security classification should be released as soon as possible.
|
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|
It is my view that most of the remainder of the classified scientific
|
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|
|
material should be released as soon as there is ground for belief that
|
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|
|
the enemy will not be able to turn it against us in this war. Most of
|
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|
|
the information needed by industry and in education can be released
|
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|
|
without disclosing its embodiments in actual military material and
|
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|
|
devices. Basically there is no reason to believe that scientists of
|
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|
|
other countries will not in time rediscover everything we now know which
|
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|
|
is held in secrecy. A broad dissemination of scientific information upon
|
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|
|
which further advances can readily be made furnishes a sounder
|
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|
|
foundation for our national security than a policy of restriction which
|
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|
|
would impede our own progress although imposed in the hope that possible
|
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|
|
enemies would not catch up with us.
|
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|
|
During the war it has been necessary for selected groups of scientists
|
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|
|
to work on specialized problems, with relatively little information as
|
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|
|
to what other groups were doing and had done. Working against time, the
|
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|
|
|
Office of Scientific Research and Development has been obliged to
|
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|
|
enforce this practice during the war, although it was realized by all
|
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|
|
concerned that it was an emergency measure which prevented the
|
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|
|
continuous cross-fertilization so essential to fruitful scientific
|
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|
|
effort.
|
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|
Our ability to overcome possible future enemies depends upon scientific
|
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|
|
advances which will proceed more rapidly with diffusion of knowledge
|
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|
|
than under a policy of continued restriction of knowledge now in our
|
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|
|
possession.
|
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|
|
In planning the release of scientific data and experience collected in
|
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|
|
|
connection with the war, we must not overlook the fact that research has
|
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|
|
gone forward under many auspices - the Army, the Navy, the Office of
|
|
|
|
|
Scientific Research and Development, the National Advisory Committee for
|
|
|
|
|
Aeronautics, other departments and agencies of the Government,
|
|
|
|
|
educational institutions, and many industrial organizations. There have
|
|
|
|
|
been numerous cases of independent discovery of the same truth in
|
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|
|
|
different places. To permit the release of information by one agency and
|
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|
|
to continue to restrict it elsewhere would be unfair in its effect and
|
|
|
|
|
would tend to impair the morale and efficiency of scientists who have
|
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|
|
|
submerged individual interests in the controls and restrictions of war.
|
|
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|
|
|
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|
|
A part of the information now classified which should be released is
|
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|
|
possessed jointly by our allies and ourselves. Plans for release of such
|
|
|
|
|
information should be coordinated with our allies to minimize danger of
|
|
|
|
|
international friction which would result from sporadic uncontrolled
|
|
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|
|
release.
|
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|
|
The agency responsible for recommending the release of information from
|
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|
|
military classification should be an Army, Navy, civilian body, well
|
|
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|
|
grounded in science and technology. It should be competent to advise the
|
|
|
|
|
Secretary of War and the Secretary of the Navy. It should, moreover,
|
|
|
|
|
have sufficient recognition to secure prompt and practical decisions.
|
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|
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|
|
To satisfy these considerations I recommend the establishment of a
|
|
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|
|
Board, made up equally of scientists and military men, whose function
|
|
|
|
|
would be to pass upon the declassification and to control the release
|
|
|
|
|
for publication of scientific information which is now classified.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
The release of information from security regulations is but one phase of
|
|
|
|
|
the problem. The other is to provide for preparation of the material and
|
|
|
|
|
its publication in a form and at a price which will facilitate
|
|
|
|
|
dissemination and use. In the case of the Office of Scientific Research
|
|
|
|
|
and Development, arrangements have been made for the preparation of
|
|
|
|
|
manuscripts, while the staffs under our control are still assembled and
|
|
|
|
|
in possession of the records, as soon as the pressure for production of
|
|
|
|
|
results for this war has begun to relax.
|
|
|
|
|
|
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|
|
We should get this scientific material to scientists everywhere with
|
|
|
|
|
great promptness, and at as low a price as is consistent with suitable
|
|
|
|
|
format. We should also get it to the men studying overseas so that they
|
|
|
|
|
will know what has happened in their absence.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
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|
|
It is recommended that measures which will encourage and facilitate the
|
|
|
|
|
preparation and publication of reports be adopted forthwith by all
|
|
|
|
|
agencies, governmental and private, possessing scientific information
|
|
|
|
|
released from security control.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
One lesson is clear from the reports of the several committees attached
|
|
|
|
|
as appendices. The Federal Government should accept new responsibilities
|
|
|
|
|
for promoting the creation of new scientific knowledge and the
|
|
|
|
|
development of scientific talent in our youth.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
The extent and nature of these new responsibilities are set forth in
|
|
|
|
|
detail in the reports of the committees whose recommendations in this
|
|
|
|
|
regard are fully endorsed.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
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|
|
In discharging these responsibilities Federal funds should be made
|
|
|
|
|
available. We have given much thought to the question of how plans for
|
|
|
|
|
the use of Federal funds may be arranged so that such funds will not
|
|
|
|
|
drive out of the picture funds from local governments, foundations, and
|
|
|
|
|
private donors. We believe that our proposals will minimize that effect,
|
|
|
|
|
but we do not think that it can be completely avoided. We submit,
|
|
|
|
|
however, that the nation's need for more and better scientific research
|
|
|
|
|
is such that the risk must be accepted.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
It is also clear that the effective discharge of these responsibilities
|
|
|
|
|
will require the full attention of some over-all agency devoted to that
|
|
|
|
|
purpose. There should be a focal point within the Government for a
|
|
|
|
|
concerted program of assisting scientific research conducted outside of
|
|
|
|
|
Government. Such an agency should furnish the funds needed to support
|
|
|
|
|
basic research in the colleges and universities, should coordinate where
|
|
|
|
|
possible research programs on matters of utmost importance to the
|
|
|
|
|
national welfare, should formulate a national policy for the Government
|
|
|
|
|
toward science, should sponsor the interchange of scientific information
|
|
|
|
|
among scientists and laboratories both in this country and abroad, and
|
|
|
|
|
should ensure that the incentives to research in industry and the
|
|
|
|
|
universities are maintained. All of the committees advising on these
|
|
|
|
|
matters agree on the necessity for such an agency.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
There are within Government departments many groups whose interests are
|
|
|
|
|
primarily those of scientific research. Notable examples are found
|
|
|
|
|
within the Departments of Agriculture, Commerce, Interior, and the
|
|
|
|
|
Federal Security Agency. These groups are concerned with science as
|
|
|
|
|
collateral and peripheral to the major problems of those Departments.
|
|
|
|
|
These groups should remain where they are, and continue to perform their
|
|
|
|
|
present functions, including the support of agricultural research by
|
|
|
|
|
grants to the Land Grant Colleges and Experiment Stations, since their
|
|
|
|
|
largest contribution lies in applying fundamental knowledge to the
|
|
|
|
|
special problems of the Departments within which they are established.
|
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|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
By the same token these groups cannot be made the repository of the new
|
|
|
|
|
and large responsibilities in science which belong to the Government and
|
|
|
|
|
which the Government should accept. The recommendations in this report
|
|
|
|
|
which relate to research within the Government, to the release of
|
|
|
|
|
scientific information, to clarification of the tax laws, and to the
|
|
|
|
|
recovery and development of our scientific talent now in uniform can be
|
|
|
|
|
implemented by action within the existing structure of the Government.
|
|
|
|
|
But nowhere in the Governmental structure receiving its funds from
|
|
|
|
|
Congress is there an agency adapted to supplementing the support of
|
|
|
|
|
basic research in the universities, both in medicine and the natural
|
|
|
|
|
sciences; adapted to supporting research on new weapons for both
|
|
|
|
|
Services; or adapted to administering a program of science scholarships
|
|
|
|
|
and fellowships.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
A new agency should be established, therefore, by the Congress for the
|
|
|
|
|
purpose. Such an agency, moreover, should be an independent agency
|
|
|
|
|
devoted to the support of scientific research and advanced scientific
|
|
|
|
|
education alone. Industry learned many years ago that basic research
|
|
|
|
|
cannot often be fruitfully conducted as an adjunct to or a subdivision
|
|
|
|
|
of an operating agency or department. Operating agencies have immediate
|
|
|
|
|
operating goals and are under constant pressure to produce in a tangible
|
|
|
|
|
way, for that is the test of their value. None of these conditions is
|
|
|
|
|
favorable to basic research. research is the exploration of the unknown
|
|
|
|
|
and is necessarily speculative. It is inhibited by conventional
|
|
|
|
|
approaches, traditions, and standards. It cannot be satisfactorily
|
|
|
|
|
conducted in an atmosphere where it is gauged and tested by operating or
|
|
|
|
|
production standards. Basic scientific research should not, therefore,
|
|
|
|
|
be placed under an operating agency whose paramount concern is anything
|
|
|
|
|
other than research. Research will always suffer when put in competition
|
|
|
|
|
with operations. The decision that there should be a new and independent
|
|
|
|
|
agency was reached by each of the committees advising in these matters.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
I am convinced that these new functions should be centered in one
|
|
|
|
|
agency. Science is fundamentally a unitary thing. The number of
|
|
|
|
|
independent agencies should be kept to a minimum. Much medical progress,
|
|
|
|
|
for example, will come from fundamental advances in chemistry.
|
|
|
|
|
Separation of the sciences in tight compartments, as would occur if more
|
|
|
|
|
than one agency were involved, would retard and not advance scientific
|
|
|
|
|
knowledge as a whole.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
There are certain basic principles which must underlie the program of
|
|
|
|
|
Government support for scientific research and education if such support
|
|
|
|
|
is to be effective and if it is to avoid impairing the very things we
|
|
|
|
|
seek to foster. These principles are as follows:
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
(1) Whatever the extent of support may be, there must be stability of
|
|
|
|
|
funds over a period of years so that long-range programs may be
|
|
|
|
|
undertaken. (2) The agency to administer such funds should be composed
|
|
|
|
|
of citizens selected only on the basis of their interest in and capacity
|
|
|
|
|
to promote the work of the agency. They should be persons of broad
|
|
|
|
|
interest in and understanding of the peculiarities of scientific
|
|
|
|
|
research and education. (3) The agency should promote research through
|
|
|
|
|
contracts or grants to organizations outside the Federal Government. It
|
|
|
|
|
should not operate any laboratories of its own. (4) Support of basic
|
|
|
|
|
research in the public and private colleges, universities, and research
|
|
|
|
|
institutes must leave the internal control of policy, personnel, and the
|
|
|
|
|
method and scope of the research to the institutions themselves. This is
|
|
|
|
|
of the utmost importance. (5) While assuring complete independence and
|
|
|
|
|
freedom for the nature, scope, and methodology of research carried on in
|
|
|
|
|
the institutions receiving public funds, and while retaining discretion
|
|
|
|
|
in the allocation of funds among such institutions, the Foundation
|
|
|
|
|
proposed herein must be responsible to the President and the Congress.
|
|
|
|
|
Only through such responsibility can we maintain the proper relationship
|
|
|
|
|
between science and other aspects of a democratic system. The usual
|
|
|
|
|
controls of audits, reports, budgeting, and the like, should, of course,
|
|
|
|
|
apply to the administrative and fiscal operations of the Foundation,
|
|
|
|
|
subject, however, to such adjustments in procedure as are necessary to
|
|
|
|
|
meet the special requirements of research.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Basic research is a long-term process - it ceases to be basic if
|
|
|
|
|
immediate results are expected on short-term support. Methods should
|
|
|
|
|
therefore be found which will permit the agency to make commitments of
|
|
|
|
|
funds from current appropriations for programs of five years duration or
|
|
|
|
|
longer. Continuity and stability of the program and its support may be
|
|
|
|
|
expected (a) from the growing realization by the Congress of the
|
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benefits to the public from scientific research, and (b) from the
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conviction which will grow among those who conduct research under the
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auspices of the agency that good quality work will be followed by
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continuing support.
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As stated earlier in this report, military preparedness requires a
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permanent, independent, civilian-controlled organization, having close
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liaison with the Army and Navy, but with funds direct from Congress and
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the clear power to initiate military research which will supplement and
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strengthen that carried on directly under the control of the Army and
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Navy. As a temporary measure the National Academy of Sciences has
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established the Research Board for National Security at the request of
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the Secretary of War and the Secretary of the Navy. This is highly
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desirable in order that there may be no interruption in the relations
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between scientists and military men after the emergency wartime Office
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of Scientific Research and Development goes out of existence. The
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Congress is now considering legislation to provide funds for this Board
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by direct appropriation.
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I believe that, as a permanent measure, it would be appropriate to add
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to the agency needed to perform the other functions recommended in this
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report the responsibilities for civilian-initiated and
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civilian-controlled military research. The function of such a civilian
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group would be primarily to conduct long-range scientific research on
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military problems - leaving to the Services research on the improvement
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of existing weapons.
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Some research on military problems should be conducted, in time of peace
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as well as in war, by civilians independently of the military
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establishment. It is the primary responsibility of the Army and Navy to
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train the men, make available the weapons, and employ the strategy that
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will bring victory in combat. The Armed Services cannot be expected to
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be experts in all of the complicated fields which make it possible for a
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great nation to fight successfully in total war. There are certain kinds
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of research - such as research on the improvement of existing weapons -
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which can best be done within the military establishment. However, the
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job of long-range research involving application of the newest
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scientific discoveries to military needs should be the responsibility of
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those civilian scientists in the universities and in industry who are
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best trained to discharge it thoroughly and successfully. It is
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essential that both kinds of research go forward and that there be the
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closest liaison between the two groups.
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Placing the civilian military research function in the proposed agency
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would bring it into close relationship with a broad program of basic
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research in both the natural sciences and medicine. A balance between
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military and other research could thus readily be maintained.
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The establishment of the new agency, including a civilian military
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research group, should not be delayed by the existence of the Research
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|
Board for National Security, which is a temporary measure. Nor should
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the creation of the new agency be delayed by uncertainties in regard to
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the postwar organization of our military departments themselves.
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Clearly, the new agency, including a civilian military research group
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within it, can remain sufficiently flexible to adapt its operations to
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whatever may be the final organization of the military departments.
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It is my judgment that the national interest in scientific research and
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scientific education can best be promoted by the creation of a National
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Research Foundation.
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I. Purposes. - The National Research Foundation should develop and
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promote a national policy for scientific research and scientific
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education, should support basic research in nonprofit organizations,
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should develop scientific talent in American youth by means of
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|
scholarships and fellowships, and should by contract and otherwise
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support long-range research on military matters.
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II. Members. - 1. Responsibility to the people, through the President
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and Congress, should be placed in the hands of, say nine Members, who
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should be persons not otherwise connected with the Government and not
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|
representative of any special interest, who should be known as National
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Research Foundation Members, selected by the President on the basis of
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their interest in and capacity to promote the purposes of the
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Foundation.
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2\. The terms of the Members should be, say, 4 years, and no Member
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should be eligible for immediate reappointment provided he has served a
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full 4-year term. It should be arranged that the Members first appointed
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serve terms of such length that at least two Members are appointed each
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succeeding year.
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3\. The Members should serve without compensation but should be entitled
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to their expenses incurred in the performance of their duties.
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4\. The Members should elect their own chairman annually.
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5\. The chief executive officer of the Foundation should be a director
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|
appointed by the Members. Subject to the direction and supervision of
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|
the Foundation Members (acting as a board), the director should
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|
discharge all the fiscal, legal, and administrative functions of the
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|
Foundation. The director should receive a salary that is fully adequate
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to attract an outstanding man to the post.
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6\. There should be an administrative office responsible to the director
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|
to handle in one place the fiscal, legal, personnel, and other similar
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|
administrative functions necessary to the accomplishment of the purposes
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|
of the Foundation.
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7\. With the exception of the director, the division members, and one
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|
executive officer appointed by the director to administer the affairs of
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|
each division, all employees of the Foundation should be appointed under
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|
Civil Service regulations.
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|
|
III. Organization. - 1. In order to accomplish the purposes of the
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|
Foundation the Members should establish several professional Divisions
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|
to be responsible to the Members. At the outset these Divisions should
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|
be:
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|
a. Division of Medical Research. - The function of this Division should
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|
be to support medical research.
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|
b. Division of Natural Sciences. - The function of this Division should
|
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|
|
be to support research in the physical and natural sciences.
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c. Division of National Defense. - It should be the function of this
|
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|
|
Division to support long-range scientific research on military matters.
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d. Division of Scientific Personnel and Education. - It should be the
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|
|
function of this Division to support and to supervise the grant of
|
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|
|
scholarships and fellowships in science.
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|
|
e. Division of Publications and Scientific Collaboration. - This
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|
|
Division should be charged with encouraging the publication of
|
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|
|
scientific knowledge and promoting international exchange of scientific
|
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|
|
information.
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|
2\. Each Division of the Foundation should be made up of at least five
|
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|
|
members, appointed by the Members of the Foundation. In making such
|
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|
|
appointments the Members should request and consider recommendations
|
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|
|
from the National Academy of Sciences which should be asked to establish
|
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|
|
a new National Research Foundation nominating committee in order to
|
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|
|
bring together the recommendations of scientists in all organizations.
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|
|
The chairman of each Division should be appointed by the Members of the
|
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|
|
Foundation.
|
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3\. The division Members should be appointed for such terms as the
|
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|
|
Members of the Foundation may determine, and may be reappointed at the
|
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|
|
|
discretion of the Members. They should receive their expenses and
|
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|
|
compensation for their services at a per diem rate of, say, $50 while
|
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|
|
engaged on business of the Foundation, but no division member should
|
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|
|
receive more than, say, $10,000 compensation per year.
|
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|
|
4\. Membership of the Division of National Defense should include, in
|
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|
|
addition to, say, five civilian members, one representative designated
|
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|
|
by the Secretary of War, and one representative of the Secretary of the
|
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|
|
|
Navy, who should serve without additional compensation for this
|
|
|
|
|
duty.
|
|
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|
|
|
|
|
|
|
----------------------------------------------------------------------
|
|
|
|
|
Proposed Organization of National Research Foundation
|
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|
|
|
|
|
================================
|
|
|
|
|
| National Research Foundation |
|
|
|
|
|
|------------------------------|
|
|
|
|
|
| Members |
|
|
|
|
|
================================
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
-----------------------
|
|
|
|
|
| Director |
|
|
|
|
|
-----------------------
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|---------------------
|
|
|
|
|
| |
|
|
|
|
|
| ---------------------------
|
|
|
|
|
| | Staff offices |
|
|
|
|
|
| | General Counsel |
|
|
|
|
|
| | Finance Officer |
|
|
|
|
|
| | Administrative planning |
|
|
|
|
|
| | Personnel |
|
|
|
|
|
| ---------------------------
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
----------------------------------------------------------------
|
|
|
|
|
| | | | |
|
|
|
|
|
------------------ --------------- ------------- ------------- ----------------
|
|
|
|
|
| Division of | |Division of | |Division of| |Division of| |Division of |
|
|
|
|
|
|Medical Research| |Scientific | |Natural | | National | |Publications &|
|
|
|
|
|
|----------------| |Personnel and| | Sciences | | Defense | |Scientific |
|
|
|
|
|
| Members | |Education | |-----------| |-----------| |Collaboration |
|
|
|
|
|
------------------ |-------------| | Members | | Members | |--------------|
|
|
|
|
|
| | Members | ------------- ------------- | Members |
|
|
|
|
|
| --------------- | | ----------------
|
|
|
|
|
| | | | |
|
|
|
|
|
------------------- --------------- ------------- ------------- ----------------
|
|
|
|
|
|Executive officer| |Exec. officer| |Exec. off. | |Exec. off. | |Exec. officer |
|
|
|
|
|
------------------- --------------- ------------- ------------- ----------------
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
=============================================================================
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
IV. Functions. - 1. The Members of the Foundation should have the
|
|
|
|
|
following functions, powers, and duties:
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
a. To formulate over-all policies of the Foundation.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
b. To establish and maintain such offices within the United States, its
|
|
|
|
|
territories and possessions, as they may deem necessary.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
c. To meet and function at any place within the United States, its
|
|
|
|
|
territories and possessions.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
d. To obtain and utilize the services of other Government agencies to
|
|
|
|
|
the extent that such agencies are prepared to render such services.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
e. To adopt, promulgate, amend, and rescind rules and regulations to
|
|
|
|
|
carry out the provisions of the legislation and the policies and
|
|
|
|
|
practices of the Foundation.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
f. To review and balance the financial requirements of the several
|
|
|
|
|
Divisions and to propose to the President the annual estimate for the
|
|
|
|
|
funds required by each Division. Appropriations should be earmarked for
|
|
|
|
|
the purposes of specific Divisions, but the Foundation should be left
|
|
|
|
|
discretion with respect to the expenditure of each Division's funds.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
g. To make contracts or grants for the conduct of research by
|
|
|
|
|
negotiation without advertising for bids.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
And with the advice of the National Research Foundation Divisions
|
|
|
|
|
concerned -
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
h. To create such advisory and cooperating agencies and councils, state,
|
|
|
|
|
regional, or national, as in their judgment will aid in effectuating the
|
|
|
|
|
purposes of the legislation, and to pay the expenses thereof.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
i. To enter into contracts with or make grants to educational and
|
|
|
|
|
nonprofit research institutions for support of scientific research.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
j. To initiate and finance in appropriate agencies, institutions, or
|
|
|
|
|
organizations, research on problems related to the national defense.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
k. To initiate and finance in appropriate organizations research
|
|
|
|
|
projects for which existing facilities are unavailable or inadequate.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
l. To establish scholarships and fellowships in the natural sciences
|
|
|
|
|
including biology and medicine.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
m. To promote the dissemination of scientific and technical information
|
|
|
|
|
and to further its international exchange.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
n. To support international cooperation in science by providing
|
|
|
|
|
financial aid for international meetings, associations of scientific
|
|
|
|
|
societies, and scientific research programs organized on an
|
|
|
|
|
international basis.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
o. To devise and promote the use of methods of improving the transition
|
|
|
|
|
between research and its practical application in industry.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
2\. The Divisions should be responsible to the Members of the Foundation
|
|
|
|
|
for -
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
a. Formulation of programs and policy within the scope of the particular
|
|
|
|
|
Divisions.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
b. Recommendations regarding the allocation of research programs among
|
|
|
|
|
research organizations.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
c. Recommendation of appropriate arrangements between the Foundation and
|
|
|
|
|
the organizations selected to carry on the program.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
d. Recommendation of arrangements with State and local authorities in
|
|
|
|
|
regard to cooperation in a program of science scholarships and
|
|
|
|
|
fellowships.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
e. Periodic review of the quality of research being conducted under the
|
|
|
|
|
auspices of the particular Division and revision of the program of
|
|
|
|
|
support of research.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
f. Presentation of budgets of financial needs for the work of the
|
|
|
|
|
Division.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
g. Maintaining liaison with other scientific research agencies, both
|
|
|
|
|
governmental and private, concerned with the work of the Division.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
V. Patent Policy. - The success of the National Research Foundation in
|
|
|
|
|
promoting scientific research in this country will depend to a very
|
|
|
|
|
large degree upon the cooperation of organizations outside the
|
|
|
|
|
Government. In making contracts with or grants to such organizations the
|
|
|
|
|
Foundation should protect the public interest adequately and at the same
|
|
|
|
|
time leave the cooperating organization with adequate freedom and
|
|
|
|
|
incentive to conduct scientific research. The public interest will
|
|
|
|
|
normally be adequately protected if the Government receives a
|
|
|
|
|
royalty-free license for governmental purposes under any patents
|
|
|
|
|
resulting from work financed by the Foundation. There should be no
|
|
|
|
|
obligation on the research institution to patent discoveries made as a
|
|
|
|
|
result of support from the Foundation. There should certainly not be any
|
|
|
|
|
absolute requirement that all rights in such discoveries be assigned to
|
|
|
|
|
the Government, but it should be left to the discretion of the director
|
|
|
|
|
and the interested Division whether in special cases the public interest
|
|
|
|
|
requires such an assignment. Legislation on this point should leave to
|
|
|
|
|
the Members of the Foundation discretion as to its patent policy in
|
|
|
|
|
order that patent arrangements may be adjusted as circumstances and the
|
|
|
|
|
public interest require.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
VI. Special Authority. - In order to insure that men of great competence
|
|
|
|
|
and experience may be designated as Members of the Foundation and as
|
|
|
|
|
members of the several professional Divisions, the legislation creating
|
|
|
|
|
the Foundation should contain specific authorization so that the Members
|
|
|
|
|
of the Foundation and the Members of the Divisions may also engage in
|
|
|
|
|
private and gainful employment, notwithstanding the provisions of any
|
|
|
|
|
other laws: provided, however, that no compensation for such employment
|
|
|
|
|
is received in any form from any profit-making institution which
|
|
|
|
|
receives funds under contract, or otherwise, from the Division or
|
|
|
|
|
Divisions of the Foundation with which the individual is concerned. In
|
|
|
|
|
normal times, in view of the restrictive statutory prohibitions against
|
|
|
|
|
dual interests on the part of Government officials, it would be
|
|
|
|
|
virtually impossible to persuade persons having private employment of
|
|
|
|
|
any kind to serve the Government in an official capacity. In order,
|
|
|
|
|
however, to secure the part-time services of the most competent men as
|
|
|
|
|
Members of the Foundation and the Divisions, these stringent
|
|
|
|
|
prohibitions should be relaxed to the extent indicated.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Since research is unlike the procurement of standardized items, which
|
|
|
|
|
are susceptible to competitive bidding on fixed specifications, the
|
|
|
|
|
legislation creating the National Research Foundation should free the
|
|
|
|
|
Foundation from the obligation to place its contracts for research
|
|
|
|
|
through advertising for bids. This is particularly so since the measure
|
|
|
|
|
of a successful research contract lies not in the dollar cost but in the
|
|
|
|
|
qualitative and quantitative contribution which is made to our
|
|
|
|
|
knowledge. The extent of this contribution in turn depends on the
|
|
|
|
|
creative spirit and talent which can be brought to bear within a
|
|
|
|
|
research laboratory. The National Research Foundation must, therefore,
|
|
|
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be free to place its research contracts or grants not only with those
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institutions which have a demonstrated research capacity but also with
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other institutions whose latent talent or creative atmosphere affords
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promise of research success.
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As in the case of the research sponsored during the war by the Office of
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Scientific Research and Development, the research sponsored by the
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National Research Foundation should be conducted, in general, on an
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actual cost basis without profit to the institution receiving the
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research contract or grant.
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There is one other matter which requires special mention. Since research
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does not fall within the category of normal commercial or procurement
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operations which are easily covered by the usual contractual relations,
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it is essential that certain statutory and regulatory fiscal
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requirements be waived in the case of research contractors. For example,
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the National Research Foundation should be authorized by legislation to
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make, modify, or amend contracts of all kinds with or without legal
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consideration, and without performance bonds. Similarly, advance
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payments should be allowed in the discretion of the Director of the
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Foundation when required. Finally, the normal vouchering requirements of
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the General Accounting Office with respect to detailed itemization or
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substantiation of vouchers submitted under cost contracts should be
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relaxed for research contractors. Adherence to the usual procedures in
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the case of research contracts will impair the efficiency of research
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operations and will needlessly increase the cost of the work of the
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Government. Without the broad authority along these lines which was
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contained in the First War Powers Act and its implementing Executive
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Orders, together with the special relaxation of vouchering requirements
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granted by the General Accounting Office, the Office of Scientific
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Research and Development would have been gravely handicapped in carrying
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on research on military matters during this war. Colleges and
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universities in which research will be conducted principally under
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contract with the Foundation are, unlike commercial institutions, not
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equipped to handle the detailed vouchering procedures and auditing
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technicalities which are required of the usual Government contractors.
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VII. Budget. - Studies by the several committees provide a partial basis
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for making an estimate of the order of magnitude of the funds required
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to implement the proposed program. Clearly the program should grow in a
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healthy manner from modest beginnings. The following very rough
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estimates are given for the first year of operation after the Foundation
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is organized and operating, and for the fifth year of operation when it
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is expected that the operations would have reached a fairly stable
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level:
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---------------------------------------------------------------------------
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Activity | Millions of dollars
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----------------------
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| First year | 5th yr
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---------------------------------------------------------------------------
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Division of Medical Research | 5.0 | 20.0
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Division of Natural Sciences | 10.0 | 50.0
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Division of National Defense | 10.0 | 20.0
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Division of Scientific Personnel and Education | 7.0 | 29.0
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Division of Publications & Scientific Collaboration | .5 | 1.0
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Administration | 1.0 | 2.5
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|
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
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The National Research Foundation herein proposed meets the urgent need
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of the days ahead. The form of the organization suggested is the result
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of considerable deliberation. The form is important. The very successful
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pattern of organization of the National Advisory Committee for
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Aeronautics, which has promoted basic research on problems of flight
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during the past thirty years, has been carefully considered in proposing
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the method of appointment of Members of the Foundation and in defining
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their responsibilities. Moreover, whatever program is established it is
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vitally important that it satisfy the Five Fundamentals.
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The Foundation here proposed has been described only in outline. The
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excellent reports of the committees which studied these matters are
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attached as appendices. They will be of aid in furnishing detailed
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suggestions.
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Legislation is necessary. It should be drafted with great care. Early
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action is imperative, however, if this nation is to meet the challenge
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of science and fully utilize the potentialities of science. On the
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wisdom with which we bring science to bear against the problems of the
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coming years depends in large measure our future as a nation.
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